A Practical Guide for Composing and Performing Guitar-Piano Chamb

Florida State University

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April 2014

A Practical Guide for Composing and Performing Guitar-Piano Chamber Music Sam Lauren Desmet Florida State University

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FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MUSIC

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR COMPOSING AND PERFORMING GUITAR-PIANO CHAMBER MUSIC

By SAM DESMET

A Treatise submitted to the College of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Music

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2014

Sam Desmet defended this treatise on April 18, 2014. The members of the supervisory committee were:

Bruce Holzman Professor Directing Treatise

Evan Jones University Representative

Jane Piper Clendinning Committee Member

Read Gainsford Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the treatise has been approved in accordance with university requirements.

ii

To my wife and pianist Elizabeth Hsieh, with immense love and appreciation

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my committee members: Jane Piper Clendinning, Bruce Holzman, Read Gainsford and Evan Jones for their support and feedback. Many thanks go out to Pamela Schultz and Stanley Hanks for their advice and proofreading of this study and to Angelo Gilardino for the score of Del Rosato Albeggiare. This degree would not have been possible without the support of my colleague students and friends. Finally, I would like to thank Elizabeth Hsieh for the countless moments of patience and comfort during challenging times throughout the process of research and writing.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix Abstract ............................................................................................................................................x IMPORTANCE AND BENEFITS OF PLAYING CHAMBER MUSIC FOR A GUITARIST ....1 Why a Solo Guitar Career Is Not Enough ...............................................................................1 Orchestras ................................................................................................................................3 Guitar Chamber Music ............................................................................................................3 Benefits of Guitar Chamber Music..........................................................................................5 Development as a Musician ...........................................................................................5 Financial Considerations................................................................................................6 How to Promote Guitar Chamber Music .................................................................................7 Making a Thoughtful Repertoire Selection....................................................................7 Guitar Chamber Music for Amateurs and Students .......................................................8 Connecting Performers, Composers, Teachers, Students and Audiences .....................9 Advice for Guitar Chamber Music Performers .....................................................................10 HISTORICAL INFORMATION ...................................................................................................12 Evolution in Construction......................................................................................................12 From the Romantic Guitar to the Modern Guitar ........................................................12 From Fortepiano to the Modern Grand Piano ..............................................................15 From Accompaniment to Solo and Chamber Music Instrument ...........................................17 History of the Guitar-Keyboard Chamber Music ..................................................................20 Nineteenth Century Literature for the Guitar-Piano Duo ............................................21 Twentieth Century Literature for the Guitar-Piano Duo..............................................25 PRACTICES TO FACILITATE COMPOSING FOR GUITAR-PIANO DUO ...........................28 Possibilities and Limitations..................................................................................................28 Guitar ..........................................................................................................................28 Piano ..........................................................................................................................33 Options for Pairing the Two Instruments ..............................................................................35 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................51 v

PRACTICES FOR GUITAR-PIANO DUOS TO FACILITATE PERFORMING ......................52 Performance Practice in Early Music ....................................................................................52 Romantic Guitar ...........................................................................................................53 Fortepiano ....................................................................................................................57 Combining Guitar and Piano ................................................................................................59 Selected Repertoire Suggestions ..................................................................................61 Acoustics and Use of Room: General Criteria and Modifications .......................................63 Amplification Systems and Microphones ............................................................................66 Back to Nineteenth Century Salon Music ............................................................................69 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................70 FURTHER RESEARCH ...............................................................................................................72

APPENDIX A: CATALOGUE OF GUITAR-KEYBOARD REPERTOIRE ..............................73 REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................90 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .........................................................................................................93

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LIST OF FIGURES 2.1

Heitor Villa-Lobos, Sextuor Mistique, mm. 4-6 .................................................................19

3.1

Guitar Range ......................................................................................................................29

3.2

Standard Tuning of Open Strings ......................................................................................30

3.3

Piano Range .......................................................................................................................33

3.4

Awkwardly-voiced Piano Chords ......................................................................................35

3.5

Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mvt. 1, mm. 1-2...................................37

3.6

Ferdinando Carulli, Gran Duo Op. 86, mm. 1-3 ...............................................................38

3.7

Ferdinando Carulli, Gran Duo Op. 86, mm. 14-17 ...........................................................38

3.8

Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, mm. 4-5 ............................................39

3.9

Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, mm. 7-8 .............................................39

3.10

Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 1, mm. 1-2 ..............................................................................................................................40

3.11

Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, mm. 32-35 .........................................40

3.12

Ferdinando Carulli, Gran Duo Op. 86, mm. 75-78 ...........................................................41

3.13

Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 1, mm. 9-13 ............................................................................................................................42

3.14

Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mvt. 1, mm. 2-3 ...................................43

3.15

Mauro Giuliani 2 Rondo Op. 68, mvt. 2, mm. 60-65.........................................................43

3.16

Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 2, mm. 1-5 ..............................................................................................................................44

3.17

Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mvt. 1, mm. 10-11 ...............................44

3.18

Mauro Giuliani, 2 Rondo Op. 68, mvt. 2, mm. 19-28........................................................45

3.19

Mauro Giuliani, 2 Rondo Op. 68, mvt. 2, m. 75 ................................................................45

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3.20

Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 1, mm. 28-33 ..........................................................................................................................45

3.21

Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 2, mm. 91-93 .........................................45

3.22

Hans Haug, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, mm. 98-101 ...............................................46

3.23

Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mvt. 3, m. 131 .....................................46

3.24

Ferdinando Carulli, Gran Duo Op. 86, mm. 59-62 ...........................................................47

3.25

Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, m. 18 .................................................47

3.26

Hans Haug, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, mm. 70-75 .................................................48

3.27

Hans Haug, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, mm. 1-4 .....................................................48

3.28

Hans Haug, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, mm. 215 - 223 ...........................................49

3.29

Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mvt. 1, m. 1 .........................................49

3.30

Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 1, mm. 44-47 ..........................................................................................................................50

3.31

Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, mm. 32-34 .........................................50

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LIST OF TABLES 4.1

Performance Guidelines to Facilitate Volume Balance .....................................................59

4.2

Acoustic Criteria ................................................................................................................64

4.3

Acoustic Remedial Measures .............................................................................................64

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ABSTRACT The guitar-piano chamber music duo presents unique opportunities for performers and composers. Both instruments are perfectly capable of playing melodies, harmonies and contrapuntal music with a variety of timbres and articulation. The warm, rich and intimate sounds of the guitar combined with the color palettes of the piano create many possibilities for a duo chamber music setting. During the first half of the nineteenth century in central Europe, referred to as Biedermeierzeit, the repertoire for guitar-piano duo had its heyday. Why is it then that only a small amount of chamber music repertoire has been written for the guitar-piano duo in the last hundred and fifty years? Composers who consult the treatise will be able to learn about the capabilities and limitations of both instruments. They may also gain insight into several compositions for this setting and learn how to overcome certain barriers when writing for this duo. Arguments from musicologists and interviewed musicians will be discussed in this treatise and clarify that chamber music is a serious genre that deserves the attention of guitarists and, rather than diminish a solo career, a carefully chosen, well-played recital of guitar chamber music may well enhance it. It is my hope that this treatise will contribute to the expansion of its repertoire and convince musicians to create many performances and recordings.

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CHAPTER ONE IMPORTANCE AND BENEFITS OF PLAYING CHAMBER MUSIC FOR A GUITARIST

Chapter One elaborates on what chamber music has to offer and why this could be a great contribution to the career of a classical guitarist. Foster states that more than a big part of the entire canon of didactic music and concert music produced in the nineteenth century is chamber music, as apposed to the solo repertoire that is heard more frequently today.1 Two centuries later, it seems that guitarists are mainly focused on playing solo concerts and participating in solo competitions. Yet if one looks at other instrumentalists, many musicians are permanent members of ensembles that are programmed in chamber music concert series or can compete with other chamber music groups. All of this is often combined with a position in an orchestra and a teaching career. Why a Solo Guitar Career is not Enough Musicologists such as Ophee and Koplewitz agree that during the twentieth century too much focus of professional guitarists went to building a solo career. Ophee cites that many guitarists suffer from “Solo Virtuoso Syndrome”.2 Great guitarists from the past century, such as Andres Segovia, seldom performed chamber music and asserted that, by playing solo concerts, the guitar could be saved from its declining popularity. Today, there are many guitarists and the

1

Adam Foster, “Hans Haug: The Chamber Music Works Featuring the Guitar; an Evolution of Style, Texture and Form” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University 2011), 24. 2

Matanya Ophee, “Guitar Chamber Music: Review of a Decade,” American String Teacher 38 (1988): 61.

1

level of playing has grown tremendously in the past few decades. But most of the guitarists walked the same path only to reach that goal of having a solo career. This resulted in countless solo guitar publications, guitar festivals, guitar societies, guitar competitions and guitar concert series, where almost no other musicians than guitarists were in attendance. As a consequence, the guitar became isolated and got driven away from the mainstream art music scene. Guitarists are dealing with a serious image problem, as the guitar has been widely misunderstood and gets often associated with only popular music, where they are the center of the music scene. Shearer says it is no surprise that “the instrument has never been widely accepted (especially in this country) by the majority of knowledgeable musicians or by the public at large as a first-class vehicle of musical expression.”3 One might look back at past times to explain the reason why the guitar was then accepted and respected, not only as a solo instrument but also featured as a chamber music instrument, together with violin, piano, cello and many other instruments. The misinterpretation of the role of the guitar as only being a solo instrument demands some serious rethinking. Perhaps it is time to research alternative routes to elevate the guitar’s image back to its original ranking, alongside the violin or piano. A greater number of people are needed who are devoted to and knowledgeable about the guitar. Ophee states that the guitar music needs to be played and performed more, more instruments and scores need to be bought and studied for countless hours and/or more people need to buy concert tickets in order to boost the guitar’s image.4

3

Aaron Shearer, “The Classical Guitar Grows up,” Music Educators Journal 58, no. 2 (October, 1971): 53.

4

Matanya Ophee, “Guitar Chamber Music, Why? One Amateur’s View Point,” Soundboard 3 nr. 3 (August, 1976): 48.

2

Orchestras Although the first impression one gets is that an orchestra might be a great way to expose an instrument to a wider audience, Ophee states that there is barely any room at all for the guitarist, for the following reasons of first, the repertoire that is programmed by orchestras is often defined by public tastes. Guitar is simply not part of the orchestra in commonly performed symphonic pieces such as the Beethoven Symphonies. Gustav Mahler’s Seventh Symphony is perhaps the only exception to this. Second, many orchestras face budget cuts or struggle to survive. As a result, orchestras are unlikely to hire new permanent musicians other than for conventional positions. It would be difficult to convince other orchestra members and music directors of the value of it.5 In addition, due to the guitar’s limited dynamic range, some might think other instrumental groups of the orchestra will easily overwhelm the guitar. Although Joaquin Rodrigo’s Concierto de Aranjuez is often programmed and succeeds in balancing the guitar with the rest of the orchestra, it is after all a guitar concerto and not a symphony. Guitar Chamber Music Undoubtedly, the guitar will benefit when exposed to a wider audience than the guitar community itself, so the classical guitar develops a long era of practical value and acceptance to composers and other classical musicians. As explained later in chapter two, the modern classical guitar as we know it today is still at its early stage of development in comparison to instruments such as the piano and violin. Composers’ interest in writing solo and chamber music for the guitar has been growing since the second half of the twentieth century.6 According to Koplewitz, 5

Ophee, 47.

6

Shearer, 53.

3

the past century is the first epoch in which guitar chamber music equals the quality of that of the piano or violin.7 In other words, a great number of these compositions deserve to be considered by chamber music ensembles. Unfortunately, still to this day, many guitarists assume or claim the absence of advanced chamber music. Koplewitz and Ophee blame guitarists for laxness in exploring this repertoire or the prejudgment of the guitar by other musicians.8 Another reason for this unexplored repertoire could be that students are hesitant to play chamber music due to their fears of having their musical or technical shortfalls exposed, or inexperience of being part of an ensemble.9 Through the integration of chamber music instruction in the guitar student’s education and exposure to high quality guitar chamber music performances, this barrier can be crossed. Although still scarce, new initiatives are beginning to take place to promote guitar chamber music, such as the “Guitaristival” at Aarhus, Denmark, in 1987. Leif Christensen hosted a series of guitar chamber music concerts with music that is seldom heard. 10 Many modern music ensembles, such as the Ictus ensemble, Musikfabrik NRW, Champ d’Action, Basel Sinfonietta, the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center and the Metropolitan Opera Chamber Players are now relying on guitarists or even have a guitarist as a full member. Another example of spreading interest is the article “An Introduction to the Guitar Chamber Music of Australia” covered in the latest issue of Soundboard magazine.11 7

Laura Koplewitz, “The Guitar as an Ensemble Instrument,” Guitar Review 79 (Fall, 1989): 7.

