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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
Development Administration comprises two different words: Development and Administration.
Development encompass of two important processes that is change and progress.
Such as growth, change, advancement, expansion, progress,
improvement etc (these are some activities occur in development).
It is a simple analogy with expressions such as agricultural development, educational development, social welfare development and other development as well. | 3
Administration well recognized as a mechanism or a tool that generates affairs of state. Administration of development needs to be distinguished from the development of administration. It consists of two different interrelated aspects of development administration. Administration helps in arranging human and resources accordingly and therefore in this context, it is a mechanism that helps generate the development efforts in a state. The administration of development shows that is a responsible in running all matters regarding to development.
However, much of the literature definition regarding to development relates it to economic growth, the increased production of capital and consumer goods.
The essential idea of development lies in the increased ability of human societies to shape their physical, human and cultural environments. It is also similar to a process of modernization. Modernization is generally a process of improving the capability of a nation’s institutions and value system to meet increasing and different demands.
Generally, administration often described as the development, implementation and study of government policy. An administration linked to pursuing the public good by enhancing civil society and social justice. Though an administration has historically referred to government management, it increasingly encompasses non-governmental organizations that are not acting out of self-interest. In this sense, administration acts as an agent responsible to develop a state. Development administration thus, considered a practical solution to help governments of developing countries towards modernization.
1.1.1 Importance
Of
Development
Administration
To
Developing Countries 1.
ECONOMY
In aspect of the economy, the importance of development administration to developing countries is more on the objective to improve standard of living of people. It means, the government wants to increase the
quality of life of the citizen by try to enhance their motivation to generate the income of the country. It is important to produce the best product and maximum profit for developing country, as the developing country can maximize the per capita income. 4 |
During the pre-colonial, our country provided or sold raw materials to other countries because there was no expertise in producing our own manufacturing products. Later, after development administration, our country had tried to introduce or had produced our own manufacturing local products using our own materials such as rubber to produce shoes, palm oil to produce cooking oil etc.
2.
POLITICS
Before development administration, the local people depended to British in their administration, but later after development administration, the local people had tremendous participation in politics precisely the administration of the state and the policy making as well. Thus, development administration had generated more participation of new generation to involve in politics. It is important because this
new generation is the citizen creates new ideas and new policies to develop the people and the country. This is the most important element as it creates or shapes the administrator of the country by choosing their own representatives that will create policies for them. New Economic Policy by Tun Razak our ex-Prime Minister for instance, had successfully changed the life of the local people, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad and his Look East Policy that had generated our country to be developing such as Korea and Japan. Korea and Japan are among the Asian countries as an example of countries that had been successful in developing their country without help from foreign or super power states.
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3.
SOCIAL
In terms of social, we can divide the term social in the three main division such as education, health and facilities. In terms of education, the development administration is very important because it increases the facilities, opportunities and education level among the citizen. However, due to the efforts made under the
development administration, the government had able to create a positive mindset to the citizen with the existence of more universities and private colleges. It is due to encourage and increase the education level of citizens through the existence of these institutions. Government also provide scholarships and loans to students to continue their study in our country or overseas. This benefit will increase the motivation of the student and it is important because students are the new generation of administrator. After development, all races had equal chances to get education. The government built more schools and higher learning education institutions in order to help citizens to get comfortable and best learning education. Since 2008, about 14 private universities, 16 university colleges and 20 public universities in Malaysia were established. (www.mohe.gov.my). Aftermath the 1969 racial crisis, drastic action by the government was to help the Bumiputra in education. In order to provide greater education opportunity to inculcate the Malaysian national identity and foster loyalty to the country, the national language Bahasa Malaysia used as a medium of learning and teaching in education institutions. The English primary and secondary schools gradually converted to Malay Language National School, beginning with the primary schools in 1970. Later, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) established drastically to resolve the problem entrance opportunity for Bumiputra due to their lack of English proficiency that was required as entrance requirement in Universiti Malaya (Syed Arabi Idid, 2008). In terms of health, development administration in developing country had increased the level of health among citizen . Recently after independence (within ten years), Malaysia did not have hospitals or 6 |
clinics in the rural areas. Some of these facilities just existed in the urban areas. As a result, it increased the rates of death because of small diseases such as dengue, malaria, and mother giving birth to babies and babies whom did not get enough immunization. In the first decade after independent, the government relies that the doctor and nurses is really needed to manage a lot of cases in the hospital. For example, Perlis as the smallest state of the Federation with a population about 150,000, at that time then had only 3 doctors in the state general hospital and 2 in private practice in 1967 (Syed Arabi Idid, 2008). After development administration, the government managed to increase the element of health because the government knows the importance of health that generate the best generation to come or in the future. Thus, citizen must get enough facilities in terms of health as it creates stabilization in our country. In present day, rural areas provided with abundance of health facilities and treatment from experienced doctors and nurses. It will help the people in that area to get the early treatment before they will be sent to the nearest hospital if cannot be treated by rural doctors and nurses. These clinics also have a responsibility to give enough immunization to the children especially babies. Moreover, the government also tries to reduce the burden of the citizen by giving benefit to certain people because as we know, the cost of the health treatment is expensive. For example, government servants and student had given discounted low prices for treatment and medicines. This effort is to make sure that this group of people gets enough treatment if they are sick. The establishment of 1 Malaysia clinics by the present Prime Minister (Datuk Seri Najib) added to the convenience of the people. In the matter of facilities, there also have significance of the developing administration in our developing country such as to and had increased the number of facilities in our country. For example, before the
