David MacKenzie - Apis: the Congenial Conspirator the Life of Colonel Dragutin T Dimitrijevice Congenial Conspirator

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APIS:

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THE CONGENIAL CONSPIRATOR THE LIFE OF

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COLONEL DRAGUTIN T. DIMITRIJEVIC

by David MacKenzie

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EAST EUROPEAN MONOGRAPHS, BOULDER DISTRIBUTED BY COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS, NEW YORK

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1989

EAST EUROPEAN MON OGRAPHS, NO. CCLXV

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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To Molly Anna MacKenzie (1988- ) and her generation

Preface

V

Acknowledgments

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Colonel Apis in Quotations

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Cast of Characters

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Summary of Career of Colonel Dimitrijevic-Apis Glossary of Serbian Terms

©1989 by David MacKenzie ISB Q-88033-162-3 Library of Congress Catalog Card umber 89-80171 Copyright

PrinlCd in the United States of America

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CHAPTER !-Introductory: Apis, Martyr or Murderer?

1

CHAPTER ll-Facing Their Open Graves (June 1917)

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CHAPTER HI-Birth of A Bull

22

CHAPTER IV-Preparing the Coup (1900-1903)

31

CHAPTER V-Killing the King and Queen (May 28-29, 1903)

41

CHAPTER VI-Conspirator in Politics (1903-1908)

50

CHAPTER Vll-Apis and the "Black Hand" (1908-1912)

64

CHAPTER VIII-Zivkovic and the "White Hand," 1909-1912

76

CHAPTER lX-Maltese Fever and Balkan Wars, 1912-1913

87

CHAPTER X-Chief of Military Intelligence, 1913-1914

97

CHAPTER XI-The May Crisis, 1914

105

CHAPTER Xll-Murder in Sarajevo (June 1914)

123

CHAPTER Xlli-The Austrian War (1914-1915)

138

CHAPTER XIV -Albanian Golgotha (1915)

153

CHAPTER XV -Personal Matters (1914-1916)

169

CHAPTERXVI-Corfu Interlude (Spring 1916)

183

CHAPTER XVII-On the Salonika Front (1916)

194

CHAPTER XVlll-The Conspiracy Against Colonel Apis (1916)

207

CHAPTER XIX-The Lion is Caged (December 1916)

220

CHAPTER XX-Awaiting Trial (December 1916-March 1917)

230

CHAPTER XXI-ln Courtroom and Prison Cell (March-April 1917)

245

CHAPTER XXfi- Apis Testifies (April-May 1917)

263

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IV .

APIS: The Congenial Conspirator

CHAPTER XXIII-Condemned to Death (May 23-June 12, 1917)

278

CHAPTER XXIV-Exonerated! (1918-1953)

297 310

CHAPTER XXV- The Verdict of History

31 7

Notes

365

Bibliography

388

Lndex

PREFACE

The idea of writing a biography of Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic-Apis, Serbia's Colonel Oliver North, came to me suddenly

as

I was running one

day through Belgrade's streets in 1984. The throught struck me that there was no complete, objective study of this controversial and mysterious Serbian army officer, although many contemporaries considered him one

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of the most powerful individuals in Serbia before and during World War I. My Yugoslav friends and colleagues welcomed my idea warmly. Many had relatives or acquaintances who had belonged to the awe-inspiring "Black Hand" organization which Colonel Apis had dominated. For decades I had investigated various aspects of the Serbian national movement which culminated in 1918 in the formation of royal Yugoslavia. Having written a biography of llija Garasanin, modern Serbia's ftrst major statesman, it seemed logical to describe the life and times of Colonel A pis, a key ftgure during the climax of Serbia's struggle for the liberation and unification of fellow Serbs. That movement triggered World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, events in which Apis played a significant part. Enthu siastic support from Yugoslav friends speeded my work on this study. •

Apis' career proved so engrossing that I felt a great eagerness and urgency to complete the book. I hope it will be enjoyed on both sides of the Atlantic. David MacKenzie Greensboro, North Carolina 1988

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many persons and institutions contributed to the research and writing of this volume. Grants from the Penrose Fund of the American Philosophi cal Society and the Research Council of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro enabled the author to conduct research in Belgrade in the summer of 1984. A grant from the International Research and Exchanges Board in 1986 allowed the grantee to complete that research. Dr. Vasilije Krestic, Director of the archive of the Serbian Academy of Sciences in Belgrade assisted me to obtain the pertinent materials there and supported my applications to work in the Archive of Serbia, the Arc hive of Yugoslavia, and the Military Historical Archive. Let me thank the staffs of those institutions as well as those of the National Library in Bel grade; the Archives de Terre in Vincennes, France; Haus-, Hof-, und Staats -

archiv in Vienna; the Public Record Office in London; and the University of lliinois at Urbana for their generous cooperation and assistance. Dr. Liljana Aleksic of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Colonel Petar Opacic at the Military Historical Archive provided many helpful suggestions. Dr. Dragan Zivojinovic of Belgrade University and Mr. Sinisa Dimitrijevic of Belgrade, and Mr. Boshko N. Kostich of Milwaukee, gave the author valuable tips. My warmest thanks to go my longtime friend, Dr. Radoslav Stojanovic of the Law Faculty of Belgrade University for sugges•

tions and assistance. My special gratitude goes to the Zdravkovic and Lazovic families for making me feel fully at home in Belgrade. Among my American colleagues especially helpful was Dr. Alex Drag nich, now of Charlottesville, Virginia, who read key portions of the manu script and provided very valuable suggestions. Dr. Waiter Luczynski and ..

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Dr. Ann Saab of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, read portions of the manuscript and provided suggestions for its improvement. The author takes full responsibility for any remaining errors. Special

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thanks go to my loyal wife, Patricia, for her suggestions, patience and understanding while

1 traveled through Europe gathering material, then

isolated myself to write this book.Finally, I wish to thank Seth Hinshaw for helping me with the index.

COLONEL APIS IN QUOTATIONS

1. Character and personality: "That person is not only talented .... He is a type of magician.. . .

All

come to him without a summons, without evident reason, as if at·

tracted by this man's magical power ."-"Solunska afera." "Apis smiles because he's that way, because he is a giant, a hero, a lion .

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Apis smiles because he knows they'll shoot him ....You don't know such people: when they smile, they

are

the most dangerous." Colonel

Popovic. "That man is indifferent to everything! His friends and comrades have died but ...he seeks new people ....He will not rest until he fmds someone ready to struggle and intrigue!"-"Solunska afera." 2. On the May Coup of 1903: "The murder of the King will cause great damage to our personal repute and peace both in the country and abroad. But time will reveal that it [was]...a need of state."-Apis i n 1903. "The party had reached its peak and empty bottles were crashing against the walls when 'The Bull' [Apis] got up and jumped on the table shout ing: 'What are we waiting for! That pair in the palace must die so that Serbia can live!"'-John Godwin in

The Evening News.

3. On the "Black Hand ": I

"I believe that the name ["Black Hand"] should be interpreted that every member must be prepared to give his life for the unification of Serbdom .... "-Apis to Salonika Court .

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4. On Death: "I die innocent .. . . They found us guilty and deserving death for reasons purely of internal policy . . . . I am convinced . . .that my death .. .is necessary for the good of Serbia."-Apis to his nephew, Milan. "I do not regret that I die from Serbian guns because it is for Greater

CAST OF CHARACTERS

Serbia which I wish to see realized soon."-Apis to Colonel Dabic. 5. On the Sarajevo murder: "Malobabic carried out my instructions, organized and carried rhrough the assassination. Its chief participants were all in my service. "-Apis to Salonika Court.

Todor Dimitrijevic-Apis' father Jelena (Dimitrijevic) Zivanovic-Apis's sister

"He was the spirit, leader and organizer of the national-revolutionary movement who always kept in mind .

.

. all regions where our people

lived and were under foreign tyranny . ... He was a soldier and politician, simultaneously the Garibaldi and Mazzini of the Yugoslav war for

0. Tartaglia,

Dragutin T. Dirnitrijevic (Apis) Jovanka Dimitrijevic-Apis' mother

6. Place in history:

liberation."

1. Apis and His Family:

Veleizdajnik.

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Zivan Zivanovic-Apis' brother-in-law, politician Milan Z. Zivanovic-Apis' nephew, Zivan's son 2. Leaders of the "Black Hand" (founded August 191 1): a. The founders-

!) Ljubornir S. Jovanovic-Cupa-editor of Piedmont-civilian

"I have always in life done everything with the deep conviction that I

2) Bogdan Radenkovic, Macdeonian activist-civilian

am working for the good of the country, and that if I now had done

3) Velimir Vemic-officer

anything, I would say so openly . "-Apis to Colonel Stojkovic, 1917.

4) llija Radivojevic, Chairman-officer 5) Vojislav Tankosic, guerrilla chieftain-officer 6) Cedomir Popovic-officer 7) Dragutin Dirnitrijevic-Apis-officer b. Original Central Executive Comrnitte-the above plus: 8) Ilija M. Jovanovic-officer 9) Milan Vasic, secretary of Narodna Odbrana-officer I0) Milan G. Milovanovic-"Pilac" -officer 3. Serbian Rulers and political leaders: Alexander Obrenovic, King of Serbia, 1893-1903 Peter Karadjordjevic, King of Serbia, 1903-I922 ' Alexander Karadjordjevic II, Prince Regent, 1914-22, King of Yugoslavia, 1922-34 Djordje Karadjordjevic, older son of King Peter, Heir to throne, 1903-9 Nikola Pa5ic ( 1845-1926), head of Radical Party, premier and foreign minister of Serbia and Yugoslavia

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Ljubomir Jovanoiv6-Patak, Radical1eader, Interior Minister Stojan Proti6, Radical leader, Interior Minister, issued Priority Decree General Radomir Putnik, Chief of Serbian General Staff to end 1915 4. Other important characters: Antic, Antonije: officer, an initiator of May Coup. B1agojevi6, Alexander (Aca): "Black Hand" officer, friend of Apis. Bogi6evi6, Milos: Serbian diplomat who defected to Germany, biographer of Apis. Bozanovic, Milos: "Black Hand" officer, general, war minister. DraSkic, Panta: "Black Hand" officer, Prince Alexander's adjutant. DraSkovic, Milorad: Independent Radical leader. Dunjic, Milan: commander of Salonika garrison. Franz Ferdinand, Archduke: Austrian heir apparent, murdered in SaraJevo. Jankovi6, Radoje: "Black Hand" officer, poet, protested Salonika Trial. J ovanovic, Slobodan: Outstanding Serbian histori�, politician. JuriSic-Sturm, Pavle: "White Hand" officer, witness at Salonika Trial. Kostic, Josif: "White Hand" officer, deadly enemy of Apis. Lazic, Radoje: "Black Hand" officer, defendant at Salonika and Retrial. Malobabi6, Rade: Serbian national activist, Apis' chief agent and friend. Masin, Draga: Queen of Serbia, 1901-03, murdered in May Coup. MiSic, Peter: May conspirator, chairman o( Salonika Lower Court, 1917. Paunovic, Father Zdravko: military priest, confessed Apis at Salonika. Popovic, Damjan: general, "Black Hand" leader, leader of May Coup. Pro tic, J osif G.: assistant officer guard at Salonika Prison, 1917. Radovanovic, Milorad Koca: "White Hand" officer, accuser of Peter Zivkovic. Simic, Bozin: "Black Hand" officer, a conspirator of 1903. Stojkovic, Milan: chief officer warden of Salonika Officers' Prison. Terzic, Bozidar: general, Serbian War Minister, 1916- 18. Tucovic, Vladirnir: "Black Hand" officer, close friend of Apis. Vasic, Milos: commander ofThird Army on Salonika Front, foe of Apis. Vasiljevic, Prvoslav: Belgrade lawyer, Apis' defender in Retrial of 1953. Vulovic, Ljubomir: "Black Hand" officer, executed at Salonika, 1917. Zivkovic, Peter: "White Hand" officer, Guards commander, enemy of Apis. I

SUMMARY OF CAREER

OF COLONEL DIMITRIJEVIC-APIS

Entered the Military Academy's Lower Course September 28, 1893 in 26th Class, graduating August 2 , 1896 as junior lieutenant of infantry. Promoted to first lieutenant of infantry August 2 , 1899. Attended Military Academy's Higher Course (8th Class) from September 26, 1898 until October 15, 1900. Promoted to junior captain of infantry Decembe 29, 1902. Promoted to general staff captain flrst class June 29, 1905. Promoted to general staff major August 27, 1908. Promoted to general staff lieutenant-colonel January 14, 1913. Promoted to general staff colonel October 1 , 1915. Posts and duties: Platoon leader of 1st battalion of 7th Infantry Regiment from August 2 , 1896 until October 20, 1897. Instructor at non-corn infantry school from October 20, 1897 until September 26, 1898. Acting commander of 1st company of 24th battalion from October 15, 1900 until October 14, 1901. Clerk in the General Staff from October 14, 1901. Transferred to the General Staff May 20, 1905. until November 27, 1906. Student on state stipend .abroad from Served in the general military division of the General Staff November 27, 1906 until March 13, 1907. Assistant chief of staff of Danube Division from March 23, 1907 until October 3, 1907.

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Assistant chief of staff of Drina Division October

3, 1907 until May 3,

1909. Commander o f 1st battalion of

11th infantry regiment from May 3,

1909 until February 9, 1910.

Chief of staff of the Cavalry Division from July 24, 1910 until August 18, 1913 and Professor Strategy at the Lower Course of the Military Aca

demy from October

15, 1910 until September 1912 .

Chief of the Intelligence Division of the operational section of the Gen

eral staff from August at Lower Course.

During World War I he continued serving as Intelligence Chief until March 27,

27, 1915 until

Served as assistant chief of staff of Third Army, then chief of staff until

16, 1916. Vojno-istorijski arhiv, Belgrade

11

"Cma Ruka"-the "Black Hand" Cmorukac-member of the "Black Hand'

10, 1916.

December

cetnik-guerrilla fighter Cetniks-royalist Yugoslav resistance during World War

19 15.

Served as chief of staff of the Timok Army from March March

GLOSSARY OF SERBIAN TERMS

18, 1913 until July 1914 and Professor of Strategy

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gymnasium-classical secondary school komite-guerrilla figher "Mlada Bosna"-"Young Bosnia," nationalistic Bosnian student group Narodna Odbrana-National Defense, a Serbian national organization formed in

1908 to oppose Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Hercegovina

Skupstina-Assembly in Serbia, later in Yugoslavia Sumadija-"land of forests," the heartland of Serbia "Ujedinjenje iH smrt!"-"Unification or Death!", the formal name of the organization, founded in

1911 commonly called the "Black Hand."

vojvoda-chieftain, leader of guerrilla fighters Vojvoda-general, commander-in-chief

15/28, the day when the Turks defeated the Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo (1389) and when Archduke Franz Ferdinand was murdered (1914).

Vidovdan-St. Vitus Day, June

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INTRODUCTION:

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CHAPTER I

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"Apis" is "bee" in Greek and "bull" in Egyptian. Christened Dragutin

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T. Dimitrijevic in August 1876, "Apis" was a huge Serbian General Staff officer and national revolutionary. Known in Yugoslavia chiefly as the leader of a secret Serbian national society nicknamed the "Black Hand," Apis from 1901 until shot by his own government near Salonika, Greece in

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GULF Of

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June 1917, played a unique role in the Serbian army and politics. School mates called him "Apis" (The Bull) for his massive physique and dynamic energy; the nickname stuck. Entering the Military Academy in Belgrade at sixteen, he later became a General Staff officer. Little Serbia then was ruled by autocratic King Al.exander Obrenovic whose repressive policies at home and passivity abroad made him unpopular with nationalistic Serbs. Young Lieutenant Dimitrijeyic-Apis rose swiftly to prominence after

SERBIA AND ADJACENT LANDS

King Alexander in 1900 married Draga Ma�in. his ex-mistress. Humiliated by their king's inappropriate match with an older woman of dubious re pute and indignant at his subservience to their national enemy, Austria-

1


2

Introduction

3

Hungary, Apis and young officer friends organized a farflung conspiracy.

In May 1914 Apis spearheaded the officer corps' resistance to Interior

They aimed to remove the Obrenovic royal couple from Serbia's throne and end unworthy and unpatriotic policies. On May 29, 1903, 1 Junior

Minister Stojan Proti<�'s decree prescribing the priority of civil over mili tary authority in conquered Macedonia. That involved him in a bitter

Captain Dimitrijevic-Apis led the conspirators to victory but was griev

power struggle with the Radical government artd Prince Alexander who in

ously wounded by royal guards. For weeks Apis hovered between life

June became Prince Regent. The Prince's intimates at the Serbian court

and death. The sensational murder of Serbia's rulers horrified Europe.

and in the army, led by Colonel Peter Zivkovic, formed the so-called

The May conspirators, relinquishing power promptly to civilian politi

"White Hand" to combat the Apis group's vast influence.

cians and the new king, Peter Karadjordjevic, continued to exert influence

Colonel Apis helped organize and direct the conspiracy to muder Arch

behind the scenes. In 1906 senior conspirators retired from the army

duke Franz Ferdinand, the Austrian heir, on June 15, 1914 in Sarajevo,

under foreign pressure. Dominating the junior conspirators with personal

Bosnia. His avowed purpose was to prevent or delay an Austrian attack on

magnetism, Apis won over leading military and political figures and spur

Serbia, exhausted from recent wars. Instead, the Archduke's death trig

red essential army reforms. For a decade he remained a leading factor in

gered the outbreak of World War I. Later, Bosnian guerrilla allies of Apis

Serbian affairs.

plotted to kill pro-German kings, Constantine of Greece and Ferdinand

Apis above all was a dedicated fighter and national revolutionary. He

of Bulgaria. During World War I Apis participated in several key cam

favored uniting all Serbs into a Greater Serbia or a Yugoslavia2 much as

paigns, including the terrible Serbian retreat through Albania and sub

Prussia under Bismarck earlier had united most Germans in the German

sequent fighting on the Salonika Front. By then with many colleagues

Empire of 1871. During lengthy visits to Germany, Apis learned the

killed in battle, Apis' faction was gravely weakened.

language, attended army maneuvers, and returned home impressed by the

In December 1916 the Serbian exile regime on Corfu suddenly arrested

army's discipline, power, and patriotism. Austria-Hungary's sudden an

Colonel Apis and other surviving "Black Hand" leaders. Accused of trea

nexation of Bosnia and Hercegovina, two South Slav provinces, in October

son and attempted murder of Prince Regent Alexander, they were tried

1908 provoked a wave of patriotic fervor in Serbia, but Belgrade had to

by an officers' military court in Salonika the following spring. Convicted,

accept the outcome. Efforts to unite all Serbis under Belgrade's aegis

their sentences were confirmed by a higher military court packed with

seemed doomed. Seeking to dispel discouragement and apathy, a few

their enemies. Despite vehement protests from Serbian opposition leaders

Serbian officers and civilians in May 1 9 1 1 organized the military society,

and Allied powers, Apis and two close colleagues, Major Ljubomir Vulo·

''Unification or Death!", soon nicknamed the "Black Hand." Persuaded

vie and the civilian, Rade Malobabic, were executed near Salonika. The

to join its Central Executive Committee, Apis soon became its chief

death sentences of six others were commuted to imprisonment. In postwar

leader. He described its patriotic goals to Foreign Minister Milovanovic

royal Yugoslavia the tragic fate of Apis and the aims of the ''Black Hand"

securing his and the government's full support for its activities. Apis per

were debated sharply, but King Alexander's authoritarian regime blocked

suaded Prince Alexander Karadjordjevic, Serbia's heir apparent, to con

any rehabilitation of Apis and his friends. To vindicate his beloved uncle

tribute a sizable sum to the newspaper,

as

Piedmont,

which became the

"Black Hand's" strident public voice. A severe illness contracted on a reconnaissance mission in Albania de

a Serbian martyr, Milan Zivanovic after World War Il launched a cam

paign for a retrial. Held in Socialist Yugoslavia in 1953, the retrial ex·· onerated Apis and his codefendents.

prived Apis of any part in the .Balkan wars of 19 12-1913 which brought

Enough time has elapsed to permit the first objective assessment of

Serbia much of disputed Macedonia. Later in 1913 Lieutenant Colonel

Apis' life and career. No longer do storms of controversy swirl so fiercely

Apis was named head of the General Staffs intelligence division. Inside

around Apis and the "Black Hand," and abundant materials are available

Austria-Hungary

his agents, headed by ex-insurance salesman, Rade

to the biographer. Crucial is the extensive archive collection over many

Malobabic, gathered extensive information for the Serbian high command.

years by Apis' nephew. After his death in 1978, that collection came to

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4

Introduction

5

the Serbian Academy of Sciences in Belgrade. Including many previously

personal animosity and jealousy toward Apis by "White Hand" leaders

unpublished documents, it constituted the basis for Milan Zivanovic's

such as Colonels Zivkovic and Kostic?

thesis and book on his uncle and the Salonika Trial. 3 A labor of love,

Colonel Apis' role in the Sarajevo assassination plot remains disputed.

Zivanovic's work understandably was biased strongly in the Colonel's

Can one accept his assertions in

favor. The only other previous book about Apis, brief and partisan, was

murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand? Or did the initiative come from the

a superficial account by a Serbian diplomat and friend who defected to

revolutionary youths of "Young Bosnia" who implemented the assassina

Germany during World War 1.4 Portions of Vladimir Dedijer's work about

tion? If Apis acted as initiator, did he seek to provoke or delay war with

the background of the Sarajevo assassination cast new light on Apis' career,

Austria-Hungary? Can he be considered the key figure in the outbreak of

important for twentieth century Yugoslav and European history. 5 Dedijer

World War I?

included Apis' previously unpublished farewell letter to his nephew and

1917 that he planned and organized the

Numerous issues arise from Apis' conviction in the controversial Salon

examined his alleged connections with Germany. For this biography the

ika Trial of

author gathered data from Yugoslav, French, Austrian and British archives,

sentence him and his friends to death? Who prepared the Salonika Trial?

published documentary collections, newspapers, memoirs, and various

Critics allege that its organizers sought mainly personal vengeance, either

secondary materials.

to remove dangerous opponents from the Serbian scene or to facilitate a

1917. For which crime or crimes did the lower military court

Since his controversial execution near Salonika, Apis' role and that of

separate peace with Austria-Hungary by punishing organizers of the Sara

the "Black Hand" have been debated in Yugoslav and foreign historical

jevo assassination. Was the verdict at Salonika based on fact and law or

literature. Were they dedicated to legitimate patriotic goals outside Serbia

was it judicial murder, as Apis' adherents allege? Why did Prince Alex

or to subversive agitation against Serbia's dynasty and regime? Did they

ander, while commuting some of the sentences to imprisonment, refuse

aim at a Greater Serbia by joining Montenegro and Serbs of Austria-Hun

to reprieve Apis and his two close friends? Was the Trial's target Apis the

gary to Serbia, or a Yugoslavia-either a Serbian-led royal state like inter

individual, or the "Black Hand" as an organization?' Did exoneration of

war Yugoslavia or a genuine federation of all Yugoslav peoples under a

Apis and his colleagues at the

republic or constitutional monarchy? His defenders insist that Apis was a

why do the three who were executed remain outside Serbia in unmarked

patriotic and loyal officer dedicated to Serbia's victory in World War I.

graves?

1953 Retrial truly "close the case"? Then

His enemies to the contrary claim that he was a traitor and assassin, per

The activities of Apis and his colleagues raise significant moral issues.

haps employed by Germany, who plotted to murder the Prince Regent,

Whether assassination and war are justifiable to achieve widely held popu

overturn the Radical regime and Karadjordjevic dynasty and establish

lar goals such as national liberation and unification remains debatable.

military rule in Serbia.

Intolerant nationalism employing murder and violence today appears less

Many controversies about Apis, the May conspirators, and the "Black

heroic than it did in

1914. The May Coup required Apis and other officer

Hand" persist. What were their motives and political views? They have

conspirators to violate oaths of loyalty to their king and commander-in

been depicted variously as national revolutionaries, monarchists, repub

chief. Were such actions criminal or justifiable by reason of state? Gavrilo

licans, militarists, or even proto-Fascists. Some view Apis as a "grey

Princip by killing Archduke franz Ferdinand believed he had performed a

eminence" who determined all basic decisions and appointments in Serbia

heroic and laudable act which resulted in creation of a unified Yugoslav

from

1906 to 1914. If so, what explained his preeminence? If A pis' influ

state; he remains a national hero. Was the Serbian national movement

ence was so extensive, how could the Corfu government have him tried

which helped precipitate a great world war costing millions of lives morally

and executed? Prince Alexander and the Radical Party, once Apis' warm

defensible? Should Apis, who claimed credit for leading the May Coup

supporters, became his mortal enemies. Did they quarrel chiefly over

against the Obrenovic and for planning the Archduke's assassination be

civil vs. military primacy, or control over the army? How significant was

considered a national hero or the prototype of today's terrorists?


6

The fate of Apis and his friends casts a new light on the royal Yugoslav regime. Its founders and chief leaders: King Alexander Karadjordjevic; Nikola Pasic, bearded patriarch of the Radical Party; Interior Minister Jovanovic-Patak

and Colonel Peter

Zivkovic-organized the

Salonika

Trial, insisting upon Apis' execution despite grave doubts about his guilt. Preeminent at King Alexander's court throughout the interwar period was General Zivkovic, a talented homosexual intriguer with a powerful hold over the King. If these men indeed staged the Salonika Trial chiefly to secure revenge and to consolidate their personal power, what does that reveal about the royal regime imposed upon the Yugoslav peoples in

1934 and the swift collapse of 1941 might be considered

Apis' belated revenge upon his executioners. If Archduke Franz Ferdinand, "the dead man of Sarajevo,"7 had long arms, so too did Colonel Apis. These complex and interlocking issues are explored here in his study of Dragutin Dimitrijevic-Apis and his times.Since that fateful June dawn out side Salonika where he and his two friends were executed abundant evi dence has surfaced to justify a new and objective examination of his life and role.

11

1918?

King Alexander's assassination in Marseilles in of royal Yugoslavia before the Nazi invasion

CHAPTER

FACING THEIR OPEN GRAVES (JUNE 1917) The thing is over . . ..The (Higher) Military Court has condemned me and my friends to death .... Now I stand before an open grave and do not know how many hours I will remain in this world .

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..I die innocent ....

I am convinced ...that my death, and the deaths of my friends, is necessary for the good of Serbia. Apis to Milan Zivanovic, June

Salonika Officers ' Prison, June 12/25, Evening:

12/25, 1 9 1 7

Apis remained in ter

rible suspense about the Prince Regent's decision. Several times that even ing, recorded Captain Milan Stojkovic, the prison commander, Apis had called him to his cell to ask about the verdict.The previous time, having flnished his last testament, Apis, agitated, was pacing the room. But Stoj kovic could tell him nothing. No decision would come that night, concluded Apis. "He had had little for �upper and went to bed early, so when I came to him with the priest at eleven PM, he was sleeping soundly.I awakened him, and he roused himself and sat on the bed." 1 To Apis's amazement Father Zdravko Paunovic came in with the Cap tain.Then it dawned upon him.His worst fears were being realized: Prince

7

8


Regent Alexander must have confmned his death sentence. But Apis shook hands warmly with the aged priest, and Stojkovic left them alone. Until that moment Apis had hoped the death sentences imposed by Salonika's Lower Military Court upon him and his comrades, most of which the Higher Military Court had upheld, might be commuted by the Prince to imprisonment. Father Makarije had already heard his confession, so why had Father Paunovic come to his cell so late? Would the verdict be carried out that very night? Unknown to Apis, the organizers of the Salonika Trial badly wanted a confession of guilt from the three to be executed: Colonel Dirnitrijevic-Apis, Major Ljubomir Vulovic, and Rade Malobabic. Yet Father Makarije, who had seen them, flatly refused to divulge what he had heard in confession. Serbian law prescribed that before execution, a priest should hear confessions of the condemned, administer commun ion, accompany them to the execution site, and hold a service at their graves. When Father Makarije proved obdurate, Colonel Milan Dunjic, Salonika garrison commander, upon instruction dispatched the aged Paunovic who agreed to report everything to the authorities. Father Paunovic began his account of his visit to Apis: The room is large, the door open, well lighted by a lamp on a table in the middle of the room.Dragutin [Apis] did not notice our en trance. He was lying on the bed his face toward the ceiling. An of ficer [Stojkovic] preceded me, went up to him and said: 'Colonel, sir!' Jumping up hastily, Colonel Apis offered the priest both his hands, brought him a chair, and urged him to be seated. Why had Paunovic come so late? When the priest explained, Apis thanked him warmly: So they have convicted us, but what our heads and lives will give them I don't know. Do you know if the Crown has confirmed our sentences and whether they will shoot all of us and when, or have some at least been reprieved? Paunovic pleaded ignorance. "Surely," objected Apis, "the verdict was approved before they let you come to us tonight. That means we'll be shot tomorrow . ...Have you been to see my other friends?" He had seen only Vulovic and Malobabic, replied Paunovic. "That means we three are finished!" exclaimed Apis.

Facing Their Open Graves

9

Paunovic knew that several other officers condemned to death by the Salonika courts had been reprieved, but he intimated he would be seeing all the convicted officers. Knowing Apis' distress that his friends from the "Black Hand" would be shot because of him, ·the Serbian authorities wished to prolong his uncertainty to the end. But Paunovic's admission he had seen only Vulovic and Malobabic convinced Apis that just three would face the firing squad."The fewer the better; that is how I had cal culated," said Apis. "Thus it is death! ...That means I should have died in the war, but God did not grant that, wishing me to perish thus instead, probably because the interests of Greater Serbia and Yugoslavia demand it.All right, if it is to be so, then I will die calmly and easily. Believe me, sir," he continued, grasping the priest's hand vigorously, "our intentions, desires and activities were totally patriotic, but shit was drawn into the organization . ...Thus everthing went wrong." Some "Black Hand" mem bers indeed had sinned. " ...When those devils got their toenails in, everything went wrong and we ended up here .... If your intentions were solely patriotic, objected Paunovic, your deeds should have been great and bright.Then why did you act secretly, inspir ing fear and doubt? Why did "Unification or Death!" become at birth a scarecrow and bogeyman? Did not secrecy draw many into that dark labyrinth for selfiSh and unworthy reasons, turning patriotic dreams to dust? Apis sought to explain: "

But it could not have been otherwise . ...We had already spilled blood and carried out the revolution of May 29th [ 1903]. And when we saw that we had been mistaken, then we thought we had to do everything in secrecy.Since the cause was almost lost because some comrades betrayed us, secrecy and caution became even more essential ....But I never believed [Nikola] Pasic and Stojan Protic and the Radical Party would oppose us? •

Why did Radical leaders turn against the conspirators?, Paunovc inquired. And why did Apis blame them? The Radicals, stated the Colonel, ap proved the May 1903 coup initially. This toppled the Obrenovic rulers, brought the rival Karadjordjevic dynasty to Serbia's throne, and the Radi cals to power. Then they quarreled with the 1903 conspirators, persecuted and sought to eliminate them. "Unable to think of anything else, they had


10

Facing Their Open Grave

11

to involve us in an assassination attempt and then cause our deaths.3 There

farewell to you, and through you to all our folk

fore I complain most about Pa5ic and Protic since we had not expected

when that happy moment comes when you see them again, to em

this of them. They had suffered long from Obrenovic persecution; they

brace and kiss them and assure them how much I loved them all and

should have helped and reprieved us." Apis and his friends believed Inter

wished them every happiness and good fortune.

in

Serbia, I ask you,

ior Minister Ljubomir Jovanovic-Patak and his police had concocted the entire Salonika Trial.

Referring to his imminent death and those responsible, Apis wrote:

Why had Rade Malobabic been involved with the "Black Hand"? asked the priest. Rade, Apis explained, was a dedicated Serbian agent in Bosnia

I

and Austria; the authorities accused him of shooting at Prince Regent

politics, and strictly for reasons of internal policy we must leave this

Alexander so they could condemn "Black Hand" leaders to death.

world. I shall die peacefully and with a clear conscience.

Thus my conscience is clear and I can die in peace. I am a person good in spirit like my late mother, God forgive her, and therefore have never done any evil to anyone. Why am I to be shot? I do not know. I shall die peacefully, especially if and when the interests of Greater Serbia and Yugoslavia demand it. Paunovic noted he must visit other convicted officers. Did Apis first wish to confess and take communion? He had not received communion for a long time, responded Apis, nor would he now. He had harmed no one. Silence ensued as Apis pondered. As a priest and friend of his uncle did Paunovic believe he should hear his confession? The priest claimed he then delivered an entire sermon, persuading Apis to confess and take com munion.4 Apis requested Paunovic to transmit to his nephew a farewell letter and drafts of his remarks in court. he could do so, declared the priest, only if Captain Stojkovic agreed. They summoned the Captain and Pauno vic read him parts of Apis' farewell letter. Saying there was no need to read it all, Stojkovic returned it to Paunovic, authorizing him to give it to Apis' nephew, Milan Zivanovic. 5 The package of notes Stojkovic would deliver to Salonika commandant, Colonel Dunjic. Apis left other personal effects and his last testament on his table.' Colonel Apis' letter to Milan reveals his feelings after he learned that the Higher Military Court had upheld the death sentences of seven of them. 7 With only a few hours to live: All those hours I dedicate to our dear ones, to Serbia and to you, dear boy. In my thoughts I am with you and embrace you alJ. Saying

•

die innocent. They found us guilty and deserving death. That is

I

will feel

no pain because I am dying from Serbian weapons convinced I am perishing only because the authorities have decided that my death and the deaths of my friends is necessary for the good of Serbia. For that cause I have always been prepared to give up my transitory, earthly life. Assuring his nephew he could be proud of his relative, Apis emphasized Milan's heavy family responsibilities: I hope that you knew me well and will be convinced that your uncle was an honorable man with a good heart, a good soul, a boundlessly enthusiastic Serb who believed in the better future of Serbdom and the Yugoslavs .. .. And you be and remain always a good and honor able man and an honorable Serb.

I

am convinced you will live in

more fortunate times and will not have to struggle as we have had to struggle for Serbdom.That gives me hope that you, in your life, can dedicate yourself more to our dear ones and work more peacefully for your and our family's well-being. Milan must cherish and protect its women and children while preparing llim self for a productive life.

•

Was it perhaps this passage which caused the architects of Apis' conviction and death to withhold Apis' letter from his nephew? I truely die innocent. In the future, if you fmd it necessary you can seek means to confirm this. When conditions are orderly and passions subside, you can seek also by legal means to confirm our innocence.


12


13

For us that will have no significance, but you, if you wish, can at

had been reprieved, they grew animated. One shouted: "Long live the

tempt it. In the court documents there are traces and you can easily

Heir!" Major Velimir Vemic, originally condemned to death, proclaimed

fmd the path you should follow to establish our innocence. I do not

loudly: "My wish is to use the remainder of my life to prove my innocence

leave this to you as a duty, but only bring it to your attention so

and that I deserved mercy." The reprieved were· informed that next day

that you may know.

they could send thanks to Prince Alexander. Now after six months con finement, they could converse with one another, move more freely, and

Somehow, young Milan discerned his uncle's desire for vindication, care fully concealed by those who doomed him. Milan would devote much of his life to rehabilitate his uncle's reputation.

receive visits. When the others were summoned to receive this happy news, Apis re mained in his room, unaware of their departure. About

1 1 : 3 0 PM he sum

Apis exhorted Milan to "embrace my dear sister who protected and

moned Captain Stojkovic, who sent his deputy, Lieutenant J osif Protic,

nurtured me" and thank other family members for their "boundless love

who earlier had served under Apis. Protic found the Colonel sitting at his

towards me. Kiss the hand of our dear Dad and ask him to believe that I

table smoking. "Ah, there you are, dear Protic !" exclaimed Apis warmly

always loved and respected him like my own father. "8

and offered him a cigarette. "And where is dear Stojkovic, are we going to

Now he would set out on the path taken earlier by his mother, Jovanka,

see him?" The Captain was busy, responded Protic, but would accompany

"who taught me to be good." Surely, on the other side he would find all

them to the execution site. "Well, thus my dear fellow, as you see I have

the deceased relatives and friends "who made my life on earth happy and

lost the game. I t is all over." Continued Apis nervously: "Look, you can

who eagerly await me once again. My path to eternity is much easier for

see I am now as quiet as a child, I'm not at all worried. Please smoke. I'm

me since I know I am going whence they all departed earlier." His pain was

smoking a lot since it is for the last time." After lighting Protic's cigarette,

terrible, nonetheless, for leaving the living, especially "because I am un

Apis remarked:

able to see you all once in person and to embrace you." Concluded Apis: Now there is something you can do for me. Greet Ljuba 'Patak' I am deeply moved by our parting, my dear little Milan, and embrace

(Interior Minister Ljubomir Jovanovic] . . . . Tell him he has won

and kiss you, my loved one, with all my heart and soul. My last wish

the game, but let him watch out since if he has erred, his children

for all of you is that you be happy and accept calmly my tragic

will atone for it. I blame him alone for being abandoned by my

death, just as I leave this world with a calm and clear conscience.9

people and friends. I erred, Protic, but I never expected them to sign my death warrant . . . . But you'll see, I shall die quietly, complete

Withholding this poignant letter comprised a terrible blot on Father Pauno

ly peacefully.

viC's memory. From fear, servility or feebleness, he obeyed those who gave him an unworthy mission, not his conscience and his God.

Would Protic please transmit his last testament and a package of letters

Leaving Apis, Paunovic went into the duty officer's office so tired,

and documents to his nephew? "I know you have to show all this lto the

nervous and upset he could barely stand. As he left that office, the other

authorities] . Then give wh�tever remains to my dear nephew so he'll

convicted men were leaving another room where Salonika commandant,

remember his uncle. I have no other descendants." Then Apis gave Protic

Colonel Dunjic, had infonned them their death sentences had been com

his most prized military decoration, the star of Karadjordje:

11

munted to imprisonment. 1 I: 55 PM.· In the room of the supervising prison officers, the Prince

I know they'U strip me of my rank. I'll go with my stripes and cock

Regent's decree amending the Higher Military Court's verdict was com

ade, but I don't want to go to my execution with this decoration.

municated to the others convicted in the Salonika Trial.1 0 Learning they

You are an officer, so I'll give this to you as a memento since I don't •

14

APIS: The Congenial Conspirator want it to go to my family. You know, I wore it honorably for sev eral years, but then being engaged in this unfortunate political mat ter and things that were forbidden, unworthy things according to them, I consider that I am, in their view, unworthy as an officer, so I don't want to carry this on my fmal journey; keep it.

His briefcase and cigarette case would go to Captain Stojkovic. Gently, Protic informed Apis they would be leaving for the execution site about 1 AM. Then Protic left the room, not trusting himself to look at the con demned Apis. 1 2 Just after 1 AM, related Stojkovic, he found Apis walking around his room. He told him it was time to leave. Instead of putting on his blouse, the Colonel looked at him questioningly. Commandant Dunjic and the others were waiting for them below, insisted Stojkovic. Picking up a sum mer tunic he had never worn in prison, Apis asked hesitantly: "Are you going to be with me?" As the Captain nodded, Apis quickly put on the tunic and buttoned it. Suddenly changing his questioning, uncertain be havior, Apis smiled. He asked permission to bid farewell to comrades re maining in the prision and the guards. As he did so, the Colonel appeared resolute, pleasant and wholly natural. But anyone who knew him well realized his calmness was somewhat forced. Stojkovic discerned that the Colonel still hoped for a last minute reprieve. A fleet of automobiles awaited them below. Apis and the Captain entered the second car; Major Vulovic and Protic the first; and Malobabic and Priest Paunovic the third. All were accompanied by gendarmes. As they entered the car, Apis pointed to the running board: "You've got something broken there." Stojkovic sat next to Apis with a sergeant of the guard; on his right was the Captain's orderly. Apis turned to him: "Ah, so it is you, Yule! It is only right that you should now rest a little." Apis cautioned the soldiers: "Just aim well at me!" He lit one cigarette after another but spoke very calmly: "Do we have far to go? Where is this place? Why are we going by night when the soldiers won't be able to see to aim? They should wait for it to grow light." Asked Stojkovic: "Aren't you go ing to scold anyone even now?" Laughing, Apis said: "You know I often told you about these people; this is their thanks after fourteen years, yet they would be beggars if it were not for me."13 But if it would benefit Greater Serbia, so be it. "Look at me, I am completely calm and fear


15

nothing. This isn't the first time I have faced bullets; I faced them on May 29th [ 1903] " Then sharply, ironically: "Greet Vemic; he acted shame fully. I've already told you all that I did for him. I quarreled with my friends because of him, believing him to be an honoi:able man." 14 Priest Paunovic, entering the third car with Malobabic and another officer and a soldier, found it as dark inside as the interior of a jar. As they left Salonika, nothing was visible. Where were they headed? Malobabic, handcuffed, stared miserably before him, holding his hands in front of his face as if in prayer. "I know Salonika well," he said, "but I don't know where we are going, though it seems to me we are on the road to Mikra." He was right. The procession turned off the Mikra road to a lonely ravine. When they reached the turnoff at Bejas-kule, Apis queried: "How many of us are there? This is really a big escort." Declared Captain Stojkovic: "You, Vulovic and Malobabic; the others were reprieved." "The fewer the better," responded Apis relieved. A little further on Stojkovic re marked: "I am surprised you didn't write something." Responded Apis: "1 regret that 1 didn't have time to write a history of my activities, but that would have taken me two years. I needed the energy and strength for my work." Leaning toward Stojkovic, the Colonel said slowly: .

I emphasized to you once that I may have erred by writing openly in that letter and at those hearings that I planned the Sarajevo as sassination. I would say now that this is the main reason for my death. 15 Looking at the caravan of automobiles, he remarked ironically: "That's the way it is tonight. Still you see that this circus is officially pompous, I and Radojlovic!"1' The procession halted near the execution site. 17 Getting out of the auto mobiles,they proceeded on fqot for almost twenty minutes through a dark ravine by the light of lanterns. Lieutenant Protic led the way, followed by Vulovic limping on his bad leg, then Apis and Stojkovic. Apis asked if he could converse with Vulovic, and when Stojkovic nodded, he joked: "How is it going, Ljubo, can you make it? This is one form of night wartime ser vice." Protested Major Vulovic: "Look, Protic, where are you taking us through this swamp?" Apis added: "Look, we are going alive into a black


16


17

pit." He requested Stojkovic to tell his family how he had looked during

As the preparations proceeded, the three condemned comrades, reunited

these final hours. "Don't say that you were in command but were present.

after six months enforced separation, talked or whispered to one another.

I should have written something about you, but.

. . " he broke off. Did he

In a loud whisper overheard by Paunovic, Malobabic lamented: "See where

wish to complain about anyone concerning the trial and impending execu

you have brought me?" Replied Apis: "Well, maybe if you hadn't been

tion? wondered Stojkovic. ' 'The whole thing was the work of Ljuba Jo

with us, we wouldn't be here either." Apis obtained Colonel Dunjic's per

vanocic," affirmed Apis. "And the assassination attempt was investigated

mission to speak with Father Paunovic. They went to one side where Apis

and arranged by Sotir Arandjelovic. Say that if asked when they seek to

again urged the priest to deliver his farewell letter to his nephew and assure

rehabilitate us. The key lies in Temeljko and Djordje." 13 Then Apis add

his family that he had thought about them to the end. Then Vulovic came

ed: "Greet Tuca and tell him to pay attention to my unfortunate nephew.

up and gave Father Paunovic letters and messages for his wife.21 Looking

I am sorry for that child. Thus is fate, but what can one do?'"9 As they

at the three graves in the dark ravine, Apis remarked in jest to Dabic: "Why

arrived at the execution spot, Apis turned around, smoking and talking.

didn't they pick a better place for us, somewhere up above where one can

Vulovic queried: "But Dragutin, it looks as if it is only the three of us!"

view the sea? You know there should be some scenery!" Apis was still

"Yes, that's right, Lj uba, the others have been reprieved, and if so, that

holding up well, noted Dabic, but he was greatly changed, very pale and

is good."

his voice shook. From time to time he consoled Malobabic, telling him

Finally they reached the spot, then had to wait about twenty minutes before the proceedings began. The first signs of dawn were appearing in

once: "Had you remained in Kursurnlje , both you and I would have re mained alive.

"22

the east. Protic looked at his watch-it was 3:20 AM. A platoon of soldiers

Now the military tribunal assembled behind a table flanked with lan

was carrying out preliminary tasks aided by three lanterns. The fifteen

terns. The three condemned men stood before it near their open graves.

men assigned to the shooting were loading their rifles. Colonel Dunjic

For the military court Colonel Dabic began to read the lengthy verdicts.

examined the three graves which had been hastily and inexpertly dug. The

Wearing a pince-nez and black havelock, he read rapidly but fluently in a

condemned officers stood about a yard in front of these gaping holes each

cool, cynical voice. The doctor and priest stood to one side and the soldiers

with a six foot pole in the middle. Apis went up to Lieutenant Colonel

formed a broad semi-circle. The condemned seemed not to be listening

Dabic to ask whether he had come to represent the military court. Dabic

they had heard these charges many times. Apis continued to smoke one

replied that he would be reading the verdicts aloud. Several times Apis and

cigarette after another, as the three whispered softly, smiled, and looked

Vulovic requested that they wait for dawn, and that the soldiers take care

at one another lovingly as the intimate friends they were. At one point

ful aim so that their faces would not be disfigured; they were assured this

Dabic reprimanded Malobabic for whispering. When he read about the

would be done. In a shaking voice Apis told Dabic: "Do you see, Ljubo,

attempt on Prince Alexander, the condemned looked at each other dub

what misfortune has overtaken me? Believe me, I am innocent." Dabic

iously as if saying: that never happened! Apis said in an undertone to

replied that he was sorry for him as a friend and officer who could serve

Vulovic: "When we were united and powerful, the Regent wanted to place

the fatherland far more usefully but that the law required his death. With

himself at our head." Replied Vulovic calmly: "Apis, there is no point in

evident joy Apis took up that idea:

breaking our head over that. .The soldiers' bullets will take care of it." About half way through the reading Malobabic, thin as a skeleton, and

Please tell my friends that I do not regret that I die from Serbian

with his fe ttered hands raised looking like a child praying, pleaded that his

guns because it is for Greater Serbia, which I wish to see realized

irons be removed. That was done.

soon. Indeed, under the law I am guilty , and thus it had to be be cause I had strained relations too much and therefore had to fall.

20

Above the nortl1ern end of the ravine , notes Brehm, one could see on the other side of the dark, towering mountains a thin band of light moving back and forth. From the distance came a faint rumbling through the night.

-


18

The [Saloni ka] front does not sleep," noted Apis. The officers at the table looked up too and listened. "The French

are

constantly on guard,'' re

marked Colonel Dunjic, "and the Bulgars, brought in after the last battle, are tired and don't want to fight any more." Commented Vulovic: "The dead man of Sarajevo has long anns. He reaches from the grave and catches us

all,

one after the other." Declared Apis: "I only envy the man who will

see victory with his own eyes." He continued: And if I had only experienced one thing, I would have to say that


19

rather forced jokes. He was constantly turning this way and that, looking in

all

directions as if he were expecting someone . Until the end he never

lost hope of a reprieve and expected a car to drive up at any moment. Apis had given away three packs of cigarettes to Protic for distribution to the soldiers, but the reading dragged on so long that he ran out and had to bum several from the lieutenant. Finally, at

4:30

AM Dabic finished reading. It was still noticeably cool,

dew was falling, and the morning wind chilled the ravine. The soldiers rose and struck their shoulders with their anns for wannth. The candle's faint

life has been beautiful. Never, not even over there in eternity, will I

flames were extinguished.

forget that day in December 1914 when we entered recaptured Bel

quiered: "Is it time to say farewell?" Dabic nodded. First Apis, then the

grade. The people in the streets cried and grasped for joy as King Peter drove through the streets, and his car rolled over the banner abandoned by the Austrians and into the palace. "Better not think about it," advised Vulovic. "Our fall thereafter was too great. We haven't chosen a bad time to die . . . . It is better to lie a couple of feet deep in the earth where one cannot hear the moans of despair." Objected Apis: "But also one would not hear the victory celebrations."23 At one point in the reading Dabic stopped and asked for water. As he put down the jug brought by a soldier, Major Vulovic turned to him: "Namesake , please give me some too." After drinking, Vulovic turned to Dabic: "Hopefully you don't have syphillis." Replied Dabic cynically: "It is rather late now to worry about that." Persisted Vulovic: "The devil only knows how much I was infected on Corfu, but I'd like to enter the afterlife heal thy on my crooked leg." The officers laughed and even the priest could not suppress a small grin. "We will continue reading the verdicts," announced Colonel Dabic. "Now comes the most boring part," groaned Apis, "the invented attempt on the Prince Regent's life near Ostrovo." And indeed Dabic now intoned: "In order to realize your plans, you tried to kill the Prince Regent. You intended to murder the Premier, eliminate the Constitution and take poli tical freedoms away from the people." "Aha," noted Apis, "they are silent about our supposed attempt to betray the Serbian front to the enemy." Added Vulovic: "Clever brothers. They have squatted over this verdict long enough to come up with something elaborate." During the lengthy reading Apis smoked over forty cigarettes. With a wooden smile, he cracked

As Dabic closed his briefcase loudly, Apis

others came up to the tribunal table and greeted the officers. Apis stopped in front of Colonel Dunjic: "You arrested me, Milan, you were my enemy. You are on the other side, but I won't hold it against you. Believe me, because facing death one does not lie, what has been read is simply un true." Colonel Dunjic shook his hand, looked down and remained silent, as if tacitly agreeing with Apis. The latter went up to Father Paunovic to thank him for consoling them. "Day after tomorrow is St. Vitus Day [Vidovdan] . May God grant that Serbia will again soon celebrate that day on the newly freed Field of Kosovo. "24 Embracing Paunovic, Apis then took the priest's hand to kiss it. When the priest resisted, Apis pleaded: "Please permit me to kiss you as I would father and mother." Paunovic let him kiss his hand, and the other condemned did likewise. Then Colonel Dabic ordered Lieutenant Protic to remove rank and insignia from the condemned. Protic took the braid from their caps, their cockades and epaulettes. Holding the whimpering Malobabic by the hand, Apis turned and declared: "This is a good Serb and an honorable man; believe me he is not guilty . Then looking at his friend, Apis said: "Only be brave, Rade . . . . " Malobabic fell sobbing on Apis' powerful neck and pressed his face on his broad chest. Rade kept his head lowered. He did not wish to see darkness yietd to daylight as the sun emerged over the edge of the ravine. Now the three turned around. The cheerless grey wall of the quarry re semble d a split skull, notes Brehm, on whose peak a few red wisps of hair still stood, as the sun had already bathed the bushes up above in red. It was time for the denouement. The accompanying officers led the con demned men to the three graves. As Apis stood before the righthand grave,

-


20


21

he remarked: "Here too according to age and rank. I as senior officer will

off. Shrieking vultures flew over the ravine with wings extended. "What's

stand to the right for my last report." Saying farewell to Captain Stojkovic

happened has happened," declared one officer philosophically before

and shaking hands with Dabic and Protic, Apis leaped straight into his

turning to go. "We have brought them down; should we one day fall into

grave. As if made of wax and holding a half-smoked cigarette, he looked

their hands, then let the friends of Apis do the same to us." All those

young, decisive and powerful, recalled Stojkovic, "reminding me of us

present, noted Paunovic, seemed embarrassed and humbled at this ter

younger officers in the Turkish War. 25 In its first battles we were bold,

rible sight.

contemptuous of death." Lieutenant Protic bound Apis to the pole in his grave with a rope, as prescribed by law. Once bound, Apis objected: "This grave is too small for me."2� Protic then blindfolded him, also according to law. Remonstrated Apis: "But now I can't smoke." Protic responded: "Go ahead and smoke." Vulovic had to be helped into his grave by Lieu tenant Protic. The soldiers carried the howling Malobabic and deposited him in the lefthand grave. As a soldier began to blindfold him, Malobabic protested piteously: "I want to see the sun!" Apis told him: "Let them do it, Rade. The law requires it thus." Now the pale wall of the quarry grew ever brighter though the light hesitated to penetrate the corner of the ravine. The mystery of darkness had succumbed to daylight. The three condemned stood blindfolded be fore the dark pilings as the soldiers marched back to their platoon. How Apis looked then, recalled Stojkovic, bound to the pole, the kerchief not yet covering his eyes, was poignant. "That facial expression, sad and ques tioning, with a terrible, glassy stare." After his eyes were bound, Colonel Apis shouted: "Long live Greater Serbia! Long live Yugoslavia!"27 From the neighboring grave echoed Vulovic: "Long live Greater Serbia. Greet our children when you go . . . . " But Captain Stojkovic had already raised his sabre, then commanded: "Fire!" That first salvo killed Malobabic outright. Apis came loose from the pole, his head supported by the left side of his grave. Blood poured from his powerful frame, but he still lived. Vulovic moved his left arm. After another volley, the doctor confirmed their deaths. 23 A pis was stretched out nicely in his grave, recalled Protic; his arms were crossed and his face calm and clear. None of the bullets had struck his head; the soldiers, heeding the condemned men's pleas, had shot truly. Protic cov ered A pis' face with a black kerchief and placed his cap on his head; the same was done for the others. The graves were filled in and Priest Pauno vic intoned a requiem. The soldiers then grabbed their rifles and marched

•

•

Birth of a Bull

23

Obrenovic. He flrst saw the light on August 2, 1876 in the old palace, torn down after the 1 903 coup. The humble home where on August 5th new born Dragutin T . Dimitrijevic (later Apis) lay wailing would later be re placed by a beer factory. Jelena recalled that it was a dilapidated, one story adobe building typical of old Turkish Belgrade. As these two infants entered the world, the small autonomous Princi

pality of Serbia faced a grave crisis. Late in June 1876, amidst extravagant expectations of victory, tiny Serbia and Montenegro declared war on their

CHAPTER III

suzerain, the sprawling Ottoman Empire. Several thousand Russian volun teers flocked to serve in Serbia's eastern army, commanded by retired Russian General M. G. Cherniaev. He proclaimed the war a crusade against

THE BIRTH OF A BULL

the infldel Turks.2 Officially , tsarist Russia remained neutral in this war, but Russians sympathized strongly with their embattled Orthodox Slav

The inhabitants of Memphis and On . . . gave

brethren. By early August Cherniaev's army of poorly trained Serbian

the place of honour to the bull, worshipped

peasants, taken straight from their plows, had suffered severe defeats. As the

as Hapi (Apis) . . . . When he had been identi

Serbs fought desperately on their own soil against better trained and

fied, his birth was carefully recorded, and he

equipped Turkish regulars, youthful Prince Milan Obrenovic appealed to

was

ceremoniously

conducted

into

the

the European great powers to arrange an armistice .

temples of Ptah. For the rest of his life he

Serbia in 1876 was an overwhelmingly agricultural little country of

was . . . loaded with honours, and when he

about 1 ,400,000 people, carved from primeval forests and still officially

died the entire populace went into mourning.

part of the Ottoman Empire. Belgrade continued to pay tribute money to

276

the sultan in Constantinople. After four centuries under direct Ottoman

Everyday Life in Egypt, p.

rule,

�e

Serbs had first revolted in 1804 under Karadjordje ("Black

George") Petrovic , a prosperous pig merchant. That attempt failed eventu Early in August 1876 two Serbian boys were born in Belgrade to

ally, but in 1 8 1 5 the Serbs rose again under Milos Obrenovic, a rival of

mothers in very different circumstances, boys whose fates would be closely

Karadjordje. Gaining a few victories, the clever Milos with Russia's diplo

intertwined. "On the eve of the Transfiguration, the newborn babe cried

matic support became hereditary prince of a small, autonomous vassal

in Cetinjska Street," recalled Apis' older sister, Jelena. His mother, Jovanka,

state. Until 1903 Serbia would suffer from the bitter rivalry of two con

a cheerful, dignified and old fashioned woman, joked: "Oh, too bad the

tending dynasties-the descendants of Karadjordje Petrovic and Milo§

Queen didn't wait for two or three days, then my son could have been

Obrenovic, who ordered Karadjordje murdered in 1817. 3

greeted by the roar of cannon." 1 ovanka did not suspect that her well

By 1876 Turkish garris�>ns and citydwellers had departed and Serbia

developed, powerful male babe, Dragutin, would usher the newly born

enjoyed full autonomy. Most Serbs were small independent farmers living

prince to a premature death only twenty-seven years later, then himself

in scattered villages in the "land of forests" (Sumadija). Only one in ten

succumb to a firing squad authorized by a Serbian crown prince. For the

lived in towns of which the largest was Belgrade , the capital, with some

other boy was Prince Alexander Obrenovic, only son of Prince Milan

30,000 inhabitants. Belgrade's rough cobbled streets and squat adobe houses gave it a quaint Asiatic appearance. Since 1858 the restored Obreno

22

•

vic dynastry ruled Serbia while in neighboring Austria-Hungary lived

•

24


Pretender Peter Karadjordjevic, grandson of Karadjordje, whose adherents in Serbia plotted for his return. Prince Milan, only nineteen when his son, Alexander, was born, retained power precariously. He relied on a small professional anny, swelled in wartime by a fanners' militia, and ministers like haughty Premier Jovan Ristic, Serbia's leading statesman. The Dimitrijevics were of Cincar (Vlach) origin, a people from Mace donia noted for energy and business acumen.4 Christening the new baby Dragutin, the family left Belgrade hastily for Kragujevac, site of Serbia's only arms factory. In that provincial town in the heart of Sumadija, Todor Dimitrijevic, Dragutin's father, and his two brothers-all tinsmiths-pre pared cartridges for the hardpressed army. In October 1876 after Serbia's defeat, the family returned to Belgrade. Late in 1877 Serbia fought the Turks again as an ally of Russia and won some territory. The Congress of Berlin ( 1 878) recognized her as fully sovereign and independent but con finned her complete dependence on Austria-Hungary. As a reward for loyal subservience to Vienna, Prince Milan Obrenovic became king of Serbia in 1882. Little Dragutin, growing up with two older sisters, Jelena and Milica, was loved and pampered by everyone in a family impoverished even by Serbian standards of that time. When Dragutin was five, his grown-up sister, Jelena, was hired as a schoolteacher in Kraljevo, a small south Serbian town. Jelena took her mother, grandmother, sister and brother to Kraljevo where Dragutin began primary school. In July 1884 Jelena requested transfer to a larger town where secondary schools would be available for her siblings and her father could practice his trade. Late in 1884 the family moved to Nis, but soon thereafter the father, Todor, fell ill and died. Later, Apis almost never mentioned his father who apparently played little part in his upbringing. Completing his primary schooling, Dragutin began attending the NiS classical gymnasium in 1885, a disastrous year for Serbia.5 Indignant over the unification of neighboring Bulgaria, King Milan Obrenovic incautiously declared war. Only three days later the Serbian army was humiliated at Slivnica. Only Austrian intervention pre vented the Serbs from losing territory. The Slivnica debacle, a devastating blow to Serbian pride and prestige, contributed to King Milan's abdication four years later. When Dragutin and his family arrived, NiS was full of soldiers and martial music. The athletic, well-developed nine year old ran continually

25

Birth of a Bull

after the soldiers and revelled in the sound of beating drums. While Jelena nursed wounded from the nearby front, Dragutin accompanied groups of soldiers to their assigned hospitals. Perhaps right then the idea of a mili tary career took root in the young Dragutin's mind. The fatherless and ambitious youngster, surrounded with female love and attention, devel oped the profound need to prove his manhood. Jelena confirmed that Dragutin was temporarily shattered by Serbia's defeat at Slivnica. Soon rebounding, the energetic and restless pupil learned quickly in school and always ended the year with excellent grades. Outgoing, loyal and gregar ious, Dragutin made many friends at school and got along well with his teachers. Soon Jelena, the family's sole support, was betrothed to Zivan Zivano vic, a politician and historian. They were married in Nis, then the entire family moved permanently to Belgrade. Zivan Zivanovic grew steadily more prominent and provided a comfortable, secure life for his adopted family. From 1890 they resided in a sizable house at 21 Holy Sava Street. There Jelena played a key role in Dragutin's upbringing. Until he reached the highest (seventh) class in the gymnasium, Dragutin had not decided definitely on a career. Then at sixteen in his final year of gymnasium, he resolved rather suddenly to enter the cadet corps of the Belgrade Military Academy. Jelena believed he was much influenced by a close friend, Mihajlo Jovanovic. Constantly together, the friends entered the Academy's 26th class in 1 892. A law of 1880 had transformed the fonner Artillery School into Serbia's Military Academy.' A regular three year course-"the lower school"trained officers for all branches of service. A two year "upper school' prepared officers for the General Staff and higher commands. Into the "lower school" were accepted sixteen to twenty year old "youths of good conduct." Gymnasium graduates were accepted readily ; others like Dragutin had to take a rigorous entrance examination which tested them in mathematics, sciences, geography, history, literature, languages, and drawing. Imposing strict military discipline, the Academy demanded pre cision, accuracy and neatness, qualities which Dimitrijevic-Apis displayed throughout his career. Cadets received pay according to their class and standing. Already nicknamed ''Apis'' by his comrades for his powerful build and dynamic energy, Dragutin proved an able and conscientious cadet. He completed the lower school in 1896 standing sixth in his class, excelling in everything but drawing. -


26

Dragutin displayed no particular interest in women either then or later,

27

Birth of a Bull

During Dragutin's first year at the Academy , seventeen year old Alex

1893 abruptly ousted the regency, dismissed the

recalled his brother-in -law. 7 Although enjoying their company, Apis never

ander Obrenovic in April

expressed to family members any desire to marry. Dedicated early to a

Assembly of which Apis' brother-in-law was chairman, and assumed full

military career and constantly in the company of cadets and officers, Apis

royal power. So upset was Dragutin by these events, which he considered

from age twenty-three became involved deeply in politics and conspiracy.

unwise and unjust, that he almost abandoned the Academy. Shortsighted

Apparently he never contemplated marriage or having a family of his own.

literally and figuratively, though highly gifted and intelligent like his

Throughout his life, his sister's family remained the center of his personal

father, Alexander proved even more obstinate and self-willed than Milan.

world. Their home on Holy Sava Street always remained his headquarters.

Swiftly he became the most disliked and unpopular of all Obrenovic

Dragutin was close to and showed deep affection for all family members,

rulers.

especially his sister's children with whom from age ten he had grown up.

friend and an arbitary king. He developed an exaggerated idea of his

Later, even his life insurance policy read: "In behalf of my sister's child

power, executing his will arbitrarily and unscrupulously. Despising the

His mother, Jovanka, confirmed his warmhearted, affectionate

people, he scorned their political leaders and asserted his prerogatives. In

ren."

Mendacious and fickle, Alexander was a thankless, unreliable

ten years of personal rule, he carried out three palace coups, abolished two

nature. External events interrupted periodically Apis' dedicated military studies.

constitutions and suspended a third. He changed cabinets at whim, dis

1878 helped explain the

solved political parties, and created a virtual political vacuum in Serbia.

young officer's decision to become a conspirator and national revolu

The Radicals, Serbia's most popular party, supported young Alexander's

tionary. Dependent on Austria after the Berlin Congress, King Milan

coup against the regents. Going to St. Petersburg as a Russophile ambas

severed Serbia's ties with its former ally, Russia, which opposed him at

sador, PaSic concluded that Russia's support was indispensible to Serbia's

every turn. Milan's political opponents, notably the newly formed Radical

international role and made no effort to conceal his belief. In the Russian

Party of Nikola Pasic with its broad peasant base sought Russian support.

capital Pasic debuted successfully as a statesman, establishing influential

Behind Radical moves Milan believed he discerned sinister Russian mach

friendships which later proved invaluable to Serbia. Henceforth Pasic

1883 Serbia experienced bitter struggles

believed that to progress and expand, Serbia must collaborate closely with

Serbia's humilitation and military weakness after

inations. For two decades after

between crown and people, squandering its slender strength on internal

Russia.

10

1894 as chief

political quarrels. Initially the Radical Party was insurrectionary as in the

From European exile ex-King Milan returned to Serbia in

( 1 883), then gradually modified its program and approach. By late 1888 King Milan neared the breaking point, feuding

advisor to his son and army commander. He had Pasic removed

to Russia and increased pressure on the Radicals. Milan and his son-both

bitterly with the popular Queen Natalija, Russian by birth, whom he

obstinate overgrown -children-provoked disarray in Serbia's domestic and

accused of plotting against him with Russia and the Radicals.

foreign affairs.

abortive Timok Revolt

Prince Alexander Obrenovic , the young heir, was caught between parents who loved him but hated one another. As they battled inexor ably towards divorce, Alexander told a tutor: parents are still alive."8

"

I am an orphan whose

Before abdicating, King Milan issued the very

National goals seemed forgotten

as

as

envoy

Alexander, at his

father's advice, abrogated the liberal Constitution and created a police regime without significant popular support. Ex-King Milan's attentio11 to army reform unwittingly fostered Apis' career. As army commander he built up a privileged officer caste as a chief

1888. He calculated that it would reduce Serbia

pillar of his son' s bureaucratic absolutism. A greatly expanded officer

to chaos and provoke his return with a free hand to crush the Radicals.

corps became the best paid element in Serbia. A new rapid firing rifle

For four years Serbia was governed by a regency led by veteran Jovan

restored the infantry' s confidence. Milan developed well-trained cadre bat

Ristic. Meanwhile Nikola Pasic, the Radicals' exiled leader, returned home

talions. Junior lieutenants fresh from the Academy led companies, and

liberal Constitution of

to popular ovations and in

1891 formed his first cabinet.

•

relatively young officers commanded battalions and regiments. Expanding

28

Birth of a Bull


the military budget, Milan enlarged Academy enrollments and shortened the lower course in a crash program to obtain more officers. About 500 graduated from 1898 to 1901. As enrollments in civilian secondary schools declined, able but impoverished students rushed through the Academy's open doors. Highly selective because of a large applicant pool, the Academy attracted much of Serbia's intellectually ablest youth. While the army asserted a major role in Serbia's domestic and external affairs, 1903-17, the Academy became a major intellectual center. It graduated hundreds of peasants' sons who spread their democratic, even socialist ideas in the army. Opposing that, Milan sought to forge senior officers into a Prussian-style military caste. However, young officers like Apis espoused nationalist views and extended them to the entire army . The ex-king failed to foresee that this new officer generation would destroy his regime and dynasty, then help ignite the Balkans and all Eur ope in war. Fostering militarism as army reformer, Milan prepared the ground for the destruction of the social conservatism he favored. 1 1 Graduating from the Academy' s lower course in August 1896, Apis was assigned to the Seventh Infantry Regiment in Belgrade as a junior lieutenant. He served there as a platoon leader for over a year, then as an instructor at the non-commissioned officers' school. In September 1898 he enrolled in the Academy's higher course to prepare himself to become a General Staff officer. While attending this military university, Apis was promoted to first lieutenant of infantry on August 1899. 12 Two months earlier on St. John's Day, June 24, 1899, an unremarkable Bosnian youth shot at ex-king Milan in his open carriage. Only grazing his target, Knezevic was promptly arrested. Milan and Alexander exploited this incident to persecute the Radicals, closing their newspapers, arresting their leaders, and accusing them of complicity in an attempted murder. Treating Radical leaders like common criminals, Milan demanded that Pasic and Tausanovic be executed. When Russia and Austria, seeking Bal kan peace, intervened to save the Radical chiefs, Alexander backed away. Pasic accepted responsibility for not preventing the shooting. No proof of their involvement was uncovered, but a dozen Radical leaders were im prisoned and some mistreated in detention. Though widely criticized for cowardice and opportu1,1ism, Pasic believed he had saved his life and those of his colleagues. The draconian response to the St. John's Day attempt left King Alexander politically isolated and discredited with the public.13

·

29

To the dismay of Milan and army leaders, King Alexander in July 1900 proclaim ed his intention to marry his mistress, Draga Ma8in. For years rumors of the King's impotence had circulated in Belgrade; Alexander wished to refute them!4 As a mere child Draga, daughter of Panta Lunje vica, former mayor of Sabac, had married a government engineer, Svetozar Masin, a drunkard and gambler who treated her brutally. After his death she received a small pension. When Queen Natalija, Milan's estranged wife, settled in France in 1890, Draga became maid of honor at her villa in Biarritz. Visiting his mother there in 1897, King Alexander fell hopelessly in love with the seductive and ambitious Draga with the dusky, fiery eyes. That autumn she returned to Belgrade, apparently as the King's mistress. Repeatedly she pretended pregnancy to speed their marriage. Infatuated with Draga, the King resolved to marry her over vehement opposition by his father and other public figures. Interior Minister Djordje Gencic told the King: "Sire, you cannot marry her. She has been every one's mistress-mine included." The King reportedly struck him across the faceY On July 18, 1900 the official press announced their formal engagement. The King himself apparently drew up this communique which sparked popular shock and indignation. However, Radical leaders agreed to approve the marriage if the King amnestied imprisoned Radicals, exiled his father, and restored a constitutional regime . King Alexander's problems escalated. In vain he sought political leaders willing to support a royal marriage to an obscure, disreputable engineer's widow. Rumors spread that she was a common whore. Finally, the King persuaded AJeksa Jovanovic, an undistinguished judge, to head a "wedding cabinet" of political nonentities. But with the officer corps hostile to the marriage, no general would become war minister. Alexander thus selected Milos Vasic, an ambitious lieutenant colonel, who consented to serve, then promoted him to full colonel. Vasic urged the King to summon Bel grade officers, read them their loyalty oath, and threaten to dismiss any who sought to interfere in his private affairs. Shaken by protests of generals and politicians, Alexander realized that without his officers' approval, he would be isolated and could not marry Draga. Adopting VasiC's suggestion, he had the Belgrade comman dant order all officers to appear next day at the royal palace and installed the subservient "wedding cabinet" in office. In parade uniforms his of ficers proceeded to the palace through a crowd of curious onlookers. 16


30

Without preliminary remarks, the King took from War Minister Vasic the "Rules of Service." ln a clear voice he read the text of the officers' loyalty oath to the crown, then declared: Recently in regard to my decision to marry the chosen of my heart a repulsive rumor has spread that I am abnormal. I call on you, of ficers, to counter those voices strongly, aware of my rights that no one can interfere in this personal affair of mine. That is why I sum moned you and that is ali

i have

CHAPTER IV

to tell you.

The officers were stunned; an uncomfortable silence ensued. Suddenly a

PREPARING THE COUP

colonel shouted: "Long live the King!" A few senior officers took up this refrain, but the rest remained ominously silent. Shaking hands with his

( 1 900- 1 903 )

gene rals, the King strode from the hall with War Minister Vasic and his court marshal. The officers left the palace dejected, with bowed heads.

The Serbian idea . . . had been up to then

Noticing their downcast demeanor, the assembled crowd realized that ef 7 forts to prevent the royal marriage had failed. 1

wholly abandoned. The unfortunate secret convention with Austria* and blind surren

Junior officers left the palace in dismay without awaiting their senior

der to Austria's embrace was a most shame

colleagues. As they proceeded homeward, their feelings of shock yielded

ful betrayal of Serbian traditions. Believing

to indignation, first against senior officers for inhibiting them from speak

that a change of regime and restoring the

ing out, then against the King for insulting their honor.

Karadjordjevic dynasty to the throne would

Filled with such negative thoughts, a group of junior officers stopped

solve the internal question, I realized also

before the residence of Pavle Marinkovic , Minister of Education, who saw

that Serbia must once more in full measure

them exchange sarcastic smiles. Suddenly one of them, Lieutenant Dirnitri

undertake her role as Piedmont not only of

jevic-Apis, towering over the rest and shaking with anger, shouted: "Co wards! Scum!

All

Serbs but of Yugoslavs.

this must be refuted and reversed!" Apis' exclamatory

Colonel Apis in

outburst, expressing perfectly his comrades' humiliation and anger, galvan ized the rest. Roused as if from slumber, they proclaimed vociferously their dissatisfaction with the royal decision. Dimitrijevic-Apis' spontaneous and vehement explosion, critical of the senior officers and the King, fore shadowed his organization and leadership of the coup of May

1903. How

ever, his outburst was no unthinking whim. At his brother-in-law's home Apis for some time had been complaining to visiting officers and politicians about evils being committed in high places in Serbia, including the King's rumored impending marriage to his mistress. On occasion Apis had even uttered threats which his family and friends dismissed as idle talk. Soon it would become clear that his remarks had been meant most seriously. 1 8

1917

The festive wedding of King Alexander Obrenovic and Draga Masin on

23, 1900 in Belgrade's cathedral sparked the anti-dynastic military coup of May 1903 organized chiefly by Captain Apis. Tsar Nicholas 11 of July

Russia had agreed to act as goMather but sent no representative. Nonethe less, the Tsar's implied support for the controversial marriage foreshadowed a political reorientation of Serbia towards Russia. * The Convention of

1881 made Serbia dependent on Austria-Hungary

politically, diplomatically and economically for the next twenty years.

31

-


32

33

Soon after his wedding King Alexander moved to restore good rela

Serbia's cabinet and parties lay powerless, yet Alexander would not re

tions with Russia and the popular pro-Russian Radical Party. On Queen Draga's birthday-September 1 1th-he pardoned and released Radical

nounce his queen. Apis and Antic agreed that the officers must take matters into their own hands and remove Queen Draga from Serbia. Soon

leaders imprisoned for the St. John's Day Attempt. The delighted Radicals

realizing that both King and Queen must be expelled, they sounded out

promptly placed themselves at the King's disposal. Soon after ex-King

their comrades. Serious discussion of a coup originated within a narrow

Milan's sudden death in Vienna, the Serbian cabinet in February 1901

circle of junior officers in Belgrade.

was reformed as a Progressive-Radical coalition; Russian influence was

Lieutenant Antic then served in the newly formed Fourth Cavalry

restored fully. That April, pressed on by the Radicals and Russia's am

Regiment where officers enrolled in the Military Academy's higher course

bassador, Alexander issued a new constitution restoring regular free elec

did their practical work. One day after drill six officers sat in a cafe near

tions and civil liberties. In July elections the "Old" Radicals of PaSic and

the barracks discussing the situation created by the royal marriage. 5 Apis

Protic won control of the Assembly.1 To the King's dismay, a strong

had urged that the royal pair be expelled, noted Antic. Concurring, the

democratic tide was rising in Serbia.

others agreed to consult their close friends and form a society to achieve

Meanwhile Queen Draga's behavior gravely imperilled the Obrenovic

that goal. Antic promptly informed Apis of this; next day they all met

dynasty. Extremely ambitious and dominant over the King, she thought

and decided to proceed. By the summer of 1901 an officer conspiracy

chiefly of her own position. At first the public seemed to accept her as

was afoot with Apis as initiator and chief leader.

