130168601 Electrolux Refrigeration Using Solar Heat Solar Refrigeration

te(!ni(ian# at Super (ld refri&eratin #)#tem- *r8 %ila7an- *r8 J!n *8G en&ineer at T!erma< India Ltd and Ste+e Hammerlin&- A##i#tant *ana&er f Re#ear(! 9 Te(!ni(al Ser+i(e# Ameri(an S(iet) f Heatin&- Refri&eratin& and Air:Cnditinin& En&ineer#In(8>ASHRAE? fr te(!ni(al a##i#tan(e pr+ided durin& t!e (u r#e f t!e pr5e(t8 ;e al# t!an7 ur (la##mate# and #enir# fr t!eir #u&&e#tin# e#pe(iall) ur #enir# Sabu 48G- S!ibu S!ibu ,8R,8R- S!me S!me 48S- Sant! Sant!#! #! ,- Rb) Seba#t Seba#tian ian fr +aluab +aluable le idea# idea# impart imparted ed durin& durin& t!e frmat frmatin in f t!i# t!i# pr5e( pr5e(t8 t8 T #ummar #ummari=e i=e-- it !a# been "uite "uite an e


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REFRIGERATOR :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::



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CONTENTS :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::



CONTENTS



 CHAPTER



PARTICULAR



No.



AC,NO;LE%GE*ENT



/8 S@NOPSIS 18 INTRO%UCTION 8 RE4IE; OF LITERATURE B8 'ATTER@ 8 THER*O ELECTRIC DIP COOLER  08 CON%ENSER  8 %8C 'LO;ER  8 ;OR,ING PRINCIPLE 38 LIST OF *ATERIALS /28 COST ESTI*ATION //8 A%4ANTAGES AN% %ISA%4ANTAGES /18 APPLICATIONS /8 CONCLUSION



APPEN%IX 'I'LIOGRAPH@ PHOTOGRAPH@



AC,NO;LE%GE*ENTS



PAGE



 ;e $uld li7e t ta7e t!i# pprtunit) t e


;e $ul $uld d al# al# li7e li7e t e


te(!ni(ian# at Super (ld refri&eratin #)#tem- *r8 %ila7an- *r8 J!n *8G en&ineer at T!erma< India Ltd and Ste+e Hammerlin&- A##i#tant *ana&er f Re#ear(! 9 Te(!ni(al Ser+i(e# Ameri(an S(iet) f Heatin&- Refri&eratin& and Air:Cnditinin& En&ineer#In(8>ASHRAE? fr te(!ni(al a##i#tan(e pr+ided durin& t!e (u r#e f t!e pr5e(t8 ;e al# t!an7 ur (la##mate# and #enir# fr t!eir #u&&e#tin# e#pe(iall) ur #enir# Sabu 48G- S!ibu S!ibu ,8R,8R- S!me S!me 48S- Sant! Sant!#! #! ,- Rb) Seba#t Seba#tian ian fr +aluab +aluable le idea# idea# impart imparted ed durin& durin& t!e frmat frmatin in f t!i# t!i# pr5e( pr5e(t8 t8 T #ummar #ummari=e i=e-- it !a# been "uite "uite an e


A'STRACT



 T!e pr5e(t (n#i#t# f an Ele(trlu< refri&eratin #)#tem u#in& #lar ener&) a# input8 T!i# #)#tem $a# a(tuall) in+ented b) t$ S$edi#! en&ineer#- 4n Platen and Carl *unter#8 T!e idea $a# fir#t de+elped b) t!e 6Ele(trlu< Cmpan)- f Lutn- En&land!en(e !en(e t!e name name 6Ele(t 6Ele(trl rlu< u< refri& refri&era erati tin n #)#te #)#tem8 m8 T!e prin(i prin(iple ple be!ind be!ind Ele(tr Ele(trlu lu< < refri&eratin i# t!at it u#e# t!ree &a#e# t a((mpli#! it# (lin& effe(t namel) ammnia >refri&erant? $ater >ab#rbent? and !)dr&en8 Ammnia i# u#ed a# t!e refri&erant a# it i# ea#il) ea#il) a+ailab a+ailablele- en+irnm en+irnment entall all) ) friend friendl) l) and (an prdu( prdu(ee a better better (lin (lin& & effe(t effe(t88 H)dr&en i# u#ed t redu(e t!e partial pre##ure f ammnia +apur in t!e e+apratr  (!amber # t!at mre ammnia e+aprate# )ieldin& mre (lin& effe(t8 Heat input i# re"uired at t!e &eneratr $!ere a"ua ammnia i# !eated t &et ammnia +apr#8 In t!i#  pr5e(t- an e


CONTENTS



 INTRO%UCTION



 If t!e #lar ener&) p##e##e# t!e ad+anta&e t be (lean- free and rene$able- t!i# la#t i#  prbabl)- (n#idered li7e an adapted ptential #lutin- t!at an#$er# in e+en time at a e(nmi e(nmi(( pre(( pre((upat upatin in and e(l&i e(l&i(al (al prble prblem#8 m#8 Amn& Amn& t!e main main dne (urren (urrentl) tl) re#ear(! i# t!e u#e f t!i# free #ur(e t ma7e perate #)#tem f refri&eratin8 Sin(e amn& t!e dme#ti( applian(e# u#ed tda)- refri&eratr# (n#ume a (n#iderable amunt f ener&)- u#in& #lar ener&) t run refri&eratr i# f &reat pra(ti(al rele+an(e n$ada)#8



T!e diffu#in diffu#in ab#rptin ab#rptin refri&eratr refri&eratr ()(le in+ented in t!e /312# i# ba#ed n ammnia ammnia >refri&erant? and $ater >ab#rbent? a# t!e $r7in& fluid# t&et!er $it! !)dr&en a# an auab#rbent?t!e ammnia >refri&erant? and !)dr&en a# an inert &a# u#ed in rder t maintain t!e ttal  pre##ure (n#tant



LITERATURE RE4IE;



 1.



VAPOR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION IN ROAD TRANSPORT



VEHICLES, J. Ener! Enr. Vo"#$e 1%&, I''#e %, ((. )*+&* A##'- 1/ A0'-ra-



T!i# #tud) in(lude# an e4AR? #)#tem# in rad tran#prt +e!i(le# u#in& t!e $a#te !eat in t!e e


%.



DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF AN ABSORPTION DIFFUSION SOLAR  REFRIGERATION UNIT 0! B. C2ao#a23,



S. Ga0'3 A$er3an Jo#rna" o4 



A(("3ed S3ene' , Fe0, %556/ A0'-ra-



T!e purp#e f t!i# #tud) $a# t!e de#i&n and t!e #imulatin f an ab#rptin diffu#in refri&eratr u#in& #lar a# #ur(e f ener&)- fr dme#ti( u#e8 T!e de#i&n !ld# a((unt abut t!e (limati( (nditin# and t!e unit (#t due t te(!ni(al (n#traint# imp#ed b) t!e te(!nl&) f t!e +ariu# (mpnent# f t!e in#tallatin #u(! a# t!e #lar &eneratrt!e (nden#er- t!e ab#rber and t!e e+apratr8 *a## and ener&) (n#er+atin e"uatin#



 $ere de+elped fr ea(! (mpnent f t!e ()(le and #l+ed numeri(all)8 T!e btained re#ult# #!$ed- t!at t!e ne$ de#i&ned mn pre##ure ab#rptin ()(le f ammnia $a# #uitable $ell fr t!e (ld prdu(tin b) mean# f t!e #lar ener&) and t!at $it! a #imple  plate (lle(tr $e (an rea(! a p$er- f t!e rder f 322 $att# #uffi(ient fr dme#ti( u#e8



7



INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REFRIGERATION Vo"#$e 71, I''#e ),



J#ne %55*, Pae' &)&+&&1 Re4r3era-3on 83-2 A$$on3a and H!droar0on'/ 0! And! Pear'on, S-ar Re4r3era-3on L-d., G"a'o8 G)9 *J:, UK,



A0'-ra-



Ammnia i# $idel) u#ed a# a refri&erant in indu#trial #)#tem# fr fd refri&eratindi#tributin $are!u#in& and pr(e## (lin&8 It !a# mre re(entl) been prp#ed fr u#e in appli(atin# #u(! a# $ater (!illin& fr air:(nditinin& #)#tem# but !a# nt )et re(ei+ed $ide#pread a((eptan(e in t!i# field8 T!i# re+ie$ paper a##e##e# t!e rea#n# $!) ammnia i# # ppular in indu#trial #)#tem#- t!e rea#n# $!) it i# deemed le## #uitable fr t!er appli(atin# and t!e p##ible benefit# at l(al- natinal and internatinal le+el# t!at mi&!t be &ained b) mre &eneral a((eptan(e f ammnia a# a refri&erant8 T!e paper  al# (n#ider# t!er p##ible appli(atin# $!i(! mi&!t benefit frm t!e u#e f ammnia a# refri&erant8



)



UNDERSTANDING SOLAR ENERG;< A GENERAL OVERVIE: 0!



Mr. A=a! Pra>a'2 S2r3?a'-a?a, Pre'3den-, So"ar Ener! So3e-! o4 Ind3a SESI/.



A0'-ra-



 India i# ne f t!e fe$ (untrie# $it! ln& da)# and plent) f #un#!ine8 T!i# =ne- !a+in& abundant #lar ener&) a+ailable- i# #uitable fr !arne##in& #lar ener&) fr a number f  appli(atin#8 In area# $it! #imilar inten#it) f #lar radiatin- #lar ener&) (u ld be ea#il) !arne##ed8 Slar t!ermal ener&) i# bein& u#ed in India fr !eatin& $ater fr bt! indu#trial and dme#ti( purp#e#8 A /B2 *; inte&rated #lar p$er plant i# t be #et up in Jd!pur but t!e initial e


&



UNDERSTANDING SOLAR CONCENTRATORS 0! Geore M. Ka("an,



VITA Vo"#n-eer, Pre'3den- o4 KAPL A''o3a-e'. A0'-ra-



Slar t!ermal te(!nl&) i# (n(erned prin(ipall) $it! t!e utili=atin f #lar ener&) b) (n+ertin& it t !eat8 In t!e (n(entratin& t)pe f #lar (lle(tr- #lar ener&) i# (lle(ted and (n(entrated # t!at !i&!er temperature# (an be btainedK t!e limit i# t!e #urfa(e temperature f t!e #un88 Similarl)- +erall effi(ien() f ener&) (lle(tin- (n(entratinand retentin- a# it relate# t ener&) (#t- imp#e# a pra(ti(al limit n temperature (apabilit)88 T!e (u#p (lle(tr $!#e #urfa(e &emetr) i# t!e l(u# f t!e p#itin f t!e end f a #trin& a# it i# un$rapped frm a pipe (an pr+ide a mde#t (n(entratin #uitable t bil $ater8



9



LO: REFLECTION LOSS CUSP LIKE REFLECTOR FOR SOLAR  ENERG; COLLECTOR 0! Ra!$ond H.La$0er-, Gener3 e"e-r3 o$(an!, P23"ade"(23a. US (a-en- )%)9*1, Jan %6 1*1/



 A0'-ra-



T!ere i# di#(l#ed t!e manner in $!i(! a refle(tr fr a #lar ener&) (lle(tr i# de#i&ned8 T!e ab#rber i# a ri&!t (ir(ular ()linder and i# (ntained in an e+a(uated &la## #!rud8 T!e &la## #!rud pre+ent# t!e u#e f t!e refle(tr de#i&n te(!ni"ue f t!e prir art- and in#tead (al(ulatin# are perfrmed a# if an ab#rber !a+in& a #maller diameter $ere t be u#ed8