8

Matanya Ophee, “Guitar Chamber Music: Review of a Decade,” American String Teacher 38 (1988): 60.

9

Laura Oltman and Michael Newman, “Introducing Guitar Students to Chamber Music,” American String Teacher 39, no. 2 (1989): 53. 10

Colin Cooper, “The Guitar’s Place in Danish Chamber Music,” Classical Guitar 7 (October, 1988): 16.

11

Paul Ballam-Cross. “An introduction to the Guitar Chamber Music of Australia.” Soundboard, Vol. 40 no. 1 (2014): 34-38.

4

Benefits of Guitar Chamber Music Development as a Musician Often, guitarists do not seem to play willingly in duos or other ensembles, but hopefully, one day they will realize that this generates rich artistic rewards when playing as a group with other musicians with similar ideas.12 Even though many guitarists get advice on developing a solo career, chamber music certainly increases the musicality of a player. Playing in a group requires the constant give-and-take of musical ideas. The guitarist who is competent can share and emphasize his or her musical skills, the one who is not, however, cannot hide in such an ensemble.13 The musician who usually practices and performs alone will find it necessary to expand his or her skills to meet the demands of an ensemble, such as finding a way to match the sound of other members of the ensemble. The musician must also learn to formulate analytical interpretations and put musical ideas into words to communicate clearly with the other members of the group. Doing so puts the focus on upgrading the level of the ensemble as a whole. Through considering the interpretative ideas of fellow chamber musicians, a musician can benefit as well.14 It becomes evident that playing chamber music will benefit all members’ musicality or technical skills or at least cause one to question these. Indisputably, an ensemble player can benefit from this in their solo playing as well, where the musician can experiment with different interpretive ideas and suggestions made by other members.

12

Reginald Smith-Brindle, “The Composer’s Problem,” Guitar Review 83 (Fall, 1990): 30.

13

Laura Koplewitz, “The Guitar as an Ensemble Instrument”. Guitar Review 78 (Summer, 1989): 7.

14

Oltman and Newman, 53-54.

5

Oltman and Newman explain that confidence will be gained by working with musicians whose abilities the musician respects. If the guitarist is well prepared, appreciation and respect from other ensemble members will be gained as well.15 Once this is achieved, playing chamber music to promote the guitar and guitarist has been accomplished. Financial Considerations Today, chamber music societies, concert series and even competitions are prominent. Music lovers have a wide choice of options to choose from. Even though pianists, string players, flutists and other musicians are often presented on chamber music series, rarely are guitarists seen on their stages. For example, a search in the 2013-2014 chamber music brochure of Wigmore Hall reveals only one ensemble out of the forty-three chamber music groups programmed that season featured the guitar.16 Guitarists should definitely consider the potential of these organizations for performing opportunities. Perhaps they could team up with more frequently programmed ensembles, such as string quartets or piano trios to perform larger chamber music group repertoire. Ophee points out that many guitarists fail to recognize or ignore the attendance at chamber music concerts. Doing so, a guitarist loses a great deal of an audience potential.17 If one looks at the high-end guitar chamber music from recent years that is available, a guitarist cannot ignore the fact that a chamber music career is a great option to accomplish financial

15

Ibid., 54.

16 “September 2013 – July 2014 Wigmore Series ,” Wigmore Hall website, http://www.wigmorehall.org.uk/sites/default/files/brochures/WigmoreSeriesSept2013-July2014WigmoreArchiveLowRes.pdf (accessed April 11, 2014). 17

Matanya Ophee, “Guitar Chamber Music, Why? One Amateur’s View Point.” Soundboard 3, no. 3 (August, 1976): 48.

6

security, perhaps even better than trying to establish a career on today’s overcrowded international solo concert stages. How to Promote Guitar Chamber Music Making a Thoughtful Repertoire Selection It becomes crucial not only to promote the guitarist as an individual in the ensemble, but also to improve the importance of the guitar chamber music repertoire. Part of the guitar chamber music literature focuses too much on representing the guitar while the other instruments end up having a more accompanimental role to fulfill. For non-guitarists of an ensemble, this repertoire cannot compete with the parts in music of great composers such as Mozart, Beethoven or Brahms.18 A careful selection of the available literature needs to be made. First, an equal balance of the musical content should be divided between the instruments, with solo material for each. Second, the choice of programmed music for a concert should keep a balance of musical preferences of both audiences and performers. Third, a composition cannot be considered simply by inspecting only the guitar part.19 Therefore, a guitarist should prepare carefully and rely on his harmony and analysis skills to observe the entire score, of each piece considered. Much of the string quartet or piano trio repertoire is available through recordings. Despite efforts being made in the last decades to record guitar chamber music by guitarists like David Tanenbaum and David Starobin, in many cases guitar chamber music compositions are still waiting for their first performance or recording. 18

Oltman and Newman, 54.

19

Matanya Ophee, “Guitar Chamber Music, Why? One Amateur’s View Point.” Soundboard 3, no. 4 (November, 1976): 82.

7

The instrumentation employed in chamber music is also of importance and should not be overlooked. One may benefit by collaborating with popular instruments such as flute, piano or strings. This often results in exposure of the guitar to audiences better acquainted with the other instruments of the ensemble. Guitar Chamber Music for Amateurs and Students When working with music students, it is advisable to choose music that not only appeals to the guitarist, but also to the other instrumentalists and their teachers as well.20 Not only can guitar chamber music be used for expanding interest among amateurs, it can also create opportunities for upcoming talented students as well. It can provide the basis for an outlet in a school environment, giving the guitar exposure to other music teachers and students.21 The Oltman and Newman duo pointed out that “As teachers, we have found that not all students enjoy being soloists, particularly adults who do not aspire to professional careers.”22 These testimonials makes it clear that there is value and fulfillment in ensemble playing and it should not be underestimated in an instructional environment. It makes perfect sense that musicians need to be skilled in their own instrument before playing with others, but the overwhelming focus on solo repertoire in music schools, academies, conservatories and university music programs should perhaps be questioned. In many of these institutions chamber music instruction is simply not offered or actively playing in ensembles is not required.

20

Ibid., 83.

21

Matanya Ophee, “Guitar Chamber Music, Why? One Amateur’s View Point.” Soundboard 3, no. 3 (August, 1976): 48. 22

Oltman and Newman, 53.

8

Ophee advises to integrate sight-reading into guitar curriculums so that guitarists can easily play chamber music on the spot as others do. Skills such as focusing on the score rather than on the fingerboard, recognizing patterns (melodic and harmonic) and finding a fingering for these patterns must be trained.23 Doing so will put the student in a much stronger position to learn repertoire quicker and more efficiently often required in chamber groups with single-line melody instruments such as flute or violin. Although attempts have been made to write books on sight-reading for guitarists, the first book that explains to guitar students how to optimally finger a guitar score is yet to be written. Too many guitarists rely on given fingerings in the score without questioning them. As a teacher, one can always encourage his or her students to become a teacher as well, but other than inspiring students to follow that path, or one of a guitar soloist, encouraging students to develop chamber music skills will offer them an alternative for building active careers as musicians. Connecting Performers, Composers, Teachers, Students and Audiences Talented performers can contribute to the chamber music repertoire by commissioning pieces. In doing so, the repertoire expansion might resemble that at an equal level of other instruments. It is then not only up to the performer to promote this new composition, but teachers also have a major role to fulfill by exploring and promoting new repertoire together with their students. 24 In other words, composers, performers, teachers and students must collaborate to contribute to the recognition of the guitar. Musicians can assist the composer during the process of writing and may be of great value to the composer who is less familiar with certain 23

Ophee, 48.

24

Shearer, 53.

9

instruments. Not only performers can commission new repertoire, but composers can meet the needs of teachers by writing chamber music literature at different levels to include in music method books as well. Other than offering duos where one part is played by the student and the other part by the teacher, it seems that none of the method books integrate chamber music instructions or didactic pieces where a guitar part is combined with other instruments. Advice for Guitar Chamber Music Performers A guitarist who would like to work with other musicians must be able to demonstrate musicality and technical skills on a par with all other ensemble members.25 Guitarists must be prepared to make repertoire suggestions and need to point out the delicacy and expressiveness of their instrument to musicians who are not familiar with the guitar.26 Perhaps the most important information a guitarist can share with ensemble members is the wide variety in colors the guitar has to offer and explaining its limited range of dynamics. In music institutions, orchestration classes or often offered, though seldom mandatory. Many guitarists are not fully acquainted with the potentials of other instruments either, so other musicians should explain the possibilities and limitations of their instruments as well. As roles usually shift throughout a piece, ensemble members need to study the score to understand when to take the role of accompanist or when to move to the role as soloist.27 These decisions should be discussed as a group, rather than being made individually. Rehearsal recordings can give a better idea on how this will be perceived by the audience. Recordings are 25

Matanya Ophee, “Guitar Chamber Music, Why? One Amateur’s View Point,” Soundboard 3, no. 4 (November, 1976): 83. 26

Oltman and Newman, 54.

27

Ibid.

10

also useful for assisting members during practice sessions, either by utilizing recordings of separate parts or from the entire ensemble.

11

CHAPTER TWO HISTORICAL INFORMATION

Focusing on the evolution in construction of both the guitar and piano will make it clear why there was a sudden decrease of the guitar-piano repertoire around the mid-nineteenth century. As the style of composing started changing by the end of the nineteenth century, some renowned composers such as Schoenberg, Webern and Stravinsky began to integrate the guitar in chamber works and made full use of its wide palette of colors. Composers began writing successfully for the guitar-piano duo again as well. Evolution in Construction From the Romantic Guitar to the Modern Guitar By the end of the eighteenth century, instruments such as the violin, cello and piano underwent drastic changes, largely with the purpose of increasing their volume. The guitar was no exception. During the Classical period, there were four kinds of guitars that were commonly used: five-course, six-course, five-string and six-string varieties. Courses are defined as double gut strings, whether or not tuned in octaves, and strings as single gut strings. The five-course guitar or Baroque guitar was developed in the late sixteenth century and was the primary guitar in use throughout the seventeenth century. At the beginning of the next century it lost much of its popularity and was then mainly used to accompany simple songs. The six-course guitar was very popular in southern Europe and Latin America throughout the eighteenth century. Method manuscripts for this instrument have been found in Spain and Mexico by Juan Antonio Vargas y Guzmán and Fernando Ferandiere wrote a manual for it in 12

1799 that was published in Spain. The latter included instructions to teach guitarists notereading. Only a few decades later, the French and Italian luthiers used single strings for their guitars. The guitar could be tuned faster and the five-string guitar became the standard. The six-string romantic guitar was born around 1780 in France when many luthiers began adding an extra string. This guitar exhibits many similarities with the earlier five-course Baroque guitar: it had a bridge with no saddle and the fingerboard at the same level as the top of the guitar. Many other changes in the design took place after that: guitars were built with seven, eight or ten strings; a saddle made out of bone was added to the bridge; tuning machines replaced the tuning pegs; gut frets were changed for fixed frets; a raised fingerboard was added; and experiments were done with the internal bracing of the instrument. The Guitar in Paris, Vienna and London Ferdinando Carulli, who traveled from Naples to Vienna and eventually settled in Paris, worked together with the famous luthier René Lacôte. This resulted in patented experiments such as innovative tuning pegs and reshaping the fingerboard. The decacorda, a guitar with ten strings that was designed to increase the playability for amateurs, was another result of this collaboration. Highly appreciated Italian composer and virtuoso Mauro Giuliani certainly helped to increase the interest in the guitar when he traveled through Europe. The Giulianiad, a monthly journal, was printed in January 1833 with his and other composers’ literature featured. When he settled in Vienna he became an acquaintance of Joseph Haydn, but was closer to Ludwig van Beethoven, who asked him to play cello (Giuliani’s first instrument) in the premiere of his Seventh Symphony. It was eventually Fernando Sor who introduced the classical guitar in 13

England. José Panormo made some guitars under Sor’s direction when they met in London. These guitars definitely exhibit some Spanish guitar influences, such as the bracing, which Sor preferred. Other virtuoso performers and composers of the past two centuries certainly had an influence on the changes to the modern guitar, as it was not only played in small homes but also the stages of large concert halls. As a result, luthiers were facing a big challenge. The somewhat simple strutting system of a guitar with its clear yet subtle tone was ideal for home playing, but on the concert platform this tone dwindles. The Guitar in Spain During the second half of the nineteenth century a breakthrough occurred when Spanish guitarist Julián Arcas advocated luthier Antonio de Torres. This master luthier created a guitar that came to serve as the basis for the modern guitar as we know it today. Standardized length of 650 mm between bridge and nut, the types of wood used, such as mahogany and spruce, and perhaps most important the 7-bars-fan strutting are all contributions from Torres. After hearing Francisco Tárrega play and being impressed by his skills, Torres gave him one of his finest guitars, which stayed with Tárrega until 1889. Generations later, luthiers such as Herman Hauser (played by Andrès Ségovia), José Romanillos and Robert Bouchet (both played by Julian Bream) all based their models on the fan structure of Torres. The Final Stage Another significant change, this one affecting the volume of the guitar even more, happened when gut strings that would not stay in tune very long and broke constantly were replaced with nylon strings around 1946. Bass strings are now wound upon a core of nylon floss.