Queen, but she worried about the future. The infatuated king remained

Lieutenant Pavle Pankovic, a reserve officer serving in the War Min

devoted to her, but nasty rumors circulated about them. To secure the dynasty, Alexander longed for a son especially since Draga had given her

istry's General Staff section, described his entry into the plot. Dining

first husband no children.

of the Academy's higher course and visitors who normally dined at home,

frequently at the Officers' Club, he shared a table with officer-students

In December 1900 Draga told Alexander she believed she was pregnant.

including Apis, Antic and Lieutenant Josif Kostic. "We often discussed

The delighted king called in a Russian specialist who examined her and

the political situation of Serbia created by the King's marriage and eagerly

predicted pregnancy. The palace promptly issued a communique about

read opposition newspapers, Odjek . . . and Srpska Zastava, all approving

the anticipated blessed event, and Alexander informed the Tsar. At of

the way they wrote ." Walking one evening with Apis, Pankovic criticized

ficial prompting ladies' committees formed throughout Serbia to prepare gifts for the Queen and her heir. But months passed and all signs of Draga's

the false pregnancy and rumors that one of Draga's disreputable brothers

pregnancy disappeared. Embarrassed by pesistent queries from the Russian

might inherit the throne. "Fine, Pajcane," responded Apis. "Would you

court, the King called in two Paris specialists who declared Draga was not

like to join a society which would work to remove Alexander and Draga from the throne?" When Pankovic nodded, Apis named several junior

and could not become pregnant. This false pregnancy dealt the dynasty a

officers in that society. Pankovic then joined their discussions. At first

cruel blow and provoked a public scandal. It was widely believed the

they favored merely expelling the King and Queen, but since adherents in

Queen had perpetrated this hoax deliberately to deceive the King and

Serbia would plot their return, by fall the officers had resolved to kill

people. Rumors spread that Draga's brother, Nikodije Lunjevica, would

them and thus resolve the dynastic issue.'

be proclaimed heir to the throne. Undermining the royal couple's credi

What would follow the royal couple's removal? Some officers favored

bility, the false pregnancy triggered a political crisis temporarily ending

an English or German prince; another suggested Mirko, second son of Prince Nikola of Montenegro; others desired a republic. But the rest,

parliamentary rule in Serbia.2 Lieutenants Apis and Antonije Antic, recalled a colleague, Pavle Panko

headed by Apis, argued that Serbia had its own Karadjordjevic dynasty

vic, 3 conceived the idea of removing the King and Queen. After the of

and need not import a foreign prince. Why not enthrone the Pretender, Peter Karadjordjevic, living in Switzerland, the land of liberty? After long

ficers' audience with the King,4 they had discussed what should be done.

\

Preparing the Coup


34

Planning the Coup

35

debate the officers agreed that Peter should become ruler. Credit for this,

multiplied, army discontent escalated. Serbia and its people faced humilia

claims Pankovic, belonged solely to Apis who refused to yield even if it

tion, impotence and ruin. Young officers kept entering the plot, resentful

meant abandoning the entire enterprise. Without Apis neither Peter nor his heirs would have been enthroned. 7 Young officers, confirmed Djordje Karadjordjevic, Prince Peter's elder son, even before the false pregnancy , had considered the King's marriage to Draga a personal insult and planned to liquidate the dynasty. Draga's

of official apathy over national goals and constant affronts to their patriot ism. The King, they concluded, was seeking to · strengthen the dynasty solely by silencing opponents. 14 The conspirators believed they were sav ing Serbia from inevitable destruction. The Serbian idea and cause had been wholly abandoned, noted Apis later. "The unfortunate secret con

persecution of her public opponents fed their sense of outrage. To their

vention with Austria, and blind surrender into Austria's embrace was a

The junior officers, driven by neither ideology nor greed, were convinced

regime and dynasty, Apis believed, could the crisis be resolved. "I realized

disgust, Draga and her brothers paraded now as Serbia's first family. 8

King Alexander's marriage to a loose woman cast shame on them and on Serbia. 9 1901 seven founders of the military conspiracy met at

In August

Lieutenant Antic's home.10 There Apis drew up a plan to murder the King and Queen on Draga's birthday, September 1 1 th, during a celebra tion scheduled at "Kolarac" restaurant in Belgrade. Unaccountably the King failed to attend the party and the scheme was scrapped. Next the conspirators planned to murder Alexander at fall maneuvers near Ub, but

most shameful betrayal of Serbian traditions." Only by a change of also that Serbia must once more in full measure undertake her role as Piedmont not only of the Serbs but of the Yugoslavs." 15 Very early Apis assumed a dominant role among the young conspirators. He met with them frequently in his room at the family home on Holy Sava Street." There he kept the initial membership list and oath, signed by six junior officers, until its destruction. While lying ill in 1902, Apis drew up the following written oath to bind the conspirators and dis courage defections; it constituted their national and political program:

nothing came of it. 1 1 King Alexander faced growing army dissatisfaction. After his father

Foreseeing the certain destruction of the country if the present

1900, he had slashed the military budget, pensioned off

situation continues even for the shortest time and proclaiming as

left in July

Discipline and morale

chiefly responsible for all this King Alexander and his lover, Draga

sagged without strengthening royal control. By 1902 officer salaries were

Masin, we swear and obligate ourselves with our signatures that we

months in arrears. The Serbian army , reported Austria's military attache,

will kill them. To the throne of Serbia, bathed in blood by these

was poorly dressed, irregularly paid, and hungry. While the King blamed

dishonorable ones, we shall bring Peter Karadjordjevic, grandson of

several generals, and promoted his supporters.

the dominant

Radicals, King Milan's military machine disintegrated.

Stripped of many privileges, the officers became so disgruntled that the 2 army ceased to be a reliable support for the Obrenovic dynasty . 1 Relations between the army and the Radicals remained cool. From the Radical Party's inception, argues Colonel Gojkovic, friction had been chronic. Radical leaders, bitterly opposing the standing army , sought peasant support with anti-militarist slogans. By 1903 the army , except the infantry, were woefully unprepared. Other branches were obsolescent, munitions scarce and uniforms antiquated. Radical-army tensions would persist until 1 9 1 7 . 1 3 Thus the anti-Obrenovic offlcer conspiracy developed against a com plex and stormy background. As new scandals involving the royal family

'\

the Chieftain

[Karadjordje] and son of the legitimate prince, the

late Alexander Karadjordjevic. Apis insisted that all conspirators sign this statement which reveals their twofold aim:

to kill the royal couple and restore the Karadjordjevic

dynasty . 1 7 Neither the oath nor the officers' discussions suggested any •

intention to create a republic or a military regime in Serbia. Approaching close friends, Apis and his comrades cautiously expand ed the conspiracy. Recruitment proceeded slowly, handled by a select few, including Apis and Antic. Only when the new member had explain ed his attitude toward the Obrenovic and by signing the oath had risked his own and his family's fate, did the founders reveal the society's true


36

purpose. Thereby secrecy was maintained by the over

120 members who

joined in Belgrade and the interior.13 Only one officer who was approach ed refused to join the plot-he objected to murdering the King. Two others dropped out later. That no one informed the regime Zivan Zivano vic ascribed to patriotism, loyalty to comrades, and hatred for the royal couple. Only later did Zivanovic learn that Apis had concealed the mem bership list in an old stove in his home. Fearing discovery during the March

1 903 disorders in Belgrade, Apis and Antic burned the list con

cealing this from even close comrades. Thus all believed themselves still bound by oath.19 ln November

1901 the young officers decided to invite cooperation

from prominent politicians and win support from various parties. AntiC's uncle, former Interior Minister Djordje Gencic,20 arranged a meeting in the vineyard of Aca Novakovic, a leading Belgrade lawyer. 21 Also pre sent were Jovan Avakumovic, General Jovan Atanackovic, and the promin ent Karadjordjist, Nikola Hadji-Toma. All agreed to join the conspiracy but were not informed of Apis' secret list. Antic and Gencic maintained ties between civilians and office rs, and in late December Gencic met at Antic's with twelve officer conspirators. Most of the civilians had little to do with the officers. Although some prominent politicians and military leaders joined, the enterprise was still directed by Apis' original group, apparently the only case in modern European history of a major, success

ful coup organized and executed by junior officers. During

1902 the officer conspirators decided to recruit key colleagues

throughout Serbia, mostly those without family responsibilities. Caution ing against broadening the plot excessively, Apis told Pankovic : "Great ideas have always been the work of a few people." Among the new recruits was a Foreign Office employee, Aksenije Rujanac-Bacet, an ardent Kara djordjist who agreed to agitate among the youth and ex-guerrillas. Panko vic acted as intermediary between Bacet and the officer conspirators. In February

1902, as Pankovic passed before the Officers' Club, Apis sud

denly rushed out: "Go this very morning to Bacet and tell him to conceal and destroy everything he has on him which could compromise us; ap parently a search will be carried out." Apis was correct. That evening investigators examined Bacet's office finding only a Karadjordj ist postcard. Nonetheless, Bacet was expelled summarily from Belgrade and Pankovic was ordered transferred to NiS.

Parparting the Coup

37

Before departure Pankovic parted from his friends at the Officers' Club. Walking him to his quarters, Apis urged Pankovic to work for the conspiracy in the NiS garrison and supplied him with names of conspira tors there. Soon Pankovic linked plotters in Nis an.d Belgrade.22 With a nucleus headed by Majors Milos Bozanovic and Stevan Milanovic the Nis garrison next to Belgrade developed the largest network of conspira tors. The two majors enlisted higher officers while Pankovic and his com rades recruited junior ones. By the end of

1902 thirty-six NiS officers

had joined, including judicial lieutenant Branko Gatalovic, infantry junior lieutenant Velimir Vemic, and engineer lieutenant Bozin Simic. All of them would later play key roles in Apis' career. This enthusiastic Ng contingent drew up a plan to kill the King and Queen during a planned visit there. Belgrade vetoed this explaining that the murders must occur in the capital so that government could be seized immediately.23 The conspiracy spread to other garrisons. In the summer of

1902

Cedo Popovic was a company commander at Zajecar in eastern Serbia. Lieutenants Apis and Milan G. Milovanovic traveled through Nego tin and Zajecar ostensibly to attend a christening but actually to enlist officers of distant garrisons in the plot. In Zajecar Popovic roomed with Milan Risi mic, Apis' close friend from the Academy. Sounding out both officers at their quarters, Apis described Serbia's situation stating: "The evil can only be wiped out by cutting out its roots." This, he alleged, was primarily Queen Draga, secondarily the King, her blind instrument. Both were lead ing Serbia to destruction. "We comrades in Belgrade," declared Apis, "have created a plot to remove them from the throne and the country, if necessary by force. Do you also wish to enter the plot?" Both officers agreed to join. 24 The conspirators realized they needed higher officers too. How could lieutenants lead whole regiments without senior officers in command? They recruited Colonel Alexander Masin, brother of Draga's deceased first husband ; Lieutenant Colonel Damjan Popovic ; and Lieutenant Colonel Peter Misic, commanding the Sixth Regiment in Belgrade.25 Erudite, ex perienced, and eloquent, Misic later would preside at the Salonika Trial. Passed over for promotion, Misic had criticized King Alexander and his regime vehemently until finally promoted to lieutenant colonel. The con

spirators, impressed by his intelligence and decisiveness, hastened to en list him.2'


38

Early in the summer of 1902 the Belgrade plotters insisted their NiS colleagues all take an oath to remove the King. The latter complied, and that winter Aca Novakovic, Belgrade's envoy, came to Nis to take the signed oath to Belgrade . Declining to surrender it, several NiS officers took the oath to the capital but then returned with it to Nis. After an urgent coded telegram warned them that the plot might have been betrayed, the NiS conspirators burned their oath in Major BozanoviC's office and urged Belgrade to act swiftly before all was revealed. Two young conspirators later prominent were junior lieutenants Voji slav Tankosic and Peter Zivkovic. Tankosic joined when flrst approached and dedicated himself wholeheartedly to national activity ?7 It was Antic who enlisted Peter Zivkovic, later Apis' implacable foe. Zivkovic was serv ing in the interior, but the conspirators arranged his transfer to Belgrade as platoon leader in the Royal Guards cavalry squadron. Zivkovic's vital task was to steal the Guard commander's keys, unlock the palace's main gate, and admit the conspirators?8 Unwittingly the King prepared the way for hs i demise. Promoting a cult of his beloved Draga, he ignored growing opposition to the Queen and his regime. Divorced from reality, Alexander interpreted all objections to his marriage as treason?9 As pro-Karadjordjevic agitation grew, royal police in March 1902 brutally suppressed student demonstrations in Belgrade. That November the King dismissed the coalition cabinet replacing it with Gen eral Cincar-Markovic's obedient "neutral" government. Then Alexander suppressed the liberal Constitution of 1901 despite Radical warnings that this would doom his rule. Amidst great tension occurred on March 23, 1903 massive popular demonstrations in Belgrade to protest Alexander's intention to set up a personal dictatorship. Involving almost half of Belgrade's 100,000 inhabi tants, this was the greatest public movement in its history. As crowds marched down Prince Mihailo Street to the royal palace, the fearful King ordered the garrison to retore order. The crowd greeted the advancing soldiers sympathetically shouting: "Long live the army of the people!" One squadron commander warned his men: "Watch out that you don't step on anyone !" Near Kalemegdan Park a colonel disarmed a policeman about to fire at the crowd. Between people and army grew evident under standing of their common misfortunes, confumed two months later by the May Coup.30

Preparing the Coup

•

39

As the public let the troops pass, a peaceful outcome seemed likely. But the impatient King ordered the streets cleared immediately . The crowd's size and the narrow streets made this �possible. Before the palace police, convered by troops, opened fire. At Kalemegdan Park this bloody spectacle was repeated. Routed from their impoverished bar ricades, the students left behind many dead and wounded. This needless slaughter mobilized all Belgrade against the King. A ..

similar event, "Bloody Sunday," would occur in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1905. Now all sought to liberate Serbia from a brutal despotism. Two days later the King briefly set aside the Constitution, dissolved the cabinet and legislature , and declared invalid all laws enacted under that document. Then to conceal his personal dictatorship he restored the Constitution. Early in May general elections under a new electoral law returned all official candidates. Both wings of the Radicals boycotted the elections which produced a puppet Skupstina (Assembly). The March Demonstration in Belgrade accelerated recruitment for a conspiracy now including important senior offlcers and politicians. Dis missing army discontent as the work of a few disgruntled officers, the King ignored profound dissatisfaction throughout Serbia. The conspirators' decision to attack the royal palace the night of May 28-29th, Apis told Zivan Zivanovic later, came when they realized their men that night would control all key points. Apparently no one re called that May 29th was the anniversary of the murder of Prince Mihailo Obrenovic in 1868. A visiting card received by Apis contained several dates, including May 29th, underlined on the back. Conspirators would have the duty in the palace, Guard, the cavalry, artillery, and in the Sixth and Seventh Infantry Regiments. Apis then planned all the details with a precision worthy of a professional General Staff offlcer.3 1 A week before the coup Lieutenant Milutin Lazarevic, Belgrade's envoy, informed NiS conspirators that action would occur before the end of May and instructed them to send several offlcers to the capital. Three offlcers accompanied Lazarevic who had dynamite concealed in his briefcase, to the NiS railway station. If necessary he would blow open the palace gates. Next day Vemic, Simic, and two other officers departed for Belgrade. Simic was to inform the Nis conspirators when the coup would begin so they could mobilize.32


40

Days before the May Coup Belgrade instructed comrades in interior garrisons to proceed to the capital or prepare themselves for action. They traveled to Belgrade on various pretexts, some without securing permis sion. A group of newly arrived officers congregated with Apis, then work ing at the General Staff. Later Apis told Cedo Popovic that during the noon break, he, M. G. Milovanovic , and Todor Pavlovic were out walking when up the steps from the lower town rushed Lieutenant Colonel Peter

-

Misic, commanding the key Sixth Regiment. Greeting no one, Misic, the

CHAPTER V

pessimist, turned angrily to Apis: Why did you gather these officers? Don't you see that we are ac

KILLING THE KING AND QUEEN

companied on all si des by spies and that our cause has failed? We

(MAY 28-29, 190 3 )

cannot do anything. Send those people back since otherwise we will lose our heads. And I don't want to lose mine.

The murder of the King will cause great "Mr. Ueutenant Colonel," said Apis coolly, "everything is ready . Tomor

damage to our personal repute and peace

row night we'll attack the palace, so our people will not return home. And

both in the country and abroad. But time

even if it comes to losing our heads, we will attack the palace. Don't for

will reveal that it is not the result of our

get," warned Apis sharply, raising his voice, "that if we fail and lose our

vulgarity or hatred, but a need of state.

heads, yours will fall along with ours, so are you coming with us or not?" " "So that's the way it is!" exploded Misic. "So you are angry, retorted Apis unperturbed. "But don' t forget that tonight at midnight, as we agreed, you are to lead the battalion of your regiment to the palace." Emphati cally Apis added: "Do not forget that henceforth our lives are in your hands." Turning away abruptly, MiSic plunged down the steps to the lower town. "He is frightened. I just cannot believe it. But we mustn't think about that." Declared Pavlovic ominously: "Dragutin , if we remain alive, he

will

never forget this." Heedless of this prophetic warning, Apis declar

ed reassuringly: "Don't worry about it."33 The plot which Apis had largely conceived was now rip·e. His dynamic energy and clear purpose had goaded his comrades into action. Retaining leadership of a broad secret movement, Apis in his mid-twenties already revealed qualities which would make him a dominant figure in Serbia for the next decade. In this crisis he was magnetic, bold and incredibly cool.

Captain Apis in 1903

��is �d

the rest were ready to move. Conspirators occupied key

posttions m �elgrade and the interior. They had penetrated the King's palace guard. However, Apis knew the coup could succeed only if the

�

royal ouple were killed quickly, the government seized, and a new regime proclauned. Prolonged disorder or severe bloodshed could provoke Aus trian military intervention. With the King still guarded by his adjutant, General Lazar Petrovic, a palace guard of three officers and forty-five cavalrymen, and a police detachment, Apis' scheme seemed risky and �e outcome uncertain. However, Serbia's situation brooked no delay. King Alexander's despotism was creating choas, the populace was dis . �ntled, the fmances lay in ruins, and national goals languished. Dynas tic and court scandals had wrecked Serbia's standing abroad. Apis and other patriotic officers believed that unless the Obrenovic were removed swiftly, the country faced destruction. 1

41


42

Fearing betrayal, the conspirators resolved on May 26th to attack the royal palace the night of May 28-29 (June 10-1 1 New Style). At mid

Killing the King

43

Staff officers. Some allegedly had imbibed liberally at the Club or at other cafes.• Nervous and uneasy, they awaited the arrival of Colonel

night, if all seemed in order, Lieutenant Colonel Naumovic, the King's

MisiC's battalion. Just before 2 AM Apis rose and looked vainly toward

aide and a conspirator, would send an envoy to the Officers' Club to

i your "Slavija" intersection for MiSic's promised troops: "Apis, where s

signal the advance. Under Apis' detailed battle plan, officer conspirators

Sixth Regiment?" queried Lieutenan t Ljuba Kostic. Apis realized he

were to remain at five nearby cafes, then gather at the Officers' Club

must adhere to the 2 AM departure time regardless. Disregarding Kostic

after 1 AM. When Colonel Peter MiSic's battalion arrived there, the

and ending at a stroke his colleagues' anguished uncertainty, Apis order

twenty-eight officers would advance on the palace whose main gate

ed resolutely: "Gentlemen officers, double time forward!"5 Without

would be opened by Lieutenant Peter Zivkovic. They would be support

their leader's coolness and determination, concluded conspirator Vladi

ed by three battalions of the Sixth Infantry Regiment, the entire Seventh

mir Tucovic , MiSic's tardiness might have doomed the entire conspiracy.'

Regiment, and an artillery battery. A cavalry squadron would march

Otherwise nearly everything followed the plan. The officers marched

from barracks, isolating the palace from the rest of Belgrade. In overall

rapidly to the palace some 550 yards distant and were joined there be

command would be Colonel Masin, Draga's ex-brother-in-law. It had been

i to Crown Street to latedly by MiSic's men. Some conspirators turned n

decided that the King, Queen and Draga's two brothers must be killed

enter the palace by the service entrance; others approached the main

and troops sent to isolate the residences of the Premier and key min

gates on King Milan Street. Leading the latter was Captain Apis, a head

isters. Should this plan fail, the conspirators would retreat to nearby

taller than the rest, striding along relentlessly, armed like the others with

Topcider Hill and appeal to the populace to revolt.2

a revolver. Though they arrived at the precise time agreed upon, no one

Warnings of an impending military coup had poured into the royal palace from Serbia and abroad. Serbian envoys in Vienna, Budapest, and Sofia provided numerous details. From London Ambassador Cedomilj Mijatovic, a dabbler in magic, informed the King that a local fortune teller had predicted a terrible tragedy. Anonymous letters from Serbia warned the royal couple to be on guard. Such vague tips provided no adequate basis to arrest suspected officers. Hard evidence of disloyalty was lacking. Alexander merely increased the palace guard. Believing his officers and people to be loyal, the King declared: "I revolutions. If anyone rebels against me, I

am

am

not afraid of

ready to meet him sword

in hand at the head of my faithful army." That final day the King seem ed in unusually good spirits. He played croquet as Queen Draga watched adoringly. At 8 PM the King and Queen dined with Premier Cincar-Marko vic and the Serbian envoy to Sofia. Then the royal couple sat on the balcony in full view of passing crowds as a military band played in the palace gardens. After they retired at 1 1 :30 PM the palace was plunged into darkness. 3 At first the coup followed Apis' plan closely. It was an officers' revolt with the troops involved only after the Obrenovic were killed. At the Officers' Club had gathered all twenty-eight conspirators, mostly General

came to open the gates. Lieutenant Zivkovic had received explicit in structions. As minutes passed, the officers grew impatient, then worried. Why didn't Zivkovic come to open the damned gates?, wondered Apis. Finally, he heard the clanging of a heavy bunch of keys. Zivkovic ap peared, nervous and tremulous. As he fumbled uncertainly with the keys, his hands trembled like leaves in a storm. "Faster, Zivkovic, faster!"

urged Apis impatiently. "Hurry! The guards can open fue on us at any moment!" Lieutenant Radoje Jankovic chimed in: "Open up. Why are you so confused?" Desperately , Zivkovic tried again and managed this time to unlock the ponderous gates. At the surging officers' pressure, they sprang open. Zivkovic was hurled roughly to the ground. Refusing aid from the ever solicitous Apis, he slunk off, and no one heard or saw more of him that night. 7 Never would Zivkovic forget his humiliating and panicky confusion at th� gates, heightened by the comments of Apis and his friends. The fate of the enterprise now rested with the twenty-eight who burst into the palace. Apis led them into a building where silence and darkness reigned. The burly captain knocked urgently at a small side door to the right of the main entrance from the palace courtyard. A low ranking guardsman rose from a bench to answer Apis' summons. To the Captain's

44


query where the duty adjutant's bedroom lay, the orderly replied: "Over there by the bear." As Apis hurried into the great hall, he encountered a huge stuffed bear killed earlier by King Milan on a hunt, in an attitude menacing enough to scare the casual visitor. Nearby was the door to the telephone room where the duty adjutants slept. Lieutenant Colonel Naumovic had been instructed to get the duty of ficer so drunk that he would fall asleep. Naumovic succeeded but drank so much himself that he was sound asleep when the conspirators arrived. Seeing the locked door before them and fearing betrayal, other con spirators used Lazarevic's dynamite to blow it open. Roused by the ex plosion, Naumovic awakened, remembered his assignment, and ran to meet his comrades only to be shot down along with the duty officer.8 Now inside, the officers seized General Lazar Petrovic, the King's loyal aide, renowned for his good looks. Petrovic consented to lead the con spirators to the King if he could dress first. Stalling as long as possible, Petrovic momentarily distracted his guards and cut the electric cables. In stantly the entire palace was plunged again into darkness. Petrovic hoped to give the King time to escape or conceal himself. However, the palace was now ringed with troops and artillery, telephone and telegraph offices in town had been seized, and guards posted at leading ministers' homes. There was little prospect the royal couple could escape from the palace. Meanwhile Apis, discerning someone disappearing in the dark recesses of the righthand corridor, left his comrades and rushed off in pursuit. At the end of the corridor he found wide stone steps leading to the ground floor. Believing he might have spied the King, Apis hurtled down the steps, revolver in hand, with no effort at concealment. Actually, the shadowy figure had been a guard always posted there at night. Apis reached the lower corridor which cut through the entire palace like a tunnel dividing it off from the front rooms. Suddenly in that corridor two guards opened fire at Apis from close range and he at them. Examining the scene later, Apis' brother-in-law concluded that the guards had fired about twenty-five rounds. Apis was wounded in three places as was one of the guards. Over coming the guards' resistance, his comrades rushed onward , leaving the gravely wounded Apis covered with blood, supported against the wall. With revolver in his undamaged right hand, Apis was prepared to take his own life if the conspiracy failed. When Zivanovic asked him later why he had not sought cover in a doorway of the lower corridor, Apis had replied:

Killing the King

45

"It would be disgraceful for an officer, even in that difficult situation, to seek cover! "9 His wounds eliminated Apis from the fray, but

h!s comrades completed

his plan successfully though brutally. Above the first floor shots still re sounded and the doors near the royal bedroom were blown in. A long de lay ensued until candles were fetched, enabling the royal couple to conceal themselves. When the officers fmally reached their bedroom, it was empty but clearly had just been vacated. Meanwhile a battalion of the Sixth Regiment, passing through the palace gates, took over the courtyard. The conspirators controlled the palace completely. Where were the King and Queen? Were they concealed somewhere in the palace, or had they escaped into the city? The conspirators grew jit tery. A search was conducted through all palace rooms and salons. Walls were sounded and even struck with an axe. All in vain ; the royal couple had vanished. The senior conspirators-Masin, Gencic and Novakovic grew alarmed. Fully anned, they awaited anxiously in the courtyard be low results of the search. Colonel Masin ordered the government seized . Gencic and the others must proceed as if the Obrenovic were already dead. Orders were issued to kill the Premier and War Minister.10 Young Lieuten ant Tankosic, later a prominent guerrilla leader, killed Queen Draga's two brothers who were possible heirs to the throne. 1 1 Shooting continued in streets near the palace between police and troops arriving from town. The palace was ringed with troops, and artillery faced "Slavija" and "Terazija" in Belgrade's center.

12

Searching the palace, his comrades found Apis in the dark corridor. Exhausted from loss of blood, he called out weakly: "Come to me! It is I , Dragutin." To be certain he added: "It is I , Apis!" His comrades carried him carefully into the guardroom where he was bandaged. Apis would not let them take him right to a hospital. "No, I wish to see the end of all this!" With revolver in hand, he kept in constant touch with the progress of the search, still determined.if necessary to commit suicide .13 As time passed, the conspirators grew tired, even frightened. Almost two hours had elapsed since their initial break-in, and still no sign of the King. Dawn began to break over Belgrade. The officers feared possible revolt by troops loyal to the King. Then about 3:40 AM one conspirator summoned Handsome Lazar Petrovic. Unless he took them to the King within ten minutes, he would be shot. Knowing the palace well, General


46

Killing the King

47

Petrovic probably had surmised where the royal pair were hiding. None

From the garden the corpses were swiftly retrieved and taken to a room

theless, he took the officers once more all through the palace, calling

on the lower level of the palace where an autopsy was performed. That

periodically to the King. With

him

went four conspirators including the

same morning they were taken in coffms to an antechamber, then buried

two senior officers inside the palace. Again they came to the royal bed

the next night without ceremony in the crypt of St. Mark's Cathedral in

room whose two windows faced onto the new courtyard. One officer

Belgrade.

noticed draperies masking a double door on the side of the bedroom facing

111

As the drama in the palace ended, other conspirators quickly eliminated

the street. 14 Previously, the officers had paid that side no heed. As General

the ex-King's chief supporters and secured full control of Belgrade and

Petrovic brushed hastily past the draperies behind which he believed the

soon of all Serbia. At about 5 AM on Terazije Square in the heart of Bel

King and Queen were concealed, the officers ordered him to summon the

grade, Ljubomir Zivkovic, leader of the Independent Radicals, told an as

King again. With much trepidation this trusted King's man called out:

sembled crowd that the King and Queen had died in a family quarrel ! "This

"Your Majesty !" There was no reply, but the royal pair were crouched in

great and terrible event," concluded Zivan Zivanovic, "was accepted by

that small space knowing death sought them. But the fuing had ceased and

the entire people, by some with equanimity, by the majority with joy."19

his loyal adjutant was calling him The King may have believed a favorable

The chief regicide had dined the previous day at the Zivanovic home.

change had occurred outside. He must have realized his hiding place had

On May 28th Apis had brought home Captain Mihailo Ristic as an un

been discovered. Thus when Handsome Lazar called again: "Your Majesty!

expected guest. Zivan Zivanovic, who had met RistiC earlier in Nis, asked

It is I , first adjutant, Laza Petrovic!", the King queried, "Who is calling

why he had come to Belgrade. To consult a eye doctor, Ristic had replied

me?" "It is I, Laza, open to your officers." Relying on their oaths of

smoothly. After supper Apis and Ristic had gone into town to "sit a bit"

loyalty, King Alexander turned the key and appeared in the half-opened

in a cafe .

doorway.

knocks on the window facing the street had awakened Jelena Zivanovic.

.

All had

been peaceful when the Zivanovics retired. Then at dawn

Events then occurred with lightning swiftness. No sooner did the door

Aroused by her exclamations, Zivanovic learned that the King and Queen

open than Captain Mihailo Ristic fired at the King. As Alexander fell, Queen

had been murdered. "So I knew where Dragutin was since his bed had not

Draga standing behind him threw herself onto him as if to shield him. A

been slept in." As the Zivanovics worried about Apis, up came Captains

shot from Captain Ilija Radivojevic's revolver killed her. A volley of shots

Ristic and Radivojevic, who had shot the royal couple, with Antic and

from the others followed. Thirty rounds were fired at the King and eigh

others. Dragu tin, they reported reassuringly, had been lightly wounded,

teen at the Queen. The two corpses were stripped and sabred brutally.

nothing to worry about. Taking Radivojevic aside, Zivan Zivanovic learned

One officer felled Handsome Lazar with a single shot. 15

that it was much more serious. "Dragutin has indeed been wounded and

What happened next caused much controversy and recrimination. The King and Queen died about 3:50 AM. By one account, Captain Ristic

very gravely. He has been taken still alive to the hospital. I hope that he

� live." Cautioning him to say nothing to other family members, Zivano

ordered their nude bodies picked up and thrown down into the garden

VIc gave the officers rakija (plum brandy) before they hurried back to the

proclaiming: "Tyranny is no more!" According to Marcovitch, the bodies

palace.

were taken to the window to show the troops below and reassure the

Captain Apis had received. first aid in the guardroom where he was first

conspirators in the garden. Accidentally or intentionally the bodies fell

b� aged. He had been wounded in three places. The first bullet, striking

or were hurled into the garden, a terrible and repugant act. Those who did

his nght thigh, remained inside the wound. The second one, aimed at his

this, he added, were under a special psychosis. 16 Questioned later by

left hip, had shattered on the hilt of his sword and thus did not penetrate

Zivanovic why he had ordered this done, Captain Ristic replied first that he did not know. Then he declared: "So that it would be clear to all that the King and Queen were no more, I ordered them thrown through the window."17

�

�e hip or damage any internal organs. The third wound was the gravest:

�t had struck

the middle of Apis' chest, penetrated the breastbone, passed

JUSt above the heart, and exited from his left arm beneath the ribs. Worried


48

Killing the King

49

about possible bleeding from the lungs or fatal rupture of a major blood

The murder of the King will cause great damage to our personal

vessel near the heart, the doctors prescribed absolute immobility. For the

repute and to peace both in this country and abroad. But time will

next ten crucial days, to inquiries by relatives and friends they only shook

reveal that it is not the result of our vulgarity or hatred, but a need

their heads uncertain whether he would recover.'l0

of state.24

Within hours of the royal murders the officer conspirators and their civilian allies controlled Serbia's army and government totally. Their sup

With live heirs, Alexander might have been spared. Now his demise seemed

porters, backed by most Serbs, secured interior garrisons. That morning

an essential precondition for unifying Serbs and South Slavs.

was formed in Belgrade a provisional government, dubbed "revolutionary"

Subsequently , his comrades credited Apis with the initiative, leadership,

by the press. The conspirators promptly summoned representatives of all

and self-sacrifice which had insured the coup's success. Apis was linked,

political parties and begged them to form a national unity cabinet to

afflrmed Tucovic, with Serbia's rebirth, begun by destroying the stagnant

guide Serbia for the initial months. This cabinet's strongest individuals

Obrenovic dictatorship:

were Stojan Protic and Ljubomir Zivkovic, leaders of the Radicals' two in all the officer conspirators acted correctly by yielding power

Driven by the vision of national genius which recognizes no obstacles,

immediately to political leaders. They attempted neither to seize power 1 themselves nor impose any set of policies upon Serbia. 2

Apis lit the revolutionary flame in the Serbian officer corps. From

Some politicians approached by the officers at first could not believe

tion . . . , completed by the unification of our entire people n i a

wings.

All

that power was being handed to them. Initially Protic suspected it was a

the flame sprang the May tragedy and the wars to liberate the na single nation of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.'l5

trick in order to have him and his colleagues arrested. Ljuba Zivkovic, the Independent Radicals' chief, harangued a Belgrade crowd:

Among the officer conspirators, agreed Milos Bogicevic, Apis stood out by patriotism, consistency, and detennination to act. At the crucial moment

Brothers, you should not believe that this is a military or army revo lution. The arn1y did this from the conviction that the Serbian people would support this affair and did not wish to do anything without or against the Serbian people.22 Nullifying King Alexander's decrees, the new unity government restored the 1901 Constitution, Assembly and Senate. The Assembly then over whelmingly elected as king the elderly pretender, Peter Karadjordjevic. Despite some younger conspirators' republican convictions, monarchy seemed the only viable solution . Political conditions in Europe were such that proclamation of a republic would have provoked opposition by all great powers, giving Austria-Hungary a pretext to intervene militarily. 23 The Karadjordjevic dynasty was enormously indebted to Apis and his friends for its restoration. The Obrenovics' tragic deaths had resolved a century-long dynastic feud which had paralyzed Serbia repeatedly. Apis had persuaded his reluctant comrades that the royal murders were essential:

he had inspired courage ; thanks to him the coup had triumphed.2'

-

Conspirator in Politics

51

Steed of The Times denounced the killings as typcial of backward Central Asian khanates, as unique in recent history . Austria, he hinted, might be empowered to "restore order" by force. Foreign . Secretary Lord Lans downe declared that Britain could have no dealings with anyone mpli i

cated in the murders. "The literally butchered bodies" of king and queen had been "hacked beyond recognition," reported the British minister from Belgrade . As such reports flooded the Foreign Office, British recog nition of the new regime became unthinkable. The Foreign Office in

CHAPTER VI

formed the Serbian envoy in London : As long as the officers who were compromised by the events of May

CONSPIRATOR IN POLITICS

29 are found in the direct company of His Majesty King Peter and

( 1 903-1 908)

in the most important state posts, Great Britain will not join into regular relations with us. 3

For me he [Apis] is . . . a certain secret force at whose disposition 1 have to place myself

But Russia and Austria-Hungary, while opposing a radical Serbian

though my reason gives me no grounds to

republic, responded neutrally to the May Coup. Their emperors replied

do so. Vladimir Tucovic in Ziv. 7 1 8 . As Apis lay in the Military Hospital fighting for his life, King Peter KaradjordjeviC's parliamentary regime gradually assumed control over Serbia. Arriving in Belgrade June 2nd, Peter was soon recognized as king by Serbia's giant neighbors, Russia and Austria-Hungary. Both powers, otherwise preoccupied, wished for calm and stability in Serbia. In a pre carious position, the King felt compelled to confirm in office the pro visional Avakumovic cabinet where conspirators held key posts. Even when a new cabinet was formed that September without conspirators, and the latter lost their positions at court, the King still consulted them care fully before making appointments or major decisions. A true constitu tional monarch, King Peter left important matters of state to his ministers and army leaders. 1 The murders of the Obrenovic, dramatized and exaggerated by Euro pean newspapers, brought condemnation from home and abroad. Tele grams from several European capitals demanding execution of the regi cides provoked Zivan Zivanovic to defend them vigorously? Wickham-

favorably to official notification of King Peter's election. Russia's minister •

in Belgrade swiftly recognized the new regime and greeted King Peter when he entered Belgrade.4 Austrian leaders reacted calmly and some even praised the conspirators for ending Serbia's dynastic strife. 5 Russia and Austria viewed King Peter as presaging the moderate regime they both desired in Serbia. London urged Belgrade to punish the regicides severely, but Lord Lans downe soon realized this was unlikely. King Peter lacked the authority to challenge the officer conspirators who had brought him to the throne. Initially he intended to punish the assassins only to conclude that would provoke civil war. The mayor of Belgrade declared: "The King will have to leave matters as they stand . . . . The chief conspirators . . . are extolled by the army and people as liberators of the country."' Captain Apis was one of those extolled. Taken to Belgrade's Military Hospital May 29th, he lay critically injured and immobile. His sister and brother-in-law, seeing him briefly that morning, found him prohibited to speak by his doctors. But as anxious relatives, comrades, and friends crowded around, Apis could not long remain silent. He insisted on uttering a few words, supplemented by hand motions. Encased entirely in protec tive bandages, he responded as loved ones approached. Recovery depended

so

-

APIS: The CongeniaJ Conspirator

52

now on good fortune and his rugged health. One day Apis mustered the strength to discuss the May conspiracy with Zivan Zivanovic: That I entered this affair, brother-in-law, was in part due to you. I am a young man, and life is pleasant and happy , so I could have devoted myself to it with my friends without worrying about poli tics and what the King was doing. But you . . . always described how difficult conditions were and complained about the King's actions . . . . Thus I also began to realize what was going on and at first by myself, afterwards with my friends, to reflect about the lamentable condition of our country and about how to end that once and for all. Thus this conspiracy developed. Then Captain Apis revealed his deep loyalty to and love for the Zivano vic family:

53

Honored Sir:

1 do not wish to upset you at such an unhappy time. I cannot be cause you raised our dear Dragutin: he is _your general. We have known how to appreciate that. In the whole plan the first aim was to put the unworthy ones to death; the second was not to disrupt your home. All of us felt that need. And as much as we feared for Oragutin, we feared equally for you, that nothing would happen to you by chance. This provides proof to you how much we love you, Oragutin, and your home. Oragutin has entered our golden history. His wounds are noble. We weep and are proud. On behalf of the officers here we beg you to do all you can so that he will remain here with us. Our services are avail able;8 that is the decision of all of us. We beg you to tell the fellows to inform me of any change in the noble Dragutin's condition. The entire garrison and town [of Zajecar] seek information from me

I could not reveal anything about it to you, although this often oc curred to me, particularly since we had to calculate also on possible failure. And in such a case things would not have gone well for you because I am a member of your family , and much has been said and done in our home on behalf of this affair. So in such case I wanted to be able to swear, if they brought you in for interrogation, that you could declare in good conscience that you knew nothing about all this . . . .

that we have carried out what we sought to achieve, I don't mind if I

all

about

him ,

so I beg you to let me know. I will come there as soon as

possible. Console Dragutin's mother and sister. Zajecar, May 3 1 , 1903

Milun greets your family

Zivanovic was deeply touched by such consideration in the difficult days when his brother-in-law's life lay in the baJance. "From the morning of May 29th onward their attentiveness towards us and my home has never ceased. These rare people, so ideally honorable and unselfish, thus helped me to surmount one of the most trying times in my life."9 Once released

Pausing briefly to recover, the wounded man then resumed: "And now should die; it is


the same to me." Apis believed that the new regime

would pursue Serbia's national goals. "But you could at least have said something," objected Zivanovic, "so that I too could have contributed something." Slumping back exhausted, Apis merely said softly : "Well, that's just the way it was."7 With Apis' recovery still doubtful, Zivanovic received a heart-warming letter from Captain Milun Risimic. Earlier this close friend of Apis had been a welcome guest at the Zivanovic home. During the May Coup, Risirnic had taken over the post-office and telegraph station in Zajecar. His letter reveaJs how the conspirators felt about Apis and his" family:

from the hospitaJ, Captain Apis spent part of the winter of 1 903-04 on convalescent leave in Nis where Captain Risimic was being treated for tuberculosis. Apis and the May conspirators became closely involved with the ruling Karadjordjevic family. Right after the coup, recalled Prince Djordje, King Peter's older son, two officer conspirators arrived in Vienna to escort him and his younger brother, Alexander. to Belgrade. Lieutenant Peter Ziv kovic was assigned to Alexander and Lieutenant Antonije Antic to Ojordje. This marked the beginning of ZivkoviC's fateful and lifelong association with Alexander. Not long afte rward, Prince Ojordje was riding with a group of officers, including the hot-tempered Zivkovic. Challenged to a horse race, Zivkovic demurred. If his horse were injured, who would give him another? He knew that Prince Djordje's steed had been the gift of a

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55

foreign ruler. Turning abruptly to Zivkovic, the Prince retorted: "Some

This news provoked an emergency cabinet meeting at the Interior Min

know how to ride, and others only to open gates," a reference to Ziv

istry. Joining Premier Avakumovic and Radical leader, Stojan Protic, were

kovic's "heroism" at the palace gates. Those present laughed loudly at

four prominent conspirators: Apis, Colonel Masin, Lieutenant Antic and

the Prince's sally, but Djordje realized that the morose Zivkovic would

Djordje Gencic. Captain Apis was sent to NiS to investigate the counter

never forget this slight. "Our quarrel is growing worse," he noted.

conspiracy . Arriving August 21st, he obtained Novakovic's proclamation ,

10

The conspirators' arrogance and incessant desire for recognition alien

apparently by bribing a non-commissioned officer. Twenty officers who

ated Prince Djordje. "Nor did Apis inspire much sympathy in me. Arro

had signed it, including N
gant by nature, overly self-assured and uncompromising, it seemed as if he

Nis officers were tried by court-martial. Novakovic argued that the May

loved to dominate." Officers were supposed to shun political activity, but

conspirators had mutinied against, then murdered their king without justi

politics, noted Djordje, became Apis' guiding passion. No one questioned

fication. Continued conspirator control of the government, he asserted,

h.is love of Serbia, agreed the Prince, but he revealed this strangely by

would provoke European ostracism of Serbia. Nonetheless, the court

giving advice to experienced politicians, criticizing cabinet ministers, and

sentenced him and an associate to two year prison terms. Uncovered by

interfering where he had no business.

Apis, the Nis affair split the officer corps and alerted the regime to the

King Peter, related Djordje, saved Apis and other junior conspirators from dismissal, as Radical leader, Nikola Pasic , demanded late in 1903.

urgency of army reform . 1 3 The counterconspiracy reflected officer discontent with the

new

Entering his father's office, the Prince heard Pasic insist that all officer

regime's policies and with the senior conspirators' favored status. The

conspirators be expelled from Belgrade. Senior ones should be pensioned

latter, dubbing all opponents "contras," persecuted them and got some

and junior officers dispersed to interior regiments. The conspirators' revo

expelled from the army. Rising friction ensued between senior conspira

lutionary aims, warned Pasic, imperilled Serbia's domestic peace and rela

tors in power and junior ones led by the increasingly influential Captain

tions with Europe. He had decrees to this effect

all

ready for the King's

signature. King Peter listened attentively but objected to such a drastic

Apis. 14 More serious tensions developed between army officers and the Radical Party which was now assuming political control. 15

solution of a delicate issue. Moderate and opposed to hasty actions, the

Nikola Pasic and the Radical Party would play key but controversial

King sought time to consult party leaders and ministers. Thus some

roles in Apis' life and career. The Radicals, affirmed a sympathetic bio

senior conspirators were pensioned in May 1904, but junior ones, inclu 1 ding Apis, retained their posts in Belgrade. 1

grapher of Pa.Sic, considered the May Coup the prelude to basic domestic

In August 1903 was uncovered a counterconspiracy led by Captain

leadership by Pasic, Protic and Lazar Pacu, the Radical Party presided

Milan Novakovic of the NiS garrison against the May conspirators and King

over Serbia's regeneration. Realistic and methodical, Pa.Sic had conceived

Peter. After May 29th senior conspirators had occupied all important Bel

an ambitious program to liberate and unite around Serbia with its 2,500,

grade commands, key cabinet posts, and positions at court. By intimida

000 people some 4,500,000Serbis still under Turkish or Austro-Hungarian

tion or transfers Colonels Alexander Masin, Damjan Popovic, and Peter

rule. The Radicals revived national goals set a half century earlier by Ilija

MiSic had silenced opposing officers. Novakovic , beginning his service in

Garasanin. Pasic implemented. domestic reform, revived national morale,

NiS August 1 1 th, circulated a document among officers there demanding

then raised Serbia's international prestige. 1' On the other hand, Pasic's

that sixty-eight conspirators resign their commissions. By murdering their

contemporary, Slobodan Jovanovic , emphasized PasiC's great skill in pre

commander-in-chief, they had "dishonored" their uniforms and violated

serving power despite a precarious parliamentary position. A great com

their oaths. Nis officers, exhorted Novakovic, must unite behind the slogan:

promiser, Pa.Sic settled difficult issues by negotiation and delay. Preserving

"Remove uniforms, they or we!"12

•

reforms in order to ach.ieve prosperity and Serbian unity. Under vigorous

comple te self-control in crucial CUnning.1 7

situations, he remained patient and

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56

57

the regicides had been neither punished nor condemned. London alone

Austria's minister in Belgrade depicted Pa5ic as perfidious and unreli

refused to restore relations with Serbia. 24

able. His words and deeds, claimed Dumba, never coincided. Unpleasant matters he simply denied or dismissed. Though a poor speaker, Pa�ic was

During 1905 the officer conspirators divided . .As their seniors' influ

masterly at holding his party together and retaining power through cor

ence waned, junior officers sought political support from the Independent

ruption and maneuver. Revealing a consistent and farsighted belief in na

Radicals. Nikola Pa5ic, by winning over Colonel Misic, managed to split

tional unification, he surmounted all misfortunes. In mole-like activity,

the senior conspirators. That same year King Peter's position was imperill

exploiting national agitators whom he often sacrificed, he proved un

ed by forced dismissals of his private secretary and a relative. The precar

equalled. Intolerant of rivals, especially in the military, Pasic became the

ious state of the King and dynasty led some influential Serbs to favor a

conspirators' most dangerous enemy, gradually undermining their position.

foreign prince for Serbia. 25 In London the new Liberal cabinet refused recognition of King Peter's

Once his Radicals controlled the government, Pa8ic relegated the senior conspirators to the background.

18

regime until changing international conditions forced a reassessment. By spring 1906, as Serbo-Austrian commercial antagonism rose and Germanic

King Peter, another chief actor, combined strengths and weaknesses. had inaugurated an

domination of the Balkans loomed, Belgrade and London moved toward a

era of freedom and progress. Respecting the popular will, Peter let the

settlement. Dropping insistence that regicide officers be punished, Britain

Radicals work freely for Serbia's benefit.

But British and Austrian re

demanded merely that senior conspirators be retired without receiving

ports stressed Peter's weakness and subservience to senior conspirators.

other influential posts. 2' The Pasic government formed in April 1906

Appointing Colonels Masin and MiSic to top positions left him wholly in

readily agreed and in June Anglo-Serbian relations were fmally restored.

the conspirators' hands, argued the British vice-consul. Thesiger deplored

Meanwhile Captain Apis, after passing written examinations for service

This patriotic and liberal king, declared

Samouprava, 19

Peter's "want of moral energy and personal courage united with a fear of

•

with the General Staff, obtained a leave of absence to study foreign mili

responsibility." After a year n i power the King lacked real political sup

tary institutions. He spent the year, 1905-06, in Berlin mastering German

port, and the conspirators controlled the army.2° The Austrian minister

and becoming closely acquainted with the training and organization of the

praised King Peter for his great naturalism, personal dignity, and fearless

German army , Europe's most dominant military force. Apis secured an

ness in personal appearances while agreeing he remained the conspirators'

invitation to attend the great army maneuvers of 1906

prisoner.

near Breslau in Silesia. On a bicycle placed at his disposition by the German

21

(Kaisermanover)

The highhanded behavior of some senior conspirators was alienating

command, Captain Apis covered energetically great distances, examining

public sentiment. PaSic exploited this to foster their conflict with other

field dispositions from various vantage points. Afterwards, he submitted

officers and the Crown.22 Leading conspirators, fearful they might be

a lengthy report praised by the Serbian War Ministry for its clarity and

pensioned off or even tried for the royal murders, sought to perserve their

perceptiveness. Upon return from Germany, Captain Apis was assigned to

society and retain control of the army. Using the slogan: "All for one, one

the General Staff section of the War Ministry serving there from Septem

for all," they refused to compromise. This blocked restoration of relations

ber 1906 until March 1907Y

with Britain and endangered Serbia's domestic stabilityY

Senior conspirator resignations, consolidating the dynasty and Radical

Their defiance and continued hold over King Peter provoked a "Diplo

rule in Serbia, provided Apis with a unique opportunity to exert leader

matic Strike." Late in 1903 most foreign envoys boycotted court func

ship in army affairs. Surrounding himself with dedicated younger officers

tions in Belgrade and went on extended home leave. In December the King

and linked with senior commanders such as General Radomir Putnik,

promoted then removed conspirators from his court, but they continued

Serbia's preeminent strategist, he achieved remarkable influence for one

to dominate the War Ministry . Under that compromise Austrian and Rus

so junior in rank. Applying lessons learned in Germany, Apis and his col

sian envoys returned to Belgrade, but Lord Lansdowne complained that

leagues worked to improve the organization and training of the Serbian

•

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58

army. They exerted indirect pressure on cabinets and the Assembly to pro vide more funds and modem weapons. While highly useful in such en deavors and working unceasingly to achieve national goals, Apis proved rather naive and inept politically. His own political ideas remained obscure


59

disregarding more senior colleagues. To him came written excuses of those unable to attend. As the May conspirators dwindled in numbers, Apis re cruited new celebrants. In manner and behavior, explained his friend, Vladimir Tucovic, Apis

and ill-defined, but with inborn combativeness he extended his influence

exerted a well-nigh magical, irresistible power over his friends. Always

recklessly above the Crown and cabinet. This brought him inevitably into

smiling, charming and approachable, he treated the gravest matters in such

conflict with Radical leaders. Both Pasic and elements at court began to

a relaxed, lighthearted way that colleagues did not feel their gravity. Apis'

consider him a dangerous and irresponsible competitor for power; they

ideas, thrown out casually without overt pressure were accepted as com

suspected him not unreasonably of praetorian aims. Around Captain Apis

mands to be obeyed. Apis never imposed his views; there was nothing

gathered national revolutionaries who favored ruthless struggle against

despotic about him. His was a sympathetic nature created for struggle and

Austria-Hungary for Serbian unification. Opposing him were officers con

intrigue. "Apis is not a man for discussion, analysis and effect," recalled

tent with the status quo and those seeking rewards for earlier services.

another friend. "Philosophy and rhetoric are not his weapons; he does not

From this rivalry would later develop the "Black Hand" and "White

employ logic. His conclusions and decisions fall nonetheless as axioms."

How did Apis acquire such a remarkable hold over fellow officers, even

Apis would listen to his comrades, then place before them faits accomplis.

Hand" factions. 2�

over those much superior in rank? "For me," explained one, "he [Apis) is something more than an ordinary person, a certain secret force at whose disposal I am compelled to place myself although my reason gives me no cause to do so." Though never elected as chief of the junior conspirators, Apis led them naturally and irresistibly, as one friend confirmed:

Realizing their impotence, theorists felt uncomfortable in his presence. From his person emanated a self-confident ease with which he dominated the thoughts of others. That domination is so strong and irresistible that your logic is shaken and seems false. You read in his ironical smile : 'You child of God, isn't it clear to you that life is an adventure?' You submit and leave -

I could fmd no justification for it either in his intelligence which he certainly possessed, or in his eloquence which he utilized little, or in his ideas which were often open to criticism, or in the greatness of his spirit which he did not reveal, but still he was the only one among us who solely by his presence was able to turn my thoughts into his stream and with a few words spoken in the most ordinary manner could make out of me an obedient executor of his will. Casting a virtual hypnotic spell over friends and comrades, Apis to them embodied by his dynamism and energy the Serbian national ideal and dedication to an unceasing struggle to achieve its goal.29 Officer conspirators assembled every May 29th at Belgrade's "Kolarac" restaurant. To those attending Apis symbolized the May Coup. Sharing beer and comradeship, they regarded these annual reunions as virtually a holy communion. Invariably the genial host, Apis awaited and received all guests who seemed to feel the imperative need to seek him out, often

•

with bruised self-esteem. In Apis' antechamber swarmed young officers waiting to explain their missions and to receive instructions. These impatient young people were imbued with an unquenchable desire to achieve. Apis was their idol, sup plying moral nourishment, always promising something, and stimulating them to act. That waiting room was the center for creative and restive spirits who rejected the status quo or calm and peaceful service. Whether old comrades from May 29th or new recruits, all were attracted to Apis like moths to a flame. Like his, their precise goals were obscure. Catching ideas in flight and enjoying his role as watchdog of the May Coup, Apis awaited eagerly any opportunity to take up arms for the national cause or exert influence. His program could be reduced to a word: STRUGGLE?0 Opposing the Apis faction was a group of mostly older officers, promin

ent under the Obrenovic. After May 29th they accepted obscure positions or left the army temporarily. Once the new order consolidated itself, they

•


60


61

sought a part in it, often by fawning and flattery . The Apis group detested

the Turks suppressed the uprising of August 1903 came an upsurge of

them and combated their influence. During Serbia's national wars of 1 9 12-

Serbian nationalist activity. In Belgrade meetings were held and appeals

1 9 1 8 , they were restored to army commands. BoZin Simic, a former

issued to aid embattled Serbs in Macedonia and Old Serbia with arms and

"Black Hand" colleague of A pis, cited a leading example: for years a trust

men. From Serbia small guerrilla bands, some led by officer conspirators,

ed figure at the Obrenovic court, he had been abroad on a personal mission

began crossing the Turkish frontier into Macedonia. Initially poorly train

for King Alexander during the May Coup. A decade later, promoted to

ed and equipped, they were mostly destroyed by Turks or Bulgars. At

general, he was the Karadjordjevic's family's closest advisor. Able to im

first Belgrade governments discouraged guerrilla activity there fearing it

pose himself on any regime and serve any king, he would work at the

might provoke great power intervention or Turkish reprisals. Growing ten

Salonika Trial to destroy Apis. 31

sion over Macedonia hampered efforts to achieve a Serbo-Bulgarian al

From the turmoil of 1903-05 the Serbian army emerged improved and

liance. 33

democratized. Based on thorough reforms instituted earlier by ex-King

By 1 905 Serbian guerrillas in Macedonia and Old Serbia comprised a

Milan, General Putnik and others, it became one of the best fighting

small army. Nationalists and firebrands from various South Slav regions

forces in Europe. Emphasized before 1 903 had been harsh discipline, the

flocked to Serbia to enlist. Trained in Belgrade or the south, guerrillas

Prussian goosestep, and numerous inspections and parades. Officers had

crossed into Macedonia, operating there with n i creasing success. Usually

often spent spare time in drunken parties and read little. Able lower class

wearing peasant clothing, they soon grew better trained and disciplined.

cadets entering the Academy after 1 900 demanded substance over form.

Fighting Turkish regulars only when unavoidable, Serbian bands held their

They revealed greater ability than earlier graduates to lead troops and grasp

own, even dislodging Bulgar bands at times. As Turkish and European

theoretical concepts. After the May Coup some conservative oldsters were

sponsored reforms proved ineffective, conditions in the south grew ever

weeded out; rigid discipline ended. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)

more chaotic.

stimulated new officer graduates to adopt technological innovations and

Apis and other officer conspirators became deeply involved in fostering

utilize initiative. At the Academy antiquated "truths" were discarded, and

Serbian interests in Macedonia. Already in 1904, joining a secret commit

new approaches spread from liberal professors to troops in the field. As

tee corrdinating activities in the south, Apis hailed this as an essential

training and equipment improved, morale and self-reliance rose .

part of Serbia's role as the South Slav Piedmont. 34 Among the first Serb

Welcoming such reformist trends in the army, Apis spurned hallowed

ian officers to lead a guerrilla band into Macedonia was Lieutenant Voji

legal fonns and traditional hierarchy. With his support old drones were

slav Tankosic, soon a renowned guerrilla leader. Subsequently in charge of

removed and younger, innovative officers replaced them. As a key member

guerrilla training, Tankosic won widespread popularity for his fe arlessness

of the General Staffs commission, Apis acted as a stimulator of change,

and enthusiasm.35 Another Apis comrade who began his nationalist acti

though few realized his role. Seemingly unconcerned with personal glory

vity there was Lieutenant Ljubomir Vulovic from a village near Kragujevac.

and careful not to alienate sensibilities of superiors he influenced, Apis ap

After the May Coup, Vulovic served

proached people so skillfully that they believed it was he who was adopt

frontier and as a member of the Vranje secret executive committee helped

ing their suggestions. Bozin Simic, without citing specific evidence, gives

organize guerrilla bands. For years he engaged in bloody cambat as a guer

Apis great personal credit for preparing the Serbian army for the Balkan

rilla leader. 3'

wars and affirms boldly that war ministers from 1 906 to 1 9 1 3 were ap pointed largely through his intluence.32

as

garrison officer near the Turkish

On that same Skoplje Committee served a highly educated, Turkish speaking civilian, Bogdan Radenkovic. Formerly chief secretary of the

Cabinets in Belgrade, officer conspirators, and private Serbian groups

Serbian Metropolitanate, in 1 904 he became chief organizer of Serbian

were preoccupied then with an escalating struggle over Turkish-ruled

national activity in Skoplje region. The Turks condemned him repeatedly

Macedonia with its mixed Bulgarian, Serbian and Greek population. After

to severe punishment. 37 Later, he would help initiate the "Blacl_c Hand."


62


63

During 1906 Serbian guerrilla activity in Macedonia sparked tension

dynamism and political ambition. Officially, Apis worked to improve the

with Bulgaria. Thereafter serious disputes developed among the Serbs over

army's organization, equipment, and mobilization procedures. His unof

tactics and direction. Radenkovic's group wanted operations directed from

ficial role was perhaps still more significant as undisputed leader of the

Belgrade while the Metropolitan of Skoplje urged independent guerrilla activities. Finally in 1908 unity was restored. 38 The substantial successes of guerrilla activity in the south convinced Apis and Radenkovic that Serb

conspirators from 1 906. As such he exercised growing influence within the army and its officer corps.

ian unification could best be achieved by revolutionary and military action.39 While Apis was serving as the Drina Division's assistant chief of staff in 1908, King Peter requested him and another officer to accompany his unstable son, Prince Djordje, on a European trip. Surprised by this choice since the King had often deplored the methods of officer conspirators, Djordje set out reluctantly, resolved to maintain a cool official relationship with Major Apis. During six weeks in Geneva, Switzerland, then in Italy, however, Apis won over the young prince completely: Especially friendly and intimate was Major Apis. At that time he was my friend, but later he emerged as my opponent and an adherent of my brother, Alexander, and played perhaps involuntarily a major role in my life . . . . But during this trip Apis was friendly, natural, a good friend and comrade . I especially liked his way of life: he loved cafes , song, women, and on that trip took us to many places for amusement. Sleeping by day, Apis and Captain Pavlovic introduced the inexperienced Prince to nightclub life. "In the evening they would decide where to go next. I had money and they had experience, so the days passed pleasantly and father believed I was visiting museums and art galleries . . . . " Prince Djordje returned home believing Apis would remain his friend. He rejoiced that the Independent Radicals were in power. Pasic, his chief opponent, had resigned, and his brother, Prince Alexander, was to study in Russia. With him would depart Peter Zivkovic "whom I strongly wished not to see at court near Alexander. "40 In the years after the May Coup Apis rose to military and political prominence. He was then on excellent terms with King Peter and his sons and gained the trust of General Putnik. The Radicals, Serbia's dominant party, valued his patriotism and energy though distrusting his revolutionary

•

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The "Black Hand"

•

65

The Bosnian Annexation triggered formation in Serbia of Narodna Odbrana (National Defense), a mass organization, which mobilized Serbs to resist Austria-Hungary. Within a month local committees had sprung up throughout Serbia, galvanizing its people. Over· 5,000 volunteers were recruited from Serbia and abroad, prepared to cross into Bosnia and Herce govina to fight Austria. The Serbian regime backed

this

popular move

ment announcing: "Belgraders! The fatherland is in danger! Austria threat

CHAPTER VII

ens to steal Bosnia and Hercegovina from us. We cannot and must not re main passive." 1 Belgrade ordered the Drina Division to organize defense of the Bosnian frontier. As chief of staff to General I. Gojkovic, Major

APIS AND THE " B LACK HAND" 1 908-1 9 1 2

Apis carried out that task successfully? Narodna Odbrana advocated unification of all Serbs through militant national policies including war. In Serbia the annexation provoked spon

I was just an ordinary member and . . . warn

taneous general protest. Serbs prepared for self-sacrificing struggle, even

ed that because I was busy with official

death. In the annexed provinces Narodna Odbrana was welcomed enthu

duties, I could not work on recruiting new

siastically. Henceforth, Austria viewed Narodna Odbrana as highly dan

members . . . . Having ties with leading per

gerous and rabidly Austrophobe. It was then a first-class revolutionary

sons in top positions in state service and the

organization supported by all opponents of the annexation, noted Cedo

army, I declared I would put all these con nections at the organization's service. Colonel Apis at the Salonika Trial

•

Popovic. Youthful volunteers from varous regions trooped to Cuprija in eastern Serbia for guerrilla training with redoubtable Voja Tankosic . Hard ened guerrillas proceeded from Macedonia to the Drina frontier. Serbs in Bosnia and Hercegovina were convinced that behind the guerrillas would

To Serbs it came like a thunderbolt from a clear blue sky . On October

march the Serbian army.3

6, 1908 Austria-Hungary proclaimed the annexation of Bosnia and Herce

Instead of war ensued divided counsels and public disillusonment.

govina. Exposing Serbia to virtual encirclement by the Dual Monarchy,

Without Russia's military support, Serbia would have met quick defeat

this stroke apparently ended prospects that these provinces, mostly South

by the Habsburg Empire. Milovan Milovanovic, Serbia's foreign minister,

Slav in population, would ever join with Serbia. This sudden move fol

realizing Austria's preponderant power, opposed war then, fearing it would

.

the preceding tariff war. In

destroy Serbia. He foresaw that Serbo-Austrian antagonism would eventu

Serbia and other South Slav lands the annexation provoked an immediate,

ally provoke a general European conflict. In the Assembly he explained :

massive upsurge of patriotic sentiment. Nationalist and revolutionary

Russia is unprepared, so Serbia can oppose Austria only diplomatically.

organizations formed to combat Austrian imperialism and promote South

Nikola Pa5ic, the Radic.al leader, deplored MilovanoviC's efforts to

Slav unity. When public and legal mass organizations proved ineffective,

secure minor territorial compensation for the annexation. As a committed

militants set up the secret, revolutionary organization, "Unification or

nationalist, Pa5ic kept always in view his long-term goal of Serbian unity.

Death! " , nicknamed the "Black Hand." In that group Apis played a major

Publicly bellicose but soon realizing Serbia could not then fight Austria,

though controversial role.

Pasic fanned international indignation against the annexation . Meanwhile

lowed Austria's failure to coerce Serbia

p. i

Milovanovic , his rival in the Radical Party, toured major European capitals,

64

explaining Serbia's position. Once Austria-Hungary controlled the western


66

The "Black Hand"

67

Balkans, he warned, the small Balkan states would be enslaved. Unable

activists in Narodna Odbrana and take it over from within. Abandoning

to thwart the annexation, Milovanovic nonetheless kept the Bosnian ques

that scheme soon as impractical, Apis conceived instead "Unification or

tion open. Thus his later statement under intense Austro-German pressure

Death!" to prepare the army for coming crises and gather around it na

that the annexation did not infringe Serbia's interests (manifestly untrue),

tional revolutionaries from all Yugoslav areas.8 Sinillarly, former Interior

failed to damage much her prestige abroad.4

Minister Ljubomir Jovanovic-Patak cited VemiC's postscript of March

The negative outcome of the annexation crisis dismayed Serbs. Ignor

3, 1 9 1 1 :

ant of Serbia's weakness, they reacted angrily to Belgrade's promise to live in peace with Austria and reduce its army . At Austrian insistence

I got to look at a letter of Dimitrijevic [Apis] of January 1 9 , 1 9 1 0

Narodna Odbrana became a peaceful cultural society restricted to modest,

which showed clearly that already then he not only knew about the

unobtrusive individual efforts. Serbian militants were profoundly disil

preparations [for "Black Hand"] but that he may have been the

lusioned. "In our view," Apis stated later, "Narodna Odbrana did not do

instigator of the whole thing, but in any case one of the prime

as much or what we considered necessary to do."5

movers. Here is one sentence : 'At the end let me remind you of the undertaking about which we spoke and have already engaged people,

A lull in national activity and public discouragement ensued. Compelled

that in Berlin orders have been placed . .

to renounce the annexed provinces, Belgrade also halted guerrill a activity

.

. "9

in Macedonia where the Bulgars swiftly erased most earlier Serbian gains. They and the Turks terrorized Serbs in Macedonia. Serb national workers

Apis, argued J ovanovic-Patak, rarely came directly to colleagues to initiate

everywhere protested that Belgrade's inactivity would doom their cause .

matters such as "Black Hand." Remaining in the background, he drove on

Militants and

others until convinced it was their idea, they "accepted" their own pro

revolutionaries,

demanding radically different methods,

longed for a secret, militant organization.' Former guerrilla leaders in Macedonia grew deeply worried. Whereas some wished to seek concessions peacefully for Macedonian Serbs, older

posal.

10

Apis for his part claimed later that Vemic had first imformed him about "Unification or Death!" in downtown Belgrade early in 1 9 1 1 :

leaders under Bogdan Radenkovic urged revolutionary struggle against Bulgars and Young Turks. Late in 1908 a conference in Skoplje approved

He told me he had something to confide to me and requested that

this. Radenkovic was to explain this decision in Belgrade and seek Serbia's

I take it seriously and keep it secret. When I agreed, he said he would

assistance for guerrilla operations. Convinced that only revolutionary

introduce me to the people who had initiated that affair. Thus it

action could save Serbs in the south, Radenkovic conceived a secret na

occurred that I met with Bogdan Radenkovic and the late Ljuba S.

tionalist organization to back the guerrilla movement. He shared his ideas

Jovanovic, called Cupa. Probably the first time I saw them and

with three Belgrade militants: Voja Tankosic , the guerrilla chief; Cavalry

Vemic was in my office at the Cavalry Division where I was chief

Captain Velimir Vemic; and Lj ubomir Jovanovic -Cupa, an idealistic pro

of staff.

Yugoslav nationalist. Deciding to form an organization for revolutionary action outside Serbia, they met frequently to discuss the formation of

Apis learned that the three. were planning to form a secret nationalist

what became "Unification or Death!"7

organization. With a heavy volume of staff work, Apis consented some

However,

some well-informed

contemporaries ascribed the "Black

Hand'"s formation to Apis. Bozin Simic, close to him, emphasized that

what reluctantly to join them. Asked at Salonika whether he had helped compose the "Black Hand" Constitution, Apis responded:

officer conspirators then were agitating to resume guerrilla activity in Macedonia and prepare the Serbian army for war. To achieve this and im

1 was neither picked for that work nor was I among those who drew

prove military intelligence, Apis at first considered placing revolutionary

up the Constitution . . . . Lj uba lJovanovic-Cupa) did that, and 1


68

69

·The "Black Hand"

recall that he also provided a sketch of the Oath. Besides Ljuba, Bog

As to the "Black Hand'"s Constitution, Apis insisted that the founders

dan also worked on the draft . . . . At that first meeting . . . they

had envisaged revolutionary struggle solely outside Serbia's borders. Nor

agreed to work out a draft of the Constitution and when that was

should that document be interpreted literally: the president and secretary

ready, at meetings held at VemiC's apartment, each article was read

never had possessed the absolute authority stipulated in the Constitution

to everyone and the final wording was agreed to. In that regard there

to impose decisions on the membership. The "Black Hand," Apis stressed ,

was little discussion . . . . When the articles were fmally approved,

had never undertaken illegal action in Serbia, and its external activities

someone rewrote the Constitution and brought it to us for signature,

had been plarmed with the Belgrade government's full knowledge and

I believe, in Ilija Radivojevic's office . . . .

approval. Apis had promised Foreign Minister Milovanovic to inform

12

him

of all "Black Hand" activities and that the organization would do nothing Apis thus joined the original seven man Central Executive Committee

improper which might discredit the government. The name, "Unification

of "Unification or Death!" As that board began work, he had remained

or Death!" signified that members must be willing to sacrifice their lives

just an ordinary member, declared Apis. Lacking time to help recruit mem

if that were required to unite the Serbs. The mysterious initiation of mem

bers for the organization, he would aid them in his spare time "as my

bers involving a ceremony in a darkened room and an oath administered

personal sacrillce." Having close ties with top government and army lead

by a hooded leader stemmed from the Freemason, Jovanovic-Cupa. Link

ers, he would place all his contacts at the "Black Hand"'s service. "They

ed closely by mutual trust and friendship, members of the CEC had

all seemed satisfied with this and did not elect me president and spared me

adopted the terrorist insignia of the bomb, knife and death's head because

also from other duties in the Central Executive Committee." That Com

of pressures of the Macedonian struggle. The secret and violent operations

mittee unanimously chose llija Radivojevic president and Velimir Vemic

in Macedonia, explained Apis, had precluded formal registration of the

secretary of "Black Hand."

"Black Hand" with the Serbian authorities. 1 4

Why had Major Apis entered a secret organization knowing that this

Apis' status as a "threefold man"-an officer, leader of the May Coup,

was forbidden to all military personnel?, queried Colonel MiSic at Salonika.

and "Black Hand" member-had made him the logical link with the gov

The desperate plight of Serbs in Macedonia and Old Serbia had impelled

ernment:

him to do so, Apis explained: When I entered the organization, I enjoyed the best relations with The defmitive loss of Bosnia-Hercegovina and its people to Serbdom

the Crown . . . . I took on myself the task of acquainting the govern

. . . and the extinction of Serbian life which was to be completed

ment with the organization to a certain extent. Bogdan [Radenko

in the south under the new Turkish regime impressed me that this

vic] was our representative in the Foreign Ministry as its employee.

was a desperate time for the Serbs. At that moment came Bogdan

I informed Dr. Milovan Milovanovic about the organization, often

Radenkovic . . . arguing the need for such an organization. ln Serbia,

going to see him at his home or to

the free Piedmont of Serbdom, he felt, little heed was being paid to

mediately began to discuss our affairs with him.

his

office in Belgrade and im

this. He was convinced Serbia must undertake solution of the Macedonian question, argued that it could be aided by such an

Informing the Foreign Minister that "Unification or Death! " truly existed

organization . . . . Earlier, I had been involved personally in similar

and consisted chiefly of army officers, Apis did not give him its Constitu

secret committees [in Macedonia) so I was not worried about its

tion or operating code

secrecy. I entered the organization especially because of Bodgan. 13

ask for them. After listening to Major Apis, Milovanovic had declared :

(Poslovnik)

allegedly because Milovanovic did not

"Place, young friend, your 'Black Hand' at my disposal, then you will Thus Apis willingly subordinated his duties as an officer to his convictions as a nationalist.

soon see what Milovanovic will do for Serbia." He requested merely that


70

the organization do nothing detrimental to the general interest. "We pas sed directly to discussing negotiations with Bulgaria for an alliance, af firmed Apis. "When necessary I placed at MilovanoviC's disposition indi vidual members of "Unification or Death!" for essential work on our na tional tasks."15 During the winter of 191 1-12, the "Black Hand" became virtually an instrument of the Serbian Foreign Ministry. It was apparently Jovanovic-Cupa who had first urged Major Apis to approach the Foreign Minister. At a CEC meeting Cupa declared: "We must without fail go to Balacka [Milovanovic] and convince him that co operation with the Bulgars is necessary. " "But who should talk with him," queried Apis. "You," replied Cupa. "But I don't know him personally at

all.

Besides, it would be inappropriate for me as an officer to talk with

him about such a matter." Then other CEC members insisted: "No, pre cisely you should go." Yielding goodnaturedly, Apis had a long talk with Milovanovic. "Black Hand'"s goals, declared Apis, were wholly different from those asserted by the Radical press. "Why don't you reply to them?" asked the Foreign Minister. "It would be easy to reply," responded the Major, "but it would not be suitable given the aims we have set to involve ourselves now in a public polemic." Liking this answer, Milovanovic list ened attentively to Apis' further explanations. That was his first oppor tunity to talk with this remarkable young man. Later, Milovanovic often repeated:

"1 had never before met such a brilliant officer."''