6



REFLECTOR :ITH CURVED DUAL INVOLUTE SURFACES 0! Fred A



P"o42an US Pa-en- )*)7&%1, J#n %6 1*/



A0'-ra-



A $ide an&le fla#! tube refle(tr !a# dual in+lute #urfa(e# t!eren inter#e(tin& at a (u#p and bent in t!e !ri=ntal t inter(ept li&!t frm a li&!t #ur(e ad5a(ent t!e (u#p and t refle(t #u(! li&!t in a di#per#in pattern t!at #pread# t!e fla#! (+era&e t mat(! e


PROJECT OUTLINE



 ;!en $e #tarted $it! ur pr5e(t- $e $ere plannin& t utili=e t!e nn(n+entinal ener&) re#ur(e# li7e #lar ener&) fr dme#ti( purp#e#8 ;!ile (n#iderin& t!e p$er  utili=atin f +ariu# dme#ti( applian(e#- b) 7n$in& t!at a ma5r amunt f p$er i# dra$n b) refri&eratr#- $e planned t ma7e u#e f #lar ener&) t dri+e



refri&eratr#



$!i(! $ill be mre e(nmi(al $it! le## $a#ta&e f ele(tri(al p$er8 *#tl) u#ed refri&eratr #)#tem# are +apur ab#rptin and +apur (mpre##in f $!i(! +apur  ab#rptin #)#tem i# mre #uitable $!en !eat i# u#ed a# t!e ener&) input8 Our #tudie# abut t!e +apur ab#rptin #)#tem led t t!e (n(lu#in t!at Ele(trlu< refri&eratin #)#tem i# be#t #uitable fr dme#ti( purp#e a# it (n#ume# le## ener&)8 Sin(e t!e Ele(trlu< #)#tem u#e# n pump fr it# $r7in&- t!e nl) ener&) input i# in t!e frm f  !eat at t!e &eneratr pipe8 An Ele(trlu< #)#tem al# (alled Platen:*unter# #)#tem u#e# t!ree fluid# fr it# peratin +i= Ammnia- ;ater and H)dr&en8 Hen(e t!e #)#tem i# al# (alled T!ree Fluid S)#tem8



;e &t an ld Ele(trlu< refri&eratin #)#tem frm t!e dump )ard f t!e !eat en&ine# lab in ur (lle&e8 ;e in#pe(ted t!e #)#tem $it! t!e !elp f a prfe##inal frid&e me(!ani( and (ame t a (n(lu#in t!at t!e e


Our ne#lar (lle(tr?8



 E


T!e &eneratr pipe i# made f t$ / *S pipe $elded t&et!er8 Hle# $ere pr+ided fr   pre##ure &au&e +al+e- inlet- e


T!e ne


T!e (!ar&in& f ammnia $a# dne b) ma7in& ammnium !)dr


REFRIGERATION



Refri&eratin i# t!e pr(e## f rem+in& !eat frm an en(l#ed #pa(e- r frm a #ub#tan(e- and m+in& it t a pla(e $!ere it i# unb5e(tinable8 T!e primar) purp#e f 



 refri&eratin i# l$erin& t!e temperature f t!e en(l#ed #pa(e r #ub#tan(e and t!en maintainin& t!at l$er temperature8 T!e term (lin& refer# &enerall) t an) natural r  artifi(ial pr(e## b) $!i(! !eat i# di##ipated8 T!e pr(e## f artifi(iall) prdu(in& e


Cld i# t!e ab#en(e f !eat- !en(e in rder t de(rea#e a temperature- ne rem+e# !eatrat!er t!an addin& (ld8 In rder t #ati#f) t!e Se(nd La$ f T!ermd)nami(#- #me frm f $r7 mu#t be perfrmed t a((mpli#! t!i#8 T!i# $r7 i# traditinall) dne b) me(!ani(al $r7 but (an al# be dne b) ma&neti#m- la#er r t!er mean#8



T!e fir#t 7n$n met!d f artifi(ial refri&eratin $a# demn#trated b) ;illiam Cullen at t!e Uni+er#it) f Gla#&$ in S(tland in /08 Cullen u#ed a pump t (reate a partial +a(uum  +er a (ntainer f diet!)l et!er- $!i(! t!en  biled- ab#rbin& !eat  frm t!e #urrundin& air8 T!e e


In /2- Ameri(an in+entr Oli+er E+an# de#i&ned but ne+er built a refri&eratin #)#tem  ba#ed n t!e +apr:(mpre##in refri&eratin  ()(le rat!er t!an (!emi(al #lutin# r  +latile li"uid# #u(! a# et!)l et!er8



In /12- t!e 'riti#! #(ienti#t *i(!ael Farada) li"uefied ammnia  and t!er &a#e# b) u#in& !i&! pre##ure# and l$ temperature#8



 F3r'- re4r3era-3on '!'-e$'



T!e fir#t 7n$n met!d f artifi(ial refri&eratin $a# demn#trated b) ;illiam Cullen at t!e Uni+er#it) f Gla#&$ in S(tland in /08 Cullen u#ed a pump t (reate a partial +a(uum  +er a (ntainer f diet!)l et!er- $!i(! t!en  biled- ab#rbin& !eat  frm t!e #urrundin& air8 T!e e


T!e fir#t &a# ab#rptin refri&eratin #)#tem u#in& &a#eu# ammnia di##l+ed in $ater  >referred t a# a"ua ammnia? $a# de+elped b) Ferdinand Carr f Fran(e in /3 and patented in /028 %ue t t!e t


Current applications of refrigeration



Prbabl) t!e m#t $idel):u#ed (urrent appli(atin# f refri&eratin are fr t!e air: (nditinin& f pri+ate !me# and publi( buildin&#- and t!e refri&eratin f fd#tuff# in



 !me#- re#taurant# and lar&e #tra&e $are!u#e#8 T!e u#e f refri&eratr# in ur 7it(!en# fr t!e #tra&e f fruit# and +e&etable# !a# all$ed u# t add fre#! #alad# t ur diet# )ear  rund- and t #tre fi#! and meat# #afel) fr ln& perid#8



In (mmer(e and manufa(turin&- t!ere are man) u#e# fr refri&eratin8 Refri&eratin i# u#ed t li"uif) &a#e# li7e <)&en- nitr&en-  prpane  and met!ane fr efr  e


%air) prdu(t# are (n#tantl) in need f refri&eratin- and it $a# nl) di#(+ered in t!e  pa#t fe$ de(ade# t!at e&&# needed t be refri&erated durin& #!ipment rat!er t!an $aitin& t be refri&erated after arri+al at t!e &r(er) #tre8 *eat#- pultr) and fi#! all mu#t be 7ept in (limate:(ntrlled en+irnment# befre bein& #ld8 Refri&eratin al# !elp# 7eep fruit# and +e&etable# edible ln&er8



TERMS IN REFRIGERATION  Coefficient of Perforance !COP"



T!e (effi(ient f perfrman(e r COP- f a refri&eratin #)#tem i# t!e rati f t!e !eat rem+ed frm t!e (ld re#er+ir t input $r78



  i# t!e !eat m+ed frm t!e (ld re#er+ir >t t!e !t re#er+ir?8



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•



 i# t!e $r7  (n#umed b) t!e !eat pump8



#nit of refrigeration



%me#ti( and (mmer(ial refri&eratr# ma) be rated in 7J#- r 'tu! f (lin&8 Cmmer(ial refri&eratr# in t!e US are m#tl) rated in tn# f refri&eratin- but el#e$!ere in 7;8 One tn f refri&eratin (apa(it) (an free=e ne #!rt tn f $ater at 2 MC >1 MF? in 1B !ur#8 'a#ed n t!at



Latent !eat f i(e >i8e8- !eat f fu#in?  8 7J7&  /BB 'tulb One #!rt tn  1222 lb Heat e1222?>/BB?1B !r  1222 'tu1B !r  /1222 'tu!r  122 'tumin / tn refri&eratin  122 'tumin  8/ 7J#  8/ 7;



  MET$O%S OF REFRIGERATION 



*et!d# f refri&eratin (an be (la##ified a# nn:()(li(- ()(li( and t!ermele(tri(8



Non+!"3 re4r3era-3on



In t!e#e met!d#- refri&eratin (an be a((mpli#!ed b) meltin& i(e r b) #ublimin& dr) i(e8 T!e#e met!d# are u#ed fr #mall:#(ale refri&eratin #u(! a# in labratrie# and $r7#!p#- r in prtable (ler#8



C!"3 re4r3era-3on



T!i# (n#i#t# f a refri&eratin ()(le- $!ere !eat i# rem+ed frm a l$:temperature #pa(e r #ur(e and re5e(ted t a !i&!:temperature #in7 $it! t!e !elp f e


 T!e m#t (mmn t)pe# f refri&eratin #)#tem# u#e t!e re+er#e:Ran7ine +apr: (mpre##in refri&eratin ()(le alt!u&! ab#rptin !eat pump# are u#ed in a minrit) f  appli(atin#8



C)(li( refri&eratin (an be (la##ified a#



/8 4apr ()(le- and 18 Ga# ()(le



4apr ()(le refri&eratin (an furt!er be (la##ified a#



/8 4apr (mpre##in refri&eratin 18 4apr ab#rptin refri&eratin



Va(or+o$(re''3on !"e



T!e +apr:(mpre##in ()(le i# u#ed in m#t !u#e!ld refri&eratr# a# $ell a# in man) lar&e (mmer(ial and indu#trial refri&eratin #)#tem#8 Fi&ure / pr+ide# a #(!emati( dia&ram f t!e (mpnent# f a t)pi(al +apr:(mpre##in refri&eratin #)#tem8



 T!e t!ermd)nami(# f t!e ()(le (an be anal)=ed n a dia&ram a# #!$n in Fi&ure 18 In t!i# ()(le- a (ir(ulatin& refri&erant #u(! a# Fren enter# t!e (mpre##r  a# a +apr8 Frm  pint / t pint 1- t!e +apr i# (mpre##ed at (n#tant entrp) and eal# (alled a t!rttle +al+e? $!ere it# pre##ure abruptl) de(rea#e#- (au#in& fla#! e+apratin and aut:refri&eratin f- t)pi(all)- le## t!an !alf f t!e li"uid8



T!at re#ult# in a mifrm t!e #pa(e bein& refri&erated? bein& bl$n b) a fan a(r## t!e e+apratr (il r tube#8 T!e re#ultin&



 refri&erant +apr return# t t!e (mpre##r inlet at pint / t (mplete t!e t!ermd)nami( ()(le8



Va(or a0'or(-3on !"e



In t!e earl) )ear# f t!e t$entiet! (entur)- t!e +apr ab#rptin ()(le u#in& $ater: ammnia #)#tem# $a# ppular and $idel) u#ed8 After t!e de+elpment f t!e +apr  (mpre##in ()(le- t!e +apr ab#rptin ()(le l#t mu(! f it# imprtan(e be(au#e f it# l$ (effi(ient f perfrman(e >abut ne fift! f t!at f t!e +apr (mpre##in ()(le?8 Tda)- t!e +apr ab#rptin ()(le i# u#ed mainl) $!ere fuel fr !eatin& i# a+ailable but ele(tri(it) i# nt- #u(! a# in re(reatinal +e!i(le#  t!at (arr) LP &a#8 ItQ# al# u#ed in indu#trial en+irnment# $!ere plentiful $a#te !eat +er(me# it# ineffi(ien()8