development administration, there were not enough public transport services. This situation gave difficulties to the citizen to travel. Public transports at that time were only trishaw, bicycles and there were less of car usage. | 7
After the development administration, the government provides more facilities in terms of transportation. A convenient and conducive public transportation provided in urban areas and in rural areas as well. Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic, it also helps the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient way. Thus, government had increased the level of transportation through the Light Railway Transit (LRT) and Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM). These transportation gives the comfortable to the people to travel in short and faster duration of time.
4.
CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect, we also can look at the significance of development administration in developing our country through the cultural aspect. In terms of culture, development administration gives people or organizational new culture. When new development were
brought to organization, majority of people in that organization will have difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in new technologies and factors of resistance towards change. However, some workers were willing to accept development as they think every development have their own benefits and will reduce burden and expenses. Actually, it is a challenge to them towards new changes due to less understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced. An organizational culture, precisely the government organizations, efforts to improve and develop the civil service initiated since independence. All these efforts directed at increasing output as well as providing more efficient, speedy and effective delivery of service, providing also to reduce the work burden of the public servants and reduced government’s expenses as well. Due to this, various policies,
programs and activities introduced in the public administration of Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981. Amongst were the introduction of policies, program and strategies such as the Civil Service Core Principles introduced in 1979. Civil Service Codes of Ethics in 1980; Enforcement of name tags in 1981; The Look East Policy in 1982; Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in 1982; The Punch Clock System in 1982; and Leadership by Example and Enculturation Of Islamic Values in 1983. 8 |
1.1.2 The Relationship Between Development Administration And Public Administration Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with a special purpose inclusive of political, economic and social development that becomes as a sub-field of public administration. This is because it will guide a developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals. As a sub-field of public administration, it is action oriented and places administration at the hub of nation building. According to Dwight Waldo, public administration described as a management of people and material to achieve government objective. According him also, public administration acts as an art and science of management that related to state matters. Besides that, Public Administration is all about the management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy (Williams, 1980). Public Administration found in all branches of government within the legislative, executive and the judiciary as well. It the use of managerial, political and legal theories, which involves processes to fulfil legislative, executive and judicial government, mandates. Public administration covers a wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state. These two areas are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management, organization, political, economy, environment and development. Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly, 1989). Development administration emerged as a field of study result of research, observations and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations. It is partial of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to development. As the outcome of emphasis, it expected to be efficient in running development programs and projects. The Public Administration and management systems in many developing countries however, are still unprepared for changes, not to mention about quality, productivity, effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White, 1992). It | 9
is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world. Therefore, a special kind of administrative institution needed, and he called it as development administration. Public
Administration
is
concerned
with
the
uses
of
managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result. It is a management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of the state (Rosenbloom, 1993).
It is the science of how a country to be ruled.
It is a government’s central instrument for dealing with general social
problems.
It is the management of resources to achieve government’s goals and objectives.
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies. A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. Policies normally guide every action. It provides a framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives. There are three branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement policies, which is executive, legislative and judiciary. Nevertheless, major parts of administration carried out by the executive branch. The duty of executive branch is to design and implement the policies, rule and regulation. While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the fundamental rights and liberties of societies. These three branches play an important role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly to give benefit to state and people itself. For the example, before make a policy, government have to make an investigation and analysis of the advantage and disadvantages of the policy making, in order to ensure the effectiveness when the policy are implemented. Edward Weidner therefore, stated that development administration, as a subfield of public administration is to form administrative machinery to the objective of government. It divides into two, which is process and area of 10 |
study. By process, development administration means the process through which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as political, economic and social progress or country development as a whole. Besides that, Fred W. Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that development administration as administration according to dynamic social situations. Accordingly, administrative machinery must be adapted to the existing and new task. The essential ideas of development lie in the increased ability of human societies to shape their physical, human and cultural environments. It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different demands.