14

Modern guitar luthiers now improve in making a guitar with such plenitude of lower partials that the tone is deeper, more resonant and well-balanced at the back of large concert halls than before. A new design of strutting system can work in a concert hall, however when played in a small room, the tone can be too thick. Up until today, luthiers still have not solved this dilemma and are experimenting with double soundboards, detachable necks, false backs, sound ports, sound chambers and other innovations. From Fortepiano to the Modern Grand Piano Although the development of the piano began at the end of the seventeenth century, the biggest modifications that influenced its dynamics range happened slightly after the birth of the six-string Romantic guitar. Rowland remarks that today the term fortepiano is used to differentiate early instruments from the modern ones, although in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries there were many terms to describe the piano.28 The term pianoforte or simply piano has largely been used to describe the instrument in the form as we know it today. Florence: The Early Stages of the Fortepiano Earliest examples of pianos date from just before 1700 and were constructed by Bartolomeo Cristofori in Florence. Many of the early pianos resemble harpsichords. Its range covers from four to four and a half octaves. The action on these early pianos was sophisticated and very light to play. The hammers were made from rolled and glued parchment covered with leather. During those times, the piano was used primarily for solo performances and accompanying purposes and not yet frequently used in chamber music settings.

28

David Rowland, Early Keyboard Instruments: A Practical Guide (Port Chester: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 44.

15

The Fortepiano in Germany Christoph Gottlieb Schröter claims to be the first to have used the hammer action in Germany around 1720, but most likely Gottfried Silbermann had already experimented earlier with different kinds of hammers. Silbermann’s piano resembles many of the contemporary German harpsichords and its design is close to that of Cristofori with the exception of differences in the stops and a mechanism that could lift all the dampers. Silbermann could be seen as the inventor of the modern pedal, as the damper mechanism was still controlled by hand levers. Around the mid-eighteenth century, Christian Ernst Friederici invented the square piano that has horizontal strings arranged diagonally and where the keyboard is set up on the longer side of the piano. During that time many inventions and different instruments were being made and it was not uncommon to come across combination keyboard instruments such as piano/harpsichords or piano/organs. Viennese versus English Pianos Johann Andreas Stein of Augsburg was known for his pianos with “Viennese” action and sound, during the late eighteenth century. The action on these instruments is much lighter than that of the English piano’s heavy action. Americus Backers developed the English grand piano during the late 1760s. This piano forms the basis for all English pianos up to the middle of the nineteenth century. Its action design is the basis for the modern piano. The extension of the range was tremendous and by the early nineteenth century, pianos spanned six and a half or more octaves. Toward the end of the eighteenth century a variety of stops, pedals and levers were available. On English grands as well as on Viennese pianos, two pedals were customary: one for the una corda (soft pedal) and a sustaining pedal. 16

The Final Developments of the Piano There were many changes and developments after 1830. Heavier strings were used with greater tension, which required larger hammers and therefore a deeper touch was needed. Sebastian Erard invented the repetition action in 1822, so a pianist no longer needs to fully release the key to repeat a note. After many experiments with damper-raising mechanisms over a period of decades, the sostenuto pedal, which one finds on modern grand pianos built by Steinway, was patented in 1875 and from then on the piano had reached its modern stage. From Accompaniment to Solo and Chamber Music Instrument During the Classic period the development of the orchestra and the piano increased rapidly and were improved in dynamic range and color. The guitar, which projected less sound than that of its contemporary instruments, was facing the same decline in popularity as the clavichord and later, the harpsichord. Shearer mentions that composers’ interest in writing for these instruments dropped.29 According to Koplewitz, it is exactly this diminishing role of the harpsichord together with the decline in use of figured bass in ensemble music that forms the basis of the guitar functioning as the continuo in ensemble music. Guitar chamber literature finds its roots in the eighteenth century, although the compositional changes in the nineteenth century forms the basis of modern guitar chamber music.30 During the mid-eighteenth century, the guitar was mostly used for strumming and occasionally provided accompaniment for singers in informal environments. By the end of the eighteenth century, the shift from tablature to treble clef notation for the guitar, introduced in an

29

Aaron Shearer, “The Classic Guitar Grows Up,” Music Educators Journal 58, no. 2 (October, 1971): 53.

30

Laura Koplewitz, “The Guitar as an Ensemble Instrument,” Guitar Review 78 (Summer, 1989): 7-8.

17

instruction manual for guitarists by Fernando Ferandiere, made it significantly easier to write pieces for guitar in an ensemble. A few decades later, composers experimented with new compositional styles and contrapuntal writing for the guitar.31 Koplewitz mentions that proof of this can be found in guitar techniques that are unmistakably noticeable in some of Paganini’s ensemble pieces, which demonstrate the guitar’s soloistic capabilities. The changes in construction that influenced dynamics began to flourish a few decades earlier for the Romantic guitar than the fortepiano. It is precisely during those decades that there is an abundant repertoire composed for the guitar-piano duo. Although by the mid-nineteenth century the guitar needed to compete against the more developed piano and orchestras, guitar composers, who were mainly guitarists themselves, and guitar devotees, never stopped writing or performing solo guitar or guitar chamber music. German guitarist Heinrich Albert and Erwin Schwartz-Reiflingen began promoting basic chamber music with guitar, and the impact of their efforts is still noticeable up until the present day.32 Spanish composer Manual de Falla, a non-guitarist, used folkloric characteristics, colors in his music and features the guitar in his opera La Vida Breve from 1905. The composer explored new harmonic possibilities for the instrument, avoiding Romantic characteristics and concepts of tonality were shifting. Other examples of this can be found in de Falla’s solo guitar piece, Homenaje Pour le Tombeau de Claude Debussy.33 Shearer mentions that composers of that time were looking for clarity of lines and colorful textures, this being in favor of the guitar

31

Frederic Grunfeld, The Art and Times of the Guitar; An Illustrated History of Guitars and Guitarists (New York: Collier Books, 1974), 140. 32

Matanya Ophee, “Guitar Chamber Music: Review of a Decade,” American String Teacher 38 (1988); 60.

33

Laura Koplewitz, “The Guitar as an Ensemble Instrument,” Guitar Review 79 (Fall, 1989): 32.

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as an ensemble instrument.34 It becomes clear that the role of the guitar began shifting from that of accompanist to a worthy solo and chamber music instrument at the beginning of the twentieth century. Foster mentions in his treatise that musical taste changed after World War I. Interest of large orchestras diminished and more interest found its way to chamber music. The guitar became a common partner in this change of musical taste.35 Even more, major Latin American composers such as Heitor Villa-Lobos intensified the role of the guitar as solo instrument in ensemble music, perhaps best demonstrated in his Sextuor Mistique, composed in 1917:

Fig. 2.1 Heitor Villa-Lobos Sextuor Mistique, mm. 4-6. Many other examples of compositions by renowned composers prove the same shift of the guitar’s role and make use of the guitar’s rich colors and often write in a more linear way for the instrument.

34

Shearer, 65.

35

Adam Foster, “Hans Haug: The Chamber Music Works Featuring the Guitar; an Evolution of Style, Texture and Form” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 2011), 24.

19

Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg all used the guitar in some of their larger chamber music compositions from the first quarter of the twentieth century, and it has an equal role to fulfill compared to the other instruments. These pieces could form a great program to illustrate twelve-tone composition techniques in chamber music. Igor Stravinsky’s Four Russian Songs (1954) for voice, flute, harp and guitar could be a final piece in a program of duos of all possible combinations of the four musicians. The combination voice and guitar could for example play Benjamin Britten’s Six Songs from the Chinese (1957) or Dominick Argento’s Letters from Composers (1971). The flute and the guitar can be integrated in that same program by playing Toru Takemitsu’s Toward the Sea (1981). Kammermusik (1985) by Hans Werner Henze and Pierre Boulez’s Le Marteau Sans Maître (1955) are larger works using serial compositional techniques and could stand on their own to fill an entire program of chamber music for large ensemble. In conclusion, Koplewitz warns that guitarists who only explore past centuries for chamber music repertoire are missing opportunities with almost unknown but rich literature of the twentieth century; a body of works that will shrink and the music will soon be forgotten.36 History of Guitar-Keyboard Chamber Music During the first half of the nineteenth century in central Europe, referred to as Biedermeierzeit, the repertoire for guitar-piano duo flourished. The piano, and in particular the Viennese instruments of that time, had a smaller sound, very often not much stronger than that of a good guitar. The available music for the duo of that time period is immense. The timbre of both instruments matched each other and composers wrote for the guitar-piano duo on a larger scale 36

Koplewitz, 36.

20

than at any other time in music history. Today, one might question why this repertoire has been neglected. The transformation from the fortepiano, which was much smaller, had a lighter tone with less ability to sustain, a wooden frame and thin hammers resulting in less volume, to the very different-sounding concert grand pianos being built by the end of the nineteenth century, certainly plays a role in this decline in duo literature. Although the guitar also underwent a drastic transformation during that period, it suffered greatly from the increasing sound of the piano and could never again match its volume. Primarily due to dynamic reasons, the two instruments drifted apart. Nineteenth Century Literature for the Guitar-Piano Duo During the nineteenth century, there were two principal cities of international importance to the development of the guitar and its repertoire: Vienna and Paris. The two composers that are of magnificent importance for this era are Italian guitarists Mauro Giuliani (1781-1829) and Ferdinando Carulli (1770-1841). Both were revolutionary in their teaching methods and they inspired guitarists for many generations. Next to performing, composing was one of the musicians’ primary income sources and this was not different for guitarists. Ferdinando Carulli for example, had most of his works published with Carli in Paris. Some publishers such as Antoine Meissonnier, Charles Doisy and Anton Diabelli began composing for guitar and piano as well. Diabelli, skilled in both the guitar and piano, was one of the first to contribute to the duo’s literature. The works for guitar-piano duo of this period can be divided into three types: Hausmusik, educational works and concert repertoire. Hausmusik is translated literally as music intended to be played at a private home. The guitar and piano became relatively affordable at that time and 21

was no longer played by only professional musicians or the wealthy population but also by amateurs from the middle-class. These potpourris, mélanges, aries favorites were written for the sole purpose of entertainment. Many of these pieces were transcriptions or arrangements of other popular works. Compositions with petites or faciles in the title are primarily pieces with educational, instructional purposes, intended for the music student. Concert repertoire had titles that often begin with Grand or use the word Concertante and are often of a very high technical level. Many of the composers were also virtuoso performers on the instrument and often performed these works with other famous musicians. It is known that Mauro Giuliani often performed with pianists Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Ignaz Moscheles, undoubtedly, this elevated popularity of the repertoire rapidly. Josephine Plantin, a concert pianist, also performed many concerts all over Europe with her husband, Hungarian guitarist Johann Kaspar Mertz. Guitar-Piano Repertoire in Paris Ferdinando Carulli, who was established in Paris for most of his career, wrote works for guitar and piano and are some of his finest compositions. These lively works exhibit very natural piano writing that works well with the guitar.37 Ferdinando’s son, Gustavo Carulli was a gifted pianist who often assisted his father in composing and performing. Many of these works form a dialogue between the two instruments in a writing style in which both instruments are treated equally. Carulli’s output written for this particular setting was not matched by any other composer of his time. François de Fossa’s opus 14 and 16 for piano and guitar are arrangements of Rossini’s Il Barbiere di Siviglia. Many other composers located in France such as Charles Doisy and Matteo Carcassi, also based their guitar-piano duos on opera themes or motives. 37

Ruggero Chiesa, “The Guitar works of Ferdinando Carulli”. Classical Guitar 10, no. 29 (May, 1992): 37.