 T!e ab#rptin ()(le i# #imilar t t!e (mpre##in ()(le- e<(ept fr t!e met!d f rai#in& t!e pre##ure f t!e refri&erant +apr8 In t!e ab#rptin #)#tem- t!e (mpre##r i# repla(ed  b) an ab#rber $!i(! di##l+e# t!e refri&erant in a #uitable li"uid- a li"uid pump $!i(! rai#e# t!e pre##ure and a &eneratr $!i(!- n !eat additin- dri+e# ff t!e refri&erant +apr frm t!e !i&!:pre##ure li"uid8 Sme $r7 i# re"uired b) t!e li"uid pump but- fr a &i+en "uantit) f refri&erant- it i# mu(! #maller t!an needed b) t!e (mpre##r in t!e +apr (mpre##in ()(le8 In an ab#rptin refri&eratr- a #uitable (mbinatin f  refri&erant and ab#rbent i# u#ed8 T!e m#t (mmn (mbinatin# are ammnia >refri&erant? and $ater >ab#rber? and $ater >refri&erant? and lit!ium brmide >ab#rber?8



Ga' re4r3era-3on !"e



;!en t!e $r7in& fluid i# a &a# t!at i# (mpre##ed and e


 T!e &a# ()(le i# le## effi(ient t!an t!e +apr (mpre##in ()(le be(au#e t!e &a# ()(le $r7# n t!e re+er#e 'ra)tn ()(le in#tead f t!e re+er#e Ran7ine ()(le8 A# #u(! t!e $r7in& fluid de# nt re(ei+e and re5e(t !eat at (n#tant temperature8'e(au#e f t!eir  l$er effi(ien() and lar&er bul7- air ()(le (ler# are nt ften u#ed n$ada)# in terre#trial (lin& de+i(e#8 T!e air ()(le ma(!ine i# +er) (mmn- !$e+er- n &a# urbine:p$ered 5et air(raft be(au#e (mpre##ed air i# readil) a+ailable frm t!e en&ine#Q (mpre##r #e(tin#8



T2er$oe"e-r3 re4r3era-3on



T!ermele(tri( (lin& u#e# t!e Peltier effe(t t (reate a !eat flu< bet$een t!e 5un(tin f  t$ different t)pe# f material#8 T!i# effe(t i# (mmnl) u#ed in (ampin& and prtable (ler# and fr (lin& ele(trni( (mpnent# and #mall in#trument#8



 Mane-3 re4r3era-3on



*a&neti( refri&eratin- r adiabati( dema&neti=atin- i# a (lin& te(!nl&) ba#ed n t!e ma&net(alri( effe(t- an intrin#i(  prpert) f ma&neti( #lid#8 T!e refri&erant i# ften a parama&neti( #alt- #u(! a# (erium ma&ne#ium nitrate8 T!e a(ti+e ma&neti( diple# in t!i# (a#e are t!#e f t!e ele(trn #!ell# f t!e parama&neti( atm#8A #trn& ma&neti( field i# applied t t!e refri&erant- fr(in& it# +ariu# ma&neti( diple# t ali&n and puttin& t!e#e de&ree# f freedm f t!e refri&erant int a #tate f l$ered entrp)8 A !eat #in7  t!en ab#rb# t!e !eat relea#ed b) t!e refri&erant due t it# l## f entrp)8 T!ermal (nta(t $it! t!e !eat #in7 i# t!en br7en # t!at t!e #)#tem i# in#ulated- and t!e ma&neti( field i# #$it(!ed ff8 T!i# in(rea#e# t!e !eat (apa(it) f t!e refri&erant- t!u# de(rea#in& it# temperature bel$ t!e temperature f t!e !eat #in78



O-2er $e-2od'



Ot!er met!d# f refri&eratin in(lude t!e air ()(le ma(!ine u#ed in air(raftK t!e +rte< tube u#ed fr #pt (lin&- $!en (mpre##ed air i# a+ailableK and t!erm:a(u#ti( refri&eratin  u#in& #und $a+e# in a pre##uri#ed &a# t dri+e !eat tran#fer and !eat e<(!an&e8



 T;PES OF VAPOUR ABSORPTION S;STEM



Carre@' (roe''



Ab#rptin (lin& $a# in+ented b) t!e Fren(! #(ienti#t Ferdinand Carre in /8 T!e ri&inal de#i&n u#ed $ater and #ulfuri( a(id8T!e e


 E3n'-e3n re4r3era-or



T!e ma(!ine i# a #in&le:pre##ure ab#rptin refri&eratr- #imilar in de#i&n t a &a# ab#rptin refri&eratr8 T!e refri&eratin ()(le u#e# ammnia pre##ure:e"uali=in& fluid butane refri&erant- and $ater ab#rbin& fluid- !a# n m+in& part#- and de# nt re"uire ele(tri(it) t perate- needin& nl) a !eat #ur(e- e8&8 a #mall &a# burner r ele(tri( !eatin& element8T!e ammnia i# intrdu(ed int t!e e+apratr- (au#in& t!e refri&erant t e+aprate- ta7in& ener&) frm t!e #urrundin&#- due t t!e fa(t t!at t!e partial pre##ure f  t!e refri&erant i# redu(ed- and t!e mi< f &a##e# t!en pa##ed t!ru&! t a Cnden#er !eat tran#fer (nden#er $!ere it (me# int (nta(t $it! t!e ab#rptin li"uid8 Sin(e ammnia i# #luble in $ater and butane i# in#luble- t!e ammnia &a# i# ab#rbed b) t!e $aterfreein& t!e butane8 Heat i# t!u# fir#t &i+en frm t!e butane t t!e ammnia a# t!e &a##e# mi<- and t!en frm t!e ammnia t t!e $ater- a# t!e ammnia lea+e# t!e butane- ta7in& !eat $it! it- and di##l+e# int t!e $ater8 T!e butane t!en a##ume# t!e pre##ure in#ide t!e (nden#er- $!i(! i# enu&! t ma7e it li"uef)8 Sin(e butaneQ# #pe(ifi( &ra+it) i# le## t!an t!at f ammnia in #lutin in $ater- t!e li"uid butane flat# n tp f t!e ammnia #lutin8 T!e li"uid butane t!en pa##e# ba(7 t t!e e+apratr t repeat t!e ()(le8 T!e



 ammnia #lutin fl$# t a !eat e<(!an&er $!ere a !eat #ur(e dri+e# it frm t!e $ater  a# a &a# a&ain and it return# t t!e e+apratr8 T!e Ein#tein refri&eratr !a# been de#(ribed a# ni#ele##- ine


L3-23#$ 0ro$3de  :a-er '!'-e$



A# #!$n in t!e fi&ure- t!e (lin& $ater >$!i(! a(t# a# !eat #in7? fl$# fir#t t ab#rbere#team r !t $ater r !t il? are immer#ed in t!e #trn& #lutin pl f &eneratr fr +apur &eneratin8 Pre##ure drp# bet$een



 e+apratr and ab#rber and bet$een &eneratr and (nden#er are minimi=ed- lar&e #i=ed +apur line# are eliminated and air lea7a&e# (an al# be redu(ed due t le## number f   5int#8



ELECTROLU REFRIGERATION S;STEM H3'-or!



In /311- t$ )un& en&ineer#- 'alt=ar +n Platen and Carl *unter# frm t!e R)al In#titute f Te(!nl&) in St(7!lm- #ubmitted a de&ree pr5e(t t!at &ained t!em mu(! attentin8 It $a# a refri&eratin ma(!ine t!at empl)ed a #imple appli(atin f t!e ab#rptin pr(e## t tran#frm !eat t (ld8 T!e !eat #ur(e t!at initiated t!e pr(e## (uld be fueled b) ele(tri(it)- &a# r 7er#ene- ma7in& t!e #)#tem e


 T!e t$ in+entr# needed mne) t de+elp and mar7et t!eir prdu(t- !$e+er8 ') /31t!e) !ad (me a# far a# e#tabli#!in& t$ (mpanie#- A' Ar(ti( and Platen:*unter# Refri&eratin S)#tem8 Refri&eratr prdu(tin &t under $a) n$- albeit n a #mall #(aleat t!e ne$ Ar(ti( fa(tr) in *tala8 T!e ab#rptin refri&eratin ma(!ine $a# far frm full) de+elped $!en ;enner:Gren be&an t ta7e an intere#t in it8 It $a#- t!en- a  bld m+e $!en !e made an ffer fr t!e t$ (mpanie#- $!i(! meant Ele(trlu


 Ho8 3- 8or>' T!e (ntinuu# ab#rptin t)pe f (lin& unit i# perated b) t!e appli(atin f a limited amunt f !eat furni#!ed b) &a#- ele(tri(it) r 7er#ene8 N m+in& part# are empl)ed8



T!e unit (n#i#t# f fur main part# : t!e biler- (nden#er- e+apratr and ab#rber8



T!e unit (an be run n ele(tri(it)- 7er#ene r &a#8 ;!en t!e unit perate# n 7er#ene r  &a# t!e !eat i# #upplied b) a burner $!i(! i# fitted underneat! t!e (entral tube >A? and $!en t!e unit perate# n ele(tri(it) t!e !eat i# #upplied b) a !eatin& element in#erted in t!e p(7et >'?8T!e unit (!ar&e (n#i#t# f a "uantit) f ammnia- $ater and !)dr&en at a #uffi(ient pre##ure t (nden#e ammnia at t!e rm temperature fr $!i(! t!e unit i# de#i&ned8 ;!en !eat i# #upplied t t!e biler #)#tem- bubble# f ammnia &a# are  prdu(ed $!i(! ri#e and (arr) $it! t!em "uantitie# f $ea7 ammnia #lutin t!ru&! t!e #ip!n pump >C?8 T!i# $ea7 #lutin pa##e# int t!e tube >%?- $!il#t t!e ammnia +apr pa##e# int t!e +apr pipe >E? and n t t!e $ater #eparatr8 Here an) $ater +apr  i# (nden#ed and run# ba(7 int t!e biler #)#tem lea+in& t!e dr) ammnia +apr t pa## t t!e (nden#er8 Air (ir(ulatin& +er t!e fin# f t!e (nden#er rem+e# !eat frm t!e ammnia +apr t (au#e it t (nden#e t li"uid ammnia in $!i(! #tate it fl$# int t!e e+apratr8 T!e e+apratr i# #upplied $it! !)dr&en8 T!e !)dr&en pa##e# a(r## t!e #urfa(e f t!e ammnia and l$er# t!e ammnia +apr pre##ure #uffi(ientl) t all$ t!e li"uid ammnia t e+aprate8 T!e e+apratin f t!e ammnia e


 ammnia #lutin fed b) &ra+it) frm t!e tube >%?8 T!i# $ea7 #lutin- fl$in& d$n t!ru&! t!e ab#rber (me# int (nta(t $it! t!e mi


A li"uid #eal i# re"uired at t!e end f t!e (nden#er t pre+ent t!e entr) f !)dr&en &a# int t!e (nden#er8 Cmmer(ial Platen:*unter# #)#tem# are made f all #teel $it! $elded 5int#8 Additi+e# are added t minimi=e (rr#in and ru#t frmatin and al# t impr+e ab#rptin8 Sin(e t!ere are n flared 5int# and if t!e "ualit) f t!e $eldin& i# &d- t!en t!e#e #)#tem# be(me ef t!e rder f 28/ t 28B? due t ener&) re"uirement in t!e  bubble pump and al# due t l##e# in t!e e+apratr be(au#e f t!e pre#en(e f  !)dr&en &a#8 In additin- #in(e t!e (ir(ulatin f fluid# in#ide t!e #)#tem i# due t  bu)an() and &ra+it)- t!e !eat and ma## tran#fer (effi(ient# are relati+el) #mall- furt!er  redu(in& t!e effi(ien()8



 AMMONIA REFRIGERANT R616/



HISTOR;