Why had the "Black Hand" consisted mostly of army officers? inquired Colonel MiSic at the Salonika Trial. Apis explained that the founders had envisioned it as a mass popular organization :

The "Black Hand"

71

How did Colonel Apis believe, as suggested by its Constitution, that the "Black Hand" would influence the Serbian government and public life? That influence, responded Apis, would come of its.elf because those "key elements . . . would

MWe:

all belong to the organization."

"What happened when the instructions of the CEC and the inter

ests of the organization conflicted openly with state or private interests?''

Apis:

"Personally

1 broke my oath concluding that the country's least

interest was greater than the interests of the organization." Misic: "Did any members leave the organization in defiance of their oath, and what happened to them?" "I heard that Milan Gavrilovic in the Foreign Ministry left the organization and apparently committed indiscretions in Dnevni list 1 8 [re

A pis:

vealing "Black Hand" secrets] . Nothing was done to him."

Misic: "Who contributed the idea for 'Unification's seal?" Apis: "I did not since I was more a staff than a field operative." Misic: "Why did you adopt as insignia of the organization a skull, cross bones, knife, bomb and poison, and what did each signify?"

Apis:

"For me as an intelligent person those emblems do not have

such a frightening and negative look . . . because I served earlier on such [secret] committees. In the first committee . . . where I began national work, at one large meeting came amongst us a world-renowned professor of [Belgrade] University who told us of the need for the bitterest struggle in Macedonia 'to save Serbdom with bombs, knives and rifles.' That was my national baptism. In my later work in the field, poison was used and all guerrillas carried it both as a means of attack and to save someone if he fell into enemy hands. That is why such emblems entered the organization's

Both Bogdan and I believed we would have time to enlist a vast number of members . . . but the wars hampered this. Time was lack ing to achieve that ideal, and the mystical and difficult means of inducting members would not allow us to do very much given the

seal and it was a sign that these people were prepared to die."

Misic:

"The Constitution prescribed that every member had to report

everything he learned privately or officially to the organization."

Apis:

"Each member had to decide on his own and on what basis if

short time. It was much easier to enlist officers as members than

something related to the organization or whether to report it. As to state

civilians because officers were linked by comradeship and entered

secrets, each member decided in each case whether to report them"

the organization readily despite those mystical requirements, so the organization became involuntarily chiefly a military one. 1 7

Misic: "Why did you decide to form an organization in obvious con flict with the laws of Serbia?"

Aps: i

"When revolutionary struggle was necessary , this explains our

A lengthy exchange at the Salonika Trial between Chairman Misic and

conviction that such provisions and operations were the only way to save

Apis cast more light on the "Black Hand'"s nature and Apis' role within it.

Serbdom when threatened with extinction . . . . I did not feel for a moment

•


72

The "Black Hand"

•

73

that the Oath would hinder me or take precedence over my oaths to king

affirmed: "There is absolutely no place in politics for officers-they have

and country."19

their own sacred tasks. "23

Apis' close friend, Major Vladirnir Tucovic, enlisted Major Panta Dras

With numerous reports about "Black Hand" appearing in Belgrade's

kic, later Prince Alexander's adjutant, into the "Black Hand." Assured

press, foreign diplomats were reporting about it to their governments.

that Prince Alexander, higher officials, and top officers had already join

With Austria-Hungary worried about Serbian nationalism, its well-inform

ed, DraSldc decided to enter a secret, illegal organization. Soon he learned

ed minister, von Ugron, wrote: "There is much talk here about a sup

that its true leader was Major Apis whom he praised later as "a fearless

posed officers' movement, but no one knows anything positive." This

individual and patriot whom one encounters only once in centuries." How

"Black Hand", allegedly a patriotic group to operate outside Serbia in

ever, as reports multiplied about the "Black Hand"'s interference in poli

order to unite all Serbs, was "really only a cover; its real purpose is to

tics, Draskic deplored "that our idealism was being profaned by some type 0 of political intrigue. "2

intervene in internal affairs."24 Centering in the Belgrade garrison, this

•

officers' movement appeared directed against the ruling Radicals. "Among

By the fall of 1 9 1 1 information about the "Black Hand" had leaked

them the chief role is supposedly played by General Staff Major Dragutin

to cabinet members, the press, diplomatic corps, and top officers. Colonel

Dimitrijevic . . . also prominent during the 1903 conspiracy." The "Black

Milos Bozanovic, Belgrade's commandant, at first was incredulous that

Hand," added von Ugron in January 1 9 12, was causing more and more

officers were involved in this mysterious group. To his questions Major

public attention in Belgrade. Although its aims remained unclear, "its

Josif Kostic exclaimed:

existence is no longer doubted officially ." Allegedly, it had already sen tenced to death top Radicals, such as PaSic and Stojan Protic .25

Don't you know? It is public knowledge. They are talking about it in the cafes and public saying officer conspirators are in "Black Hand," including I. Radivojevic, Dimitrijevic [Apis) , Tucovic and eight officers from the gendarmerie.

von Ugron's findings, including his belief that the "Black Hand" officers aimed to remove the Radicals from power and replace them with an authoritarian government favoring a Pan-Serbian policy. "It numbers among its members not only officers of all ranks but also civilians of

But when Bozanovic called in Apis and Radivojevic, they labelled such reports nonsensical inventions. "I asked all the officers J osif Kostic had named whether they were in the "Black Hand," recalled Bozanovic , "and all denied it."21 Press reports about "Black Hand" first appeared in

The British minister in Belgrade, Charles Barclay, confirmed most of

Tribuna,

a paper

every station of life .

. . . "2'

The "Black Hand" was most active and dynamic during its first year. Major Vemic confirmed that its CEC met frequently and discussed plans to assassinate King Ferdinand of Bulgaria and Prince Nikola of Monte negro as leading opponents of Serbian unification.27 In Belgrade its

Tri

leaders were busily recruiting new members, especially among younger

editors wondered: "Who needs this? Is 'Black Hand' perhaps a

officers. Usually a recruiter merely needed to mention that "Black Hand"

means to recruit enthusiastic young people under the guise of patriotism

was a patriotic organization seeking to unite Serbs, or "for work on the

for nefarious internal activities?" Soon providing more details about the

national cause" and mention a few leaders, and officers would enter

organization,

criticized it strongly and warned: "Unless they wish

often without further inquiry .2& During the Belgrade visit of Serbian and

their country to suffer the fate of Turkey or Greece, Serbian officers must

Croatian academic youth from Zagreb in April 1 9 12, they met "Black

not enter such a political organization . . . . " Dissatisfied officers should

Hand" leaders and some were recruited. At the "Moskva" Hotel cafe in

close to Prince Alexander. Quoting a pirated circular from its CEC,

buna's

Tribuna

resign before engaging in political agitation. " . . . The Serbian Army,

downtown Belgrade a banquet was held for the young visitors. Apis pre

which has great national tasks, must be spared such underground intri

sided over a long table around which gathered some twenty students. One

gues.'m Reflecting Prince Alexander's subsequent view, the newspaper

of them, Oskar Tartaglia, talked with J ovanovic-Cupa and Branko Bozovic,

•

-


74

•

The "Black Hand"

75

editors of Piedmont, the "Black Hand" newspaper, and met Apis. Tartag

outranked

lia was deeply impressed by this imposing man who could win someone

resolved upon. With his formidable bulk, seemingly inexhaustible energy,

over with a glance. Cultured and well-read, Apis had the exquisite man

and clear dedication to the national cause , Major A�is, especially to young

ners of a cosmopolitan, but was a laconic national revolutionary as well.

officers and students, epitomized Serbia's martial values and the highest

Wrote the young Croat admiringly:

ideals.

He was the spirit, leader and organizer of the national-revolutionary movement who always kept in mind not just Serbia but all other regions where our people lived and which were under foreign tyranny . . . . He was a soldier and politician, simultaneously the Garibaldi and Mazzini of the Yugoslav war for liberation.29 Informed confidentially about the "Black Hand," the enthusiastic Tar taglia was taken a few days later to

Piedmont's offices where

he became

the fust Catholic Croat to join the organization. 30 Resembling earlier and contemporary European nationalist organiza tions, the "Black Hand" sought by virtually any means to achieve a Greater Serbia or a Yugoslavia. It contained within its ranks idealists and ruthless terrorists, civilians and officers. Most of its leaders were young and had had previous contacts with the nationalist South Slav youth. Apis and other founders thus sought to build a revolutionary network among South Slavs abroad. Potential friction loomed between the minority of founders who were idealistic and pro-Yugoslav and mostly conservative army officers, but that was disregarded during the euphoric days of 1912. Apis soon became the chief dynamic force within the "Black Hand" and its main link with the May conspirators. Surrounded in the CEC with devoted friends, A pis was kept informed by them about the organization's various spheres of activity: in Narodna Odbrana through Milan Vasic, a member of both organizations; among guerrillas through Major Tankosic ; and with intellectuals and youth by Jovanovic-Cupa. Apis' close ties with Foreign Minister Milovanovic and General Radomir Putnik provided key links with the Serbian government and high command. Still regarded warmly by King Peter, he had persuaded Prince Alexander, now heir to the Serbian throne, to contribute 20,000 dinars to the "Black Hand"'s newspaper, Piedmont. Apis had now attained the pinnacle of his power and influence. Even his enemies admitted his uncanny ability to win over men who greatly

•

him

and induce them to follow some course of action he had

The "White Hand"

77

expressed this fear particularly."1 For his part, Peter Zivkovic had never forgotten the abortive "horserace" with Prince Djordje.2 Even the Prince sensed his unsuitability as heir, writing in 1903: "The position of royal . prince is wholly strange to me.''3 Even before the incident leading to his abdication, Apis knew Prince Djordje was unfit to be heir and that the succession should pass to his younger brother, Alexander, then studying in Russia. Twice during 1907 leading conspirators including Apis, Tucovic, Zivkovic and Antic discus

CHAPTER VIII

sed this without reaching a final decision. Learning of the conspirators' preference for Alexander, Djordje blamed Apis and Tucovic. At a court party he attacked Tucovic physically and had to be restrained forcibly.

ZIVKOVIC AND THE "WHITE HAND"

Most Serbian political leaders now favored Alexander, and the conspirators

1 909- 1 9 1 2

sent Apis to inform them that most officers likewise desired a change

. . . Do you think that we risked our necks so

that the two of you

l Alexander

and

Dj ordje] could quarrel and vie for the throne as if it is some sort of toy? You are wrong because we can risk our necks once again. Apis to Prince Alexander, 1 9 1 1 As the influence of Apis and the "Black Hand" assumed alanning di mensions, serious rifts developed within the Serbian officer corps. Around Crown Prince Alexander emerged an opposing group, soon dubbed the "White Hand," designed to combat and eventually destroy Apis' organiza tion. Bitter factional struggles were accompanied by intrigues and plots threatening to discredit the officer corps. Although Apis' group won the initial skirmish with the "White Hand," their conflict would be renewed later with fateful consequences. Organizing and orchestrating the cam paign against Apis was Peter Zivkovic. The prelude to these quarrels was the controversy about the heir, Prince Dj ordje Karadjordjevic. Since childhood Djordje, King Peter's elder son, had suffered from severe emotional instability expressed in repeated phy sical outbursts against civilians, officers, and even foreign diplomats. As such incidents multiplied, recalled Cedo Popovic, "We conspirators began to worry about what would happen if he became king. Dragutin lApis]

of heir.4 Early in 1909 two scandals involving Prince Djordje forced a decision. At a public demonstration during the Annexation Crisis the Prince made a violent outburst against the Austrian ambassador, severely embarrassing Belgrade. Several conspirators, led by Peter Zivkovic, then planned to murder Prince Djordje. Dr. Moa�anin, the court physician, obtained poison which was placed in a bottle of carbonated water which Djordje was expected to drink during a motorboat ride on the Sava River. Initia ting the plot to poison Djordje, Zivkovic then involved Prince Alexander in the affair. As the new heir, he would then presumably be wholly in the conspirators' hands. Before the planned assassination Prince Alex ander left for Vienna supposedly for treatment, actually to remove sus picion he was involved. FoUowing him there, Zivkovic allegedly obtained a letter from Alexander confinning his complicity. The day before Djordje's scheduled outing, Zivkovic confided the whole plan to Apis. Appalled, Apis told Zivkovic: "No, 1 am not getting involved in anything like that," and instructed Prince Djordje's orderly to pour out the poisoned water. Thus Apis, far from plotting against Djordje, had saved his life. Soon learning of the conspiracy , Djordje grew more paranoid than ever. 5 With plans afoot to remove him as heir, Djordje played right into his opponents' hands. On March 10, 1 909 Captain Vemic of the conspirators conferred with Prince Alexander's secretary about Djordje's possible ab dication.' Only two nights later Prince Djordje's valet, Kolakovic, was rushed to the hospital with "acute hernia of the bowels," dying there

76


78

March 1 7th. An anti-dynastic newspaper,

Zvono,

accused Djordje of caus

ing his servant's death with a heavy blow. The official

Srpske Novine

re

The "White Hand"

•

79

Djordje, but the latter admired his brother greatly. Once he told Captain DraSkic: "That Sandro

f Alexander]

is as intelligent as God. He knows

ported merely that Kolakovic had fallen downstairs. 7 The Prince's out

what Pasic is thinking ten rooms away."12 Djordje's temper tantrums

burst against Kolakovic, affirms Blagojevic, immediately followed the

persisted. After the serious quarrel in January 1910 with the Belgrade

attempted poisoning. Djordje may have believed that Kolakovic was in

police chief, King Peter wished to send his unruly son abroad indefinitely

volved and had forcibly opened his writing desk and stolen some personal

but found no one to accompany him. After Djordje's return from a pro

papers. Blagojevic learned later that Peter Zivkovic had rifled Djordje's

vincial command in May, some newspapers claimed he was seeking con

desk to forestall possible counteraction by the Prince and his friends.

spirator support to reclaim his status as heir. Allegations in opposition

Press charges of homicide against Djordje sought to rouse public opinion

papers seemed designed to intensify the brothers' feud. Their relations

against him. Although Djordje's friends obtained a statement in the hos

grew so bitter that King Peter dared not leave them together.13 Prince Alexander remained prominently in public view during 19 1 1 .

pital from Kolakovic absolving the Prince of blame for his injury, the press campaign grew so scurrilous that Djordje decided to abdicate .8

At the request of the War Minister, General Stepa Stepanovic, but at

After the Kolakovic incident, Trisa Kaclerovic, a Social Democratic

Apis' initiative, Alexander became Inspector General of the army, partly

Assembly deputy, talked with Apis over supper at the "Slavija" restaurant.

to bring him into closer touch with it and its training. 14 By special kind

After expressing negative views about the Prince, Apis asked: would the

ness and favors, Alexander sought to build a following among junior

SO's raise the issue of Djordje's behavior? With other political parties

officers,15 but his bad relations with the War Minister provoked doubts

avoiding the issue, argued Apis, it was vital to remove Djordje from the

about his appointment. Alexander was seeking "to play a more active role

succession. His party, replied Kaclerovic , would present a draft statement

without having the necessary military training or qualifications," re

next day to the Assembly. Whom did Apis favor to replace Djordje as

ported the Austrian minister. He was accused widely of excessive involve

heir? "Certainly, Alexander," A pis declared. "But those who know him

ment in personal issues, becoming the center of intrigues, and surrounding

well,"

himself with dubious elements." Closest to him were Major Zivkovic of

objected Kaclerovic ,

"say his character resembles his uncle's,

[Prince ] Nikola of Montenegro ; that he is cunning, treacherous, selfish and vengeful , and that with him the country will gain nothing." Dissent ing vigorously , A pis insisted that Prince Alexander possessed all the qualities required by a good ruler who could serve Serbia well.9 Prince Djordje's abdication was received calmly and favorably in Serbia, reported the British minister, indicating the dynasty's shallow roots. There was relief that an incalculable factor had been removed.10 However, King Peter, after the cabinet meeting where it was decided, denounced the abdication as a great mistake: "Djordje is of my blood while Alexander is of the blood of Nikola Petrovic lPrim:e

of Mon tenegro J

.

"

Chief benefi

ciary of the shift was the sinister Zivkovic who fastened his tentacles over the new heir. 1 1 Even abdication did not remove Prince Djordje wholly from public concern. Relations between him and Alexander remained stormy. They quarreled often, sometimes violently, as brothers are wont to do, with out hating one another. Alexander did not object when people attacked

•

the Royal Guards and Captain J osef Kostic, his ordnance officer. 17 Crown Prince Alexander Karadjordjevic was a complex amalgam of positive and negative characteristics. Becoming heir in 1909, he remained the dominant force within the dynasty until his murder in 1934. King Peter was old and chronically ill ; Prince Djordje had lost his influence. Alexander's relations with Djordje revealed him as quarrelsome, impulsive , and at times cynical, even cruel. But Alexander showed great kindness and generosity to peasants and soldiers, noted his capable duty officer, Major Draskic. As a youth Alexander had genuinely liked people; later an entourage of selfish, even perverted people, feathering their own nests, reinforced his poorer instincts, Draskic believed. Because of Dj ordje's abdication and the King's ill-health, Alexander acquired great power very young. While valuing good and able advisors, he barred independent thinkers. Relying often on the corrupt, malicious and perverted, he sought to control them through their weaknesses. General Peter Pesic, appointed

his

adjutant when the Prince became chief army inspector, confided


80

The "White Hand"

•

81

Alexander, regularly stole valuable articles from his salon.18 In war Alex

garrison. In three years there he passed time in inactivity, drinking and

ander revealed great personal bravery and outstanding ability to command

and carousing. Crediting their diffident comrade with a secret mistress,

troops in the field and win their loyal devotion. Very ambitious, Alex

his fellows failed to remark his utter avoidance �f women. Although

ander could be unscrupulous in pursuing power and was easily influenced.

lacking martial qualities, he became a first lieutenant in 1902. From his

As rumors spread about the "Black Hand," King Peter told Colonel

comrades, observing his indecisiveness, timidity, and servility toward

Bozanovic:

superiors, he earned mainly scorn and jeers. ZivkoviC's great opportunity was the May Coup, but his role in it was

You know that my children are credulous and believe everything

undistinguished.23 Bowled over ignominously onto the cobblestones when

they are told. But I have never been that way. 1 told him: 'Alexan

the palace gates flew open, he had brushed off Apis' inquiries whether he

der, don't believe everything that is said to you and about

all those

was hurt and disappeared into the night. Nonetheless, Zivkovic became

subversive aims of the "Black Hand."' Don't believe it, it is absurd;

accepted as a bona fide conspirator, often drinking with younger officers.

it would mean that those people are putting the knife to their own

Zivkovic found the elusive key to success and prominence in the Royal Guard. Finding a milieu where military skills were secondary to appear

throats. That is impossible. 19

ances, he soon grew influential by mixing with politicians and officers at Such credulity eased the path for intriguers, Peter Zivkovic and Josef

court. As the conspirators formed hostile factions, he remained neutral,

Kostic. Jealous of Apis, they sought to win over Alexander.

pursuing his career assiduously. As a conspirator Zivkovic completed the

was the Prince's personal attach

Academy's higher school, assuring his further career in the Royal Guard .

ment to Zivkovic, perhaps involving even homosexual relations. "Clearly,

Leading a comfortable and dissolute life there, he reinforced his ties with

Alexander was not a ladies' man and did not know how to handle wo

leading politicians.

Aiding their growing hold over

him

men," recalled Major Draskic. "For the over three years that I was in his

Involving Prince Alexander in the abortive plot against his brother,

1 did not observe a single relationship with a woman."10 To Dras

Zivkovic had tightened his hold over the new heir. Then apparently he

kic's amazement, the Prince employed with Zivkovic the familiar, "Thou,"

triggered Prince Djordje's fatal outburst against his man-servant. A favorite

family. The Prince and

technique of his was obtaining documents and photographs to blackmail

Zivkovic, soon Alexander's only close friend, frequently talked long and

potential victims later into compliance with his wishes. By inducing

secretively.11 Soon they would be linked by common opposition to Apis

Alexander to confirm in writing his part in the plot against Djordje, Ziv

and his friends.

kovic bound the Prince to him for life.

service

but used it with no one else outside

his immediate

Peter Zivkovic had a profound and fateful influence on the lives of

How did Zivkovic outmaneuver highly intelligent men like Prince Alex

both Apis and Prince Alexander.'22 Born in 1879, Zivkovic came from an

ander and Apis? Zivkovic, recalled Draskic, without erudition or culture ,

impoverished family in provincial Negotin. His parents, simple uneducated

"never did or read anything" and "lacked everything necessary to occupy

people, provided little for him personally or materially. He grew up in

the positions he later attained." However, he proved diligent and persever

little Negotin's dusty streets, completing primary school and part of its

ing in malicious undertakings. .Cowardly but impudent , he valued only

classical gymnasium. An able and ambitious student, Zivkovic overcame

those who bowed and scraped before him. Zivkovic became the ego

great material privation to complete the gymnasium in nearby Zajecar.

center of a group of disreputable, corrupt men who fawned upon him and

Schoolmates made fun of his unusual timidity and shyness causing him to

Prince Alexander. His power lay largely in his hold over the Prince which he had acquired , affirmed Draskic, "in a very dishonorable way." Ziv kovic sought deliberately to wreck the careers of all who opposed or re

isolate himself. As the only route to a higher education, Peter entered the Military Academy in 1897 and completed its lower school in 1899. As a junior lieutenant of cavalry , young Zivkovic was assigned to the Nis

fused to bow before him. "Unfortunately," commented Draskic, "I was among those."24

82


Prince Alexander reacted angrily to any criticism of his beloved "Pera," as shown by a quarrel with his brother late in 1 9 1 2 . Alexander dearly loved Zivkovic, confirmed Djordje; in Belgrade lurid gossip spread about their relationship. Thus to needle Alexander who had just refused him a coveted military post, Djordje proclaimed publicly about Zivkovic: "He certainly is no woman chaser. Guard your soldiers against him!" Swallow ing this bait, Alexander, when he next saw his brother, shouted angrily: "Leave Zivkovic alone! If you continue to insult my officers, I will place you before a court." Imperiously , Alexander ordered his brother out of the room.l5 Apis unwittingly antagonized both Alexander and Zivkovic, which eventually proved his undoing. Apis' personality and ambition conflicted directly with theirs. The hot-tempered Apis sought struggle out of internal need. Perceiving a goal, he would drive towards it relentlessly reckless of consequences. Danger merely enhanced his boldness. Highly sociable and always surrounded by friends, Apis never revealed much of himself even to intimates. His was a closed and conspiratoral nature. By reputa tion he was rebellious and insubordinate, yet military superiors mostly praised him as an exemplary and disciplined officer. Performing his of flea! duties to their full satisfaction, Apis engaged simultaneously in in visible activities bringing him into conflict with politicians and the royal family.2' Soon after Alexander became crown prince, Zivkovic perceived the warm mutual regard between Apis and Alexander as a threat to his posi tion as the Prince's indispensable friend. During Alexander's bout with typhus in 1 9 1 0, Zivkovic allegedly convinced the Prince that Apis was his enemy and had infected him with typhus bacilli!27 Surprised that Apis, highly skilled in personal relationships, had lost Alexander's friendship, Slobodan Jovanovic asked him why. Apis explained: Alexander is a Karadjordjevic and the Karadjordjevic cannot make friends. He does not value anyone's friendship . . . . From people he seeks not loyalty but flattery, and I am not a flatterer. I have given the dynasty enough proof of my loyalty. If they ask me to take off the Heir's boots, then fme, I won't and cannot do it. He has orderlies to do that!

The "White Hand"

•

83

The habitually cool, self-possessed Apis grew very upset. "For a moment I saw, instead of the everyday Apis, a hot-tempered and proud person, conscious of his worth and power."28 Shortly before the "Black Hand" was founded, related General Milu tinovic, Prince Alexander was told that Apis had never supported his dynasty. From the beginning Apis allegedly had urged bringing a foreign prince to Serbia, even after Alexander became heir. Swallowing this slander, invented by "Pera," the credulous prince, rushing to his auto mobile, drove straight to the General Staff and immediately summoned Apis. Before the Major could close the door, the Prince exploded with everthing that irritiated him about Apis. Listening calmly to Alexander's tirade, the Major replied cooly: Yes, and do you think that we risked our necks so that the two of you l Alexander and Djordje J could quarrel and vie for the throne as if it were some sort of toy? You are wrong because we can risk our necks once again. Clearly implied was another military coup. In fury Alexander rushed off to see War Minister Stepanovic and urged him to remove Apis and his close colleague , M. G. Milovanovic-Pilac, from Belgrade immediately. That did not occur, but this incident, affirmed Milutinovic, initiated Alexan der's quarrel with Apis.29 Nevertheless, during much of 1 9 1 1 Apis and Alexander remained on good terms. Alexander liked and valued Apis, recalled Colonel Tuc ovic, and met with him whenever possible. It was Apis who had form ed the Military Inspection Committee to involve the Crown Prince more closely with the army . At Apis' initiative was founded in Aug ust 1 9 1 1 the na tionalist newspaper, Piedmont, and he induced Alexand er to contribute to it generously. During this period of good relations, Apis allegedly urged the ailing King Peter to abdicate in Alexander's favor only to be blocked by strong Radical opposition .30 Then late in 1 9 1 1 , hearing Alexander had quarreled violently with War Minister Stepano vic over a Colonel Barjak tarovic , Apis told the Crown Prince fran kly he had acted foolishl y. From then until January 10, 1 9 1 2 Apis shunned the palace ; his relations with Alexander were severe d .3 1


84

85

Rumors circulating about the "Black Hand" deepened the rift between

then persuaded King Peter to forbid Alexander's friendship with Zivko

Apis, the King and War Minister on one side, and Alexander and Zivkovic

vic. At the King's insistence, Zivkovic and Kostic were to be transferred

on the other. Apis' action to prevent the poisoning of Prince Djordje,

to interior garrisons. Zivkovic counterattacked witJ:l reports denouncing the "Black Hand" and Apis. Summoned by the War Minister to answer

claimed Blagojevic, had triggered Zivkovic's wrath. Then erupted the "Black Hand" controversy. Vladimir Tucovic was instructed to inform

"Pera's" complaint, Apis, denying all knowledge of the "Black Hand,"

Zivkovic abut it and enlist him. When Tucovic revealed that the "Black

accused Zivkovic of slander. 33

Hand" required of its members personal sacrifices, including frontier cros

When Prince Alexander queried Apis about the "Black Hand," Ziv

sings and guerrilla warfare, the cowardly Zivkovic took fright. He feigned

kovic had already told him Apis was its chief leader. Then when Apis

insult that Apis had sent a friend to enlist him and told Tucovic he would

denied all knowledge of it, the Prince knew he was lying and readily be

decide after seeing Prince Alexander in Koviljac. There they doubtless

lieved Zivkovic's tales about its alleged dangers. He and Kostic reminded

discussed the "Black Hand." Returning, Zivkovic questioned Tucovic

Alexander of the fate of the Obrenovic and Prince Djordje. Alexander

about it. With his five man group already fllled and with the public uproar

was shaken and frightened. Already fighting the Radicals, Apis now had

escalating daily, Tucovic declared evasively that "Black Had" did not

to fight on two fronts. His pride prevented him from settling up with one

seem to be a serious movement. The wily Zivkovic, enlisting Kostic and

side. Nonetheless, on this occasion Apis prevailed. Backed by King Peter,

Antic as his instruments, met Tucovic at Hotel "Moskva." Did "Black

Foreign Minister Milovanovic, and General Putnik, who liked and respect

Hand" truly exist? they asked. Tucovic feigned ignorance saying he be

ed

longed to a patriotic organization, "Unification or Death!"

"I

asked you

him , Apis

proved invulnerable then to attacks by ZivkoviC's faction.J-4

Colonel Milos Bozanovic, the Belgrade commandant and a May con

to join and now you cowards do not dare to and instead ask me if it

spirator, investigated Zivkovic's charges. ln his memoirs Bozanovic detail

exists."

ed his efforts to obtain solid information about "Black Hand." During

To gain revenge on Apis for humiliating him over membership in the

November 1 9 1 1 he concluded that it existed but contained no officers !

"Black Hand," Zivkovic denounced him to War Minister Stepanovic for

Thus when Apis and Tucovic denied all knowledge about such an organiza

founding a secret organization forbidden by military regulations. He and

tion, Zivkovic, Kostic, and Barjaktarovic , who had begun the press cam

Kostic spread exaggerated reports about "Unification or Death!", depict

paign against the "Black Hand," were proclaimed slanderers.35

ing it as a subversive organization with ulterior aims and warning that

During this investigation an opposing grouping, soon dubbed the

Prince Alexander opposed it. The Zivkovic campaign temporarily virtually

"White Hand" formed with Alexander's blessing to oppose Apis' "Black

halted the organization's activities.32

Hand." Headed by Zivkovic and backed by the Heir, its nucleus com

Zivkovic had other reasons to oppose Apis. In the tension between

prised Kostic, Antic, and Dragutin Okanovic. Joining it were officers pen

the Apis and Zivkovic fac tions, Apis, supported by King Peter and War

sioned after the May Coup: Milos V asic, Mihajlo Rasic, and friends of

Minister Stepanovic, began to prevail. That induced the officers, Pavle and Peter J urisic, to approach Apis and denounce ZivkoviC's clique. Peter Jurisic told Blagojevic that Zivkovic was a passive pederast ; he begged

him

to inform Apis. Realizing the gravity of this charge , Blagojevic urged

Jurisic to do so himself. At first Apis simply could not believe it, but sub

•

The "White Hand"

Novakovic from 1 903 counterconspiracies. The "White Hand" was launch ed at a supper party at Belgrade's Hotel "Pariz" where Zivkovic gave a speech. The "White Hand" posed as loyalists defending the throne against subversion. It attracted former Obrenovites, opponents of Apis, and many whose weaknesses blocked their advancement in the army.3'

sequent investigation convinced him that Zivkovic was indeed a pederast .

Completing his investigation about New Year's, 1 9 1 2, Colonel Bo

Informed by Apis, War Minister Stepanovic decided Zivkovic must be

zanovic infom1ed the War Minister that some officers had misled Prince

removed from the court. Before acting, Stepanovic sounded out Prince Alexander who vehemently opposed such a move. Blocked there , Apis

Alexander into believing in a secret conspiracy against the dynasty. No proof of such a subversive group had been found. As Belgrade's coriunander,

-


86

Bozanovic argued he could not guarantee law and order unless those who had filled the Heir's head with such slanders-Zivkovic , Kostic and Bar jaktarovic-were transferred ; King Peter approved this. Prince Alexander strove in vain to prevent his friends' transfers. Finding the War Minister and chief of staff obdurate, Alexander declared he would seek to recon cile leaders of "Unification or Death!" with Zivkovic and Kostic. The Prince summoned Apis and his friends, but refusing any reconciliation, they persuaded the Prince that he had fallen into a net of intrigue. As the malleable Alexander and Apis' group reached a shortlived reconciliation,

CHAPTER lX

the transferred officers proceeded reluctantly to their new posts. 37 However, the "White Hand" refused to yield. Alexander began receiving letters condemning the transfers and attacking Apis. Suddenly

Tribuna,

which had supported Alexander, began criticizing him. From internal

MALTESE FEVER AND BALKAN WARS 1 9 12-1 9 1 3

exile Zivkovic threatened to expose Alexander. "The Heir most of all

We helped you Albanians during your struggle

feared Major Peter Zivkovic who had in hand a document which if made

against the Turks, so now we expect you to

public would compromise him," wrote Bozanovic. Allegedly, Zivkovic

assist us when the Turks are threatening us.

had pictures of Alexander with a naked whore in Nice and letters con

Apis to lsa Boljetinac, August 1912

fmning his knowledge of the "Black Hand" and flnancial contribution to its newspaper, Piedmont. 38 Even in Negotin, Zivkovic retained the Prince's support, partly through blackmail threats. "White Hand" leaders, all former friends of Apis, now hated

him partly

because they had failed in any way to distinguish themselves. They ac cused the "Black Hand" of subversion, disloyalty to the dynasty, and sowing discord in the anny. Apis' group in turn denounced the "White Hand" as simple flatterers who criticized the Crown Prince in secret, or even, while drunk, in public.39 Lacking ideology or postive goals, "White Hand"'s chief aim was to destroy the Apis group. After their initial confrontation ended in Apis' triumph, Prince Alex ander, angry but powerless, went abroad for a month. Then King Peter's serious illness forced clarification of Alexander's relations with top mili tary leaders. Early in March 1912 he finally agreed to meet with ten senior army officers. They decided that the War Minister must be a friend of the May conspirators; that Alexander would inherit the throne ; and that his entourage must be loyal to

him

and to anny leaders. Work on national

goals would be pressed by the War Minister and chief of staff.40 That spring, as a major Balkan crisis brewed, internal bitterness and conflict in

With its enlarged, well-equipped army , Serbia defeated Turkey and Bul garia in 1 9 1 2 and 1 9 1 3 and at the cost of heavy casualties won much ter ritory, population, and prestige. After helping prepare Serbia for these wars, Apis could not flght in them because of a severe illness which nearly took his life. However, other "Black Hand" leaders distinguished them selves on various battlefields. In 1 9 1 2 the moribund Ottoman Empire was virtually driven from the European continent. Defeated by Italy in North Africa, the Turks faced a Balkan alliance and a major revolt by Albanian tribesmen. Russia's envoys in Belgrade and Sofia fostered Christian efforts to forge a Balkan league though publicly opposing war. The Russians sought chiefly to build influ

ence and prestige in the Balkans thereby weakening their rival, AustriaHungary. ·

The Serbo-Bulgarian Alliance of Marc h 1912 , cornerstone of the new Balkan League, was forg ed by Foreign Minister Milovanovic aided by Apis' "Black Hand." Guiding Serbia skillfully through the perilous An nexation Crisis, Milo vanovic wisely preserved its strength for the Balkan

Serbia subsided briefly.

87


88

wars. Five months of intensive negotiations produced a Serbo-Bulgarian agreement over spheres of interest in Macedonia. That accord allowed

Maltese Fever

89

During 1 9 1 1 -12 Major Apis encouraged the sophisticated but timid Milovanovic to adopt a more decisive foreign policy. "An eloquent but

the two strongest Balkan states to create a league soon broadened to in

weakwilled intellectual," noted Slobodan J ovanovic,_ "can often be pulled

clude Montenegro and Greece. Milovanovic wanted a Bulgarian alliance

along by a bold and decisive man who otherwise lacks his intelligence or

chiefly to protect Serbia against Austria. Bulgaria's chief of staff declared:

eloquence: he is virtually hypnotized by the other's crude, elemental

"Austria will view the Balkan problem wholly differently if she knows

strength." Impressed with Apis, the exemplar of Serbia's young officer

that behind the Serbian army stand 400,000 Bulgars." To save Serbia

elite, Milovanovic abandoned his former disdain for the Serbian army. Re

from the deadly Austrian embrace Milovanovic had to yield much to

conciling "Black Hand" with the Foreign Ministry , Apis adhered flrrnly to

Bulgaria in Macedonia. Vienna aimed to create under its tutelage a large

his aim: war against the Turks. Changing his own approach, Milovanovic

autonomous Albania which would absorb the heart of Macedonia. En

became Lrnbued with energy and a sense of urgency and grew much bolder.4

veloped on the north, west, and south by Austrian lands and dependencies,

At Salonika Apis described their collaboration :

Serbia would be cut off from the Aegean and Adriatic seas, doomed to political and economic dependence. 1

We passed directly to a discussion of negotiations with Bulgaria for

In forging the Bulgarian alliance Milovanovic received crucial support from Apis and the "Black Hand," but not from

Piedmont,

its newspaper.

Considering Macedonia vital to Serbdom's future, the "Black Hand"

an alliance which was very soon thereafter concluded. When neces sary I placed at Milovanovic's disposition individual members of 'Unification or Death!' for necessary work on our national affairs. 5

sought through revolutionary agitation and guerrilla warfare there to foster national unity against Bulgars and Turks. Earlier, Major Tankosic of its CEC reportedly had threatened Milovanovic with death unless he pursued

Supplying Apis with funds for anti-Austrian propaganda, Milovanovic maintained constant contact with him until his death in July 1912.'

repeatedly denounced Milovanovic

For Milovanovic St. Petersburg's attitude was crucial. During the An

even while Apis was aiding him. Describing Milovanovic as a lethargic,

nexation Crisis Russia's military unpreparedness and pacific counsels had

weakwilled bureaucrat, Piedmont warned:

compelled Serbia to yield to Austria. Now Russia advocated a Serbo-Bul

militant foreign policies.

Piedmont

garian accord to protect both against Turkey and Austria-Hungary ; this Our army has not won much yet, but it seems certain that our diplo

coincided with Milovanovic's own aims. Russia and Milovanovic viewed

macy as it is now can lose all that we have. If our fate depended

a Balkan league as guaranteeing peace; Apis correctly regarded it as the

solely on the will of our diplomats, Serbia would soon lose its

prelude to war. Then at its peak of influence, the "Black Hand" through

independence.2

Piedmont

pushed for war with Turkey.

Since July 1 9 1 0 Major Apis had been chief of staff of the Cavalry Di However, with the CEC's blessing, Apis was working in full accord with

vision in Belgrade. That October he began lecturing on strategy at the Mili

Milovanovic who briefed him fully on the progress of Serbo-Bulgarian

tary Academy. As Serbian preparations for war against Turkey neared

talks. Despite

fulminations, Apis assisted Milovanovic, consid

completion, Apis and several ':Black Hand" colleagues carried out perilous

ering the Bulgarian alliance an essential precondition for war against

reconnaissances in Turkish Albania and Macedonia. Learning that General

Turkey. Without the defeat of Turkey, concluded Apis and his friends,

Putnik, Serbian chief of staff, needed to know where Albanian chieftains

Serbs in the south faced destruction notably from wild Albanian tribes

stood on the war, Bozin Simic urged Apis to help gather such data on the

men and Young Turk militants. Thus Serbia and Bulgaria must cooperate ,

spot. "Fine," responded Apis. "Prepare everything needed for our jouney ."

believed Apis, to defeat their common enemies. 3

Simic was summoned urgently to military headquarters in Belgrade, find ing General Putnik upset that Simic had persuaded Apis to cross secretly

Piedmont's

•


90

into Turkish territory. "He could lose his head ! " exclaimed Putnik. His fear for Apis' safety was well-founded given the bitter opposition to the

Maltese Fever

91

Isa talked mainly with Radenkovic, his former neighbor. Apis pressed Isa to commit himself:

"Black Hand" in political and police circles. 7 Three groups of mostly "Black Hand" officers conducted these secret

We helped you Albanians honorably during your struggle against the

operations from August 22nd to September 6, 1 9 1 2. Captain Sirnic's

Turks, so now we expect you to assist us when the Turks are threat

group conferred with a leading Albanian chieftain on Karadaga Mountain.

ening us . . . . It would not be right for you to employ the weapons

A second, including CEC members M. G . Milovanovic-Pilac and Velimir

we have given you against us.

Vemic, collected valuable information in Macedonia for the Serbian army. Major Apis' group, including Captain Milan Zavacil and a civilian, Bogdan

As the Serbs made their case, Isa smoked, looked at the ground, and pon

Radenkovic, was to cross the Serbian frontier southeast of Raska, examine

dered. He could not join Serbia against his Turkish overlords, explained

the terrain, and meet with the key Albanian chief, Isa Boljetinac. The Gen

Boljetinac, but if the Turks invaded Serbia, he would remain neutral. If the

eral Staff needed to know attitudes of warlike Albanian tribes near Serbia's

Serbs attacked, he might have to join the Ottomans. lsa kept his promise

southern frontiers. Would they support Turkey, remain neutral, or assist

not to betray his guests to the Turks. Apis' group proceeded to Djakovica

the Serbs' southward drive?8

to meet other Albanian leaders, then safely recrossed the frontier. Apis

Apis' group left Belgrade by train and reached the Turkish border on

10 and his colleagues vindicated fully General Putnik's confidence.

foot the evening of August 23rd. Isa Boljetinac had been informed the

Serbia's long anticipated showdown with Turkey was now at hand. Re

Serbs were coming to meet him. One of his men met them at the border

turning to Belgrade , at a meeting of "Black Hand'"s CEC, Apis spoke of

but had neglected to bring Albanian dress to disguise the three Serbs.

future prospects:

That clothing awaited them at the first Albanian village. The Serbs plung ed across the frontier that night in their Belgrade garb. Arriving at dawn

We stand before a war with the Turks. With us are the Bulgars,

at Zigolj village, they were taken by their guide to the home of a trusted

Greeks and Mon tenegrins. In Belgrade and Sofia are to be made

agent of Isa. The Albanian costumes were there , but Apis' outfit was

these days the fmal decision on war. Unfortunately , neither our nor

much too small. No Albanian clothing available covered his massive

Bulgar governing circles are bold enough. As soon as one plucks up a

frame, yet in Serbian uniform he would risk apprehension by the Turks.

little courage for war, then the other hesitates and vice versa. It

That morning among the "Albanians" who set out along a mountain path

seems even Hartvig [Russia's envoy to Serbia] does not favorwar be

toward Boljetinac's headquarters strode a powerful individual dressed

lieving we cannot beat the Turks.

i n

a strange potpourri of Albanian dress and parts of a Serbian uniform. It was Apis. "He had one goal before him," recalled Zavacil, "and went directly towards it without regard for anything else."9 That entire day they threaded their way carefully along a mountain path parallel to the Ibar River. At times they met individual Albanians who spoke with their guide, looking askance at the huge "Albanian" who lumbered after him. Finally, they reached Boljetin village near Kosovska Mitrovica, above which lay the camp of lsa Boljetinac, known for his dis obedience to the sultan. Received hospitably , the Serbs conferred with Isa on a small plateau near the village. From there one could survey the entire Kosovo plain and surrounding mountains as far as the Karadaga.

Pausing briefly after mentioning the pro-Serbian Hartvig, Apis resumed: I am in constant contact with lGeneral] Putnik and Stepa lStepano vic] who are holding ou � well over that issue. But one cannot say the same about the politicians and some other officers. Politicians especially hesitate to accept responsibility for the war even though they consider it essential and unavoidable. Why? Because they have no idea of our young officers' fighting qualities. As far as l can, I am encouraging them either personally or through others, but you must do so too. Get in touch, I beg of you, with every influential


92

Maltese Fever

93

person you know, then given them as big an injection of courage

fighter. Apis rushed to embrace him and invited him to supper. The youth

as possible.

regrett ed he could not join them; his comrades awaited him nearby and they had to go on. Apis embraced him again : "Go, Sanja, may you have

Apis reminded his colleagues of the exalted position of the fighting quali

a good journey and become a hero." Then the officers realized this was his

ties of Turkish soldiers which had persisted for centuries among the Serb

older nephew, Alexander Zivanovic, an architecture student. Apis had

ian people:

encouraged the boy, too young for army service, to enlist as a volunteer. His father respected Sanja's ardent wish to serve his country. "We were

Do not forget, gentlemen, that the generation among us which has

amazed at this action of Apis," recalled Pankovic, "in sending this child

to bear the greatest burden of war grew up and was formed under

into battle as we felt that since we were short of educated specialists, he

the influence of our terrible defeat at Djunis and Krevet l in 1 876] .

would prove more useful to Serbia by completing his education." To their

Thus it is necessary to take our young officers and soldiers into the

obj ections, Apis responded:

first battles so as to assure to ourselves immediately a moral pre dominance over the Turkish soldier. It is my unshakable conviction

Not so. During these fateful days for our country and for our people

that if we beat the Turks in the first struggles, our soldiers will be so

languishing under foreign rule, we must all without exception give

encouraged that they will drive the Turks without respite right to

everything and even sacrifice what is dearest to us, since only in that

the Aegean Sea. But if we are, to our misfortune, defeated in those

way will we succeed.

frrst encounters, our army will flee in panicky disorder to the Sava and Danube.

Respecting Apis more than ever, the officers fell silent. Despite the tragic result, they believed he had been correct. Sanja died heroically in a frontier

Thus it was absolutely esse ntial, stressed Apis, that these initial encounters prove victorious.

battle; Belgrade named a street after him.12 On September 1 8th, after the entire Serbian army had mobilized, Apis set out for Cuprija. Bidding a fond farewell to Sanja at Cuprija station, he

Thus instruct all your comrades and friends that in the first battles

took up quarters with the Cavalry Division staff at Vranjska Banja. There

on the frontier, without awaiting orders from above, to rush to the

he fell ill of blood posoning and Maltese fever contracted in Albania. His

aid of neighboring units so as to assure us of two or threefold num

main symptom was periodic severe bouts of fever with temperatures as

erical superiority over the Turks. That we young officers will always

high as 1 04 F . Though suffering severely , A pis insisted on performing his

be in the forefront of the soldiers in battle no one should doubt.

duties. With the division he proceeded to the Turkish frontier near the

11

source of the southern Morava. As his fevers grew more frequent and Apis' exhortations proved prophetic. Led to initial victories by their young

severe, his powerful horse , "Zvezdana," quivered all over while galloping.

officers, the Serbian army, dispelling the myth of Turkish superiority,

The staff regarded Apis' illness with growing concern. War had already

amazed Europe with its prowess.

been declared, and Serbian .artillery was bombarding Turkish frontier

Just before Serbia's mobilization against Turkey, Apis had returned

posts. Apis' final task was to write out detailed marching orders for the

from Albania optimistic and apparently heal thy . His friend, Pavle Panko

division . Then over his vigorous protests, but at the high command's in

vic, arrived at Cavalry Division headquarters near Vranje the third day

sistence, he was taken still protesting to the nearest railway station for

after mobilization began. Already there were the divisional commander

transportation to the Belgrade military hospital. News of his grave illness

and Major Apis as chiefofstaff. One evening as Pankovic and other officers

dealt a severe blow to the Zivanovic family. Then came still sadder tidings:

were entering the canteen, a young man approached dressed as a guerrilla

Sanja had been killed the first day of the war on Mt. Lisica near PriStina.


94

Then at Kumanovo Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Glisic, husband of Apis' eldest niece, died bravely leading his regiment.13

Maltese Fever

95

Other leading Serbs were also affected profoundly by the Serbo-Turkish War. Demonstrating outstanding ability to lead troops in the field, Crown

Crossing the Macedonian frontier on October 6th, the Serbian First

Prince Alexander displayed growing ambition and self-confidence. Lieut

Army defeated the Turks in a two-day pitched battle at Kumanovo. Two

enant Colonel Prince Djordje fought valiantly and was twice wounded. He

days later it entered Skoplje, Macedonia's chief city. Occupying Kosovo

received two stars of Karadjordje, Serbia's highest military decoration, for

plain, the Serbs avenged their epic defeat of 1389 there at Turkish hands.

bravery in action. Yet despite repeated requests, Djordje failed to obtain

The Balkan allies triumphed everywhere over the outnumbered Turks. In

an independent command.

a single month, ending four centuries of Ottoman rule in the Balkans, they threw the Turks back on Constantinople. Apis was unaware of all this until later. Calm and cheerful when he entered the hospital, he lapsed into delirium and his speech soon became meaningless raving. With brief interruptions he remained unconscious over three weeks, hovering between life and death. Reports spread that Apis had been deliberately poisoned in Albania. Once his illness had been diagnosed tentatively as a rare fonn of blood poisoning, his friends ap pealed to Dr. Cinn, a famous professor of bacteriology in Berlin, to treat him.14 Cinn came immediately , remaining with the patient almost constant ly until the crisis passed. At first the doctors were pessimistic and pre pared the family for the worst. Only one patient in a thousand, the Zivano vics learned, recovered from such an illness. However, once again Apis'

When the same thing occurred in June 1 9 1 3 on the eve of the Serbo Bulgarian War, Prince Djordje asked Chief of Staff Putnik for a command. Sympathetically, the venerable Vojvoda said he did not understand why Djordje had not received one. "I can only tell you that you must seek the reasons elsewhere , not here with us military men." Putnik's allusion was clear enough, so Prince Djordje hastened to his brother. "Why do you need a command?" queried Alexander. "You are wounded and need time to recover. There are plenty of warriors without you." His reply was cruel and insincere: the Serbian anny, depleted from the Turkish war, needed every soldier and officer to face Bulgaria. Declared Alexander coldly : "The war will proceed very well without you. Go to France and do some walking. In Paris are many pretty women." He would approve an inde finite leave for Djordje. "I don' t believe the army

will

notice your ab

powerful constitution responded. Only later, after testing Apis' blood

sence." To this gratuitous insult, Djordje retorted by referring to Peter

in Berlin did Dr. Cinn made a defmitive diagnosis of blood poisoning

Zivkovic's homosexual amours and

combined with Maltese fever. The latter disease, unusual in Europe, was

with him. That same evening Djordje left sadly for France never again to

contracted apparently from unpasteurized goat's milk drunk by Apis

participate in Serbia's battles. 1'

in Albania.

Alexander's notorious friendship

Major Zivkovic, over whom the royal brothers had quarreled, just be

By mid-November, now on the mend, Apis took profound interest in

fore the Turkish war was assigned to command the Timok Division's

the amazing news from the war fronts. Listening to his brother-in-law's

cavalry. With the First Army at Kumanovo his cavalry did not participate

account of Serbian victories, tears ftlled his eyes. ''Thank God!" he said

in the battle. Then his unit was sent with the Second Anny to aid the Bul

quietly. His joy was tinged with sadness at being unable to participate in

garians capture of Adrianople. Since cavalry is virtually useless in sieges,

a war so glorious for Serbia. His recovery was long, slow and difficult.

Zivkovic and his staff lived comfortably in a nearby town. He and his

The Maltese fever left him so weakened that for months he could not

officers spent many hours in .drunken orgies and revelry. At first little

walk. In good weather he was taken out into the sunshine of the hospital

attention was paid to this. Then one day a well-built young cavalryman

garden. There he lay for hours surrounded by ill and wounded friends

told his superior that Major Zivkovic had forced him to be the active

from various battlefields. Finally discharged from the hospital March 30,

partner in homosexual acts with him. Pederasty was then regarded by

1 9 1 3 , Apis was taken by car to the Zivanovics. Immediately thereafter

Serbs as extremely immoral. News of this affair fmally reached the Second

he left for Berlin on convalescent leave to continue treatments with Dr. Cinn.15

Army commander, General Stepa Stepanovic , who urged that Major Ziv

kovic be courtmartialed. But then Adrianople fell, the army was withdrawn,

•


96

and the Zivkovic trial postponed. Nonetheless, the knowledgeable pre-

'

dieted this meant curtains for Zivkovic who sought frantically to use connections to hush up the affair. Realizing Apis' powerful influence in the army, Zivkovic came to him as a humble penitent and begged Apis to save his career. Generously but unwisely , Apis overlooked their previous quarrels. Recalling ZivkoviC's role, albeit inglorious, in the May Coup, Apis concluded that expelling him for homosexual acts would discredit the officer corps and the con spirators. Thus he employed his strong influence to shelve ZivkoviC's case. No courtmartial was convened, and Pera was saved. Instead of ex

CHAPTER X

pressing thanks, Zivkovic continued his efforts to destroy Apis. 1 7

Apis dismissed cavalierly danger from that quarter. The Balkan wars left the "Black Hand'' with enhanced reputation but reduced numbers. Many of its ablest leaders had died in battle, and the wars virtually ended 8 "Black Hand'"s role as a cohesive organization. 1

CHIEF OF MILITARY INTELLIGENCE 1 9 1 3- 1 9 1 4 Sitting behind the table with his huge body, double chin and bald head, in the words of a foreign journalist, he [Apis) looked like a huge Mongol. Towards us 'Civilians' . . . he spoke in that half-joking, half-serious tone of voice in which cafe conversations are often conducted. S. Jovanovic , Moji savremenici, p. 409 Soon after Serbia defeated Bulgaria, Apis returned home from Germany. Promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel in January 1 9 1 3 while still in the hos pital, Apis that August was named chief of the General Staffs intelligence division, perhaps partly because of "Black Hand"'s influence and prestige. In that post Colonel Apis controlled a network of agents inside Austria Hungary which sought none too successfully to ascertain its military strength and intentions toward Serbia. Apis was assisted by the two men who would perish with him near Salonika: Rade Malobabic and Major Ljubomir Vulovic, and by "frontier officers" like Colonel Cedo Popovic. In Berlin, supervised by Dr. Cinn, Apis had spent four months conval escing from his illnesses. There he met with Dr. Milos Bogicevic, Serbia's charge d'affaires and a personal friend. Bogicevic reported home that the Bulgarian attack had altered the Balkan situation fundamentally. lsolating

97


98

Chief of Military Intelligence

99

Bulgaria and Austria, it had prevented the latter from acting militarily

The military and political position of the German Empire today

against Serbia. Added Bogicevic:

is such that the German people must not keep its hands in its

poc

kets and cannot bow to the false prophets of world peace. Let us I enclose a survey of military operations prepared by Lieutenant

move from there and create for our army better conditions and a

Colonel of General Staff Dragutin Dirnitrijevic, who is here on sick

better future. 5

leave. It would be wise to instruct him to send his military reports from here and to have him deal with other military questions. Pre

However, Apis should not be held responsible for Piedmont's writings,

cisely during the Turkish War an expert military man was sorely lacking. 1

nor did its Germanophilia then involve disloyalty to Serbia. And while Apis was in Berlin-apparently reversing its former pro-German approach

Piedmont Apis' repeated trips to Imperial Germany, his admiration for its military organization, and pro-German articles in the "Black Hand"'s

Piedmont,

in April 1913 denounced Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg for

reflecting "the deceitfulness of the German race." "The peace of the world," continued

Piedmont,

is threatened by that power [Germany ]

appeared to provide a basis for claims by defenders of the Salonika Trial

which has created an especially militaristic regime to which it gave the

that Apis before and during World War I worked for Gennany and sought

strange name 'armed peace."' A "Pan-German torrent" now threatened

to betray Serbia.2 However, Vladirnir Dedijer recently refuted such asser

European peace; against it the Triple Entente (England, France and Rus

tions convincingly . His careful examination of reports by German envoys

sia) was preparing strong defenses. With their collective effort, "We Slavs,

in Belgrade and of available German archives turned up nothing to sub

especially in the Balkans, cooperate wholeheartedly and conscientiously."6

stantiate claims of Apis' pro-German activity alleged by his enemies. 3

Inconsistent

Prior to Apis' second visit to Germany, a number of articles in

Pied

Piedmont

was now supporting Serbia's bonds with the En

tente powers.

origins

Furthermore, even had Apis been pro-German then, argued Dedijer,

were linked mysteriously with Imperial Germany. Major Vemic, a founder

this proved no disloyalty to Serbia. During the Austro-Serbian tariff war

of "Black Hand," stated emphatically on January 25, 1 9 1 1 : "Tomorrow

of 1906- 1 1 , Germany had aided Serbia to resist Austrian economic pres

Cupa [Ljuba Jovanovic-Cupa,

founder] goes to Berlin for a

sure so Berlin could dominate Serbia's foreign trade. Closer Serbo-German

printing press." Some opponents of Apis claimed that this meant that

ties could be viewed as driving a wedge between the Central Powers, thus

German militarist circles had purchased a printing press for

Piedmont,

lessening Austria's threat to Serbia's existence. Finally, Apis criticized

although they supplied no corroborative evidence.4 During 1 9 1 2 further

Germany openly in 1 9 1 3 for yielding to Vienna's demands that Austria

mont

more

praised German militarism and efficiency. Also

Piedmont,

Piedmont's

Piedmont's

equating militarism with patriotism in Serbia, praised

German militarism extravagently. Its correspondent in Germany, writing as "Davison," emphasized the vital role of the German anny in "regenera tion of the German nation," concluding that Serbia should follow suit. He praised the League of German Youth (Jung Deutschland Bund), found ed in January 1 9 1 1 by General von der Goltz, to provide physical and military training for youth and prepare it for military service. "Davison" advocated that Serbia adopt the League's racist and militarist approach, redolent of the later Hitler Youth, to achieve its goal of national uni fication:

Hungary be allowed to settle up with Serbia. 7 As intelligence chief Apis worked in the General Staffs headquarters on the Kalemegdan, the crumbling, thick-walled Turkish fortress over looking Belgrade where the Sava and Danube rivers meet. Apis' office was in the so-called "PaSin �onak" ("Pasha's palace") on the fortress ramparts between the Upper and Lower town. From there one had an excellent view of the trans-Danubian region and Austrian Zemun (Semlin), lying just across the Danube.8 Presumably in that office Apis, newly installed intelligence chief, re ceived Slobodan J ovanovic, chief of the War Press Bureau and later a lead ing historian.

The

War Press Bureau, subject to the General Staffs


100

intelligence division, disclosed selected information to the foreign press. Jovanovic had encountered Apis previously, but he never saw

him


101

Soon after becoming intelligence chief, Colonel Apis complained to

alone

Dirnitrije Pavlovic that the General Staff lacked reliable agents and intel

either on the street or in cafes. Apis was always accompanied by officer

ligence operatives inside Austria-Hungary . Did Pavlovic know a reliable . Serbian patriot who could handle delicate and confidential missions in

friends who resembled bodyguards. His whole behavior and appearance stamped him as a charismatic leader. He received Jovanovic graciously , "as

Austrian territory?

1 subsequently learned that he received everyone." Apis expressed him

highly intelligent, dedicated, and mobile. Most important he engaged in

self rather indefmitely, often failing to fmish his sentences "as if he had

national work not for fmancial gain but out of idealism, enthusiasm, and

suddenly remembered that it would be best for him not to disclose every

Pavlovic recommended Malobabic enthusiastically as

duty to Serbia. Repeatedly offered money for his national activities,

thing he knew." Apis had not recovered fully from recent grave illnesses

Malobabic always had refused it indignantly. Normally he even refused

and was not yet wholly secure on legs which were all wrapped up and ap

travel expense money. Malobabic possessed precisely the qualifications

peared swollen. Unable to move around with his accustomed vigor, A pis

he was seeking, Apis told Pavlovic. Thus when Rade reported to Pavlovic

had grown fat ; his skin had an unhealthy pallor. Seated behind a massive

the latter sent him to Apis in Belgrade witl1 a covering letter. Receiving

table, with his vast body, double chin and almost completely bald head,

him warmly, the Colonel talked with Malobabic at length, and informed

the thirty-six year old Apis resembled a huge Mongol .

of his dedication, accepted him as the General Staffs chief agent for Austria-Hungary.

Toward us 'civilians' he adopted a very different behavior than to

What Pavlovic had told Apis about Malobabic was confirmed by an

wards most officers. He spoke mostly in that hal f-joking, half

other national worker, Dr. Srdjan Budisavljevic , whom Pavlovic had earlier

serious tone of voice in which cafe conversations are often con

introduced to Apis. This Serb intellectual, born in Croatia, had worked

ducted.9

with Pavlovic in the Serbian "Sokol" youth organization. Budisavljevic then collaborated directly with Apis in national work and they became

Before Apis took over in 1 9 1 3 , Serbian military intelligence in Austria

good friends. Thus when "frontier officers," Pavlovic and Kosta Todoro

Hungary and the Serbian national movement there had been organized and

vic, recommended Malobabic as chief agent in Austria, Apis had con

directed by Colonel Dirnitrije Pavlovic. He had coordinated the activities

sulted Budisavljevic. As a leading Croatian activist who knew MalobabiC's

on the Austrian frontier of six "frontier officers," mostly "Black Hand"

work well, Budisavljevic had "vouched wholly for MalobabiC's honesty

members. Pavlovic's headquarters were in Sabac on the Sava River; he had

and pure Serbian soul."

agents operating in Srem and Croatia. Other such officers included Milan

ln the fall of 1 9 1 3 , recalled Budisavljevic, he had come to Belgrade to

Vasic, Kosta Todorovic, and Cedo Popovic, subsequent chroniclers of the

reach agreement with Serbian leaders on national issues and had met with

"Black Hand." Before Apis assumed his new post, these officers' top

intelligence chief, Apis. After the Balkan wars, Apis told him, Serbia's

agent was a civilian, Rade Malobabic.

political and military activities, hitherto concentrated in Macedonia and

Colonel Pavlovic, who knew him and his activities well, later provided Milan Zivanovic with details about Malobabic. 10 A Serb born in Vrgin

"Old Serbia" had shifted northwestward into Austria-Hungary . Needing reliable operatives inside the Dual Monarchy , Apis had learned that Malo

Most, a small town in Croatia, Malobabic was trained as an insurance

babic, ex-"traitor" and insurance agent, would undertake such a mission.

agent. He became one of Narodna Odbrana's most active workers. At the

Budisavljevic, a defense attorney at the Zagreb Treason Trial, who knew

Zagreb Trial staged by the Austrian authorities in 1909, Malobabic was convicted of treason against Austria and served a short prison sentence.

Malobabic well, confirmed that he deserved complete trust and would ful fill his assignments conscientiously. A pis could rely on him implicitly. 1 1

Once released, this ardent Serbian patriot purused his anti-Austrian intel

Colonel Apis assigned Malobabic the key task of creating a network of

ligence activities tirelessly collecting information everywhere and bringing

Serbian agents in the Dual Monarchy . Apissent him repeatedly on missions

it to the "frontier officers."

•


102

to gather military intelligence. Malobabic often visited vital military centers like Sarajevo, Zagreb, Pesth, and even Vienna. From these missions he al ways returned with valuable information. Apis told Pavlovic in delight that


based on explicit written orders received from Apis or the Supreme Com mand.

Rade had handled every assignment expertly . He relied increasingly upon

I believed that lthe High] Command saw better and farther than I

Malobabic's rare perceptiveness, resourcefulness, and ability to conduct

and knew more. For instance , a telegram would arrive: fifty rifles

the most sensitive missions. For these achievements and for his glowing

and two boxes of bombs arriving from Valjevo. Receive and keep

patriotism Apis loved Rade like a brother. He became the Colonel's right

them until so-and-so comes. Help him to send these to the place he

hand man in intelligence operations.

indicates in Serbia or abroad. Each such dispatch had a confidential

Colonel Pavlovic provided some details. Rade labored hard to build a

number, a seal , and a signature . . . of someone I knew and trusted.

network of secret agents across the Drina going from one to another to

Most often Dragutin [Apis] had signed, but he concealed this by

give them instructions. Rade constantly encouraged his national workers,

adding: 'On orders of the chief of the General Staff.'

stimulating them to greater efforts. Rade traveled by car or on foot, some times along mountain paths at night to avoid patrols, resting by day at agents' homes. To trusted national workers he delivered patriotic speeches and instructed them how to destroy military objectives. Arrested repeat edly by Austrian police, Malobabic always extricated himself skillfully and displayed amazing coolness in the face of danger. As a field operative Malobabic had few equals, wrote Pavlovic. He sketched all important military objectives and brought back key data about the strength, dispositions, and readiness of Austrian units and com mands. While the Serbs were besieging Skadar in 1 9 1 3 , Austria concen trated troops along the Drina River and threatened to invade Serbia. Passing along the entire frontier on the Drina's left bank, Malobabic sub mitted to the Serbian command exact dispositions of Austrian troops. Detained several times by the Austrian authorities, Rade escaped each time. Finally he swam across the frigid Drina, emerging in an old peasant costume covered with ice! Such heroic exploits, concluded Pavlovic, deserved Serbia's highest reward.

12

In 1 9 1 4 Malobabic was the first to report to Apis Archduke Franz Ferdinand's planned visit to Sarajevo and the concurrent Austrian man euvers in eastern Bosnia. These moves, he assured Apis, marked Austria's fmal preparations for war with Serbia. During the Sarajevo assassination and until Serbia's mobilization, Rade remained in the field crossing and recrossing the Austrian frontier bringmg back vital military intelligence. 13 In Salonika Prison "frontier officer," Cedo Popovic, spoke about the dispatch of weapons across into Bosnia, and meeting and sending of Apis' spies who often swam across the Drina All this, emphasized Popovic, was

103

All

this was "for the holy future of our country;" those issuing these or

ders were all honorable and patriotic. "Dragutin, Vulovic, and all these young Bosnians were for me the embodyment of patriotism and heroism.

All

of us worked sincerely and honorably ."

14

Colonel Apis' only published report during his tenure as intelligence chief praised and defended MalobabiC's work for the General Staff.1 5 Apis thereby sought to refute accusations by the chief of Podrinska region that Malobabic had operated as an Austrian spy. For several years, wrote A pis, Malobabic had acted as a Serbian age nt. Narodna Odbrana's Milan Vasic had considered him one of the best agents. During Austria's mobilization in Bosnia in 1 9 1 3 , Rade had performed outstanding services for "frontier officer," Colonel Pavlovic. On the basis of these views and because I knew and valued Malo babic personally, because he proved most capable of gathering in formation about the Austro-Hungarian army, I gave him this task with the General Staff. Since September of last year Malobabic has been working with the greatest good-will, energy and success as an agent of the General Staff. Malobabic's reports and work "deserve every praise," affirmed Apis; aspersions cast upon him by the Podrinska chief were baseless. National leaders in Zagreb had assured Apis that Malobabic had the reputation of being a patriotic Serb and they trusted him fully. In Croatia he had work ed with many members ofNarodna Odbrana who surely would have known

•


1 04

had Malobabic been a double agent. Military information gathered for Apis he had "guarded like a treasure." He lMalobabic] is doing all

this from pure motives as a good Serb

and patriot, prepared for any sacrifice for the success of the Serbian cause. I considered it essential to explain all this so it would be evi dent what kind of person we are dealing with and to whom this division has entrusted collection of data . . . .

CHAPTER XI

Despite this warm testimonial by the military intelligence chief, Malobabic was arrested by the Serbian police slightly over a month later on suspicion of spying for Austria! Just before this report, resumed Apis, he had summoned Malobabic to Belgrade for consultation on current operations. They had agreed on re liable routes for transmitting reports from Serbian agents under emergency conditions. Malobabic had proposed that couriers and agents be armed with hand weapons for self-defense. Apis had approved his proposal to take four revolvers and ammunition with him . Rade originally was to have recrossed the Drina. But since Major Vulovic was going to his new post as

THE MAY CRISIS, 1 91 4 Never at that time did I have any idea or desire that the army take power into its hands . . . . In this affair of the Priority De cree I had the same feelings . . . . I worked for and wished strongly that the officers be given satisfaction. Apis in Salonik a, 1 9 1 7

commander of a frontier sector, they left together. Apis warned them not to disclose their work of the General Staff unless it proved essential to obtain some agency's cooperation. Leaders of Narodna Odbrana, Malo babic revealed, pressured him to disclose his dealings with the General Staff. Apis admonished him to evade such inquiries but to try to work with Narodna Odbrana. Rebuffing queries by Narodna Odbrana and the Serbian police about the General Staffs secret operations, Apis urged his superiors to block these. Other authorities should assist, not hamper, General Staffs work. The police should be instructed to cooperate "to avoid harmful consequences to the General Staffs work and needless ten sion and quarrels." Next day these requests were forwarded to the chief of staff. 16 But Apis' best efforts could not prevent his top agent from falling victim to bitter civil-military rivalry or to obtain adquate informa tion about Austrian military plans.

While Apis was intelligence chief erupted a major internal crisis pitting the officer corps and political opposition against Pasic's Radical cabinet and Crown Prince Alexander. Obligated to both sides, King Peter was caught in between. The May Crisis superficially was whether army officers or civilians should have "priority" at public ceremonies in Macedonia. But actually it was to decide whether civilian political parties or the army would rule Serbia. The crisis threatened to bring down the cabinet, provoke a maj or constitutional struggle and even civil war. As the officers' chief spokesman, Colonel Apis played a significant but mysterious role.1 Victories over Turkey and Bulgaria had left Serbia triumphant, aggran dized, but drained physically and financially. Its leaders knew that peace was required to restore Serbia's strength. After Bulgaria's defeat the Aus trian minister reported that Serbs were very optimistic and "dream of Serbia's prestige and future greatness."2 Serbia's people and government,

105


106

•

The May Crisis

107

he wrote later, sincerely desired peace to recover from heavy wartime losses

heeded. Because in the new regions exist heterogeneous elements

and consolidate control over the new southern territories.

and interests, one cannot consider giving them political rights.11

Wartime successes had strengthened the Karadjordjevic dynasty and en hanced Prince Alexander's personal prestige.4 The Serbian army was riding

. In Serbia the unity and dedication fostered by the Balka..11 wars soon

the crest of a wave of assertive self-confidence and public approval. For

dissipated. Army leaders and Radical politicians both claimed exclusive

eign observers were revising earlier negative assessments. The campaign in

credit for recent victories and progress toward traditional national goals.

western Macedonia especially had revealed a remarkable efficiency in

They clashed over control of the newly annexed southern regions and

mobilization and deployment:

over predominance in Serbia. 9 The War Ministry remained a focus in chronically troubled army-cabinet

which enabled a force of nearly 300,000 men to be put in the field

relations. Becoming War Minister in January 1 9 1 3 General Miles Bozano

within three weeks of the date of the order for mobilization . . . .

vic, a May conspirator, encountered major problems which had plagued

Though by European standards the Serbian army may present many

his predecessors. Many Serb peasants, though proud of their martial past,

shortcomings, it is nevertheless a factor to be reckoned with. 5

distrusted the army as an alien, unproductive arm of the modern state. Given Serbia's vulnerability , they recognized it as a necessary evil. Thus

Serbia's swift victory over Bulgaria in July 1 9 1 3 had confirmed this verdict.

political parties withheld consistent support from the army; war ministers

Nonetheless, Serbia's official policy towards Austria-Hungary remained

at cabinet meetings were usually isolated, defending unpopular military

highly circumspect. The British minister ascribed this to Premier Pasic

budgets. Precarious in coalition cabinets, their position became worse in

"who showed throughout the Balkan crisis the greatest prudence and fore

homogeneous Radical governments. Linked since 1903 with the May con

sight." However, "Black Hand" leaders still aimed to attack Austria under

spirators, war ministers had advocated reorganizing, reequipping and ex

favorable conditions once Serbia was fully prepared.'

panding the army , meaning larger military budgets. After short terms of

After Bulgaria's defeat

Piedmont,

the "Black Hand" newspaper, assert

office they had usually resigned disillusioned. Often they quarreled with Stojan Protic, normally Interior Minister, an imperious, self-righteous

ed Serbia's national and imperial claims stridently:

Radical leader. Soon after the Balkan wars Protic told General Radomir Both wars which Serbia conducted had a national liberation character:

Putnik, Serbia's venerable architect of victory: you are just a government

through them was finally confirmed our sovereign right to Old Ser

clerk! Protic instructed his police officials to prevent army officers from

bia and Macedonia . . . . All of Macedonia is filled with Serbian in

interfering in their affairs. With Serbian political life dominated by per

habitants; virtually the entire Macedonian populace is distinguished

sonal interests, political parties often disregarded their principles. Parti

by purely Serbian racial characteristics and customs . .

sanship, sectarianism, and bitter intrigue flourished in newly democratic

.

.

Serbia.

10

Rejecting Bulgarian claims and denying the existence of a separate Mace

General BozanoviC' s resignation triggered a severe cabinet crisis. The

glorified Serbia's "civilizing" role in the south:

last war minister appointed .through Apis' influence, he had failed to ob tain cabinet support for what he considered an adequate military budget. 1 1

. . . One must introduce immediately a severe and secure regime in

Acting temporarily as war minister was Stojan Protic , the conspirators'

the newly annexed regions. No prejudices must hold back our states

virulent foe. Because of squabbles over that ministry and the conquered

men. No democratic or liberal considerations which would entail the

territories, even Premier Pasic, who the Austrian envoy affirmed, loved power next to life itself, wished to resign. 1 2 When Serbian generals un

donian people,

Piedmont

same system there . . . as prevails here

[Serbia proper] should be

animously rejected the war ministry , the Pasic cabinet had to offer the post either to a junior colonel or to a civilian. 13

•

108


The May Crisis

109

That crisis ended with the appointment as War Minister of Colonel

For months Piedmont had feuded with Interior Minister Protic and the

Dusan Stefanovic, a junior colonel, obscure May conspirator, and former

Radicals, accusing them of denying the army needed funds, dragging it

military attache in Bucharest. To lure him into office, the cabinet pro

into party feuds, and quarreling with top officers. "Su ffering from delu

mised him an increased budget and a sizable state loan. This solution,

sions," Protic allegedly saw praetorians in his sleep, and was undermining

revealing Pasic's great tactical skill , assured the Premier more freedom of

public confidence in army leaders. Protic was a "disturber of the peace"

action, though some viewed it as another capitulation to the officer con

and a horsethie f (!) who must be removed from the cabinet. 21 But that

spirators. 14

Proti6 was not just seeing "praetorian ghosts"

Piedmont

itself confirmed :

Stefanovic's appointment failed to resolve civil-military tensions. Amidst rumors that the cabinet might name a civilian war minister, key "Black

Militarism is not a synonym for patriotism, but militarism inter

Hand" officers, including Apis, met in the Danube Division's staff room

i and preted ratonally

January 1 5 , 1 9 1 4 to plan strategy. With police detachments on alert at

of patriotism.

the royal palace, rumors spread that the government would retire Apis,

most strongly through militarism.22

democratically lsicj is a sign and measure People's consciousness and strength is manifested

Ye mic, and other top "Black Hand" leaders. 15 When that dispute subsided, a grave r confrontation arose between cab

In April 1 9 14 Protic issued a decree proclaiming priority of civil over

inet and officer corps over "priority" in the new southern territories.

military officials in the new territories. This sudden move almost toppled

While a socialist newspaper accused army officers of directing a national

the Pasic cabinet and threatened to provoke a military coup. 23 The Prior

colonial policy to plunder those regions, 14

denounced govern

ity Decree prescribed that civilian officials, often junior in service and

ment and police officials named from Radical loyalists of extortion.

sometimes corrupt, would outrank senior officers at official functions.