22

Guitar-Piano Repertoire in Vienna Opera composer Conradin Kreutzer, pianist Josef Wölfl and composer, performer, poet and singer Carl Ludwig Blum were important composers, though their contribution to this repertoire is not extensively big. Mauro Giuliani’s compositions for the guitar-piano duo were mainly written for his collaborations with Austrian composer and pianist Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Bohemian composer and pianist Ignaz Moscheles. The arrangement of his Guitar Concerto opus 30 for guitar and piano most likely contains added notes by Anton Diabelli in the tutti sections. Diabelli also made arrangements of Giuliani’s other two concertos, opus 36 and opus 70 for guitar and piano. Anton Diabelli was a famous guitar and piano teacher before starting his publishing career and perhaps that is why his original guitar-piano duos mainly functioned as didactical material. In Grand Pot-Pourri National of Giuliani, these compositions for the duo include segments of national anthems, a polka, a bolero and at the very end, a tarantella. Worth mentioning is that Giuliani demonstrates great skills in balancing the two instruments in his 2 Rondos opus 68, where both of the performers display their technical abilities without exhausting the musicians or having either one rely on the accompaniment role. It is clear that Giuliani was aware of the fact that he dealt with two polyphonic instruments. The duo chamber music of Leonard Von Call, sometimes referred to as Leonhard de Call, was widely spread over Europe, and in addition to editions from Vienna, there are French and German editions as well. Most of his pieces are on a very accessible playing level and meant for amateur musicians. Although more recognized for his symphonies and string quartets, Johann Baptist Vanhal, a Czech composer located in Vienna for most of his career, was one of the first

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composers who wrote for the guitar-piano duo (together with Charles Doisy and Anton Diabelli). His compositions are written for a five-string guitar and are more in the style of Hausmusik. In these compositions the guitar takes the role of accompanist by playing arpeggios or chords. Guitar-Piano Repertoire in Other Regions German composer Carl Maria Von Weber also wrote for this chamber music duo in his Divertimento Assai Facile per la Chittarra ed il Pianoforte, opus 38. Here, the composer emphasizes the major role of the guitar. German violist, horn player, conductor and composer Johann Andreas Amon mostly wrote guitar-piano repertoire in which the guitar is usually downgraded to accompany the piano. Noteworthy is that in the repertoire of Hungarian guitarist, Johann Kaspar Mertz, there is a clear shift from a Classical style to a more Romantic style of writing. For example, one can clearly find nationalistic characteristics in his oeuvre. Conclusion Using a balanced formal structure and being fully aware of the polyphonic nature of the instruments creates an excellent foundation for the guitar-piano duo. The compositions of Giuliani and Carulli are clear examples of this. As previously stated, not all of this music is intended for the concert stage, but Oltman and Newman make a fair point that there is certainly ample chamber music available from this time period to share with amateur players or music lovers.38

38

Laura Oltman and Michael Newman, “Introducing Guitar Students to Chamber Music,” American String Teacher 39, no. 2 (1989): 54.

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Twentieth Century Literature for the Guitar-Piano Duo With changes in harmony, the use of color, tonality, and the possible use of rhythmic purposes of the guitar, many composers such as Heitor Villa-Lobos, Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern integrated the guitar into their chamber music works. Unfortunately, none of them wrote for the guitar-piano duo.39 While the repertoire for this setting is not abundant, certain compositions are definitely worth investigating. Although not completely intended for a guitar-piano setting, Manuel Maria Ponce wrote his Preludio in 1926, for guitar and harpsichord in a Neo-Baroque style. The composer used a great deal of imitation between the two instruments. In 1931, Ponce wrote a Sonata for the same combination. Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, the first composer who wrote for the piano-guitar duo in the twentieth century, worked closely with Spanish guitarist Andrés Segovia for his Fantasia, opus 145. The composer dedicated the piece to Segovia and his wife Paquita. In 1968, Tedesco had intentions to write more for the guitar-piano duo: On February 28th, 1968, he (Tedesco) wrote me proposing “ a Fantasia and Fugue (or Variations and Fugue) on the initial theme of Beethoven’s Hammerklavier Sonata, opus 106. This would ‘reinforce’ the association of the guitar with the hammerklavier, and I think one might make a very beautiful piece out of it. I might employ as a theme the first 23 measures (at the end of the Sonata there is a Fugue, but the theme of the first movement seems to me by far more beautiful.) To remain faithful to the binomial Diabelli-Beethoven, I might also write a Variations and Fugue on the theme by Diabelli employed by Beethoven in his Variationen über ein Walzer von Diabelli, opus 120. I cannot promise you as many as 33 variations (more so beautiful as Beethoven’s), but it might be interesting to try. Please tell me whether one of these projects would appeal to you, or suggest to me some other propositions.40

39

Lorraine Ann Abbott, “Arranging Music for the Classical Guitar/Piano Duo, Including Three Arrangements by the Author” (Ph.D. diss., University of Miami, 2001), 5. 40

Mario Sicca, “The Guitar and the Keyboard instruments,” Guitar Review 39 (Summer 1989): 19.

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Sadly, only a few days after the correspondence with Mario Sicca, the composer passed away. Much later, in 1982, John Duarte used a theme of Castelnuovo-Tedesco in his composition Insiėme opus 72 for guitar and harpsichord or piano. Stephen Dodgson wrote his Duo Concertant for guitar and harpsichord and won first prize with the composition in the 1970 Office Radiodiffusion Télévision Française competition in Paris. The Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano by Swiss composer Hans Haug was written for Viennese guitarist Louise Walker in 1957. The composer masterfully balances the melody and harmony between the two instruments. References to the past are made, for example, by integrating the ballade that needs to be played as a chant d’un troubadour. A year later, although still unpublished, Brazilian composer Radamés Gnattali wrote his guitar-piano Sonatina para violão e piano and dedicated it to guitarist and composer Dilermando Reis. The composition consists of three movements. Clearly one can hear Latin jazz influences in this work. Guido Santórsola wrote Sonoridades 1971 for guitarist Monina Raitzin de Tavora and uses many techniques typical for the guitar such as tremolo, glissando and golpe. The third and final movement is a fugue. His compositional style balances between neo-Baroque and serialism. Belgian composer Franz Constant wrote three short pieces for the duo: Estampe opus 81 in 1976, Serenité opus 80 in 1978 and Danse opus 82, also from 1978. Constant was highly influenced by composers such as Béla Bartók and Igor Stravinsky, which is reflected in the music of these short pieces. American composer Charles Wuorinen wrote Sonata for Guitar and Piano in 1995 and uses twelve-tone composition techniques with influences from Stravinsky, Schoenberg and Babbitt. The music is highly complex and demands virtuosity from both performers challenged through wide leaps and fast dynamic contrasts. Del Rosato Albeggiare, a recent piece by Italian

26

guitarist-composer Angelo Gilardino, composed in 2010, is a work of four movements in a pattern style of writing for both guitar and piano and are thus very idiomatic. Gilardino often uses polymodal harmonies in this work, which also can be heard in his guitar concerti. References By far, not all guitar-piano duos are included in this historical overview. It is not the intention of this treatise to comprehensively list the repertoire for the guitar-piano duo. All of the aforementioned composers have a broad knowledge of guitar through either being guitarists themselves or extensive experience by working with guitarists in the process of writing. The author does see the value of a repertoire list for composers and performers and therefore included Eugenio Becherucci’s catalogue in the appendix of this writing.41 Many of the nineteenth century compositions are public domain and available in digital format on the website of the Danish National Digital Sheet Music Archive. A continually growing database compiled by Klaus Heim and Seth Josel of contemporary solo and guitar chamber music can be consulted at: http://www.sheerpluck.de/

41

Eugenio Becherucci, “Chitarra e Pianoforte: Breve Storia Della Letteratura Del Duo Dall’Ottocento ai Nostri Giorni,” Il Fronimo, 70 (January, 1990): 14-28. Eugenio Becherucci, “Chitarra e Pianoforte: Breve Storia Della Letteratura Del Duo Dall’Ottocento ai Nostri Giorni,” Il Fronimo, 72 (July, 1990): 17-29.

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CHAPTER THREE PRACTICES TO FACILITATE COMPOSING FOR GUITAR-PIANO DUO

During the late nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century, more linear writing was exploited in compositions for the guitar. Combined with the creative use of texture and form and the innovative use of colors, composers began writing remarkable guitar-piano chamber music. Today however, many composers still think of the guitar primarily as a harmonic instrument. Some composers avoid writing for two harmonic instruments, which could interfere with each other. Not only this misconception regarding the guitar’s perceived limitations, but also the dynamic imbalance between the two instruments, might lead one to completely abandon the idea of composing for a guitar-piano duo. The following offers an overview of orchestration of both instruments and adds suggestions on how a composer can combine both instruments. Possibilities and Limitations Guitar Hector Berlioz’s orchestration treatise was first published in 1843 and revised in 1855. The composer, who also was a guitarist, writes about the difficulties a composer faces when writing for the guitar: It is almost impossible to write well for the guitar unless one is a player oneself. Yet most composers who use it are far from any familiarity with it and write things of unnecessary difficulty with no sonority or effect… To get a good idea of what the great players can do in this sphere one must study the compositions of famous guitarists.42

42

Hector Berlioz and Hugh Macdonald, Berlioz's Orchestration Treatise a Translation and Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 80.

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Ophee does not agree with Berlioz’s statement and suggests observing compositions by non-guitarist composers such as Manuel Maria Ponce, Alexandre Tansman and Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, all of whom did succeed in writing successfully for the instrument.43 However, all the aforementioned composers worked closely with renowned guitarist Andrés Segovia during the process of writing. Also note that Berlioz’s treatise is almost over a hundred years old and ever since, composition techniques for the guitar have changed tremendously. Pitch Range Guitar music, since the end of the eighteenth century, has been notated on a single treble clef. The guitar is a transposing instrument: the guitar sounds one octave lower than it is notated. The range of the guitar is about three and a half octaves and spans from E2 on the open sixth string to B5 on the first. Scordatura is an extended technique, where an alternative tuning of the open strings can expand the range or permit the guitarist to play in keys that are otherwise hard to execute.

Fig. 3.1. Guitar Range.

The modern guitar has six strings and the fingerboard divides them with nineteen frets per string. More recent guitar models might have an extra fret for the first three strings. Each fret 43

Matanya Ophee, “Guitar Chamber Music, Why? One Amateur’s View Point,” Soundboard 3 nr. 3 (August, 1976): 47.

29

is a half step. Alternatively, the fifth and/or sixth string are occasionally tuned one whole step lower. The third string is often tuned a half step lower in combination with a capodastro (a tool used on the neck to raise the pitch) on the second or third fret to resemble the tuning that was used in the Renaissance.

Fig. 3.2. Standard Tuning of Open Strings.

Dynamic Range Even though recent luthiers are trying to broaden its range, the guitar is a relatively quiet instrument compared to other instruments such as string or brass instruments or piano. Its range varies from each instrument but could reach 65 to 80 decibels. As a result of this, the lowest and highest dynamic level are much closer together compared to many other instruments such as the piano. Texture Stephen Dodgson, a non-guitarist composer explains: “It is definitely a mistake to think of the guitar (as many do, apparently) as first and foremost a harmonic instrument; a mistake, because it leads the innocent into writing too many notes.”44 Polyphonic writing with three or four voices definitely limits the playability on the guitar. Playing full chords in higher positions is an example of non-idiomatic writing. Moderate spacing between voices or between the lowest 44

Stephen Dodgson, “Writing for the Guitar: Comments of a Non-Guitarist Composer,” American String Teacher 33 (1983): 52.

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voice and upper voices tends to work better. Doing so also creates a much easier approach for the guitarist to emphasize a particular voice. Reginald Smith-Brindle, another non-guitarist composer, recommends observing the single-strand music of Johann Sebastian Bach’s lute and violin works, which often creates the illusion of a number of voices, making the sound much more pleasant than a single voice.45 Many composers have used this technique and excellent examples of this type of writing can be found in the music of Manuel Maria Ponce, or more recently, in the repertoire of Dusan Bogdanovic. Style Almost any style is playable, but some are more idiomatic for the guitar, such as contrapuntal Renaissance and Baroque music. British guitarist Julian Bream and even earlier players such as Francisco Tárrega and Emilio Pujol, were masters in transcribing this repertoire. The latter two, both being Spanish guitarists and composers, also arranged a substantial amount of music from the Spanish piano repertoire by such composers as Isaac Albéniz, Enrique Granados and others, who often used folkloric themes. Articulation and Ability to Sustain A guitarist can give vibration to a note if it is not an open string, but this cannot be combined with a crescendo. Once a note is plucked on the guitar, the sound can no longer be controlled. The guitar is limited in playing sustained legato melodies, but can use the tremolo technique to create the illusion of a long, sustained melody.

45

Reginald Smith-Brindle, “The Composer’s Problems,” Guitar Review 83 (Fall 1990): 27.