*an) )ear# a&- t!e fd and be+era&e indu#tr) embra(ed ammnia refri&eratin8 T!e e(nmi( ad+anta&e# alne made it t!e refri&erant f (!i(e fr (ld #tra&e fa(ilitie# and fd pr(e##in& fa(ilitie# a# $ell a# t!e dair) and meatpa(7in& indu#trie#8 Alm#t all f t!e fd n t!e famil) brea7fa#t- lun(! and dinner table pa##e# t!ru&! an ammnia refri&eratin fa(ilit) befre rea(!in& )ur &r(er) #tre in(ludin& fre#! fruit# and +e&etable#- meat- pultr) and fi#!- fr=en (n+enien(e fd#- mil7- (!ee#e and i(e (reamand be+era&e# #u(! a# #ft drin7#- beer and $ine8



Ammnia $a# amn& t!e earl) refri&erant# u#ed in me(!ani(al #)#tem#- and itQ# t!e nl) ne f t!e earl) refri&erant# t #e(ure a la#tin& rle a# a refri&erant8 *e(!ani(al refri&eratin $a# de+elped in t!e /22# ba#ed n t!e prin(iple f +apr (mpre##in8 T!e fir#t pra(ti(al refri&eratin& ma(!ine u#in& +apr (mpre##in $a# de+elped in /B and b) t!e late /22# refri&eratin #)#tem# $ere bein& u#ed in bre$erie# and (ld #tra&e $are!u#e#8 T!e ba#i( de#i&n f t!e +apr (mpre##r refri&eratin #)#tem- u#in& ammnia a# a refri&erant in a (l#ed ()(le f e+apratin- (mpre##in- (nden#atinand e


Ammnia $a# fir#t u#ed a# a refri&erant in t!e /2# in Fran(e and $a# applied in t!e United State# in t!e /02# fr artifi(ial i(e prdu(tin8 T!e fir#t patent# fr ammnia refri&eratin ma(!ine# $ere filed in t!e /2#8 ') t!e /322#- ammnia refri&eratin ma(!ine# $ere bein& (mmer(iall) in#talled in bl(7 i(e- fd pr(e##in&- and (!emi(al



  prdu(tin fa(ilitie#8 ') t!e /312#- ammnia refri&eratin $a# bein& applied t i(e rin7#8 %urin& t!e /32#- air (nditinin& mar7et# be&an t de+elp- fir#t fr indu#trial appli(atin# and t!en fr !uman (mfrt8 T!e u#e f #maller unit# fr dme#ti( refri&eratr# in(rea#ed #ub#tantiall) bet$een /312 and /32



Ammnia refri&eratin !a# been t!e ba(7bne f t!e (ld #tra&e and fd pr(e##in& indu#trie# #in(e t!e earl) /322#8 Ammnia refri&eratin i# t!e m#t (#t effe(ti+e and ener&) effi(ient met!d f pr(e##in& and #trin& fr=en and unfr=en fd#8 It i# t!e $r7!r#e fr t!e p#t:!ar+e#t (lin& f fruit# and +e&etable#- t!e (lin& f meat pultr)- and fi#!- refri&eratin in t!e be+era&e indu#tr)- parti(ularl) fr beer and $inerefri&eratin f mil7 and (!ee#e- and t!e free=in& f i(e (ream8 Pra(ti(all) all fruit#+e&etable#- prdu(e and meat#- a# $ell a# man) be+era&e# and 5ui(e#- pa## t!ru&! at lea#t ne fa(ilit) t!at u#e# an ammnia refri&eratin #)#tem befre rea(!in& ur !me#8 Ammnia refri&eratin i# al# u#ed in t!e (!emi(al indu#tr)8



PROPERTIES



Ammnia i# a (lrle## &a# $it! a (!ara(teri#ti( pun&ent #mell8 It i# li&!ter t!an air - it# den#it) bein& 283 time# t!at f air 8 It i# ea#il) li"uefied due t t!e #trn& !)dr&en  bndin& bet$een mle(ule#K t!e li"uid bil# at 8 MC- and #lidifie# at 8 MC t $!ite (r)#tal#8 Li"uid ammnia p##e##e# #trn& ini=in& p$er# refle(tin& it# !i&!  f  118 Li"uid ammnia !a# a +er) !i&! #tandard ent!alp) (!an&e f +apri=atin >18 7Jml- (f8 $ater   B280 7Jml- met!ane 8/3 7Jml- p!#p!ine /B80 7Jml? and (an t!erefre be u#ed in labratrie# in nn:in#ulated +e##el# $it!ut additinal refri&eratin8



 It i# mi#(ible $it! $ater8 Ammnia in an a"ueu# #lutin (an be ea #aturated #lutin? !a# a den#it) f 282 & (m and i# ften 7n$n a# Q82 AmmniaQ8 Ammnia de# nt burn readil) r #u#tain (mbu#tin- e<(ept under narr$ fuel:t:air miNCl? i# al# frmed8



CHEMICAL PROPERTIES



One f t!e m#t (!ara(teri#ti( prpertie# f ammnia i# it# ba#i(it)8 It (mbine# $it! a(id# t frm #alt#K t!u# $it! !)dr(!lri( a(id it frm# ammnium (!lride >#al: ammnia(?K $it! nitri( a(id- ammnium nitrate- et(8 H$e+er- perfe(tl) dr) ammnia $ill nt (mbine $it! perfe(tl) dr) !)dr&en (!lride mi#ture i# ne(e##ar) t brin& abut t!e rea(tin8



 NH V HCl W NHBCl



 T!e #alt# prdu(ed b) t!e a(tin f ammnia n a(id# are 7n$n a# t!e ammnium #alt# and all (ntain t!e ammnium in >NHBV?8 An!)dru# ammnia i# ften u#ed fr t!e  prdu(tin f met!amp!etamine8 A"ueu# ammnia (an be applied n t!e #7in t le##en t!e effe(t# f a(idi( animal pi#n#- #u(! a# frm in#e(t and 5ell)fi#!8



Alt!u&! ammnia i# $ell:7n$n a# a ba#e- it (an al# a(t a# an e$!i(! (ntain t!e NH1 in?fr e


1 Li V 1 NH W 1 LiNH1 V H1



Triple pint /38B , >.8 MC?-08202 7 Pa B28 , >/18 MC?-//822 *Pa Criti(al pint V80 7Jml Std ent!alp) (!an&e f fu#in- fu#H V183 J>mlY,? Std entrp) (!an&e f fu#in- fu#S Std ent!alp) (!an&e



V18 7Jml at 'P f .8B MC



f +apri=atin- +apH Std entrp) (!an&e f +apri=atin +apS



- V38B/ J>mlY, at 'P f .8B MC



 PH;SICAL PROPERTIES



An!)dru# ammnia i# a (lear li"uid t!at bil# at a temperature f :1MF8 In refri&eratin #)#tem#- t!e li"uid i# #tred in (l#ed (ntainer# under pre##ure8 ;!en t!e pre##ure i# relea#ed- t!e li"uid e+aprate# rapidl)- &enerall) frmin& an in+i#ible +apr r &a#8 T!e rapid e+apratin (au#e# t!e temperature f t!e li"uid t drp until it rea(!e# t!e nrmal  bilin& pint f :1MF- a #imilar effe(t ((ur# $!en $ater e+aprate# ff t!e #7in- t!u# (lin& it8 T!i# i# $!) ammnia i# u#ed in refri&eratin #)#tem#8 Li"uid an!)dru# ammnia $ei&!# le## t!an $ater8 Abut ei&!t &alln# f ammnia $ei&!# t!e #ame a# fi+e &alln# f $ater8 Li"uid and &a# ammnia ep#i? t //2 p#i8Li"uid ammnia $ill e


t!e



!umidit)



in



t!e



air



and



ma)



remain



(l#e



t



t!e



&rund8



T!e dr t!re#!ld fr ammnia i# bet$een  : 2 part# per millin >ppm? f air8 T!e  permi##ible ePEL? i# 2 ppm a+era&ed +er an  !ur #!ift8 It i# re(mmended t!at if an empl)ee (an #mell it t!e) u&!t t ba(7 ff and determine if  t!e) need t be u#in& re#piratr) prte(tin8



 USES OF AMMONIA



C"eaner



Hu#e!ld ammnia i# a &eneral purp#e (leaner t!at (an be u#ed n man) #urfa(e#8 'e(au#e ammnia re#ult# in a relati+el) #trea7:free #!ine- ne f it# m#t (mmn u#e# i# t (lean &la##- pr(elain and #tainle## #teel8 It i# al# fre"uentl) u#ed fr (leanin& +en# and #a7in& item# t l#en ba7ed:n r (a7ed:n &rime8



+A' a ?e23"e 4#e"



Ammnia !a# been prp#ed a# a pra(ti(al alternati+e t f##il fuel  fr internal (mbu#tin en&ine#8 T!e (alrifi( +alue f ammnia i# 118 *J7& >3032 'TUlb? $!i(! i# abut !alf t!at f die#el8 In a nrmal en&ine- in $!i(! t!e $ater +apr i# nt (nden#edt!e (alrifi( +alue f ammnia $ill be abut 1/ le## t!an t!i# fi&ure8 It (an be u#ed in e


T meet t!e#e demand#- #i&nifi(ant (apital $uld be re"uired t in(rea#e pre#ent  prdu(tin le+el#8 Alt!u&! t!e #e(nd m#t prdu(ed (!emi(al- t!e #(ale f ammnia  prdu(tin i# a #mall fra(tin f $rld petrleum u#a&e8 It (uld be manufa(tured frm rene$able ener&) #ur(e#- a# $ell a# (al r nu(lear p$er8 It i# !$e+er #i&nifi(antl) le## effi(ient t!an batterie#88 If prdu(ed frm (al- t!e CO1 (an be readil) #e"ue#trated8 >t!e (mbu#tin prdu(t# are nitr&en and $ater?8 In /3/ a Canadian (mpan) (n+erted a /3/ C!e+rlet Impala t perate u#in& ammnia a# fuel8



 Haard' o4 a$$on3a



Ammnia i# nt- #tri(tl) #pea7in&- a pi#n and repeated e(!rni(? effe(t# n t!e !uman bd)8 H$e+er- e+en in #mall (n(entratin# in t!e air it (an be e1ppm? (an (au#e !eada(!e#(u&!in& and diffi(ult) breat!in&8 Prln&ed ean a((umulatin f fluid in t!e lun&#? $!i(! (an  be fatal8 S7in (nta(t $it! li"uid ammnia (an (au#e burn#- bli#ter# and e+en fr#tbite8 E)e (nta(t (an (au#e #e+ere dama&e t t!e e)e and ma) lead t blindne## an!)dru# ammnia primaril) affe(t# t!ree area# f t!e bd) •



E)e#



•



Lun&#



•



S7in



E!e'



E+er)t!in& frm mild irritatin t de#tru(tin f t!e e)e (an ((ur dependin& n $!et!er  a #pra) r &a# i# in+l+ed8 Ammnia penetrate# t!e e)e mre rapidl) t!an t!er al7ali#8



 L#n'



In t!e lun&#- li"uid an!)dru# ammnia (au#e# de#tru(tin f deli(ate re#piratr) ti##ue8 E


Cn+ul#i+e (u&!in&8



•



%iffi(ult r painful breat!in&8



•



Pulmnar) (n&e#tin and deat!