Complaints of bribery and corruption, spurred by low salaries and soar

Granting virtually unlimited authority to the civil police, the Decree con

ing living costs, poured into Belgrade from conquered Macedonia. 1 7

firmed the army's subordination to the state. Discovery on an officer of a

Serbia's administration of the region, reported British envoys, was dis

concealed weapon could bring him a twelve year prison sentence 24 The

gracefully bad since the Radicals had installed in power poorly educated,

cabinet, screamed

corrupt cronies.•& Most civil officials sent to Macedonia in 1 9 1 3-14, af

decrees damaged the national interest, destroyed army morale, and rob

firmed an Apis colleague, were Radical proteges in search of loot who had

bed the treasury . The Radical regime was incompetent and its foreign

seized everything possible from the populace. When army officers sta

policy disastrous. In Macedonia Protic's police was plundering the popu

tioned there objected, they conflicted inevitably with civil authorities.

lation. Humiliating Serbia's glorious officers, the Priority Decree had

After Major Alexander Blagojevic , a "Black Hand" member close to Apis,

opened a gulf between police and army in Macedonia.25 The Interior Min

accused a police scribe of theft, interior Minister Protic had him removed

istry promptly blocked

Piedmont

from the army. 19

Piedmont,

was "a band of state anarchists" whose

Piedmont's

dissemination throughout Macedonia.

The officers responded swiftly . Heightening their previous dismay at

During and after the Balkan wars, the victorious Serbian army enjoyed

trends in Macedonia, the Decree to them heralded arbitrary, corrupt civil

priority over civil authority in Macedonia while Belgrade debated the

rule. Decorated commanders · felt insulted on state occasions by standing

proper administration for the new regions. Should there be continued

to the left of district chiefs, their juniors in rank and responsibility. Gen

military rule, application of Serbia's democratic laws and constitution, or

eral

interim civil administration by decree? The Pasic cabinet decided upon

Decree. Asserting precedence over the civil prefect at a review, he de

this last option. 20 Since the population there was backward and diverse,

nounced the Decree and demanded punishment of the prefect. Protic

that may have been justified, but the Serbian officer corps objected to

thereupon instructed the War Minister to retire Popovic. Before ne left

the implementation.

Skoplje, the garrison's officers gave him a demonstrative farewell banquet

Damjan Popovic , Skoplje's miJitary commander, flouted ProtiC's


110

The May Crisis

Ill

which influenced officers of other Macedonian garrisons. Arriving in Bel

As the May Crisis deepened, the initial actors-Protic , Damjan Popovic

grade in early May, Popovic was elected chairman of the Officers' Club

and Piedmont-were joined by Serbia's most powerful individuals and

in defiance of Protic. The government, believing only conspirator officers

agencies:

were involved, transferred the loudest protestors to the interior. But each

(Crown), Pasic (cabinet), and the political Opposition. Apis and Putnik

passing day revealed an officer corps virtually united against the cabinet.

became embroiled with the Crown and Radicals, their former allies. After

Several Macedonian garrisons petitioned to have the Priority Decree re

General Popovic reached Belgrade, noted an Austrian report, secret meet

scinded, and General Peter Bojovic, PopoviC's successor

ings of conspirator officers were held constantly "aiming to overturn the

i n

Skoplje, sent

a strong supporting telegram to the War Minister.2' Another test of strength loomed between the cabinet and officers led by "Black Hand." Soon this dispute assumed broader political and constitutional dimen sions. As Opposition leaders criticized Protic and backed the officers, Premier Pasic faced a major political challenge. With a purely Radical cabinet, Pasic was confronted with a potentially united Opposition. When the Opposition walked out of the Assembly over ProtiC's Decree, the cabinet clung to a precarious majority: if only seven Radical members were absent, no business could be transacted. King Peter was caught be tween Generals Putnik and Bojovic, who urged him to defend the army's

Apis and Putnik (army), King Peter and Prince Alexander

government, if not something worse . . . . " Believing the "Black Hand" would pursue its goals unscrupulously, Minister Giesl feared violent erup tions, "possibly the government's fall or a coup d'etat unless the govern ment . . . capitulates to the military party ."29 A pis at first played no part in officer protests against the Priority Decree, recalled Colonel Milovanovic-Pilac. Everything occurred spon taneously. Only in mid-May did Apis become an intermediary between General Putnik and officers in Serbia on the one hand, and officers in Macedonia on the other. In Macedonian garrisons matters were already ripe; there was no need to agitate. Officers in Belgrade, unsure how to

dignity, and Pasic who demanded a mandate to hold new elections. Royal

proceed, either wished the Opposition to overturn the Radical cabinet or

refusal of this request, the Radicals argued, would violate the Constitu

for General Putnik to apply pressure to the King if the Decree were not

tion. The King proposed compromise:

if Pasic withdrew the Priority

Decree, he would get his mandate. However, Protic refused, and Pasic would not sacrifice his colleague.27 Belgrade officers meantime reacted indignantly to a harsh investigation of their Club. Protic alleged that this was the "Black Hand'"s power and fmancial base. Rumored were gross fmancial abuses at the Club, run by Cedo Jovanovic, a "Black Hand" leader. Early in 1 9 14 the directors re

withdrawn. Milovanovic admitted that the officers had no right to resist a cabinet decree.30 Apis too reacted angrily to the published decree, and briefly had united most officers under his leadership. Why did he and other junior officers head this movement?, wondered Misic. "We never had any right to do this," Apis explained, "nor were we called upon, but from the general resistance to that insult, we took it upon ourselves to obtain satisfaction."

quested the War Minister to conduct an impartial investigation. Instead,

This paralleled Apis' behavior in preparing the May Coup of 1903. Then

special investigators seized the Club treasury and books, and closed it

too he had preempted the role of senior officers. How could Apis create

down. General Putnik protested this treatment of the Club as if it were a bankrupt pauper; he ordered the seals removed. When General Damjan Popovic, just elected the Club's new chairman, defied the Commission, it ordered him suspended. Thereupon all the Club's officers resigned in pro test.

Piedmont

urged the officer corps to demand ProtiC's immediate re

moval.28 By early May the issues of the Officers' Club, "Black Hand," and Priority Decree were linked indissolubly in a civil-military power struggle.

such a furor in the army? "Explain by what magical means you as a lieu tenant colonel without relying upon the . . . "Black Hand" induced junior and senior officers to follow you?" queried Misic. Apis stated: I succeeded in making the disturbance in the officer corps that great through agitation. Naturally , I turned first to my closest friends which I had among higher and lower officers and utilized them

all.

The Organization was dead at that moment, and I did not think of

-


112

The May Crisis

113

utilizing it anyway, and . . . we were aided by Opposition leaders. Since the number of my friends was very great, the agitation suc

Peter Bojovic, new troop commander in Macedonia. His chief of staff,

ceeded quickly.31

the Decree solidly. Rejoicing, Bojovic told Lazarevic:_

Colonel Milutin Lazarevic, assured Bojovic that the officer corps opposed

The officers' response to Proti
Everything the officer corps feels, I feel also. If something is bother

officers in Skoplje-General Bojovic and Colonel Bozidar Terzic-encour

ing it, this must be stated legally. You [Lazarevic] must insist that

aged other officers to act. That "Black Hand" officers stood out in that

everything is done in a peaceful and decent manner, so there will be

movement resulted solely from the key posts they held: Apis in the Gen

no violation of order and discipline . . . .

eral Staff, Milovanovic-Pilac in the War Ministry, and Colonel Lazarevic as chief of staff in Skoplje. As leaders of the May Coup, they were already

Two days later Colonel Teric, assuming command of the Vardar Division

well-known to the other officers. Their movement of May 1 9 1 4 lacked

in Macedonia as BojoviC's subordinate, told Lazarevic that sharing the of

overt political aims. Reflecting the entire officer corps, not a few extrem

ficers' feelings, he would do anything for their sake. "Still, I urge you to

ists, it sought merely to defend legally the officer corps' dignity and amour

see that everything is done legally. "35 Interpreting officer interests in

propre.32

Macedonia, Lazarevic acted as chief link with A pis in Belgrade.

Soon after General Popovic's removal from Skoplje, Apis acted. But no

Once in Skoplje General Bojovic learned that General Putnik was ad

longer was he nearly as dynamic, energetic, or decisive as before. Slowed

vising the King to rescind or alter the Priority Decree. Apis urged his

by illness, he had been sobered by family sorrows and the loss of many

friends in the south to reinforce this campaign by telegraphing the King

dear comrades in war. Still, the cabinet and Prince Alexander considered

directly. In order to satisfy legal army procedure, Lazarevic requested

him their most formidable foe. Heading the "White Hand," Maj or Ziv

Putnik to authorize Macedonian officers to petition the King collectively

kovic exploited Alexander's uncontrollable fear of Apis, that huge man

via the War Minister. Putnik approved, and on May 1 7th all unit com

with the ironical gaze, to consolidate his stranglehold over the Prince. And

manders in the south, led by Colonel Milovan Plazina, assistant com

Apis' personal magnetism still operated. Around his famous table at the

mander of the Sumadija Division, went to see Colonel Terzic. He and Gen

"Kolarac" restaurant gathered numerous friends and acquaintances. Ever the suave and courteous host, Apis with the eternal cigarette in his teeth,

eral Bojovic were sympathetic, approving the way the officers' protests were being conducted. Replies of divisional commanders confirmed that

smiled enigmatically as if all the rumpus did not concern him directly.

most soutl1ern officers opposed the Decree strongly. General Bojovic tele

With lighthearted jokes he amused and disarmed admiring listeners. In the

graphed the War Minister May 2 1 st supporting warmly the officers' peti tion against the Decree and requesting him to grant their demands.36 Colonel Lazarevic , Bojovic's chief of staff, wrote Apis twice, fust on May 17th:

restaurant's gardens skulked spies and police agents seeking clues to Apis' impending moves. Watching them in turn were guerrilla fighters loyal to Major Tankosic. Threats and comical confrontations exceeded actual violence. Meanwhile Apis' supporters awaited decisive action impatiently. "We have plenty of frie nds and sympathizers," !amen ted one, "but we

Here the affair is finished. The commanders saw Bozo Terzic and he

need fighters!"33

associated himself fully with them, and this evening on behalf of all

About mid-May Apis went to see General Putnik , army chief of staff,

officers of the Skoplje garrison saw General Bojovic. I had already

telling him that the officers, angry over the Decree, should receive satis faction. Agreeing, Putnik consented to exert his powerful influence with

prepared General Bojovic for this and he accepted everything readily. He declared that he was in full solidarity with the officers and would make a proposal to the War Minister . . . .

King Peter and approved Apis' efforts to secure support from the politi cal Opposition. 34 From Putnik's office Apis went to talk with General


1 14

The May Crisis

Bojovic had added that he wished to send that message for all officers in the region as having a stronger impact. All of this had gone smoothly and

I did this as an ordinary member of 'Black Hand ' which was not directly involved in those talks with the politi cians. The result of my negotiations with the Vojvoda lPutnikJ an� the politicians was: the Opposition decided to accept the government, except for the Social Democrats with whom 1 had no contact. All this work had a fully loyal character toward Court and Crown.41

without debate. "We won't have to reproach ourselves with having vio lated any principle or set a bad precedent."37 From Skoplje Lazarevic telegraphed Apis on May 21st: This morning we sent the telegram which we spent

all night coding.

From it you will see that Voja Zivanovic [Ibar Division commander] revealed himself a consistent coward . . . . We are sending you a copy of our telegram . . . in case [War Minister] Dusan Stefanovic should conceal the original. Let me know if it is well composed and worded. Greeting to

all our comrades

from your Milutin38

Receiving Lazarevic's first letter, Apis replied that Putnik would go straight to the King. But Putnik doubted King Peter could get the Decree withdrawn because War Minister Stefanovic and officers hostile to Apis, later organizers of the Salonika Trial, insisted that most officers had ac cepted the Decree. The whole affair, trumpeted Tribuna, was the work of "adventurers" who should be removed from the army.39 Meanwhile Apis in a major political initiative conferred with Opposition leaders. Meeting with Vojislav Veljkovic (Liberals), then with Milorad

115

His sole obj ect, insisted Apis, was to satisfy the officers, yet his actions seem incompatible with an officer's role in a democratic country. With the Radicals, cabinet, and Prince Alexander opposing him, Api s relied on the Opposition knowing he would succeed if it won a majority of Ass embly

seats in the next elections. Apis used his unique powers of persuasion to unite the Opposition. Spearheaded by Piedmont, it could then defeat and oust the Radical cabinet.42 During these negotiations Putnik summoned Apis to his office and gave him a tom note which Panta Tucakovic, a Belgrade lawyer and Radical envoy, had left on his office table. Putnik had instru cted his adjutant to

collect the fragments and paste them on a sheet of paper. Angered by the note, Putnik asked Apis to show it to Opposition leaders as an example of Radical methods against him. Apis explained late r that he had photo graphed the original, giving a copy to Oppositio n leaders, Davidovic and

Draskovic. Apparently Tucakovic's notes for his interview with Putnik 1t queried: was the Vojvoda working with the "Black Hand." "It is improbable he would deftle his great name by friendship with such dirty people." He should remain out of pol itics until the Priority affair was resolved. "When politics enters the arm y it is fmished." Putnik did not tell Apis what "devious methods" the Ra dicals were employing against him.43 On May 2 1 st General Bojovic wrote War Minister Stefanovic on behalf of all officers in Macedon ia:

'

0

DraSkovic (Independent Radicals), he stressed that now was the time for the united Opposition to win power. Apis found them favorable to the officers' cause . "In this sense I also met several times with Dra5kovic and Ljuba Davidovic at the Export Bank and with Dr. Veljkovic at the Vracar Club and with Stojan Ribarac at Colonel Milan Tucakovic's home." In constant touch with them and with Putnik, Apis carried messages back and forth. In his discussions with the Opposition, they considered a mili tary coup as one extreme but possible solution to the crisis. independent Radical leaders, notably Draskovic, allegedly consented to undertake one, if need be.40 Apis' subsequent instructions to

his

Skoplje friends stemmed directly

from those discussions. Opposition politicians, he affirmed later, would have welcomed "a little scandal" to oust the Pasic cabinet. Once in power, they would "smooth it over." Apis claimed he had sought no authority from "Black Hand" to deal with the Opposition:

•

Lately there has come to my attention a movement among officers f some garrisons to give expression to their dissatisfaction over the mcorrect attitude of police officials involv ed with them in service and out of it and about some new spaper writings against the officers so as to create divisions amon g them.44

?

:iedr:zont

promptly published this message. Knowing that Bojovic and Utfilk were bac king their petition, Macedonian officers were perfor ming

116


their normal duties loyally to General Bojovic's full satisfaction. Colonel Lazarevic told envoys from the Assembly, gove rnment and Court that the officers had no political aims; no one favored military rule. Apparently reassured, the envoys departed.45 So far matters were tending towards . compromise. However, Prince Alexander reacted angrily to the officers' protest and its publication in Piedmont. From Vmjacka Banja spa the Prince returned suddenly to Belgrade and assumed a direct role. Having issued orders to the army in the field for two years, Alexander refused now to remain impotent, nor did he espouse his father's strict constitutionalism. Yielding to the officers' collective petition would confirm his dependence on the officer corps. Could one rule Serbia that way? Alexander's hatred of Apis was growing, fostered by the Prince's self-se rving entourage.46 Thus the Pa5ic cabinet and Crown Prince ignored officer requests to withdrew the Priority Decree. When Apis realized this , he apparently sought to trigger the Pasic cabinet's fall by a "putsch" in Macedonia in volving replacement of some civil with military officials. The Macedonian populace, Apis believed, alienated by ProtiC's corrupt officials, would surely welcome this. Apis by then may have feared retribution from the Pasic cabinet for his role in uniting the Opposition. Apis, believed Colonel Lazarevic, intended not a full-scale military coup, but a dramatic gesture which would topple the cabinet and force new elections. Then power would pass legally to the united Opposition.47 Apis apparently resolved on this without consulting the comrades later convicted with him at Salonika. The Radicals claimed later that Apis had prepared a military power seizure in both Macedonia and Serbia proper. Apis insisted, howeve r, he had acted loyally towards Crown and Constitution and had never contemplat ed leading an army coup or setting up a military dictatorship. At Salonika Apis declared that on May 26 or 27 he had written his relative, Lieutenant Colonel Dusan Glisic, who was to show the letter to Colonel Lazarevic, Vitomir Cvetkovic and Bozin Simic. Apis gave it to Colonel Plazina, assistant commander of the Sumadija Division, who was returning to Skoplje by train. He wrote it hastily so he could give it per sonalJy to Plazina. The "Black Hand" was not involved, asserted Apis, since neither Plazina nor Glisic belonged. The crisis had reached a peak, wrote Apis. Energetic action was required to satisfy the army officers.

The May Crisis In the letter

117

1 said that if the old lPasic] cabinet remained in power

and the crisis were not resolved promptly, to act so the crisis would continue . . . . 48 I expected that they lhi� comradesj

would do

much more if 1 asked them to than they would undertake on their own . Apis hinted what he had in mind: "I instructed my comrades in Skoplje to persuade county and district chiefs to assume police power temporarily ." He denied though that he intended any similar action in Serbia proper. It would be only a partial military coup! For the Salonika court Colonel Misic asked the Colonel: Did you prepare a plan to lead troops of the Belgrade garrison with your comrades from 'Black Hand' one night to the palace, force King Peter to abdicate in favor of Heir Alexander, impose your men on him as ministers and kill existing ministers, Stojan Protic, and Dusan Stefanovic, only to renounce that plan when at the last mo ment Dr. Nikolaj Gavrilovic communicated to you on Terazija a pre pared police order to prevent such action and that you would all lose your heads? Apis denied this flatly; nor had he heard of any such police order. N ikolaj Gavrilovic, national activist and personal frie nd, had met him at Hotel London in Belgrade, near Terazij a, during the crisis. Pleading with Apis not to heighten tensions over the Dec ree, Gavrilovic had warned: "Dear frien d, I fear for your life."49

Other than Apis' voluntary testimony, the Salonika court lacked proof that he had planned an army power seizure in Macedonia or Serbia. Apis had instructed his friends in Sko plje to remove a regional or district chief and send him "bag and bag gage to Belgrade," or in another version: "to dismiss some county and dis trict chiefs in the new regions and send them to Belgrade with aJJ their baggage, and here in Belgrade it will be our con cern to smooth over the affair."50 The latter suggested a major pow er transfe r in Macedonia with Apis following it up in Belgrade. Giving the letter to Plazina, Api s accompanied him and Milovanovic to Belgrade railway station. Alone there with Plazina, Apis summarized his letter to Glisic stressing that he expected hs Skoplje comrades to act

•


118

energetically. Plazina doubted they would implement A pis' proposals. "They will, they will !" exclaimed Apis. Rejoining his comrades, Colonel Milovanovic inte�ected: "And what if they do not want to?" Apis told Milovanovic he merely wished to satisfy the officers.51

But Colonel

Plazina, knowing what Apis' letter contained, testified at Salonika: Apis had urged his friends "to remove the police authorities in the new regions o f this by telegram." But not even Plazina claimed Apis . had written: "Take power mto your h and s."52 and inform

him

Anyway , Apis' instructions were not carried out. Apparently, his friends divulged them to no one, so the incident passed without immediate con sequences. From Skoplje on May 28th Plazina wrote Apis he had given GlWc the sealed letter, but no action would be taken "because they were all opposed to having the army seize power." Wrote Plazina: As soon as I arrived here, I found Dusan lGlisic J , Milutin lLazare vic ] , Vitomir

lCvetkovic] ,

and Bozin [Simicj and informed them

what we should do when an official report was received that the cabinet had remained the same.

All

without exception are strongly

opposed to having the army take power into its hands in order to

The May Crisis

Lieutenant Colonel GliSic , to whom Apis' letter had been addressed, responded also on May 28th: Dear Apis, Here there is not a single person who would agree with your pro posal . . . . With it would be caused irreparable dam age bringing into question the most vital interests of the country, the officer corps would be split as never before , and there s i no prospect that any

thing good could come from what you have proposed. Ou r aim is to preserve solidarity in the officer corps here at least and to strengthen it, and then to fight against any government if it should attack us.

Thus I ask you to renounce the path you are thinking of following since no one will accompany you on that path. This is the honest truth and you should realize it. We are obliged to bring this calmly

to your knowledge so that you will not make any mistake which no one could correct and which would be fatal both for the country and for all of us. We are empowered by our comrades her e to inform

you of this.

Your, Dusan 55

compel the gove rnment to retreat. All fmd that this would bring down hatred and condemnation upon them and would bring much into question, and that those against whom they would be acting in that sense would only gain . . . . Conduct yourselves there accord ingly. If any protest in some other form is necessary , then inform us.sJ

though Apis argued that he sought merely to apply enough pressure to topple the Pasic cabinet, he seems not to have realized how grossly that violated his sworn role as a Serbian officer. Here was the chief of military meeting surreptitiously with Opposition politicians! Apis

tried to explain: My message to Skoplje was the product of conversations with op position parties about which those in Skoplje were ignorant, so when they

Apis could not persuade even relatives and comrades to engage in perilous political adventurism. Before the Salonika Trial, Colonel Plazina told the historian, Slobodan Jovanovic, that Apis had favored temporary replacement of civil police power in Macedonia with military authority. Perhaps he had believed this

Plazina interpreted Apis' instructions as urging a partial power seizure. Al

intelligence

1 19

read my message about replacing police authorities, they

thought I had undertaken some daredevil step in Belgrade and there fore used those expressions to me rejecting his request. 54

would be merely a demonstration against the cabinet, but Plazina, more cautious than Apis, viewed it quite differently. To remove a single county or district chief and ship him to Belgrade "bag and baggage" would signify beginning to replace all civil authority in Macedonia with military rule. Even such a "little scandal" would bear all the earmarks of a putsch. The PaSic cabinet, which the Opposition could not oust legally, would have

interpreted that as an attempted military coup. Consequently, Apis' friends refused to obey his instructions.56

On the other hand, accusations made at Salonika that Apis had plot ted a full-scale military coup to destroy the regime and dynasty remain unproven and appear far-fetched. Lacking Apis' letter to

his

colleagues in

Skoplje, we do not know his precise instructions. To cite ·'Black Hand"

•

120


statutes to prove Apis' subservice intent is most misleading. By May 1 9 1 4 "Unification or Death!" no longer operated as a cohesive organization. Apis stated in Salonika under oath: "Never either then or later did it enter my mind that the army should take power into its hands." After the 1903 Coup, he pointed out, the conspirators had restored power to the politi cians immediately and never thereafter had sought power. "In this affair of the Priority Decree I had the same feelings and was very far from the idea that the army should take power . . . . I worked for and wished strong ly that the officers be given satisfaction."57 His claims are supported some what by his intensive efforts to unite the Opposition so it could defeat the Radicals at the polls. Why do that if he intended to have the army seize power? Apis' ardent patriotism suggests he would avoid actions leading to civil war, especially in 1 9 1 4 . In Serbia's weakened state, such a conflict would have been an engraved invitation to Austria-Hungary to "restore order" by armed intervention. However, Apis seemed not to understand that his actions during the May Crisis were incompatible with his status as a key military leader in a democratic society . At the end of May everything hung in balance. All major power elements in Serbia were locked in struggle; the public wondered how it would be resolved. Many expected the "Black Hand" led by the enigmatic Apis to triumph; its apparent strength had induced the Opposition to cooperate with it. But once involved in political maneuvers, Apis lost his mysterious aura and seemed less formidable to Prince Alexander and the Radicals. Supported by War Minister Stefanovic and the "White Hand," the cabinet drafted stringent measures against the Apis group. One decree would retire many high "Black Hand" officers and transfer others to the interior; a second would appoint their opponents to key posts in Belgrade. The gov ernment acted also to guard against . any coup attempt in Belgrade. The "White Hand" assured the cabinet that Apis, lacking sufficient army sup port, would not act. But the plan to pension off or disperse the Apis fac tion was blocked by Colonel Krsta Smiljanic, chief of operations. Fac ing possible Austrian invasion, Smiljanic opposed removal of so many able army leaders. Vojvoda Putnik was old and ill , General Stepanovic had been sidelined, and Generals Misic and Popovic had been retired. New removals and transfers would imperil the army's defensive capacity. As the crisis dragged on, Apis' friends grew worried. They discerned their hero's uncharacteristic hesitation . Turned down by his Skoplje

The May Crisis

121

friends, Apis avoided confrontation with the cabinet. Realizing the battle was lost, he sought compromise, sending Colonel Milovanovic-Pilac to Prince Alexander with peace feelers. Milovanovic pleaded with the Prince not to abandon his old conspirator friends and predicted catastrophe if Pasic retained power. He intended to rule as well as reign, retorted Alex ander, but not with the conspirators; the Pa8ic cabinet must remain. But he assured Pilac the Priority Decree would be withdrawn, Protic would leave the cabinet, and Putnik might become war minister. Pilac would ob tain a post in the Chief Inspectorate, and Apis and his friends would keep their posts. Here was the outline of a compromise.

sa

Russian intervention largely saved the Pa8ic cabinet. Refusing to sacri fice Protic, Premier Pasic had relied on a narrow Radical Assembly major ity to pass key measures. When he could govern no longer with it, Pasic submitted his resignation. Russia stepped in to prevent his fall. Ambas sador Nicholas Hartvig, with vast influence in Belgrade, declared Russia's Balkan policies required Pasic in office. The French hinted a Serbian Op position regime might not receive their financial backing. Aided by Prince Alexander, Hartvig won over non-conspirator officers to a comprdmise. Soon the public learned that the entire Pasic cabinet would remain. The Opposition, divided over program, was outplayed by the wily Pasic. Dis illusioned with the conspirators, Independent Radical leaders concluded Pasic was preferable to chaos. Accepting Prince Alexander's promises, Apis informed his friends he would launch no risky adventures, then withdrew into the shadows. His most devoted followers, receiving no explanation, were alienated. Next day

Piedmont

wrote ironically: "It is easy for you

officers, you can always bargain , but what will happen to us civilians?" King Peter, caught between cabinet and army and pressured by Russia to retain Pasic, withdrew from active political life. Late in June he trans ferred his powers mostly to Alexander as Prince Regent. ProtiC's Decree was withdrawn, but he kept office.59 Thus ended the May Crisis: The chief winners were Pasic and Alexander, both now hostile to Apis. But Pasic had prevailed less from personal ability and Radical strength than from Russia's support. Assuming royal powers, Alexander resolved to destroy Apis and the conspirators, whom he viewed as obstructing his authority in the army. He and the Radicals had only deferred a fmal settlement with them. Upcoming elections, Pasic

122


anticipated, would give him a strong enough mandate to break Apis' hold over the officer corps. The confrontation between cabinet and officer corps had undermined "Black Hand" influence. Except perhaps for the Radicals, everyone was disgruntled at the outcome of the May Crisis, marking the beginning of the end of Apis' prestige and political influence.

CHAPTER XII

MURDER IN SARAJEVO (JUNE 1 9 1 4 ) Malobabic

carried

out

organized and carried

my

instructions,

through the assas

sination. Its chief participants were in my service and received small honoraria which I sent to them through Malobabic. Apis to the Salonika Court, March 1917 Archduke Franz Ferdinand's murderin Sarajevo, Bosnia on June 15/28, 1914, most scholars agree, touched off World War I. Who was responsible for that murder and the subsequent cataclysmic war has been debated ever since. Was Serbia the innocent victim of Austro-German aggression? Or did Serbia plan, or at least know an attempt would be made, to kill the Arch duke? Yugoslav scholars reject almost unanimously German and Austrian assertions that Serbia deserved primary blame for the murder and for World War 1. Yugoslavs still dispute who deserves "credit" for Franz Fer dinand's death and how much Belgrade knew about the plot, but they tend to view the murder a� justified retribution for the annexation of Bosnia. 1 Who conceived and executed the Archduke's assassination? Some Yugo slav historians affirm that revolutionary nationalist students of "Young Bosnia" ("MI ada Bosna ") organized and carried it out with minimal aid

123

•

124


Sarajev o

125

from Serbia's government or military .2 Others believe Colonel Apis and

dynamic leader preparing a preemptive strike to crush Serbia and end its

the "Black Hand" prepared the plot. Apis' defenders, glorifying him and

leadership of the South Slav national movement. To Apis Franz Ferdinand

"Black Hand" as martyrs and heroes, accept his declaration at Salonika

was the Austrian "war party's" irreplacable chief, the only Austrian leader

in 1 9 1 7 that he and his agents removed the Archduke .3 Defenders of the

able to regenerate a disintegrating Dual Monarchy . By uniting South Slavs

Salonika Trial's verdict, affirming the Apis group's paramount role in the

of the Monarchy under a uniform, coordinated administration, the Arch

Sarajevo murder, claim they relied on Germany to solve the Yugoslav

duke might halt erosion of Austrian power and envelop Serbia. Vigorous

question.-4

Franz Ferdinand as emperor instead of eighty-four year old Franz Josef

Early in 1 9 1 4 Serbia's leaders agreed their country required years of

migllt delay Serbian unification indefmitely. Apis saw the Archduke's

peace to recover from the Balkan wars, rebuild the army, and integrate

inlrninent visit to Sarajevo, coinciding with Austrian maneuvers in eastern

the south. Facing officer hostility and Opposition maneuvers, Premier

Bosnia, as heralding an invasion of Serbia and southward advance to Sal

Pasic feared Serbia might not obtain such a respite. He warned General

onika. If the Archduke were eliminated, concluded Apis, peace would be

Putnik confidentially that Colonel Apis' links with revolutionary Bosnian

guaranteed indefinitely. Serbia could recove r fully and prepare for a show

students might endanger Serbia. 5 Apis in 1 9 1 3 had told Svetozar Pribice

down with its traditional foe. By then Serbia's great ally, Russia, would

vic, a respected Serbian politician from Croatia, he feared Austria-Hungary

be ready to join with her in war. 8

might attack Serbia before she recovered. "We still need several years of

Serbia's self-confidence soared after her victorious Balkan wars. No

peace," warned Apis. "Then after that we will come to you (in Croatia] . "

longer would Serbs accept Austrian provocations supinely . The Habs

To Pribicevic this suggested Apis possessed sound common sense , whereas

burg heir's formal visit to Bosnia's capital on the anniversary of the Battle

the Radical leader, Lj ubomir Jovanovic-Patak, claimed he was emotional

of Kosovo (1 389), combined with maneuvers on the Drina, seemed de

and disordered. Surely Serbia's rulers must have known Apis' attributes,

signed deliberately to insult and humiliate Serbia. Youthful Serbs, their

argued Pribicevic. Would they install as intelligence chief someone without

national feelings inflated by recent successes, faced the future fearlessly .

common sense? Anyone slated for such a key post, he noted, underwent

Nothing seemed impossible now, even defeating Austria-Hungary which

a thorough investigation. Besides, Apis was very well known in Serbia, a

many Serbs assumed was now moribund like Turkey. Doubtless Apis was

country where everybody seemed to know everyone else.'

influenced by such ideas, circulating then in Belgrade.9

From the Genera.! Staff, Apis, while opposing Protic's Decree, was in

Apis' concern over the Archduke's intentions in 1 9 1 4 seems confirm

volved deeply in foreign policy though lacking detailed knowledge of

ed by some later assessments. In an interview in Paris Soir-Dimanche June

foreign affairs or true political understanding. He believed only terror

28, 1937 Dr. Max Hohenberg, the Archduke's eldest son, stated Franz

istic methods were effective in achieving Serbia's national goals. Such

Ferdinand had intended turning Austria-Hungary into a federation of its

methods had succeeded in the Ottoman Empire, but Austria-Hungary was

nations, "taking into account the interests of each individual people, and

quite different. Attempting terrorist actions there, Apis played light

solve the difficult Danube problem . . . . " Such a Vienna-led federation

heartedly with fire and helped ignite a world war. Informed circles in

"threatened the interests of some great powers which had their own ag

Serbia, blaming Apis for the assassination, deplored it. 7

gressive and annexationist plans." To block these, affirmed Hohenberg,

That spring Apis became preoccupied with preparations to "greet"

the German secret police collaborated closely with guerrillas in preparing

Archduke Franz Ferdinand appropriately in Sarajevo. Agreeing Serbia

the Sarajevo murder. 10 lntinlating German complicity in the assassination,

required peace, Apis and Pasic differed how best to achieve it. Pasic , the

Hohenberg supplied no supporting evidence.

politician, favored cautious and conciliatory policies. Apis, the national

Claiming Franz Ferdinand's policy of trialism-turning Austria-Hungary

revolutionary, viewing the Archduke as the chief obstacle to peace, con

m to a triple monarchy by unifying its South Slavs-had provoked his

cluded he should be removed forcibly. Apis regarded the Archduke as a

murder, Apis' nephew told the historian, Luigi Albertini:


126

•

Sarajevo

127

Motives for the murder in Sarajevo should be sought in the Slavophil

Germans as pillars of his future imperial rule. Strongly anti-Magyar, he

policy of Franz Ferdinand. The Archduke fell victim to his trialist

considered dualism insuring equality to the Magyars, fatal to the Mon

views. Had he been able to realize his plan, Serbia would have had

archy. He wished to introduce trialism by creatin� a South Slav kingdom

to gravitate towards Austria-Hungary. Apis, a wise political thinker

to which later could be joined Croatia and Dalmatia, and still later a sub

lsic] , discerned the whole danger of the Archduke's plan. Austria

servient Serbia. As the Triple Monarchy's advance post in the march to

intended to achieve unification of the South Slavs within the frame

Salonika, Serbia would be totally absorbed. Premier Pasic, speaking to

work of the Danubian monarchy. Dimitrijevic lApis] , who spent

Italy's Count Sforza about the Archduke's trialist schemes, declared: "It

several months in the Serbian Embassy in Berlin, must have been

was the only time in my life that I was truly scared." Franz Ferdinand,

seriously worried when he learned about the policial plans of the 1 Austrian heir to the throne. 1

noted Sforza, aimed to strengthen the Habsburg Monarchy, not satisfy its peoples' aspirations. However, except for Catholic clericals in Croatia and Bosnia who looked to the Archduke, Austrian Slavs no longer wel

Only his admirers considered Apis a profound political thinker! With his

comed such dynastic solutions. Franz Ferdinand's trip to Sarajevo and the

great political and revolutionary instincts, wrote Milan Zivanovic, "Apis

Bosnian maneuvers were to reinforce that element. Rejoiced pro-clerical

discerned the danger posed by such a ltrialist] policy, and the energy of

Hrvatski dnevnik June 12, 1914:

that potential monarch and understood what a danger threatened the South Slavs."

He [Franl Ferdinand] comes to Bosnia as the commander of the entire military strength of our great monarchy . . . as if he were

Thus his decision ripened as soon as he saw an opportunity to re

sending us and our enemies his loud message : 'Never shall Bosnia

solve that question quickly and definitively. In his path stood Franz

leave the body of the Habsburg Monarchy!' The Monarchy's entire

Ferdinand and he removed him from it. At one stroke unification of

power will defend the Bosnian lands to the end and the last breath. 14

the South Slavs under the Habsburgs was eliminated forever from 2 the agenda. 1

Franz Ferdinand was the strongest advocate of a preventive war against Serbia, wrote Yugoslav military historian, Colonel Peter Opacic. Many

Thus Apis' worshipful nephew.

European leaders viewed

him

as a fanatical and bellicose clerical. Around

Austro-Hungarian leaders in 1914 had decided to occupy Serbia, affirm

the Archduke Austrian military circles had rattled their sabres on Serbia's

ed Alexander Blagojevic, a "Black Hand" colleague of Apis. Soon Serbia's

frontiers during the Balkan wars, awaiting some pretext for invasion.

General Staff, including Apis, discerned this scheme headed by Franz

Colonel von Bardolff, Franz Ferdinand's chief of staff, wrote late in 1 9 1 2 :

Ferdinand. "I immediately proposed," recalled Blagojevic, "that this ques

"The South Slav question can be resolved only by subjugating Serbia." A

tion of our enslavement be solved by Franz Ferdinand's death. After dis

month later Conrad von Hotzendorff, Austro-Hungarian chief of staff, also

cussion the CEC adopted this proposal which was executed precisely ac

proposed attacking Serbia. Since European conditions then precluded this,

cording to plan." 1 3

Emperor Franz Josef blocked the Heir's proposed ultimatum to Belgrade.

statesmen and journalists at his beautiful Belvedere Palace in Vienna. His

But during 1 9 1 3 the Balkan League dissolved and Russian influence in the region waned. 1 5

aim, wrote Ljubibratic, a Bosnian scholar, was to renew the Three Em

But Leopold Chlumecky, an Austrian scholar, insisted the Archduke's

peror's League (Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia), created by Chan

plan had been wholly defensive. Fanatically pro-Austrian and seeing his

cellor Bismarck in 1 8 7 3 . Considering Austria's liberal ally, Italy, an enemy,

beloved Monarchy crumbling, he aimed to transform its military and legal

the devoutly Catholic Archduke regarded the Church , army , and Austria's

bases. In the Belvedere he marshalled the few who realized the urgent need

The autocratic Franz Ferdinand gathered leading Austrian generals,


128

for basic reform. They clashed with the old Emperor and his entourage, the Magyars, and conservative Austrian aristocrats. Adopting trialism, Franz Ferdinand opposed annexing any Serbian territory, saying : "For God's sake not that! Not a square kilometer of Serbian soil, not a single Serbian plum tree!" Aiming to preserve, not conquer, he had even op posed annexing Bosnia and Hercegovina. His aims were understood better in Belgrade than in Vienna. If the Archduke should become emperor and implement his program, Serbian leaders realized, there would be no Greater Serbia. With Croatia joined with Slovenes, Dalmatians and Bosnia

Sarajevo

129

especially in Bosnia, but their hatred had focused on General Oskar Potiorek, governor of Bosnia. Apis convinced them "one must strike the snake in the head" by killing Franz Ferdinand, n
Hercegovina into a united South Slav Habsburg bloc, the road to Greater

allegedly no longer actually functioned and thus neither planned nor

Serbia envisaged by Pa.Sic and Apis would be blocked. With the Monarchy

implemented the murder:

disintegrating internally, the Archduke advocated peace and sought ties with powerful Germany. Out of a chaotic Monarchy he wished to create

In Serbia in all this the main and decisive role was played by Colonel

a new and stable order. Serbian nationalists thus wished to eliminate him,

A pis with a few of his closest colleagues, all of whom were members

then await old Franz Josers demise as the signal for Austria-Hungary's

of 'Unification or Death !' and with the collaboration of Rade

fln al dissolution.•'

Malobabic. 2 1

" [Apis] actually decided upon that assassination and carried it out in practice," asserted his nephew. Before leaving for Sarajevo, Gavrilo Princip,

Malobabic, claimed Colonel Pavlovic , flrst informed Apis that Franz

the Archduke's young Bosnian assassin, received Apis' personal instruc

Ferdinand would visit Sarajevo and lead maneuvers in eastern Bosnia.

tions and encouragement to conunit the murder. Apis' later execution

These moves seemed preparatory to an invasion of Serbia.

resulted primarily from his admission he had organized the plot, claimed Zivanovic. Stated Apis early in 1 9 1 7 :

Knowing that Serbia was exhausted from the Balkan wars and incap able of resisting the great Austrian strength and that Serbia must in

I emphasized once to you that perhaps I erred in writing openly [to

evitably perish if it came to war then with Austria-Hungary , Maloba

the Salonika court] that 1 carried out the Sarajevo assassination. 1

bic was the first to propose to Apis to kill Franz Ferdinand as the

would say now on the basis of these hearings [at Salonika] that this

leader of Austria's imperialistic Balkan policy and thus avert the

is the main . . . reason why I will be killed.

chief danger threatening Serbia.

22

Zivanovic insisted that Apis' role in planning and implementing the mur

Receiving assurances Russia would defend Serbia if she were invaded, Apis

der was predominant.17 Tluough guerrilla chieftain Tankosic who instruct

decided to implement the plot, instructing Malobabic and Major Vulovic

ed the assassins in use of ftrearms and bombs, and other friends, Apis en

to arrange for armed assassins to cross into Bosnia.23

abled the young Bosnians to commit their historic deed. Supplying them with revolvers and bombs, he secured their passage from Serbian into

A pis' letter to the Salonika Officers' Court in 1 9 1 7 , long kept secret, affirmed strongly his leading role in the Sarajevo plot:

Bosnia. Those youths had prepared for their supreme sacrifice spontan eously and were organized by Bosnian revolutionary groups, "but Apis directed their preparedness to its true goal."18 Following the tradition of Zerajic, 19 Bosnian students had planned to murder high Austrian officials,

I enlisted Rade Malobabic . . . to organize for me an intelligence network in Austria-Hungary . . . in agreement with Artamonov, the Russian military attache, who met personally with Rade in my presence.

130

APIS: The Congenial Conspirator After Rade had begun work, believing that Austria was preparing for war with us, I thought that with the removal of the heir to the throne , Ferdinand, the military party and current he headed would lose strength, thus removing or at least delaying the danger of war somewhat. For that purpose I hired Malobabic to organize Ferdin and's murder upon his arrival in Sarajevo. I decided on this definit ively only after Artamonov had assured me that Russia would not leave us undefended if Austria attacked us.

Then came the controversial portion of Apis' statement: Malobabic carried out my instructions, organized and carried through the assassination . Its chief participants were all in my service and received small honararia which I sent them through Malobabic. Some of the receipts, wrote Apis, remained in Russian hands. "I received money for this from Artamonov since the lSerbianJ General Staff did not then have credit to conduct this n i tensified work."24 Apis made his deposition to the court believing it would halt the Sal onika Trial?5 With Serbia fighting Austria-Hungary, he could not imagine that confirming his initiative in the Archduke's murder could seal his doom. Apis told the court the truth, concluded Ljubibratic, but not the whole truth.2i Apis' relationship with Russia, especially with military attache , Victor Artamonov, remains disputed. Russia's General Staff and secret police, allege some scholars, stood behind Colonel Apis as instigators of the Sara jevo murder.27 For his part, Apis claimed he decided on the murder only after Artamonov assured him of Russian support for Serbia. "On this occa sion I did not communicate to Artamonov my intentions for the assassina tion, but found a pretext to seek his views about Russia's attitude ." 2a In 1938 Artamonov for a German publication explained his role prior to the murder. With "Black Hand" and the Serbian government at odds, Artan10nov had dealt with Apis only officially and solely to obtain in formation: "I met with Mr. Dimitrijevic exclusively in his office at the General Staff." His own General Staff had not instructed him to influence Serbia's position. Departing for Switzerland on leave June 19, 1914, Arta monov later denied any part in the Sarajevo plot. Neither Russia nor

Sarajevo

•

131

Serbia, he affirmed, desired the Archduke's death.29 He returned to Bel grade July 1 5th, the day Austria declared war on Serbia. However, Victor Serge, a Russian emigre revolutionary, claimed in 1925 that Apis' colleague, Bozin Simic, had told him: Apis regarded it as his duty before undertaking decisive action, to reach agreement with Artamonov. He informed him about the pre parations for the Sarajevo assassination. A few days later Artamonov gave him his reply which went: 'Go forward! If you are attacked, you won't be alone.' Artamonov sought precise instructions from his superiors. 30 Simic's assertion seems improbable. A Russian promise to defend Serbia would have come through the Foreign Ministry, not via Artamonov. Nor would such a subordinate official's promise have been binding. From Arta monov Apis had sought no ironclad pledge, merely "his opinion." Despite Apis' denial, Artamonov probably knew something about preparations for the murder. While Artamonov was on leave, his tasks were assumed by Alexander Verkhovskii, later War Minister in Russia's Provisional Govern ment. Recalled Trydar-Burzynski of the Petrograd Archeological Institute: The [Sarajevo] assassination was prepared with the support of the acting Russian military attache in Belgrade, Captain Verkhovskii . . . a young man I had known for years . . . and who told me sin cerely the truth about the origins, preparation and execution of the plot. 31 Dr. Vojislav Bogicevic, later chief archivist in Sarajevo, published re sponses by Apis' colleagues to his queries about responsibility for the mur der. Recalled Colonel Vojislav Gojkovic: I affirm also that in that affair were involved only Apis, Vulovic and Tankosic. Had anyone else tried to push himself into that threesome, he is an ordinary boaster and I ask you to pay him no heed . . . . I was very close to Apis, but still he never said anything to me about it. Besides, had I been in his place, I would not have acted different ly. Only those who were to carry out the deed knew about it. Both


132

Sarajevo

133

of them were very reliable and devoted to Apis. Had Tankosic not

"How so?" asked Colonel Apis. "If no one else can be found," said Blago

been killed (in 1 9 1 5 ] he also would have been shot at Salonika?2

jevic, "let one of us [guerrilla chiefsj go there and thwart the designs of that dragon." Responded Apis: "We must think this over seriously." But

Another Apis associate argued that

killing the Archduke

was not Malo

Blagojevic persisted:

babic's idea. Writing Bogicevic in June 1 9 5 6 , Alexander Blagojevic affirm ed that he, not Malobabic, had persuaded Apis to order the murder com

The late Bogd an l Zerajic] still has his followers, and Silja [Tanko

mitted in order to prevent war. In charge of an Albanian frontier post,

sic] knows them well, and since they are right here in Belgrade,

Blagojevic came to Belgrade on leave in April 1 9 1 4 . Meeting with Apis

someone should take it on himself to arrange this affair.

and Major Vulovic in downtown Belgrade, Blagojevic accompanied them to Apis' office in Kalemegdan fortress. "Well, now that 1 see you, chiefs,

Nodding in apparent approval, Apis said: "I'll talk with Silja."34 Presum

what do you think?" asked Apis of his two "Black Hand" comrades. The

ably then Apis and Tankosic had worked out detailed plans for the assas

Colonel declared:

sination. Svetozar Pribicevic from Croatia idealized Apis then as the Serbian of

Up to now what we have done

nationalist activity j has turned

ficers' most influential and determined leader. It was generally agreed, he

out well, but what should we do now with Austria? She is making

affirmed, that Apis was an idealist who sought no personal advantage, lack

formidable preparations against us. The danger is very great. She

ed personal ambition, and was devoted to national interests. Certainly he

wants to destroy us. We have reports informing us that their heir to

gave that impression . Ready to use any means to achieve South Slav unity,

the throne, Ferdinand, is making dangerous preparations. Here is the

he aimed to destroy Austria-Hungary and concentrated his attention on

(in

report of the Russian military attache, Artamonov, warning us about

preparing Serbia for a military showdown. Malobabic was Apis' best agent

decisions by Austrian and German military circles . . . to occupy us.

in forging ties with South Slavs and preparing a national revolution. On the

The Foreign Ministry has sent us a document of Ambassador Hartvig

other hand, Radical leader, Lj ubomir Jovanovic-Patak, cl aiming Apis

speaking of the same thing and advising us to show great caution in our operations towards Austria because Russia is still not prepared militarily ?3

wanted the Archduke murdered, told Pribicevic that later he planned to kill William Il of Germany too. Exclaimed J ovanovic-Patak: "He was a bandit!" Objecting to this, Pribicevic affirmed that the Serbian government dur

Far from provoking conflict with the Austrians, Russia sought to restrain

ing his lifetime never accused Apis of plotting the Archduke's death. Only

Serbia.

after his execution did it allege Apis' participation in order to justify his

Malobabic, realled Apis, secured an appointment as headwaiter at the

conviction for treason. Nor did Apis' alleged role prove he sought war or

Officers' Club in Zagreb. He described a party by officers of the garrison

believed killing the Archduke would provoke it. With Serbia's complicity

where many toasts were drunk. The Archduke ended matters shouting:

unproven, how could a murder by an Austrian citizen constitute a pretext

"See you in Belgrade! Down with Serbia!" After Apis' account, Blagoje

for conflict? Knowing Serbia. required peace in 1914, Apis defmitely op

vic allegedly stated :

posed war, wrote Pribicevic. To have sought war then with Austria would have been insane which Apis certainly was not.35

If it has gotten to the point when the fate of our people depends

The pro-Radical scholar, Stanoje Stanojevic, depicted Apis negatively

on the will of one man or group of men, then down with them. Let

as "a restless spirit full of desire for adventure . . . who was constantly

us be worthy sons of our people and work to crush this dragon

thinking

which wishes to devour Serbia.

up and planning plots and assassinations." He had aimed to kill

William II, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, and Prince Alexander. In his


134 account Apis emerges

as

a professional assassin, surely a gross mischaract

erization. Major Tankosic, affirms Stanojevic, informed Apis in May 1 9 1 4 that he had just talked with envoys of Bosnian students determined to

kill

Sarajevo

135

Princip carried it out but because of all the participants he alone remained consistent from beginning to end in executing the decisions reached."42 Gavrilo Princip, a national revolutionary, and Ned�ljko Cabrinovic, an an

Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. Consenting to this, Apis had authorized

archist, inspired by previous attempts against top Austrian leaders,43 plan

Tankosic to train the youths to handle weapons. Ten days later they left

ned the Sarajevo murder. Apis' Salonika deposition cl aiming responsibility,

for Bosnia. Neither Apis nor Tankosic told anyone until June 2nd when

wrote Lj ubibratic, reflected his psychological state then and his belief that

Apis convened a meeting of CEC.3' He told his colleagues he and Tanko

this would undermine treason charges against

sic had sent two youths to murder the Archduke who aimed to provoke

insisted they had initiated the conspiracy . Planning the murder, asserts

war with Serbia. After lively debate

CEC members except Tankosic

Ljubibratic, was Vladimir Gacinovic , a pro-Yugoslav Bosnian nationalist,

opposed that plan. At their insistence Apis agreed to try to halt the plot.

who believed killing Austrian leaders would provoke revolution, destroy

all

Whether he acted too late or the assassins refused to obey remains un certain. 37 That Apis organized the plot through Malobabic, wrote Dr. Vojislav Bogicevic, was corroborated by a document in the Sarajevo archive. This confirmed Apis' allegation that Malobabic took weapons for the assassins

him . "Young

Bosnians" too

the Dual Monarchy , and free Bosnia. In Toulouse, France in January 1 9 1 4 Gacinovic outlined his plan to "Young Bosnian" leaders: first the Arch duke, then other Austro-Hungarian civil and military leaders would be struck down thus rousing the Monarchy's Slavs to revolt.44 Gacinovic selected Princip to

kill

Franz Ferdinand, afflrmed Lj ubibra

into Bosnia. Even before World War Il, added the archivist, he had in

tic. Meeting him in Sarajevo early in 1 9 1 2 and again in Belgrade that sum

formation that Apis had organized the Sarajevo murder, but he felt he

mer, Gacinovic concluded Princip was determined, reliable and capable.

should not disclose it until Apis' report to the Salonika court had been

He proposed that Princip and the Sarajevo teacher, Danilo llic, compose

released. Bogicevic in 1953 published two earlier letters of Alexander

a plan to kill the Archduke. In February 1 9 1 4 Princip arrived in Belgrade.

Blagojevic confirming that Narodna Odbrana, accused by the Austrian

Neither he nor his comrades, Cabrinovic and Grabez, joined the "Black

ultimatum, had played no part in the Sarajevo murder. Right until that

Hand" which barred minors and was no longer recruting members.45

event, its chairman, General Boza Jankovic, had wroked for the Austrian

In Belgrade Princip confided to Djuro Sarac, a fellow student at Sara

military attache. "Those three great dead patriots lA pis, Vulovic and

jevo gymnasium, and sought his aid to obtain weapons.4' Reading a news

Malobabic J ," affirmed Blagojevic, "are the only ones who prepared and

paper late in March that the Archduke was coming to Sarajevo in June,

executed that affair . . . . "38 But Blagojevic, close to Apis, was not an im

Princip assured Cabrinovic that they should murder

partial witness.

"Death or Life!", a seven member society resembling the "Black Hand,"

him.

Sarac organized

Defenders o f the Salonika verdict39 alleged that Apis believed the Cen

which recruited Bosnian youths and swore them to secrecy . Trifko Grabez,

tral Powers would win World War I and that the South Slav problem could

Princip's roommate, believing the Bosnian maneuvers posed a deadly threat

be solved by relying on Germany. Pro-Salonika writers emphasized Apis'

to Serbia, asked to join the plot. Thus was formed their deadly troika. As

close ties with the Germanophile, Dr. Milos Bogicevic.40 Bogicevic alleged ly, during Apis' 1 9 1 3 stay in Berlin, introduced him to German army leaders who "helped him write articles in German newspapers about Serbia's problems." Calling Apis his "great friend," Bogicevic noted he had impressed many higher German officers. Early in World War I, Bogi cevic spent much time at Apis' office in Kragujevac.41 The young Bosnians, not Apis, conceived and executed the Sarajevo murder independently , claimed a Bosnian scholar: "not merely because

a fmal stimulus to murder, Gacinovic wrote them: "Forward lions!"47 The Bosnian youths decided to seek weapons from Apis' associate, Major Tankosic. Eventually that gruff guerrilla chieftain, who had spurn ed previous requests of the young Bosnians to enlist, relented. Tankosic trusted Sarac, who acted as the youth's envoy, since he had fought as a guerrilla under Tankosic in the Balkan wars. Thus Tankosic provided wea pons, arranged through frontier officers for their shipment into Bosnia, and secured Apis' consent. On May 28th the three conspirators had left Belgrade by boat for Sabac.48

136


Apis told a "Black Hand" associate, Colonel Cedo Popovic, in 1915 that initially he had accepted Tankosic's proposal to send the young Bos nian assassins into Bosnia, explaining: I was convinced Austria would attack [Serbia J during 1914. I feared that, believing that in case they attacked we would lose everything. . . . Our army was almost all scattered in garrisons in southern Serbia and on the frontiers of prewar Serbia . . . . That fear dominated my feelings. I began to think what we should do to prevent Franz Ferd inand from executing his plans to attack Serbia. Tankosic told Apis at his office in the General Staff: Dragutin, there are several Bosnian youths who are pestering me. Those kids want at any cost to perform some 'great deed.' They have heard that Franz Ferdinand will come to Bosnia for maneuvers and have begged me to let them go there. What do you say? . . . I have told them they cannot go, but they give me no peace. Apis hesitated. Would the young Bosnians succeed? Even if they did, there would be complications and agitation, "but we would be saved." Thus Apis replied: "Fine, Silja. Let them go!" He told Popovic he did not be lieve such an assassination would provoke a war.49 But then, affirmed Ljubibratic, Colonel Apis changed his mind: When I, after some time, thought a little more about this, I decided to try to return the youths who had left and in every way to prevent the assassination. This attempt was made through the guerrilla, Djuro Sarac. Why the second thoughts? "At that moment," explained Apis, "I believed that such an attempt could not succeed and that perhaps they would not even undertake it." Dubious such immature youths could kill the Arch duke, Apis wished instead to employ TankosiC's seasoned guerrillas. En trusting that enterprise to Malobabic, Apis summoned him to Belgrade and sent him to see Major Yulovic . So Princip's group would not undercut his plan, Apis persuaded Sarac to recall Princip and his friends. Saracinstructed

Sarajevo

137

Danilo llic to return the Bosnian youths to Belgrade. Proceeding to Sara jevo, llic delivered Sarac's instructions, but Princip and Grabez refused categorically to abandon their plans. "They did not wish to hear of this," Apis told Cedo Popovic. Thus Apis halted recruitment of new assassins and put Malobabic in touch with Princip's group. Malobabic met with Grabez at Tuzla, Bosnia. When Grabez returned to Sarajevo, llic decided to help his young friends, gave them weapons, and decided where the assassins should station them selves in Sarajevo. Alone of the young Bosnians Princip adhered consist ently to his resolve to murder the Archduke. When others failed or lost heart, he c.arried out the assassination coolly. Aided by fortuitous circum stances, he killed the Archduke and his wife. At the subsequent investiga tion, Princip declared he had acted for revolutionary Yugoslav youth fight ing for national liberation. 50 The Sarajevo murder occurred despite the organizers' confusion and in decision. The Apis group and "Young Bosnians" both sought to eliminate the Archduke , though for different reasons. Young Bosnian revolution aries led by Princip viewed the murder as inaugurating revolutionary strug gle to destroy the Dual Monarchy and free their homeland. Most shared vague concepts of a republican, egalitarian Yugoslav federation. On the other hand, Apis sought to prevent or defer an Austrian attack on Serbia by removing the supposed leader of the war party. Apis believed Franz Ferdinand's plan to unite South Slavs under the Habsburgs would doom a Greater Serbia. As an organization "Black Hand" was impotent in 1914, but Apis retained a powerful hold over key members who were close friends. His assertion to the Salonika court that he had initiated the con spiracy and his agents had implemented it was exaggerated. His nephew's claim that Apis deserves virtually sole "credit" for the murder was an un justified attempt to portray his uncle and friends as Serbian and Yugoslav martyrs. Both Apis' group and the "Young Bosnians" contributed impor tantly to the Archduke's murder, but even without action by Apis, other Bosnian attempts would likely have occurred. Assertions that Apis planned the murder in order to overturn the Karadjordjevic dynasty lacked sub stance . Apis' actions stemmed rather from misreading Franz Ferdinand's aims and Austrian intentions, hastening the Austro-Serbian war he had sought to defer.

13 9

The Austrian War

action is understandable and natural on St. Vitus Day [Vidovdan, the anni versary of Kosovo ) , but no one in Serbia has glorified his deed. "2 The militaristic Archduke, affirmed

Piedmont,

had disregarded South Slav

aspirations in the Monarchy. Would his death end ·the war party's reck less course? " . . . Either Austria must yield to the demands of our demo cratic era or disappear," proclaimed the paper. 3 Governor Oskar Potiorek of Bosnia, who narrowly escaped the assas sins' bullets, wrote the day after the Archduke's murder: "The true evil

CHAPTER XIII

doers are to be sought in Serbia."2 An Austrian diplomat in Sarajevo re ported: "The three young assassins seem to have sought to repeat the drama of Kosovo Field . . . . I cannot yet blame Belgrade directly for the

THE AUSTRIAN WAR ( 1 9 1 4-1 9 1 5 )

murder, but indirectly it

did not resemble the picture which the pub lic had created of him . He was neither hot tempered nor arrogant-he was more what one calls 'a good comrade.' But one had the impression that he was not merely that. Slobodan Jovanovic,Moji savremenici, p. 410 Apis and most other Serbs did not believe war would necessarily result from the Sarajevo murder. Only when Austria presented its formidable ultimatum in Belgrade, did conflict appear inevitable . Several times pre viously an Austro-Serbian war had seemed unavoidable, notably in 1 909 and 1 9 1 2-13. Conrad von Hotzendorf, Austrian chief of staff, long had planned to slay the Serbian dragon with one bold stroke . By 1 9 1 4 both sides viewed their quarrel in apocalyptic terms. Austrian leaders sought to defend a crumbling monarchy against lethal South Slav nationalism. Serbs in Serbia and the Dual Monarchy considered it a sacred duty to liberate and unite all Serbs even at the cost of assassination and war. 1 Until that terrible Austrian ultimatum prudence prevailed in Serbia.

Piedmont

ascribing Princip's action to

avoided praising the Sarajevo assassins, oppression in

Bosnia-Hercegovina.

surely responsible."3 He found little notice

able regret in Sarajevo at Franz Ferdinand's death:

The Apis I knew at the Supreme Command

Even ultranationalist

s i

"His

In streets and cafes people are exultant . . . saying it is God's judg ment for all the bad things Austria-Hungary has done to Serbia. . . . We must take the first opportunity for a destructive blow against her to give the Monarchy a fe w decades of calm internal development . . . . Serbia must learn to fear us again

.

.

.

.4

However, it took three weeks before Austrian demands were presented in Belgrade . Austria's hawks first won unconditional German support and overcame Hungarian reluctance. Then Baron Giesl, Austria's minister in Belgrade, submitted a forty-eight hour ultimatum to Serbia. It insisted among other things that Austrian officials be authorized to track down the Archduke's killers in Serbia. 5 Returning hastily to Belgrade, Premier Pa5ic drew up a conciliatory reply accepting most demands. Serbia would investigate the murder and punish the guilty , but would bar Austrian of ficials from its soil.' With Vienna insisting on unconditional Serbian acceptance of the ultimatum, Minister Giesl, his bags already packed, left Belgrade immediately, thus sexering diplomatic relations. After Giesl's departure, Belgrade ordered full Serbian mobilization. Colonel Apis, realizing now that war was likely, had worked intensively at the General Staff to insure a smooth mobilization. That same evening -July 12/25th-all General Staff officers except Apis entrained for inter ior Kragujevac, Supreme Command's new headquarters. Other Serbian

138

officers harangued excited crowds

in

Belgrade's streets and pro-war

APIS : The Congenial Conspirator

140

demonstrations erupted near the royal palace. Belgrade's arrest of Major

141

The Austrian War

and other leading conspirators retired from the army . According to his

Tankosic, linked with the Sarajevo murder, provoked angry protests. 7 Re

daughter, Putnik had flatly refused to do that. 1 1 The Prince had told Pilac

called Apis:

that War Minister Dusan Stefanovic, although "stupid" was being kept on because he did Alexander's bidding. Premier Pasic had supposedly said of

I

was convinced positively the Russians would fight if Austria attack

Stefanovic: "A good lad, he obeys everything!" 1 2 About the same time

went to see Tankosic

Interior Minister Protic had admonished Ceda Jovanovic , an Assembly

who was under arrest because of the ultimatum, at the staff of the

leader, to cut all ties with Apis; Ceda had refused. 13 On the eve of war

Danube Division command. There

told Tankosic, to comfort him,

Prince Alexander allegedly thought of having Apis murdered: "The Prince

not to fear because of his arrest, informing him that our brother

told me June 16, 1 9 1 4 in the Danube Division's office that in sure hands

Russians would surely fight. 3

a single bullet would remove him." 1 4 However, Pilac was strongly biased

ed us. When the ultimatum was submitted,

I

I

in Apis' favor. Why did Apis not go to Kragujevac immediately with the General Staff?

MalobabiC's frenzied activities in June and July 1914 provoked lively

He affirmed later he had remained in Belgrade an extra day to confer with

suspicions he might be a double agent. Early in June, Rade had come to

his chief agent, Rade Malobabic. Soon after the Sarajevo murder, Rade had

see Dr. Budisavljevic in Zagreb bringing Apis' confidential instructions. "I

showed up nervous and upset at Vaso RistiC's bank in Tuzla, Bosnia. He

told Malobabic all that

blurted out: "The situation is very critical.

must cross immediately into

Budisavljevic. Asked whether his dangerous national work had been com

Serbia and have come to you for a recommendation on the safest place to

pensated, Rade said he required no payment. Budisavljevic felt a poor man

I

I

knew for communication to Apis," declared

like Malobabic should be reimbursed. 1 5

cross."9 He had just come from the murder site. Malobabic now fell victim to Apis' feud with the Radicals. Apis had

At Salonika Colonel Misic intimated Malobabic in July 1 9 1 4 was spying

suggested to Rade that "happier times" would soon come for their intel

for Austria-Hungary . Why else would Malobabic just before war began

ligence operations. Later, the Colonel explained:

cross that frontier sector selected by the Austrian High Command for in vading Serbia? Had not he been instructed to reconnoitre Serbian troop

talked with Malobabic about our internal affairs in [May] 1914

positions and arms depots and report his fmdings to Austria? Apis ex

when the Priority Decree was under discussion. Both he and I felt

plained he had sent Malobabic across the Sava River to Loznica to confer

our work was being hampered by our authorities' bad will and for

with Serbian frontier office rs. Rade had passed through that territory

well-known reasons I was not then well regarded by our authorities.

frequently including during the Turkish war when Austria mobilized

hoped after the planned elections, conditions

in Bosnia. Knowing well agents and people on both sides of the frontier,

for our service would become easier and better. And I said that if

Rade did not need to reconnoitre it. Since 191 1 Serbian agents had cros

elections were not held, we would use different means. By this

I

sed the frontier there regularly. Gathering information there about Serbian

meant to bring a major issue before the Crown and seek its support 0 for our common work. 1

troops, argued Apis, would have been a trivial task to assign Malobabic

I

I told Rade then that

I

in 1914. He could have deliv�red far more important information to Aus tria, but he would have gone there to observe troop concentrations only

Thus Apis was prepared to exploit King Peter's strong obligations toward

had he been an Austrian agent. "But his past, his connections, and guar

the May conspirators to achieve his goals.

antees of his honorability from leading Serbs of that lMacvaJ region ex

Other evidence indirectly supports Apis' claims about official obstruc

clude any such role for him," protested Apis.

tion of his intelligence work. Early in 1914 Prince Alexander allegedly

Learning from intelligence sources that conflict with Austria seemed

sought to bribe Vojvoda Putnik with gold to have Apis, Milovanovic-Pilac,

imminen t, Apis had issued necessary instructions to Malobabic. After


142

The Austrian War

143

meeting with Apis at the General Staff, Rade went to the Drina to confer

Confirming this, Malobabic said he had brought Apis the latest informa

with frontier officers. Returning to Belgrade July 1 2th, the eve of mobil

tion from Bosnia. The General Staff had already left Belgrade. In the Up

ization, he went to Apis' office that afternoon. Apis mentioned casually

per Town only Apis awaited him. Afterwards:

to Rade that someone from the Belgrade police had asked for him. Rade decided to go directly to police headquarters. To insure harmonious rela

When I went to the office of the Belgrade city administration, they

tions with the police, Apis had spoken earlier with Vasa Lazarevic, a police

arrested me, then took me under guard to southern Serbia. I had no

official, and had described MalobabiC's work in a report to the General

way to let Apis know about me. They put fetters on me and bound

Staff. He believed agreement had been reached, and that the Belgrade

me hand and foot. On

police knew all about Rade. On July 1 2th A pis had arranged to meet with

prison I

Rade again next day at Cafe Imperial to work out details of MalobabiC's

cruelly. I had to relieve myself on the floor. My beard grew down to

s i

all

fours I lay on the stone floor [of Nis

for a year. There was little food and the guards beat me

that evening with the General Staff. They needed to arrange secret signals

my waist . . . . A living corpse, 1 beat my head on the floor and prayed to God to die. Often I howled from pain and my tears

so Rade could continue coordinating national activities in the Monarchy

flowed because l had never deserved this from Serbia.

wartime operations in Austria-Hungary. That

why Apis did not leave

18

and thus enable Serbian intelligence to recruit as agents Serbian soldiers Rade's pathetic account has the ring of truth.

in the Austrian army. Colonel Misic clearly remained unconvinced. Would Apis defer vital

When Rade failed to appear, Apis proceeded to Hotel "Balkan" where

work on mobilization just to confer with a supposed agent he seen the

he had said he would stay, but the porter told Apis that Rade had not

previous day? How could the Austrians not have noticed Malobabic who

spent the night there. Fearing Rade's papers might prove compromising

had been convicted of treason at the Zagreb Trial? A pis said:

for Serbia, Apis and the porter leafed through them but found nothing important. Continued Apis:

Precisely for me as chief of that [intelligencej service there was nothing strange about this. My work was truly made possible by

I

Austrian police stupidity, although they actually believed they were

was energetic, I concluded that when he had learned of [Serbianj

I

could not solve the riddle of Rade's whereabouts, but knowing he

have proofs precisely from those days that the Austrian

mobilization, he had returned to Austria since he knew well what to

police was functioning very poorly against my operations and that

do so as not to be prevented absolutely from returning. I was con

our police was much more competent.

stantly absorbed in such thoughts during the fust phase of military

perfect.

16

Malobabic never met Apis at the Cafe Imperial. Police offic ial Vaso

operations believing Rade or his people would report, but there was . . . . . 19 no trace of htm

Lazarevic testified in Salonika that the Belgrade police arrested him that very evening. Arriving in Belgrade on the last boat from Zemun, Austria, Rade allegedly had aroused Commissar Prvalovic's suspicions because he

For several months Apis vainly awaited word from Malobabic. Mean while his entire intelligence network inside Austria disintegrated. •

lacked proper papers. But how after the Sarajevo murder could Rade have crossed into Serbia unhindered without valid documents?, asked MiSic.

I could not believe that Rade could have any business with the

Such crossings were possible though dangerous, insisted Apis. People com

police . . . knowing that with the police then was Vasa Lazarevic

ing to his office from Austria sometimes had lacked them. But without

who knew him and with whom l had spoken about Rade's dual ser

valid papers Rade had risked his life to cross and bring important data

vice and who Vaso knew was my agent. That is why

to Apis. 17

police where Rade was, especially since I was to leave that day for

I

did not ask the


144

the General Staff in Kragujevac and had other work to finish before 0 the train left that evening. 2

The Austrian War

145

Macedonians operating in Serbia. Those same agents tried unsuccessfully to get Sredojevic to help them counterfeit twenty dinar Serbian gold coins. After Austria declared war, Tucakovic fled Sabac; precipitously letting

Apis insisted he had discussed Rade's status also with Colonel Krsta

copies of his Sarajevo murder investigation fall into Austrian hands. His

Srniljanic, chief of the General Staffs military section. However, the

unauthorized flight may have constituted treason since his "carelessness"

Salonika court stated that the War Minister had found no Apis report

provoked a massacre of Serbs in Macva; Austria rewarded him generously .23

about Malobabic. But in the stenogram of the Salonika Trial, Milan Zi

Fearing an immediate Austrian strike across the Danube, the Serbian

vanovic discovered the following exchange between Colonel Misic and

High Command left for Kragujevac the day of mobilization. But for three

Apis at the session of May 4, 1 9 1 7 had been deleted:

days nothing happened. Prince Regent Alexander remained in his virtually empty Belgrade palace . On July 15th Djurdje Jelenic, his personal secre

Misic: Colonel, you declared that Krsta Tucakovic as chief of Drina Region submitted a document relating to Malobabic. You stated that you submitted a report to the General Staff which was delivered to the War Ministry in which you asked that the attention of the police be attracted so as not to hinder Malobabic and to aid the operations of the General Staff. Apis:

I

informed

ing Austria's declaration of war. "A strange way to declare war!" exclaim ed the Prince's duty officer, Major DrCISkic. Was this still another attempt to humiliate Serbia? Quickly they entered the Prince's automobile, drove to Ralje, then took the train to NiS, Serbia's temporary capital. In the Assembly next day Prince Alexander read Serbia's own war declaration:

I was asked to. Colonel this I went to Smiljanic and

submitted such a report because

Krsta Smiljanic . . . knows this. About

tary, came from Ralje station with Premier Berchtold's telegram contain

him that this matter related to our

activities in Bosnia.

war had begun to liberate and unite all Serbs and Croats. Pledges of sup port from Russia and France produced a mood of optimism.24 Conrad van Hotzendorf, Austria-Hungary's chief of staff, ordered Gen eral Oskar Potiorek to lead "a military parade" through Serbia to avenge

Neither the War Ministry nor the Supreme Command, insisted Misic, had

the Sarajevo murder. With seven army corps on the Drina River with 250,

any record of having received such information.21

000 men and 1 ,200 cannon, the ex-Bosnian governor launched the inva

The unfortunate Rade had been sucked unwittingly into Apis' quarrel

sion confidently on August 12th. Opposing him were

180,000 Serb

with the regime. The chief of Drina district, Tucakovic, had designated

troops with 500 cannon; another 100- 150,000 youths and old men were

Malobabic as suspicious solely because acting on Apis' orders, Rade had

in reserve. Sending his main forces along the Jadra valley, Potiorek scored

refused to disclose his work for the General Staff.22 Moreover, Tucakovic

a tactical surprise . The main Serbian army retired hastily to Valjevo. Ob

had personal and political motives to order Rade's arrest and lie about

serving with Prince Alexander the Serbs' disorderly retreat, DraSkic won

Apis' report. Tucakovic testified at Salonika that Malobabic was an Aus

dered if they could reach new positions and resist the Austrian surge . The

train spy and double agent. A professional policeman and Radical, Tucako

soldiers seemed poorly trained; some lacked uniforms. Heat and dust were

vic enjoyed the special confidence of Stojan Protic and Ljubomir Jovano

oppressive. However, Marshal Putnik had calculated correctly. At Cerska

vic-Patak, heading the Serbian police. At ProtiC's order Tucakovic as Sabac

(August 16-19) the overconfident Habsburgers suffered a shocking defeat.

district chief investigated how the Archduke's assassins had crossed into

A week later not one Austrian soldier remained inside Serbia! News of this

Bosnia, confirming the roles of Apis, Vulovic, and Malobabic-the trio shot

great victory caused ajubilant Prince Alexander to embrace General Zivojin

at Salonika. A Serbian volunteer, Atanasije Sredojevic, believed Tucakovic

MiSic ecstatically. News of the great French victory on the Marne soon

may have been a foreign {Austrian?) agent. While Tucakovic was district

thereafter "encouraged us to believe the war would soon be over."25

chief at Obrenovac, Austrian and Bulgar agents had flocked there. He took

Panic reigned in shocked Vienna ; joy and amazement pervaded Allied

them to his apartment, claimed Sredojevic, to divide taxes collected from

countries. Tiny Serbia had gained the first Allied victory of World War I .


146

The Entente then demanded that Serbia, to relieve hardpressed Russia, launch an offensive into Austria. The Serbian army boldly crossed the Sava and Drina rivers, entering the Srem in triumph before being halted.2'

Meanwhile Colonel Apis had gone to Kragujevac still as the General

Staffs chief of intelligence and head of the information bureau. During his eight months there Apis' relations with Supreme Commander Prince Alexander deteriorated until an open breach occurred early in 1915.