1.1.3 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development Administration According to Fred Riggs (1970), definition of development administration is about the administration of development programs using prescribed governmental methods to implement policies which due for development objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities. As we all know in all developing countries, government had plan and provide a lot of development program to lessen poverty of the country, upgrade or enhance output and productivity, help to improve and develop the way of living of the people especially in education and economic sector. Besides that, according to Fred Riggs also, development administration as the administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and to upgrade the capacity of administration. Government also must ensure that all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only to the country itself. Furthermore, in the developing nations, it is essential or necessary for the government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and goals. All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government | 11
must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people). More than that, the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether it creates positive or negative effect to the people. However, the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to administer it in a proper, efficient and cost effective way. This is because, government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives.
Furthermore, as we all know all government programs have used a lot of allotment of country’s wealth. Especially in the developing nation, government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost project. It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed country. A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road services for instance. The money may be useful in helping poor people with poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have houses, money, and opportunity to go to school or to get education, and also an opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day.
However, road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to enhance economic opportunities. Activities of the country and directly will provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also for the graduate, enhance and improve in income of the people, and also not to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all citizen. In other word, we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or incentive in a variety way and method. However all this only can happen if the 300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way. All the plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the instituted of bureaucracy. Besides that, what is more important is that we need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play their role effectively. 12 |
Other than that, government plays an important role to provide facilities or services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in implementing their responsibility. According to Riggs, in developing nation, development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention to the human resource in their organization aspect. For public services servant, government need to upgrade their skills, give them a lot of experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed. In organization system, it improved by using modern administration and new technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality. For countries that have been developed, what is more important is to maintain and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must response and responsive to the public’s need and voice of the people. Development administration furthermore, is development orientation. Its central concern is with socio economic change. It is committed to people’s
welfare (Hazary, 2006). It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of the people. It is client oriented. Bureaucracy expected to be involved and committed. It expected to be result oriented and time oriented. Development programmed is to achieve within a period. It is this special orientation, which concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations. But in any large scale of administration arrangement, bureaucracy cannot be thrown overboard. Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected. There should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making. Secondly, authority should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as far as possible. Thirdly, supremacy of the politician must be accepted and bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development enterprise, fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people in development work. Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it may be, it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development. The people must understand that they have to look after themselves. They have to be the primary factors in the development. It is in their interest not to be dependent on the administration. Self-help is the best help. Fifthly, if development is to have a meaningful content, defence expenditure has to curtail.
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1.4 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN MALAYSIA T h e C o l o n i a l P e r i o d ( B e f o r e In d e p e n d e n c e ) Administration: maintaining the
welfare, security, and peaceful life of the people. Administrative system by the British administered the state without development to the local people. There were no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time. Most of the time, development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time. In general, maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare, security and peaceful life of the people. During the administrative system that administered by the British colonial in the state, they only developed the administrative system without doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people. They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain independence. When the local people are educated, they will struggle for the independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by the British in the beginning of their administrative system. So, that is why there were no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time. In addition to that, the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state or the country. It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in Europe at that time. All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses. Most of the time, development that occurred during that time was merely for the benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period. They only want to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations. The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the local people. All the administration system and the policies created by them were one of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier. The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue. It was not strong enough to implement the newly independent Malaya government's plans (after 1957) 14 |
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by the domestic and global economic and political changes. Administration is the administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained independence from British. It was merely maintaining the welfare, interest, security or safety and peaceful life of the people. The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own people. They only developed the administration system for their own good without concerning the development and improvement of the local people. They only made the local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office. They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods.
The
Post
Colonial
Period
(After
I n d e p e n d e n c e ) Development
Administration – A reform was made in the administration. Therefore, the administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in the national status from that of a colony to self-government. There were serious and rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of Malaysia in economy, social, culture, politics and environment. Policies made to achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the programs and projects to achieve the development goals. Development administration however, is the administration in the postcolonial period, which is after our country gained its independence from the British. It is generally about the reformation of the administrative system. It means that the postcolonial government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British before. It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can contribute in the administration system and the local peoples’ representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period. Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson & Connerly, 1989). | 15
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy. The role of the public service was essentially that of facilitator, supporter, advisor, regulator and evaluator. Certainly, these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity, organizational structure, work process and procedures and in some cases even reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees.