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Harmonics and Timbres Guitar harmonics produce a rich, unique sound timbre and are frequently used to create musical variety. Often guitarists replace notes that are hard to reach by harmonics to facilitate an easier left hand shifting to the next note or harmony. In many cases, the same note or harmony can be played in other positions with different colors as a result. Notes higher up the neck are warmer, but harmonies tend to sound muffled. Similar colors can be achieved when moving the right hand in different angles or moved close to the fretboard for warm tones. When the right hand is positioned closer to the bridge, clearer timbres are formed. A composer would be wise to study the fretboard in order to know what combinations of color and position on the guitar are possible. By muting the strings with the right hand another color is produced very similar to that of other string players such as the violin or cello who pluck their strings instead of bowing them. Technical Considerations For non-guitarist composers, Dodgson suggests using a fingerboard chart to gain a better understanding of the fretboard.46 When the texture is light or thin, the free left-hand fingers can more easily prepare what is following. Often the right-hand thumb plays a full bass line by itself and limits the movement of the other fingers, so when writing thicker harmonies one should compose a less active bass part. The use of open strings is a great tool for the guitarist to overcome large shifts for the left hand. Unfortunately, this often limits the composer to the use of certain keys, but can also be used to an advantage by allowing these open strings to resonate over other notes. For this reason, the majority of the guitar literature is written in keys up to four sharps or flats. In recent years 46

Dodgson, 48.

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many composers have experimented with different tunings to create the possibility of playing in those keys that are otherwise difficult for the guitarist. Piano Pitch Range A modern piano has 52 white keys and 36 black keys. The pitch range spans Ao to C7 and is larger than most other Western instruments (some organs have a slightly bigger range). The music is notated on a treble and bass clef, but can change to either two bass clefs or two treble clefs depending on the range of a passage.

Fig. 3.3. Piano Range. Dynamic Range The piano has a very wide dynamic range. Pianists need to take care not to overpower other acoustic instruments in a chamber group setting. A piano could reach its limit between 60 and 100 decibels.

33

Texture In her treatise, Abbott states that “a piano can handle single-note melodies to partial or sometimes even full orchestral sonorities”.47 The music can go up to four or five parts, if the outer voices in each hand-part are not straining more than an octave. Often the piano is used for orchestral reductions of concertos to accompany soloists. Pedals By using the damper pedal, a pianist can create thick textures and play legato. The pedal can preserve many voicings at once. The sostenuto pedal keeps selected notes or chords ringing, while the hands are free to play other notes at the same time. Caution is needed, since too much use of these pedals often result in muddy harmonies. In his orchestration treatise, Berlioz states that the soft pedal could be used for vocal accompaniment, but it could also be useful to when paired with instruments that have a limited dynamic range, such as the guitar: A pedal used much less frequently than the one that raises the dampers is the ‘una corda’ (soft pedal) pedal, treated with enchanting effect by Beethoven and others. Not only does it provide an excellent contrast with the normal sound of the piano and with the grand effect of the sustaining pedal, it is also especially useful for vocal accompaniment when the singer has a weak voice or, more often, to give the performance a character of gentle intimacy.48 Style Perhaps the piano is the most versatile instrument in common use and can more or less handle all styles. Hector Berlioz was very much aware of his contempories: “One can form a fair

47

Lorraine Ann Abbott, “Arranging Music for the Classical Guitar/Piano Duo, Including Three Arrangements by the Author” (Ph.D. diss., University of Miami 2001), 17. 48 Berlioz, 96.

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idea of the point which the art of piano playing has reached today by studying the compositions of the great virtuosi, those of Liszt especially.”49 Articulation and Ability to Sustain Similarly to the guitarist, the pianist has no control over dynamic levels once a note/chord is struck. The piano does have a longer sustaining quality as a result of more tension on the strings, use of sustaining pedal, and the size of the instrument. Technical Considerations Writing parts that lie well in the hands can be achieved by avoiding too many large leaps, awkwardly voiced chords and consecutive stretches in the hands. A stretch can go up to a tenth, but tenths are a lot easier when the third or the octave is left out.50 Due to a stretch between fingers 2,3 and 4 of the same hand, chords can sometimes be hard to execute.

Fig. 3.4 Awkwardly-voiced piano chords. Options for Pairing the Two Instruments Berlioz mentions the problems a guitar might face in an ensemble setting, but does point out that composers should consider incorporating guitar in chamber music:

49 50

Ibid., 91-92. Ibid., 90.

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As soon as the guitar is used in combination with other, more assertive instruments, many of these subtleties, so worth storing in the mind for a solo capacity, are lost. Yet the guitar is a splendid instrument for duo-, trio-, quartet-type ensemble, and its potential here is still astonishingly under-explored.51 A general analysis of guitar-piano compositions with focus on dynamics, imitation, texture, harmony and melody, use of register, and use of effects will bring insight in how composers still manage to bring out theses subtleties of the guitar. The following works have been selected for analysis: - Gran Duo in E minor, Op. 86 by Ferdinando Carulli (ca. 1813) - 2 rondos op. 68 by Mauro Giuliani (ca. 1820) - Fantasia by Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco (1950) - Fantasia by Hans Haug (1957) - Sonata for Guitar and Piano by Charles Wuorinen (1995) - Del Rosato Albeggiare by Angelo Gilardino (2010) Ferdinando Carulli and Mauro Giuliani, who successfully composed chamber music works for the guitar and piano during the nineteenth century, were highly regarded as concert performers and composers. The guitar seems to have a reputation among non-guitarist composers of being difficult to write for. Therefore the fantasias by pianists Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco and Hans Haug are included in the selection. Both had experience in composing chamber music and orchestral music for the guitar and worked closely with renowned guitarist Andrés Segovia. These two compositions are perhaps the most recorded and performed by guitar-piano duos of today. The first piece written by American pianist, conductor and composer Charles Wuorinen 51

Dodgson, 54.

36

that uses the guitar is in his Sonata for Guitar and Piano and worked closely with contemporary guitarist William Anderson in the process of writing. Angelo Gilardino is best known as a musicologist, but at an early age he had a brief, but extensive career as a concert guitarist. It was Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco who encouraged him to start composing. Dynamic Levels or Markings The most obvious choice to balance the two instruments is to mark the piano part one or more dynamic levels below that of the guitar. One should keep in mind that, for example, a forte on the piano is possibly not at all the same dynamic level as the forte on the guitar. Composer Charles Wuorinen underlines the importance of dynamic markings in his Sonata for Guitar and Piano and clarifies what should be taken into account when performing the composition: Because of the disparity in dynamic range between the instruments, the piano dynamic must generally be adjusted to that of the guitar. To show this, dynamics that are to be balanced are shown bracketed between the piano and guitar staves. Only when markings appear in the piano part alone should the pianist exert the full dynamic range of the instrument.52

Fig. 3.5. Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mm. 1-2.

52

Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano (New York: Edition Peters, 1995): ii.

37

At the beginning of the Gran Duo (see Ex. 3.6 and 3.7), Carulli opens strong with an octave played forte, but immediately changes the dynamic level to be better balanced with the guitar which enters with the right-hand piano part. Note the repetition of the p when this theme is first played by the piano, as if Carulli wants to remind the pianist of the lightness of the guitar. The technique of omitting the right-hand in the piano and have it played by the guitar, slightly modified, when repeated is also used by Angelo Gilardino (see Ex. 3.8 and 3.9).

Fig. 3.6. Ferdinando Carulli, Gran Duo Op. 86, mm. 1-3.

Fig. 3.7. Ferdinando Carulli, Gran Duo Op. 86, mm. 14-17.

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Fig. 3.8. Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, mm. 4-5

Fig. 3.9. Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, mm. 7-8. 39

Immediately, from the opening of Castelnuovo-Tedesco’s duo (see Ex. 3.10), the dynamic levels for the piano are marked pp. Only then, the long, ringing opening chord will form a good accompanimental background without overwhelming the guitar. Gilardino uses this technique in the Lento e Remote section of his first movement as well (see Ex. 3.11).

Fig. 3.10. Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 1, mm. 1-2.

Fig. 3.11. Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, mm. 32-35.

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Imitation Quite often, not only melodies are repeated in a different voice, but also chords or arpeggios, which are both very idiomatic for both the piano and the guitar. In the following example by Carulli (see Ex. 3.12), the arpeggiated structure of two bars that begins in the guitar is literally taken over by the right-hand piano part. In bar 78, the guitar begins playing a repeated high D, previously played by the piano. Castelnuovo-Tedesco uses the same technique in his fantasia as well (see Ex. 3.13). This time, however, the rhythm is changed slightly for the piano after one bar and is notated a fourth higher. Wuorinen uses imitation as well, but mostly by repeating rhythmic cells between the two instruments, rather than repeating the melody (see Ex. 3.14). Imitation is a compositional technique that is associated with many musical forms as such as the fantasia, illustrated here by Castelnuovo-Tedesco and Hans Haug. The ricercare or the fugue could also form a great basis for guitar-piano compositions.

Fig. 3.12. Ferdinando Carulli, Gran Duo Op. 86, mm. 75-78.

41

Fig. 3.12. Continued

Fig. 3.13. Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 1, mm. 9-13.

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Fig. 3.14. Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mvt. 1, m. 2-3. Use of Thin Texture and Open Chords In order to balance the two instruments, many composers often write a thin texture for the piano to avoid overwhelming the guitar. At times this can be very effective when only a single line is thoughtfully written out. Another option is to include open chords or long, sustained harmonies in the piano part. This way, an audience will better perceive and differentiate each instrument. In the second Rondo by Giuliani, the wide octave chords in the piano part provide ample space for the guitar to play a clear melody (see Ex. 3.15). Combining different registers in the piano parts is definitely creating room for the guitar. In the earlier imitation example from Castelnuovo-Tedesco, the piano reflects the thin texture of the guitar as well (see Ex. 3.13). The beginning of the second movement of the same fantasia also has a thin piano texture (see Ex. 3.16). Thin texture can also be found in the notation of Wuorinen’s Sonata for Guitar and Piano (see Ex. 3.17)

Fig. 3.15. Mauro Giuliani, 2 Rondos Op. 68, mvt. 2, mm. 60-65. 43

Fig. 3.16. Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 2, mm. 1-5.

Fig. 3.17. Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mvt. 1, mm.10-11. Chromaticism and Parallel Chord Structures Although chromaticism is a composition technique that was seen more frequently during the second half of the nineteenth century, it has been explored by Giuliani as well (see Ex. 3.18 and 3.19). In the first instance, one can clearly hear the ascending half steps in the tenor voice of the guitar part within the parallel chord structure, beginning from bars 22 to 28. CastelnuovoTedesco employs parallel chords, again with imitation alternating between the instruments (see Ex. 3.20). Gilardino also clearly uses chromaticism in his guitar-piano duo (see Ex. 3.21).

44

Fig. 3.18. Mauro Giuliani, 2 Rondos Op. 68, mvt. 2, mm. 19-28.

Fig. 3.19. Mauro Giuliani, 2 Rondos Op. 68, mvt. 2, m. 75.

Fig. 3.20. Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 1, mm. 28-33.

Fig. 3.21. Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 2, mm. 91-93.

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Melody Played by Both Instruments Simultaneously Allowing both instruments to play the same notes can be highly effective for emphasizing certain thematic material (see Ex. 3.22 and Ex. 3.23).

Fig. 3.22. Hans Haug, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, mm. 98-101.

Fig. 3.23. Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mvt. 3, m. 131. Playing in Different Registers Carulli differentiates the two instruments by writing the piano part in a much lower register than the guitar (see Ex. 3.24). In the case of Gilardino, the range treatment is exactly the opposite (see Ex. 3.25).

46

Fig. 3.24. Ferdinando Carulli, Gran Duo Op. 86, mm. 59-62.

Fig. 3.25. Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, m. 18. Combine Arpeggios with Chords Foster states that “In terms of balance, the midrange is the hardest to project as the pitches fall into the same range of the accompanying texture.”53 As a solution, Haug writes arpeggiated melodies in the guitar part, which are accompanied with thin, wide chords.

53

Adam Foster, “Hans Haug: The Chamber Music Works Featuring the Guitar; an Evolution of Style, Texture and Form,” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 2011), 24.

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Fig. 3.26. Hans Haug, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, mm. 70-75. Musical Dialogue or Solo Sections Musical dialogue between the two instruments can enrich a performance, and even solo sections can be included to highlight the capabilities of both instruments. Hans Haug employs a chorded conversation between the two instruments in the opening of his fantasia and a guitar solo guitar part in the middle section (see Ex 3.27 and 3.28). In the first bar of Sonata for Guitar and Piano of Wuorinen, both instruments are playing in the same register and therefore blend in nicely. They share a melody created by playing one note alternately. Because each instrument’s attack being on a different time, both instruments are heard individually (see Ex. 3.29).

Fig. 3.27. Hans Haug, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, mm. 1-4.

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Fig. 3.28. Hans Haug, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, mm. 215-223.