Colonel Zivko Pavlovic, Putnik's assistant and chief of the operations divisions, instructed Colonels Apis and Cedo Popovic to create a guerrilla volunteer corps. If the enemy penetrated Serbia's interior, it would remain behind and conduct partisan warfare. Four detachments were to be form

ed. The first under Major Tankosic, released from confmement once the war began, would operate near Belgrade, retreating to barren Mt. Rudnik. Captain Velimir Vemic's detachment would retire into the Golubinjski Mountains. A third unit under Major Vojin Popovic Vuk would fight first in Macva, then in Cer and Vidojevic. A fmal detachment led by Cedo Popovic would resist in Zlatibor and Mt. Jelova. All closely associated with Apis and "Black Hand," the commanders were experienced guer rilla fighters. On July 28th Popovic arrived in Uzice where he and Apis began organizing the detachments. 27 Reports persisted of plots to kill Apis, so he remained well protected by officer comrades. Milutin Tomic , later a Salonika witness, claimed he knew a Montenegrin whom Major Pavle Jurisic-Sturm had approached in Kragujevac to kill Apis and Milovanovic-Pilac, but the man had refused the assignment?8

JuriSic-Sturm was prominent in Prince Alexander's

entourage. In November 1914 embattled Serbia survived another major crisis, provoked by a second powerful Austrian nvasion. i Outmanned and out gunned, the Serbs fell back deep into the interior. Short of ammunition

and facing a better equipped, confident foe, Marshal Putnik realized Serbia faced disaster unless artillery shells could be obtained promptly . In Valjevo convened a meeting of the government and Supreme Command under Prince Alexander on October 27th. Under existing conditions, warned Putnik, prospects for successful resistance were slight; Serbia faced a separate peace or capitulation unless essential supplies were obtair}ed. The Pa5i6 government then sent desperate appeals to the Entente with dramatic results. Receiving necessary munitions, Putnik ordered a counteroffensive

The Austrian War

147

which produced a second magnificent Serbian victory on the Kolubara (November 3-6th). Once again the Austrians were expelled ignominiously from Serbia. 29

Dr. R. A. Reuss, a pro-Serbian Swiss professor close to the Radical

regime and Prince Alexander, reported from Salonika that he had known

Colonel Apis since the war's beginning:

Extremely pleasant-even too pleasant-he made a strange impres sion on me despite his obvious intelligence . I knew what role he had played in the drama of 1903, and I had a certain distrust of him .

With his sereni ty, this fat officer was a manipulator of men. S. Jovanovic, who knew him well and with whom I was linked by

friendship, told me one day in the spring of 1 9 1 5 : 'You know, if 1 were chief of state, I would be suspicious of Dimitrijevic . He is a dangerous man !' Apis and his friends, asserted Reuss, pretending to be Francophile, before intimates criticized the Allies bitterly and praised the Germans. 30 Slobodan Jovanovic , serving with the press bureau in Kragujevac, pro vided a rather different assessment: The Apis I knew at the Supreme Command did not resemble the pic ture created about him by the public. He was neither hot-tempered nor arrogant; he was more what one would call 'a good comrade.' But one had the impression he was not only that. Many people came to see Apis, continued Jovanovic, some because he re mained influential, others just to chat since he always seemed aimiable and talkative. Sometimes his office resembled a vistors' bureau. Now and then a political leader came. Ordering no one else admitted, Apis would remain alone with his prominent visitor. Almost daily at dinner and supper he had multiple guests. Rather than proceed to the High Command's rather distant mess in Kragujevac, Apis reserved a small table at a nearby inn for himself,

Jovanovic, and an officer from operations. Their first day there, no sooner

were they seated then a group of officers fresh from the front burst into

the inn shouting: "Where is Lieutenant Colonel Dragutin's table?" Soon the three diners were surrounded by unexpected officer guests, the table

-


148

was extended, and Apis presided as if over a banquet. I t was much the same later when he arranged for

his

private mess. Planned for six, it al

The Austrian War

149

DraSkovic and Ljubomir Davidovic , became ministers of public works

most always served considerably more. Loving company, Apis retained the

and education respectively. "This new cabinet is stronger than the last and should command the support of the whole Skupstina," reported the

knack of stimulating conversation and creating a casual, convivial atmos

British minister. Indeed, the Assembly approved 3.tmost unanimously the

phere. Partial to women and music, he drank only water, remaining sober

new government's statement known as the Nis Declaration: Serbia's duty

in the most bibulous company.

is "to ensure the successful issue of this great struggle . . . for the libera

Getting to know Apis well personally and talking with his friends, Jovanovic came to appreciate his other qualities. Invariably concerned

tion and union of all our enslaved brothers, Serbs, Croats and Slovenes."34 What caused Colonel Apis' fateful breach early in

1915

with Prince

with his adherents' advancement and reward, he seemingly did not lift a

Alexander? Later, on Corfu to Slobodan Jovanovic the Prince enumerated

fmger for himself. Though brave and ambitious, he never blew his own

Apis' shortcomings and alluded to informants' denunciations which prob

horn. Apis' efforts for his comrades reflected true friendship and leader

ably were more significant. In the army, Alexander heard, Apis was called

ship, wrote Jovanovic. His comradeship, especially with military men,

"the second heir to the throne" without whose advice Alexander dared do

was amazing. By the number of his friends, he resembled a table set for

nothing. Though not offended by Apis' refusal to pay him court, the

a wedding banquet. Genuinely fond of his friends, Apis did not spare

Prince was dismayed that among Serbian officers he enjoyed a prestige

them from danger, involving them in the most perilous enterprises. Tllis

Alexander still lacked, threatening his position as Serbia's future king.

dangerous quality in his friendship merely enhanced his attractiveness

Instead of following A pis' instructions, the Prince found himself heeding

and prestige.31

the Colonel's advice, thus reinforcing his own insecurity . Zivkovic, the

In Nis, the temporary capital, a new coalition cabinet was formed in

omnipresent intriguer, exploited this cleverly . Apis had engineered one

after the Kolubara victory . Apis apparently took the

royal murder, warned Pera. Might not Alexander be his next victim unless

December

1914

initiative for this and the first steps in its realization. 32 Since the outbreak

he eliminated him?

of war Premier P
In Kragujevac Apis' position was much weaker than before. On poor

responsibility among all Serbian parties. War Minister Stefanovic related

terms with the Radicals and Prince Regent, he soon had to fight on two

incident which revealed Apis' persistent political influence. After

fronts. King Peter, beholden to Apis, was semi-retired. Marshal Putnik,

negotiating with Opposition leaders to form a coalition, Pasic declared

Apis' chief supporter at the Supreme Command, was absorbed in daily

at a cabinet meeting:

operations, frequently ill, and avoided personal involvements. Among

an

civilians Apis had few true adherents. His influence in the army waned When I made an offer to the leaders of other parties to enter the

as the merciless scythe of war cut down his friends. As old comrades were

gove rnment, they, headed by Lj uba Davidovic [Independent Radi

killed, their junior replacements lacked influence. For younger ambitious

t:alj

went to Kragujevac to ask Apis. Apis told them they should

enter the government provided that from that government would be excluded Stojan Protic, Velizar Jankovic, and Colonel Dusan Stefanovic.

�fficers,

Apis was a dimming star. Those seeking advancement shifted

mexorably from him to the Prince Regent.35 TriSa Kaclerovic, a Socialist politician then in Kragujevac, one day asked Laza Kostic, Apis' relative, how Apis was feeling. Fine physically , replied Laza, but his relations with Prince Alexander had grown un

At Pasic's statement, Stojan Protic rose, swore at the "Black Hand" and left the meeting. 33 Nonetheless, a coalition ministry was installed with P3Sic remaining premier and foreign minister. Politically colorless Colonel Radomir Bojovic became war minister. independent Radical chiefs, Milorad

�leasant .

Perplexed, Kaclerovic queried Apis at dinner. "Nothing special ,

JUst some disagreements," responded the Colonel curtly. Soon Kaclerovic learned that Apis, after a quarrel with Alexander, had been transferred to the Uzice Army. · A pis refused to discuss this in detail commenting

150


��

enigmatically that once the war was over, they would settle ac unts. . Delivered in Apis' offhand manner, this failed to dece1ve KacleroVIc who warned: "1 fear, Dimitrijevic, that it is

you

who will remember Alex-

ander!"3' Thus, at the Prince's insistence, Apis was removed from Supreme Command in March 1 9 1 5 and named chief of staff of the Uzice Army con tairling only two brigades. With such feeble forces, even had he wished to, Apis could not have overturned the regime. Prince Alexander, noted J ovanovic, though physically brave, had weak nerves. He could not stand having near him men he feared or disliked. His entourage supplied Alex ander daily with reports denouncing Apis. Even small comradely dinners at Apis' private mess were conjured into conspiratorial gatherings. The realization that Apis lived in the same town and served in the same com mand finally grew unbearable for the Prince.37 Major DraSkic, his loyal duty officer, described Alexander's entourage then. Despite DraskiC's membership in "Black Hand," the Prince liked and valued him, telling Prince Paul: "That Panta is my shadow. He does not leave me day or night. Any other person in that position would vex me, but he is never tiresome." Dominating the entourage, "White Hand" leaders wanted Draskic replaced, but the Prince retained him until the Salonika Trial . Heading Alexander's staff was Colonel Djordje Ostojic, intelligent, honorable, and non-partisan, who consistently told the Prince the truth. Personal secretary Djurdje Jelenic though was a typical "White Hander." Amoral and critical of everyone, Jelenic cursed Premier Pa5ic in cafes and hated the "Black Hand." He filled the palace kitchen and cellar with friends and relatives to shield them from service at the front. Boast ing of his indispensability, Jelenic had little real influence. Once Peter Zivkovic arrived in Kragujevac, "White Hand" meetings convened regularly in a Guards barracks; Jelenic was always present. They were already laying the groundwork for a long anticipated showdown with Apis. Assisting Zivkovic run the Guards and "White Hand" was Lieutenant Colonel Pavle Jurisic-Sturm, severely wounded at Cerska. Brave and ambitious, but shal low and conceited, Jurisic drew up for Alexander's signature a list of of ficers to be decorated including his brother and all his friends. The army learned Jurisic had omitted deliberately many deserving officers proposed . by the1r . umt commanders. 38

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151

After Kolubara the Serbian army, despite grievous losses and epidemics, remained a potent fighting force. Colonel Foumier, French military at tache, reported in March 1 9 1 5 that Serbia still hl!d 238 battalions with 180,000 men arrayed against Austria and another 55 ,000 men in Mace donia. "This represents the Serbs' total and final resources." With morale remaining excellent "the Serbian army is still capable of great things."39 Six months later that picture had changed little though in fourteen months of war against a superior foe, over 1 1 0,000 Serb troops had been killed or put out of action. 40 Abroad, the Pasic government still cultivated its strong ties with Petro grad. Grand Prince Nikolai Nikolaevich, Russia's corrunander-in
•


152

for our offensive and the Uzice Army was designated for operations to wards Sarajevo." A well-organized Bosnian volunteer force would assist such an operation. With Supreme Command's approval, Apis recruited Bosnian refugees who had withdrawn with Serbian forces, expanding a platoon of partisans into a battalion. "I tried especially to recruit into this unit Serbian Muslims from Bosnia, obtaining many from TankosiC's de tachment.""" By early 1 9 1 5 over 1 ,000 Bosnians were serving reluctantly in Austrian garrisons. Anxious to assist in Bosnians liberation, they established links

CHAPTER XIV

with Narodna Odbrana and ''Black Hand," partly through the Serbian embassy in Rome. Favoring their cause was Dusan Marinkovic, a Serbian intellectual. Learning of his plans to foster the Bosnian liberation move

ALBANIAN GOLGOTHA ( 1 9 1 5 )

ment in UZice, Minister of Police Jovanovic-Patak sought unsuccessfully to induce him to gather incriminating information there about Apis. In

Going along the paths through Albania sticks

Uzice Marinkovic met Apis who received him warmly. Showing deep in·

in hand, men resembled sufferers who retain

terest in political conditions in occupied Bosnia, Apis revealed detailed

ed of all their property only a beggar's staff.

knowledge of events there. Marinkovic found Apis' young officers enthu

In that crowd I suddenly saw Apis. He was

siastic and hopeful about liberating Bosnia and other Serbian regions:

tottering along on his uncertain legs, sup ported by a huge cane corresponding to his

In these people I saw only enthusiastic patriots. I did not dream that official [Radical] circles regarded them differently. I saw in Apis

weight. S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, p. 4 1 7

and his friends people with wholly sincere intentions and discerned nothing of which they were later accused. I knew there was nothing suspicious about their ties with Bosnia.45

Until the fall of 1 9 1 5 the outnumbered Serbian armies defended their country successfully against the Austrians, chasing them twice from Serb ian soil. General Potiorek, leader of those invasions, was then removed, his

About that time Colonel Bozin Sirnic learned that a national activist

health shattered. In the Austrians' wake a typhus epidemic carried off

was languishing in NiS prison and concluded it must be Malobabic. Major

over 130,000 Serbian soldiers and civilians. The Serbian army lacked

Vulovic found him there. Much agitated by Rade's lamentable physical

doctors, weapons, even clothing. Outnumbered more than two to one,

condition, he telephoned Apis who urged his army commander to release

i t was even more inferior in artillery and fuepower. Then in the fall of

Malobabic into his custody . Passing through channels, Apis' report ulti

1 9 1 5 powerful Austro-German armies in the north and Bulgar forces in

mately reached the Council of Ministers. In Zajecar Apis finally received

the east all attacked Serbia.. As chief of staff of the new Timok Army,

the reply that Rade's case was still under investigation.46 He was still

Colonel Apis played a controversial part in a campaign ending with the

rotting in Nis prison when Bulgaria attacked Serbia that October.

terrible retreat through Albania and Montenegro to the Adriatic Sea. During 1 9 1 5 Serbia's allies sought to induce 1 taly and Balkan neu trals -Bulgaria, Greece, and Rumania-to join the Entente. By the secret Treaty

15 3 '


154

Albania n Golgotha

155

of London (April 1 9 1 5 ) Italy agreed. Concluded without consulting Serbia,

ready, Serbia almost surely could have disrupted Bulgaria's mobilization

it promised Italy parts of Dalmatia inhabited largely by South Slavs. To

and defeated her in a few days. Instead the Allies admonished the Serbs

lure Bulgaria into their camp, the Allies offered it Macedonian territories

to concentrate against Austro-German forces in th� north. The Bulgars

annexed to Serbia in 1912-1913. In return after flnal victory Serbia would

would not dare attack, declared the Allies, and if they did, the Allies

receive Austria-Hungary's South Slav provinces: Bosnla, Hercegovina,

would aid Serbia promptly. Russia opposed strongly any Serbian strike

Slavonija, and the rest of Dalmatia. 1

against her beloved Bulgars. 5

In NiS the Pasic government faced a grave dilemma. Realizing combined

When Bulgaria ordered mobilization, Marshal Putnik begged his govern

Austro-German-Bulgar assaults were likely, Pasic warned the Allies repeat

ment to induce the Allies to halt a move clearly prefatory to an attack on

edly of this danger but found them oblivious. Pasic had always relied

Serbia. Putnik proposed a twenty-four hour ultimatum to Sofia to halt

heavily on Russia's support, especially during World War I. In an extrem

mobilization. If that were rejected, the Serbs should invade Bulgaria from

ity he might flout Franco-British advice, but never would he disobey

the west, Greece and Anglo-French forces from the south, and Russian

Petrograd. While dubious of Allies assurances about Bulgaria's neutrality ,

troops from the east. Adopting Putnik's plan, PaSic telegraphed Serbia's

Pasic believed that if Serbia were attacked, the Allies would assist her

envoys in Allied capitals urging such a course, adding: "Our Supreme Com

promptly and effectively. At first Pa5ic resisted Allied demands that Serbia

mand refuses responsibility for the catastrophe which will ensue inevit

pledge Macedonian territory to Bulgaria. Facing losses on the Adriatic to

ably if we do not act seriously and swiftly . . . . " At first France and

Italy, he argued, Serbia required Aegean access through the Greek port

Russia, though refusing troops, seemed favorably inclined, but Britain re

of Salonika. Finally , under intense Allied pressure , he sought only the

jected the Serbian plan categorically and drew its partners along. Without

Prilep areas so as to give Serbia a common frontier with Greece, but the

Allied approval, Pasic and Putnik felt compelled to abandon a Serbian

Allies insisted Serbia offer Bulgaria all Macedonian lands promised to her

preemptive attack.

in 1 9 1 2. Still protesting vigorously, PaSic consented adding the Allies

Thus the Allies were partially responsible for the highly unfavorable

treated Serbia "like an African colony."2 Thus Pa5ic revealed again his

balance of forces faced by Serbia in October 1 9 1 5 . They had believed mis

mortal fear of antagonizing Russia. 3

takenly they could win over Bulgaria by promising her some of Serbian

Serbian political and military leaders convened in Kragujevac on August

Macedonia. But Bulgaria's King Ferdinand, a German prince from Saxe

26, 1 9 1 5 . Beforehand Premier Pasic asked Marshal Putnik to outline Ser

Coburg, had decided much earlier to join the Central Powers if they ac

bia's military options. An Austro-German assault probably could be repel

cepted his territorial demands. 7 Victory would bring him all Macedonia

led, replied the Marshal , but if Bulgaria attacked too, Serbia would require

and perhaps eastern Serbia too. Ferdinand, the Serbophobe, parleyed with

major assistance from Greece and the Allies. The Serbian Command pre

the Allies only to conceal his true aims. By vetoing a Serbian preemptive

ferred to fight Bulgaria rather than yield Serbian Macedonia. Relying on

strike , the Allies had doomed Serbia to fight a hopeless two front war

Allied

Pasic informed the Supreme Command September

and prevented a Serbian retreat southward. So slowly and halfheartedly

2nd: "It seems that Bulgaria will not attack us." Only four days later

did they aid Serbia that their Balkan front against Bulgaria was formed

Bulgaria promised the Central Powers to invade Serbia five days after the

only after Serbia lay virtually conquered.

assurances,

Austro-German offensive began! For their two front assault the Central

While pro-Allied Premier Alexander Venizelos of Greece encouraged

Powers had about 600,000 men with 1,656 cannon. Serbia and Monte

Allied action, France on September 1st first confirmed formally its inter

negro could muster less than half as many.''

est in sending troops to Salonika. on September 23rd, the day after Bul

Serbian military leaders urged the NiS government to authorize a pre

garia proclaimed mobilization, Lord Grey, the British Foreign Secretary,

emptive strike if Bulgaria began to mobilize. The Supreme Command con

noted that the Greeks and Serbian premiers had appealed for 1 50,000

centrated additional forces near Bulgaria's frontier. With its troops battle

Allied troops in order to coax Greece and Rumania into the war. The

156


Albanian Golgotha

157

British cabinet calculated, however, that 300,000 Allied troops and the

at noon September 22/0ctober 5 with overwhelming force and a wither

Greek army would be required for Serbia to resist a two-pronged inva

ing artillery barrage. Germany aimed to destroy Serbia and link up with

sion and protect communications between her armies and Salonika. Such

the Ottoman Turks. Powerful enemy forces crossed �he Sava River, report

an Allied expedition would seek to draw neutrals into the war, save Serbia,

ed the French military attache in Serbia next day, penetrating the Macva

and prevent Austro-German forces from linking up with the Turks. On

region near Mitrovica.

September 28th Paris decided to send troops to Salonika immediately; the

of war, Bulgaria attacked Serbia along the entire eastern front. Held up

British concurred reluctantly. Two Allied divisions landed there October

initially by tough resistance by the Serbian Second and Timok armies,

5th. But pro-German King Constantine of Greece assured the Bulgars pri

further south the Bulgars penetrated deeply and soon severed Serbia's

vately Greece would not oppose their invasion of Serbia, and Premier

lifeline to Salonika.

Venizelos' sudden resignation after a quarrel with the King threatened

forces with little prospect of timely aid.

the entire Allied endeavor. 8

12

11

On October 1st without a preliminary declaration

By mid-October Serbia faced overwhelming enemy

When the Bulgars attacked, Colonel Apis was in Zajecar near the border.

Dismissing objections by Pasic and the Supreme Command to a preemp

The headquarters of the new Tirnok (formerly Uzice) Army had just been

tive strike at Bulgaria, the Apis group argued that Serbian forces could

shifted there. As the Bulgars advanced, soon from jittery NiS, belfagged in

have occupied Sofia, and knocked Bulgaria out of the war. With King

expectation of arriving Allied troops, War Minister Rade Bojovic telephoned

Ferdinand discredited, Alexander Stamboliski, the popular Agrarian leader

Apis about the fate of the hardpressed Knjaievac. Speaking with Bojovic,

could have been released from confmement. For minor territorial conces

Apis pressed for MalobabiC's immediate release from Nis prison. "Don't

sions a new Stamboliski goverrunent would likely have joined the Allies,

worry about anything," replied Bojovic, 'just hold on well there, and 1

aborting the Austro-German offensive. Once Rumania and perhaps Greece

will release Rade." Days later the Timok Army retreated westward pre

had joined the Entente, Serbia could have recovered her strength and con

venting Apis then from ascertaining his chief agent's fate.

centrated wholly against the Austro-Germans. Surely the Allies would

Retiring to avoid encirclement, the Timok Army took up temporary

have applauded a Serbian occupation of Sofia, argued the Apis faction.

headquarters in Kursumlije. Also there was the Third Army staff where

At such crucial moments, it affirmed, bold action is imperative, success is

Apis' close friend, Major Vulovic, was serving. Finding Malobabic in Kur

the sole criterion. Apis and his men blamed indecision by Pasic and the

sumlije free but under police surveillance, Vulovic obtained his uncondi

Supreme Command for Serbia's subsequent conquest. 9

tional release by signing a receipt on October 3 1 st. As chaos enveloped

PaSic had counted on aid from Greece which had pledged military as

threatened Kursurnlije, the police, grabbing VuloviC's receipt, gladly hand

sistance to Serbia against a common foe (presumably Bulgaria) if the Serbs

ed Rade over; Vulovic brought

provided 1 50,000 men. With Serbia unable to spare such forces for the

appalled at MalobabiC's physical condition. Fettered to the prison floor

Bulgarian front, Venizelos had persuaded France and Britain to supply

for over a year, Rade was covered with infected wounds. Embracing this

them. Lord Grey had declared in the House of Commons that if Bulgaria

human derelict, Apis confided that the Serbs faced desperate problems.

attacked "England's friends" in the Balkans, Britian would aid them un

"Seeing him completely wrecked physically and facing death, l urged him

reservedly. Understandably, Pasic interpreted this as a binding British com mitment to Serbia. But once Venizelos resigned, any idea of Greek aid to

to await the enemy in Kursumlije." But Rade implored him piteously not to abandon him to Austrian vengeance. He preferred to go with the Serbs

Serbia ended, and King Constantine opposed having any Allied troops on

even if he died on the retreat. "My resolve from that moment," testified

Greek soil. The French and British had to recast their plans for a Salonika

Apis later, "since 1 considered myself morally responsible, was to save this

front. Could 150,000 Allied troops now be sent in?10

person at any cost if I possibly could from the enemy and from death."

him

straight to Apis . He and Vulovic were

That was Serbia's perilous plight when Fieldmarshal August von Mack

Apis arranged a ride for Rade to Prizren, then brought him a horse . Apis

ensen launched a massive Austro-German offensive in the north precisely

and Bosnian volunteers loaded Rade on this steed, caring for him on the


158

so

Albanian Golgotha

1 59

Apis persuaded Dr.

The disappearance of the Serbian army, however regrettable it may

Velickovic of the Serbian medical corps to evacuate Rade to Corfu with

be in itself, is of small military importance . . . . Victory (in World

the wounde d. His efforts saved Malobabic from capture or death.13

War I ) can only be gained by the Allies defeating Germany, and any

difficult retreat to Orae. He arrived there very ill,

Under relentless enemy pressure, the Serbian armies' position deter

diversion of forces from the theatre of war in France and Flanders to

iorated rapidly. Premier Pasic on October 1 1 th had reported optimisti

the Near East is prejudicial to the Allied cause . . . . The numbers

cally that the Serbs were repelling the Austro-Germans and that Allied

despatched should be reduced to a minimum.

aid was imminent, but by the 22nd the British envoy reported: "The situation on our front is more and more critical owing to lack of suf

The British public shared French empathy for Serbia, but "military ques

ficient troops." As the Germans advanced southward irresistibly, the

tions cannot profitably be governed by sentiment." The British General

Bulgars pressed in from the east. The Serbian armies faced encirclement.

Staff then opposed any major campaigns based on Salonika. 17 The British War Council and Cabinet, however, yielded grudgingly to

Pleaded the Pasic government:

French insistence that Serbia be rescued, if the British role remained de If at the latest in ten days 1 1 4,000 to 1 50,000 Allied troops arrive

fensive. Allied operations were not to be conducted beyond the Monastir

to aid us . . . we might prevent the Bulgar advance and await arrival

Skoplje-l shtip-Salonika line and then only to restore links with the Serbian

of more help . . . . We beg the Allied representatives to urge their

army. If that operation failed, concluded London, Allied forces should be

governments to help us . . . . If Serbia is crushed, the Allies will

wholly withdrawn. 1 3

require many more troops to vanquish our enemy in the Balkans.

advanced Allied units supplied by a single Greek-controlled railway line.

. . . We have done

all

that we can. 14

British officers emphasized how exposed were

If Serbian resistance collapsed, the Allies would face military disaster. 19 With their small forces and hesitancy, the Allies never envisioned the deci

"Skoplje is in Bulgar hands," Sir Ralph Paget reported next day. "The

sive action Serbia required .

position in the north also seems less favorable." Even a British brigade, he

Abandoning Nis on October 29th, the Serbian government and diplo

pleaded, would raise Serbian morale. Admitting the situation was grave ,

matic corps fled westward to Raska and Kosovska Mitrovica as the

Pasic still hoped vigorous Allied attacks from the south could repel the

Supreme Command announced the Bulgars had captured Kacanik Gorge

Bulgars, retake Skoplje, and restore railway links between Salonika and

between Skoplje and Kosovska Mitrovica. The Serbian armies seemed

Serbia. 1 5

hopelessly penned in. Fighting desperately day and night, they managed

Allied efforts were tardy and feeble. Venizelos' fall had undermined Franco-British efforts. British military specialists, concluding Allied aid

to withdraw onto Kosovo plain. Once again Serbia had succumbed to an invader. 20

would arrive too late, wrote Serbia off. Lord Grey explained lamely that

On a gloomy day in early November the entire army gathered at Ko

he had promised to aid Greece if it joined the Allies, not Serbia. Later,

sovo, recalled assistant railway inspector, Stefan Trifunovic. Morale was

Paul Cambon, French ambassador in London , accused the Allies of com

sinking fast; all military reports were discouraging. The enemy kept pres

mitting "an unpardonable blunder" by vetoing Marshal Putnik's plan to

sing in irresistibly. In this cheerless si tuation Colonel Apis, spying Trifuno

attack Bulgaria." On October 28th the Allies had only 5 1 ,000 men in

vic

their Salonika force with one more French division en route. The British

about the French? Will they come and when?" Trifunovic in October had

contingent was not equipped for an active campaign. Concluded leaders

traveled from Skoplje to Djevdjelije to await the first French detachment.

in London:

Entering Strumica he had seen some twenty military trains unload. Apis'

at Urosevac station, came up: "Trifunovic , have you heard anything

eyes shone with joy. "If only somehow I could obtain a report on how many Frenchmen have so far reached our territory from Salonika; I would


160

Albanian Golgotha

161

give it immediately to Dobrivoje (Nikolajevic] ." Nikolajevic, head of the

DraSkic, his duty officer: "All the others were shitting from fear. Only

telegraph service, promptly informed Trifunovic that many French trains

Zivko (Pavlovic) was self-possessed, tireless and coolheaded."24

with war materiel and troops had already arrived. Trifunovic rushed hap

Marshal Putnik ordered the Timok Army to try and penetrate Bulgar

pily to see Apis in his office in a railway car. Timok Army commander,

controlled Kacanik Gorge, retake Skoplje, and join up with the Allies

General Gojkovic, was with him. Embracing Trifunovic, Apis exclaimed:

which he still believed were advancing to meet the Serbs. November 4-7

"Listen, this is a valuable document and will bring joy to us all. I ask you

the Timok troops, in an operation planned partly by Apis, with tremen

to communicate it immediately to all your railway workers." Continued

dous effort in execrable weather struggled up the heights, forced the Bul

Apis:

gars to evacuate positions dominating the gorge, and captured Mt. Zegavic. A French attack might have defeated the Second Bulgar Army and cap You know that it will be a great good fortune for us if the entire

tured Skoplje. But the French could not advance, so reluctantly the

army knows of the arrival of the French since it will raise the morale

Supreme Command ordered the Timok Army and other troops to break

of the troops, and the army

off the battle."i!S

will

begin the journey to Albania in

larger numbers. The way it is now many are abandoning their units and fleeing.

21

The Serbian government had explained to the Allies that unless the Timok Army could break through and link up with them, the Serbs could

. Desperately, Apis and the others counted on a powerful Allied offensive . One Serbian minister appealed to the Allies:

not retreat southward and would have to retire through Albania and Montenegro.2' Next day from Prizren the Supreme Command issued its last directive from Serbian soil:

. . . Serbia has now struggled for more than six weeks on every front,

. . . The subsequent retreat of our army must be carried out through

day and night, without respite, isolated, invaded on

threat

Montenegro and northern Albania to the Adriatic shore to the line

ened with annihilation, and exhausted by her desperate efforts

of Drac-Skadar, leaving the necessary forces to close routes leading

against superior and ever increasing enemy forces.22

from Pec, Djakovica, Prizren, Debra and Struga . . . to the Adriatic.

all sides,

On that line our army is to be reorganized and supplied with food, Without immediate Allied aid the Supreme Command considered the situa

clothing, weapons and munitions . . . . Our subsequent action will

tion grim:

depend on the condition of our army as well as on the general politi

"The attempt to break through via Skoplje faces certain

failure ."23

cal and military situation of our allies.

Serbia's government and Supreme Command crowded into tiny Raska, a cradle of Serbian civilization. After capturing Kacanik Gorge and driving

All artillery and vehicles which could not make this difficult retreat were

back the Second Army, the Bulgars threatened to cut off the Serbs' retreat.

to be destroyed. Since morale and discipline had deteriorated, comman

Fieldmarshal von Mackensen, thrice having nearly encircled Serbia's north

ders must explain and justify the retreat. Serbia had sacrificed and suffer-

ern armies, had pressed the Belgrade defense force into Jakovica ravine.

ed too much to yield:

.

The only escape route apparently had been severed. Gloom prevailed in the Supreme Command. Marshal Putnik lay ill , so the crucial decisions

Capitulation would be the worst situation . . . and would doom

fell to his assistant, Colonel Zivko Pavlovic. Miraculously he found the

us completely . . . . The country has not lost its existence . . . as long

key. The Second Army repulsed the Bulgars at Leskovac, capturing their

as there are the ruler, the government and the army . . . . Persuade

artillery . All three Serbian armies then escaped without losing a single unit.

everyone this retreat is a national necessity . . . . In these difficult

Leaving PavloviC's office, Prince Alexander exclaimed joyfully to Major

days our salvation lies in endurance, patience and extreme sacrifice


162

163

by all with belief in our allies' victory. Thus we must hold out to the

soldiers ascribing this disaster to Pasic's failure to preempt Bulgaria's mobil

end.27

ization. King Peter and Marshal Putnik, ill but resolved to share their

Top Serbian military leaders convened in Pec to decide how to imple ment this order. Food was lacking; personnel and horses were exhausted; soldiers were fleeing en masse ; and deserters were seling l their weapons to the

Albanian Golgotha

Albanians,

stated

Milovanovic-Pilac's minutes. 23

Civilian refugees

mingled with troops on clogged roads. Even slight enemy pressure com bined with winter, mountains, hunger, and attacks by Albanian tribesmen could make the situation hopeless.29 Serbia's path to Golgotha led through formidable mountains and ice

troops' hardships, were carried across Albania's mountains. Even in this terrible time tension simmered between the Prince Regent's court and the "Black Hand." General Jordan Stajic told Major DraSkic: early in the re treat Apis stood in an automobile in his havelock with the ever present cigarette in his teeth. Saying something to Court Marshal Ostojic, Apis stared angrily into his face and approached very close to away from the massive colonel, Ostojic had

his

him.

Backing

hand on his revolver?3

As the Serbian army retreated, the Allies prepared to liquidate their Balkan involvement. Stated a British cabinet report:

choked goat paths of Montenegro and Albania to the Adriatic. The Serbian army by mid-November had vanished like a phantom into mountain fast

The General Staff without hesitation urges vacating Salonika as

nesses. The troops, some almost barefoot, were buffeted by cold rain, sleet,

quickly as possible . . . . All further transport of troops to Salonika

and wind driven snow. They took only the food they .could carry on foot

should be instantly stopped and

or horseback. Before Lj um Kula the roads, crowded with artillery and

at once be withdrawn to Salonika and evacuation of Salonika should

vehicles, turned into bogs of clinging mud. There all artillery, automobiles,

proceed as fast as possible.

all

Allied troops in Serbia should

and heavy baggage were destroyed except for a few horse-carried mount ain guns. 30

i Macedonia, stated a report to the Great danger faced Allies forces still n

Under a foreboding Novembersky officers and men faced the looming

Cabinet two weeks later: "There s i grave risk that the enemy can cut off

mountains hungry, cold, and tired. Struggling along Albania's paths, as

our army and isolate it from Salonika. Allied forces both in Serbia and

sisted by sticks or canes, recalled Slobodan J ovanovic , "men resembled

Salonika are in extraordinary danger. Reembarcation must be begun at

sufferers retaining of all their property only a beggar's staff." In a miser

once."34

able crowd of retreating soldiery he suddenly spied Colonel Apis:

Supreme Command's directive on retreat to the Adriatic exposed the battered Serbian anny to incredible privations. It could easily have dis

He was tottering along on his uncertain legs,31 supported by a huge

solved into a leaderless mob. But that rarely occurred. Some soldiers sur

cane corresponding to his weight. He looked immense with two

rendered or deserted, but most retained resolute belief in eventual victory .

mackintoshes thrown over his heavy military overcoat.

The Timok Army of Apis, in better shape than most units, retreated through Albania in constant contact with the enemy, preventing a Bulgar

In that stumbling throng J ovanovic managed only a brief talk with Apis.

breakthrough at Elbasan and thus enabling other units to retreat. It pro

The Albanian retreat, he said, was the best available alternative. He had

tected the port of Drac (Durazzo) where food supplies were landed and

feared Pasic could lose heart and sue for a separate peace. Military defeat,

from which some units were evacuated. Timok troops also guarded units

Apis pointed out, could be overcome, capitulation could not. "These

retiring toward Skadar (Scutari) and Ljes. Defending the approaches to

words revealed his patriotism but also his extreme mistrust of Pasic ," con

Orae until February 9, 1 9 1 6 , they were the last Serbian units to evacuate

cluded Jovanovic.32

the mainland. Retreating Serbian forces reached the Skadar-Drac line pre

Pasic and his ministers traveled to the coast in comfort careful to stay ahead of the enemy. They endured silent or vocal reproaches of Serbian

scribe d by the Supreme Command by early January. The last Serbian units left Montenegro after its capitulation. The emaciated Serbs, still resisting, awaite d food and evacuation at Albanian ports?5

164


There was one disgraceful exception to that rule. When the Timok Army commander ordered the Cavalry Division, resting in Kavaja, to re lieve exhausted troops defending Drac, the divisional commander and four regimental commanders flatly refused. Allegedly, the Division's per sonnel and horses were too tired. But they were much better off than those still on the line. Masterminding this flagrant insubordination was regimental commander, Colonel Peter Zivkovic . He initiated the refusal and persuaded the others to go along. Because Zivkovic was protected by

Albanian Golgotha

165

recognized that swift Allied evacuation of the Serbs by sea was indispen sable. The army had disintegrated, telegraphed Fran9ois; it lacked food, munitions, and supplies. If the enemy pressed fo�ard, the remnants would be destroyed or captured and Serbia forced to yield. "The only solution," agreed Fournier, " . . . is to transport the remnants . . . to an island or to Italy where it can be reconstituted."39 Colonel Apis' role in the retreat remains disputed. His partisans affirm that he executed all orders and displayed great generosity to his col

Prince Alexander, the disobedient officers later received only a month's

leagues. When the Timok Army's staff halted at Suva Reka, recalled

suspended prison sentence! The Prince refused to allow his indispensable

Major Nicholas Arandjelovic, the food situation was critical. Major Vojin

friend and "White Hand" leader to be branded a coward for evading duties

Maksimovic, chief supply officer, reported this to Apis as chief of staff;

which half dead soldiers were performing loyally. 36

they quarreled heatedly. Friendly with both, Arandjelovic calmed them

During December Skadar became headquarters for top Serbian leaders

down and they proceeded more calmly to Drac. There Apis assessed for

and the Supreme Command. Pasic and his ministers arrived November

General Gojkovic the performance of all staff members during the retreat.

28th, Prince Alexander two days later, then the diplomatic corps, King

Maksimovic, he affirmed, had been an exemplary, irreplacable supply of

Peter, Vojvoda Putnik and his staff. Slobodan Jovanovic and two officers

ficer, praise which brought tears of joy to MaksimoviC's eyes. Apis' com

were the first from the Supreme Command to reach that port. After the

ments were the more remarkable since Maksimovic had strongly opposed

rugged, empty region they had traversed, Skadar was like the promised

the May Coup. Commented General Gojkovic:

land. Dogs were barking and spring beckoned in the fresh sea air. The whole town with its lovely Catholic church was orderly and charming.

Dragutin lApisj

Once in Skadar Alexander and Pasic, keeping the cabinet unchanged, re

flowers of our army. Neither has it in his makeup to be vindica

placed the entire Supreme Command. Pasic threw all blame for catastrophe

tive. Dragutin could not go against his conscience, and Vojin fully

on the military. Relieved abruptly of his duties, ostensibly to recover his

deserved such a good evaluation .

and Vojin lMaksimovic] are two of the finest

.

. . 40

health abroad, Marshal Putnik yielded to his assistant, Colonel Pavlovic . The Prince and Pasic evidently considered the old Vojvoda an obstacle in their path. 37

But others accused the Apis group of plotting in Drac to overthrow Serbia·s dynasty and regime. Veljko Zecevic testified later that Apis ex

As Prince Alexander and his entourage approached Skadar they heard

horted Bosnian volunteers gathered around

him in Drac to clean up

the distant thunder of Austrian naval guns bombarding Allied ships carry

Serbia's domestic affairs and crush evil. Later, in Korekijani on Corfu

ing food to nearby San Giovarmi for starving Serbian soldiers. Skadar and

Apis supposedly told Zecevic : "It is a pity that all of you [volunteers]

San Giovanni were bombed daily by enemy planes. In Skadar Prince Alex

will perish since we have very important matters to settle in the country ."

ander fell ill, was operated on, and remained there a month recuperating.

Later in Salonika A pis explained:

Even while lying ill, he sought to save Serbian soldiers by caring for them at his palace. Then an Italian motor launch took him to Drac where he

1 never spoke to the Bosnians about any evil in Serbia or about its

expedited evacuation of Serbian troops. Alexander's prestige then was un

removal. 1 told them that I regretted they would all die and that

equalled among Serbs.38

there would be no one to settle accounts after us. I understood this

The Serbian army could not be reorganized

n i

Albania as Supreme

Command had hoped. French military attaches, Fournier and Fran9ois,

cleaning up, as they did also, as meaning our accounts affecting the Serbian people . . . ,

166


Albanian Golgotha

167

that is creating a Greater Serbia. Apis denied plans to use the Bosnian

officer to embark from there for Corfu in February 1 9 1 6 . The Austrian

volunteers for internal action, but "when they gathered around me, espec

vanguard was already at the town's gates when Apis turned over its de

ially during our retreat, I could not renounce helping them to flee with

fenses to the arriving Italians.44 Casting doubt on Pecanac's account, this

us

suggests Apis executed his duties conscientiously to the last.

and escape falling into enemy hands."41 Kosta Pecanac, a reserve officer serving under Colonel Boza Jankovic

When it grew clear the Serbian army could not reorganize in Albania,

and later a guerrilla leader, asserted years later that in Orae Apis and his

the Serbs and Allies debated possible destinations. Pasic urged the Allies

friends plotted to overturn the regime. Coming to Pecanac's regiment,

on December 1 1 th to evacuate the army to Salonika so that after reorgan

Malobabic told him Apis and Milovanovic-Pilac wanted to see him in

ization it could bolster the Allied front. While this was discussed, the

Skadar. At a small cafe Pecanac allegedly met Pilac acting as Apis' emis

French sent a military mission under General Mondesir to Albania to

sary. Serbia had collapsed totally , stated Pilac, and the Pasic government

ascertain the situation and arrange evacuation. From the Italians, anxious

foolishly adhered to the Allies' hopeless cause. The Germans, continued

to seize control of Albania, Mondesir encountered obstruction and delays.

Pilac, respected Serbia's heroism and would guarantee her freedom and

With Montenegro's collapse , the Serbs' removal from the mainland grew

independence in prewar boundaries. Pilac advocated an immediate separate

urgent. Mondesir apparently first proposed the Greek island of Corfu as

peace with the Central Powers and sought Pecanac's support. Despite

the best destination. With Greek permission, the French occupied the

Pecanac's declared loyalty to the Allies, Pilac pestered him incessantly

island with elite units. Acceptable to the Allies and Serbs, Corfu satisfied

thereafter with such appeals. Lieutenant Ljubornir Kojovic confided to

the Italians by removing the Serbs from Albania. But the exhausted Serbs

Pecanac that the Apis group was preparing "terrible things" in Skadar. A

had to march overland through swamps to Orae and Valona; hundreds

great plot was ripening. "Conspirators in Skadar had established ties with

more died. The Serbian government on January 1 9 , 1 9 1 6 embarked for

the Germans and had held important talks there about our fate."

Corfu and the troops followed. Healthier men were sent to Corfu , the

Talking later with Apis and Pilac, Peeanac learned the conspirators

island of salvation, the wounded and moribund to Vido, dubbed the island

planned to await the arrival of King Peter and Prince Alexander in San

of death.45

Giovanni, then act openly against them. After killing Assembly delegates

army.

About 145,000 soldiers were evacuated-Serbia's remaining

who refused to support them, they would seize control of the army and

In Skadar King Peter witnessed a poignant military review. The old

oust the government and dynasty. But Prince Alexander did not embark

monarch sat with Allied officers on the balcony of the Supreme Command

in San Giovanni , ruining the conspirators' plans. Apis and company sup

headquarters as the troops ftled past. "It was a march of live corpses,"

posedly were terribly angry but impotent. On Corfu and in Salonika later

wrote the deeply moved French writer, Henri Barbusse. In correct military

they resumed their plotting, recruiting officers on every side.42 Pecanac's

formation

account remains uncorroborated and suspect, although it may have some

colors, this ghastly army stalked past the assembled dignitaries. Through

factual basis.

their bared bones, which alone gave them a human look, protruded yellow

and perfect alignment with hand weapons and regimental

Had the "Black Hand" truly wished to ldll Prince Alexander and ex

ish, coarse , cracked sldn. Their skulls were inordinately large for their

ecute a coup, the retreat presented some opportunities. Units guarding

emaciated bodies. Thousands later died on Vido despite the best efforts

the route along which Alexander and his ministers passed from Skadar to

of French doctors and nurses. French ships set out regularly with a grisly

San Giovanni were commanded by "Black Hand" members. The route's

cargo of wasted corpses for burial at sea.4'

most dangerous section was guarded by the guerrilla detachment of Voj voda Vuk, very sympathetic to Apis.43

The catastrophe of 1 9 1 5 shook the Serbs' confidence in Nikola Pasic , but the Allies still considered him the indispensable leader of national

Meanwhile Apis continued serving as the Timok Army's chief of staff.

resistance. His position with the Allies secure , Pa8ic could defy Serbian

His forces had to defend the port of Orae, and Apis was the last Serbian

civilian and military opponents. With Independent Radical leaders in his

16 8


cabinet, Pasic had some protection against the Apis group which had relied on them politically. Prince Alexander, having reshaped the Supreme Com

•

mand to his taste, disliked Pasic intensely but could not oust him ; his feud with the "Black Hand" had higher priority. Apis and his friends, failing to realize they could not simultaneously oppose Pa5ic and Alexander, drove them into reluctant partnership.'n Soon would strike the hour of reckon ing for Apis and the "Black Hand."

CHAPTER XV

PERSONAL MATTERS ( 1 9 1 4- 1 9 1 6 ) Guard your health and work so that the time you spend there far from all who are dear to you will be as valuable as possible for your future life . Find a place in a good home, study French, go to some school and see how the French youth studies so you can be useful to your country. Apis to Milan Zivanovic , Apri1 1 6 , 1 9 1 6 Throughout his short and turbulent life Apis was so absorbed in mili tary and political activities that he never married or even had a true love affair. But though very self-controlled, he revealed deep affection for people of both sexes and a profound interest in others. From age ten he was a loyal, considerate member of the family of his sister, Jelena, and her husband, Zivan Zivanovic. He considered their home on Holy Sava Street in Belgrade his own and always remained in close contact with his relatives. During Zivan Zivanovic's internment in Hungary in 1 9 1 5 - 1 8 , Apis as sumed personal charge of hi� nephew, Milan Zivanovic. Too young at sixteen to be called to the Serbian colors, Milan in May 1915 joined his uncle in Uzice as a volunteer and accompanied the Timok Army staff on the Albanian retreat. Sent to study in France in 1 9 1 6 , Milan conducted an extensive correspondence with his uncle. Apis lavished more attention and

169


170

affection upon Milan than many men do on their own children. Young Milan, reciprocating fully his uncle's concern, dedicated much of his life to clear Apis of charges brought against him in Salonika. Fortunately, their correspondence and several Apis letters to his niece, Stanislava Glisic, survived and provided insight into Apis' character and family relationships. Apis' appearance, despite his massive size, failed to reveal his unique ness. Men resembling him superficially could at times be encountered in Serbia. Only after a person knew this was Apis, noted Vladimir Tucovic,

Personal Matters

171

Receiving everyone graciously , he was a careful, patient listener. His pre cise, skillful execution of varied and complex tasks revealed great organiza tional ability. During physical danger or crises, Apis remained cheerful and positive exerting a favorable influence on others. · He viewed the most dangerous situations with optimistic confidence and rarely complained or blamed others for failure. If the interests of the army or country de manded, he would work day and night. Colonel Apis possessed

all

the

qualities required by an outstanding general staff officer, concluded Arandj elovic. 3

were his interest and curiosity aroused. When Tucovic met him, Apis was

Dedicated to the Serbian national cause , Apis spurned wealth or per

already a man of mystery, reputedly having secret powers to mesmerize

sonal gain, affirmed Milan Zivanovic. Neither flattery nor bribery would

men. This mystique was fostered more by the romantic aura around him

deflect him from a course he believed in. For him the interests of Serbia

than by the man himself. A gifted friend wrote:

and its people preceded personal and family affairs. Believing his family should participate in the struggle for national liberation and unity, Apis

Whenever I met him, and I invariably wish to do so, I obtain the im

refused to shield it from danger or sacrifice. To be Apis' friend was dan

pression that I have met 'a true man.' Such meetings awakened in

gerous. It meant marching with the vanguard where the peril was greatest

me a secret feeling of obedience. At such moments I was prepared

without hesitation."' But he never asked others to assume risks he would

to become his soldier.

not accept himself. Zivan Zivanovic, Milan's father, reminisced fondly about his famous

Added one of Apis' comrades from the May Coup of 1903:

brother-in-law. Apis was warrnhearted, talkative, and involved with people, confirmed Zivanovic. Visits with the family for him represented essential

That person is not only talented but something more . He is a type of

relaxation from arduous military and political activities. At home Apis

magician. When he is not present, all is empty; when he enters, every

never discussed official business, worries, or problems. Thus the family

thing livens up, and we all crowd around him. All come to him with

was often surprised by events which overtook him. His surviving letters

out a summons, without evident reason, as if attracted by this man's

home, confirming a sincere and deep concern for

magical power. 1

all

family members,

contain only rare references to war or national issues. Allusions to his health and feelings are few and generally optimistic.

Predictably his relatives and friends provide a laudatory picture of Apis the man. He spoke in short, quick sentences, avoiding lengthy or complex explanations, recalled his adoring nephew. Apis' ideas, expressed suc cinctly, were clear, precise and penetrated to the heart of a matter. Ex pressed very simply, his words were easily remembered? Apis measured his words carefully, confirmed fellow staff officer, Nicholas Arandjelovic. Without speaking heatedly or raising his voice, he aroused his listeners'

Within the family, wrote his brother-in-law, Apis expressed his engaging sense of humor. Convival evening gatherings in cafes and restaurants where he told lighthearted jokes was a chief means of relaxation. Apis would sometimes become so jolly a.pd expansive that casual acquaintances mis took his natural ebullience for intoxication. Throughout life, confirmed Zivanovic, Apis drank strictly water and black coffee, never alcohol . A heavy and determined smoker, Apis avoided swearing or indecent language

interest. Apis knew what to say and how to say it without antagonizing

even in anger or jest. His kindness to servants was proverbial. Orderlies

his interlocutor or damaging his self-esteem. Most people were impressed

and grooms became blindly devoted to him, rem aining in his service for

by

his cogent reasoning, strong convictions,

and devotion to duty.


172

Personal Matters

173

years. "These small matters are very characteristic of a man who was above

few compared wtih the virtues enumerated by his admirers, nonetheless

all a soldier and an officer."

contributed significantly to his ultimate fate.

As an officer Apis was exemplary in obeying orders and deferring to

Three letters of Apis to his niece in 1914-15 reveal his profound con

those senior in rank, Zivanovic stated . Despite his great influence, Apis

cern for the family's well-being. Stanislava was the widow of Lieutenant

avoided whatever might injure his superiors' amour-propre. Shunning

Colonel Alexander GliSic, killed at Kumanovo in October 1 9 1 2 . From

boastfulness, he talked little about events he had been involved in. Those

temporary Supreme Command headquarters in Valjevo, Apis wrote her

considering Apis extreme , pathological or mentally unbalanced were either

in Kragujevac where most of the family settled just after World War I

mistaken or motivated by hatred or jealousy. Sincere patriotism was the

began. Apis' sister remained behind in Belgrade to care for their mother,

chief motive for his public actions, affirmed Zivanovic. Apis' aim was

Jovanka, who died during the Austrian bombardment and was buried in

freedom and well-being for Serbia and its people.

the capital. Wrote Apis:

Famous early in life, A pis was exposed constantly to requests for favors from comrades and outsiders. Attentive to all, he granted all honorable

Far from all of us, not cared for by us in her last hours, our torment

requests that he could, involving himself in considerable material sacrifice.

ed mother was released from her suffe rings. How heavyhearted l am

Unusually generous, he shared his money and cigarettes with comrades

not to be able to see her any more. No longer will ! be able to look

or supplicants. This won him the respect and devotion of many. Sincere,

at her face, good and pleasant even while she suffered the worst

disinterested attentiveness to others and their needs goes far to explain

pain.

his vaunted "magical" power in interpersonal relations.

goodbye to her . . . . May she rest in eternal sleep next to our dear

1 t is even harder and sadder for me that I was unable to say

Apis was unusually intelligent and knowledgeable. He spoke and wrote

Sanja. 8 Her dear spirit will always be with us, and her goodness and

French well, utilized German easily after his second Berlin stay, and also

sacrifices for us we shall always remember even if life is miserable

read Russian. In his home library were many works on military affairs in

for us. Yes, our mother lived for others and if there is a God and his

those languages. He read much general literature too but never discussed

right prevails after death . . . our mother will deserve it fully.

his favorite authors with his brother-in-law.5

Apis knew much, agreed

his nephew, but his actions resulted more from revolutionary instinct

To arrange a funeral for his mother Apis wrote Dobrivoje Bakic, a former

than cold political reason. But he did not act emotionally or impulsively.

Belgrade official serving with Supreme Command, but Apis himself could

Apis reached major decisions coolly after studying relevant details. "He

not attend it. From Valjevo he often called his brother-in-law, Naum

bore

in

himself that unquenchable flame of revolutionary creativity

without which there would be no progress in the world."' Neutral observers and opponents noted shortcomings which led Apis into repeated errors of judgment and unwise decisions. 7 Often provoking

Kostic, a hotel owner in Kragujevac, to ask about the family. "It is enough for me to know that

all

of you are well. Protect Nenuska, my golden one,

guard her like the apple of your eye. She is . . . our chief solace. "9 That October Apis wrote in another letter to Stanislava:

fury and hatred, Apis had plenty of enemies. As an ambitious man with power and influence, he was often unscrupulous and manipulative and

1

could also be arrogant. Occasionally he lost his temper and committed

nize me because I have gained so much. My legs serve me well, and

unwise acts. He can be accused of political naivete, recklessly sacrificing

I do my work easily though there is too much. So don't worry about

others, and being too certain he was right. Unbending pride hurt Apis in

me. Since Mama10 has been with you, J have felt relieved in mind.

his crucial relationship with Prince Alexander, especially when he spurned

Stay all together, then it will be easier to endure misfortune.

am

fm e except that I nave gained much weight. You won't recog

the reconciliation offered by the Prince. Too often Apis did not realize the consequences of his decisions and actions. His faults, though seemingly

He longed to hear

all

but little Nenuska's accomplishments and urged his


174

niece to write more frequently . Apis exuded characteristic optimism about the army's and Serbia's prospects:

Personal Matters

175

Milan Zivanovic's reminiscences written in Nice, France in 1 9 1 6 and Apis' letter to him there revealed their close bonds forged during the Al banian retreat. Late in 1 9 1 5 Milan enlisted as a volunteer in Uzice. Ac

Things stand well with us. Our army is good and worthy, so you

companying his uncle to Timok Army headquarters in Zajecar, he went

have nothing to fear. In a short time everything will be better, and

with him on the Albanian retreat. 13 After a month's stay in Elbasan, Al

even the most traitorous will realize how glorious our army is. Don't

bania, they had to leave suddenly for Tirana in mid-December. The staff

listen to rumors spread by the cowardly . . . . There is no longer any

was to move out at 4 AM, wrote Milan; the operational division and supply

danger nor can there be any for Serbia. We have performed our tasks

wagons an hour later. They started auspiciously on a fme highway, but

honorably, and now things should improve more and more.

soon it dwindled to a narrow path along which they struggled from rock to rock. Nice warm weather deteriorated swiftly : a cold east wind blew

Sometimes Apis called Uncle Naum in Kragujevac to refute false rumors

into their faces, then rain came down in torrents. The eleven hour trek to

of impending Serbian defeat, "forged in some evil pro-German society."

Tirana left the young volunteer exhausted. Further along that Albanian

He had been out of sorts recently , plagued with sad memories about

route, reported Milan:

family members killed in action two years earlier-Sanja Zivanovic and Alexander Glisic. "Under the impact of new tragic losses of so many of

Everyone's life was in danger and each thought only of himself . . . .

our friends, the pain becomes ever harder to bear."

At several places on this route 1 saw soldiers sitting next to a fire to

How was his nephew , Milan, "the hero of the bombardment?" queried

get warm. At their feet, literally piled one on top of another lay

Apis. Before J ovanka's death, Milan had gone to Belgrade with his mother.

their dead comrades. Hunger, frost, rain, snow, marching, exhaus

Spending several days there during the Austrian bombardment, they had

tion . 14

then returned to Kragujevac with Dobrivoje Bakic. In the midst of the bombardment, young Milan had walked around Belgrade, as Bakic told

Reaching Corfu early in February 1 9 1 6 , Milan contracted typhus. When Apis arrived from Orae, Dr. Milan Stajic informed him his feverish nephew

Apis upon their return . 1 1 Apis third letter to Stanislava in March 1 9 1 5 found the family in Les

must go straight to a hospital. Apis rushed off to see an old acquaintance,

kovac whence it had fled during the Austrian offensive of November 1914.

chief of the French medical mission on Corfu. Explaining the situation,

Briefly and matter-of-factly Apis informed her that after serious differ

Apis urged that Milan be sent to the French hospital in Ahileon. To ac

ences with Prince Alexander, he had been transferred to Uzice. Persistent

commodate his friend, Colonel Rangona s i sued the necessary orders. Next

leg problems prevented him from riding horseback, but he need not do

day Milan and Dr. Stajic, now also down with typhus, were taken by car

that at his new post. His orderly was giving him regular rubdowns. "I will

to Ahileon. Hot and bundled up, Milan awoke much later to see his uncle

be going to my new post in a few days." Reverting to family concerns,

and two doctors gathered anxiously around him. At first in the almost

he wrote:

empty hospital, he shared a room with Dr. Stajic, then many more patients were brought in. When he had recovered somewhat, Milan sent work to

I talked to Dad [Zivan Zivanovic ] today, and he feels it best for you

Apis in Koreldjani. After a long delay which reduced Milan to desperation,

to remain where you are [in Leskovac] . Don't worry about me and

Major Nicholas Arandjelovic , Apis' close friend, came to Ahileon. "Hey

take care. All that I wish is that we

there, young fellow!" shouted Arandjelovic cheerfully, "Colonel Dragutin

all

remain well . . . . I hope to

be able to come from Uzice to see you or at least to hear from you. . . . How is Nenuska? I miss her most of all . . . . God willing, in two months you will be back in Belgrade.12

sent me to get you out of the hospital." Much relieved , Milan got into a

car which took them to Corfu town, then to Korekijani village , Timok Army headquarters. Recalled Milan:

-


176

Personal Matters

177

Apis' correspondence with Milan, the most extensive of his life, reveals

Dragutin and all the rest came out, and we went into a house. A

warm protective concern and profound love for his young nephew.

large table was covered with documents, pens, and my typewriter.

a

How happy I was to see all my old war comrades, the old General

Prior to his arrest in December 1 9 1 6 Apis wrote Milan nine letters, receiv. ing twenty-eight and a few postcards from him. Apis sent all his letters to

[ Uija Gojkovic] , Dragutin, Captain Veljkovic . . . .

Nice where Milan studied for over a year at the French lycee. The fall of Realizing his nephew was still too weak to sit and talk with them, Apis within minutes had his bed prepared. Milic, Apis' orderly, led Milan gently into his uncle's quarters:

1 9 1 7 he transferred to the newly opened Serbian gymnasium in Boileau, France, graduating with his comrades in February 1 9 1 9 . 1 7 Apis first wrote Milan from Corfu April 1 6 , 1 9 1 6 , confirming receipt of his nephew's letters from Naples, Vetimilia and Nice. Apis' first letter

It was a largish room some three meters square with two beds, a

was taken to Nice by Major Grgur Mitrovic of the Third Army staff where

large dresser with a mirror, and Dragutin's army trunk. I remember

Apis served as assistant chief of staff. He admonished Milan to guard his

every detail of what seemed to me then the most wonderful room in

health, study hard, and utilize his time so he could serve Serbia better. He

the world.

would defray his nephew's expenses:

Apis and the others forbade the convalescent to do any work and con

Your letters will help me to bear more easily the loneliness I have

stantly urged him to eat well. "The weather was wonderful and sunny,

felt ever since you left. Put everything in your letters, even the most

and I felt better with each passing day."

trivial happenings. That will be our conversation.

The Supreme Command had informed General Gojkovic that his Timok Army, having completed its mission, would be dissolved. February 28th,

Milan should not expect long letters since Apis would be very busy, and

1 9 1 6 was the sad day when that army ceased to exist. Entering his auto

"as you know, writing is difficult for me. But by your indulgence you will

mobile, the old General drove slowly away, tears streaming down his

obligate me to take up my pen . . . . " Indeed, it did. Some of Apis' letters,

cheeks. Apis and an orderly remained behind to complete paper work. On

thoughless frequent than Milan's, were quite extensive. "I am fme and well

March 2nd he and Milan drove to Corfu where Milan received the title,

situated in the [Third Army] command," Apis reported. Along with Grgur

"junior sergeant of cavalry." 15 But soon volunteers under eighteen were

[Mit rovic] I am virtually relaxing here . . . I am bathing in the sea daily."

released from the army to continue their schooling. Apis insisted Milan

The amazing revival of the Serbian army, seemingly moribund only two

go abroad to study and arranged his nephew's passage to England, but

months before, put him in good spirits. "Our army has recovered remark

Milan refused to go there. They compromised on Nice, France, so Milan

ably. It is a pleasure to look at the soldiers. In the camps one hears songs,

could remain closer to Salonika. Apis and Milan parted forever on March

and they are

1Oth at the Corfu pier. Dissatisfied at leaving the army and his uncle,

Vlada llic, an emigre friend in neutral Geneva, Switzerland, Apis received

Milan agitated constantly to return to Salonika, but Apis always put

news about his family in Krusevac. "Apparently, they are well and it is in

him off.

God's hands when we will meet with them." Apis remained optimistic that

full

of hopes for a return to our dear country." Through

Meanwhile Serbia had been occupied totally by Austria and Bulgaria.

changing fortunes of war would make that occur soon. With the mails

As a high Serbian official, Zivan Zivanovic was deported to Nezider, Hun

unreliable , he urged Milan to number all letters and postcards. He sent

gary, where he remained interned until the war ended. The Austrians en

many embraces "to my little Milan."18

tered his vacant house in Belgrade. Finding nothing incriminating, they

Apis' letter from Corfu of April 28th was taken to Milan by Lieutenant

nonetheless destroyed ZivanoviC's and Apis' private libraries, carried off

Colonel RadiSa Nikolic. Colonel Zivkovic had named him adjutant on the

the furniture, then demolished the house. The other Zivanovics fled to a

Third Army staff apparently to spy on Apis and obtain papers which could

village near Krusevac for the rest of the war.''


178

Personal Matters

179

be used later to compromise him. Lieutenant Colonel Radovanovic-Koca

restore links with those in occupied Serbia was Lieutenant Colonel Stevan

claimed that Zivkovic had instructed Nikolic to induce someone to poison

Sapinac, Apis' classmate from the Academy, 19 convalescing in France

Apis, but the hireling lost his nerve. Apis seemingly did not then suspect

from war wounds. "I wrote him to make contact with Dad whom he

Nikolic or he would not have asked him to deliver letters, money, and mes

knows and respects greatly." The darkness would gradually lift, "but dawn

sages to Milan. With money sent with Mitrovic and Nikolic, noted Apis,

cannot come until we return and are all together again and embrace." As

Milan could pay for his trip through Italy and for his quarters and school

to Milan's complaints about Nice, Apis admonished:

ing in Nice. nephew

About your lodging and companions . . . let me give you this advice.

found their separation most difficult. Thus he left open Milan's return to

You are there only temporarily and your friends are accidental.

the army once it entered action on the Salonika front. To Milan's prodding

Don't worry about what they are like, just be what you have been

for permission to return, Apis wrote soothingly:

up until now. I also have had bad company, but it never deflected

From one of Milan's letters the solicitous uncle realized

his

me from my path. You have the power, even in unpleasant com I understand you, and it isn't easy for me either. I too found it easier

pany, to remain the Milance who always has been able by his be

to bear things when you were with me, but still you needed to leave

havior and work to win the sympathy of his surroundings and those

Corfu, get away , and spend the time which remains before we return

in them.

to our country in a place where you can see and study something. The oppressive loneliness which you feel in such difficult circum

Would Milan please write tl1eir friends in Switzerland who had created and

stances is even more onerous for our people in Serbia. I know that

were maintaining contacts with his father and the family in Serbia? As

you will experience difficult moments and suffer much, but my

for himself, Apis confirmed he was fme, walking five miles a day and

dear Milance, you must be a hero . . . and endure.

swimming an hour in Corfu's warm waters. But Third Army staff lacked the warm, close personal relationships of the former Timok Army .20

Heroes, Apis explained, were not only those exposed to physical danger,

Apis' fmal letter to Milan from Corfu of May 8th was brief. He gave it

but also people able to bear severe mental suffering. Milan's parents had

to a captain who would greet Milan in Nice and see how he was faring. "I

borne many trials stoically during the war.

await news from you impatiently. Be patient there another two months." I will tell you when you can come to me." Preparations for the move to

For the love of them you must bear up too. When we return, they

Salonika were proceeding well. "I must hurry in order not to miss the

need to have the solace that you continued your education besides

ship." Third Army staff was now moving to the Salonika front.21

helping us in the army. Therefore resolve and make the effort to

After a lengthy gap, Apis wrote Milan October 22nd from Vostarane

remain there for some months. Stay there until we here and in Sal

near the Serbian border where Third Army staff was then located. By tl1en

onika are prepared to go forward.

he had received twenty-four letters from his diligent nephew. Early Octo ber, confessed Apis, had been d.ifficult for him. A year earlier Serbia had

That would be at least another two to three months, confided Apis. "We

been defeated, and still earlier:

still have plenty of work here and in Salonika before we have everything in order."

Our dear Sanja and good Leka departed from us in those days [in

Apis noted he had received word from Milan's father in Hungary and

October 1 9 12] , and our house was destroyed [in 1 9 1 5] , and last

the family in Krusevac that all were well and, asking about them, Apis had

year we had to abandon our loved ones to severe oppression and de

instructed Vlada llic in Geneva to send them money. Also working to

part for abroad where we suffer spiritually. We must have the strength


180

to bear all this. In that strength lies the greatness of our people, and

181

Personal Matters

at Nezider, Apis had instructed Swiss friends to send them food and

you as a son of our tonnented people must fmd this strength and

money. At least he and Milan were now receiving news from them and

hold out . . . .

could send them things. "That is some consolation and a light in the dark. . we 1ve ! m.,25 ness

Apis had believed they would soon be returning to liberated Serbia; now

Apis expressed dismay on November 20th at not receiving all Milan's

it was apparent that happy day would be deferred indefmitely. When

letters but rejoiced at Zivan Zivanovic's recent card. "Our poor Dad! What

Milan felt sad or discouraged, he should see Colonel Sapinac who would

he must endure in old age having to write in German from a Hungarian

comfort him. His legs felt better all the time, wrote Apis, and their horses, 2 including Milan's "Bliher," were fine. 2

internment camp." Apis' joy over recent Serbian victories was tinged with sadness:

On November 1st Apis wrote Milan again from Vostarane : In truth I lose some good friends every day, and with each day there You will recall those happy days at home when we were all together.

are fewer Serbian soldiers, but the glory of the little Serbian army

On [Holy Mrata, November 1 1 th] do some good deed such as going

grows every day. Bitolj is ours. The Bulgars are paying heavily. I am

to church and lighting a candle praying to God that our suffering

hopeful things will improve steadily.

will

pass as soon

as

26

possible and that our enslaved people will be

preserved . . . . We must all remain at our posts til this is over-you

In his correspondence Apis' patriotism shone brightly. He seemed deter

in school and I here at the threshold of our country.

mined to struggle on to final victory . "For three days I have been preparing to write you," explained Apis

Serbian forces had just defeated the Bulgars near Bitolj , Macedonia. "Thus

December 3rd, "but something or other had prevented me from doing so

our revenge goes steadily though slowly forward." He was sending Milan

the whole day, and in the evening it is the telephone. Now I have a few

some twenty photographs showing Third Army staff and what Serbian

moments of peace and take these to write you." He would continue writ

soldiers were enduring.23 From Stanislava Apis had received a postcard

ing Milan every ten days. He praised Milan's letter of November 2 1 st:

through the Red Cross. "Please inform General Staff Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic that his people are all well and wish to receive news from

In it you were a true hero. I like that. We must bear all difficulties

him and Milan. Krusevac, September 9."24

heroically. The times are great, and we must reveal ourselves to be

Apis wrote again on Holy Mrata, a date once dear to the family, now

equal to them.

sad after its grievous losses: Milan must prepare himself "for the future of our wonderful country which gather together in

will emerge from these bloody days as a renewed Greater Serbia . . . . "27

our house. This is the sole desire for me and for all of ours which I

In his final letter to Milan from the Salonika front December 1 2th Apis

Pray to God we will see each other again and

all

can send you.

chided him for negative think.ing. Apis advised him, whenever schoolwork permitted, to go to the theater. mo\·ies. or see cheerful friends like Colonel

By the next year, Apis hoped, the family would be together again. Had the

Sapinac. From Stevan Acimovic,

victory at Bitolj been fully exploited, he affirmed, their hopes of a swift

had received three reassuring postcards from Stanislava. Little Nenuska

return home might have been realized. "But you can be proud of what we

now was four. "My legs are springy as a deer's," wrote Apis, "and I have

are all doing and what the Serbian army is achieving here . . . . " Learning

trimmed my stomach a good deal just by eating less." As to reports he

that Zivan Zivanovic and Naum Kostic were in the same internment camp

would soon be removed from his post, Apis commented:

a

Belgrade lawyer in Switzerland, Apis


182

From all sides they are proposing me for some trip to your area on some military-diplomatic mission, but I believe these are just rumors. At least up to now there is nothing positive.

-

Swamped with staff work, he had broken off his brief letter five times al ready to answer the telephone. "My staff here are all well . . . . The horses are fine." He ended his letter there to avoid arousing the suspicion of the "Bratislav censor."23

CHAPTER XVI

That very day Interior Minister Lj ubomir Jovanovic-Patak requested War Minister Terzic to investigate Apis and the "Black Hand." His arrest followed swiftly . A pis had not suspected that he faced imminent detention.

CORFU INTERLUDE (SPRING 1 9 1 6 )

The authorities then severed all ties with his relatives. That man lApisj is indifferentto everytl1ing! His friends and comrades have died, but no matter, he seeks new people. All of us can die and . . . he will continue to work with new people, and he will not rest until he fmds someone ready to struggle and intrigue. Ziv. 7 1 8, "Solunska afera." Leaving the port of Orae early in February 1 9 16, Colonel Apis spent the next montl1s on sunny Corfu recovering from the retreat and winding up the Timok Army's affairs. While the Serbian anny was being reorgan ized, old politic�1 quarrels and intrigues resurfaced. The protagonists were Regent Alexander, Premier Pasic, and the "Black" and "White Hand" groups. That spring they jockeyed for position. Arriving on Corfu somewhat earlier, Slobodan Jovanovic was summon ed to his first audience with Prince Alexander. "He could hide his thoughts but not his feelings," recalled the scholar. "1 discerned immediately that he could stand neither Pasic nor Apis." Having purged Supreme Command and refilled it with his own · men , 1 the Prince Regent now wished to re move Pasic too and obtain a government he could control. Hampering Alexander's ambition to rule, not just reign like King Peter, were Pasic among politicians and Apis among officers. Alexander told the historian later he had found no way to remove Pasic .

183


1 84

One evening Prince Alexander suddenly asked Jovanovic how he view ed Apis. Many attributed

his

influence in the army, replied the historian,

to the failure of the King or Radicals to direct it. When Peter I adopted a hands-off attitude, someone had had to lead the army. The conspirators, led from 1 906 by Apis, had assumed that role. Pampering the conspirators at first, the Radicals in 1 9 1 4 had provoked a showdown with them over priority while the army was extremely popular. In peacetime Apis and the conspirators had caused grave problems for the King and government, but during the war they had fought loyally and courageously . Royal authority over the army should be restored, Jovanovic agreed, but not by creating within it the Prince's partisan "White Hand." Retorted Alexander: a bad situation prevails in the army; its source is Colonel Apis whom one can neither trust nor believe . Though less angry with Apis than with Pasic, the Prince obviously suspected and fe ared the mysterious Colonel. How could Alexander have turned so completely against his former friend? Jovanovic attributed it to constant denunciations of Apis by Alexander's entourage and the Prince's incapacity for deep and lasting friendships. 2 The news of Apis' arrival spread swiftly over luscious Corfu . Flocking to see him at cafes he frequented were officer friends, supplicants, and the Prince's spies. There was a regular parade of visitors

all one afternoon

and

evening. Apis had to rise constantly from his table to greet them. Despite severe wartime losses, his adherents and enemies mobilized on little Corfu.3 But Apis now was a cooling star whose rays no longer dispensed real warmth. As his power waned, association with him became dangerous. Many feared they might be buried if his power collapsed. "Do you see that man," a friend of A pis told Tucovic, pointing to the relentless Colonel: That man is indifferent to everything! His friends and comrades have

Corfu Interlude

185

be dumped at sea, conspiracy hung like a dark cloud over Prince Alexan der's court. Apis was depicted there as more dangerous than Fieldmarshal Mackensen, the Bulgars, or a typhus epidemic. Driv�n from his country, Prince Alexander felt overshadowed and humiliated by Apis. The Colonel was a phantom worse than defeat and expulsion. What would his kingdom be worth if he must share power with Apis?5 On Corfu Slobodan Jovanovic, long friendly with Apis, discussed his perilous predicament with him. Apis was at odds with Alexander and the Pasic regime. Such a three-cornered contest could not long persist: two factions eventually would combine and destroy the third. Repair swiftly your relations with one or the other, exhorted Jovanovic. But A pis be lieved neither of the others, because of their vulnerability, would initiate action. Still without deep roots in the army, Prince Alexander was backed solidly only by "White Handers" whom Apis scorned as no match for his friends. And Pasic, facing hostility , even hatred from an army blaming him and his government for its defeat, suffering and exile , dared not risk conflict. And he intended no political action, Apis reassured J ovanovic . Clearly capable of conspiracy, even murder, the Colonel, concluded Jo vanovic, would commit them only to achieve a popularly approval goal. Prepared to shed Serbian blood only for patriotic causes, Apis realized that after the Albanian Golgotha the army had lost its halo of glory. The Prince Regent, concluded Jovanovic , remained undecided with whom to settle first, Pasic o r Apis. Initially, Alexander considered moving against Pa5ic, thet:t at the nadir of his political career. Prior to his hasty embarcation from San Giovanni for Corfu, leaving hundreds of wounded on the beaches, the Premier had hastily concealed his venerable beard. On Corfu Prince Alexander conferred with Svetolik Jaksic, editor of Stampa, who advised him to form a largely officers' government under Vojvoda

died, but no matter, he seeks new people. All of us can die and sor

Zivojin MiSic with J ovan J ovanovic-Pizon as foreign minister. With Alex

row will not overcome him. He will continue his work with new

ander's approval, Jaksic traveled to Europe to win Allied support for such

people and will not rest until he finds someone ready to struggle and intrigue.4

a regime. Purportedly, Slobodan J ovanovic was to receive a cabinet post. Hearing of this, Apis advised the scholar not to join such a government :

Those who understood the political game unfolding behind the beautiful

Misic, J ovanovic [Pizon] and J aksic were all open or secret Progres

scenery knew that the Priority struggle had resumed. The Serbs' love of

sives.' Using wartime conditions as an excuse, they would want to

intrigue triumphed over wartime disasters, hunger, and the enemy. While

introduce a personal regime such as existed under [Alexander]

boatloads of emaciated corpses from Vido, the isle of death, continued to

Obrenovic. We conspirators will not allow that. We did not kill

•

•

•


186

Corfu Interlude

187

Alexander Obrenovic in order to have Alexander Karadjordjevic rule

cracked down hard on Jaksic and his supporters, inducing Alexander to

as he once ruled. We indeed are against Pasic , but that is only be

abandon them. Jaksic , Jovanovic-Pizon and their friends lost their posts

cause he thinks more of his party than of the people and the country.

on Corfu.