Ga#eu# ammnia effe(t# at +ariu# (n(entratin# are a# fll$#



•



1 ppm r le## : T;A



•



1:2 ppm : %ete(table drK unli7el) t e


•



2:/22 ppm : *ild e)e- n#e- and t!rat irritatinK ma) de+elp tleran(e in /:1 $ee7# $it! n ad+er#e effe(t# t!ereafter 



•



/B2 ppm : *derate e)e irritatinK n ln&:term #e"uelae in e


•



B22 ppm : *derate t!rat irritatin



•



22 ppm : I%LH



•



22 ppm : Immediate e)e in5ur)



•



/222 ppm : %ire(tl) (au#ti( t air$a)



•



/22 ppm : Lar)n&#pa#m



•



122 ppm : Fatalit) >after !alf:!ur e


•



122:022 ppm : Slu&!in& and ne(r#i# f air$a) mu(#a- (!e#t pain pulmnar) edema- and brn(!#pa#m



 S>3n



S7in dama&e depend# upn t!e len&t! and (n(entratin f e


ACCIDENTS



A number f a((idental relea#e# f ammnia !a+e ((urred frm refri&eratin fa(ilitie# in t!e pa#t8 Cau#e# f t!e#e relea#e# in(lude plant up#et#- leadin& t t!e liftin& f relief  +al+e#K lea7# in rtatin& #eal#K pipeline failure#K +e!i(ular traffi( !ittin& pipe#- +al+e#- and e+apratr#K and failure# durin& ammnia deli+er)- #u(! a# !#e lea7#8 Sme f t!e#e relea#e# !a+e 7illed and in5ured $r7er#- (au#ed in5urie# ff #ite- r re#ulted in e+a(uatin#8 T!e fll$in& de#(ribe# #e+eral re(ent in(ident# in mre detail8 A #pe(ifi(



 in(ident demn#trate# t!e need fr me(!ani(al prte(tin t prte(t refri&eratin e"uipment frm impa(t8 In a /331 in(ident at a meat pa(7in& plant- a fr7lift #tru(7 and ruptured pipe (arr)in& ammnia fr refri&eratin8 ;r7er# $ere e+a(uated $!en t!e lea7  $a# dete(ted8 A #!rt time later- an e


HAARD A:ARENESS



Ammnia i# u#ed $idel) and in lar&e "uantitie# fr a +ariet) f purp#e#8 *re t!an 2 f ammnia prdu(ed i# u#ed fr a&ri(ultural purp#e#K le## t!an t$ per(ent i# u#ed fr  refri&eratin8 U#e f ammnia i# &enerall) #afe pr+ided apprpriate maintenan(e and peratin& (ntrl# are eOSHA? Permi##ible EPEL? i# 2 part# per millin >ppm?- :!ur time:$ei&!ted a+era&e8 Effe(t# f in!alatin f ammnia ran&e frm irritatin t #e+ere re#piratr) in5urie#- $it!  p##ible fatalit) at !i&!er (n(entratin#8 T!e Natinal In#titute f  O((upatinal Safet) and Healt! >NIOSH? !a# e#tabli#!ed an Immediatel) %an&eru# t Life and Healt! >I%LH? le+el f 22 ppm fr t!e purp#e# f re#piratr #ele(tin8 Ammnia i# (rr#i+e and (an burn t!e #7in and e)e#8 Li"uefied ammnia (an (au#e fr#tbite8



 :ATER ABSORBENT Pro(er-3e' and e3'-ene



;ater >H1O- HOH? i# t!e m#t abundant mle(ule n Eart!Q# #urfa(e- (n#titutin& abut  f t!e Eart!Q# #urfa(e in li"uid- #lid- and &a#eu# #tate#8 It i# in d)nami( e"uilibrium bet$een t!e li"uid  and &a# #tate# at #tandard temperature and pre##ure8 At rm temperature- it i# a nearl) (lrle##  >$it! a  !int f blue?- ta#tele##- and drle## li"uid8 *an) #ub#tan(e# di##l+e in $ater and it i# (mmnl) referred t a# t!e uni+er#al #l+ent8 ;ater i# t!e (!emi(al #ub#tan(e  $it! (!emi(al frmula H1O ne mle(ule f  $ater !a# t$  !)dr&en atm# (+alentl)  bnded  t a #in&le <)&en atm8 ;ater i# a ta#tele##- drle## li"uid at ambient temperature and pre##ure- and appear# (lrle## in #mall "uantitie#- alt!u&! it !a# it# $n intrin#i( +er) li&!t blue !ue8 I(e al# appear# (lrle##- and $ater +apr i# e##entiall) in+i#ible a# a &a#



;ater !a# t!e #e(nd !i&!e#t #pe(ifi( !eat (apa(it) f an) 7n$n (!emi(al (mpundafter ammnia- a# $ell a# a !i&! !eat f +apri=atin >B280 7J ml/?- bt! f $!i(! are a re#ult f t!e e


T!e #pe(ifi( ent!alp) f fu#in f $ater i# 8 7J 7&/  at 2 MC8 Of (mmn #ub#tan(e#- nl) t!at f ammnia i# !i&!er8 T!i# prpert) (nfer# re#i#tan(e t meltin& upn t!e i(e f &la(ier# and drift i(e8 'efre t!e ad+ent f me(!ani(al refri&eratin- i(e $a# in (mmn u#e t retard fd #pila&e8



 One  mle(ule f $ater !a# t$ !)dr&en atm# (+alentl)  bnded t a #in&le  <)&en atm8 ;ater i# a ta#tele##- drle## li"uid at ambient temperature and pre##ure- and appear# (lrle## in #mall "uantitie#- alt!u&! it !a# it# $n intrin#i( +er) li&!t blue !ue8 I(e al# appear# (lrle##- and $ater +apr i# e##entiall) in+i#ible a# a &a#8 ;ater i#  primaril) a li"uid under #tandard (nditin#- $!i(! i# nt predi(ted frm it# relatin#!ip t t!er anal&u# !)dride# f t!e <)&en famil) in t!e peridi( table- $!i(! are &a#e# #u(! a# !)dr&en #ulfide8 Al# t!e element# #urrundin& <)&en in t!e  peridi( tablenitr&en- flurine- p!#p!ru#- #ulfur  and (!lrine- all (mbine $it! !)dr&en t prdu(e &a#e# under #tandard (nditin#8 T!e rea#n t!at $ater frm# a li"uid i# t!at it i# mre ele(trne&ati+e t!an all f t!e#e element# >t!er t!an flurine?8 O<)&en attra(t# ele(trn# mu(! mre #trn&l) t!an !)dr&en- re#ultin& in a net p#iti+e (!ar&e n t!e !)dr&en atm#- and a net ne&ati+e (!ar&e n t!e <)&en atm8 T!e pre#en(e f a (!ar&e n ea(! f t!e#e atm# &i+e# ea(! $ater mle(ule a net diple mment8 Ele(tri(al attra(tin  bet$een $ater mle(ule# due t t!i# diple pull# indi+idual mle(ule# (l#er t&et!erma7in& it mre diffi(ult t #eparate t!e mle(ule# and t!erefre rai#in& t!e bilin& pint8 T!i# attra(tin i# 7n$n a# !)dr&en bndin&8 T!e mle(ule# f $ater are (n#tantl) m+in& in relatin t ea(! t!er- and t!e !)dr&en bnd# are (ntinuall) brea7in& and refrmin& at t!e time#(ale# fa#ter t!an 122 femt#e(nd#8 H$e+er- t!i# bnd i# #trn& enu&! t (reate man) f t!e pe(uliar prpertie# f $ater de#(ribed in t!i# arti(le- #u(! a# t!e ne# t!at ma7e it inte&ral t life8 ;ater (an be de#(ribed a# a plar li"uid t!at #li&!tl) di##(iate# di#prprtinatel) int t!e !)drnium in >HOV>a"?? and an a##(iated !)drOH>a"??8



1 H1O >l? HOV>a"? V OH>a"?



 :2! 8a-er



T!e plarit) f NH mle(ule# and t!eir abilit) t frm !)dr&en bnd# ea"? V H1O>l? NHB V>a"? V OHG>a"? T!e prdu(tin f !)drba#i(? prpertie#8 T!e duble arr$ in t!e e"uatin indi(ate# t!at e"uilibrium i# e#tabli#!ed bet$een di##l+ed ammnia &a# and ammnium in#8 Nt all f t!e di##l+ed ammnia rea(t# $it! $ater t frm ammnium in#8 A #ub#tantial fra(tin remain# in t!e mle(ular frm in #lutin8 ;ater bil# at 1 7el+in at / bar atm#p!eri( pre##ure8 Ammnia i# readil) mi#(ible in $ater8 Ammnium H)dr


 H;DROGEN  THE CARRIER GAS



Pro(er-3e' and e3'-ene



H)dr&en i# t!e m#t abundant element in t!e uni+er#e- ma7in& up  f nrmal matter   b) ma## and +er 32 b) number f atm#8 T!i# element i# fund in &reat abundan(e in #tar# and  &a# &iant planet#8 *le(ular (lud# f H1  are a##(iated $it! #tar frmatin8 H)dr&en pla)# a +ital rle in p$erin& #tar# t!ru&! prtn:prtn rea(tin and  CNO ()(le nu(lear fu#in8



T!ru&!ut t!e uni+er#e- !)dr&en i# m#tl) fund in t!e atmi( and  pla#ma  #tate# $!#e prpertie# are "uite different frm mle(ular !)dr&en8 A# a pla#ma- !)dr&enQ# ele(trn and prtn are nt bund t&et!er- re#ultin& in +er) !i&! ele(tri(al (ndu(ti+it) and !i&! emi##i+it) >prdu(in& t!e li&!t frm t!e #un and t!er #tar#?8 T!e (!ar&ed  parti(le# are !i&!l) influen(ed b) ma&neti( and ele(tri( field#8 Fr e


Under rdinar) (nditin# n Eart!- elemental !)dr&en e/  ppm  b) +lume?  be(au#e f it# li&!t $ei&!t- $!i(! enable# it t e#(ape frm Eart!Q# &ra+it) mre ea#il) t!an !ea+ier &a#e#8 H$e+er- !)dr&en >in (!emi(all) (mbined frm? i# t!e t!ird m#t abundant element n t!e Eart!Q# #urfa(e8 *#t f t!e Eart!Q# !)dr&en i# in t!e frm f  (!emi(al (mpund#  #u(! a#  !)dr(arbn#  and $ater 8 H)dr&en &a# i# prdu(ed b)



 #me ba(teria and al&ae and i# a natural (mpnent f flatu#8 *et!ane  i# a !)dr&en #ur(e f in(rea#in& imprtan(e8



H)dr&en i# t!e (!emi(al element $it! atmi( number  /8 It i# repre#ented b) t!e #)mbl H8 At #tandard temperature and pre##ure- !)dr&en i# a (lrle##- drle##- nnmetalli(ta#tele##- !i&!l) flammable diatmi( &a# $it! t!e mle(ular frmula H 18 ;it! an atmi( $ei&!t  f /8223B- !)dr&en i# t!e li&!te#t element8 T!e den#it) f !)dr&en at 1 7el+in i# 2823&l8 T!e meltin& pint i# /B8217 and bilin& pint i# 128178



T!e m#t (mmn i#tpe f !)dr&en i#  prtium  >name rarel) u#ed? $it! a #in&le  prtn  and n neutrn#8 In ini( (mpund# it (an ta7e a p#iti+e (!ar&e >a (atin (mp#ed f a bare prtn? r a ne&ati+e (!ar&e >an anin 7n$n a# a !)dride?8 H)dr&en frm# (mpund# $it! m#t element# and i# pre#ent in $ater  and m#t r&ani( (mpund#8 It pla)# a parti(ularl) imprtant rle in a(id:ba#e (!emi#tr) $it! man) rea(tin# e<(!an&in& prtn# bet$een #luble mle(ule#8 A# t!e nl) neutral atm $it! an anal)ti( #lutin t t!e S(!rZdin&er e"uatin- t!e #tud) f t!e ener&eti( and bndin& f t!e !)dr&en atm pla)ed a 7e) rle in t!e de+elpment f me(!ani(#8 H)dr&en &a# >di!)dr&en? i# !i&!l) flammable and $ill burn in air at a +er) $ide ran&e f  (n(entratin# bet$een B and  b) +lume8 T!e ent!alp) f (mbu#tin fr  !)dr&en i# 10 7Jml