Fig. 3.29. Charles Wuorinen, Sonata for Guitar and Piano, mvt. 1, m. 1. Use of Techniques, Effects Although not appearing often, composers may indicate specific playing techniques or effects or use written instructions that suggest that musicians use a different color. In the case of Castelnuovo-Tedesco, sul legno means knocking on the wood of the guitar (see Ex. 3.30). 49

Composer Stephen Dodgson points out that “no string instrument is richer than the guitar in the excellence of its harmonics.”54 The harmonics creates a timbre that clearly distinguishes itself from other timbres, and can be highly effective if combined with lower dynamic levels on the piano (see Ex. 3.31).

Fig. 3.30. Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano, Op. 145, mvt. 1, mm. 44-47.

Fig. 3.31. Angelo Gilardino, Del Rosato Albeggiare, mvt. 1, mm. 32-34.

54

Dodgson, 52.

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Conclusion Koplewitz states that “it was during the nineteenth century that the seeds were sown for the compositional progress of the modern ensemble literature for the guitar.”55 Examples of both time periods that are shown in this chapter illustrate similarities in how composers pair the two instruments. As the twentieth century began, new styles and compositional techniques were added to benefit the writing for the guitar-piano duo. However, standard compositional techniques such as imitation are still used in both fantasias for example. A thin texture, mainly in order to not overpower the guitar, seems to be another consistent characteristic. Occasionally scores exhibit fragments where only one hand is playing in the piano part, almost as if the piano becomes a melodic instrument. Treating the piano as an expressive instrument, a composer will leave more room for performers to bring out multiple colors on their instruments. Rarely can full chords be used effectively, but in case of the opening of the fantasia by Haug, it certainly works as a “musical dialogue” tool. A composer is recommended to avoid having both the guitar and piano playing in the same register. If impossible to avoid, one can work with combining chords on one instrument and arpeggios in the other. Or as revealed in the example of Wuorinen, the instruments’ attack can be placed at different times. Both the piano and guitar being polyphonic instruments means that there are common techniques and performance styles. It is up to the composer to be inventive in order to avoid the instruments clashing and allow audiences to fully enjoy the beauty of colors that both instruments have in abundance.

55

Laura Koplewitz, “The Guitar as an Ensemble Instrument”. Guitar Review 78 (Summer, 1989): 7.

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CHAPTER FOUR PRACTICES FOR GUITAR-PIANO DUOS TO FACILITATE PERFORMING

This chapter will explain why performance practice matters and how a guitarist and pianist can perform early music on original or copies of instruments of past time periods, or use the knowledge to play the repertoire in a responsible manner on modern instruments. Furthermore, advice will be covered on how to overcome dynamic level barriers that guitarpiano duo performers face by offering insight in acoustics and amplification. The chapter ends with discussing the revival of salon music and why this could benefit chamber music groups such as the guitar-piano duo. Performance Practice in Early Music People who play historical instruments or musicians who play historical music on modern instruments need to be aware of the period performing styles as much as possible. Rowland mentions that editions of “historical music” dating from the end of the nineteenth or even the beginning of the twentieth century are very often not as historical as they may seem. The music was occasionally transposed, or parts were rewritten and performance directions were added.56 As noted in chapter two, many composers rewrote or arranged popular pieces for entertainment purposes. Examples of these arrangements and adaptations can be found in the potpourris, mélanges, aries favorites in the guitar literature as well.

56

David Rowland, Early Keyboard Instruments: A Practical Guide (Port Chester: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 3.

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During the second quarter of the nineteenth century, Mauro Giuliani’s duo partner, Ignaz Moscheles organized a concert series to underline the importance of stylistically correct performances based on keyboard treatises of the past.57 As a performer of historical music, one should not only investigate the performance practice but also the history of the instrumentation and consider certain choices or compromises that may be necessary when performing the repertoire on a modern instrument. Awareness is needed to achieve historically informed performances. Romantic Guitar As described in Chapter Two, a transition period for the guitar occurred at the end of the eighteenth century, in which at least four different types of guitars were in use, each with different stringing, tuning and playing techniques. With only a few exceptions, the guitar-piano repertoire during the Biedermeierzeit at the beginning of the nineteenth century is played on an early six-string guitar model. Scholar Richard Savino points out the importance of performance practice for guitarists who would like to play classical or romantic repertoire:

The subject of performance practice on the guitar is a most complex issue. With every variable that one encounters in tuning, instrument construction, nationalistic tendencies, and style, there is a corresponding technical and aesthetic judgment to be made.58

57

Ibid., 4.

58

Richard Savino, “Essential Issues in Performance Practices of the Classical Guitar,” in Performance on Lute, Guitar, and Vihuela: Historical Practice and Modern Interpretation, edited by Victor Anand Coelho (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997): 200.

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Sitting Position Many different positions were used to support the Romantic guitar. Even today, guitarists are still experimenting with seating and how to support the guitar. Modern guitarists often use a footstool, as introduced by Francisco Tárrega, but when used with smaller guitars from the early nineteenth century, the guitar is still too low for many players. Therefore, a footstool combined with a small cushion on the left leg may be used to elevate the guitar more sufficiently. Fernando Sor used a small table to support the guitar while playing, and Dionisio Aguado used a tripodium, a supporting device for the guitar that made it possible to play standing up. Players from the seventeenth century through the nineteenth century occasionally used a strap that was attached to a pin at the right side of the guitar, wrapped around the shoulder and they either sat on it or attached it to the neck or bottom of the guitar. This was often done in combination with supporting the guitar on the right upper leg. A few guitar players today are still using this technique. This is a serious consideration, as the angle of holding the guitar certainly has an influence on the finger stroke when plucking the strings. The Right Hand and Fingernails There are many indications that both playing with and without nails has been common since the seventeenth century, as specified by lutenists and guitarists such as Alessandro Piccinini, Domenico Pellegrini, Fernando Ferandiere, Dionisio Aguado and many others. Aguado stated in his Nuovo Mètodo para Guitarra that either the strings with the fingertips or with a combination of fingertip and part of the nail could be played. These two techniques require a different use of the fingers of the right hand. Without nails, the guitarist should bend the fingers. With nails, the fingers need to be bent less, so the string can follow through the

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nail.59 After hearing Fernando Sor play, Aguado questions this way of playing. As a modern interpreter, one must make a certain commitment to either one or the other approaches in order to develop his own technique to its fullest potential. Savino states that a nail player can make a tone that is close to the sound of playing without nails, and that the advantage of playing with nails creates a larger volume and a more defined articulation.60 When a guitarist plays without nails on a modern guitar, there is markedly less control over sound and can barely develop a dynamic range on the instrument. Therefore, a player who wants to combine playing on an historical instrument with playing on a modern guitar would do well to play with nails, but perhaps need to compromise their length. Savino remarks that Giuliani’s compositions contain many rapid, unslurred passages, which are most effectively executed with nails.”61 Certainly for his and other guitar-piano duos playing with nails will help project the guitar’s sound. The point of contact with the string, the angle of the stroke and the follow-through all influence the guitar’s sound quality. On most Romantic guitars, there is very little space between the strings and the soundboard for a good follow-through. The modern apoyando or rest stroke, where the finger rests on the lower string after plucking, advocated by players such as Francisco Tárrega, Emilio Pujol and Andrés Segovia, is likely to be too strong and create an unclear, buzzing tone. A tirando or free stroke is when the finger avoids resting on the lower string after plucking, combined with the angle of the stroke pointed more towards the top of the instrument. Some nineteenth century guitar players put the right-hand little finger on the soundboard, a technique that lutenists often used as well. By the mid-nineteenth century, guitarists no longer

59

Dionisio Aguado, Nuovo Mètodo para Guitarra, trans. Brian Jeffery (London: Tecla Editions, 1984): 10.

60

Savino, 200.

61

Ibid., 207.

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used this technique, but it is known that players such as Fernando Carulli advocated the technique, as explained in his Méthode Complète pour Guitare.62 The hand needs to rest lightly on the little finger, between the bridge and the rosette. He also mentions that the hand has no fixed position, which is an indication that Carulli was a practitioner of changing the timbre on the guitar by repositioning the right hand either closer to the bridge for a clear tone or closer to the fretboard for a warmer sound. In many works and studies by Mauro Giuliani, who was a contemporary of Ferdinando Carulli, a guitarist needs to use the ring finger quite often, therefore it is not possible to play with the little finger fixed on the soundboard. The Left Hand Other than using the thumb to play the lowest string or to play higher up the neck of the guitar, the technique for the left-hand used for playing Romantic guitar is not much different than the modern technique. The use of the thumb was easier on the Romantic guitar due to the neck being much more narrow than on a modern guitar. Players such as Mauro Giuliani, Johann Kaspar Mertz and Ferdinando Carulli often included the thumb in their fingerings. Savino explains that “it has become clear after examining many late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century manuscripts and editions, that most authors expect the performer to execute difficult passages using the most efficient and least difficult means.”63 As clarified in Chapter Three, modern guitarists often play a note on a different string for color purposes, which often increases the difficulty. Another option could be for the guitarist to adapt Carulli’s method for coloring by shifting the right hand rather than changing to a different string. 62

Ferdinando Carulli, Méthode Complète pour Guitare Op. 241 (Paris, 1825).

63

Savino, 213.

56

Ornamentation Romantic period guitar method books are for the most part vague on the subject of executing ornaments. According to Carulli, grace notes and ornaments have no value but take half the note value of the principal note (that follows) and help to elaborate the music. Also, both of these notes should be slurred together.64 Giuliani worked closely with pianists Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Ignaz Moscheles. For this reason, one might consider investigating the keyboard literature or keyboard treatises of that time for more information regarding ornamentation of this time period. On a modern guitar, a trill can be executed either by a slur on a single string, or by a fast cross-string plucking of two separate strings, which creates a more harpsichord-like sound. Modern players such as the Presti-Lagoya duo or David Russell often use the latter technique. Dutch guitarist Jan De Kloe recently wrote a small instruction book with several exercises on this subject.65 Fortepiano One of the principal differences between these pianos and the modern piano is the dynamic range. As a comparison, Rosenblum roughly describes the piano being one level louder than the pianos of the eighteen and nineteenth century.66 Today’s pianists have thus two options: maintain the full dynamic range of the modern instrument or play all dynamic levels equally down. 64

Carulli, 50.

65

Jan De Kloe, Cross String Ornamentation Technique, A Practical Guide for Guitarists (Quebec: Doberman-Yppan, 2007). 66

Sandra P. Rosenblum, Performance Practice in Classic Piano Music: Their Principles and Applications (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991): 55.

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Piano Pedaling By the end of the eighteenth century most music publications have pedal markings. Around that time the damper-raising pedal was used frequently to play parts that are out of reach of one hand. This resulted in different composition styles that are difficult if not impossible to play on harpsichord or clavichord. A pianist cannot fully rely on pedal markings found in scores of that time since it was difficult to indicate a precise reflection of the use of the pedal. Hand Position and Finger Technique During the second half of the eighteenth century, a shift occurred in keyboard technique, changing from a more detached playing style to the legato style that became the standard by the beginning of the nineteenth century. Since the sixteenth century the piano’s key resistance or key depth gradually increased and keys became bigger. This resulted in changes in the position of the hands and the technical aspects of keyboard playing. Pianists still played with a curved hand, firm finger joints and movement in the fingers by the beginning of the nineteenth century, but slightly began to add more ‘weight’ of the arm rather than just moving from the fingers. Ornamentation Many times ornaments are fully written out, as many of them function thematically. As with the Romantic guitar, virtually no composers wrote out execution instructions. Some suggestions on this matter are given by Rosenblum: The several kinds of one-note ornaments used in the Classic period were all represented by similar looking small notes. Sometimes composers slurred a small note to the main note preceding or following it; this notation helped to determine the type and rhythmic position of the ornament. Generally, however, the small notes were left unslurred, giving

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the performer the freedom and the responsibility of making a choice according to the immediate context in which the ornament is found.67 Appoggiaturas were often played between beats rather than on the beat. From about 1800, beginning the trill from the main-note seems to have become more frequent.68 Combining Guitar and Piano Very often guitar-piano duos prefer to program a combination of modern and historical repertoire. In reality, a guitar-piano duo rarely has a fortepiano or harpsichord available in concert venues, where the only choice is a modern piano. Unfortunately, the burden falls upon the pianist to create the balance between the instruments. In the following table, Maria Sicca has some advice to share on this matter:69 Table 4.1. Performance Guidelines to Facilitate Volume Balance Suggestions 1. Choose pianos having a brilliant, but not aggressive, sonority. It is better to exclude the concert grand pianos. 2. Play with a precise, but light, touch, using action of the fingers alone, rather than hand action. Keep your hands and forearms extremely light. (For guidance you may listen to the recordings of Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli playing the Sonatas of Scarlatti; he produces exactly the sonority, which you may use as model.) 3. Whenever the guitar has the chief part, make liberal use of the damper pedal. 4. Cut off completely the right pedal in the accompaniments and try to sustain the bass note longer than its value, similar to the performance of repertoire of the first Viennese School (Mozart and Haydn in particular).