In place of him we would like to see in the government truer demo crats and patriots, not resurrected Progressives. 7 Apis' opposition complicated creation of a Misic cabinet. In the above highly significant statement Apis outlined succinctly his own political views. It undercuts his opponents' uncorroborated assertions that he wanted a military dictatorship for Serbia. From this declaration Jovanovic concluded Apis would cooperate most happily with Independ ent Radicals. For years he had enjoyed good relations with their leaders, Milorad Draskovic and Ljubomir Davidovic, members of PasiC's coalition cabinet. During the Priority Dispute Apis had collaborated closely with them. His aim now, as in 1 9 1 4 , seemingly was to bring the Independent Radicals to power and limit Prince Alexander to constitutional rule. From the Independents he sought in return the free hand to formulate army policies accorded him earlier by the Radicals. Did Apis have defmite plans to achieve these goals, or to act against Pasic and Protic? Later, with Apis in Salonika prison, Slobodan Jovanovic assured Pasic that Apis would never serve under a personal, autocratic monarchy. "In his own way," affirmed J ovanovic , "he [Apis] too is for democracy ." After pondering a bit, perhaps how he would fare in an Apis-led democracy , Pasic remind ed the historian that during the Serbo-Bulgarian quarrel in 1 9 1 3 , "Black Handers" had threatened to kill him.8 On little Corfu besides the army was the Supreme Command and Ser bia's government-in-exile. Lesser officials and the Assembly had gone on

At the Salonika Trial, Apis provided indications of his role and aims on Corfu. To Chairman MisiC's questions whether he had met there with the "Black Hand" and its CEC, Apis reiterated : both had long since dissolved. "With all those with whom I met on Corfu I met not as members of 'Uni fication or Death !' but as friends and comrades." Such meetings were chance encounters or comradely suppers at Corfu restaurants. 9 Two such parties that he recalled particularly were at St. George Hotel and "Doboj" restaurant in large diningrooms with many other guests present. At the "Doboj" were fifteen to twenty officers, including some who soon left to serve with the Serbian Volunteer Corps in Russia. The dinner at the St. George included several "Black Hand" leaders, notably Colonels Milovano vic-Pilac, Antonije Antic, and Vladimir Tucovic. "At these parties we en gaged solely in comradely conversations over some wine, mostly about up coming reorganizations of our army on Corfu," affirmed Apis. Political matters had not been discussed, nor were significant decisions reached. Apis denied flatly that his group had discussed any anti-governmental actions, much less plans to kill the Prince or Pasic :

Personally, I did not meet with army friends where any such matters were discussed and felt that such decisions when the Serbian people and army. were in such a terrible state would be monstrous, that any one undertaking such terrible crimes would have to be insane.

to France. As government and Supreme Command rubbed elbows un

informed

easily, surrounded by disillusioned soldiers, the ministers felt uncomfort

rumors

able and vulnerable. In the army, as before the Priority Dispute, seethed discontent with the Pasic cabinet. Many officers were dismayed that only the Supreme Command had been purged as if i t alone had caused Serbia's misfortune. Most conditions for an army coup existed except a leader. Had Apis attempted one he would have had to face Prince Alexander and the Radical regime. But hard evidence is lacking that Apis envisioned a mili tary takeover on Corfu or later on the Salonika front. And Pasic displayed his usual remarkable resilience and ability to survive . His government

on

Corfu by the new chief of staff, General Peter Bojovic, of

"Black Hand··

was plotting a coup, Apis assured him: "These were

false reports by spies . . . the ''Black Hand" was a defunct patriotic organ ization.'' Declining to meet with Prince Alexander, Apis instructed Colonel Milutin Lazarevic , a "Black Hand" member, to inform him that he, Apis, would adhere strictly to his military duties. Through Lazarevic Apis urged the Prince "to believe in our loyalty and willingness to bear any sacrifice in order to resurrect our country . . . . From that moment� I . . acted in no way to violate the Supreme C omman der' s desues. "10 Ap1s had missed his best chance for reconciliation.


188

Corfu Interlude

189

A Salonika witness, police scribe Tihomir Maric, alleged he had over

told him in Korekijani, persisted Ciganovic, that Prince Alexander was sur

heard Apis and friends at Hotel St. George affum that the Serbian regime

rounded by undesirables. Such domestic evil must be eliminated, Apis had

must be changed and power taken into their hands. Returning to Serbia,

said, before external national action could be undertaken. Apis denied

the "Black Hand" would form a new regime aided by some Independent

thls flatly. Ciganovic also alleged A pis had contrasted the "sensible poli

Radicals and Liberals. "That witness," objected Apis, "must have had un

cies" of William 11 and pro-German kings of Bulgaria and Greece with

usually well-developed hearing." From his room Maric supposedly had

those of Serbia's regime. "If I mentioned those rulers in conversation,"

overheard Apis and his friends conversing in a large diningroom with other

retorted Apis, "it could not have been to praise them since their aim is

guests present. He would have had to recognize each speaker by voice,

only to damage Serbian interests."12 Chairman MiSiC's efforts to confurn

knowing which ones belonged to "Black Hand" and its CEC. In his testi

Apis' collaboration with the Central Powers proved abortive.

mony, Apis added, Maric included officers such as K. Ristic who had never

An entry in the diary of Branko Bozovic, former February 2 1 , 1 9 1 6 , read: "Conversation with Tuca

been at St. George Hotel.

Piedmont editor, for [Yladimir Tucovic) :

trip to Dragutin

Questioned

red secretly with him and eight other Bosnian volunteers in Korekijani

by Misic, Apis

Korekijani.

village on Corfu. The Bosnian volunteers, arriving from Drac to join Timok

Once they were alone Branko had asked Apis whether he had messages

Army's staff at Korekijani, had camped in a nearby field. Never had he

for age nts in Athens. When A pis denied knowing any, Bozovic protested:

met secretly with them there. The staff had had only three rooms at

"It seems to me . . . you do not wish to participate further in our public

Korekijani, explained Apis, one for the army commander, another for

life." Replied Apis: "I feel before us now stands one great task: liberation

Apis, and a tllird for two other officers. The office had been in the ante

of our country, wll4;h is

room where General Gojkovic, Apis, and others worked day and night.

need do anything now," persisted Branko, "but I ask you to retain your

With no place to hold general meetings, open or secret, Apis had talked

interest so that after the war we can plunge again into active struggle." In

with the volunteers individually. It was evident from Colovic's testimony

postwar Serbia· he hoped to reactiviate

concluded Apis, that he had no idea why the Colonel was in Korekijani.

Seeing before him a journalist gravely ill with tuberculosis, Apis replied

Another Salonika witness, D. Colovic, affirmed that Apis had confer

11

[Dimitrijevicl and conversation in camp." confinned Bozovic had come to see him at

ali i

am thinking about." "I am not saying you

Piedmont

as a nationalist organ.

Witness Milan Ciganovic, a Sarajevo assassin, made several wild and un

reassuringly : "Fine, fme, Branko. After the war there will be time and

substantiated charges involving Apis. Allegedly, Apis had sent Bosnian

opportunity for struggle, only let us get the war over successfully first."13

volunteers, Bosko Arezina and Nezir to NiS to steal a large sum of money.

On Corfu Apls relaxed with daily swims in the ocean. A powerful swim

Exploded Apis:

mer, he remained in the water up to an hour and swam far from shore. In March when A pis became assistant chief of staff of the new Third Army,

This is a base slander by Ciganovic against the late Bosko. I never did

he found an old friend, Rudolf Mihl, a fellow gymnasium student, also

such things in my life nor would I have had reason to do so. Cigano

serving there. Because of Mihl's German origin, Apis called him by the

vic's entire testimony is colored; he seems to have said whateve r he

endearing nickname, "Schwabe,"14 and joked with him constantly. A

thought would protect him.

very obese 285 pound non-swimmer, Mihl long resisted Apis' blandish ments about going swimming with him. Finally , he agreed to go along

At Hotel Angleterre in Salonika, testified Ciganovic , Apis told him later with the Bosnian, Djuro Sarac, present, tlut internal Serbian issues could not then be solved, but when they reentered Serbia, matters must be set tled promptly. Denying making such statements, A pis accused Ciganovic of abandoning national work to become a paid police informer. Apis had

but remained cautiously in shallow water. One day, needled by Apis, Mihl accompanied other swimmers to the end of the shallows. But there was a sharp drop off and Mihl foundered. Apis swam to

him

immediately and

pulled him safely to shore. Having swallowed much water, "Schwabe" gasped like a dying fish. Since Mihl was renowned for eating heavily and


190

Corfu Interlude

•

191

drinking much wine, Apis joked afterwards: "For the first time in his life

experienced this, and I remember what you told me about the incident of

the Schwabe drank water and salt water at that!" Mihl never again swam

your brother, Dragisa, with Apis."

either in salt or fresh water and indeed had drunk very little water in his lifetime! 15

During the Albanian retreat, they had arrived at Orae, explained Iv kovic, He had been with the Morava Division while his brother, Artillery

Shepherded and nurtured by Apis on the Albanian retreat, Rade Malo

Captain Dragga lvkovic, served on Timok Army's staff. Indignantly ,

babic had reached Corfu safely. Major Radoje J ankovic, an A pis colleague,

Dragisa informed his brother that Apis had sent his orderly with a newly

later for a Belgrade newspaper described Malobabic on Corfu. On March

arrived guerrilla lieutenant. Captain DragiSa was already asleep when Apis'

27, 1 9 1 6 , wroke Jankovic, "we were walking with Apis on the esplanade

orderly burst in saying Colonel Apis insisted he yield his bed to the lieut

at Corfu." It was delightfully warm, people clustered on the benches lining

enant. When DragiSa refused, Apis summoned

the walkway. "Look there," Apis exclaimed, "that

s i

Rade Malobabic!"

him immediately.

the Captain dare ignore his order?, shouted Apis. He ordered

How did

him

per

Rade came up, shook hands, and was introduced. Of medium height, he

emptorily to give up his bed. The goodnatured peaceable captain complied

was young, thin, yellowish, with short brown hair, a small moustache,

reluctantly . Milojko, critical of his brother for yielding, was incensed

sunken cheeks and sharp beard. Rade's eyes were tired and his face sad.

at Apis.

,

Marks of long suffering were etched deeply into a face suggesting a strong

"The time has come for somebody to take care of them and fmish them

character. The entire man seemed suffused with painful memories. When

off!" exclaimed Milovanovic indignantly. "How do you mean fmish them?"

Apis spoke about Rade, he was transformed by warmth and enthusiasm:

queried Milojko. "Simple," replied Milovanovic. ''To fmd people, as you put it, who are brave, decisive and trusted . . . then

kill

them." "But,

There is a man with one of the fmest characters I have met in my

friend, do you mean now?" objected Milojko incredulously. "Under these

entire life. By his services he had performed things of inestimable

conditions?" "Of course. The sooner the better. Now it will be easy to

value for us in the General Staff. Despite all that our Belgrade police

achieve."

arrested and imprisoned him for a year, concealed and cruelly tor tured in prison. 1'

Profoundly shocked, Colonel

lvkovic remained plunged in thought.

Then he protested: "Don't you realize that would be a great crime . . . against our country and army?" Avoiding his gaze, Blagoje said much

On Corfu Colonel Milojko lvkovic related a significant episode about

disappointed:

Apis. One evening a cavalry captain, Blagoje Milovanovic, who before the war had served under Ivkovic, came to his tent. They were close friends.

Since when have you changed? Remember when you told me about

That evening they talked at length and drank much wine. His tongue

them [Black Hand J and how terribly you hated Apis for mistreating

loosened, Milovanovic declared: "Listen, Milojko! For several days I have

your brother; how they were

wanted to tell you a very major and important thing." He fell silent. Pres

humiliate all those who are not with them? And now all of a sudden

sed by lvkovic, Blagoje resumed : "They are looking for people whom one

you are defending them!

all

self-willed and arrogant; how they

can trust, who are reliable and decisive to carry out a great, great affair. 1 know you to be such a person, so now I have decided to disclose this

Disputing such an interpretation, Ivkovic then delivered this eloquent and

matter to you." The Blagoje blurted out: "We have to fmish off these

convincing statement:

b.

_

_

_

ds!" Puzzled by this violent outburst, Ivkovic querie d : "Whom are

you referring to, I don't understand you." "What do you mean you don't

I haven't changed at all. I am not defending them, nor am I for them.

understand?" exclaimed Milovanovic. "The 'Black Hand,' who else? They

I still believe that among them are many who not only have faults

have become unbearable with their arrogance and unruliness. I myself have

but have committed crimes for which they must answer and suffer


192 punishment. But to kill them

all

and

now, in such circumstances,

that would be madness and a terrible crime against our country and

•

Corfu Interlude

193

somewhere in Europe ; the Prince seemed to welcome the idea. Soon there after Jankovic left for Russia.

18

cause a fearful scandal before the entire world. Because you must

As the Serbian army reorganized, the Allies debated the issue of the

admit that no matter what shortcomings some of them suffer from,

Salonika front. They concluded that a reorganized Serbian army could

nonetheless among them is the cream of our officer corps both in

help retain their foothold at Salonika. French Admiral de Robeck and

training and other military capacities. Among them is a very large

British General Mahon agreed two additional divisions would make Salon

number, indeed a majority, who are among our best prepared and

ika virtually impregnable. The Serbs could get them to Salonika before

most capable officers. Precisely Apis himself . . . by general and

serious [Central Power] operations begin against Allied lines.'' 19 At an

unanimous conviction is the best, most talented, best prepared and

inter-Allied conference at Chantilly Fieldmarshal J offre of France pro

when there remains of our army

posed sending another 1 00,000 Allied troops to the Salonika front.

most capable. And precisely

now

only about 100-1 20,000 men, all are required to save our enslaved homeland,

now

when we have lost everything and the Allies are

.

Strongly opposing this, the British command urged that its forces in Greece be withdrawn

as

soon as the Serbs could replace them.2° Fortun

feeding and supporting us. When we have rested up, the hour will

ately, for Serbia's future, it was the French, consistently loyal to their

come to liberate our homeland. Now under their wings and in their

Slav comrades-in-arms, who prevailed in inter-Allied councils.

embraces, to

kill each other off and feud among ourselves? That

would be an unforgivable crime against our army and country which needs all the saviors they can fmd! . . . I favor having any of them who deserves it punished after we return home before a regular court. But

now-no way and not in any easel

Listening to Ivkovic's harangue, Blagoje Milovanovic became terribly red in the face . Then he exploded: "Milojko, up to now I considered you one of our bravest officers, and valued you as a man of character, but now l am completely disillusioned with you because l see that you speak as a coward." He spat on the ground in fury. Miloje warned Blagoje he must be drunk. "Otherwise I would break this bottle over you head." This in cident, lamented lvkovic, had destroyed their friendship of many years. 1 7 About this same same time Major Radoje Jankovic confided to Colonel Tucovic his long conversation with Prince Alexander. They had decided Jankovic should travel to Russia and serve with the Second Serbian Divi sion as the Prince's expert envoy and write for Russian newspapers. They had discussed Apis at length. Alexander declared angrily he was ready to flush Apis down the drain. When chief of staff, General Peter Bojovic, had urged Apis to become reconciled with the Prince, Apis had instead sent Colonel Lazarevic as a peace envoy. He himself, stated Jankovic, had done his utmost to assuage Alexander's obvious hatred of Apis. As their in tee view ended, Radoje suggested the Prince name Apis military attache

I

Salonika Front

195

A Supreme Command report of March 1 0 confirmed: "Reorganization and preparations of our army makes progress daily, and the time is ap proaching to raise the issue of its correct role in coming operations." Three armies containing six Serbian divisions were being formed. The Bulgars re mained the chief obstacle to a Serbian return to their homeland. Most German units had been shifted to other fronts, and Austria's role on the Salonika Front remained modest.1

CHAPTER XVII

On March 1 , 1 9 1 6 on the Salonika Front the French had five infantry divisions, an engineer division, and one of heavy artillery with a total strength of 1 20,000 men. The British had 1 50,000 there and in Salonika.

ON THE SALONIKA FRONT ( 1 916) [A pis] as assistant chief of staff of this army . . . carried out the tasks entrusted to him quickly and with complete dedication. His execution of General Staff work was clear' decisive and energetic. Colonel Mihailo 1 ovanovic, Third army chief of staff, March 9 , 1 9 1 7 As the Third Army's assistant chief of staff Colonel Apis proceeded to Salonika in May 1 9 1 6, then north to the front near the Serbian frontier in Macedonia. For about five months he served in a Serbian force of about 140,000 men. Refitted· and reequipped by the Allies, it took its place side by side with French, British and a few Italian and Russian troops to fight chiefly against Bulgarian units. The climax of this tour of

�u �y was a Serbian offensive which captured Mt. Kajmakcalan, then Bitolj

. ms1de Serbtan Macedonia. While on the Salonika Front, Apis was inun

dated with staff work, often spending day and night on or near the tele phone. Minding his own military business, he hoped his enemies would not bother him. He had little time or opportunity to engage in political activity.

The Allied commander-in-chief was General Maurice Sarrail, with little reputation as a strategist and indifferently qualified to perform his ardu ous duties. Out of favor with General Joffre , he had been virtually exiled to the Balkans. Sarrail was an abler politician than military leader having many ties with the French parliament and Foreign Minister Delcasse. In Salonika leading politicians and foreign ambassadors clustered around him. At first Sarrail was negative about the Balkan campaign and the Serbs. After the Allied retreat of December 1 9 1 5 , he had advocated total Allied withdrawal from Salonika. Paris had vetoed that and by spring 1 9 1 6 Sar rail's mood changed. As Serbian units arrived in Salonika, he adopted a warmer attitude toward France's valiant little ally.2 Prince Regent Alexander sought to secure some freedom of action for Serbian forces operating under Allied command. On a trip to Paris in March 1 9 1 6 he refused to place the Serbian army under unconditional Allied control. During the spring and summer he and the Serbian govern ment after difficult negotiations reached a compromise with the Allies. Serbian forces under Alexander as supreme commander were to serve under General Sarrail according to the formula: "General Sarrail, com mander-in-chief of Allied troops, will exercise this command in the name of Prince Regent Alexander and the Allies." This left the Serbian govern ment authority to withhold i1s troops if particular operations were not viewed as being in the national interest. 3 Preempting a planned Allied attack, the Bulgars on August 5 , 1 9 1 6 launched a powerful offensive forcing back the Serbs in heavy fighting.

194

Halting the enemy drive, the Serbs then counterattacked. On August 17th began the struggle for control of Mt. Kajmakcalan, rising to 8,225 feet. The key to the entire Salonika Front, it was defended by a Bulgaro-


196

197

Salonika Front

German army of over 160,000. Enemy positions in mountains and for

want to fight for the Germans and the Turks."9 But on August 15th Col

ests appeared impregnable, but the Serbs counterattacked and on Septem

onel Maric deplored the Third Army's position:

ber 12th reached the peak of Kajmakcalan. On September 20th they cap .

tured the key position, "Starkov Grob," and aided by French forces

The terrain is rocky and without water; we are subjected to heavy

crossed the Cema River. Preceded by Franco-Russian forces, the First

enemy [art illery J fire. Losses are considerable. Such a situation is

Serbian Cavalry Regiment entered liberated Bitolj inside Serbian Mace

becoming untenable. Morale of the troops remains unbroken, but

donia November 6th. The Serbs regained a slice of their territory as hopes

we cannot count on this for long.

10

mounted for a breakthrough into Serbia proper. Then the offensive halt ed: Serbian losses were

so

severe that their three armies dwindled to two.

Then enemy pressure subsided. General Milos Vasic, newly appointed

In December 1 9 1 6 uneasy calm descended over the Salonika Front, per

Third Army commander, praised the 17th Regiment highly for repelling

sisting until the Serbian breakthrough of late 1 9 1 8 . 4

enemy attacks heroically on August 8-9th with huge enemy losses. After

Colonel Apis helped plan the Serbian advance. His telephone reports

the enemy offensive, Apis warned:

to fellow Third Army officers, whose texts are preserved in Belgrade's Military Historical Archive, suggest his total absorption in military matters.

On the entire front is noticeable the terrible stench of disintegrating

At 8:50 AM August 7th Apis informed "Black Hand" colleague, Colonel

corpses. Perhaps we should conclude a truce of three to four hours

Milovanovic-Pilac, that the enemy was advancing on Eksisa and Sorovica;

in order to bury the dead. If we await the start of our own offen

Serbian forces were falling back. But at 6:30 PM he telephoned Colonel

sive, we won't be able to hold out in our positions.11

Maric that the Drina Division was bombarding Kajmakcalan and infantry had occupied Koratepe and Ploca. 5 A Bulgarian prisoner disclosed that

Meanwhile Apis continued to protect and conceal Rade Malobabic from

two Bulgar regiments, refusing to fight, had been sent to the rear to be

the Corfu and Salonika authorities. When Apis left for Salonika in early

restored to discipline. That evening Apis reported sharp enemy attacks : "On

May, Malobabic remained on Corfu. "l could no longer worry about him

the left wing they are driving our battalion from its forward positions."'

nor did 1 write anyone about him," testified Apis. Before leaving for Rus

Reacting to early Serbian reverses, Chief of Staff General Bojovic com

sia, Major Radoje Jankovic issued Malobabic a document in French author

plained that the Danube Division especially had not fought well in battles

izing him to leave in late May for Third Army staff in Salonika so Apis

of August 4-7. Every commander, he warned, was expected to have any

could fmd him a civilian post.

one shot who fled the battlefield. 7

From Salonika Rade went to Third Army staff in Ostrovo where Apis

In the following days Apis reported more strong Bulgarian attacks and

arranged for him to operate a small grocery shop for Serbian officers and

Serbian reverses. Telephoning Colonel Maric August 9th, he noted that

men. Apis told the Salonika court about meeting with Rade about August

Bulgar attacks beginning at midnight against the 1 7th and 18th infantry

25th:

regiments had driven the Serbs back to their main defense lines. F ortun ately, a few Serbian reinforcements were arriving from Vardar Division. "In

At the time we had already moved to Ostrovo village. Without any

general the si tuation s i satisfactory." Later though: "The Bulgars are

special reason I told Major Yulovic : 'When you see Rade, tell him to

attacking on the entire front, especially from Gomicev and on our ex

come and see me or send someone to call

treme left." Apis emphasized the enemy's superiority in artillery .3 Su

Rade came to see me. This was a few days after our arrival in Ost

preme Command, summarizing operations August 4- 1 5th, denied the Bul

rovo village on about August 20th . . . . When he came at noon I was

gars had achieved much since their losses were twice those of the Serbs.

busy and •asked him to come back after supper that evening. At that

"Bulgar prisoners reveal low morale. They say openly that they do not

time I left the office while soldiers were cleaning it and walked in

him.'

At noon that day


1 98

front of the building close enough so that I could hear the telephone if it rang.

Salonika Front

199

Apis realized he must not antagonize General Milos Vasic, his superior, who wanted the storekeeper's job for his brother. His relations with Vasic, who had opposed Apis and the conspirators sine� 1903, were already

Walking with Malobabic near the staff building, Apis warned he must fm d

strained. Since the store was right near Third Army staff, Vasic knew

him a job elsewhere . He did not tell Rade that General Vasic, Third Army

Rade by sight and had been in his store. He also knew Rade was a close

commander, seeking the storekeeper's post for his brother, was making

friend of Apis. 14

trouble. "Please if I cannot continue what I am doing now," said Rade,

Thus before Third Army staff left Ostrovo, stated Apis, he instructed

"I wish to enter the army." Looking at his emaciated friend, Apis said he

Malobabic to go to his friend, Colonel Alexander Stojsic, brigade com

would fmd him non-military duties. He never intimated that Rade would

mander in nearby Batocin village. Why did Apis not simply instruct Major

receive secret work, as Malobabic confirmed in court. Declared Apis

Vulovic, chief of the police information division, to order Malobabic to

warmly:

leave Ostrovo immediately? A pis explained:

1 could not tell you immediately to which work I would send you

My friendship and dealings with Rade and my protection of his per-

because I did not know myself until I had found something. Since

son ruled out that method . . . . That would have been disloyal to a

I was not angry with you, nor you with me, you continued to send

person I was protecting . . . . Rade lacked a permit for the job of

me sausage and cheese [from the store] , and so we lived well.

storekeeper obtained by the formal procedure prescribed by Salon ika, but he did have a permit from his division.

The courtroom audience laughed appreciatively. Soon thereafter Apis learned from Bratislav Stojanovic, Third Army

Rade had to move quickly, A pis felt, to avoid trouble from the Salonika

postal censor and a school friend, that others had interpreted Rade's in

authorities and possible arrest. He denied discussing political matters with

stallation as storekeeper in Ostrovo as motivated by Apis' desire to make

Rade on Corfu or in Salonika. 15

money. Denying this vehemently , A pis affirmed he had never been mater ialistic and was merely seeking suitable employment for Malobabic.12

On September 7th Apis gave Rade a letter he had written to Colonel Stojsic who knew about Apis' troubles with General Vasic:

A couple of days later, testified Rade, Apis informed him he must leave Ostrovo quickly. "Go immediately and choose a village nearby where you

Dear Aco,

can hide, then return and tell me . . . where you will be going. You can

I have long considered to whom to entrust Rade, my storekeeper,

leave your things and merchandise and return for them later." Asked why

then decided it best to send him to you. You know him from Corfu

he had insisted Rade leave the store, Apis replied: "I had no intention nor

and he knows and likes you, so he will be best off with you and can

need to remove him especially urgently," but Rade was being accused

remain with you until better days come. I ask you most sincerely to

falsely of overcharging and quarreling with soldiers.

watch over him . . . . This man has suffered so much innocently that you must guard him at any cost . . . . It is the sad story of an honor

For me Rade's departure from Ostrovo was not linked with any date

able, strong worker for our Serbian cause who was repaid in a ter

or hour, but 1 had decided to remove him from the store and hide

rible way. Besides this could only have happened with us, not among

him somewhere where he could live quietly and where I would not

any other people on earth . . . . Give him brotherly protection, I beg

be involved in his work even morally. I allowed him to continue to

you . . . . You can have him with you as a non-combattant volunteer.

work so he would have some money at war's end. I began to worry

. . . For well-known reasons, it is inconvenient for him to remain

then about my family in Serbia and had a nephew in France to sup

with me, and you are closest to me . . . .

port, so I could not put Rade on my payroll or support him.

•


200

Salonika Front

201

When this letter was read in the Salonika court, Chairman Misic queried :

act on your own hook when your superiors' views differ from yours?"

"Why did you write such a letter revealing your puzzling and excessive

asked Misic. "Not by any law," retorted Apis, "But by the well-known

concern about Malobabic and his health? Responded Apis: "Evidently, I

right of initiative to preserve the general validity of orders and instruc

remained true to my moral obligations to Rade and sought to keep him

tions." Out of human considerations, Apis rejected blind obedience to

alive at any cost." What was "the better time" Apis alluded to? "I count

•

supenors.

ed on better days for Malobabic when he could come into the open, look

On August 29th (September 1 1 New Style), just before a major Allied

everyone in the eye, and ask for their excuses for what had happened to

offensive, occurred an alleged incident with grave implications for Colonel

him.

That would be when Serbia had become Greater Serbia." Why had

Apis and "Black Hand." On a tour of the front Prince Alexander's auto

it been so necessary that Malobabic survive when so many Serbs died in

mobile was supposedly fued upon near Ostrovo. Months later Apis'

asked MiSic. Malobabic, explained Apis, out of patriotism had

enemies claimed he had planned to assassinate the Prince with Malobabic

the war?

served Serbia with unusual dedication.

as his instrument. At Salonika MiSic asked whether Apis had seen Malo babic or Muhamed Mehmedbasic on August 29th. Responded Apis:

This question of the honor of one man in whose fate l was involved was so important to me that I considered his life most precious. I

August 29th of last year held no special significance for me, and I

did not intend thereby to minimize the sacrifices which the Serbian

heard about the supposed assassination attempt here in court from

people bore or to argue that his life was more valuable than those

the investigator. I absolutely do not remember seeing Malobabic or

who died on the battlefield. 1'

Mehmedbasic during those days or conversing with them on that day.

Dispatching Rade to Colonel Stojsic but fearing he might be rearrested ,

Asked where he had been about 5 PM on the 29th, Apis replied: "I did not

Apis concealed his whereabouts from the authorities. He cautioned Rade

leave the staff at all for anywhere . . . I kept a book of telephone calls, so

repeatedly to avoid Salonika. Thus when Supreme Command wrote Gen

if it survives, one can see from that, or if not, then from the diary of

eral Vasic September 23rd asking Apis and Vulovic to state what they

operations." A report of General Vasic of September 20th, noted MiSic,

knew about Malobabic and if they knew where he was, Apis feigned

ordered Apis to secure Ostrovo, but even after that rifles and revolvers

ignorance: "Malobabic has never been in the staff of this lThird] army,

had been fued repeatedly nearby. Apis denied receiving such an order. He

nor has he served here for a moment." Why had Apis misled his com

and the chief of staff had done their best to halt random fuing, mostly by

mander and the Supreme Command? Apis explained:

Allied officers and soldiers, at wild game. 17 Seeking to link Apis with "Black Hand" colleagues who had visited him

I kept silent on purpose . . . and in this case deceived my superiors.

in Ostrovo shortly before August 29th, MiSic asked whether Colonel Milo

I did so because I did not wish to yield Rade to the authorities and

vanovic-Pilac and Major Radoje Lazic had spoken with him officially then

was fully convinced my army commander and especially Supreme

in Ostrovo. Unable to recall the precise date of their visit, Apis knew that

Command knew that Rade was with me. The reasons for my vio

after the First Army's arrival in the area, those two officers had passed

lations of regulations Jay in my interpretation of my moral duty to

through Ostrovo, perhaps shortly before the Allied offensive of August

Rade whom I was protecting against further prosecution.

30th. He did not recall them coming to supper together ; Lazic indeed had

Apis believed Malobabic would be arrested if he entered Salonika. That

not come for a meal. "We talked about tasks facing us and them in the 8 staff," explained Apis. 1

was why Rade's old foe, Kosta Tucakovic, chief of Supreme Com

Colonel Milovanovic-Pilac's fmal statement to the court also provided

mand's police section, was inquiring about him. "By what right do you

no exact date. Reaching Ostrovo about 6:30 PM, he found three colonels-

•


Salonika Front

203

Stevan Milovanovic, Peter MiSic, and Pantelije JuriSic-discussing military

general offensive to begin August 30th, and noted optimistically: "We

matters with Apis. Milovanovic-Pilac had then a<:companied the three to

have marked superiority at all points and a twofold superiority in artil

army mess to see General Vasic, securing there permission to have supper

lery ."21 Sarrail did not anticipate a complete break�rough since muni

with Apis. He had left about 9:30 PM. Next day Milovanovic-Pilac was to take his brigade to army reserve west of Ostrovo. Passing through it to

tions' supplies were limited, but he expected "good success."22 On the

acquaint himself with troop dispositions, he had ordered his chief of staff to obtain detailed information from army staff. After breakfast with

eve of this offensive Prince Alexander exhorted the First Volunteer Division:

Apis, he had gone to obtain information on troop movements from the

We want revenge on the Bulgars for their treacherous attack from

commander of Vardar Division.

the rear [October 1 9 1 5 ] , for their betrayal of Slavdom, for atro cities against our wounded and children. We want to go over the

Had I planned to speak to Dimitrijevic about an assassination or a

dead Bulgars back into Serbia and resurrect it. We want to liberate

coup, I would have concealed my arrival and the time. I would have

all Serbs and Yugoslavs and create a free, powerful and great Yugo

had supper with the army commander [General Yasic] to eliminate

slavia.23

suspicion, then spoken that evening quickly with Dimitrijevic and would not have aroused suspicion by requesting permission to have

Apis' telephoned dispatches chronicled that offensive's heartening pro

supper with him. Nor would I have gone [to him] a second time

gress. Already by dusk on August 30 the Drina Division had taken Kara

thus attracting even more attention since that evening Dirnitrijevic

Tepe and Devojacko Brdo on the Brodska's right bank.24 At 9:45 PM Apis

could easily have left his company on some excuse to accompany me.1 9

telephoned: "The attack is going well. Preparations have been made to at tack the main defense line at Kajmakcalan."25 "From this morning," he signalled September 1st, "the bitterest fighting is proceeding over Kaj

MilovanoviC's account seems highly probable.

makcalan itself." His frequent battle reports recorded the Serbs' successful

Prince Alexander frequently made long automobile tours of the front.

attacks over mountainous terrain against strong Bulgar resistance. "The

On August 29th, recalled Major Draskic, he had remained at the front until

struggle at Kajmakcalan is continuing hand to hand," he reported Septem

evening, returning in a jolly mood. At supper Alexander and General Juri

ber l Oth?' On the 13th he exulted:

sic-Sturm, who had accompanied him, related that their French chauffeur, Marquis d'Avari, had been frightened by shots he felt had been fired to

The battle ended about 6 PM. The Drina Division with its right

wards them. At supper the whole affair was treated very humorously ;

column held its position on Kajmakcalan's highest peak, the Bori

lighthearted jokes were directed at d'Avari's timidity. The shooting inci

sov redoubt. Officers and men of the Drina Division held on valiant

dent was not mentioned again that evening or in the next days, confirmed

ly. According to Bulgar prisoners, their losses in today's fighting

Draskic. No one attributed significance to such a common occurrence.

were terrible. Because of their corpses, one could not pass through.

Jurisic-Sturm, DraskiC's Academy classmate, who normally related every

On our sides losses were severe, and one can say that this day be

thing which happened, said nothing to him about it. Had there been an

longs to the bloodiest of the war. 27

assassination attempt, concluded Draskic, Supreme Command and front security would have been notified immediately, but they were not.20 As Serbian commander-in-chief, a major Allied offensive, not personal security, absorbed Alexander's full attention then. On August 23rd Gen eral Sarrail had instructed the Serbian Supreme Command to join in a

Only on the 1 7th could Apis confirm: "The whole of Kajmakcalan was taken with two rows of trenches. Prisoners were taken from several regi ments and four mountain guns . . . . "23

APIS: The Congenial Conspiral.Or

204

Such stunning Serbian victories reaffirmed Allied confidence in the Serbian army . In October Serbia's military attache

in

London reported

to Supreme Command: the British would send eight more battalions and

Salonika Front

205

French should not count on the Serbs unless they provided them military relief_3' Pasic assessed the army's plight:

four field batteries to Salonika.29 A month later General Ra�ic, Serbia's

. Today [December 19th] the War Minister wrote me from Salonika

military envoy in Paris wrote Prince Alexander that General Sarrail would

arguing, as does the Heir, the absolute need of rest by the Serbian

obtain the troops and commanders he required. Twenty-three Allied divi

army . . . . During this short time, he argues, the Serbian army has

sions would remain on the Salonika Front. "Our victories have produced

lost half its effectives ; weariness and apathy have set in and flight

an excellent mood among political and military people. War in the Balkans

threatens to become general despite all possible measures . . . . The

will continue energetically from north to south until Bulgaria collapses."30

War Minister asks that the entire Serbian army be withdrawn to the

In November severe fighting on Serbian sectors produced more suc

rear for rest and reorganization for new important operations. 37

cesses. But after Bitolj's occupation (November 6) the Serbs revealed deep exhaustion and morale was deteriorating. On November 16th Apis tele

Jovanovic-Pizon reported persistent rumors about upcoming Allied talks

phoned:

with the Central Powers for a negotiated peace.311 All this influenced significantly Colonel Apis' fate.

Since yesterday the Bulgars have been attacking our units strongly

How effectively did Apis serve Serbia on the Salonika Front? 1n Bel

at Crni Vis. Two of their attacks were repelled, but the third enjoyed

grade's Military Historical Archive are conflicting evaluations of him as

some success . . . . The enemy forces are superior . . . . The view

Third Army chief of staff, both from March 1 9 1 7 when he already faced

prevails that Third Army needs somehow to be reinforced, so please

trial. Thus Third Army chief of staff, Colonel Mihailo Jovanovic had no

examine that possibility immediately .31

reason to praise Apis. His positive evaluation endangered his own career and revealed honesty and courage:

Responded Colonel Maric: "Supreme Command has no reserves to send to Third Army."32 On the 18th Apis was on the telephone from 9:30 AM to

[Apis] carried out the tasks entrusted to him quickly and with com

9:55 PM, one of many extremely long days of duty?3 Two days later he

plete dedication. His execution of General Staff work was clear,

reported the Drina Division's capture of Gruniski and Budimiracki Heights.

decisive and energetic. He grasps orders given extremely quickly , and

"The enemy retreated in disorder to Starvina, and our troops continued

in every situation is in full command. By his training he deserves

energetic pursuit . . . .

"�

Then a curious lull settled over the entire front

promotion to the next higher rank. 39

facilitating the arrest of Apis and his friends. Deteriorating Serbian morale after four months' combat without signifi

Not surprisingly General Vasic, Third Army commander, assessed Apis

cant relief or reinforcement induced Chief of Staff Bojovic to write army

very negatively. A political foe since 1903, Vasic was named Third Army

commanders November 9th: "The Supreme Commander wishes to be in

commander by Prince Alexander in August 1 9 1 6 partly to control and spy

formed personally by army commanders about our army's total situation."

on Apis and his friends. A positive evaluation of Apis in March 1 9 1 7 might

They were to meet personally with Prince Alexander to give him full data

have wrecked VasiC's career. "As soon as 1 took command of the Third

on numerical strength, operations, losses, armaments, and supplies. 35

Army," he wrote, "I noticed what his further service only confirmed: he

Late in 1 9 1 6 the Allies' political and military situation remained highly

[Apisj

is unreliable in service." Apis had failed to execute instructions

uncertain. War weariness had deepened after military reverses on various

promptly-an allegation Colonel Jovanovic had refuted. "He is a bad staff

fronts. Pa5ic instructed his London envoy, Jovan Jovanovic-Pizon, that the

officer." Seeing Apis at Belgrade railway station July 1 2 , 19 14, Vasic had said reproachfully : "Evidently, the General S taff kept the goverment poorly

206


infonned about the Austro-Hungarian anny and regime ." Apis had re sponded : "Don't worry, Colonel, we have taken good precautions, and it [Austria-Hungary ] is not such a great power." "From this," commented

-

Vasic, "I discerned how dangerous Dimitrijevic was for our national inter ests in such an important post. There constantly came into the staff per sons who had no official business there and were not members of the staff." Furthermore, Apis was so preoccupied by his distorted political ideas, affirmed Vasic, that he became "absentminded for military service." Finally, his health was too poor for anny service. "Because of all

this he

is

CHAPTER XVIII

harmful for the military service and does not deserve promotion."40 General Vasic provided no specific evidence to support claims Apis was an unreliable staff officer. Evidence to the contrary seems prepon derant. VasiC's chief example was drawn from Apis' service with General

THE CONSPIRACY AGAINST COLONEL APIS ( 1 916)

Staff in 1 9 1 4 when he was indeed much involved with political matters. But Apis' avowed enemy found nothirtg substantive to include in his nega

The general feeling was that they had pre

tive evaluation.

pared a trap for the lion, but there was

Indications are that Colonel Apis perfonned intensive, loyal, and valu

amazement at the lion's incaution and at

able service for Third Army staff. He helped plan and report its operations

the

in Serbian offensives from August until mid-December 1 9 1 6 . His extreme

tions for that lion hunt had been undertaken

ly long hours there, confirmed by his telephone reports, refute General

long before .

temerity of the hunters . . . . Prepara

Vasic's assertion of ruined health. Hard evidence is lacking that he engaged

Ziv. 7 1 6 , "Solunska afera."

in anti-regime activities on the Salonika Front.41 Meanwhile his enemies were plotting to remove him and his "Black Hand" friends from their

"The Committee of Ten for the Liquidation of Colonel Apis." 1

posts and bring them to trial.

1 . Full members: a. Colonel Peter Zivkovic b. Colonel Josif Kostic c. Colonel Dragoljub Jeremic d. Gene raJ Pavle J uriSic-Sturm e. Lt. Col. Radovanovic-Koca f. Colonel Dragutin Okanovic g. Colonel Milutin Jank.ovic h. Lt. Col. Milan Gavrilovic i.

Lt. Col. Radak Radakovic

j.

Lt. Col. RadiSa Nikolic

207

-


208

2. "Associates " a. Lj ubomir J ovanovic-Patak, Interior Minister b. Dj uro Jelenic, Prince Alexander's secretary

The Conspiracy

209

parted, each strongly defending his own position. Neither evinced real desire to compromise and reach agreement. When Tucovic asked him about his plans, Apis de�lared:

c. Jovan Cirkovic, government political commissar d. Kosta Tucakovic, chief police section Supreme Command

We must tell our friends to devote themselves to their military ser

e. Major Zivojin Trivunac

vice since the main problem is to extricate ourselves from cata

f. Major Sreten Todorovic

strophe by returning to the homeland, and that moment will surely

g. Dragisa Stojadinovic , photo section Supreme Command

come. If we survive it, then we can get together and talk.4

h. Milan Nikolic Apis reiterated this sensible idea to all trusted friends, without whom he Right after becoming Prince Regent in June, 1914, Alexander had

could undertake nothing, before the alleged attempt on Prince Alexander

sought to oust Apis and his friends from Supreme Command and other

and right until his arrest. His friends on the Salonika Front recalled no

responsible army positions. Beginning with Apis' removal from Supreme

allusion or hint to a military coup or assassination. Had Apis intended

Command and Marshal Putnik's replacement, this pu rge continued on

something he surely would have mentioned it to intimates. Thus if Apis

Corfu and at Salonika during 1 9 1 6. Alexander's evident purpose was to

were plotting something, he did so alone. Yet Apis, a fme organizer and

remove rivals who might contest his control over the army and state. 2

careful planner, was too sensible to act alone.

During 1 9 1 6 Alexander's court and the Radical regime prepared strenu

Facing a strong enemy at the front with the Serbs dependent on the

ously to settle up with the Apis group. They sought to accomplish this

Allies, what could Apis have gained by a military coup or by killing Prince

before returning to Serbia where Apis might secure public and Opposition

Alexander on Greek soil? Such an action would have doomed the Serbian

support and be protected by regular laws and courts. On Corfu then in

army, prevented a return to Serbia, and undermined the national cause.

Salonika they created a police system, dubbed later by opponents the

Was Apis bargaining with the enemy, as some writers allege?5 Could he

"Salonika regime," recruiting hundreds of spies and infornters to gather

expect cooperation from Austria after helping murder the Archduke?

derogatory information about the Apis group. "The Committee of Ten

Could a "Black Hand" leader negotiate with the Central Powers for the

for the Liquidation of Colonel Apis," guided by "White Hand" leaders,

Serbian and Yugoslav unification they had sworn to prevent? Yet unifi

Zivkovic and Kostic, coordinated these activities. The omnipresent Salon

cation had been Apis' main goal ever since the 1 903 coup. He knew very

ika police was subject to Interior Minister Jovanovic-Patak and directed

well his hands were then bound against any independent action. Perhaps

tactically by Kosta Tucakovic. After Sveta JaksiC's efforts to arrange an

Apis hated Prince Alexander, though this is most doubtful, but he would

officers' cabinet failed, Alexander and Premier Pasic told the hunters to

not plot his death thus undermining the Salonika Front and blocking

trap the lion. 3

national unity. Nor does Apis' behavior indicate any such intentions. Ap

"On Corfu I saw Apis before his departure for Salonika leaving the of

parently indifferent to impending danger, he prepared no resistance. The

fice of the newly appointed war minister, Bozidar Terzic," recalled Col

lion remained i n open view, fully exposed to the hunters. Had Apis con

onel Vladimir Tucovic. Speaking to him frankly, Terzic urged Apis to re

cealed plans from his close friends, surely he would have destroyed in

nounce all political activity and avoid everything except performing his

criminating documents, but he did not do so.

military duties. No more politicking in the army would be tolerated,

Some of Apis' friends now turned from him . The 1903 conspirators

warned Terzic. Apis denied any current political involvement but told

were no longer carefree youths with little to lose. Some had compromised

the War Minister he would not abandon his profound interest in the Ser

with the regime in power. Many who had won promotions and decora

bian national question. Finding no basis for cooperation, Terzic and Apis

tions in recent wars wished to keep them. Why face needless risks by

210


The Conspiracy

211

following Apis' sinking ship? Others, weary of ceaseless struggle, longed

flunkeys, Ranko Trifunovic and Jovan Cirkovic. Colonel Okanovic recruit

for peace and rest. Apis was not one to promise or provide these. Tireless

ed spies in the army, on Corfu , then in Salonika and at the front. The

ly propelling his damaged legs on tours of the front with his eternal cigar

"Committee of Ten's" influence pervaded the army. Few dared probe its

ette in his teeth, at each stop now he met new and indifferent comrades.'

activities because of the fear it fostered. Soon without its consent little

Lieutenant Colonel Radak Radakovic, a leading defector from Apis'

was decided in the army . Later that spring the Interior Minister took up

camp, was promised a key post by the "Salonika regime." A supporter of

headquarters across the street from the Supreme Command in Salonika.

the May Coup, he had once been a friend of Apis. Without real evidence,

There and in the War Ministry, JovanoviC's minions accumulated data to

Radakovic had concluded that his failure to win promotion had been Apis'

incriminate the Apis group, while the Interior Ministry virtually dictated

fault. Defecting from his mentor, Radakovic was utilized by Apis' foes.

to the military authorities. 3 This "Salonika regime" became a vital ele

The "White Hand" arranged his appointment as commandant of Corfu, a

ment in the growing conspiracy against the Apis group.

post which gratified his frustrated ambitions. Daily he ran to Prince Alex

The other major factor was Prince Alexander's entourage led by the

ander with denunciations of Apis and basked in the court's warmth . One

"White Hand." In spring 1916, recalled Major DraSkic, when Prince Alex

day Radakovic queried Tucovic how Apis and the "Black Hand" could be

ander came to Salonika, Colonel Zivkovic assumed total control of palace

shorn of influence. "I was amazed that at Court amidst a national cata

affairs. Immediate changes were made in its staff and Guards without

strophe this was considered a 'burning question,"' wrote Tucovic. Either

consulting court marshal, Colonel Ostojic. In the palace cellar appeared

this was a terrible hallucination or a predetermined goal based on fear.

suspicious types, ex-guerrillas, and riffraff rarely found in decent places ;

They met again in Salonika. As Corfu commandant and close to Prince

they spent entire days drinking. Later, DraSkic realized they were the

Alexander, Radakovic revealed that the campaign against Apis preoccu

Salonika Trial's chief "witnesses." Among ZivkoviC's friends and collab

pied their attention. The ideal solution, said Radakovic, would be to

orators in the palace were Lieutenant Colonel Pavle JuriSic-Sturm, Major

compromise ''Black Hand" leaders in their official military duties as if

Sreten Todorovic, and Major Zivojin Trivunac, recruited on Corfu . Rada

"their incapacities had caused their eventual misfortune." Superior Bulgar

kovic joined this team in Salonika becoming Prince Alexander's chief spy. 9

forces had just forced the Danube Division to retreat near Gornicev. Soon

Once in Salonika Colonel Zivkovic purchased a house near the palace,

its commander and the Third Army chief of staff, both Apis men, were

surrounded by gardens and a high wall. Zivkovic turned it into a miniature

removed. Encouraged by this success, Radakovic urged use of that tech

fortress with electric alarms and a guard at each gate. Before going to

nique as one way to break Apis' influence. "The time is approaching,"

France on leave, at Colonel Jurisic's advice, Draskic paid his respects to

he warned enigmatically, "when what we spoke about will be done.''7

"Pera." Reluctantly , he entered that mysterious residence "where sur

Charged with preparing destruction of the Apis group was Interior

rounded by walls and guards sat that sinister man, chief decision-maker

Minister Jovanovic-Patak's "Salonika regime," centering in that Greek

in the Salonika Affair, in which he directed every thing without ever taking

port but with tentacles reaching to Corfu, and even France and Switzer

responsibility , never appearing either as prosecutor, witness, or accuser."

land. Coming to Corfu in January 1916, J ovanovic-Patak laid foundations

Like a spider, Zivkovic spun his dark web. Draskic then had no idea what

for this police regime, aided by Mihailo Rankovic, a former Assembly

Zivkovic was planning. Posing .merely as the Prince's obedient and humble

deputy, and Colonel Dragutin Okanovic. Already in Nis JovanoviC's min

servant, "Pera" urged Draskic repeatedly to ask Alexander for this and

istry began to utilize numerous spies and informers and conduct arbitrary

that. However, Draskic knew Alexander addressed only "Pera" as "thou.''

arrests and torture. An initial victim was Rade Malobabic. Former history

ln the palace Zivkovic did whatever he pleased, asking no one. In public -

professor Jovanovic-Patak believed the Radical Party had given him carte

Zivkovic flattered and praised Draskic, but Major Sreten Todorovic con-

blanche to establish a miniature autocracy and destroy its enemies. His few

fided: "We all know you are a sworn "Black Hand" member and Peter

reputable subordinates were exiled from Corfu or watched by obedient

lZivkovic] is doing everything possible to throw you out of the palace, but the Prince likes you so much that Peter can do nothing to you.''


212

213

The Conspiracy

All at once, continued Dra�kic, documents and telegrams marked mys

officer members of your society entered the organization from ideal

teriously, "ANO" began appearing at the palace. Drailic was told to give

istic motives. They did not dream that something else was concealed

them all unopened to Major Trivunac who entered them in an inventory

there . . . . Thus it

with the same strange marking. One day Zivkovic told Dra5kic impor

and some others will be severely punished, perhaps by death. Others

tantly: "Just think, those 'Black Handers' wanted to kill the Heir!" To

will be punished less harshly, and the rest will be pensioned off, part

Draskic's surprised queries, Zivkovic added mysteriously : "You'll soon

ly spared. This will be done before reentry into the country [Serbia] .

see!" His palace cronies confirmed that the documents related to the

In that manner the Sarajevo murder will also be liquidated.

i s

felt that in liquidating it to act as follows: Apis

"Black Hand." Premier Pasic , Trivunac revealed, had insisted the mater ials to be marked "A�", selecting "A", Alexander's first initial. Thereby

Evidently by June 1 9 1 6 Prince Alexander and his circle had decided ten

Pasic sought to conceal his role in the conspiracy and undermine the

tatively to arrest Apis and his friends and try them on charges bringing

Prince Regent.

death to the ringleaders. JurisiC's reference to Sarajevo is intriguing: did

By now Draskic was also disillusioned with the "Black Hand." On

some Radicals envision a possible separate peace with Austria-Hungary?

Corfu he had noticed that some of its leaders, especially Milovanovic

Such charges against "Black Hand" were wholly false, protested Tuco

Pilac, acted haughtily . What right did Apis have to interfere in political

vic. Purely patriotic, it had never acted against the dynasty or country.

matters in "Black Hand's" name without informing other members?

These denunciations stemmed from ignorance and intrigue turning the

Most of all to blame were the unfortunate ministers who did not

ation plans during a war aiming to achieve what all Serbs favored: Greater

dare retire Apis. Had they done so, everything would have quieted

Serbia or Yugoslavia. To this JuriSic remarked:

Prince against Apis and the organization. Tucovic denounced such liquid

down and ended without great convulsions. We know very well that even the greatest power among us becomes absolutely impotent up

It was thought to liquidate Apis summarily because he is known as

on retirement like Samson when his hair was cut.

the leader of the entire thing, and if he died, everything would be all right. One officer with a Karadjordje star offered to liquidate

Instead Serbia and Alexander suffered terrible misfortunes threatening to

Apis, but it was decided not to do that. There must be a trial with

discredit them abroad just after everyone had applauded the Albanian

public punishment which will be imposed also on the others.

saga.

10

In early spring 1 9 1 6 Colonel Tucovic realized a major political storm was

Tucovic believed Juris ic had spoken the truth. An honest man of character,

brewing. On Corfu he heard constant rumors that something major was

he could not have invented all this. JuriSic-Sturm, wearing a Karadjordje

being prepared against Apis. Hearing his own name mentioned, Tucovic

star, must have volunteered to kill Apis, Tucovic believed. Juri�ic added:

decided to see Prince Alexander. In June he asked War Minister Terzic to

"We will make Alexander great, then he will make the country great."

arrange an audience. At court he talked at length with his friend, Colonel

Tucovic related this entire conversation to Apis.

Pavle Jurisic-Sturm who spoke very frankly . "You 'Black Handers' are to

Extreme ambition, Tucovic concluded , had induced the patriotic Juri

blame for all our misfortunes," declared Jurisic. "This is the unanimous

sic-Sturm to join Zivkovic's nefarious schemes. Believing himself destined

view. Against you especially are Prince Alexander and many of the Radi

for a major postwar role, he had attached himself to Prince Alexander's

cals." Continued J uriSic prophetically:

rising star. But soon after the war, as a disillusioned nervous wreck, JuriSic resigned from the Yugoslav army and committed suicide, leaving a politi

It is known that Apis is the chief one to blame for everything, but he had helpers who served as his instruments. It is known that many

cal testament condemning Prince Alexander and conditions on Corfu . His brother, Peter, later made a state councillor through Zivkovic's vast


214

influence, kept that document which confirmed Apis had neither plan ned nor organized the alleged attempt on Alexander's life. Pavel had talk ed with the French police who had followed the Prince's car on August 29th. Hearing shots, they had stopped when Alexander did, examined the whole area finding nothing and nobody.

11

General Damjan PopoviC's letters to his wife, Mileva, described graphi cally sinister conditions on Corfu and in Salonika during 1 9 1 6 and the net being woven for the Apis group. After PopoviC's arrest, the French, co operating with Serbian police, seized the letters in Lyons. From Corfu on May 1 7, 1 9 1 6 Popovic, a leading May conspirator, had written:

The Conspiracy

215

told Radovanovic that if Apis were not condemned to death, he, Zivkovi c , would poison him. 13 The "Committee of Ten" now viewed the Apis qu�stion as urgent. After the Ostrovo incident they transformed the Prince's view of an affair he had earlier dismissed lightheartedly. With the "White Hand" conjuring up visions of terrible danger to his life, Alexander denounced the "Black Hand" leaders: I looked through my fingers at them, gave them positions; they scolded me, swore at me, threatened me, and fmally shot at me, then 1 decided to turn the matter over to the courts.

Here the situation is worse than it was before May 29 [ 1903] in Serbia. That is why I am not getting your letters. A whole batta

Did Alexander truly believe that Malobabic, at Apis' instructions, had fired

lion of gendarmes is commanded by Lt. Col. Milan Gavrilovic. Also

at him? Even after Apis' arrest, when Tucovic mentioned the Ostrovo inci

some are commanded by Lt. Col. Radak Radakovic , local com

dent to General Mirko Milosavljevic, later chairman of the Salonika High

mandant here, and also a person of trust [a sarcastic reference] .

Military Cotrrt, he queried laughing: "What assassination attempt?" The

A month later, Popovic wrote: "For us the situation is very unfavorable .

question remained whether Apis and his friends could be implicated in that attem pt. 14

. . . Spies watch us everywhere . . . following me and all who talk with

At the Salonika Trial Apis denied emphatically any link with the affair.

me." Again on September 26th: "They are urging officers not to be

He lacked any motive to harm a Prince who had been his benefactor and

friendly with me . . . . They don't understand our feelings, and believe

saved his life:

that in our work some plans are concealed even though we are doing nothing." After the War and Interior ministers left for Salonika two days

I had no role in preparing such a repulsive affair. I had no personal

later with a proposal to create a special court-martial for officers, the Gen

reasons to wish the Heir's death. On the contrary , for many years 1

eral commented: "They are preparing a noose for someone, the unfortun ates." Popovic heard that both Pa5ic and Protic had opposed that proposal 1 cannot believe this is the desire and will of the Heir but rather of

was one of the young people closest to the Heir. From this time my memories are of the warmest. The Heir's benevolence towards me was such that I believe few can claim anything comparable. Valuable presentes which I received from the Heir I still keep as proofs of his

the nonentities who surround him . . . . The intent is to destory our

good will towards me. The Heir is godfather to my little grandniece

comrades, drive them into a corner and prevent any activity or influ

[Nenuska] , the late Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Glisic's child.

ence by them on state affairs. 1 2

Besides, that I am alive. today, surviving the most terrible disease [Maltese fever] I have only the Heir to thank. By telegram he order

Milovanovic-Pilac's prison diary claimed that "White Hand" leader,

ed that I be treated, that the doctors stay with me until my recovery,

Lieutenant Colonel Milorad Radovanovic-Koca, had quarreled violently

and he constantly asked about the course of my illness.

with Peter Zivkovic. Before witnesses he accused Zivkovic of firing at

for my treatment, involving several thousand dinars the Heir assum

the Prince's automobile on August 29th so A pis would be blamed. After

ed personally. In view of all this 1 would have to be the fiercest and

"preparing" and "prompting" witnesses for the Salonika Trial , Zivkovic

most bloodthirsty of wild beasts for such an ideas to occur to me. 15

All

expenses

216


The Conspiracy

217

Once his entourage persuaded Alexander the A pis group could be link

too dangerous to be left at large . The Prince's entourage , interpreting his

ed with the shots fired at Ostrovo, the "Committee of Ten" affirmed that Rade Malobabic, Apis' protege , had fired them intending to kill the Prince.

least move as a dangerous conspiracy, was amazed that Apis had not acted . agamst them. 1 3

Understanding legal matters poorly, Alexander considered such an attempt

Slobodan Jovanovic saw Apis sometimes in Salonika. At their fmal

likely. King Peter had noted his son's unusual gullibility. Since proofs to

meeting shortly before his arrest, though realizing the "White Hand" was

convince a regular military court were lacking, the Committee planned to

intriguing against him, Apis showed no concern. If he kept quiet and did

hail Apis and his colleagues before a special court martial requiring less

his job, Apis believed at worst they could only send

proof. But such courts then could try only enlisted men, not officers.

rumors he would be named military attache in Belgium or Spain. He con

Thus on September 23rd, Colonel Gojko Pavlovic, chief of Supreme Command's legal division, and Dr. Moacanin, the Prince's physician, ar

him abroad.

He heard

sidered it unlikely they would put him on trial . They might hire assassins to shoot or poison him, but he had taken precautions against that. 1 9

rived on Corfu proposing a special court martial for officers. The doctor

Meanwhile Apis and his friends were being shadowed , spied upon, and

brought the news that the Prince Regent had been the target of an abor

criticized at the front. General Vasic, Third Army commander, sent nega

tive assassination. Chiding the government for failing to protect him, Alex

tive reports to Supreme Command as it strove to build a case of alleged

ander demanded War Minister TerziC's removal . This sensational news

insubordination and neglect of his duties against Apis. Vasic claimed Apis

provoked much sympathy on Corfu, but PavloviC's idea of a special court

had violated his order banning boat travel on a lake near Ostrovo, then he

martial met strong cabinet opposition. All ministers except Terzic and

had allowed highly suspicious persons to move freely around the staff,

Jovanovic-Patak opposed such a court, and the Indepenelent Radicals

such as Father Peter Anastas. Testified Apis at Salonika:

threatened to resign . Stojan Protic obj ected to its illegality, and Pasic refused to sacrifice his coalition cabinet. Blocked over the special court,

I saw the priest for the first time at [Third Army] staff when he

Apis' enemies temporarily renounced ideas of placing him on trial. Talk

returned from the commander [General Vasic) , but I had no deal

about the assassination attempt ceased abruptly .1'

ings with him. l hear such accusations from my army commander

This gave Apis and his friends only a brief reprieve. Interior Minister

for the first time here in court and did not know this while I was

Jovanovic-Patak soon urged War Minister Terzic confidentially to move

doing my duty day and night that he was writing such reports about

decisively against "certain officers" suspected of plotting a military coup

me. Now I understand why I am in detention if my commander

and to murder the Heir. The War Minister turned this over to Supreme

began intriguing and framing me already in September. The proxi

Command which authorized Colonel Pavlovic to activate the "Committee

mity of my commander to me was unpleasant . . . . Only now do I

for the Liquidation of Colonel A pis" led by Colonels Zivkovic and Kostic.

understand some of his references then. Once he said to me: 'Did

It promptly ordered the arrest of Apis and his "Black Hand" colleagues.17

you intend to play politics?' Sometimes when some of my friends

Prince Alexander and the "White Hand," not the Pasic government now

came to the staff, he would remark ironically: 'Surely you have

resolved to try the Apis group. The Prince believed that Apis, Vulovic, and

come especially to have dinner with Colonel Dimitrijevic� . . . As

their "Black Hand" thugs intended to murder him. Apis' past as a regicide,

you see,

all this is mere

trivia.'l0

the unruly Vulovic, and daily denunciations by police spies and "White Hand" so upset the Prince that he could no longer distinguish truth from

Well informed about the anti-Apis agitation was Atanasije Sredojevic, a

fiction. Minister J ovanovic-Patak told him Apis had ordered the Archduke

lifetime national activist and veteran of intelligence and police work.21

murdered in order to provoke war, then planned to assassinate Emperor

When Major Vulovic became chief of Third Army intelligence, Sredojevic

William 11 and other crowned heads. Apis, he affi rmed, was a maniacal mur

became his assistant: they both worked directly under Colonel Apis. As

derer. Apparently the Heir concluded Apis was a paranoid criminal type

head of Supreme Command's police section, Kosta Tucakovic organized


218

The Conspiracy

219

systematic spying on Apis and his friends on Corfu, then on the Salonika

Until late November some regime leaders opposed Apis' arrest and trial.

Front. Protected by the lnterior Minister, Ranko Trifunovic-Tucakovic's

Jovanovic-Patak telegraphed Premier Pa5ic November 30th in code urging

BoSko Arezina, then blamed it on Major Vulovic, causing his dismissal.

pensioning off Apis. He opposed a trial as injurious to army morale and . that of the Serbian people , and as ruinous to Serbia's reputation with the

Failing to enlist Sredojevic in his spy network against Apis, Tucakovic

Allies. J ovanovic-Patak hinted that he was under strong pressure, apparent

intrigued to remove him from Third Army. Right after VuloviC's dismissal

ly from the Prince, to conduct a criminal investigation of Apis. "Please

Supreme Command assigned Sredojevic to the front although because of

give me your views immediately in strictest confidence . Draskovic agrees

war injuries he had been classified a non-combattant. Apis refused to ex

with my viewpoint." Trying Apis and his friends, warned the Interior

ecute that illegal order. Reassigning him to Third Army staff, Apis blocked

Minister, would endanger the coalition government.25 For an eleventh

Tucakovic temporarily. Thus Sredojevic learned many details of the con

hour compromise between Apis and Alexander, Milorad Dra5kovic would

spiracy against Apis before he too was arrested.22

have been the logical choice. Having praised Apis' patriotism and talents

colleague and subordinate-had arranged the murder of Bosnian volunteer,

at Vasilica

on Corfu, the independent Radical leader also enjoyed Alex
near Salonika. Did the Colonel sense things closing in around him? Apis

Yet he and his colleagues avoided mediation for fear of damaging their

just shrugged: "I'm not doing anything bad, but if they want to ruin me,

party.26

Soon before Apis' arrest Vladimir Tucovic talked with

him

Days before his arrest Apis received by unknown hand Major Vulovic's

I cannot oppose them, but I doubt it is true." Warned Tucovic :

highly incriminating letter, later used against them. Written November search you soon, and if they fmd anything, they

27th but unaccountably reaching Apis only two weeks later, it denounced

will arrest you. If you have something to destroy which needs to be

the Prince and the dynasty . Why did Vulovic, who knew the Prince had

preserved, give it to me to take to Corfu because they are sending

been Apis' benefactor, dare send him that letter? asked MiSic at Salonika.

me back there.

Why had Apis not shown this diatribe to the authorities? Knowing of Apis'

I believe they

will

loyalty toward the Heir and dynasty , replied the Colonel, Vulovic must "I have nothing significant except the constitution of our organization, 'Unification or Death!' which no longer exists," replied Apis. that with me, then if they fmd it, they

will see

I ll keep

"

'

there is nothing to it." That

proved to be an unwise and fateful decision. "I see

all that is happening,"

continued Apis, "and if I return alive to the country [Serbia] , someone

will have

to answer for what they have done to the Supreme Command,"

meaning the summary dismissal of Marshal Putnik and his entire staff. The Salonika authorities, Apis affirmed, had gone up a blind ally with Malobabic. "From fear they want at any cost to make

him

have counted on Vulovic's friendship and loyalty : As soon as I received the letter, I did not share its views for a moment nor his suspicions and therefore put the letter in my wallet deciding to deliver it to Colonel Peter Zivkovic. I wanted to send him this letter so he could inform the Heir. I received the letter only De cember 13th and had to send it by some special means or await Zivkovic's arrival.

out as guilty

since they don't know what else to do and how to justify themselves."23

Before he could do either, he had been arrested.27 An uneasy calm prevail

Soon after that, Milutin Jovanovic, a Foreign Ministry official and

ed on the Salonika Front, the hunters awaited impatiently the signal to

PasiC's nephew, visited Tucovic on Corfu. Apis' assignment as military attache had been arranged with the Belgian king, he reported; he would soon leave to assume his new post. Believing that would end tension with Alexander, Tucovic rejoiced and awaited Apis on Corfu. When news of Apis' arrest came instead, he realized Jurisic-Sturm had spoken the truth: a well-conceived plan was being implemented.24

cast their net over their quarry's head.

The Lion is Caged

221

action. In Russia military defeats and political and economic disintegration heralded the coming revolution. If Russia left the war, Allied chances of victory would dwindle and the Pasic regime would lose its staunchest sup porter. The United States was still months away fro·m joining the Allies. Profound war weariness pervaded the belligerents promoting ideas of a compromise peace short of the decisive victory which to many seemed unattainable. At the Allied conference in Chantilly near Paris on Novem ber 15-16, 1 9 1 6 plans were laid for a spring offensive to expel the enemy from Serbia and Rumania and achieve victory in the Balkans.

CHAPTER XIX

Early in November died eighty-six year old Franz J osef I, emperor of Austria-Hungary since 1848. His successor, Emperor Charles, relatively young, pacific and flexible, aimed to save his thone by removing the Mon

THE LION IS CAGED ( D ECEMBER 1 9 1 6 )

archy from the war. On November 1st began Franco-Austrian talks, and a month later Charles reaffirmed his willingness to parley ; France now pro

. . . Colonel Dimitrijevic

intentionally and

posed specific issues for discussion. 1

with definite plan recruited individuals and

From the Bitolj victory in early November the Serbian army emerged

worked to carry out the assassination of the

exhausted and depleted. In its ranks remained only 27,000 active fighters;

Heir, overthrow the present regime . . . and

the rest were in hospitals or rear areas. Hopes of a breakthrough in to oc

introduce the supreme power of ten to fif

cupied Serbia faded. As the army lay in virtual narcosis, the "Committee

teen men dependent on this military organ

of Ten" worked its secret will.2 On Corfu and in Salonika spread rumors

ization and eliminate all those standing in

of threatened army mutinies. By this time, recalled Drailic, Prince Alexander had resolved to get rid

the way, especially Premier Pasic. Colonel Gojko Pavlovic, December

14, 1 9 1 6

of the Apis group at any cost. Before the return to Serbia, it was rumored, the "Black Hand" would erect "a gate of sabres," allowing into the home

Apis' arrest at Vostarane village o n December 1 5 , 1 9 1 6 followed months

land only those it approved of.3 By November 20th Alexander and Pasic

of assiduous work by the "Committee of Ten." Its timing related closely

had learned of the planned Balkan offensive. Preparations for Apis' arrest

to the overall European military and political situation and domestic

and the Salonika Trial, affirmed Vasiljevic, began right afterwards. Prince

Serbian considerations. Very significant was an Allied decision in mid

Alexander seized his last favorable opportunity to destroy the Apis group.4

November to launch a Balkan offensive the next spring to liberate Serbia

How did Pasic and the Corfu government view the situation? The cab

and Rumania. To Prince Alexander and the Radicals time to settle ac

inet, alleged Milorad Draskovic, feared chiefly Apis, Vulovic and Milo

counts with Apis seemed to be running out. Emperor Charles' accession to

vanovic-Pilac. 5 Some claimed .that Pasic no longer believed in Allied vic

the Austro-Hungarian throne and possible separate peace talks may also

tory, concluding the Central Powers were likely to prevail. By liquidating

have spurred the Serbian regime to move swiftly against Apis.

the Apis group, the Corfu regime could create favorable conditions for a

Late in 1916 World War I entered a critical phase. Almost everywhere

possible separate peace insuring Serbia at least her prewar boundaries.

the Allies had suffered significant reverses. Rumania had been forced out

Peace feelers were being sent through Prince Sixte de Bourbon-Parma, Emperor Charles' relative , and Stojan Protic's secret mission to Switzer

220

land was connected with this, claim some accounts. Such a view, argued


222

223

The Lion is Caged

Vasiljevic later, was one-sided and mistaken. An astute politician, Pasic

the legal order in our country and its form of government." To achieve

always had at least two solutions to every problem and invariably left

this had been undertaken various "impermissible activities" by Bosnian

himself an escape route. In November 1 9 1 6 Pasic probably still believed

revolutionaries from the late Vojin Popovi6-Vuk's guerrilla detachments.

in eventual Allied victory but viewed a separate peace with the Central

"From the beginning leading this subversive circle stood Colonel Dragutin

Powe rs as the alternative. Austro-French talks beginning December 2/ 1 5th

Dimitrijevic." Holding responsible and influential positions, Dimitrijevic

provided no direct pretext for arresting Apis since Pasic and Alexander

had carried out numeous illegal and baneful actions.

only learned about them subsequently. But those conversations influenced them to move ahead aggressively with the Salonika Trial. 6 Two of his trusted officers-Lieutenant Colonel Radovanovic-Koca and Colonel Pavle Jurisic-Sturm-warned the Prince that executing Apis

The chief objective of Apis and company, continued the Interior Min ister, was to seize power illegally through those Bosnian revolutionaries. They had skillfully won over and recruited active and reserve officers for action at a favorable moment.

would insure his martyrdom. "Our people love political martyrs," de clared Radovanovic. If Apis were killed, some day his bones would mock

Their first task . . . was to overturn by force the present regime and

Alexander from the palace balcony. Radovanovic doubted Apis had plot

legal order with the Karadjordjevic dynasty, and instead of constitu

ted against the Prince: "A pis would never have bribed someone to carry

tional monarchy to introduce a regime whose highest power would

out an assassination; he would have done it himself and started a revolu

be held by ten to fifteen selected persons who would accept this mili

tion too." Jurisi6 agreed, but Alexander was unswayed: "Both of you are

tary regime. All those hindering or in the way of their plan were to

young and naive and don't know anything," was his rejoinder. If the Heir

be removed by force, and Premier Pasic was one of the first.

asked front line officers, persisted Radovanovi6, he would realize they had been correct. 7 Top Serbian government and military leaders exchanged several docu ments paving the way for the Apis group's arrest. First came the Interior Minister's lengthy communication ("prezidijal") to the War Minister on December 1 2th : a

The Interior Minister never referred here to Apis' organization as "Unifica tion or' Death!" or "Black Hand" because its constitution and statutes had not yet surfaced. In February 1 9 1 6 on Corfu, affirmed the Interior Minister, Apis had told the Bosnian youths that the Serbian regime in exile was in disorder. Rulers such as William 11 of Germany, Ferdinand of Bulgaria, and Con

Already while our army was on Corfu , i t was observed that one

stantine of Greece were pursuing "sensible" policies. Prince Alexander,

group of our officers was conducting political agitation and making

Apis claimed, had surrendered to an intolerable entourage. Before under

preparations for actions contrary to the Constitution and laws and

taking external action, Serbs at home must be freed from such evil influ

damaging to the interests of the country and its people. Here in Salonika we acquired precise information . . . and the conviction

ences and Premier Pasic must be killed. But the Bosnians had refused to ' involve themselves in Serbian internal politics. Thus Apis had turned to

grew that unless their activities were halted, they could have serious

members of fanner Serbian national organizations then in Greece. Then

consequences for the fighting strength of the Serbian army and the

occurred the "event of Sep�ember 12,"9 about which J ovanovic-Patak

future of the country.

pleaded ignorance, which also must be investigated. Since such "subversive activities" were punishable under Serbian law

The Apis group's foreign activities were "strictly confidential" and must

and endangered the state, J ovanovic-Patak urged War Minister Terzic to

be investigated separately and secretly . Apparently, this was to conceal

authorize the arrest of the Apis group. Since most were officers, further

the "Black Hand's" patriotic goal of unifying the Serbs. "Their internal

action and investigation must be handled by the military

activity," continued Jovanovi6-Patak, "had the aim of changing by force

.10


224

The Lion is Caged

225

Receiving this formidable "prezidijal" next day, December 13th, War

nor the government should return to Serbia, but instead to establish

Minister Terzic sent it straight to the Supreme Command requesting fur

the rule of a military republic. Among those who prepared this

ther legal action and confidential investigation. Terzic urged emphatically

odious affair the chief role was played by General Staff Colonel

that "such evil be destroyed at the roots in order to prevent execution of

Dragutin T. Di.mitrijevic, artillery major Ljubomir R. Vulovic; the

these dangerous and harmful intentions." 1 1

others recruited for this were all Bosnians . . . . 1 4

Terzic's message reached Supreme Command later that day. How rapid ly a bureaucracy can operate when its leaders' vital personal or profes

The Prince allegedly sent this letter right to Supreme Command.

sional interests are at stake! In this case Prince Alexander evidently had

Only on December 1 2th was the report by J ovan Milosavljevic, a police

prearranged everything. Chief of Staff Bojovic promptly ordered Colonel

agent of Supreme Command's intelligence section, submitted to his sup

Pavlovic, chief of Supreme Command's legal division, to examine im

eriors. A former Belgrade student and journalist, Milosavljevic had written

mediately the Interior Minister's "prezidijal" and "supporting documents''

for

by Mihailo Rankovic and Jovan Milosavljevic, then submit to him

Sworn into "Black Hand" by Jovanovic-Cupa, he had been in Rankovic's

morning his written

next

views on legal action. 1 2

Slovenski Jug,

Jovanovic-Cupa's pro-Yugoslav student newspaper.