1 H1>&? V O1>&? W 1 H1O>l? V 1 7J >10 7Jml?8 H1 rea(t# $it! e+er) 


 :2! 2!droen 3n P"a-en M#n-er' '!'-e$



H)dr&en i# u#ed a# t!e (arrier &a# in Platen *unter# #)#tem8 H)dr&en i# u#ed t redu(e t!e partial pre##ure f ammnia in t!e e+apratr8 Al# it 7eep# t!e ttal pre##ure f t!e #)#tem (n#tant8 A ma5r +lume f e+apratr i# filled $it! !)dr&en # t!at ammnia &et# le## +lume t e


O-2er arr3er a'



Ot!er #imilar &a# $!i(! (an a(t a# a (arrier &a# i# !elium8 It i# t!e ne


 ENERG; SOURCES



T!e main ener&) #ur(e# fr Ele(trlu< refri&eratin are •



Slar ener&)



•



Ele(tri( !eater#



•



;a#te !eat



•



,er#ene



•



 Natural &a#



•



Steam



•



Ge t!ermal ener&)



•



'i &a#



•



Autmbile e


 RENE:ABLE ENERG;



Rene$able ener&) i# ener&)  &enerated frm natural re#ur(e# [#u(! a# #unli&!t- $indrain- tide#  and &et!ermal !eat [$!i(! are  rene$able  >naturall) repleni#!ed?8 In 1220abut / f &lbal final ener&) (n#umptin (ame frm rene$able#- $it! / (min& frm traditinal  bima##- #u(! a# $d:burnin&8 H)drele(tri(it)  $a# t!e ne/ f &lbal ele(tri(it) &eneratin?- fll$ed b) #lar  !t $ater !eatin&- $!i(! (ntributed /88 *dern te(!nl&ie#- #u(! a# &et!ermal ener&)- $ind p$er - #lar p$er - and (ean ener&) t&et!er pr+ided #me 28 f final ener&) (n#umptin8



;ind p$er i# &r$in& at t!e rate f 2 per(ent annuall)- $it! a $rld$ide in#talled (apa(it) f +er /22 G;- and i# $idel) u#ed in #e+eral Eurpean (untrie# and t!e United State#8 T!e manufa(turin& utput f t!e p!t+ltai( indu#tr) rea(!ed mre t!an 1-222 *; in 1220- and  p!t+ltai( >P4? p$er #tatin#  are parti(ularl) ppular in German) and Spain8 Slar t!ermal p$er  #tatin# perate in t!e USA and Spain- and t!e lar&e#t f t!e#e i# t!e B *; SEGS  p$er plant in t!e *5a+e %e#ert88 T!e $rldQ# lar&e#t &et!ermal p$er in#tallatin i# T!e Ge)#er# in Califrnia- $it! a rated (apa(it) f 2 *;8 'ra=il !a# ne f t!e lar&e#t rene$able ener&) pr&ram# in t!e $rldin+l+in& prdu(tin f et!anl fuel  frm #u&ar (ane- and et!anl n$ pr+ide# /  per(ent f t!e (untr)Q# autmti+e fuel8 Et!anl fuel i# al# $idel) a+ailable in t!e USA8



;!ile t!ere are man) lar&e:#(ale rene$able ener&) pr5e(t# and prdu(tin- rene$able te(!nl&ie# are al# #uited t #mall ff:&rid appli(atin#- #metime# in rural and remte area#- $!ere ener&) i# ften (ru(ial in !uman de+elpment8 ,en)a !a# t!e $rldQ#



 !i&!e#t !u#e!ld #lar $ner#!ip rate $it! ru&!l) 2-222 #mall >12./22 $att? #lar   p$er #)#tem# #ld per )ear8 Rene$able ener&) fl$# in+l+e natural p!enmena #u(! a# #unli&!t- $ind- tide# and &et!ermal !eat- a# t!e Internatinal Ener&) A&en() e


Rene$able ener&) i# deri+ed frm natural pr(e##e# t!at are repleni#!ed (n#tantl)8 In it# +ariu# frm#- it deri+e# dire(tl) frm t!e #un- r frm !eat &enerated deep $it!in t!e eart!8 In(luded in t!e definitin i# ele(tri(it) and !eat &enerated frm #lar- $ind- (ean!)drp$er- bima##- &et!ermal re#ur(e#- and bifuel# and !)dr&en deri+ed frm rene$able re#ur(e#8



SOLAR ENERG;



Slar ener&) i# t!e radiant li&!t and !eat frm t!e Sun t!at !a# been !arne##ed b) !uman# #in(e  an(ient time#  u#in& a ran&e f e+er:e+l+in& te(!nl&ie#8 Slar radiatin  aln& $it! #e(ndar) #lar re#ur(e# #u(! a# $ind  and $a+e p$er-  !)drele(tri(it) and  bima## a((unt fr m#t f t!e a+ailable rene$able ener&) n Eart!8 Onl) a minu#(ule fra(tin f t!e a+ailable #lar ener&) i# u#ed8



Slar p$er  pr+ide# ele(tri(al &eneratin b) mean# f !eat en&ine# r  p!t+ltai(8 On(e (n+erted it# u#e# are nl) limited b) !uman in&enuit)8 A partial li#t f #lar  appli(atin# in(lude# #pa(e !eatin& and (lin& t!ru&! #lar ar(!ite(ture- ptable $ater  +ia di#tillatin and di#infe(tin- da)li&!tin&- !t $ater - t!ermal ener&) fr (7in&- and !i&! temperature pr(e## !eat fr indu#trial purp#e#8



Slar te(!nl&ie# are bradl) (!ara(teri=ed a# eit!er  pa##i+e #lar  r a(ti+e #lar  dependin& n t!e $a) t!e) (apture- (n+ert and di#tribute #unli&!t8 A(ti+e #lar 



 te(!ni"ue# in(lude t!e u#e f p!t+ltai( panel#- #lar t!ermal (lle(tr#- $it! ele(tri(al r me(!ani(al e"uipment- t (n+ert #unli&!t int u#eful utput#8 Pa##i+e #lar  te(!ni"ue# in(lude rientin& a buildin& t t!e Sun- #ele(tin& material# $it! fa+rable t!ermal ma## r li&!t di#per#in& prpertie#- and de#i&nin& #pa(e# t!at naturall) (ir(ulate air 8



 T!e Eart! re(ei+e# /B peta$att# >P;? f in(min& #lar radiatin >in#latin? at t!e upper atm#p!ere8 Appr


Eart!Q# land #urfa(e- (ean# and atm#p!ere ab#rb #lar radiatin- and t!i# rai#e# t!eir  temperature8 ;arm air (ntainin& e+aprated $ater frm t!e (ean# ri#e#- (au#in& atm#p!eri( (ir(ulatin r (n+e(tin8 ;!en t!e air rea(!e# a !i&! altitude- $!ere t!e temperature i# l$- $ater +apr (nden#e# int (lud#- $!i(! rain nt t!e Eart!Q# #urfa(e- (mpletin& t!e $ater ()(le8 T!e latent !eat f $ater (nden#atin amplifie# (n+e(tin- prdu(in& atm#p!eri( p!enmena #u(! a# $ind- ()(lne# and anti:()(lne#8 Sunli&!t ab#rbed b) t!e (ean# and land ma##e# 7eep# t!e #urfa(e at an a+era&e temperature f /B MC8 ') p!t#)nt!e#i# &reen plant# (n+ert #lar ener&) int (!emi(al ener&)- $!i(! prdu(e# fd- $d and t!e bima## frm $!i(! f##il fuel# are deri+ed8



T!e ttal #lar ener&) ab#rbed b) Eart!Q# atm#p!ere- (ean# and land ma##e# i# apprEJ? per )ear8 In 1221- t!i# $a# mre ener&) in ne !ur t!an t!e $rld u#ed in ne )ear8\/1]\/] P!t#)nt!e#i# (apture# appr


 -222 EJ per )ear in bima##8 T!e amunt f #lar ener&) rea(!in& t!e #urfa(e f t!e  planet i# # +a#t t!at in ne )ear it i# abut t$i(e a# mu(! a# $ill e+er be btained frm all f t!e Eart!Q# nn:rene$able re#ur(e# f (al- il- natural &a#- and mined uranium (mbined8



 Applications of solar technolog&



Slar ener&) refer# primaril) t t!e u#e f #lar radiatin fr pra(ti(al end#8 All t!er  rene$able ener&ie# t!er t!an &et!ermal and tidal deri+e t!eir ener&) frm t!e #un8Slar  te(!nl&ie# are bradl) (!ara(teri=ed a# eit!er pa##i+e r a(ti+e dependin& n t!e $a) t!e) (apture- (n+ert and di#tribute #unli&!t8 A(ti+e #lar te(!ni"ue# u#e p!t+ltai(  panel#- pump#- and fan# t (n+ert #unli&!t int u#eful utput#8 Pa##i+e #lar te(!ni"ue# in(lude #ele(tin& material# $it! fa+rable t!ermal prpertie#- de#i&nin& #pa(e# t!at naturall) (ir(ulate air- and referen(in& t!e p#itin f a buildin& t t!e Sun8 A(ti+e #lar  te(!nl&ie# in(rea#e t!e #uppl) f ener&) and are (n#idered #uppl) #ide te(!nl&ie#$!ile pa##i+e #lar te(!nl&ie# redu(e t!e need fr alternate re#ur(e# and are &enerall) (n#idered demand #ide te(!nl&ie#8



SOLAR COLLECTOR 



De43n3-3on



 A #lar (lle(tr i# a de+i(e fr eln&? t t!e ultra+ilet >#!rt? $a+elen&t!#8 T!e #lar ener&) #tri7in& t!e eart!Q# #urfa(e at an) ne time depend# n $eat!er (nditin#- a# $ell a# l(atin and rientatin f t!e #urfa(e- but +erall- it a+era&e# abut /222 $att# per #"uare meter  under (lear #7ie# $it! t!e #urfa(e dire(tl) perpendi(ular t t!e #unQ# ra)#8



E4433en!