67

Ibid., 218. Ibid., 252. 69 Mario Sicca, “The Guitar and the Keyboard instruments,” Guitar Review 39 (Summer 1989): 19. 68

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Table 4.1 Continued 5. Try to avoid the unending crescendos, extended over a long phrase consisting of an enormous number of measures, as often found in piano music. Instead, use shorter phrases, with dynamics, which vary frequently and are sustained over a reduced number of measures, and employ a reduced amount of volume.

Fortepianos occasionally have the ability to play una corda, where the hammer strikes only one string rather than three. This can drastically reduce the volume of the instrument, but also influences the color of the instrument. This function however is not offered on modern pianos, where the left pedal or soft pedal can adjust the hammers to strike only two strings. Unfortunately, this limits the range of colors drastically and creates a more muffled sound. Many venues that program chamber music series do simply not have a fortepiano available or only have a grand piano, therefore performers can experiment with the height of the piano lid, and with use of the soft pedal when appropriate. However, these adjustments significantly affect the tone quality of the piano. Completely closing the lid can make it difficult for the pianist to hear his own part in order to play together with the guitarist. An acoustic blanket can be used that hangs down from the case of the piano to block parts of the sound that sometimes keeps the guitarist from hearing his own part. Ultimately the performers will need to use their own judgment in making these types of decisions. Differences in dynamic levels between the instruments can also be overcome through articulation, the touch, tone, and pedaling, all of which affect the balance as well. Dynamic markings in the score need to be considered carefully. A serviceable adjustment for this duo is suggested by having the piano play one or two dynamic levels underneath of what a pianist is accustomed to.

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Roughly two approaches have been used by guitar-piano duos when it comes to positioning the two musicians relative to one another. When a guitarist is seated in front of the sideways positioned piano, more traditional for duos such as violin and piano, the guitarist might be too overwhelmed with the piano sound and audiences would have a harder time differentiating the two instruments. This method makes it tough for the musicians to visually communicate while performing as well. An alternative method would be if the guitarist were positioned on the left side of the piano. This avoids having the guitar sound being overwhelmed by the piano. By positioning the two instruments in a V-shape the musicians can have better visual contact as well. Guitarists often look to their left hand for executing big leaps on the neck of the guitar. This alternative seating position will line up the left hand of the guitarist, the music stand and the pianist, avoiding too many head movements of the guitarist. Selected Repertoire Suggestions The very accessible Sehr Lechte Stücke from Anton Diabelli might not be technically challenging for the performers, but therefore leaves more room to focus on matching tone, dynamics and playing chamber music. There is much variety in character of the thirty short pieces, written in keys that are comfortable to play on the guitar. The collection includes dances such as Marcias, Polonaises, Menuets, Allemandes and a Hongroise. Another great beginner piece by the same composer is the Sonatine für Gitarre und Klavier, opus 68. The second movement is a joyful Rondo and could be a great piece to end a guitar-piano program. Ferdinando Carulli masterfully convinces players and audiences of his skills for writing for this duo in his Grand Duo, opus 86. Both instruments have equal roles to fulfill and at times bring out the full capabilities of the instrument in short virtuoso passages. The Two Rondos, opus 68, are contrasting each other in both tempo and character. In the first rondo, the pianist has a 61

more accompaniment role, and should be careful not to overpower the guitar when playing short, full chords. The second rondo has an intimate character and does a better job in balancing out the roles of the two instruments. At a more advanced level, a guitar-piano duo might consider playing the reductions of Giuliani’s guitar concertos opus 30, 36 and 70. The arrangements of Diabelli have piano-parts that are adjusted resulting in valuable chamber music pieces. Opus 30 and 36 are originally written for terz guitar (tuned a minor third higher), but one can find modern editions where the guitar part is rewritten for a standard tuned guitar.70 François de Fossa also made rearrangements of orchestral works that resulted in high-level chamber music pieces. The continuing virtuosic passages of his Duo Concertante, Ouverture pour l’Opera du Barbier de Seville, opus 14 and 16 throughout the piece are technically challenging the guitarist and pianist. The themes of the Rossini Opera were well known during the nineteenth century and have been arranged for many different chamber music settings. Almost two hundred years after the premiere of the opera, the Ouverture theme is still well known. The two movements of the Fantasia by Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco have either a very linear writing for the guitar or use parallel chords. The biggest test for the duo is when both instruments are playing sixteenth notes. These passages need to be practiced together in a slow tempo to create a secure alignment of both instruments. Hans Haug’s Fantasia has a variety of tempo markings in the score, and therefore a guitar-piano duo would do well to have visual contact at those points to set the tempo for the new parts. Although the composer worked closely with guitarist Andres Segovia in the process of writing, at times a guitarist will reach his or her capable tempo limits. This is not the case for

70

Giuliani, Mauro, and Anton Diabelli, Premier Grand Concerto pour la Guitare avec Accompaniment de Pianoforte, oeuvre 30 (Vienne: Ant. Diabelli et comp, 1824).

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pianists as long chords and arpeggios are integrated in the piano score. Therefore there is a risk of having the tempo increased by the pianist. Perhaps one of the most challenging pieces for aligning both instruments during a performance is Charles Wuorinen’s Sonata for Guitar and Piano. The composer makes use of uncommon time signatures that frequently change. The guitar part is demanding, has many leaps over the entire fretboard and requires a good left hand technique. The guitar part of Del Rosato Albeggiare by Angelo Gilardino also has many leaps but because of the use of open strings, a guitarist can overcome those difficulties. For both instruments fragments often consist of recurring patterns in different positions. The guitar-piano duo scores of Wuorinen and Gilardino do not come with separate parts for each instrument, but it is recommended to rehearse with the full score for a longer time period due to the nature of the composition techniques used that are hard to master together as a duo. Acoustics and Use of Room: General Criteria and Modifications Basically, the needs of musicians and audiences are simple. As a musician, one wants to hear his or her own instrument and those of the ensemble members. One also wants to know if the audience can hear everything clearly. An audience needs to hear and see the musicians together but also separately. As it is important for a musician to know how the sound is produced by his or her instrument, equally important is to know how the environment can alter these sounds. Some basic understanding of acoustics will help musicians in choosing a performance venue, or recognize the need to slightly modify a room to their or their audiences’ advantage. A

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few criteria for evaluating the acoustics and remedial recommendations are made by Campbell and Greated71 and Hall:72 Table 4.2. Acoustic Criteria Criteria

Explanation

Clarity

Notes should arrive clearly, crisply and unobscured

Uniformity

Listeners in all parts of the hall should hear as nearly the same sound as possible.

Envelopment

Early reflections should arrive not just from front or back walls, but form sides and ceiling as well.

Reverberation

Continuation or hanging of the sound in the room must have both an appropriate loudness relative to the original sound and a pleasing rate of decay.

Performing

The stage must be free from distracting echoes and at the same time provide

Satisfaction

enough enclosure that performers in a group can feel they are in good communication with each other.

Freedom from

Soft passages in the music should not be disturbed by traffic noise outside or

Noise

by noise in the auditorium ventilating system.

Table 4.3 Acoustic Remedial Measures Criteria Clarity

Remedial Measures Audiences should be positioned as close to the stage as possible. If the listener has a good unobscured sight line, the acoustical clarity is more likely to be good.

71

Murray Campbell and Clive Greated, The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics (New York: Schirmer Books, 1987): 542. 72

Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics: An Introduction (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Corporation, 1980): 341-347.

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Table 4.3 Continued Uniformity

Use slopes and balconies so that the last row will not have to be so much farther away than the first. The total reflected sound must have similar strength everywhere. Avoid concave walls and rooms with plain flat walls that make sound to bounce back and forth repeatedly over the same path

Envelopment

Ceilings and sidewalls are preferably not flat, but include enough structure to provide several early reflections from each that will truly surround the listener with sound.

Reverberation

Placing reflecting surfaces toward the front of the auditorium can minimize too much echo. Doing so will have the first reflected sounds avoid traveling too much farther than the direct sound. A happy medium must be struck somewhere between dead and muddy sound. Reverberation is controlled by the size of the auditorium and by the relative amount of absorption or reflection of sound by the materials placed on walls, ceiling, and floor. Use curtains of heavy fabric that are hung in pleats to increase absorption.

Performing

Project the sound out to the audience. The stage should not have hard

Satisfaction

parallel sidewalls, which cause a very annoying problem called flutter echo in which you can hear any sharp percussive sound bounce back and forth many times. Flutter echo is doubly bad because it means part of the sound is trapped on stage and not reaching its intended audience. The rear wall should not return a single strong echo to the stage. But a blend of many reflections should return to the stage strongly enough to give the performer some sense of what the audience is hearing.

Freedom from

Use substantial construction, double doors, and felt stripping for airtight

Noise

closure of all doors.

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Before a concert begins, one could announce to the audience to sit closer to the stage so a better clarity could be achieved. An external member of an ensemble can walk around during dress rehearsals in the area where the audience is located to make sure that all places have a uniformity of sound and if needed adjustments can then be made. Musicians themselves can invest in acoustic curtains or blankets to adjust reverberations or create a better freedom of noise when playing in unconventional locations. Amplification Systems and Microphones Volume and projection have always been the guitar’s weakest points. It seems in a room of moderate size the guitar works well, but in large concert halls or in combination with other instruments the problem becomes more obvious. The contributions of modern guitar luthiers have drastically improved the dynamic range in the last hundred and fifty years. However, designing a guitar that works equally well in big concert halls and in a small intimate space seems to be the true challenge. As a result of the lack of power, the guitarist often uses too much force to pluck the strings, which leaves less attention for articulation and the use of color, and only leads to frustration. From this viewpoint, convincing an audience of the potential of the guitar is a daunting task to take on. For a guitar-piano duo the problem is exacerbated when playing in concert halls where most often only large grand pianos are available. A musical artist cannot ignore knowing the past, but perhaps a new age has arrived and it is time to embrace the present. Barbosa-Lima seems to agree: A purist attitude toward amplification is ridiculous and pretentious. Perhaps those who refuse to move forward with the times are afraid of having their faults or weaknesses magnified and exposed by amplification.

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Sound engineering has arrived at the computer age and the guitar should benefit from it.73 The guitarist no longer needs to “force” the instrument and can finally project all the notes clearly and focus on what really matters: the music. Villa-Lobos composed his Orchestral work with guitar Introdução aos Choros in 1929 and already included the instruction com microfone in the score.74 For many guitar chamber music groups such as the guitar-piano duo this option definitely facilitates performing. In his book about amplification, Pinksterboer gives us valuable information on what to look for in a amplification system: “The highest compliment you can pay to an acoustic amp is that you don’t notice it’s there: the instrument sounds exactly the same as if it were unamplified, although a little or a lot louder.”75 In other words, the amplification system should not alter the guitar sound, nor should it generate noise when the guitarist stops playing. There are a few proven approaches to amplify the guitar. A small condenser microphone just inside of the guitar is one option that has been used frequently. The disadvantage of this approach is that the microphone is attached to a specific spot on the guitar, and often sounds very bright, as it does not pick up the full resonance of the body of the guitar. The advantages are that it limits the wiring, no sound is picked up other than that of the guitar, and limits the feedback. Another option is to simply put a microphone in front of the soundhole. Colors and dynamics are then picked up exactly how they sound as if there was no amplification. This is a big advantage for musicians who obviously want to hear the guitar’s true 73

Carlos Barbosa-Lima, letter to the editor, “Pick Up the Gauntlet: Should the Guitarist use Amplification?” Guitar Review, no. 56 (Winter, 1984): 35. 74

Heitor Villa-Lobos, Ouverture Introduction aux Choros = Introdução aos Choros (Paris: M. Eschig,

1987): ii. 75

Hugo Pinksterboer, Tipbook Amplifiers and Effects: The Complete Guide (Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2009): 138.