"Black Hand" cell.

In an incredible burst of speed by the normally dilatory legal branch Colonel Pavlovic submitted his written report next morning, December

I am reporting stories which are circulating that on Corfu the of

14th. Obviously he had lacked time to check the veracity of these docu

ficers accused here [sic] met with Bosnian volunteers and prepared

ments. Based on the "prezidijal" and "supporting reports," Pavlovic con

a coup . . . . From my meeting with volunteers Milan Ciganovic and

cluded that:

Djuro Sarac and from conversations held with them I learned that some of the Bosnians separated from their Bosnian friends and that

. . . Colonel Dimitrijevic intentionally and with defmite plan recruit

Colonel Dimitrijevic turned them away from executing national

ed individuals and worked to carry out the assassination of the Heir,

tasks advising them that first it was necessary to clean up our in

to overthrow the present regime and legal order and the Karadjordje

ternal affairs. 1 5

vic dynasty and to introduce the supreme power of ten to fifteen men which would depend on this military organization and elimin ate all those standing in the way, especially Premier Pasic . 1 3

This document's date and the channels it passed through reveal it as a hastily concocted political denunciation to provide a "legal basis" for action against Apis. Legal division chief, Colonel Pavlovic , accepted these

Mihailo Rankovic, a former Assembly deputy, until 1 9 1 2 had belonged to the Independent Radical Party, then joined the Radicals and "Black Hand," recruited by J ovanovic-Cupa,

reports, based solely on hearsay, as bona fide and accurate without check ing their veracity .''

first editor. Becoming a

Colonel Pavlovic's report of December 14th comprised the sole legal

police provocateur by his own admission, Rankovic on November 25,

basis for prosecuting Colonel Apis and his chief associates. Its crucial

1 9 1 6 wrote to Prince Alexander in Salonika:

passages read:

Piedmont's

When You, the government and army left for Corfu lin January

. . . Colonel Dimitrijevic intentionally and with definite plan recruit

1 9 1 6 ] , these people lApis group]

gathered around them young

ed individuals and worked to carry out the assassination of the Heir,

people, national workers, and enthusiastic youths from still unlib

overthrow the present regime . . . and the Karadjordj evic dynasty

erated regions in Orae and prepared an organization whose purpose

and introduce the supreme power of ten to fifteen men dependent

and aim was that neither His Majesty , the King of Serbia, nor You,

on this military organization . . . .


226

Confirming this were Mihailo RankoviC's report, the Interior Minister's "prezidijal" of December 1 2th, and MilosavljeviC's report.

The Lion is Caged

•

227

trunk, so open it up so he can see for himself that we are not hiding any'

thing." Apis turned smiling to Dunjic: "He was confused by you, wondering God only knows what will happen now that you have-come with such

Aiding the Colonel in this work were Colonels M. G. Milovanovic, Stojanovic, Sr., and Vladirnir Tucovic ; Lieutenant

a request." Always the genial host, Apis instructed Milic to bring cognac ; 2 Dunjic accepted a drink. 1

Colonels Bozin Simic, Velirnir Vemic and Vojislav Gojkovic , and

Most items in the trunk were trivial personal effects, money and letters.

Major Ljubomir Vulovic . For the execution of this plan were re

However, Dunjic, an old enemy of Apis, could not restrain his joy at fmd

cruited: Nezir Hadzi Nalic, Milan Ciganovic , BoSko Arezina, Djuro

ing copies of "Black Hand's" constitution and rules, and a list of its CEC

Sarac, Vladet Biblija, Muhamed Mehmedbasic, Mustafa Golubic, and

with their original signatures. Before the astonished Dunjic unfolded the

Veljko Zecevic . . . . Against Colonel Dimitrijevic criminal investi

mysteries of the "Black Hand" society ; he was the frrst outsider to plumb

gation should be begun immediately under Articles 85 and 87 during

its secrets. Other potentially incriminating documents were Major Vulovic's

which he is to be confined; he is to be arrested immediately . . . . 17

incautious November 27th letter to Apis, and letters from Colonels Plazina,

Dragomir Z.

Lazarevic, and Lieutenant Colonel Glisic confirming Apis' intention in Colonel Milan Dunjic, Salonika's military commandant, now named

May 1 9 1 4 to remove civil officials in Macedonia.22 For Dunjic and his

chief investigator, was instructed to take Apis into custody .18 The War

superiors this was a goldmine. Now it was certain Apis would be arrested

Minister, informed by the Interior Minister of the Apis group's "subversive

and imprisoned.

intentions and activities," had reported them to Supreme Command "so

The first "Black Hand" leader arrested, Apis was taken under guard to

legal action would be taken to destroy this evil in its roots and prevent

Salonika Officers' Prison. Apis' closest colleagues and friends were soon

dangerous and murderous actions against our state." 19

removed from the front, then arrested. This was purely precautionary lest

About noon December 15th the Salonika commandant arrived in Ost

they act on Apis' behalf. Those aware of Supreme Command's secret

rovo armed with warrants to search Apis' personal effects and arrest him

operations, noted Tucovic, knew how it had decided whom to remove.

if anything incriminating were found. At Third Army staff in nearby Vos

First members of the court camarilla fingered their personal enemies, then

tarane Colonel Apis was conducting normal military duties. Besides much

reached collective agreement. Many battalions, regiments, even entire

regular work, he had written his nephew in France not realizing it would

army brigades were stripped of leadership as their commanders were re

be the last letter Milance would receive from him. His arrest did not

moved and deported or imprisoned. Cloaked in secrecy, these moves pro

come as a great shock. Later, Apis told Captain Milan Stojkovic , com

voked consternation and confusion in Serbian and Allied ranks. Fantastic

mandant of Salonika Officers' Prison, that friends, notably Colonel Tuco

rumors spread in Salonika and at the front about treason, mutiny, opening

vic, had warned him repeatedly. "They told me, I knew I was going to be 20 arrested."

the front to the enemy, and secret contacts with the Central Powers. Cur iously, almost nothing was heard yet about an attempt on the Prince's

When Colonel Dunjic appeared in Vostarane , he found Apis not very

life. The entire Salonika Front was thrown into uncertainty Y The "White

surprised to see him. Dunjic ordered him to open his military trunk ; Apis

Hand" seemed to place settlem.ent of personal scores ahead of the war and

so instructed his orderly, Milic Ilic, who kept its keys and regularly hand

the Serbian cause.

led its contents. "I know personally," recalled Apis' nephew, "that Apis

The news of Colonel Apis' arrest spread rapidly along the front. No one

did not know precisely what was in the trunk." Shocked that an officer

knew why it had occurred. When his own removal from command follow

had come to search his colonel, Milic at first could not unlock the trunk.

ed immediately , Colonel Milovanovic-Pilac realized his arrest was imminent.

Reassuringly in his habitual jovial manner Apis tapped Ilic on the shoulder:

He issued a hasty farewell message to his troops :

"Don't worry Milic. The Colonel just wants to see what we have in our


228

The reason for my removal is unknown to me. In parting from you officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers, let me urge you as your former commander and as a Serb: that you, mother Serbia, our dear homeland, should remain always before your eyes?" Other officers and even civilians were soon arrested and imprisoned or deported to French North Africa. Regimental commander Colonel Cedo mir Popovic, hospitalized for a severe illness, was taken from the hospital straight to Salonika Officers' Prison. And Bogdan Radenkovic, Serbian vice-consul in Athens and a "Black Hand" founder, ill with acute tuber culosis, over his superiors' protests, had to travel to Salonika without escort and was promptly imprisoned.

25

Colonel Dunjic requested author

ization from Supreme Command to detain and investigate other Apis men: Colonel Tucovic , General Damjan Popovic, and Lieutenant Colonel Vitomir Cvetjovic, since intercepted or confiscated correspondence re vealed their ties with the accused. Considered especially incriminating was a letter of Cvetkovic to General Popovic from Corfu in 1 9 1 6 : 1 hope that consciousness will be awakened among our troops as during May 29th [ 1903] to deal with the good-for-nothings . . . . Here people are lacking whom we can work with, and very much could be done . . . .

26

At dusk on December 16, 1 9 1 6 Colonel Apis arrived at Salonika Of ficers' Prison, noted the diary of Captain Milan Stojkovic, prison com mandant. "He tried not to appear upset, but precisely this betrayed that he was upset." Stojkovic ushered Apis into his cell. Apis first noticed the crossed iron bars on the windows. Suddenly he felt like a prisoner. He looked dubiously

at

the bars and shivered: "How cold it is!" Were the

windows in proper repair? He spent an entire hour just walking around the room. When Apis told the guard that his orderly would bring his things, the guard warned: ' "That is up to the commandant." At 7 PM Apis lay down fully clothed on his back, covered with his military overcoat, and pondered. When water and a glass were brought, he refused them. Apis fell asleep at 9 PM and slept right through the night. On Colonel Apis' first full day at the prison he rose at 7 AM and lit a cigarette. When Captain Stojkovic remarked he had· drunk none of the

The Lion is Caged

229

water, Apis asked "angrily and impudently" : "Have you regulated my diet?" Stojkovic without replying took out his cigarette case, casually lit a smoke in front of Apis, then departed. The Colo1_1el's personal effects had arrived meanwhile. "He will get them this afternoon," noted Stoj kovic, "so he will learn patience and polite behavior." Psychological war fare between prisoner and jailor had commenced. Apis stood long at the window plunged in thought. Only the roofs of a few houses were visible. Then he walked nervously around his solitary cell until 1 1 AM when Stojkovic invited him to walk in the courtyard . "Thanks very much," responded Apis smiling, but he demurred. The Col onel ignored the obvious fact that his dinner had been pulled apart and inspected before being given to him. The commandant then summoned him to be interrogated by chief investigator, Colonel Dunjic. "Right away!" replied Apis pleasantly . Afterwards, saying he was bored, A pis asked the Captain to give him something from his trunk to read. "What class are you from [at the Academ y) ?" queried Apis. "Why aren't you a major?" Silently Stojkovic gave him a volume of Pushkin's poetry in Rus sian, an Italian dictionary, and other trifles. "Why can't I have my razor?" inquired Apis. "So you won't kill yourself." "Oh, don't fear that," said Apis smiling. "For me

all this is just a joke; a bullet will kill me, so I won't

kill myself." Taking the things Stojkovic handed him , he offered the Captain conserves and tobacco. "Help yourself, please, to whatever you like. I prepared these for my family since I believed we would soon return to Serbia . . . . " Smiling in turn, Stojkovic responded: "And you were mistaken about that." Apis read Pushkin until about 10 PM. Leafmg through the great Russian poet's works earlier, Stojkovic discovered they had been read carefully. All passages mentioning freedom had been underlined in colored pencil, ap

p

parently by A is, as was the phrase: "Suicide was frequent in antiquity." In Apis' trunk also evidently read carefully was a Russian translation of

John Stuart Mill's classic essay, On Liberty. 27

Awaiting Trial

23 1

He goes to bed at ten PM but takes a full hour to fall asleep; he gets up at eight or nine AM. At first, noted Stojkovic, A pis questioned everything. ;,1 see that you don't dare drink the water," remarked the Captain. "No, please," replied Apis evasively, "I don't drink even a half glass of water in twenty-four hours." But Stojkovic heared he feared being poisoned. Were any of his friends at the prison? asked Apis. Soon he learned that

CHAPTER XX

between December 19th and 2 1 st Colonels Milovanovic-Pilac, Cedo rnir Popovic and Lieutenant Colonel Vernic, all founding fathers of the "Black Hand," had arrived, followed by the gravely ill Radenkovic. The prisoners pleaded for newspapers but could read only a military journal, Ratni dnevnik. To control them easier Colonel Zivkovic, the

AWAITING TRIAL ( DECEMBER 1 9 1 6-MARCH 1 9 1 7 ) What, my falcon, can't you understand that

spider, deliberately kept the prisoners isolated from the outside world. Apis once asked for Ratni dnevnik "to see if there is anything new at the front." One day with studied casualness he asked Stojkovic: "Is the in

Apis can even enjoy prison? Well, you see that he can. One can do anything when one wants to . . . . No, brother Serb, I am glad to

vestigating commission at work?" Instructed to be evasive , the Captain replied: "I don't know." Concluded Stojkovic: "Evidently he is getting

see you and that you are my jailor. Apis to Lieutenant Josif Protic in Salonika Officers' Prison

impatient." Stojkovic had orders to watch the imprisoned officers constantly. His diary recorded Apis' activities on December 23rd:

At Salonika Officers' Prison, as his chief colleagues were brought in one by one, Colonel Apis soon settled into a routine. For three months all re mained in solitary confinement, supervised by Captain Stojkovic and his assistant, Lieutenant Josif Protic . "We settled down and set our course " recorded Stojkovic in his extensive daily notes, compiled for Colonel Zivkovic. "He [ApisJ acts very friendly, is always smiling, and gets up when ever I come in. He gets angry only when sometimes I knock on his door. At first he would reply : 'Come in! Now he is silent and thinks I am j ok ing." For Zivkovic the Captain described Apis' behavior as a prisoner: '

He doesn't lie down during the day; he reads, mostly sits, does not utilize the walking time in the courtyard, doesn't speak to the guards. 230

·

Dirnitrijevic arose at 7 AM, washed wrote something. At 1 1 AM he requested Russkii vestnik [a Russian journal] from his trunk and some matches. Also he asked for Push.kin's works. I feel that he can no longer pretend and I am awaiting that. He ate heartily at 12: 15. After dinner he read and wrote the whole afternoon. He failed to use his walk time either morning or afternoon. He is nervous and angry that I don't assign him a regular soldier to prepare his cof fee and that I hang over his head whenever there is someone in his room. I ordered the sergeant to fix him coffee at 3:30 PM. He order ed the soldier to come back at 9 PM and remove his boots. Since his orders are not binding on me, he had to undress himself at 9:30 PM. Five days later the Captain wrote: "Dimitrijevic drinks much black coffee. A soldier needs to cook it for him every hour. Two days ago I found in his room a junior sergeant whom he had summoned to prepare coffee but

•


232

Awaiting Trial

233

who in no case is supposed to enter his room alone." The authorities under

occupied Serbia. Apis, lighting another cigarette, resumed enthusiastically:

standably feared Apis' personal magnetism.

"You see, my Protic, how small our little Serbia is-we all know one an

Initially, Stojkovic refused Apis' requests to shave himself, then relent

other. We mourn every death." Apis continued : "What, my falcon, can't

"He thanked me profusely and offered me cigar

you understand that Apis can even enjoy prison? Well, you see that he can.

ettes." Asked if he needed anything, Apis replied: "Thanks a lot, I have

One can do anything when one wants to," he added smiling broadly. "It

everything. As you see, I prepared myself well for this expedition." Was

seems only yesterday that I took you from school and sent you with Vuk

the investigation commission working on his case? "You will see that no

[Popovic , the guerrilla leader] to Turkey to kill or be killed. So, brother

thing will come of all this [court case] . "2

Serb, I am glad to see you and that you are my jailor." Embracing Protic

ed and gave

him his razor.

As days stretched into weeks, reported Stojkovic, the prisoners grew

with a powerful bear hug, Apis shook him delightedly.

bored and anxious; they wanted urgently to talk with someone. Relieving

"Colonel, Sir," gasped poor Protic, released from this crushing embrace,

the monotony after the New Year was the arrival of Lieutenant Josif

"is it true that you wanted to kill the Heir? Excuse my asking, but . . . . "

Protic, assigned as Stojkovic's assistant, and then of Major Ljubomir Vulo

"Go ahead, just ask away ," exclaimed Apis. "Since you are asking me, it

vic. Lieutenant Protic had to awaken Stojkovic, recovering from one of his

means you don't believe much of what they accuse me of. So, Protic , I'll

frequent drunken binges in Salonika, to report Vulovic's arrival. "Who

tell you as if I were confessing before God. Do you remember those days

now?" reacted Stojkovic irritably. "That Colonel Pavlovic has gone crazy.

in late May 1903 when you were a junior sergeant? What did I do then for

He's going to arrest half the General Staff. If things go on this way, we'll

the dynasty? And do you remember what happened to me then? I was

have to fmish the war with corporals and sergeants." Still groggy , the Capt

wounded and the wound festered. There would have been so saving me

ain ordered Protic to show the formidable Vulovic to his cell. The Major

had they not transported me hurriedly to Vienna and had the doctors

walked in aided by a cane. As Protic helped him unpact his trunk, Vulo. vie started back amazed. "Is it Protic? Are guerrilla fighters the guards

there not operated immediately. Right? Who paid for my treatment and for saving me? Peter Karadjordjevic paid 22,000 dinars in gold out of his

here?" Protic , who had known Apis in Macedonia, explained hastily that

own funds . . . . Now how could I raise my had against his son? What kind

he was the only guerrilla fighter at the prison. Colonel Dunjic had assigned

of swine would I be to take revenge on him who saved my life?"

him there.3

"You are right!" exclaimed Protic.

Young Protic arrived at Salonika Prison to encounter Colonel Apis, for

"Or let's turn things around," resumed Apis. "Let's say I am a criminal

him an admired, almost legendary figure . He found Apis almost wholly

and good-for-nothing hiding behind this uniform. Would I be . . . Apis who

bald but as imposing as ever. Around the ears, where he still had some hair,

organized that assassination attempt so idiotically as the prosecutors and

it had been cut short. Apis appeared healthy enough, although his sore

judges claim? At least I know how to kill him whose head must fall, right?

legs were wrapped up. The Colonel invariably wore impeccably lacquered

l am no cretin!" Apis cautioned Protic to obey all orders whatever he

boots and full military uniform. On his chest was the Star of Karadjordje

thought privately ; his superiors might be testing him. Apis declared philo

presented to him personally by King Peter.

sophically: "And remember that even if they convict us as innocent men,

That first day after assuming his new duties Lieutenant Protic made a tour of the prisoners' rooms. Apis was heating coffee. He looked up in

God will claim repayment . . . , Everything in nature equalizes itself . . . . Every murderer will sometime be killed."4

joyful amazement. "Where did you [using the familiar "thou"] spring

Apis' spirits were raised immeasurably by frequent talks with Protic ,

from? . . . Where did they fmd you to be my jailor? . . . But I'm glad.

but he was depressed to hear Vulovic too was in custody. Tucovic reacted:

Better than some good-for-nothing. Surely 'That One' ['Black Handers'

"So even Ljuba? It means we are all here now! The pumpkin has really

now referred regularly to Prince Alexander as 'Onaj') didn't s�nd you.

burst. This means that 'That One' had decided to eliminate us. Now there

This must be DunjiC's affair." Protic told Apis about his family back in

is no one alive who can prevent them from imposing their will ."


234

•

Awaiting Trial

235

As Protic came with this unwelcome news, Apis again was preparing

When a postcard he had addressed to his nephew was returned, Apis re

coffee. Protic pretended to remonstrate: "Colonel, Sir, you are constantly

solved not to write him further. Later, he asked again if he had received

cooking coffee. Up to ten times a day. Won' t it ruin your health to have so

anything from Milan. Next day Stojkovic recorded: "Dimitrijevic declares

much coffee and cigarettes?" Then Protic quickly closed the cell door.

he would drink a glass of poison without a word if he is disturbing anyone

Apis understood he had something important to say. About Vulovic's

and if he believed he was causing trouble to others." Was Zivkovic trying

arrest Apis stated: "That means they will carry this thing to the end, to

to drive

the last man. 'That One' has decided to exterminate us. Thus there is no

gator Dunjic to assure

honor in this world, everything is lies and deception!" Protic noticed Apis

ander devotedly and would never have let anyone try to murder him .'

him

to suicide? Later, Apis requested a talk with chief investi

him

he was innocent: he had always served Alex

Colonel Dunjic talked with Apis January 22nd, and next day was pre

was not in good form.

sent at hearings related to his case . Afterwards Apis spoke optimistically No, it is not just a bad mood, my falcon. But rather disillusionment

with Stojkovic about things he would need during a prison term. Later, he

with people, with everything-justice, truth, and life. Today I've

asked impatiently if the trial was imminent. 7

been doing much thinking. I have inventoried past events and people.

Interrogations of the accused were held mostly at night, 0ften lasting

And do you know what I have concluded: life is one great pile of

nearly until dawn. Prisoners were accompanied to the interrogation room

dung! Only suffering, worry, torture, a constant rifle recoiL And the

by a guard and an officer. Since Stojkovic and Protic were the only prison

worst is when you understand that you have remained alone, that

officers and Stojkovic was often in Salonika d rinking, Protic usually had

everyone has abandoned you, that they have all lied to you and dis

to take them. The lengthiest interrogations were of Apis, Vulovic, and

carded you like an old cleaning rag . . . . So let's drink coffee and

Malobabic, the three destined for execution. Next longest was that of

smoke . Only coffee and tobacco are of constant quality !5

Milovanovic-Pilac, Apis' personal friend from the Academy . Reserved and distrustful of Protic, he asserted one day: neither Apis nor Vulovic could

Lack of mail from his family since his incarceration may have provoked

have organized the clumsy "attempt" on the Heir. "If you want to kill

Apis' pessimistic outburst. He attributed this wrongly to their forgetful

someone, you don't fire at his car from a distance. You go up and throw

ness, even believing his beloved Milance had abandoned

him .

Actually ,

a bomb. Even a child knows that!" Not realizing Protic had served under

Milan and the others wrote him loyally throughout his imprisonment. But

Apis, Milovanovic, his hand on Protic's shoulders, said: "You who surely

at Colonel Zivkovic's express instructions their letters were intercepted.

aren't burdened with personal friendship toward Apis as I am, are prob

Apparently, the spider derived sadistic pleasure from Apis' isolation and

ably also more objective about the present situation . . . . Do you, Protic,

suffering.

believe Apis wanted to kill Alexander?" "I don't know," evaded Protic.

As weeks slipped by without defmite word whether they would be tried

He knew he was in a madhouse where no one knew who was working for

or released , Captain Stojkovic detected growing depression and boredom

and spying on whom. "I am certain," persisted Milovanovic, "he would

among the prisoners. He found them rather naive too about the upcoming

never raise a hand against Alexander. Apis is a specialist and would never

trial:

do such a thing so idiotically . . . . We know how . . . . " Suddenly Milo vanovic stopped, looked around fearfully, and fell silent. In explaining Earlier, I thought Dimitrijevic and Milovanovic were knowledgeable

unwittingly he had let something slip out. But Protic gave no sign he had

about ancient and recent history, but I was mistaken. They both

noticed.

think

and have emphasized they can say in court all they have done.

Soon afterwards Protic took Colonel Tucovic to an interrogation, re

They forget that even Danton could not say what he wanted but

turning him to his cell just before dawn. Tucovic persuaded the Lieu tenant,

could only answer questions put to him . . . .

contrary to regulations, to stay and talk. When Protic confumed he had


236

237

Awaiting Trial

his

Next day the Interior Minister urged that investigation of the imprisoned

assignment to guard them. Considering Protic one of them, Tucovic talked

officers develop material for a public trial . 1 2 However, the special investi

with him more openly. Apis was being accused of giving blood money to

gator's report on results of the interrogations of the arrested officers was

Bosnian volunteers, especially Mustafa Golubic, Tucovic revealed. Protic

only completed March 12, 1 9 1 7 . 1 3

known Apis officially and privately, Tucovic expressed amazement at

warned

him

not to discuss such things before investigators or in court.

·

Investigation of the "attempt" on Prince Alexander's life dragged on and on. Colonel Pavlovic, chief of the Supreme Command's legal division

Tucovic jumped up impulsively and embraced Protic:

came to Salonika Prison more and more disgruntled. Unless interrogations You truly are that Smail-aga, guerrilla from Macedonia, and Apis

and signed admissions of guilt were completed swiftly, he faced dismissal.

man you represent yourself to be. And I thought you were some spy

Pavlovic goaded Lieutenant Protic to rush the accused to interrogations.

from 'That One' because it did not enter my head 'That One' would

As an Academy classmate of several of the arrested colonels, Pavlovic

allow a guerrilla to be a jailor to 'Black Hand' members . . . . Now

knew they would not admit things they had not done. He also interrogated

run off before anyone sees us. 8

Bosnian volunteers, formerly of "Young Bosnia" or the "Black Hand," arrested for working with Apis. 1�

Prince Alexander and the "White Hand" pushed the Apis investigation

Confidential correspondence between Premier Pasic and Interior Min

relentlessly, but some Radical leaders at first seemed reluctant to try the

ister Jovanovic-Patak that winter suggests strongly that the Corfu govern

"Black Hand" leaders. From abroad Pasic had requested Supreme Com

ment invented the attempt to

mand to place Apis at his disposition for a foreign mission. The reply

penalty on Colonel Apis. On January

came: Apis has already been arrested. That may have been PasiC's way to

scribed to Pasic the alleged attempt on the Prince near Ostrovo

avert suspicion that he had helped organize the Salonika affair.9 "White

ember

Hand" leaders, excluding the last "Black Handers" from the Prince's en

Ranko Trijunovic, also gave the date as September 12. J ovanovic-Patak

tourage , acted more aggressive ly. General Mirko Milosavljevic, one of

telegraphed Pasic March 2nd from Salonika : "With the help of my col

them, told Slobodan Jovanovic : "As long as military operations last, we

leagues, the assassins have been discovered and are now in my hands. Links

[' Black and White Hand'] will work together as brothers; as soon as opera

between them and Colonel Dirnitrijevic and Major Vulovic are clear." But

tions cease, it will be as if the devil got into us!" The "White Hand" now

when Pasic communicated that message to the cabinet next day, this

dominated the Interior and War ministers. 10

Old Style!

Alexander in order to impose the death

24, 1917 the Interior Minister de

on Sept

His letter of February 8th to security chief,

version promptly collapsed. That very day he received the Interior Min

Accusations against the Apis group were carefully orchestrated . A week after Apis' arrest, Chief of Staff Bojovic sent an order to

12, 1916,

kill

all

ister's telegram:

Serbian of

ficers castigating those few who in those critical days for the homeland

I have just experienced a great unpleasantness. As you know Col

had lacked any sense of duty:

onel Pavlovic on Corfu designated September 1 2th as the date of the assassination attempt. When I came here [Salonika] , I heard on

Driven on by excessive ambition for power, they began to criticize

the contrary that this [attempt] had occurred at the end of August,

. . . and agitate against the state administration and policy, to under

so then naturally I asked him who knows the truth [presumably

mine authority, destroy legal order, and ruin morale and discipline

Prince Alexa nder] . I received the reply just as Pavlovic had stated

in the army with the apparent aim of taking over full political and nilitary power . . . . 1 1

it and have worked on that assumption up to now. You can imagine

1

how I felt when the contrary was confirmed, that the event occur red on Javandan [August 29, old style ] . I do not know the cause of

238


Awaiting Trial

239

this error in communication and have not yet decided what conclu

all that had transpired and held everything in his hands, communicating

sions to draw from this matter. 15

significant matters to the Prince with his comments. His vast power stem med from Alexander's utter confidence in him. All attempts by the jealous

Jovanovic-Patak' s "discovery" imperilled nearly completed plans for the Salonika Trial. Thus Pasic next day, March 4th, telegraphed him:

or righteous to undennine his authority or reveal hirri as a ruthless homo sexual shattered against the Prince's unshakable trust. Any struggle or intrigue against "Pera" became ipso facto disloyalty to the Prince and the

Received your telegram. As to the day of the attempt, you should not draw any conclusions. I must communicate the telegram to our colleagues. Infonn me urgently what motivated him whom you asked to designate the exact date of the event [the Prince] to state something contrary to what you say you have now confirmed. Below that enigmatic message , Pasic's secretary had added: "Pasic told me to attract your attention to this : can one state that the attempt occurred on September 12th New Style? Inform him immediately what you think, whether it would be good to say this, so he can think i t over and decide Filipovic."1' Confusion deepened as Jovanovic-Patak telegraphed PliSic March 6th:

dynasty.13 Nonetheless, Zivkovic required all his feminine wiles and vigilance to protect his invisible web. After Apis' arrest, the apparent harmony pre valent among several factions at the Prince's court ended abruptly. A deep chasm opened. Having captured their prey, how would the hunters divide the spoils of the chase? Intrigue and mutual jealousy flourished among the courtiers like ragwee d. They agreed Apis must be liquidated, but what then? Who would assume Apis' mantle in the army? Could the Prince's secretary, Jelenic, who considered Apis' arrest the culmination of years of effort, outplay the slick "Pera"? 19 Lieu tenant

Colonel

Radovanovic-Koca,

splitting with the

"White

Hand" that winter, claimed Zivkovic had planned repeatedly to have Apis poisoned. Major RadiSa Nikolic told Radovanovic that Zivkovic had sent

I could not obtain infonnation how this error about the date of the

him to Third Anny staff in 1 9 1 6 to arrange Apis' murder. When that fail

attempt occurred. To my query they replied: 'I just don't know

ed, Nikolic was ordered to poison Apis himself, but he refused. Zivkovic

where that came to us from. Possibly it occurred because of the

realized Nikolic dared not perfonn this deed. On a Salonika streetcar in

Gregorian calendar, although the beheading of John the Baptist

January 1 9 1 7 Zivkovic hinted to Radovanovic he had installed Stojkovic

corresponds to the 1 1 th, not the 12th of September.

and Protic as jailors so one could poison Apis. Indeed, S tojkovic once de

[usekovanje ]

clared: "Apis must admit the affair [attempt on the Prince?) because he That demolished Pasic's idea of solving the discrepancy by juggling old and

is badly mistaken if he believes he will emerge alive from prison." Colonel

new style dates, differing then by thirteen days. But for Pasic it had be

Kostic, Zivkovic's crony, confided to Tucovic earlier that the officer corps

come so crucial to substantiate the assassination attempt and link the Apis group with it that dates became secondary . J ovanovic-Patak had to accept August 29/September 1 1 th! Then Pasic and he, not realizing key tele grams had survived, ordered their correspondence burned to conceal this deception from historians. 17 The driving force behind the Salonika Trial, agreed most contempor aries, was the spider, Colonel Zivkovic. Unknown to the public, he re mained in the shadows, seemingly unflappable. From him nothing could be hidden or withhe ld. Copies of everything learned at interrogations and all correspondence flowed to him. At the end of each day Zivkovic knew

could not allow Apis to live.20 In Zivkovic's carefully guarded Salonika residence the Salonika Trial was prepared, affirmed Radovanovic. Through its rear doors, Zivkovic remained in constant touch wjth the palace and Alexander. During the Trial defense lawyers trooped into ZivkoviC's salon to prepare their ques tions for court.21 Milenko Stojic, a Belgrade lawyer, later confinned that Zivkovic and Colonel Pavlovic had been the Trial's chief initiators. They often conversed inside the palace, and some two months before Apis' ar rest had held a long secret conference.22 Under Zivkovic 's direction the "Committee of Ten" continued to collect at the front and in Salonika


240

"witnesses" to testify against the Apis group. Official and volunteer spies prowled the front catching incautious conversations. Self-styled "friends of the court" hastened to make oral and written denunciations to the in vestigators. 23 By early March investigation of Apis and the "Black Hand" were com plete,l-4 but the inquiry into the attempt against the Prince remained incomplete and confused . Seven months after the supposed murder at tempt a commission fmally examined the site near Ostrovo, by then greatly altered. No real fmdings resulted , and most of those in the know realized no assassination had been attempted. Those preparing the Trial knew this best of

all . Prince Alexander seemed

tired and apathetic, endan

gering the whole affair. In alarm Pera Zivkovic complained to Alexander's secretary :

"The Prince doesn't want to do anything thing." Retorted

Jelenic cyncially : "The Prince has nothing more to do but rather those idiots on the Investigating Commission."25 An important witness being readied for the Trial was Nezir Hadzi Nalic, a Bosnian Muslim. Later, he admitted that Mihailo Rankovic , as sociated with the "Committee of Ten," had prepared all his testimony. Nalic's Bosnian associates, BoSko Arezina and Muhamed Mehmedbasic, paid dearly for rejecting Rankovic's overtures. " . . . We were deceived," Nezir stated, "because they told us that Bosko [Arezina] had been killed by Dragutin l Dimitrijevic I and the same could happen to us. We believed this lie and thus doomed the greatest Serbian patriots." Learning later that Arezina had been killed on orders of the Corfu police, Nalic repudiated in court his statements to investigators but too late to help A pis and Vulo vic. "My conscience gnaws at me," Nalic told an officer interned at Bizerte in 1 9 1 8, "so make this public."2' As the investigation neared completion, the "Salonika regime" purged the military courts which would try Apis and review the verdict. With un seemly haste the regime replaced all regular judges with ones who would reach the "proper verdict." The new appointees were mostly bitter enemies of Apis or plucked from obscurity or retirement. Their entire future re mained hostage to the Trial's "happy" outcome. Colonel Peter MiSic, highly intelligent and expert in military law and a leading 1 903 con spirator, was named chairman of the Lower Military Court. By what moral right could a conspirator against the Obrenovic judge a case of conspiracy and treason? Retired from the army in 1906 at British insistence, then

Awaiting Trial

241

excluded by Apis from conspirator ranks, MiSic burned for revenge upon his former comrades. The Trial was a fmal opportunity to salvage his wrecked career and achieve a general's rank. F ascina�ed by his own voice, egotistical and despotic, he aimed to dazzle the courtroom with his bril liance and prove his superiority over defendants he mostly despised. But he was an unpredictable individualist who might turn the Trial into a circus.27 Named president of the High Military Court was "White Hand" leader, General Mirko Milosavljevic, a bitter opponent of the May conspirators. When Prince Alexander became army inspector general in 1 9 1 1 , he had named Milosavljovic his personal adjutant "to spite Apis." An intimate of the Prince, he was a well-trained officer who could be relied on to be duly "thankful." Even he had been incredulous about the "attempt" on the Heir's life. Most other judges on both courts, having old accounts to settle with Apis or the "Black Hand," sought rewards for loyal service to the Radical regime. At the Salonika Front one colonel had exclaimed: "If they make me a judge, I'll cut off all their heads!" Somehow this remark was "over heard," and soon he was named to the High Military Court! Also appoint ed to that august body was Colonel Kostic, for years Apis' most fanatical foe. Surely common sense and justice dictated his exclusion from the highest military tribunal?5 Military and diplomatic events meantime reinforced the regime's deter mination to liquidate the Apis group while minimizing Allied objections. General Sarrail, remaining commander-in-chief in Salonika partly because of consistent Serbian support, knew who had saved him. Soon after Apis' arrest he declared ingenuously: the Salonika affair is strictly "an internal Serbian matter." This gave Prince Alexander a French carte blanche to deal with the Apis group, rejoiced his secretary ?9 The Salonika Front's future and Serbia's hopes remained shrouded in doubt. Serbia was delib erately excluded from the Allies' Rome conference about Greece and the Balkan theater, noted Pa§ic in mid-January. Reportedly Italy had refused to reinforce a front doomed to remain secondary and defensive. Exploded Pasic: This means the Allies have defmitely adopted the view that victory is to b(; won only on the main fronts! . . . In my view, only an


242

energetic offensive on the Salonika Front can bring a quick Allied victory . . . . Our political and military representatives must empha size constantly the vital importance of the Balkan theater and the Salonika Front.30

243

by Prince Alexander, became the leader of Serbian officers in Russia op posing the Trial and defending Apis. The Pasic regime also had to take account of views of other Serbian political parties about the arrests and impending trial. Independent Radi cal leaders, Lj ubomir Davidovic and Milorad Draskovic, and Progressive,

Informing Allied governments of Apis' arrest, P3Sic sought their permis sion to search the premises and persons of his associates abroad, including Cedo Jovanovic, former director of the Belgrade Officers' Club, then liv ing in London. 31 The charge that Apis and friends had prepared a mutiny on the Salonika Front, soon dropped for lack of evidence, aimed apparent ly to win Allied acceptance of the Trial. Franco-Austrian parleys meanwhile sparked reports that a compromise peace might be in the works. Serbia's envoy in London informed Pasic :

The negative reply to the appeal of the Central Powers for peace negotiations has not halted continued rumors about peace

Awaiting Trial

as

a fact

which is to occur during 1 9 1 7 . These reports come from a com pletely reliable source and are confirmed by those having sure con nections with governing circles in Berlin.

Vojislav Marinkovic-all members of the coalition cabinet, had collabor ated closely with Apis during the Priority affair. What did Draskovic parti cularly, who on Corfu had called Apis "a marvelous patriot," think of his imprisonment? DraS'kovic to be sure had criticized Apis' tactless behavior toward the Prince Regent on Corfu, attributing it to the Colonel's rashness and volatility . On excellent terms with Alexander and welcomed at court, DraSkovic, as the Trial neared, remained silent about the Salonika affair. He sought to scotch any rumors of continuing ties with Apis to prevent his party's involvement in the Trial. Alexander and Pasic blocked any criminal charges against the Independents who in return did not impede the investi gation of the Apis group.3' The state prosecutor's formal charges were communicated to Apis and his codefendants on March 1 7th. Accused of treason, plotting seizure of power, and attempted murder of the Prince Regent, most faced death sentences or long prison terms if convicted. Apis was shocked and upset, noted Stojkovic . "He walked around constantly , more than usual, plunged

i cluded restoration of Serbia with access German peace terms reputedly n

in thought." Calming down, Apis stated later that day: "If we are tried

to the Adriatic Sea through northern Albania. 32 Prince Six.te de Bourbon

properly , they will merely have to say: 'Go home gentlemen ! ' " Thankfully

Parma informed Paris in February that Emperor Charl�s would sanction

only a few of his friends had been accused; presumably the rest could

revival of an independent Serbia under Karadjordjevic rule only if Serbia

testify on their behalf. "They should state they were not ordered to do

promptly dissolved all organizations which had conspired against the Dual

anything, nor did they do it."

Monarchy and if the Allies guaranteed her future correct behavior. The

His friends now began holding Apis responsible for their plight. But

Pasic government sought a scapegoat in case agreement with the Central

Milovanovic-Pilac rejoiced:

Powers proved necessary ; clearly Apis filled the requirements.33

sentence seemed the most he could receive . He blamed Apis for their pre

Officers serving with the Serbian Volunteer Corps in Russia also became

from the indictment a twenty year prison

dicament:

involved in the Salonika affair. Soon after Apis' arrest, War Minister Terzic ordered four of his colleagues there-Lieutenant Colonels Bozin Sirnic,

With Dragutin 1 can no longer have the same relations as before. He

Vojislav Gojkovic, Alexander Srb, and Major Radoje Jankovic-searched,

should not have kept the [' Black Hand'] statutes. I asked him al

relieved of their posts, and returned to Salonika forthwith.J.4 But Volun

ready on Corfu whether he had destroyed everything. They would

teer Corps commander, General Mihailo Zivkovic , replied that Jankovic

not have anything on us if they had not found those. Just wait until

had refused to answer questions about "Black Hand" or provide a state

I see Dragutin!

ment. 35 J ankovic , a sophisticated and highly literate officer sent to Russia

244


Very upset over the indictment, Colonel Vemic told Stojkovic: "Dragutin is guilty for all of us if he really did something. We will have to settle up."37 When the accused sought able lawyers to represent them, they encount ered jesuitical tricks from the regime. Under military law accused officers could select defenders only from the trial site. The authorities simply transferred officers they selected, or declared them unavailable or ill . 38 When Apis selected Cedomir Vohoska to defend him, a doctor suddenly diagnosed chronic rheumatism and ordered him to remain at least a week in bed!39 Such tactics damaged the credibility of the Trial, limiting the de

CHAPTER XXI

fendants' choice to less competent officers and those who would "coop erate" with the court. Probably this made little difference since Prince Alexander and the "Salonika regime'' had predetermined the defendants' guilt.

IN COURTROOM AND PRISON CELL MARCH-APRIL 1 9 1 7 ) Nearby were the prisons and the accused were brought to the courtroom under guard . Once 1 saw Apis being brought to the court building. He went quickly up the stairs with his eternal cigarette in his teeth, in an easy

going manner . . . . Clearly he was in full control of himself. Ziv. 7 1 6 , "Solunska afera." Finally the Salonika Trial began. It would last two months-March 20th to May 23, 1 9 1 7-in eighty-two semi-public sessions where

all

ten de

fendants and over one hundred witnesses testified.1 The outcome was never in doubt, merely the severity of the sentences. The Salonika Trial was a product of Serbian internal strife between military leaders and politicians and personal animosity between Prince Alexander and Apis. Once Apis provided a secret written admission of responsibility for the Sarajevo assassination, his fate was sealed beyond question. That admis sion seemed to assure the survival of Alexander and Pasic if they had to conclude a separate peace. The Lower Military Court consisted of Chairman Colonel Peter MiSic, Judge Colonel Mija Filipovi c ; auditor, Jovan Jovanovic ; and clerk of court,

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246


Captain Boiidar Katanic. Some senior officers, offered positions on the lower or higher military courts, refused categorically warning that if as signed there they would judge strictly according to law. Informed of the personnel of the Lower Court, the accused did not exercise their legal right to exclude judges on the basis of personal bias. It soon became evident Misic had become chairman not to insure a fair trial but to steal the spotlight and wreak vengeance. An avowed enemy of two defendants-Apis and General Popovic-Misic should have declined to serve. Apis displayed remarkable naivete. As MiSic's colleague in the May Coup, he apparently did not believe Misic would exact vengeance, so he did not seek his exclusion. Throughout the Trial, working assiduously for a guilty verdict, MiSic displayed bitter hatred for the defendants whom he often mistreated. Prohibiting them even from rising during court recesses, MiSic allowed "the public" to deride them and witnesses to change oral testimony in court.2 Chairman MiSic put on quite a show. By turns he philosophized, played with words, shouted angrily, or turned everything into farce. Sometimes he was a tyrant, at other times a cynic. Since the charges against the ac cused could not be proven, he based his case on suspicion, doubt, and in nuendo. Documentary evidence of guilt all came from the past: "Black Hand" statutes and membership lists, and a few notes and letters from the Priority Dispute. None of that supported charges of alleged mutiny on the Salonika Front or the "attempt" against Alexander's life. After "Black Hand's" demise as an organization, Apis and most of its other leaders fought valiantly for Serbia; many died in battle. Thus Misic, to construct a plausible case, had to somehow link past and present, distort previous events, and present them as causes of supposed recent occurrences. He had to deny the nationalist credentials of "Black Hand" and its leaders by bar ring all mention in court of their national work. The "Black Hand" had to be portrayed as a ruthless band of robbers and assassins aiming only to ter rorize innocent Serbian citizens and seize political power. Aiding Misic in his difficult task were the Prince, Colonel Zivkovic, and the Radical movement. From the Radicals he received political directives ; from the Heir's entourage came tactical instructions. Every evening Colonel Pavlovic's staffsupplied advice and directives for the next day's procedures. The War Ministry's minions collected additional incriminating data to

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supplement a slender body of evidence. Of dubious legality, such measures eased Misic's path by restricting his area of responsibility .3 The roles of chiefjudge and auditor were secondary . Colonel Mija Filipo vic, a former regimental commander on the Drina frontier, had faced criminal prosecution for ordering two of his soldiers killed. By agreeing to serve as judge,

all

charges were dropped; afterwards he received a lush

divisional command in Belgrade. As auditor, Colonel Jovan Jovanovic merely followed orders and signed the verdict. The Lower Military Court convened in a rented Greek building of small capacity. The court, accused, attorneys, and witnesses took up most of the space. Those finding no seats inside lounged in corridors or courtyard. Roughly half the "public" were civilian or uniformed spies, dependent on the ' 'Salonika regime'' and anticipating convictions. They acted boldly, even provocatively. This was the hostile audience Apis and his friends had to face. Most honorable Serbs were at the front. Not far away was the Officers' Prison. The accused were brought daily to the courtroom under guard. Recalled the author of "Salonika affair": Once I saw Apis being brought to the court building. He went quick ly up the stairs with his eternal cigarette in

his

teeth, in an easy

going manner as if wishing to reduce the impression of the gravity of the moment. His face was slightly darkened; one could detect tiredness. But clearly he was in

full

control of himself and had lost

none of his moral strength. Arrayed against him, Apis realized, were the most despicable elements from the Salonika Front. In the courtroom was played out a tragedy staged by the Prince, Zivkovic , and the Radicals. The judges were con scious and paid actors. As Apis remained cool and unruffled, Chairman MiSic grew increasingly irritated, shouting as if to drown the voice of con science . The accused occupied the two front rows; behind them sat their defense lawyers. Among the "public" were police officers, malicious joy etched on their faces as they awaited death sentences. During Apis' testi mony, a senior officer of engineers beat out a loud death march on his bench! Chairman Misic proceeded according to plans forged in the Palace and Zivkovic's house. He was instructed to spare all political leaders from

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249

involvement as witnesses or accusers. Conspicuously absent from the indict·

knew about the organization, officials had to promise to renounce their

ment were Independent Radical leaders whose well-known ties with the

oaths and all ties with "Black Hand." Those falsifying their answers

accused were concealed. Appended to it were the "Black Hand" statutes

would be investigated and tried.7

edited to omit all mention of national activities outside Serbia. But the

The chief witnesses for the Trial were selected deliberately. Milan Cig·

published list of its members caused a sensation. Included were men prom

anovic, trainer of Sarajevo assassins, Princip and Cabrinovic, received a

inent in government and diplomacy, even PasiC's nephew. Would these

choice : testify at Salonika against the accused or as an Austrian citizen be

people be tried eventually as traitors or revolutionaries? The government

remanded to Vienna for certain trial. He was suitably rewarded for his

decided wisely that most "Black Hand" members were "confused patriots,"

testimony. Another witness, Krsta Mile tic, then a village judge, subse

misled by the CEC's evil leaders. Although "Black Hand" was labeled

quently became a cabinet minister. As a patriot and Radical he considered

treasonous, many former members remained in service or were promoted.

it a sacred duty to compromise Apis. Another witness, Pop J anjic, branded

Some officers who never joined "Black Hand" were nonetheless interned

as a liar by a fellow witness, later became an Assembly deputy, then its

in North Africa. Thi s left many people perplexed. The defendants were

secretary. Velimir Vlajic , witness and ordinary ruffian, after the Trial hob

kept to a minimum. As the circle around Apis narrowed, Chairman MiSic

nobbed with Radical leaders and grew wealthy. To testify against Apis

understood perfectly he was expected to deliver Apis' head to the execu

insured exemption from the perils of the front and a brilliant subsequent

tioner. Without that the entire trial would become a pointless parody of

career.8

justice.4

Early in Apis Pasic informed his ambassador in London about the start

Lieutenant Colonel Radovanovic-Koca, breaking with the "White Hand,"

of the Trial. The "Black Hand" and the attempt on the Prince's life had

confirmed Pera ZivkoviC's key role. Writing Prince Alexander notes about

been fully investigated. The accused had sabotaged Serbian political life.

events in the courtroom and what was planned for next day, Zivkovic

After the Albanian retreat they had "agitated among our troops and re

asked for additional instructions. Alexander responded with similar writ·

fugees against our government and ruler." Spreading defeatism, Apis and

ten notes. Koca believed Zivkovic kept these to maintain control over the

his friends had prepared to kill those hindering their overthrow of regime

Prince . Every evening Zivkovic conferred with the Interior Minister on

and dynasty in order to set up a ten man military oligarchy . "Assure the

overall strategy.5 Zivkovic likewise received daily reports from Stojkovic

government there," concluded the Premier, "this trial will not damage the

and Protic on the defendants' behavior.

general cause and our army will be the stronger for it."9

The Salonika Trial centered chiefly around three issues together corn·

The two officer jailors described the defendants' reactions and state

prising Apis' "crimes" : his alleged leadership of the subversive "Black

ments in their diaries, sending daily accounts to Colonel Zivkovic. On the

Hand"; his conspiracy to overthrow the Pasic government and Constitu

eve of the Trial Apis, no longer ebullient, told Stojkovic:

tion by armed coups; and the attempted assassination at Ostrovo. Crucial though concealed was Apis' role in the Sarajevo murder.'

You know, today I read a little but thought more. It is interesting

The P
how this prison influences a man. It occurs to me to repent, but then

for the Trial. The "Black Hand," as subversive and criminal, was to be

I recoil remembering that a man who works for an ideal cannot

wholly dissolved. To be tried were only those who had planned coups

do that.

and assassinations. For political reasons belonging to "Black Hand" was insufficient to bring investigation or trial. Disciplinary and administrative

Apis had hoped Lieutenant Colonel Jovanovic would direct the Trial rather

actions were to be undertaken promptly to liquidate all traces of "Black

than that "ruthless and heartless sophist," Misic. Examining his laundry,

Hand." All officials were to be asked: did you belong, when did you join,

Apis burst into tears, reminded apparently of a loved one. Colonel Milo·

who enlisted you, did you pay dues or enlist others? Divulging all they

vanovic, looking already doomed, implored Stojkovic to stay and talk.


250

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251

Bogdan Radenkovic, the civilian, was preparing his defense : "I am con

Yes, I did, Protic , but you see that is my greatest disappointment.

vinced my friends did not do what they are accused of." Remarked Col

. . . I had no idea about that. Also, I never came to the idea of kill

onel Cedo Popovic: "1 never knew about anything except (the 'Black

ing the Heir. And Apis? Well, you heard what he said in court? 'I .

Hand's'] foreign activities."10

ordered that, I said that, yes I thought that, etc.' He must be crazy ,

Lieutenant Protic conducted much of the actual supervision of the

and that will cost him his head. Let them kill him but why all of us? ,

prisoners. The fat, self-important Stojkovic , an alcoholic with an eternally red nose, was addicted to French cognac or whatever was available. About

Desperately anxious to save his neck, the fickle Milovanovic wondered :

noon when his previous night's hangover let up, he would start complain

why should I suffer? He pleaded ignorance of what had been done:

ing about his "sick kidneys." Protic would remark considerately: "Captain, if you are having a kidney attack, let me take the prisoners for a walk."

Oh, Dragutin, Dragutin, you dear fellow, what did you drag us nto? i

If he were seriously hung over, Stojkovic would agree. Otherwise , he

. . . And do you know, Protic, that Dragutin is basically a coward?

would say: "No, Smail-aga,11 I'll do it, today is my turn." Still, usually it

I

was Protic who went to each isolated cell where the officers were incar

played the role of head, of leader. Even while we were still corporals.

cerated. After Protic had lingered in Apis' room just before the Trial, Stoj

. . . But do you know what he is in fact? A coward, cow-ard ! . . . He

kovic admonished: "Listen, Smail-aga, you are staying rather long with

was able to give orders, sign orders, order everyone killed, but per

Glava ['The Head,' a nickname for Apis] . Watch out that Glava doesn't

sonally couldn't even kill a flea. He didn't dare even crush a flea be

win you over. You are still young and green and were

tween his two fmgers, as if the sight of blood nauseated him.

his

guerrilla, so,

will

tell you why. I have known him since the Academy. He always

Smail-aga, watch your step!" To ProtiC's complaints about Stojkovic's provocative use of his nickname, Smail-aga, Colonel Dunjic replied :

Protic stared in amazement at the pudgy Milovanovic. About Apis Protic had heard good things and bad, myth and reality. But that a childhood

Protic, just look after your work and do as I instruct and advise. Let

friend and Academy comrade could speak about him so derisively! "You

Stojkovic do h s i thing and call you Smail-aga if he wishes. Certainly 2 he will never deserve such a nickname. 1

must be joking," muttered the Lieutenant. "What kind of a joke is it when heads are literally flying?" retorted Pilac. "It is, really, a struggle for power! And there is no joke about that. Only you know that each should eat what

Both supervising officers witnessed a surprising transfonnation of pri

he himself cooked up. Tomorrow it's my turn to answer questions from

soner attitudes during their confmement. Some shifted from complete

Colonel Misic. I'll tell all . . . . Let each man pull his own chestnuts from

loyalty and devotion to Apis, to mudslinging, hatred, and even betrayal.

the fire . . . . Here heads will fall like pumpkins." Without a word Protic

Colonel Milovanovic-Pilac, hitherto one of Apis' closest and most loyal

rushed from MilovanoviC's cell slamming the door angrily behind him.

comrades, underwent a particularly deplorable change. After the Trial's

Half aloud he said: "Truly heads will roll ! How could they not roll when

second day, he told Protic: "It ['Black Hand'] was a monstrous organ

such people exist among one's old comrades!" Thereafter Protic remained

ization . . . a true conspiracy against the Crown and Heir . . . . They want

aloof from Pilac.

ed total power." Pretending naive te, Protic queried: "Who are they?"

But Protic was attracted strongly to Colonel Cedornir Popovic, a swarthy,

"Why, Apis and those people from the CEC. Let me tell you, they said

strongly built man who had served as a "frontier officer" on the Drina

openly they would throw the dynasty and Pasic government out of Serbia

obeying Apis' instructions. 1 3 Late at night they tried to sort out what was

on their ear." Remonstrated Protic: "Forgive me, Mr. Milovanovic , but

happening. Why were ten of Serbia's ablest and most patriotic officers

didn't you belong to that CEC?" Responded the Colonel:

languishing in prison awaiting condemnation while their country lay en slaved, its army decimated by casualties and the war's outcome hanging in

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In Courtroom

253

the balance? Could this possibly be the right time for a Serbian power

must not be deceived. We will surely all be condemned to death. Startled,

struggle? "This won't turn out well, Protic," declared Cedo. "This entire

Apis looked at him sharply:

circus is not being held to scare children. Dragutin won't survive this; he'll pay with his head, and in order to deceive people, others will have to leave this world with him. Somehow I'm the most logical choice." Objected Protic: "But Colonel Cedo, why you? And why Dragutin even?" Con tinued Protic: "Yes, Colonel Apis is always in such a good mood, always smiling, but I believe nonetheless he knows best of all . He has such con tacts even here in prison that surely he knows what his fate will be." Said Cedo: Oh, my brother! Don' t you see this is all a mask, a game? Apis smiles because that's the way he is, because he is a giant, a hero, a lion. Apis smiles because he knows they will shoot him! I have known him ever since 1903. He smiled that evening in the Officers Club as

-

Don't be insane! That won' t happen. This is only a legal comedy. They will convict us of something pro forma and ship us to Africa until the end of the war. Then each will go his own way. 15

When everyone knew the accusations against Major Vulovic-helping Apis organize the attempt on the Heir's life, Tucovic told Protic:

I'm going crazy ! Oh, Dragutin! Oh, Vulovic, you s.o.b.! Ljuba, you are Apis' evil spirit! You and not Alexander

will

cost him his head!

If Ljuba had not been with Apis, none of this would have happened. That Vulovic is the Devil himself! 1'

if he was going to a wedding . . . while affirming that he would die and that whore, Draga. You don't

Major Radoje Lazic, "Black Hand's" last secretary, was the flrst defen

know such people: when they smile, they are most dangerous . . . .

dant to testify in court (March 21 -22). Ceda rejoiced Lazic had gone first

killing Alexander [Obrenovic]

and been honest. As Lazic confirmed that "Black Hand" no longe r existed, For planning the Archduke's murder at Sarajevo, concluded Ceda, they

Apis made no objections-Lazic had hesitated, always worrying "what will

would remove Apis' head. The next night Ceda revealed that Major Voja

Petrograd and Vienna say?" Pilac wondered whether to abandon Apis or

Tankosic, ignoring Apis' clear instructions to return the assassins to Serbia,

believe he knew what he was doing; he would try to explain away having

had gone ahead with the murder. Had Tankosic lived, the heat now might

cursed Prince Alexander. I t would be an honor, stated Vulovic, to be made

be off Apis and other "Black Handers." "There, now you know why Apis

a martyr by the Karadjordjevic. He had premonitions that at his execution

must suffer," continued Ceda. "Voja is no more, he was lucky and was

he would fall shouting: "Fire ! Long live Serbia!"

. . . . It

During Ceda Popovic's testimony (March 23-24) when he stated: "I can

was destined to be that way." Ceda declared himself ready to die if it

state honestly I did not feel the ['Black Hand's'] influence," Apis ears

would help save Serbia. 14

turned crimson. He squirmed in his chair and half turned toward Ceda. Re

killed by the enemy . . . ; our own people will kill Apis and

us

Colonel Ceda had learned that a foreign journalist had asked if some Serbian officers had plotted an army mutiny. Premier Pa.Sic had replied:

turning from court, Ceda confirmed he had noticed Apis' disapproval and admitted he head expressed himself badly.

"It s i true. Those fools wished to kill me and Heir Alexander, cause revolt

Next day Apis remarked: "Heh, Ceda, you should tell about operations

in the army , and conclude a separate peace with Austria." Laughing, Ceda

in the Sandjak [of Novipazar] and show what the Organization did. So far

asked Captain Stojkovic : "Did we really wish to kill Pa.Sic?", adding

no one has described the whole thing." Smiling, Apis added: "I

ominously: "When Pa.Sic as premier right during our trial gives such a pre

to correct all this." Ceda should not have denied "Black Hand's" role,

cise and categoric statement to a foreign journalist, he is pronouncing the

agreed Vernic; he should have described his part openly. Colonel Ceda

death penalty upon us in advance." During a court recess that day, after

prophesied: "One will be shot and that is Dragutin ; the rest of us will be

judges and "public" left the courtroom, Ceda told Apis: "Dragutin, you

punished less severely . Dragutin will be shot not as a 'Black Hand' member,

will have

254


but as an ordinary man." After Ceda's testimony, Vulovic commented: It is bad, but I won't allow innocent people to suffer for what I said and did. I am an open person and truly said and did much. I didn't know the members of the CEC or that Dragutin was in it. What I did, I did on my own. Pilac complained that the authorities had revealed nothing about "Black Hand's" patriotic activities, "but that was what the society was for." Said i changeable. Have you heard Apis during a recess: "Yes, the weather s what MiSic can do on his own hook? . . . The cannons are aimed at me, so now we will struggle." Vemic growled: "That Apis created so many mis· fortunes for his comrades that in his place I would kill myself." Apis placed high hopes on Radenkovic's testimony and liked his begin ning. "You'll see what basis he will place everything on. Bogdan is intel ligent." After Bogdan's initial hearing (March 26), Apis remarked: "This case of ours will turn out to be ridiculous." The testimony so far had seemed strange, but it was growing evident they had done nothing sub versive. When Radenkovic fmished, Apis remained dissatisfied. Why didn't they ask Bogdan about "Black Hand's" Constitution and its purpose? Everything had fallen away which would have exonerated the organiza tion. Later though he praised Bogdan's testimony and Chainnan MiSic's tact. All the defendants, predicted Apis, would be released for lack of proof. "They cannot find anything." Apis spoke at length to Stojkovic about his national work and his great future project of Serbia's union with Bulgaria.17 During the Salonika Trial's rather uneventful initial week rumors cir culated the prosecution was preparing a surprise to buttress an obviously shaky case. That "surprise" came on March 27th. The state prosecutor rose abruptly and read an indictment dated March 24th, accusing under Article 87A of the criminal code Rade Malobabic and Muhamed Mehrned basic, just that day brought into court, of shooting at Prince Alexander at Apis' instruction: Rade Malobabic was the chief culprit and Muhamed his accomplice in carrying out an assassination attempt against the Heir to the throne about 5 PM on August 29 /September 1 1 , 1 9 1 6 on the road

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from Ostrovo to Vladovo by firing from a rifle while the Heir was returning from the front by automobile. The "surprise" was the greater since few in the courtroom knew until then of any attempt on the Heir's life, even less one involving Serbian of ficers. Why had this vital event been so long concealed? Why had those involved not been accused immediately? Why had no immediate investi gation of the si te been conducted? By the time the alleged crime locale was examined seven months later, it had been transfonned. The defense was shocked to learn that all the accused were considered MalobabiC's accomplises. To the defenders' astonishment the sole eyewitness to the shooting was a certain Temeljko Veljanovic from Bitolj region. Imprisoned for allegedly murdering Lazar Misic in Ostrovo, Veljanovic had been re leased immediately after telling investigators about the assassination at tempt several months after the event. Released simultaneously was another Salonika witness, Djordje Konstantinovic. Both witnesses admitted killing Lazar MiSic, but no body could be found! The way the attempted murder of the Heir had been perpetrated, ac cording to the indictment, was highly original. It was the first known at tempted assassination by rifle at

distance of over 300 yards against a moving automobile. Furthennore , the alleged assassin, Malobabic, had never handled a rifle nor served in the anny ! No assassination in Serbia had ever been committed with a rifle . Mostly revolvers had been used from a

very close range. There had been European assassinations by knife, bomb, poison and revolver, but never by rifle.'8

Colonel Apis expressed skeptical interest. Who had been arrested? How had it been done? "What could one gain, 1 ask you, by killing the Heir to the throne while the King is still alive? Would I act in such a way? As an old conspirator would I arrange things so stupidly? Apis commented to Stojkovic: "This is either a personal act of vengeance against the Heir or arranged especially by those who wanted to bring us here, headed by Ljuba [Jovanovic-Patakj ."19 Three men claimed to have heard shots flred at the Heir's car near Ost rovo. Lieutenant Colonel Pavle Jurisic-Stunn of the Heir's entourage and Marquis d'Avari, his chauffeur, agreed they had heard two shots fired to wards the car. But was that an assassination attempt? Soldiers and civilians -Bu!gars, Turks, Greeks, and Serbs-were constantly firing weapons nearby.

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Temeljko Veljanovic testified he had heard firing directly at the auto mobile, but he differed with earlier witnesses about the number of shots and persons seen on the spot. Affirming first the Heir's car was closed, later he could not remember. His testimony was confused and suspect since he had been freed from prison after talking to investigators. The latter disregarded the French police report on the incident, although they had followed closely behind the Heir's car. At the defendants' request,

In Courtroom

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Austria or presence near Ostrovo on August 29, Misic sought by innuendo to discredit both Malobabic and Apis.21 A subsequent account by Lazar Milosavljevic, a retired official, tended to conflffil that the Salonika authorities had invented the murder at tempt. Peter Jurisic let Milosavljevic read this letter from his late brother, Pavle JuriSic-Sturm:

the court fmally secured that French report only to have the Interior

Peter, I can fmd no peace. My conscience is torturing me because I

Minister rule it out as "insignificant ! " Of the three "witnesses" only Vel

testified in court at Salonika that there was an attempt on Alex

janovic testified he had seen Malobabic shoot at the Heir's car. D'Avari

ander's life. I was sitting next to the chauffeur [D 'Avari] when

stated he had seen only shepherd boys at the scene. The French police

Alexander went past S. Banjica to Ostrovo to the Third Army staff,

affirmed they had searched the entire area immediately without fmding

and suddenly the automobile stopped, gendarmes jumped out and

Veljanovic . In the indictment Apis, Vulovic , and Tucovic were named as

searched the vicinity claiming that someone had fired from a height

accomplices in the attempted murder, but none admitted it. With only

right at Alexander. I saw and heard nothing, but I had to testify

one questionable eyewitness to Malobabic's actions, there was no legal

the way they wished. I am convinced that there was no attempt,

proof of the attempt, so none of the defendants could legally be design 20 ated as accomplices.

but because of my testimony I have no peace of mind.22

The day of the shooting, testified Veljanovic, he had been on the road to Ostrovo carrying a box of grapes. Sitting down beside the road to rest, he saw an automobile approach. From a stone house a man emerged with a rifle, fired twice at the car, then disappeared. That had been Rade Malobabic. Veljanovic's tale was probably invented. Right after the inci dent, the Prince's car had stopped abruptly. The Prince and Pavle JuriSic had exrunined the area on foot fmding no one! Nor had anyone else seen Veljanovic in the vicinity that day. What an opportunity for an assassin: his intended victim was walking around a deserted site! Veljanovic had "recognized" Malobabic at a distance of 1.000 feet I When he tried to say this in court, Chairman Misic hastily interrupted to prevent having the distance mentioned. Chairman Misic, emphasizing Malobabic's close ties with Apis, the plot's alleged instigator, suggested those relations were suspicious, even subversive. He depicted Malobabic as an Austrian spy, a suspicious vaga bond pursued by the Serbian police, then taken by Vulovic and Apis, protected and concealed. Afterward, Apis had hidden Malobabic from the authorities so he could murder the Heir. Why else conceal and defend such a criminal type? Lacking real evidence of Malobabic's spying for

Soon thereafter Pavle Jurisic-Sturm committed suicide. After Malobabic's interrogation in court, Radoje Lazic commented: "I'm afraid of that brother MiSic. He grabs so blindly onto an idea and wishes to twist it the way he believes." Apis sought to encourage all his colleagues, but the unstable Vemic boasted he would shoot Apis in open court if they gave him a gun. Captain Stojkovic overheard Apis to say on March 28th: This is a state inquisition. This is what a perfidious policy can lead to. That a Serbian court can try Sarajevo assassins is terrible. Do they know that people will write all about this? Why don't they just give us twenty years imprisonment instead of conducting this circus? If he had participated in the alleged assassination plot, he would say so openly. "He who did it should come forward and tell all freely."23 Once Malobabic had been accused formally of shooting at Alexander, his relationship with Apis became crucial. Questioned by MiSic, Apis de clared he could clarify fully his ties with Rade only by explaining their role in the Sarajevo assassination. But the authorities wished to conceal

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their part in the Archduke's murder and "Black Hand's" national role.

ze his assassination." Executing Apis' orders, Ferdinand to Sarajevo to organi

The trial was suspended for Easter. During that recess Assembly chair

Malobabic had organized and implemented the Sarajevo murder. Mehmed

man, Andra Nikolic , and Chairman MiSic urged Apis to withdraw his de

basic, the only Muslim Serb involved in the plot, fled to Montenegro, then

mand to be heard on the Sarajevo affair. Appealing to his love of country,

joined Apis in Uzice. "Linked by such great moral obligations with these

they argued that Serbia's national interests would be damaged. Instead

people, I did everything possible for them, disregarding regulations and

his

statement on Sarajevo should be submitted secretly to the court in

0

rules. "27

writing. Out of patriotism, renouncing an opportunity to win public sym

Once the Serbian authorities received this document with Apis' promise

pathy by explaining orally his and Malobabic's role in the Sarajevo plot,

not to utilize it at the Trial, they proceeded with their cruel plans. Later,

Apis complied. In open court his testimony could have gravely embarras

Kosta Tirnotijevic, a one-time cabinet minister, told Apis' nephew, that

sed the Pa�ic government. 2_.

early in April 1917 Prince Alexander asked

him

whether one could rely

The accused were placed in a paradoxical position: the government

upon Apis' pledged word. When Tirnotijevic replied unhesitatingly and

appealed to their patriotism to remain silent about their national work

affinnatively , Alexander took a letter from his pocket purportedly from

so it could convict them of treason ! This clever trick deprived Apis and

Apis about vital state issues. He said that much depended on Apis' promise.

the others of their chief weapon. Omitting all references to national

When Tirnotijevic reiterated that the Prince could rely completely on Apis'

activity outside Serbia, the court deprived the "Black Hand" of all justi

word, Alexander returned the letter to his pocket. Tirnotijevic believed

fication ; then it could be depicted as subversive and terrorist. Misic's

this was Apis' letter about the Sarajevo assassination.23 Thus the Prince

chief task was to divert attention from Colonel Apis' work for Serbia

relied on Apis' honesty to have him convicted of treason and murder!

to foster the myth that he and the other defendants were murderers, rob bers, and ruffians.25

Apis believed, Stojkovic reported to Colonel Zivkovic, that his report would confuse the Salonika court. "Now they

will have

to devour me with

Apis' report to the Salonika court, which it concealed carefully, ap

all the kids!" he exclaimed enigmatically, smiling like a naughty boy.

parently doomed him, Vulovic and Malobabic to death sentences. In it

Again he spoke warmly about Malobabic and Mehmedbasic and hoped

Apis took fully responsibility for organizing the Sarajevo assassination.

everything might still turn out well. Perhaps the Trial would be broken off

Pasic held this document in reserve in case of a separate peace with

in the national interest. A disciplinary court could retire the defendants

Austria-Hungary . Then Apis would become the scapegoat for causing

from military service , then call it quits. For his part Tucovic considered

World War I and Serbia's defeat letting the Radicals absolve themselves

a twenty year sentence certain but he hoped the entire affair would be

of blame and responsibility.

editor, Krsta Cicvaric,

reviewed later. He expressed sympathy for Apis and Milovanovic, blamed

in his subsequent polemic with Stojan Protic, referred aptly to Apis'

for a phony assassination attempt. Vulovic too agreed that the attempt

report as "the killer document" which insured his death.2'

had been staged while Vemic blustered: "If they don't take his [Apis']

Beogradski dnevnik's

Apis wrote the court that he realized from the indictment Malobabic

head off, I will settle up with him."29

and Mehmedbasic were accused of trying to murder the Prince Regent.

Apis then wrote a long, emotional letter to Prince Alexander seeking a

Thus he must explain his relationship with them. Heading the General

reconciliation in order to save his and his friends' lives. Next day, discus

Stafrs intelligence section, he had instructed Malobabic with the concur

sing this with Stojkovic, Apis declared jauntily he had told the Prince : in

rence of Russia's military attache, Colonel Artamonov, to organize a net

such political cases the ruler could squash the court's verdict. Easter was

work inside Austria-Hungary. After Rade began work, believing Austria

the natural season for that. Reminding Alexander of their old friendship,

was preparing to attack Serbia, Apis felt that if the Archduke were killed,

Apis had poured out his whole soul. Getting all this off his chest, Apis was

the Austrian hawks would be paralyzed and war delayed or averted.

in an exalted mood. Now optimistic about the prospects, he smiled, laugh

"Therefore I instructed Malobabic on occasion of the planned coming of

ed, jumped gaily from one subject to another. The Prince, he felt, was in a


260

In Courtroom

261

difficult position. Would Alexander want to push matters to extremes

Apis declared that he understood. He wished merely to recover the Prince's

when everything could be settled without harm to anyone? Not vengeful

favor. "I understand people. They are secondary to me in this whole af

himself, Apis could not understand how others could harbor ideas of

fair." If restored to favor, he would devote his entire being to serve Alex

vengeance. "It amazes me there aren't any sensible people outside who

ander and the cause they both believed in so stronglY: Serbian unification.

could end this business." Otherwise the country would plunge into an

Apis accepted blame for differences which had produced their current

abyss.30

confrontation:

"Moved to the depths of my soul," began Apis' letter to the Prince , "I take pen in hand and open my heart and soul to my Sovereign." Deny

I admit that I am much to blame . . . for failing to come to Your

ing any role in the alleged attempt on his life, Apis wrote : "I am dumb

Highness and destroying all those intrigues at the start . . . . Admit

founded by the accusation of an attempt against Your Highness' life in

ting this, let me merely beg Your Highness for forgiveness and enter

Ostrovo, and wholly innocent in that affair, I saw with horror that two

tain the hope that Your Highness has retained a drop of favor for me.

additional persons, both close to me, had been brought to the prisoners' dock." He explained briefly his relations with Malobabic and Mehmed

About "Black Hand" Apis explained : "That secret organization was

basic. Apis said he had suffered much from being accused of plotting Alex

established with pure intentions, Your Highness, when

ander's life :

founded." He had entered "Black Hand" created by a Turkish subject,

Piedmont

was

Bogdan Radenkovic, who placed all his hopes in Serbia. I would have to be, Your Highness, not a person, not a beast, but a monster if I even thought of doing any harm to your person. Could

I entered that organization in those days when I enjoyed Your High

I who watched all night the lighted windows of your sick room in

ness's full trust and when I was prepared to do everything for Your

Belgrade, who with dread and heavy heart swore in Your ante

Highness' greatness. I entered the organization . . . with full belief

chamber to Your doctors to do everything possible to save Your life,

that by working in it I would be serving you personally.

could I possibly desire Your death? My feelings of boundless devo my hopes and visions of Your greatness

Now he hoped for the Prince's mercy and generous spirit. Assuring Alex

and for the good fortune of Serbia and the Serbian people which I

ander that all of "Black Hand's" work and his work in it were ·'pure and

held for so many years could not pass so readily. They left ineffac

loyal," he had preserved its Constitution to show the Prince. Now investi

able impressions in my soul so that I would have to be the son of the

gation had revealed it no longer existed as an organization ; its members

Devil to become your murderer . . . . Could I possibly consider rais

by their work and sacrifices in battle had revealed that "Black Hand" had

ing my hand and desiring the death of the godfather of that child

lacked any ulterior motives. Its officer members had always been and

[Nenuska] who is so dear to me, whose picture now stands before

would always be wholly loyal to the Prince.

tion for Your Highness,

all

my eyes on my table in prison? . . . My moral world can only be restored by the assurance that Your Highness does not believe this

Apis urged Alexander to halt the Salonika Trial and absolve him and his friends of unfair accusations of treason and murder:

and that this entire affair is a deliberate, unintentional, or unfortun ate undermining of all the ties which bind me with Your Highness.

Your Highness, I implore You to halt this affair. You must not allow a Serbian military court for officers to complete the verdict of the

If accusations that he plotted to murder Alexander came from those

Austrian court in Sarajevo . . . and place the brand of treason on the

seeking revenge upon him "and who are doing Your Highness no special

brows of officers who dreamed ofliberating the entire Serbian people

good either" -a veiled reference to Zivkovic and the "White Hand" -then

for the glory of Your name . . . .