T!e effi(ien() f a #lar (lle(tr i# defined a# t!e "utient f u#able t!ermal ener&) +er#u# re(ei+ed #lar ener&)8 'e#ide# t!ermal l## t!ere al$a)# i# pti(al l## a# $ell8 T!e (n+er#in fa(tr r pti(al effi(ien() !2 indi(ate# t!e per(enta&e f t!e #lar ra)#  penetratin& t!e tran#parent (+er f t!e (lle(tr >tran#mi##in? and t!e per(enta&e bein& ab#rbed8 'a#i(all)- it i# t!e prdu(t f t!e rate f tran#mi##in f t!e (+er and t!e ab#rptin rate f t!e ab#rber8 T!e !eat l## i# indi(ated b) t!e t!ermal l## fa(tr r 7: +alue8 T!i# i# &i+en in $att per m^ (lle(tr #urfa(e and t!e parti(ular temperature



 differen(e >in MC? bet$een t!e ab#rber and it# #urrundin T!e !i&!er t!e temperature differen(e- t!e mre !eat i# l#t8 Ab+e a #pe(ifi( temperature differen(e- t!e amunt f  !eat l## e"ual# t!e ener&) )ield f t!e (lle(tr- # t!at n ener&) at all i# deli+ered t t!e #lar (ir(ulatin #)#tem8 A &d (lle(tr $ill !a+e a !i&! (n+er#in fa(tr and a l$ 7:+alue8



Conen-ra-3on ra-3o



;!ere



T;PES OF SOLAR COLLECTORS



Alt!u&! t!e di#(u##in t!at fll$# deal# $it! (n(entratr# a# entitie#- (n(entratr# are nl) a prtin f an ener&) (lle(tin #)#tem8 T be u#eful t!e (n(entrated ra)# mu#t  be dire(ted t a tar&et (alled a re(ei+er- $!i(! (n+ert# t!e ra)# int ant!er frm f 



 ener&)- !eat8 T!e (n(entratr and re(ei+er mu#t be mat(!ed fr ptimum perfrman(e8 Fre"uentl)- t!e re(ei+er i# e


 F"a- ("a-e



Slar t!ermal #)#tem fr $ater !eatin& : t!e#e are depl )ed n flat rf#8



A flat plate i# t!e m#t (mmn t)pe f #lar t!ermal (lle(tr- and i# u#uall) u#ed a# a #lar !t $ater panel t &enerate #lar !t $ater 8 A $eat!erprfed- in#ulated b< (ntainin& a bla(7 metal ab#rber #!eet $it! built in pipe# i# pla(ed in t!e pat! f  #unli&!t8 Slar ener&) !eat# up $ater in t!e pipe# (au#in& it t (ir(ulate t!ru&! t!e #)#tem b) natural (n+e(tin >t!erm#)p!n?8 T!e $ater i# u#uall) pa##ed t a #tra&e tan7 l(ated ab+e t!e (lle(tr8 T!i# pa##i+e #lar $ater !eatin& #)#tem i# &enerall) u#ed in !tel# and !me# in #unn) (limate# #u(! a# t!#e fund in #ut!ern Eurpe8



Fr t!e#e purp#e#- t!e &eneral pra(ti(e i# t u#e flat:plate #lar ener&) r e+a(uated tube (lle(tr# $it! a fip#itin?8 T!e !i&!e#t effi(ien() $it! a fi


 an&le t t!e !ri=n e"ual t t!e latitude plu# abut /2 de&ree#8 Slar (lle(tr# fall int t$ &eneral (ate&rie# nn:(n(entratin& and (n(entratin&8



In t!e nn:(n(entratin& t)pe- t!e (lle(tr area >i8e8 t!e area t!at inter(ept# t!e #lar  radiatin? i# t!e #ame a# t!e ab#rber area >i8e8- t!e area ab#rbin& t!e radiatin?8 In t!e#e t)pe# t!e $!le #lar panel ab#rb# t!e li&!t8



T!ere are man) flat:plate (lle(tr de#i&n# but &enerall) all (n#i#t f >/? a flat:plate ab#rber- $!i(! inter(ept# and ab#rb# t!e #lar ener&)- >1? a tran#parent (+er>#? t!at all$# #lar ener&) t pa## t!ru&! but redu(e# !eat l## frm t!e ab#rber- >? a !eat: tran#prt fluid >air- antifree=e r $ater? fl$in& t!ru&! tube# t rem+e !eat frm t!e ab#rber- and >B? a !eat in#ulatin& ba(7in&8 One flat plate (lle(tr i# de#i&ned t be e+a(uated- t pre+ent !eat l##8



E?a#a-ed -#0e



 T!e#e (lle(tr# !a+e multiple e+a(uated &la## tube# $!i(! !eat up #lar ab#rber# andultimatel)- #lar $r7in& fluid >$ater r an antifree=e mi< :: t)pi(all) prp)lene &l)(l? in rder t !eat dme#ti( !t $ater- r fr !)drni( #pa(e !eatin&8 T!e +a(uum $it!in t!e e+a(uated tube# redu(e (n+e(tin !eat l##e#- all$in& t!em t rea(! (n#iderabl) !i&!er temperature# t!an m#t flat:plate (lle(tr#8 T!e e+a(uated tube# dra$ t!eir  ener&) frm t!e a+ailable li&!t rat!er t!an ut#ide temperature8 Fr t!e#e rea#n# t!e) (an perfrm $ell in (lder (nditin#8 T!e ad+anta&e i# lar&el) l#t in $armer (limate#e<(ept in t!#e (a#e# $!ere +er) !t $ater i# de#irable8



T!e ad+anta&e t!i# de#i&n !a# +er t!e flat:plate t)pe i# t!at t!e (n#tant prfile f t!e rund tube mean# t!at t!e (lle(tr i# al$a)# perpendi(ular t t!e #unQ# ra)# and t!erefre t!e ener&) ab#rbed i# appr&ap# $!i(! (an be a# $ide a# t!e tube#Q ab#rbti+e #urfa(e t!em#el+e#? (an be addre##ed eit!er b) b) addin& #pe(iall) (ur+ed metal refle(tr# under t!e e+a(uated tube# r b) re+ertin& t t!e u#e f flat plate (lle(tr# $!i(! are de#i&ned nt t ffer an) &ap# in t!e (lle(trQ# li&!t inter(eptin prfile8



Para0o"3 -ro#2



T!i# t)pe f (lle(tr i# &enerall) u#ed in #lar p$er plant#8 A tru&!:#!aped parabli( refle(tr  i# u#ed t (n(entrate #unli&!t n an in#ulated tube >%e$ar tube? r !eat pipe pla(ed at t!e f(al pint- (ntainin& (lant $!i(! tran#fer# !eat frm t!e (lle(tr# t t!e biler# in t!e p$er #tatin8 Alternati+el) t!e tru&! (an be ali&ned n an ea#t:$e#t



 a


tra(7in& mtr#8 T!i# tra(7in& met!d $r7# (rre(tl) at t!e #prin& and fall e"uin


T8o d3$en'3ona" 3n?o"#-e #'('



T!e pe(uliar ad+anta&e f in+lute (u#p in #lar ener&) (n(entratin !ad been re(&ni=ed +er) earl) #ta&e# b) Trmbe and *einel8 *at!emati(all)- t!e in+lute f an)



 (ur+e i# defined a# a (ur+e t!at inter#e(t# all it# tan&ent# at ri&!t an&le#8 T!e Trmbe *einel de#i&n# a prfile de#(ribed b) t!e l(u# f a #trin& un$rapped frm abut a (ir(ular re(ei+er8 T)pe f Cn(entratr



 Cu#p



T)pe f F(u#



 Line



Len# r *irrr



 *irrr 



SunQ# Cn(entratin



 /8:18



Tra(7in&



 N



Tra(7in& Re(ei+er



 N



Temperature >C?



 /1/



Temperature >F?



 12



A0o#- 3n?o"#-e #r?e Atta(! a #trin& t a pint n a (ur+e8 E


 O#r de'3n



 FABRICATION Do#0"e 3n?o"#-e #'( o""e-or



T!e #lar (n(entratin& de+i(e i# !a+in& a #!ape f duble in+lute (u#p8 T!e fabri(atin $a# dne at t!e #!eet metal #!p f Indu#tan en&ineerin& $r7#- ,aramana8 T!e de#i&n f t!e (lle(tr $a# (reated $it! t!e !elp f CA% #ft$are8 Frm t!e dimen#ined fi&urea template f t!e (lle(tr $a# made fir#t n a #trip f *S metal #!eet f &au&e 18 T!en a *S #!eet f dimen#in B1 <  $a# (ut ut8 T!e (entre line i# dra$n n t!e #!eet8 T!en t!e #!eet $a# t!en (ur+ed $it! t!e !elp f !ammer and rller8 T!e entire #!eet $a# fir#t (ur+ed $it! a radiu# f (ur+ature B8 T!en t!e (u#p #!ape $a# made b) 7eepin& t!e #!eet in bet$een t$ pipe# and !ammerin& aln& t!e (entre line $it! a #trai&!t ed&e (!i#el8 After ea(! #et f !ammerin& t!e de#i&n $a# (r## (!e(7ed $it! t!e template made8 An) de+iatin frm t!e de#i&n $a# re(tified at ea(! #ta&e8 Hammerin& $a# (ntinued until t!e re"uired prfile $a# btained8 T!en t!e #urfa(e i# le+eled t rem+e t!e pun(! mar7# made b) !ammer8 T!e ed&e# are !ammered t &et a #trai&!t ed&e8



T!e ne


 After fi&rade# _02 9 _2?8 Finall) fine pli#!in& $a# dne b) u#in& a #and  paper f medium &rade >_/22?8 T!e pli#!in& $a# dne in rder t #ti(7 t!e mirrr pla#ti(



  paper n t!e #urfa(e8 T!e mirrr pla#ti( u#ed in ur pr5e(t i# #imilar t t!e refle(tin&  paper# u#ed t tint autmbile &la##e#8 In rder t #ti(7 t!e mirrr paper- an initial la)er  f P4C i# (ated +er t!e (lle(tr #urfa(e8 T!e (lur f t!e P4C (atin& i# #ele(ted $!ite t impr+e t!e refle(ti+it)8 T!en t!e mirrr paper i# fi


Genera-or -#0e



T!e &eneratr tube $a# made f t$ / diameter *S tube f &au&e mm and !a+in& a len&t! f /m8 U#in& !i&! &au&e tube $a# t $it!#tand e+en !i&!er pre##ure#8 T!e initial de#i&n $a# t u#e a &eneratr tube f 1 diameter f &au&e mm8U#in& #u(! lar&e diameter tube $ill redu(e t!e effe(ti+e #urfa(e area e


 T!e pre##ure &au&e i# u#ed i# a (mpund pre##ure &au&e u#ed fr (!e(7in& pre##ure f  ammnia and il8 A pre##ure &au&e mu#t al$a)# be a##embled aln& $it! a +al+e8 T!i# i# t fa(ilitate t!e repla(in& f pre##ure &au&e if it $ent $rn&8 After fini#!in& t!e lea7 (!e(7 and &i+in& ptin# fr +al+e# and &au&e#- t!e &eneratr  tube $a# pli#!ed u#in& #and paper t rem+e #(ale8 T!en t!e tube# $ere painted $it!  bla(7 matte fini#! paint8 T!i# i# dne t en#ure ma


Ho'e o""ar'



A"ua ammnia i# +er) mu(! (rr#i+e t (pper and it# all)# a# ammnia readil) rea(t# $it! (pper t &i+e a &reen (lured (upri( #alt8 H#e (llar# a+ailable in t!e mar7et are eit!er made f bra## r brn=e8 Sin(e bt! (ntain (pper $e (annt u#e t!em fr ma7in& ur (nne(tin#8 Hen(e !#e (llar# f apprpriate #i=e $ere made frm "uarter in(! *S tube#8 T!e *S pipe $a# taper turned in a lat!e t btain t!e (llar #!ape8 T!e#e !#e (llar# $ere $elded at t!e apprpriate pla(e# in t!e &eneratr tube# a# $ell a# in t!e frid&e8 H#e (llar# are u#ed a# t!e (nne(tin# $ere made u#in& rubber !#e#8



 FRIDGE MODIFICATION E3- 4or a#a a$$on3a



T!e Ele(trlu< refri&eratin #)#tem btained $a# mdified in rder t a((mmdate t!e #lar (lle(tr8 Fr t!i# t!e pipe (min& frm t!e ab#rber tan7 $a# (ut u#in& a (uttin& &rinder8 T!i# pipe $a# e


T!e (n(entri( pipe ad5a(ent t t!e !eatin& (il $a# (ut8 Ant!er "uarter in(! *S pipe $a# in#erted int t!e #)#tem and end $a# #ealed b) &a# $eldin&8 T!e end f t!e pipe $a# fi a$$on3a 'o"#-3on