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sound with no compromises. In the past, an acoustic amp in combination with an external microphone often caused a significant amount of feedback, a phenomenon that generates a sudden loud pitch when the sound produced by the amp goes back into the microphone and forms a loop. In recent years several improvements have been made and amp companies have integrated features to combat this problem. In an interview, world-renowned guitarist John Williams, who performs almost exclusively amplified, said: I heard Segovia often in London. Once you get past the magic of the great old man walking on the stage and all the history that goes with it, it was ridiculous, to be honest. You’d be sitting in the back of the festival hall and you’d hear the odd little plink and plonk… The guitar is just this fantastically beautiful, wonderful instrument. There’s such a range of sound and color, and the more you can hear it, the better.76 According to Williams, a microphone should be pointing at the middle of the soundhole and the bridge of the guitar. A microphone needs to pick up the sound that is caused by the vibrating soundboard and air around it. A microphone that is set up towards the soundhole creates a wooly bass sound. In smaller rooms up to an audience of three hundred people, John Williams uses a microphone in combination with two amplification speakers behind him. The two speakers are about five feet apart from each other, facing outwards. Williams explains that by using only one speaker, the sound can clearly be identified as a speaker instead of the amplified sound of the guitar. Facing the speakers slightly outwards reproduces the natural spreading of sound caused by a guitar.77

76

Mark C. Davis, “John Williams,” Guitarplayer.com, http://www.guitarplayer.com/artists/1013/johnwilliams/19162 (accessed January 6, 2014). 77

John Williams Interview by Sam Desmet. Personal Interview. The Florida State University, March 1,

2014.

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If a guitarist uses only one speaker, it should be positioned close to the guitar to generate a realistic connection between what the audience and performer see and what they hear. Moderation is the key to use amplification in a chamber music setting, especially when not all members of the ensemble make use of it. If a guitarist combines solo music with chamber music during the same concert, the guitar should be kept amplified to maintain the same color and projection throughout the concert. Though, a guitarist may choose the option to program unamplified solo pieces at the beginning of the concert. Slight modifications in volume might be needed if other instrument combinations are programmed in the same concert. Back to Nineteenth Century Salon Music Abbott mentions: “the classical guitar/piano duo in Europe was one of the most widely popular ensembles heard during the first half of the nineteenth century. This duo flourished in intimate salons and small estate concert halls, as well as in the living rooms of the middleclass.”78 The idea of playing Hausmusik originated from the late eighteenth century. In recent years, interest has re-flourished to organize small house concerts. In this setting, music lovers and musicians work together and go back to the very roots of chamber music. For a guitar-piano duo, this could be a great opportunity with many advantages. First, as Ku states: performing for a smaller audience could be a great way to try-out new repertoire or as a preparation before a bigger concert. Second, a chamber music group could benefit by mingling with the audience before, during and after the concert to build a fan base.79 And third, the acoustics of a smaller

78

Lorraine Ann Abbott, “Arranging Music for the Classical Guitar/Piano Duo, Including Three Arrangements by the Author” (Ph.D. diss., University of Miami 2001), 5. 79

Anne Ku, “House Concerts for Art Music: Multiple Stakeholders, Audience Development and Sustainability” (Paper presented at the 16th International Conference on Cultural Economics, Copenhagen June 9-12, 2010).

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room are usually better suited for small chamber groups in comparison with a small group of musicians on a big concert stage. Minor adjustments such as re-organizing furniture or using acoustic curtains can be employed to improve the room’s acoustics, which are harder to control or adjust in larger halls. Conclusion Richard Savino states that it would be too much to ask of a guitarist who wants to play the Romantic guitar to adapt to all the variables such as playing techniques and mastering different instruments, as the musician would spend more time practicing these than actually using them.80 The same is true for pianists exploring historical music. However, what is important is that the musician studies the literature in depth and is aware of these issues, whether the music is performed on an historical or modern instrument. For this matter, Robert Donington, a well-known early music scholar, differentiates between historical authenticity and essential authenticity81. The first indicates that musicians will use all available knowledge for any performance and perform on authentic instruments, and the second is the use of the knowledge and musicianship to perform aesthetically without an authentic instrument. During an interview with composer Charles Wuorinen discussing his sonata for guitar and piano, the composer explained that when composing in a more linear single lined technique for the piano, he does not see any reasons why others are reluctant to write for this duo. When the pianist performs in a restrained way in a good acoustic environment, musicians can easily program guitar-piano music. Wuorinen does not have any objections if amplification is added to 80

Savino, 219.

81

Robert Donington, The Interpretation of Early Music, New Version (New York: St Martin’s Press,

1974): 61.

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the guitar if the performance benefits from it and even recommends it for performances of his cello and violin concerto. 82 Having insight into acoustics and understanding how to influence them can contribute to a better performance experience for both musicians and audiences, and if needed, amplification can be used in order to overcome balance problems, an issue that is perhaps less pronounced in a house concert. In venues like this, musicians are able to bond with their audiences on a different level and audiences enjoy a more intimate experience as well.

82

Charles Wuorinen Interview by Sam Desmet. Personal Interview. The Florida State University, April 11,

2014.

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CHAPTER FIVE FURTHER RESEARCH

The importance of chamber music for a guitarist should not be underestimated. Similar research could be considered with instruments that are not part of standard orchestra settings. Other examples are: piano, recorder or accordion. Insight into how musicians generate income through various types of performance opportunities could be very useful to many. A clear overview of the evolution of guitar construction and the materials that were used throughout history will help the reader understand what has the increase in volume and what more is still needed for improving volume. Further, the research in this treatise focuses on the guitar-piano duo, but a similar approach with different ensembles such as marimba-piano or harp-piano duos will demonstrate differences and similarities that may be valuable to both composers and performers. The art of transcribing and arranging works for the guitar and piano have been discussed in the work of Abbott.83 However, transcribing existing duos for other settings and making them work for the guitar-piano duo is not addressed in her treatise. A case study of chamber music duos experimenting with different halls, different instruments and different approaches of seating and amplification would illuminate both the advantages and the disadvantages for musicians and audiences.

83

Lorraine Ann Abbott, “Arranging Music for the Classical Guitar/Piano Duo, Including Three Arrangements by the Author” (Ph.D. diss., University of Miami, 2001).

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APPENDIX A CATALOGUE OF GUITAR-KEYBOARD REPERTOIRE

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REFERENCES Published Sources Abbott, Lorraine Ann. “Arranging Music for the Classical guitar/piano Duo, Including Three Arrangements by the Author.” PhD diss., University of Miami, 2001. Aguado, Dionisio. Nuovo Mètodo para Guitarra translated by Brian Jeffery. London: Tecla Editions, 1981. Artzt, Alice. Letter to the editor. “Pick Up the Gauntlet: Should the Guitarist use Amplification?” Guitar Review, no. 56 (Winter, 1984): 34. Assad, Sergio. “From Interpreter to Composer.” Soundboard, Vol. 39 no. 3 (2013): 8. Barbosa-Lima, Carlos. Letter to the editor. “Pick Up the Gauntlet: Should the Guitarist use Amplification?” Guitar Review, no. 56 (Winter, 1984): 35. Becherucci, Eugenio. “Chitarra e Pianoforte: Breve Storia Della Letteratura Del Duo Dall’Ottocento ai Nostri Giorni.” Il Fronimo, no. 70 (January 1990): 14-28. ---. “Chitarra e Pianoforte: Breve Storia Della Letteratura Del Duo Dall’Ottocento ai Nostri Giorni.” Il Fronimo, no. 72 (July 1990): 17-29. Belt, Philip R. and Maribel Meisel. “Pianoforte.” The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Edited by Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Press, 1984. III: 71-107. Berlioz, Hector, and Hugh Macdonald. Berlioz's Orchestration Treatise: A Translation and Commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Brindle, Reginald Smith. “The Composer’s Problems.” Guitar Review, no. 83 (Fall, 1990): 2530. Bone, Philip J. The Guitar and Mandolin: Biographies of Celebrated Players and Composers. London: Schott and Co., 1954. Campbell, Murray, and Clive Greated. The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics. New York: Schirmer Books, 1987. Chiesa, Ruggero. “The Guitar Works of Ferdinando Carulli.” Classical Guitar, Vol. 10, no. 29 (May 1992): 35-37. Cooper, Colin. “The Guitar’s Place in Danish Chamber Music.” Classical Guitar, Vol. 7 (October 1988): 16-18.

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Dodgson, Stephen. “Writing for the Guitar: Comments of a Non-Guitarist Composer.” American String Teacher, no. 33 (1983): 48-52. Foster, Adam. “Hans Haug: The Chamber Works Featuring the Guitar, An Evolution of Style, Texture, and Form.” PhD diss., Florida State University, 2011. Grunfeld, Frederic V. “The Art and Times of the Guitar; An Illustrated History of Guitars and Guitarists.” New York: Collier Books, 1974. Hall, Donald E. Musical Acoustics: An Introduction. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Corporation, 1980. Koplewitz, Laura. “The Guitar as an Ensemble Instrument.” Guitar Review no. 78 (Summer, 1989): 7-11. ---. “The Guitar as an Ensemble Instrument.” Guitar Review no. 79 (Fall, 1989): 32-36. Ku, Anne. “House concerts for art music” Paper presented at the 16th International Conference on Cultural Economics, Copenhagen 9-12 June, 2010. Mattingly, Stephen Patrick. “Franz Schubert’s Chamber Music with Guitar: A study of the Guitar’s Role in Biedermeier Vienna.” PhD diss., Florida State University, 2007. Oltman, Laura and Michael Newman. “Introducing Guitar Students to Chamber Music.” American String Teacher no. 39 (1989): 53-54. Ophee, Matanya. “Guitar Chamber Music: Review of a Decade.” American String Teacher no. 38 (1988): 60-63. Pinksterboer, Hugo. Tipbook Amplifiers and Effects: The Complete Guide. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2009. Rosenblum, Sandra. “Performance Practices in Classic Piano Music.” Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988. Rowland, David. “Early Keyboard Instruments: A Practical Guide.” Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Savino, Richard. “Essential Issues in Performance Practices of the Classical Guitar.” In Performance on Lute, Guitar, and Vihuela: Historical Practice and Modern Interpretation, edited by Victor Anand Coelho, 195-219. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. 1997. Shearer, Aaron. “The Classic Guitar Grows Up”. Music Educators Journal, Vol. 58, No. 2 (October 1971): 53, 64-65.

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Sicca, Mario. “The Guitar and the Keyboard Instruments.” Guitar Review No. 39 (Summer, 1974): 17-22. Sparks, Paul. “Guitar Performance in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.” Performance Practice Review Vol. 10, No. 1, Art. 7 (1997): 1-9. Usher, Terence. “The Spanish Guitar in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.” The Galpin Society Journal Vol. 9 (June 1956): 5-36 Scores Carulli, Ferdinando. Gran Duo Op. 86. Edited by Mario Martino. Bologna, Italy: Ut Orpheus Edizioni, 2001. Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Mario. Fantasia: pour guitare et piano, Op. 145. Mainz: B. Schott's Söhne, 1954. Gilardino, Angelo, Del Rosato Albeggiare. Ancona: Edizioni Musicali Bèrben, 2010. Haug, Hans. Fantasia pour Guitare et Piano. Ancona: Edizioni Musicali Bèrben, 1973. Villa-Lobos, Heitor. Introduction aux choros = Introdução aos chôros: ouverture. Paris: M. Eschig, 1987. Villa-Lobos, Heitor. Sextuor Mistique = Sexteto Mistico. Paris: M. Eschig, 1957. Wuorinen, Charles. Sonata for Guitar and Piano. New York: Edition Peters, 1995.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Belgian native Sam Desmet studied guitar performance and music pedagogy at the Royal Conservatory in his home country of Belgium and graduated with highest distinction for guitar. Sam is active as a soloist and an enthusiast of guitar chamber music. Over the years, Sam had additional training through Master classes and individual lessons with Leo Brouwer, Alvaro Pierri, David Tanenbaum, Denis Azabagic and Thomas Johnson. Other major teachers include Yves Storms, Bruce Holzman, Johan Fostier and Filip Rathé. As a soloist, Sam has performed in Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Germany and the US. Together with his wife and pianist Elizabeth Hsieh he formed ‘La Folia’ duo to promote guitar-piano chamber music. They shared stages in Belgium and the US. Sam likes to share his passion for music and has taught guitar and ensemble at Belgian Municipal Music Academies of Harelbeke, Waregem, Diksmuide and Roeselare and at the Conservatory of Brugge. With his first CD “study < > study”, Sam promoted and recorded guitar etudes and compositions of renowned composers such as Leo Brouwer, Angelo Gilardino and Simone Iannarelli, who praise the cd as an example of Sam’s refined musical personality. Sam assisted, reviewed and proofread Concerto pour Guitare et Petit Orchestre opus 155 by Belgian composer Jean Absil which was published in 2009 under Italian label Berben upon request of musicologist Angelo Gilardino. Together with Dr. Gonzalo Gallardo, Sam translated and published Solfėges and Vocalises Op. 195 by Ferdinando Carulli based on manuscripts of 1822-6. It may still be the only tutor intended for guitarists to read, sing, and play two lines of music simultaneously. The edition is published in 2012 under the Canadian label Production d’Oz. 93