1.5 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED, DEVELOPING & POOR COUNTRY 1.5.1 Developed countries The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high level of development according to some criteria. Which criteria, and countries that are classified as being developed, is a contentious issue and there is fierce debate about this. Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions. One such criterion is income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per capita being described as developed countries. Another economic criterion is industrialization. Countries in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed. More recently another measure, the Human Development Index, which combines with an economic measure, national income, with other measures, indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF, 20 July 2009). Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced countries. Developed countries means the high income countries, in which most people have a high standard of living. Sometimes also as countries with a large stock of physical capital, in which most people undertake highly specialized activities. According to the World Bank classification, these
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include all high income economies. Depending on who defines them, developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition economies, because these countries are highly industrialized. Developed countries contain about 15 percent of the world's population ((IMF, 20 July 2009).
1.5.2 Developing countries Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low level of material well being. There is no single internationally-recognized definition of developed country, and the levels of development may vary widely within so-called developing countries, with some developing countries having high average standards of living. According to the classification from IMF before April 2004, all the countries of Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to "Eastern Europe Group" in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet Union (U.S.S.R.) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia, were not included under either developed or developing regions, but rather were referred to as "countries in transition"; however they are now widely regarded (in the international reports) as "developing countries". In the 21st century, the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan are considered "developed" region or areas, along with Cyprus, Israel, Malta, and Slovenia, are considered "newly developed countries"(IMF, 20 July 2009). The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers "(1) per capita income level, (2) export diversification —so oil exporters that have high per capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70% of its exports are oil, and (3) degree of integration into the global financial system" (IMF, 20 July 2009). The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups. Low income countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less. Lower middle income
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countries have GNI per capita of US$976 –$3,855. Upper middle income countries have GNI per capita between US$3,856 –$11,905. High income countries have GNI above $11,906. The World Bank classifies all low- and middle-income countries as developing but notes, "The use of the term is convenient; it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a preferred or final stage of development. Classification by income does not necessarily reflect development status."(World Bank Report, 2009). According to the World Bank classification, countries with low or middle levels of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such Brunei, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia and Philippines. These five economies are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments. Several countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income, and sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization. More than 80 percent of the world's population lives in the more than 100 developing countries.
1.5.3 Poor countries Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the economic growth. There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam also Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, Laos, Lesotho,
Liberia,
Madagascar,
Malawi,
Maldives,
Mali,
Mauritania,
Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Niger, Rwanda, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sudan, East Timor, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, Tanzania, Vanuatu, Yemen, Zambia.. All these countries are not successful with their development ((IMF, 20 July 2009).
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Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as:
h i g h b i r t h r a te c o m p a r ed t o t o t al p o p u l a ti o n .
Also known as overpopulation, the situation of having large numbers of people with too few resources and too little space, is closely associated with poverty. It can result from high p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y (the ratio of people to land area, usually expressed as numbers of persons per square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources, or from both. Excessively high population densities put stress on available resources. Only a certain number of people can be supported on a given area of land, and that number depends on how much food and other resources the land can provide. In countries where people live primarily by means of simple farming, gardening, herding, hunting, and gathering, even large areas of land can support only small numbers of people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce only small amounts of food.
uns table political system.
About 60% of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying intensity and duration in the period 1990 –2001 that, in most cases, erupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression. In Rwanda, for example, average private consumption per capita fell by more than 12% between 1980 and 1993, the year before the genocide occurred.
h i g h r a t e o f u n em p l o y m e n t .
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment . For instance, the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs has declined, while the demand for workers in service- and technologyrelated industries has increased. Historically, people have learned the skills required for jobs that involve manual labour, such as those in manufacturing, either on the job or through easily accessible school vocational programs. As these jobs replaced by service- and technology-related jobs — jobs that usually require skills taught at the college level — people who cannot afford a college education find it increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work.
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environ mental degradation
In many parts of the world, environmental degradation — the deterioration of the natural environment, including the atmosphere, bodies of water, soil, and forests — is an imp ortant cause of poverty . Environmental problems have led to shortages of food, clean water, materials for shelter, and other essential resources. As forests, land, air, and water are degraded, people who live directly off these natural resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report, 2009).
QUESTION 1 a)
Define Development Administration. (5 marks)
b)
Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in development. (20 marks)
QUESTION 2 Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing Malaysia. (25 marks)
QUESTION 3 Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop. (25 marks)
QUESTION 4 Distinguish between developed, developing and poor countries by citing to relevant example. (25 marks)
QUESTION 5 Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia. (25 marks) 20 |