A !le $a# drilled n t!e uter tube f t!e near t!e !eatin& (il8 T!e pipe $!i(! (arrie# t!e $ea7 ammnia #lutin (min& frm t!e re(tifier i# $elded t t!i# !le8 T!u# t!e $ea7 ammnia #lutin i# ruted t t!e ab#rber (il#8 H!droen 2ar3n "3ne



A !le $a# drilled n t!e ab#rber tan7 and a t!readed *S pipe f "uarter in(! diameter  $a# &a# $elded n it8 A +al+e $a# fi


Cnne(tin# bet$een t!e &eneratr tube and t!e refri&eratr are made u#in& rubber !#e# $it! n)ln reinfr(ement8 T!e rubber !#e# are (n ne(ted n t!e !#e (llar# and t!e made lea7 prf b) l7in& t!em $it! ad5u#table !#e (lip#8



 CHARGING C!ar&in& t!e #)#tem mean# fillin& t!e (lin& #)#tem $it! refri&erant at apprpriate (n(entratin- pre##ure and "uantit)8 In +apur ab#rptin #)#tem- ade"uate amunt f  refri&erant mu#t be (!ar&ed8 If t!e amunt f refri&erant (!ar&ed i# t !i&!- de#ired (lin& effe(t $ill nt be btained a# t!ere $ill nt be ade"uate #pa(e fr t!e e+apratin f t!e refri&erant8 In ur #)#tem- it (ntain# t!ree fluid#8 Hen(e (!ar&in& t!e #)#tem i# mre (mple< (mpared t 4AR #)#tem8 C!ar&in& f ea(! fluid i# e


Sin(e ammnia +apur i# t


H)dr&en i# t!e (arrier &a# in t!e #)#tem8 it !elp# t 7eep t!e pre##ure f t!e #)#tem (n#tant8 T!e #)#tem i# pre##uri=ed nl) after (!ar&in& f !)dr&en8 H)dr&en line i# fi


 e


 N$ b) mean# f rubber tube- !)dr&en ()linder i# (nne(ted t t!e !)dr&en (!ar&in& line8 ') mnitrin& t!e pre##ure &au&e fi


 CALCULATIONS D3$en'3on o4 'o"ar o""e-or



Frm t!e (mpan) #pe(ifi(atin# f t!e Ele(trlu< #)#tem P$er re"uired at t!e &eneratr i# >Pa(tual?



 2 ;



Slar irradiatin at trpi(al re&in >I?



22 ;m1



Effe(ti+e area re"uired t &et de#ired p$er



 >Pa(tual? I 222 28/0 m1



Fi


28/0 m



Fr a duble in+lute (u#p- t!e $idt! f t!e (lle(tr



`d



;!ere d i# t!e diameter f t!e &eneratin& (ir(le f t!e in+lute8  N$ $e !a+e 



`d d



 



28/0  28/0`



%iameter 8223m 823(m 1



T!u# an in+lute f 1 diameter &eneratin& (ir(le $a# de#i&ned fr t!e #lar (lle(tr8



 S!'-e$ (re''#re



Frm t!e #pe(ifi(atin f Ele(trlu< refri&eratin- t!e #)#tem pre##ure



 /2 ,&(m1



Ener! a"#"a-3on



Amunt f ener&) relea#ed $!en ne ml f ammnia rea(t# $it! ne ml f $ater  NH >&a#? V H1O >a"?  NHBOH>a"? Ent!alp) f rea(tin  :2 ,Jml T!i# implie# t!at an ent!alp) f 2 ,Jml i# relea#ed durin& t!e frmatin f ammnium !)dr


T!e #lar (lle(tr i# # de#i&ned t prdu(e 2; f ener&)8 2;  82 ,J# S ne minute f !eatin& &i+e# 2 < 02  B8 ,J f ener&)8 T!i# implie# t!at 7eepin& t!e #lar (lle(tr ut in t!e #un fr abut /2 min#- 2,J f  ener&) (an be prdu(ed8 T!i# i# #uffi(ient t relea#e ne mle f ammnia +apur frm t!e #lutin8



 Ma'' o4 a$$on3a 3n 'o"#-3on



*lar (n(entratin f #aturated ammnium !)dr


 / ml l



*le(ular ma## f ammnia



 / &ml



Cn(entratin f ammnia in ne liter f #lutin  / < / 13 &l 4lume f ammnium !)dr


 Bt! +lume f t!e &eneratr tube



4lume f ne &eneratr tube



 >` d1?B < /



4lume f ammnium !)dr


 B < 1 < >`d1?B 


*a## f ammnia in t!e #lutin



 13 < 280  1/380B &



Coo"3n "oad a"#"a-3on



Ent!alp) (!an&e in &eneratr- cG



 ma## < latent !eat f +apri=atin  281/3 < /1 ,J,& 2281 ,J



T!i# i# t!e amunt f ener&) ab#rbed at t!e &eneratr t liberate ammnia +apur frm #lutin To 43nd -2e -2eore-3a" -e$(era-#re dro(



A##umin& t!e frid&e i# empt) $it! nl) air in#ide t b tain t!e ma< temperature drp 4lume f (lin& (abin



 02 litre#



 Hen(e +lume f air in#ide t!e (abin



 2820 m



%en#it) f air



 /8/ ,& m >at #ea le+el- 2(?



*a## f air in#ide t!e (abin



 28203 ,&



Spe(ifi( !eat f air >( p?



 =



A##umin& ambient temperature >Tamb?



 B2 C



/822 7J7& , 



 / ,  Ent!alp) (!an&e f refri&erant durin& e+apratin  Ent!alp) (!an&e f air in#ide (abin V Ent!alp) (!an&e f ammnia +apur  A##umin& a t!ereti(al COP f 28/ COP



 cE cG



cE



 28/ < 2281 2 ,J



T!i# mu(! ener&) i# ab#rbed frm t!e e+apratr (abin cE



 m >air? < ( p < (!an&e in temperature



2



 2820 < /822 < >/ : Te? V 2811 < B8 < >/ : Te?



Te



 1082 ,  /82 C



T!i# i# t!e t!ereti(al temperature drp $!i(! (an be btained frm t!e mdified #)#tem8



 TEST PARAMETERS



T!e #)#tem $a# te#ted fr different te#t parameter# li7e •



Orientatin f #lar (lle(tr 



•



In(ident an&le f #lar irradiatin



•



Temperature drp in#ide t!e e+apratr 



•



Temperature at &eneratr tube



•



Pre##ure f t!e #)#tem



•



COP f t!e #)#tem



•



Effi(ien() f t!e #)#tem



Fr be#t re#ult#- t!e different parameter# mu#t be a# fll$# Orientatin f #lar (lle(tr



 nrt!:#ut! dire(tin8



In(ident an&le f #lar irradiatin



 !ri=ntal8



Temperature at &eneratr tube



 32 C8



Pre##ure f t!e #)#tem



 /2 bar



 COST ANAL;SIS



T!e (#t f manufa(turin& a (mpnent i# mainl) (la##ified in t t$ t)pe# MATERIAL COST



It i# t!e (#t f material u#ed fr manufa(turin& t!e prdu(t8 I-e$ Refri&eratr Generatr tube >/ diameter- /m len&t!? Clle(tr plate > 2 < 12? P4C (atin& >2 < /? *irrr paper >2 < /? *atte fini#! bla(7 paint Sand paper > _ 2 and _ /22? Air ma#ter ammnia Pre##ure &au&e , +al+e > 1 pint t)pe ?  N)ln reinfr(ed Rubber !#e H#e (lip Ammnium !)dr


#an-3-! / n8 1 n#8 / n8 / n8 / n8 2 ml 1 n#8 / n8 1 n#8 m  n#8 /22 ml / n8  liter m +



Co'-  3n R'/ -222 022 022 /2 /2 B2 12 B2 1-222 22 B2 12 /-222 B2 22 15,)5



OVER HEAD COST



All t!e e


Ind3re- 2are'



Coa'- 3n R' 2 1-222 022 2 22 7,555



 I-e$ Admini#trati+e e


To-a" o?er 2ead o'-



Co'- 3n R' 2 1-222 %,7&5



 %,7&5 7,555 &,7&5+



To-a" o'-



 15,)5  &,7&5+ 19,%5+



S#e'-3on' 4or $od343a-3on



Our pr5e(t $a# t build a dme#ti( refri&eratr $it! =er runnin& (#t8 'ut t!e pre#ent #)#tem (annt be u#ed durin& ni&!t and al# durin& (lud) #ea#n#8 Fr t!i# ant!er  #)#tem (an be atta(!ed $it! t!e #)#tem8 T!e additinal #)#tem u#ed i# (alled a #lar  ad#rptin #)#tem $!i(! utili=e# t!e i(e batter) (n(ept $!i(! $a# u#ed in earlier time#8



T!e ad#rptin #)#tem i# #imilar t +apur ab#rptin #)#tem in $!i(! ammnia +apur  i# ad#rbed n (al(ium (!lride8 Ammnia rea(t# $it! (al(ium (!lride t &i+e ammnium (!lride and (al(ium (r)#tal#8 T!e rea(tin i# a re+er#ible ne8 On !eatin& t!i# mi


 tan7 i# (l#ed8 T!en t!e li"uid ammnia i# all$ed t pa## t!ru&! t!e e+apratr tube#8 ;ater 7ept in t!e e+apratr (abin #lidifie# due t t!e e+apratin f li"uid ammnia in#ide t!e e+apratr (il8 T!e ammnia +apur t!u# frmed i# dire(ted t$ard# t!e &eneratr $!ere t!i# +apur re(mbine# $it! (al(ium (!lride8 T!e i(e frmed in t!e e+apratr (abin pr+ide# (lin& effe(t durin& ni&!t8 In(rpratin& t!e ab+e #aid #)#tem in ur pre#ent #)#tem- $e (an btain a rund t!e (l(7 dme#ti( refri&eratin $r7in& at =er runnin& (#t8



F#-#re 'o(e



In t!e pre#ent #(enari f ener&) #!rta&e t!i# #)#tem $ill be m#t $el(min&8 %ifferent frm# f #lar refri&eratin #)#tem# u#in& ab#rptin te(!ni"ue i# $idel) u#ed n$ a da)8 A &rup f #tudent# in San J#e State Uni+er#it) fabri(ated a #lar i(e ma7er u#in& a refri&erant t!er t!an ammnia8 Re#ear(! i# &in& n t effe(ti+el) utili=e t!e rene$able ener&) t run ab#rptin #)#tem# $!i(! (an deli+er better COP8



Con"#'3on



T!e pre#ent #)#tem i# !a+in& #li&!t defe(t# $!i(! (an be re(tified b) prper $eldin& f   5int#K mdif)in& t!e de#i&n f #lar (lle(tr fr $ide a((eptan(e an&le and ma7in&



 &eneratr tube# $it! material f !i&!er t!ermal (ndu(ti+it)8 Prper in#tallatin i# al# re"uired t &et t!e de#ired effe(t8



REFERENCES



/8



C8P8ARORA- Refri&eratin and Air (nditinin&- Tata *(Gra$:Hill Publi#!in& Cmpan) limited- Ne$ %el!i



18



Refri&eratin and Air Cnditinin& b) Ste(7er and Jne#



8



Slar ab#rptin #)#tem b) Sanfrd A8 ,lein- P!8%8- Fell$ ASHRAE- and %u&la# T8 Reindl- P!8%8- *ember ASHRAE



8



Ammnia a# refri&erant b)



08



Slar Ener&) Fundamental#- %e#i&n- *delin&- and Appli(atin# b) G8 N8 Ti$ari



8



A'SORPTION REFRIGERATION ,e+in %8 Raffert)- P8E8 Ge:Heat Center  ,lamat! Fall#8