•


262

•

Your Highness, begging You for all this before this great holiday and knowing that Your august mercy us can bring us joy .

n i

quashing the indictment against

. . . we will all fmd new strength to devote our

-

selves wholeheartedly to Your Highness's service. In that hope I re main to Your Highness with boundless feeling and love, On Great Thursday March 30, 1 9 1 7 In Salonika

Always true and devoted Dragutin T. Dirnitrijevic Colonel of General Staff31

CHAPTER XXIl Now confident, Apis entrusted this letter to Captain Stojkovic for trans mission to Prince Alexander.

APIS TESTIFIES (APRIL-MAY 1 9 1 7 ) I have always in life done everything with the deep conviction that I am working for the good of the country, and so if

1 now had

done anything, I would say so openly. Apis to Stojkovic Colonel Apis' dramatic appeal to the Prince produced no tangible re sult or reply. After Easter the Trial resumed with General Damjan Popo vic's testimony . But the high points in its latter stages were testimony by Rade Malobabic and Apis himself. While awaiting a response from the Heir, Apis hoped the regime would suspend the Trial rather than pressing to a verdict helpful to no one, Serbia least of all. "They could place us before a disciplinary court for our mem bership in the organization, discharge some and pension others, especially those in the CEC, and let others go their own way." Entering "Black Hand" allegedly because of the Prince, Apis now believed he was a victim of his patriotic actions. He seemed to lack the fire he had shown when the Trial began, noted Stojkovic. Jumping abruptly from one subject to an other, he often repeated himself. In prison Apis spent most of his time reading newspapers, sitting on his cot, and arranging things. Even during serious conversations he often cracked jokes.

263

APIS : The Congenial Conspirator

264

Apis reacted casually to General Popovic's incautious correspondence with his wife, Mileva, which the prosecution utilized to assert that on

Apis Testifies

265

Then Apis spoke about life and death, at first calmly and philosophi cally, then with n i creasing heat:

Corfu the Apis group had planned a coup. "One shouldn't take the Gen eral's letters so seriously," objected Apis. "They are an old man's scrib

Today we are here, tomorrow we are not, the day after who knows

bling, childish. Was there any point in writing that to his wife."

where we will be? So it goes, one notes, an eternal struggle among

Meanwhile Vemic delivered this bitter diatribe against Apis:

people in life . Each person has his passions, but they cannot under stand someone who lives spiritually. They want me to become the

You, Dragutin, have deceived me a hundred times during my life and

object of their hysteria.

I should have abandoned you long since. If you really did something and it is evident you did, I no longer regard you as a person and will

Why did they-the regime-fear him so, why had they turned on him? "If

not forgive you even in the grave. You are a liar; you think one thing

I bother them so much, I am ready to bow to them and go wherever they

and say another. You didn't dare act on your own hook . . . . You

like, but why all this comedy?"

knew I was a Karadjordjist and therefore you didn't dare tell me anything. We'll settle up.

Listening incredulously to Rade's testimony of April 8th, Apis wonder ed: "Who taught Malobabic to lie that way?" But why should MiSic now insist that Rade reveal everything he had said to Apis? "But the bigger

Scornfully Vemic turned away. Apis, very pale, merely repeated softly:

circus the better, let them fmd whomever they can . . . ," the Colonel

"I beg you, I beg you, you will see that it is not so."

declared. During a recess Apis said he would like to tell the regime : "I

On April 6th, amidst complete silence, Malobabic testified in court.

know what you want . . . death, so good, why all these formalities?"

This was the climax of the Trial so far. Some defendants now began to be

Laughing he added: "So their consciences will be clear." During Malo

lieve an attempt on the Heir's life had actually been made, planned by

babiC's testimony, he bounced constantly on his right leg to show his dis

Apis and Vulovic . Agitated at MalobabiC' s statements, Major Vulovic

pleasure and smoked furiously.

listened closely , took notes, whispered to himself, frowned and fidge ted. Apis too displayed considerable emotion chewing his lips and writing con

After Rade's testimony even Tucovic seemed to believe some charges brought against Malobabic and Apis:

stantly . Twice his ears turned crimson, noted Stojkovic. Never previously had he acted that way in court. Declared Apis afterwards: "Let them

I look at Dragutin in court and he looks suspicious to me. The thing

judge us as they wish and eliminate anyone who hampers them. 1 stand at

is clear: Malobabic was in Ostrovo August 29th, that is a fact . . . .

your disposal. I am only sorry for the other honest people if they are re

Dragu tin is ruining us all. Malobabic will incriminate them [the ac

moved . . . when the country needs them." If all "Black Hand" members

cused]

were punished, disaster might overtake Serbia. Apis still hoped for recon

vented the meeting in camp.

terribly, and it is evident it s i all true except that they in

ciliation or compromise : However, Apis continued to insist Rade was a dedicated national worker: I don't believe the Heir will force this to the end. We must still part without great suffering . . . . Let everyone go and do his own work

Have you noticed what a clever badger he is in court? He says every

have always in life done everything with the deep conviction I am working for the country's good and that 1[ I now had done anything, I would say so openly.

thing in order to leave me a free hand. All he has said so far contains

without bearing any malice in himself. I

(Italics in text.)

half truths, and the other half will let me explain the entire matter.


266

Apis remained angry at Rade's arrest which had disrupted his intelligence operations in the Dual Monarchy. "And that state prosecutor babbles on and was never in service. When I meet him after this [trial] , I'll tell him: 'You are a real idiot or a man without heart and feeling.'' • His own testimony, said Apis, would dispel

all

uncertainty. However,

Radenkovic echoed feelings of most defendants: "Malobabic is a tramp who lies terribly and has become wholly tiresome." Rade, he concluded, "is the chief culprit and assassin ." Vemic agreed. Even Apis at times now criticized Rade: "A perverted type. I'll explain everything, but it looks strange now." But he compared Mehmedbasic with Russian revolutionaries willing to do anything for the great national cause. "I

am

sorry for Dragu

tin," noted Vulovic sadly , "he is a person of such incalculable worth." 1 The accused continued to debate the testimony of Malobabic and Mehmedbasic. Commented Vemic: "I believe Muhamed is telling the truth, and that scoundrel, Malobabic, is the assassin, then sought to blame Mu hamed. They are Dragutin's people." Vulovic agreed Malobabic was the main culprit. "He is Dragutin's tool." He continued: They are both simple people and cannot explain matters. When Dragutin and I testify, we will clarify everything. For me the worst thing is that they are accusing me of dirty deeds. I must defend my self; it is not essential to be tried under the penal code's most severe articles.

267

world. The unification of Serbdom will prove very expensive, but at least it will be united. Once again he admitted his grave mistake in not going to the Prince in 1 9 1 6 , show him the "Black Hand" documents, and become reconciled: I am wholly to blame that I sent Milutin [Lazarevic) and did not go personally to the Heir and bring

him

all those documents. He

would have embraced me and everything would be different now. Major VuloviC's testimony provoked varied reactions and much acri mony from his fellow offiers. "See how well Ljuba defends himself," re joiced Apis. "One feels his honesty and pride . . . . " To Tucovic things were now clear: "They are going to kill all those who were involved in the assassination attempt, and they are Dragutin, Ljuba Vulovic, and I am the third ; all the rest

will

get six months detention . . . . " Curiously, he

included himself in the plot but omitted Malobabic. Sympathized Tucovic : Poor Lj uba, it seems to me he is being sandbagge d. He says every thing and clearly is distracted. The affair has become terribly con fused . . . . We'll see what Dragutin has to say, but that MiSic is a heartless person. Milovanovic was negative: "Vulovic is a terrible person. He has lost his

One day Supreme Command ordered all defendants photographed as they left the prison for court. Dragisa Stojadinovic, Jovanovic-Patak's brother-in-law and later a leading defender of the Salonika Trial, headed the photography section. Why photograph us now?, wondered the officers. They swore ferociously. Vemic particularly disliked having his picture taken . Apis virtually exploded, turning

Apis Testifies

all yellow in

the face. It seemed to

confirm their darkest fears about the outcome of the Trial. Shortly before beginning his own testimony, Colonel A pis made some significant statements overheard by Captain Stojkovic: The atmosphere [in Europe] was such [in 1 9 14] that someone was bound to ignite it, and when the war broke out it lighted the entire

mind . . . . Ah, Dragutin, you dragged us all here. Why didn't you kill yourself?"2 Divisions among the accused were deepending. Major Vulovic was the most defiant, dangerous and impudent of all the Salonika defendants, affirmed Protic , but he was utterly loyal and devoted to Apis. Not a day passed without Vulovic asking about his comrade. "How is he? Does he need anything? Does he have coffee and tobacco? You must not allow

him

to lack for anything or God will punish you all!"

Protic assured Vulovic repeatedly that Apis lacked nothing; he was seeing to it personally. "Then greet

him

,

Protic, on my behalf every day," said

Vulovic. ''Tell him Ljuba will never abandon

him

.

No matter what hap

pens, our fates are linke d." Vulovic denounced the charges against them as ridiculous, the witnesses as false:


268

Apis Testifies

•

269

What more do they want from me? I admitted I wrote a letter in

Stojkovic, Apis acted especially genial and unperturbed. Reacted Vemic

which I called Prince Alexander a beast, a vulture, a carrion. I swore

angrily:

at him, but I didn't want to

kill

him. I would have admitted it if I

had, but I didn't. If I had, then crazy (Prince] Djordje would again

If Dragutin crossed himself and said: 'I am Orthodox,' I wouldn't

become heir to the throne. 3

believe him and would say: 'You are lying, you're a Muslim.' I don't believe anything he says any more. We'll settle up.

During the Trial and in the verdict Vulovic was depicted as "Black Hand's" hit man, Apis' blind instrument, an immoral officer without character, the

But when Apis looked at him in court, Vemic averted his eyes like a guilty

man with "dirty hands." Out of a national revolutionary and war hero, the

child. Still admiring Apis and hoping for the best, Tucovic affirmed: "Dra

court sought to create an ordinary criminal and to take away his honor."

gutin doesn't know how to defend himself (in court] ; he says everything

Awaiting transportation back to prison April 25th, Pilac again denounc

honestly . . . . Someone s i going to have to lose his head."

ed Apis. Turning to Stojkovic, Milovanovic cursed his friend for bringing

At subsequent sessions Chairman MiSic explored in great detail Apis'

them all to trial. Apis was a swine acting pleasantly toward everyone, then

dealings with Malobabic, especially hiding him at the front. MiSic casti

slicing them down the back. Pilac was haunted by terrible fear that he was

gated Rade as disreputable and an Austrian spy. On May 2nd, with Apis

doomed along with Apis and Vulovic .

and Malobabic face to face, they confirmed nearly everything they had

Colonel Apis' long awaited week of testimony began fmally April 25th. Did he intend to utilize his confidential report of March 28th? queried

testified to. Their relationship remained one of mutual trust and af fection. 5

Chairman Misic. No, he did not, replied Apis.5 Mmc realized he could pro

Apis criticized severely General Milos Vasic as Third Army commander

ceed safely without fear of compromising the Prince Regent or the govern

in 1916, noted Stojkovic. Vasic, Apis alleged, had little idea what occur

ment.

red at the front, since he had spent his time mostly with French and Brit

Next day Apis testified about the founding and nature of "Unification

ish officers, gorging himself. Major Milan Nikolic, replacing Vulovic at

or Death !", responding fully and frankly to the Chairman's probing, often

Third Army staff, had recruited many witnesses in Ostrovo for the Trial.

provocative questions. Yes, he had written

his

friends in Skoplje in 1 9 1 4

Apis expressed full satisfaction with Chairman Misic-he was correct, at

about the Priority Decree, but he had not urged a seizure of power.' The

tentive, even helpful . In prison, while other defendants walked in the

accused stared intently at Apis as if with his words he could dispense sal

courtyard, Apis sat on a stone, his head between his knees. Smoking con

vation to them all. But after that first session, only Tucovic was fully satis

stantly and eating heavily, Apis now complained of deteriorating health

fied: "Well, will the state prosecutor now abandon the case?" Milovanovic

and disturbing dreams.

was angry, the others expressed dismay, and Lazic felt Apis had insulted

Some comrades now rallied to Apis' defense. Declared Major

Lazic:

him. Next day when the letters to his Skoplje comrades were read, Apis again denied any intention of a coup claiming he had merely sought to

That Dragutin was the spirit of the army. Everything in which the

give the officer corps deserved satisfaction. "Black Hand" had had no

army succeeded was his work. All night and

revolutionary aims in Serbia, he afflrmed. Throughout the day Chairman

i with: 'What did you do the telephone while now MiSic insults hm

MiSic kept attention riveted on "Black Hand" as an allegedly terrorist

that was useful?' That is shameful .

all

day he waited on

organization. office, and it was read.7 Then MiSic probed Apis' relations with Malo

Even Vemic took a milder tack: " . . . Now it is clear to me that Malo. babic led Dragutin by the nose, but he [Apis] didn't realize it and be-

babic, especially on the Salonika Front. Afterwards in prison, noted

lieved in him blindly ."9

The court asked Apis on April 29th about the tom note in Putnik's


270

Lieutenant Protic confirmed Apis' remarkable frankness in court and private conversation. In court he knew he was revealing state secrets. Vulo vic was just the opposite. Reacting to one Apis disclosure, he warned: "Dragutin, watch out! You mustn't thus . . . . This is a military court, but

Apis Testifies

271

Though Protic often discussed Jovanovic -Cupa with Apis, he denied all knowledge of Freemasonry. Yet on a fmger of his right hand, Protic wore 1 a small gold ring like those of the Masons. 1 Two defendants confirmed Apis' naive and fatal trust in the sinister

they aren't reliable." On the stand Vulovic said repeatedly: "That is a state

Pera Zivkovic. Captain Stojkovic carried messages back and forth between

and military secret, so do not force me to untie the sack we are all sit

them. Apis had nothing to fear, purred Zivkovic reassuringly. The Trial

ting in."

was

all

the Radicals' work. Prince Alexander would soon halt it if Apis

Nonetheless, .Apis remained frank, declaring one day: "I know that

did not cross him. Dutifully Apis remained silent about his relations with

America has entered the war on our allies' side; I read it in the news

Alexander, never once criticizing him during the Trial. "That was Ziv

papers." A furor erupted in the courtroom among accused, judges and

kovic's influence," asserted Tucovic. After they learned the verdict, Apis

guards. "Accused, do you mean you are receiving newspapers in prison?"

confirmed this, stating: "You don't have to fear, Peter [Zivkovic] will

asked MiSic. Apis nodded. His revelation got Protic in trouble with Colonel

put

Dunjic who barked : "How is Apis getting newspapers in his cell?" Protic

was."12 The former intelligence chief had been lured into the spider's

shrugged. "If you don't know, then who is whose jailor?" "I don't know,

dark web. When Tucovic wondered how they would live in African in

Colonel, how Mr. Dimitrijevic got the papers or who supplied them," re

ternment, Apis declared: "Don't worry about that, it is guarantee d. We

plied Protic, "but in my presence he neither read nor showed them." Only

will get money through Peter Zivkovic. Be patient and quiet at the Trial.

later, shortly before Apis' execution, Protic learned that Captain Stoj

See you don't antagonize anyone and don't worry at all."13

everything

in

order."

Commented

Tucovic:

"How

naive Apis

kovic had secretly brought Apis newspapers using the money "to treat his 0 ill kidneys." 1

failure at Salonika to defend properly the national idea or the "Black

Protic attended the Trial regularly and took detailed notes. When Apis

Hand's" work or to seek exclusion of hostile judges. Seemingly count

quoted Foreign Minister Milovan Milovanovic: "Place , young friend, your

ing on the regime's chivalry , they limited themselves to personal defense

Black Hand at my disposal, then you will soon see what Milovanovic will

without baiting their opponents. 14 Apis' behavior at the Trial, agreed

do for Serbia," a voice, apparently of Colonel Zivkovic, rudely inter

Slobodan Jovanovic , was neither perceptive or skillful. Was Apis so con

rupted: "He is lying . . . . Why involve deceased heads of government in

This desire to act like good little boys may explain the defendants'

vinced of his innocence that he feared no personal enemies among the

court who cannot confirm it?" Chairman MiSic gavelled for order in the

judges or outside? Why did he keep his relations with them on such a

court. All reference to this incident was deleted from the stenogram of the

loyal and cooperative basis? He treated the judges as sincerely as if they

Trial since it would undermine prosecution claims that "Black Hand" had

were spiritual comrades. Apis apparently counted on ZivkoviC's former

been wholly subversive and secret from the government.

friendship and present assurances. But livkovic , set on revenge , may have

Over coffee Apis spoke with Protic about J ovanovic-Cupa's role as

Piedmont's founder and in the Serbian national

movement:

believed also that interceding for Apis could imperil his standing with the Heir. 15 In the courtroom and his . secret report to the court Apis accepted

Do you know what a Serbian visionary he was, my falcon? An ideal

maximum responsibility for "Black Hand" activities and for plarming

ist, a true nationalist, and at the end of national fanatic and mystic .

the Sarajevo murder. Throughout he revealed himself a generous and

. . . Cupa was a Freemason and wrote our organization's Constitu

honest frie nd seeking to spare his comrades. As to Sarajevo, clearly he

tion with reference to the Freemasons. Thus he wanted secrecy,

exaggerated his role. Feeling guilty for involving colleages in the Salonika

though everyone knew about 'Unification or Death!' That's why

Trial, he sought thereby to salve his conscience. On his way to execution

he introduced the secret oath in a darkened room.

he told Stojkovic: "If I had a hundred lives, I would not regret losing


272

Apis Testifies

273

them as much as I regret that because of me perished so many true friends

still they are

and comrades," and broke into tears. 1 ' Often the other defendants acted

affair which I need to explain to them.

repentant and self-condemnatory and blamed others. Thus they created

all

honorable people who don't understand the whole

the impression of being guilty of something. Whatever others wished to

. He did not intend to defend his action in detail in his fmal speech to the

renounce or deny, they blamed on Apis. Most declared they had operated

court; the time for that, Apis believed, would come later.

under his influence or leadership. To his eternal credit Apis took every thing upon himself and constantly encouraged his colleagues. 17 At the Trial 102 witnesses testified formally or had statements read,

all

The ten defense lawyers presented pleas for their clients on May 1819th. Lieutenant Colonel Milan Radojevic provided a rather insipid de fense of Colonel Apis:

for the prosecution. Not a single defense witness was called, nor was

anyone summoned whom the defendants requested to testify in their

The officers on trial are accused of preparing to assassinate the

behalf. Despite intense official pressure, about twenty of these witnesses

Heir to the tluone and seeking the forcible overthrow of the dy

refused to give false testimony; their statements often favored the ac

nasty. But all participated actively in the coup of May 1903 which

cused. General Vasic, Apis' former commander, had recruited most of

brought the dynasty to the throne. Thus it seems risky without in

them in order to discredit Apis and his friends. Apis expressed resentment

controvertible proof to accuse them of seeking its overthrow.

at beingjudged by Vasic and the "witnesses" he had gathered: The chief proof of a planned coup, the prosecution had alleged, was the I am not a vengeful person and never took revenge on anyone, but

"Black Hand" and its statutes. "My client pointed out that he and his

I cannot stand that demon. Just think that some Temelj ko, Vasilj

comrades had the opportunity to do this in 1903 yet did not even con

and Gajdaci would decide my fate. But why worry and get all upset?

sider undertaking such an act." After the May Coup Serbia had estab lished a democratic regime with one of Europe's most liberal constitu

There were also professional provocateurs expecting personal gain. The

tions. When "Black Hand" was founded in 1 9 1 1 , all the accused officers

letter of one, Mihailo Rankovic, to Prince Alexander, had served as one

were in favor at the royal court. Occupying key posts in the Serbian

formal basis for the Trial.

army , they enjoyed the regime's full favor and benefits. Why would they

18

"philosophically," wrote Stojkovic. The witnesses' task would be to con

found an organization to overthrow the system which provided them with . rank and influence? Admittedly, the defendants had associated with Bosn-

firm Malobabic's role as assassin. "To be consistent, I'll attack them,"

ian volunteers, including murderers, but the accused were all sincere

said Apis, "Tuca will join in, then the others." Speaking apparently to

patriots. Even before other Serbs, they had crossed the frontiers to fight

the Captain, Apis declared:

Serbia's enemies. Thus their association with Bosnian revolutionaries was

Now believing he would be imprisoned, Apis regarded everything

natural and logical. As intelligence chief, Colonel Dimitrijevic had good Believe me that I don't have a bad heart. I treat all people with a

reasons to recruit for spying adventurers like Malobabic . Association with

generous heart, but when something is essential in the general inter

bad people constitutes no proof of guilt. Colonel Dimitrijevic may have

est, I work not for myself, not for my good, but for the good of

founded the "Black Hand,"20

the whole people which I love more than anything in the world. That's the way I am made, only to work unceasingly , that is my

but I cannot support the merciless punishment urged by the court.

pleasure. You see that even my closest friends don't understand me

Court verdicts normally range between the maximum and minimum

until I explain it to them. I can see they are angry with me now, but

set by law. If one takes into account the motives of the accused in founding ·unification or Death ! ' , one must accept their defense


274

that its aim was purely patriotic. This honorable goal should serve to extenuate their violation of the law?1

Apis Testifies

275

nor had the 1903 conspirators ever spoken of "settling up" with

him

.

As

to Apis: -

Apis was ill-served by a timid defender readyto admit that his client was at least partially guilty. Much evidence was available to prove Apis innocent of most charges brought against him . On May 23rd Apis delivered his fmal statement to the Salonika Court. The accused had founded "Unification or Death!" exclusively as a patrio tic organization operating outside Serbia. It had been dissolved in fact once Serbia entered war against Turkey in October 1912. The court should

separate carefully the organization's work from its members' acts as in dividuals. As an individual, not as "Black Hand" or CEC member, Apis affirmed, he had agitated against the Priority Decree. He had never intend

ed the army to seize power. As proof, Apis cited conversations with op position political leaders at his Kragujevac office in October 1 9 1 4 when he urged concentrating all political power in the government. He explained the gathering of Bosnian volunteers at the Uzice staff in 1 9 1 5 as he had earlier. He denied all reports of Branko Bozovic's coming to Uzice. He cal led untrue Ciganovic' s assertion that Tankosic had sent

him 500,000 dinars

after crossing into Bosnia. About a supposed "Government of the National Council" Apis had heard first during interrogation . The Colonel denied any part in the supposed attempt on the Heir. He had had no quarrel with the Prince. Again speaking warmly of Malobabic, Apis questioned the validity of testimony against

him by

Veljanovic and

Konstantinovic . Apis accepted culpability for belonging to the CEC of a secret society, even though patriotic, admitting that no state can permit such secret organizations. He accepted blame as an officer interfering in politics but denied he had done anything to damage the army or Serbian

unity. He expected the verdict would reflect the pure spirit of the law. 22

Colonel Milovanovic-Pilac's lengthy fmal statement largely coincided with Apis' and defended him. Joining "Black Hand," he had merely glan ced through its statutes and never saw them again until the Trial. In "Black Hand" he had violated no laws except for entering a secret organi zation . Pilac denied engaging in any anti-dynastic activity. On the Salonika Front, never favoring a coup of change of dynasty , he had "dedicated my self in my new post to tireless work with my colleagues to recover our homeland." Even in anger, contended Pilac, he had never cursed the Prince

I can assure the court that Colonel Dirnitrijevic never by the slight est

sign

gave me any reason to believe that he had prepared anything

against the Heir. If I had, I would have urged

him

against it and in

formed whomever necessary . All the accused officers, continued Pilac, had risked their own and their families' necks to restore the Karadjordjevic dynasty. All except General Popovic had belonged to the "Black Hand." Since their best guarantees of future security lay in the Karadjordjevi6 dynasty, none could possibly benefit from killing the Heir or changing the dynasty. All had worked ardently for the national cause. Half the CEC had died gloriously on Serb ian battlefields; the rest had worked for Serbian unity. How could anyone believe they could now oppose it? His unblemished twenty-two year record as an officer suggested that he had not plarmed treason at the war's most critical moment. I repeat and give my solemn word which I have never previously broken that I am wholly innocent of the matters I am accused of, that I know absolutely nothing either about preparations for a coup and murder of the Premier or Heir and even less that I participated in this. I entrust my life and honor to the court . . . . I must bear the consequences of my carelessness in signing "Black Hand' s' '

Constitution?3 In Allied countries reactions to the Salonika Trial were mostly unfavor able.l4 Vladirnir .Lebedev, Navy Minister

n i

Russia's Provisional Govern

ment established in March 1 9 1 7 , wrote in June: "During the last days of my stay in Salonika they began arresting the best Serbian officers such as Dimitrijevic, Vemic, etc." The late Russian ambassador, N . G . Hartvig, noted Lebedev, had characterized "Black Hand" as "most popular, un selfish, idealistic and patriotic and whose aim was solely unification and liberation of the Serbian-Croatian-Slovenian peoples." The most honorable, idealistic, and self-sacrificing South Slav elements, he continued, had grouped themselves around Colonel Apis and his friends.25

276


Reports reaching the British Foreign Office about the Trial were mostly critical?' "I learned yesterday that the trial of General Popovic and eight other officers has been going forward for the last fortnight," reported Edgar Davies April 27th. It was difficult to learn details as the authorities claimed it concerned only the Serbs. "In the Serbian army, I hear, there is much uneasiness and disapproval on account of so many officers of good standing being removed."27 Colonel Arthur Harrison, former British military attache on Corfu, re ported dismay and unrest in the Serbian army and among refugees at the removal of many officers and officials, including some of the "most ef ficient Serbian officers and many of the cleverest and enlightened Serbian officials." Anyone in the army who dared protest was liable to imprison ment or internment. Kindred Slav peoples were furious at this treatment of those Serbs "whom they look to as most fitted to pull them together in a renovated Serbia at the conclusion of the war." The Trial could pro voke revolution or a schism in the army. Harrison heard that Prince Alex ander was powerless and held in ignorance by his entourage. "The situa tion is fraught with danger for the cause of the Serbs and Allies and if not speedily settled may jeopardize the position of Salonika.' '28 In a "Memorandum on the Serbian Situation" Harrison affirmed that the PaSic cabinet, afraid of losing power, was behind the Salonika affair: The officers arrested are all men who wish for a regenerated and en larged Serbia. The alleged attempt against the Heir was not a real attempt but a put up job arranged so as to give colour to the arrest of various Serbian officials. 29 The defendants were being tried for belonging to a secret society: The Society was formed entirely for patriotic reasons and was not antagonistic to the Serb government. In prison are eight Serb of ficers and about fifty have been interned at Bizerte, practically all senior officers and the best and most patriotic in the Serbian army. If the defendants were executed, predicted Harrison, neighboring South Slavs might prefer Austrian rule to a Radical Serbian regime. 30 ·

Apis Testifies

277

Professor R. W. Seton-Watson, a leading British scholar, in May drew up a memorandum about the Trial's significance for British intelligence. He could not assess the officers' guilt or innocence since the entire affair was shrouded in secrecy, but the actions of the Serbian government "against so many officers of high merit and distinction" were having deplorable ef fects. Provoking doubt and suspicion among Serbs, the Trial threatened to cause a split in the army.31 To counteract such Allied views, Premier Pasic wrote his ambassador in London defending the Trial as legal, public, and just. The defendants were accused of preparing a coup to eliminate constitutional monarchy and introduce military rule. They had sought to murder the Prince Regent and had committed various other crimes. This had all been confirmed by num erous documents, 100 witnesses, and the defendants' partial admissions. Original documents had been found proving that "Black Hand" was a sub versive organization which had plotted to turn Serbia into a reactionary military dictatorship.32 But Pasic and the Corfu regime realized they could not maintain this official version of the Trial for very long. For them it became crucial to conceal then liquidate the Salonika affair before it damaged irreparably relations with the Allies upon whom Serbia's exile regime remained wholly dependent.

Condemned

279

Late in the evening of May 23rd Chairman Misic rose and motioned to the other judges to rise too. In a monotone, stroking his hair several times, he began reading the verdict. Everyone in the courtroom fell deathly . silent. Apis stared fixedly at the judges. After Misic pronounced nine death sentences, the courtroom reacted: "A-a-a-ah!" None of the con demned uttered a word. Apis turned yellow as wax. As the judges with drew into a back room and the public filed out, he leaned on the table: I didn't know both of those articles brought the death penalty. So we

CHAPTER XXIII

are to be shot? Let's see if the Heir will sign that. In his place I wouldn't sign it. To shoot nine officers, brothers. No regime, not even the bloodiest would do that.

CONDEMNED TO DEATH (MAY-JUNE 1 9 1 7 )

When could he request mercy? Since the Heir was then on Corfu , could he

You heard the verdict! As to all the others, I don't believe they will be shot. 'That One' may reprieve them. But as for me, even St. Peter can no longer save me! Apis to Lieutenant Protic The day before the Lower Military Court's verdict was to be announced there was rising tension among the accused. Estimating he would get six

do so by telegram? The entire trial had left Apis with the impression that the charges were baseless. Thus he found the harsh sentences incom prehensible: Do you know what it means to shoot us when today all are fighting against the death penalty and then to shoot so many of us, that is indeed terrible. Just think of going for one's entire life along a clear path, to have a definite goal before you, then go to be executed; that is truly terrible.

months to three years, Vemic believed the mortally ill Bogdan Radenkovic would be freed altogether. Vemic counted much on Chairman MiSiC's fair

At 1 : 30 next morning Apis lay in bed still unable to sleep.3

ness. Major Vulovic awaited the verdict calmly: his heart trouble was

Soon after they returned from the courtroom, Protic made rounds of

worse. Milovanovic was writing his final statement. Apis felt no proof had

the officers' cells where he heard varied reactions to the verdict. Comment

been supplied of the attempt on the Heir and thus that the alleged assas

ed Colonel Tucovic:

sins would be exonerated . But they would all be punished for belonging to the "Black Hand." He expected ten years: "When I see where they will send us after the verdict, I'll send the address to my nephew. I

am

much

worried about that boy. I see that the poor fellow doesn't dare write to me." 1 A pis stili worried about Rade: "If Malobabic and Mehmedbasic are punished for attempted assassination, it would be a terrible verdict, in conceivable. "2

Oh, they are only trying to scare us. In Serbia even small children would curse 'That One', even if he won the war and extended the country to Vienna and Pesth. Where, I ask you, do they dare shoot so many officers? He may be crazy , but he is not stupid. Colonel Apis told Protic in a suspiciously normal voice: '·My falcon, here take some money, as much as you need to buy me coffee tomorrow for

278

fifteen days." When Protic sought his reactions, Apis replied:


280

•

Condemned

281

You heard the verdict! As to all the others I don't believe they will

killing an Austrian Archduke? Isn't that why we are fighting? queried

be shot. That One' can reprieve them. But as for me, even St. Peter

Serbian officers and men. The verdict shocked especially fighters on the

can no longer save me! I know and feel that. Just buy coffee and

Salonika Front- the view prevailed that the Trial had been arranged by

cigarettes. Buy more cigarettes, enough for a month, let some be left over. Anyway, you know how much I smoke and drink coffee every

enemies thirsting for Apis' blood. 6

·

Two days after the Lower Court's verdict, Captain Stojkovic found

day. Then come, my falcon, we'll drink together. It is sweeter with

Apis exhausted and depressed. Unable to read anything, he walked con

company.

tinually around his room or sat at his table plunged in thought. Feeling very low, he begged his jailors to come and talk.

Tucovic said he would seek clemency and advised all to do likewise. The Heir would not want them all shot. "I thought they would take Dra

Constantly I fmd myself amazed and cannot believe it. Is is possible

gutin's head and Lj uba's," reacted Pilac. ' 'but here we'll all go under the

after flfteen or twenty years of work to stand before a shameful

ice. In the High Court are Mirko [Milosavljevic ] and Josif [Kostic ) , and

and criminal grave? What will the High Military Court declare? Can

they'll finish us off; the matter is settled." Lazic criticized Apis for keep

it really order nine people to be shot? Formally that means to

ing the ''Black Hand" Constitution: "As soon as I saw that our case had

slaughter us like lambs. That is terrible.

begun, I destroyed everything immediately." Shocked at his death sen tence, Ceda Popovic told Apis: "Malobabic, the Constitution and Regula

What were the others doing?, Apis asked Stojkovic. How did they feel?

tions brought us the death penalty, but I destroyed everything from the

Apis himself felt acute responsibility for their plight. Had Rade requested

organization when I went off to war." He was sorry for surviving wives

clemency ? Writing his own appeal, Milovanovic wondered if Apis had sent

and children; otherwise it mattered little to him. Shrugging, Malobabic

one. "I don't know what to write," complained Pilac. "What is the point,

turned to Apis: "My head wasn't any too secure anyway !" Nonetheless,

what can I say when I am innocent?" Exhausted, his eyes lifeless, Vulovic

the condemned all wrote pleas for mercy to the High Military Court.4

kept repeating: "I am innocent, they are spilling an innocent man's blood;

•

The Lower Court had convicted eleven persons, including two civilians

it will go hard on them."7 Protesting his innocence , Malobabic considered

(Malobabic and Radenkovic), nine to death. The court declared "Unifica

it a great honor to be condemned with Apis, though he feared death

tion or Death!" had been founded to overturn the "existing order," estab

terribly.

lish a dictatorship, and murder the Prince Regent and Premier Pasic. Malo

On May 29th Colonel Pavlovic of the legal division rushed up asking for

babic was convicted of shooting at the Heir in a plot Apis had planned.

Vernic. Was he acting on a tip? Pavlovic ordered Protic to make sure Vemic

Colonel Apis was condemned to death for probable participation in the

was in his cell. Hurrying there, Protic, horror-struck, saw that Vernic had

murder attempt. Legally the court could convict him only of a lesser

fled. "A fme thing!" exploded Pavlovic. "The Heir will shoot us person

charge, noted Slobodan Jovanovic. Since he did not admit planning the

ally!" Alerted by then, Colonel Dunjic, Salonika commandant, immedi

attempt, two eyewitnesses were supposedly required under military law

ately ordered the other prisoners fettered. Lieutenant Protic with Corporal

for a death sentence. 5

Vukasin went from cell to cell to attach the fetters. He found Apis stand

The Lower Court's decision caused a sensation. The broader public did

ing next to his table, a cup of coffee in one hand and a cigarette in his

not expect death sentences. Even Apis' opponents believed capital sen

teeth. As the jailors produced the heavy fetters, Apis grew deadly pale.

tences were undeserved. Serbian society. tired of conspiracies and fearing

For the first time he was truly upset. Himself in a state of shock, Protic

praetorianism. were cool toward ''Black Hand" and Apis' political activ·

explained: "Vernic has escaped, so this is just a precaution." Unhesitating

ities, but most people believed ordinary disciplinary measures would bring

ly extending his anns, Apis stressed: "You must carry out your orders,

irresponsible army elements to heel. Why condemn officers to death for

Protic." Making the fetters secure, Protic rushed from Apis' room his

282


Condemned

283

head bent. How shameful! Colonel Apis, a national hero, condemned to

army prison . . . . Where are the outside guards?" Vemic, Protic's first

death and now handcuffed too!

commanding officer, continued confidentially: "Perhaps the prison was

Pilac reacted violently: "Aha, he ran off like a big coward! Catch that cavalry today ! All you cavalrymen are cowards . . . . A Serbian officer doesn't flee his own military prison. Never!" Worst of all reacted Lazic ,

poorly guarded deliberately . . . . Haven't I proven by this escape that we are criminals, revolutionaries, and regular regicides?;' Vemic had b�en recaptured peacefully by a military patrol which found

ready to fight Protic and Vukasin rather than submit to handcuffs. In

him hiding behind the dresser in a house of prostitution ! A cavalry officer

rushed Colonel Dunjic and aimed his loaded revolver at Lazic's head. Lazic

caught in a brothel-what would Colonel Pavlovic say? For three days the

spat and reluctantly extended his hands. The prisoners' rooms were kept

prisoners remained fe ttered and closely guarded. Their handcuffs were

open; they all lay on their beds with guards pointing revolvers at their

removed only for eating or going to the bathroom. Protic felt terribly

heads. "Where is Captain Stojkovic?" asked Dunjic ominously. Stojkovic,

about Apis whose huge body produced copious perspiration which soaked

fighting a hangover, was in a half sitting position as Dunjic approached .

his bed. Open wounds began to fester around his inflamed armpits. Finally,

Instinctively feeling danger coming, he groaned loudly. "Listen, you

the softhearted Protic could stand it no longer. He went straight to Col

drunken tramp!," began Dunjic.

onel Dunjic and asked for a transfer right to the front, even behind enemy

Stojkovic was saved from certain disaster when an automobile drove up

lines. Dunjic stared at him in amazement. What had prompted his unusual

with a recaptured and chastened Vemic. Dunjic handcuffed him person

request? Replied Protic: "I'll tell you openly, as if to a father, Colonel. I

ally, assigned him a new cell, and ordered a very meek Captain Stojkovic

cannot look at fettered Serbian officers any longer. I no longer have the

to accompany him. Protic ordered the guard to leave him and Vemic

nerve to see my superiors suffer with irons on their arms." Dunjic looked

alone, then asked the crestfallen Vemic why he had tried to escape. "You

up at Protic . Asking him to wait, he talked at length with someone on the

have caused trouble for all the prisoners, me, and the entire guard. The

telephone, apparently the War Minister. Returning, he ordered: "Remove

Supreme Command threatened Dunjic that he would occupy your place

the fetters from all but Vemic. Leave his on a while longer."

if you were not recaptured." "Oh, Josif!" wailed Vemic, "and what will

Apis was more upset when they removed his fe tters than when they had

my comrades say?" "They will accuse you of cowardice . . . . Do you

been put on. He turned his head to one side so Corporal Vukasin would

know that they have all been handcuffed? Do you know that in each cell

not see the wet marks around his eyes. When the handcuffs fell off, he

a guard stands at the prisoner's head witl1 a loaded revolver pointed

walked around like a locomotive, slapped his hands, and massaged his

at him?"

joints. In silence Protic looked quickly away. For him those past three

Vemic began weeping copiously. "Did they even handcuff Dragutin?" Protic nodded. Vemic sought to explain:

days had been the worst of his life. Only officers of that time knew how it felt to see a fe ttered comrade, particularly one he admired as much as Col onel Apis. "Stop a minute, wait!", called Apis cheerfully, as Protic moved

I'm miserable, Protic. I had to flee. I couldn't stand it any more. . . . You can't imagine how it is to live with the knowledge that you are going to be shot . . . . Because of false and rigged accusa tions . . . because of higher political aims and world politics. Do you understand, Josif? As Protic wondered how he had escaped, Vemic explained he had found that part of his wall was constructed shoddily. "This is a poorly secured prison, Protic. I didn't think one could escape so easily from a Serbian

towards the door. "Now I can smoke and cook coffee. Let me treat you, Protic." Often the Lieutenant drank coffee with Apis, but now he had more urgen t business. "Excijse me, Colonel, but 1 must remove the fetters from the other prisoners." "Fly off, my falcon! Hurry, remove the fetters from the others. Fetters are for cattle and wolves, not for officers. Quick ly! And I'll cook up the coffee and wait for you." The only prisoner who had not cursed Vemic for fleeing and causing them such heartache was the reputedly brutal Vulovic. Now with his fet ters removed, he was aimiable, joking: "What do you say, Pro tic? They


284

caught Vemic with a whore in a brothel, behind the dresser! . . . That is purely Serbian and just like the cavalry !"

Condemned

285

affairs." Meanwhile the condemned should remain quiet and patient. Reading an article in the French newspaper,

L 'fndependant,

Apis was

i real coffee . . . . So sit down, Protic, for goodness sake, container. "This s

struck by a passage calling them traitors and assert ing the Serbian army . would benefit greatly by their removal. Only now, being condemned

brother, sit! Let's drink coffee and smoke. My God, how nice it is not to

to death, did he appreciate how precious human life was. "Thus I hope

be bound! You see how little a person needs to be satisfied." Protic

they won't want our blood, still one thought spins constantly in my head:

looked admiringly at Apis. The Colonel, a bald, goodnatured giant, spoke

the verdict of death." The article had stated: "Remove them," but that

softly and properly. Unlike his comrades, he neither swore nor raised his

did not mean execution. "Why should they do that, what satisfaction

voice. "So they have left fetters on Vernic. Oh, the fools! What are they

would there be in that?" But Tucovic, after reading a Serbian article and

trying to do to us?" sighed Apis.

having

Soon Protic returned to join Apis who had cooked coffee in a half liter

L l' ndependant

translated, changed his own view: "Now we are

finished. You see this will spread through Europe, and the Heir won't You know, Protic, I have been expecting this for a number of days

pardon us in order to preserve his reputation and will sacrifice us as his

now, ever since they read us the verdict. I see well that this prison

recent friends in the country's interests." But their execution would solve

is insecure , dilapidated, that the commander of guards is a drunkard,

nothing: "They should know that we have frie nds who will not abandon

that you are kindhearted, that we are not guarded by regular soldiers

our cause even if we are no longer here."

but by police unfortunates who can't hit a man at ten feet. I noticed

He was not an evil person though certain actions suggested he was un

that and think I know why it is so. You know, Protic, it looks as

scrupulous, Apis told Stojkovic. His political interference had been wrong,

if someone wanted us to flee, then seize us, perhaps even kill us dur

he admitted, so the Heir and Radicals were angry at him. In an orderly

ing flight. Oh, they are clever, my falcon.

country, Apis agreed, such actions could not be permitted, so they must

all

be punished. Let them send him to hot North Africa, and he would not Apis then showed Protic the inferior workmanship in his room. I f one

blame his judges. Apis broke down in tears. Later, he said:

leaned against the wall, the bricks would fall in. "But I won't do that. I'm not a fool like Vemic was. I am not going to flee . . . . It will be con

Sometimes I think of nothing for half the day and don·t know my

firmed that I am not guilty !"3

self what I am thinking. During the second half of the day I look

Observing Apis walking around his cell or reading at his table, Stoj

out into the corridors at those guards, examine their faces and won

kovic wrote: "He has not yet lost all hope that a reprieve lies at the end

der which of them will kill me. Then I wonder why they are going

of this." Apis wanted the others also to feel that way and avoid stupid

to kill me, why am I to blame, and why allow him to become a

actions like that of "that peasant, Vemic" who had demeaned them all.

murderer even in the line o f duty?

Considering Vemic very limited mentally, Apis forgave him: "He doesn't realize we are political prisoners; from court we came into confinement;

Added Apis: "I wanted to participate actively in politics, so all that was

from prison we will go again to the palace . . . . " Apis had thanked

bound to catch up with me." But why were the Heir and his entourage so

Dunjic for removing the handcuffs. Meanwhile · vemic lay bed, his face turned towards the wall to avoid looking anyone in the eye. The officer prisoners gyrated between hope and despair. On May 3 1 st Apis told Stojkovic he was confident he would not be shot. As a political prisoner his life would be spared. They would all be imprisoned, "but when we enter Greater Serbia, they will release us and attend to their own

terribly afraid? Commented Stojkovic : His conversations, despite all his caution, always manifested a strong feeling of sympathy for his friends . . . . He does not know what will become of them and what they are thinking, whether they blame him and complain against him. For him this is a deep concealed pain


286

from which he has suffered constantly since the day of his arrest and which has grown stronger and was revealed during moments at the trial when during recesses he was attacked by the other accused. How would theh execution be carried out? Apis asked Stojkovic. Would their insignia of rank be removed? "And a crowd will gather, won't it, to watch the circus for nothing!" He laughed. Pilac, recalling how well he had once stood with the Heir, feared now he would be doomed because of his close ties with Apis. "The Heir doesn't believe in Dragutin at

all, and what

is more he is right." Vulovic believed he would soon be executed-no one could expect mercy from the Prince. "Let me tell you, he has all the quali ties of his grandfather, Nikola."9 He and Apis would surely be shot; the

Condemned

287

to grant prisoner requests for food and tobacco, but now Vemic urged him to go to Salonika. "Ask Pera Zivkovic whether I am to be shot. I know Zivkovic knows what will happen to all of us." Sine� in 1903 Vemic had secured his release from detention in NiS, Protic considered it a moral duty to honor this request. As he waited in Pera's elegant Greek salon, Zivkovic marched in proudly, arrogantly arrayed in civilian clothing featuring a purple silken blouse. And how were his dear old friends? Did they need money? What were they saying? Pera would not let Protic respond. As self-important as ever, Zivkovic never engaged in conversa tions with subordinates. Instead he commented on and answered his own questions:

others would go to prison. By now the convicted officers were very anxious 0 to see one another. 1

Oh, they are terrible criminals, Protic. Just think! They wanted to

The trip to Corfu of several members of the London-centered Yugoslav

them. I would crush them like eggs! They wanted a republic and

Committee seemed a favorable omen for the condemned. Recalled Hinko Hinkovic, a prominent Croatian nationalist leader: We members of the Yugoslav Committee followed

founded a subversive society . . . . Killing kings seems to have be come a habit with them. And they wished to liquidate Pasic.

this

quarrel with

great concern wishing somehow to achieve mercy. Independent of the humanitarian aspect, we were all firmly convinced that execu tions would echo destructively and to the great detriment of our national aims and among the Allies. Knowing Malobabic personally , Hinkovic confll1Tled that Rade and his friends had acted heroically at the 1909 Zagreb Treason Trial. But on Corfu Hinkovic found that Stojan Proti<�, for one, had a low opinion of Malobabic. "We, Precani 1 1

kill, his Highness, the Heir . . . . If I had my way, I wouldn't shoot

did not interfere [in the Salonika verdict ] ,

knowing the sensitivity of the Serbs who considered it their internal mat ter." 12 Apis and his friends could expect no aid from the influential Yugo slav Committee. The guard awakened Lieutenant Protic about 3 AM. Vemic needed to see him urgently . "Either take these [fetters] off or kill me," he pleaded. Protic promptly replaced the heavy fe tters with lightweight French hand cuffs. Vemic thanked him profusely as if he had been pardoned. Next day Dunjic ordered Ius handcuffs removed. With Captain Stojkovic still "suf fering from his kidneys," Protic made the rounds. He had been instructed

Glancing at a large wall clock, Zivkovic announced before Protic could utter a word that he must go dine with the Heir. When Protic fmally man aged to submit Vemic's request, Pera closed the door and said conspir atorially: "Let this remain between us, Protic. Don't tell a soul. Tell only Vemic: he won't be shot. You may tell him this only tomorrow

after

9

AM. Clear? Now go." At 8 AM next morning the High Military Court's decision commuting Vemic's sentence to imprisonment was read to

all

the

assembled prisoners. 13 Meanwhile four Serbian officer-associates of Apis with the Volunteer Division in Russia sought valiantly to save the condemned from execu tion. Leading their campaign was Major Radoje Jankovic, a highly culti vated poet, fluent in French and knowing Russian. First J ankovic tele graphed War Minister Terzic .and Interior Minister J ovanovic-Patak on Corfu , protesting the Lower Court's death sentences. When his colleagues, Lieutenant Colonel Bozin Simic, Alexander Srb, and Vojislav Gojkovic, ar rived in Petrograd, the four worked together. "We did

all

we could, up

setting heaven and earth, out of loyalty sending messages first to our government." When that brought no response, they composed memoranda and appealed to leading world statesmen and rulers. They wrote letters to

Condemned


288

•

289

leading newspapers in Russia, France and England . On May 27th they

doubt under present circumstances an outburst of indignation, heat

wrote the British ambassador that the attempt on the Prince and the Sal

ed attacks on Serbia, and perhaps hostile street demonstrations. We

onika Trial had been staged by Apis' enemies:

strongly wish to avoid this so as not to cast a shadow over the friend ly and brotherly relations of Russia and Serbia. 1 7

Colonel Dimitrijevic is the most beloved officer in Serbia. I t is pre cisely in him that the ideology of national unification has been em

Responding to public sentiment, the Provisional Government had previous

bodied . . . . By his intelligence and loyalty he has always been the

ly abolished the death penalty in Russia.

center of the democratization of the Serbian army . . . . His great

The final effort of the four Serbian officers was a telegraphed appeal to

friend, Colonel M. G. Milovanovic, is known as the most solid force

the King of England June 1 1 th:

in our General Staff. 14 . . . Death sentences have been pronounced on the best Serbian of Thus Apis' loyal "Black Hand" comrades.

ficers and the greatest friends of the noble allies and protectors of

Next the four drew up a "Memorandum" affirming that those con

the Serbs. This unfortunate and reactionary action by the Heir and

demned to death had all been accused unjustly of seeking to transform

his government presages for the heroic Serbian people the greatest

Serbia into a republic. "We can state unreservedly that the Salonika affair

troubles within future Serbia. We beg Your Majesty to prevent the

had already been prepared and officially organized with a definite political

execution of this unpardonable crime against the greatest Serbian

aim." False witnesses and informers had incriminated the accused. On

I

patriots unjustly accused and tendentiously judged.18

May 23rd the four requested their ambassador in Petrograd to urge Prince Alexander and the cabinet for the sake of Serbia's future to end the

However, Pasic realized that his regime could disregard warnings by four

Salonika Trial immediately and free the defendants. After Serbia had been

expatriate "Black Hand" officers and by the Provisional Government

liberated, they could be retried. If a verdict had already been pronounced,

which had little power outside Petrograd and Moscow.

an immediate retrial should be held with judges named by Allied gov

On June 17th, not knowing the executions had already occurred, For eign Minister Tereshchenko instructed his envoy to inform Pasic that un

ernments. 15 The Foreign Ministry of Russia's Provisional Government, the weak

less the death sentences were commuted, there would be great indignation

democratic regime established in March 1 9 1 7 , '6 fearful the Trial would

in Russia against the Serbian regime. Pasic claimed that this warning ar

endanger the Allied cause, advised the Serbian exile government to be

rived too late adding that in no case would the Russian protests have

moderate and humane. After

halted the executions since the guilt of the condemned had been amply

Novoe Vrem a. i

a leading liberal Petrograd

newspaper, had warned Serbian leaders that the Trial could undermine

proven.19

their cause and alienate the Russian public and Provisional Government,

London also had taken some rather timid steps to dissuade the Serbs

Foreign Minister M . 1 . Tereshchenko telegraphed his envoy on Corfu

from executing the convicted officers. On June 5th the British embassy in

June 1 1 th:

Petrograd telegraphed its envoy on Corfu to urge commutation of all death penal ties because of the bad effects they would produce in Allied coun

The general consul in Salonika informed us that eight officers ac

tries. Ambassador Buchanan requested the envoy to ascertain all charges

cused of treason and attempted murder of Heir Alexander have been

against the condemned, adding: "Allied governments cannot remain indif

condemned to death. Without going into the accusations or guilt of

ferent to measures which have so direct a bearing on the conduct of the

the officers, which is an internal Serbian affair . . . point out to

war."2o

Pasic that execution of the death penalty wi!J cause here without

All efforts abroad failed to save Apis and his friends. Since unworthy men controlled the Salonika regime, concluded Major Jankovic, no amount

290


of intervention could have changed the outcome. "A type of hysteria wove this poisonous net around your heads,

all

in the name of saving the Kara

dj ordjevic dynasty which we had brought into power and protected and to which we wished no harm . "2 1 In Salonika meanwhile the High Military Court had reviewed the Lower Court's draconian verdict. Before the Salonika Trial, its membership had been changed completely. Its new chairman was Colonel (soon General) Mirko Milosavljevic, a leading counterconspirator and "White Hander." His colleagues were Colonels Josif Kostic, a vitriolic foe of Apis, and Stevan Miletic, named a judge after pledging to "cut all their heads off."22 With three avowed enemies of Apis on the High Court, his death had been predetermined.23 However, the fourth judge, Lieutenant Colonel Branko Gatalovic , conversely was thoroughly honest and trained in law. Before the Apis case reached the High Court, Gatalovic was pressured to declare him self ill; he would merely damage himself by judging the case objectively _2'4 Early in 1 9 1 7 Rudolf Mihl, the "Corfu swimmer," had been assigned to the High Court as a typist. Sitting in an antechamber during its sessions, Mihl overheard snatches of Gatalovic's bitter quarrel with Colonel Kostic on June 5th. They called each other terrible names. Gatalovic kept repeat ing: "I will not become a murderer by sentencing innocent men to death." Cursing him, Kostic threatened to take his head "together with those rob bers who will be killed no matter what you say." When their dispute threatened to degenerate into fisticuffs, Chairman Milosavljevic intervened. Colonel Vlada Jovanovic urged Mihl: go to Gatalovic , calm him down, and tell him not to oppose death sentences since "not only would he save no one's head but merely endanger his own." Very upset, Gatalovic told Mihl: "Those murderers want to make me a murderer too, but . . . I won't sign Apis' death sentence even if it costs me my head. "25 When the High Court voted, Chairman Milosavljevic's voice proved deci sive . Gatalovic argued vainly: Serbian law expressly forbids a death sentence

291

Condemned

classified a political prisoner. How was Pilac bearing up? "You know that he is a very sensitive person whereas I

am

not and so they call me an ani

mal. Anyone who seeks to live actively and work must be ready for any thing and to bear

all."

Apis placed hope in Independent Radical leaders,

Davidovic and DraSkovic. Even Pasic might dislike death sentences. As to the Prince Regent: We

all

out our hopes in that Alexander . . . . Kings always make the

mistake of fe aring people of worth and gather around themselves courtiers useful for hunting, dinners and such things, but not for basic serious work . . .

.

Later, Apis commented: "Let them eliminate me and do what they wish, but I believe they probably won't dare undertake such a terrible step as execution." He asked Stojkovic: "Tell me honestly, where will they send us to prison?" Ljuba Vulovic still cracked rather forced jokes. Milovanovic, expressing deep hatred for the Prince and dynasty, swore at everyone, blaming the whole world for his sad plight. He admitted having cursed the Heir terribly. Malobabic declared smiling: "I thought I had joined an elite force, but they turn out to be criminals !"27 The High Court issued its verdict later that day. Ceda Popovic and Radenkovic, earlier condemned to death, received twenty years; General i creased from fifteen to twenty years. The death Popovic's term was n sentences of the rest-Apis, Milovanovic, Lazic, Tucovic, Vulovic, Vemic, and Malobabic-were all confirmed. However, under Serbia's Constitution, the Prince Regent possessed final power to reprieve anyone condemned to die. The seven all prepared mercy pleas. The High Court's decision split the Corfu coalition cabinet and caused its dissolution. Cabinet members Davidovic and Draskovic fmally stirred from their suspicious lethargy. Davidovic, Independent Radical chairman,

based on circumstantial evidence; two witnesses are required to prove mur

waited until a foreign envoy informed him of the High Court's decision .

der by assassination. He then filed a dissenting opinion: "the death penalty 2 is not based on the law," a courageous act which cost him dearly. 6

confirmation the death sentences had been upheld. Not trusting the wily

On June 8th with the High Court's decision imminent, Stojkovic found Apis unusually depressed. He had neither shaved, changed clothes, nor used his eau de cologne. Apis still counted on outside friends and Serbia's democratic traditions to win him a five to twenty year sentence if he were

•

Surprised, Davidovic hastened to Premier Pasic, but he insisted he had no Pa5ic's assurances, Davidovic promptly sought out Prince Alexander, then on Corfu. In a good mood, the Heir invited Davidovic for a ride in his automobile. During the drive Alexander confirmed that the High Court had confirmed seven death sentences. What was DavidoviC's reaction? As

292


party chief, replied Davidovic , he could give no official opinion. The Heir, he learned, had already spoken with Pasic who had advocated "complete execution of the verdict." Pasic had deceived him, Davidovic realized, in order to confront Independent Radical ministers with the fait accompli of executions. Davidovic argued for clemency for the condemned. As a friend of the dynasty, he stressed the fateful consequences of executing the seven of ficers. With the blood of political criminals one could not consolidate throne or dynasty . Listening to his pleas, Alexander grew steadily angrier. Finally, he shouted: "What, you are defending those who sought to kill

Condemned

293

position we are in now. We have lost our homeland . . . ; our people at home are enslaved." The minister continued emotionally : My skin crawls at the shedding of Serbian blood, the blood of our officers, by Serbian hands. Are we going . . . to bury their bodies in the ground of those poltroon Greeks? Just think how that would discourage our army. And everyone seemed to be opposed to such executions:

me!" A poisonous silence ensued. When the Prince calmed down, David

. . . This shedding of brotherly blood would make a bad impression

ovic again pleaded for mercy. Everyone would hail such a generous royal

on our Allies and the rest of the civilized world . . . . Know that all

gesture. The Heir halted the car, opened the door, and forced out the

other parties in the Skupstina oppose execution of the death penalty.

shocked Davidovic. As the Prince Regent continued his drive, the Inde

What poisons the whole atmosphere even more is the conviction of

pendent Radical chainnan had to walk all the way back to the town of

innocent men since it was not correct under law and the verdict was

Corfu !

unjust and dictated by personal revenge.

After that incident the non-Radical ministers opposed the High Court's verdict. On June 9th Davidovic , DraSk.ovic and Marin.kovic resigned. Chair

Premier Pasic hastened to interrupt the minister's plea. Thanking him

man Davidovic refused to let other Independent Radicals enter the coali

for the feelings he had expressed, Pasic arged that the external situation

tion cabinet. Pa5ic promptly submitted the entire cabinet's resignation. At

had become critical. According to reports he had received the past few

the advice of the Assembly president, Andra Nikolic, the Prince Regent

days from Serbian envoys in Allied countries:

then requested Pa5ic as leader of the strongest party (Radicals) to form a homogeneous cabinet; he did so next day. Going to him on pretext of

The military position of our allies has deteriorated and

saying farewell, Davidovic and DraSkovic again interceded with Alexander

the victory of our enemies is considered inevitable in the shortest time. [Author's

for mercy. Receiving them coldly, the Prince declared: "You need not

italics.] Thus we are destined to succumb in the struggle. Negotia

have come since you have already resigned." An unfavorable impression

tions for peace will begin soon and we and our party friends will

would be produced at home and abroad, they insisted, by executing any

confront the greatest danger.

of the condemned. Alexander brushed them off curtly: "You are free to go; I do not wish to see you again .'m

The Austrian and German courts, warned Pasic somberly, considered the

At its initial meeting Pasic's new all-Radical cabinet decided to have

Radicals their greatest enemy. Cleverly, he linked the High Court's verdict

Apis, Vulovic and Malobabic executed, but urged clemency for the others.

with the Sarajevo assassination, The Central Powers, claimed Pasic , had

An attending minister took notes in that meeting. After reading the ver

proofs that the Archduke's assassination had been prepared by Colonel

dicts of both military courts, the Justice Minister urged that the cabinet

Apis and his friends. "Both Austrians and Germans are

recommend to the Crown to commute the death sentences to twenty years

they won't allow us to return to Serbia, will confiscate our land and turn

imprisonment except for the three principals. Premier Pasic nodded agree

us and our leading friends over to the courts." Thus it was essential to de

ment. Then one minister argued that the three death penalties should be examined carefully: "Let us look around ourselves a little and examine the

so

angry at us that

fend the Radical Party by being implacable toward Apis and his friends. Since Apis had given the Salonika court a written admission that he had

•


294

prepared Franz Ferdinand's murder, it was essential for the Serbian regime to condemn him publicly and execute him and his chief accomplices, Vulovic and Malobabic. Then we can· tell Austria and Germany . . . that we killed him im mediately proving that we condemned the assassination. At issue here is our skin or theirs. This matter will tolerate no delay because events can surprise us.

accepted without further objection. Only two weeks later, recalled the minister, a high Foreign Ministry official informed them that Pa5iC's state ments about the grave military and political situation had been invented. That same day the minister learned that Apis had provided written admis sion of responsibility for Sarajevo in return for a promise of clemency .29 Pasic had secured his object by deceiving flrst Apis, then his Radical colleagues. Alexander and Pasic were responsible for confmning the three death sentences, affirmed Slobodan Jovanovic. Why did Pasic split from the Independent Radicals over the executions and doom the coalition cab inet? Facing talks with the Yugoslav Committee about a future Yugoslav a coalition regime would have strengthened Pasic's position. Pasic

had acted under in tense pressure from the Prince Regent, a Radical min ister, Momcilo Nincic assured Jovanovic. The Heir first insisted that

all

all but

three. Pasic could not save them because Alexander made a personal issue over Apis, Vulovic and Malobabic. But had Pasic joined Independent Radi cal demands for clemency, countered Jovanovic, Alexander would have had to yield. He could not have dismissed a Pasic coalition cabinet since neither the Yugoslav Committee nor the Allies would have dealt with an irregularly constituted cabinet. Thus Pasic had his own reasons to elimin ate the three. Paramount was Apis' admission to the Salonika court that he had organized the Sarajevo plot. Pa5ic and Stojan Protic considered it vital to safeguard the dynasty, Radical Party and themselves, pledging Serbia's future correct behavior toward the Austrians by shooting Sara jevo's organizers. To cleanse thei r party in case of a separate peace, Pasic and Protic agreed to deliver Apis' head to Yienna.30

In 1922 Stojan Protic conflrmed that Apis' secret report to the Salon ika court had prevented his reprieve : As far as the late Dimitrijevic is concerned, the main thing is that he admitted to the court that it was he who had organized the Sarajevo assassination which gave Austria the excuse to declare war against us.

against Austria considered Sarajevo a crime and its organizers criminals.

Dead silence descended over the cabinet meeting, then PasiC's plea was

the convicted seven be executed, but Pasic induced him to reprieve

295

Thus Protic virtually admitted that the Pasic government during a war

Pa5ic begged them to accept the Justice Minister's proposal .

state,

Condemned

"Can one conceive of a more monstrous political act of treason against Serbia than this?" queried Apis' nephew. 31 Jovanovic discussed Apis' execution with Alexander in I 9 I 9 . Pressed to speak frankly, Jovanovic, whom Alexander respected as lawyer and his torian, told the Prince that Apis' death sentence had been judicial murder. Startled, the Prince claimed never to have previously heard such a view: I am a military man; I am not versed in law, so I consulted those legal advisers I had in Salonika on my staff. They

all

assured me the

death penalty of Apis was irreproachable legally. After that I had to consider the Apis case purely militarily . From that viewpoint Apis could not have been reprieved. For an officer there can be no greater crime than to plot in wartime against his commander-in-chief. Did Alexander really believe Apis and his friends had conspired against him? Seeking supreme authority over the army and convinced this was a legitimate aim, the Prince had ignored the Salonika Trial's flagrant ir regularities. But Pa5ic and his colleagues surely realized them. Pa5ic's behavior often is explained by Austrian demands to punish Sarajevo's organizers as a peace condition. Only after Apis' execution, Pasic believed, would Vienna permit Radical and Karadjordjevic rule in a restored Serbia. Thus Apis was killed not for plotting against the Heir, but to insure Radical sur vival. 32 Alexander's reply to a clemency appeal from Lady Paget, wife of the former British minister to Serbia, appears to confirm this: Those people are an evil for the country. For a long time they have obstructed state work with their subversive intentions. Besides that


296

they were prepared to murder Pasic and me.

But they were sen tenced more for those former, state reasons . . . and therefore cannot be reprieved. 33 [Author's italics.j

-

The fmal page of Captain StojkoviC's diary has notes·made on June 1 2 , 1 9 1 7 , a few hours before the three condemned were executed. Vulovic was packing his things, writing letters, and cracking jokes about being shot He wished to entrust two confiden tial letters to General Popovic , whom he

CHAPTER XXIV

was sure would be spared. Though still hoping for clemency, A pis now felt like ·'a useless man without soul, limbs, or head." Ten days before his arrest, he had dreamed of being attacked by a terrible spider which aimed

EXONERATED! ( 1 9 1 8- 1 95 3 )

its frightful yellow eyes at his head. Protecting himself with a rapier, Apis awoke shaking and upset The previous day his mirror had fallen and

During

shattered.

all

national martyrs . . . have lain buried in un marked graves in the shadow of shame and

The fear of death in which I am now I would not wish on my worst

dishonor . . . . The moment has come to re

enemy. Now it is clear to me why people campaign against the death

move the curtain concealing that dark judi

penalty . I lie down but suddenly a grave appears before me eyes. I

cial crime . . . and remove the blot from the

turn and feel in my soul a terribly painful pressure.

faces of the Salonika martyrs . . . . Interpellation to the Premier of Yugoslavia,

Why was this inflicted on him who had always forgiven men their weak

1945

nesses? "But I still blame no one, believe me . . . I am not angry at people; I know them."34 Soon thereafter Apis and Vulovic learned they would be

Soon after the execution of Apis, Vulovic and Malobabic, their families

executed next day.

and supporters began vigorous efforts to overturn the Salonika verdict.

At five minutes before midnight on June 12/25th the other convicted were told the Prince Regent had commuted their death sentences. All had been silent awaiting the decision. Once Alexander's decree had been read ,

this time the bones of the three

I

Once Apis' surviving colleagues were released, they reinforced demands by the opposition to exonerate Apis and the "Black Hand." Only after thirty six years and a change of Yugoslav regime did they succeed. While King

they suddenly revived and grew talkative. One of the reprieved, apparently

Alexander, advised by Peter Zivkovic , ruled Yugoslavia the Salonika case

Lazic , shouted: "Long live the Heir!" Several others took up that shout35

remained mysterious and closed.1 After the executions, Regent. Alexander and the "White Hand" consoli •

dated their power. Placed by Alexander at the head of the officer corps, Zivkovic turned the Serbian army into the Prince's obedient instrument. The Radicals had eliminated the "Black Hand" only to have the "White Hand" intervene in Serbian politics, eventually bring down Pasic, and end

297

298


Radical predominance. Ln 1929 state leadership shifted from the political parties to King Alexander and non-party advisers under Zivkovic . Pa�ic surely did not forsee such a result of the Salonika Trial? ln 1 9 1 8 Pa�ic appeared triumphant. Preventing formation of a new coalition cabinet despite Allied pressure, he reasserted Radical supremacy. In parliament on Corfu that spring Opposition deputies attacked Pa�ic as "a criminal and a murderer," but he just laughed . When Interior Minister J ovanovic-Patak addressed the Skupstina, the entire Opposition walked out rather than hear "the murderer of Salonika." Documents presented to the Assembly painted an appalling picture of corruption in his "Sal onika regime." Efforts to form a coalition cabinet broke down as the Op position refused to enter one containing Jovanovic-Patak or Stojan Protic. PaSic gladly broke off talks and formed another homogeneous Radical cabinet. After the breakthrough on the Salonika Front in October 1 9 1 8 , PaSic and Alexander swept into Belgrade with Serbia's victorious army. Utilizing police power, the Radicals consolidated authority and claimed

full credit for victory.3 Apis' colleagues remained in Salonika Officers' prison. They were ap palled at the garbled, distorted account of the Trial contained in the of ficial version issued in Salonika early in 1918. "Monstrous! . . . A mass of Lies and inaccuracies!", exploded Milovanovic-Pilac.4 Most Serbs in Salon ika, they heard, realized the Trial' s charges hati been false. Realizing their mistake, the authorities soon withdrew the book and even destroyed published copies. ln October Milovanovic noted R. W. Seton-Watson's article in Der Kurier, a Swiss newspaper, praising "Black Hand" mem bers as patriots and castigating the Heir and the Radicals for their conduct of the Salonika Trial. In France Apis was being praised as a remarkable leader.5 On November 21st, soon after World War I ended, Ceda Popovic learned he had been pardoned and would be released immediately. "We figure now that we will all be pardoned," noted Pilac, "but without having our rights restored."6 Public pressure intensified to release the other convicted officers. In February 1919 the Radical cabinet prepared an amnesty decree, but the Prince refused to sign it. Then on March 29th Stojkovic told them the Prince Regent had relented and they would soon be released. The Yugo slav parliament debated whether the four Serbian officers, convicted in Russia in absentia should be amnestied. 7

Exonerated!

299

Colonel Peter Zivkovic, weathering another crisis, consolidated his hold over army and court. In March 1918 two former ''White Handers," Pavle JuriSic-Sturm and Radovanovic-Koca, accusing him of repeated homo sexual acts, sought to force him from the army. Both ·officers were dissat isfied with "rewards for services rendered," and Jurisic-Sturm sought to replace Zivkovic as the Prince Regent's chief adviser. According to the Serbian criminal code (Article 206): "Unnatural relations between men as well as with animals are punishable by imprisonment . . . and loss of civil honor." Homosexuality was also grounds for expulsion from the army. Before accusing Zivkovic openly of pederasty, Radovanovic-Koca sent an envoy to Prince Alexander. If Zivkovic left the Royal Guard voluntarily and went abroad, Koca would not press charges. But Zivkovic decided, with Alexander's full support, to turn the tables on his accusers.3 The two officers believed they could find numerous witnesses among Zivkovic's former lovers to testify against the gay Colonel, but they badly miscalculated his power and hold over Alexander. Zivkovic had J uriSic Sturm removed from the Guard and posted as military attache to Athens, scotching his ambitions and contributing to his subsequent suicide.9 Rado vanovic-Koca too soon realized Pera had an unbreakable hold over the army. When he accused Zivkovic formally of homosexual acts with army personnel, Pera promptly sued him for slander. It was Radovanovic, not Zivkovic, who went on trial. In court, swearing all his charges were true, Koca also revealed Pera's sinister role in the officer corps and the Salonika

Trial. 10 This sordid quarrel stunned the Serbian emigre community. As RadovanoviC's trial neared its end, it grew evident he would be found innocent. Suddenly an automobile drew up before the courtroom , the trial was sus pended, and the judges were driven straight to the Prince's palace! When the trial resumed, with the aid of false witnesses, Radovanovic was con victed and sentenced to ten years. 1 1 The spider had swallowed another victim. Zivkovic emerged triumphant. Djurdje Jelenic, the Prince's long-time secretary, was removed summarily , and all other attempts to undermine "the Yugoslav Rasputin" failed. From then until King Alexander's assas sination war ministers were Zivkovic's nominees and followed his instruc tions. In royal Yugoslavia Zivkovic exercised more influence in the army than Apis in prewar Serbia. Without true combat service, Pera obtained

•

300


every decoration and distinction. Promotions came to him ahead of time and out of turn. By-passing senior, decorated battlefield commanders, he became a divisional, then a brigade commander. Under King Alexander's personal regime after 1929, Zivkovic became premier and interior minister, then was promoted to anny general and war minister. 1 2 But not even Pera Zivkovic could lay the ghosts of Salonika to rest. Early in 1920 two Belgrade opposition newspapers, Pravda and Beograd ski dnevnik, each ran a long series of articles describing the nefarious acti vities of the Corfu-Salonika regime. In lead articles Editor Krsta Cicvaric of Beogradski dnevnik depicted Colonel Apis as a national hero compar able to Karadjordje, Serbia's George Washington and ancestor of Prince Alexander. However, Pravda's editor considered such praise excessive: "Colonel Dimitrijevic was unquestionably an able general staff officer, was very active, a good organizer, but during his lifetime he committed many mistakes; he was a pathological case."13 Even more critical of Apis' enemies though, he described the evils of the "Salonika regime" in detail. He demanded that the "White Hand," including Pera Zivkovic, Peter Misic, Okanovic, and Ljubomir Dabic, who had split the Serbian officer corps, be expelled from the army and tried for their misdeeds.14 But Prince Alexander would not permit that. Facing rising criticism from Belgrade's outspoken press, Interior Min ister Jovanovic-Patak in a series on the "Black Hand" in semi-official Samouprava defended and justified Radical actions and the Salonika verdict. The Democrats 1 5 had launched against him, PaSic and Protic a bitter campaign, "both repulsive and foolish." The opposition press, claimed Jovanovic-Patak, describing falsely Radical actions toward the Apis group, had argued that the convicted were wholly innocent. Yet only two days before his execution, Colonel Apis, admitting his guilt, had beg ged Prince Alexander humbly for clemency: "I have erred, and erred much, and it remains for me only to beg Your Highness to grant us mercy, to forgive me and aid me in this terrible hour." Thus the "evil deeds" of A pis and his friends had been proven clearly n i and out of court, affirmed Jovanovic. To cover things up, their friends had confmed the discussion to the attempt on the Heir and death sentences. The Pasic cabinet at Salon ika had to choose between interests of state and one guilty individual who placed himself above his country and its laws. The convicted had brought their execution upon themselves by committing unpardonable

Exonerated!

301

crimes. "We suffered terrible consequences because of them." "Interest of state" barred Jovanovic-Patak from disclosing details. 16 When the Interior Minister's series concluded, Pravda's editor comment ed acidly: "Denying any misdeeds in his ministry, Jovanovic boasts pomp ously about it. Concerning the "Salonika regime" there is nothing. Radi cals have always believed their party is identical with the state." 1 7 This polemic brought into the open much which had been concealed. Data about the "Salonika regime," confirmed by neutral observers and in Skup stina debates, damaged the ruling Radicals. Two years later the disreputable pro-regime newspaper, Balkan, publish ed excerpts from mercy pleas sent by Apis and other convicted officers to Prince Alexander in order to prove they had admitted their guilty ab jectly . 1 8 Milovanovic-Pilac complained to Balkan's editor that he and his comrades had been depicted falsely as cowards fearing death. . . . Because of Apis who even when dead is given no peace, let me say: they wanted to take our heads in the most terrible manner and before doing so to proclaim us traitors to the sacred Serbian idea, to take away our honor through the so-called 'Salonika verdict.'

I

All who knew Apis, wrote Pilac, realized that his plea to the Prince reflect ed no fear of death. Wounded in the May Coup of 1903 and told he might die, Apis had replied: "I do not regret dying since the [national] goal is achieved." Apis had found it hard to face execution by Serbs for some thing he had not done but had accepted it nonetheless. His behavior at the execution, eyewitnesses confirmed, had been heroic. 19 In royal Yugoslavia opposition leaders and surviving Salonika defendants raised inquiries and sent appeals to parliament for a retrial. Stojan Ribarac (Liberal) asked Premier Pasic what proofs the government possessed when criminal investigation against Apis began. What evidence did it have that "Black Hand" had acted subversively in Serbia? Had the attempt against the Heir been proven? Were the death penalties legal? If not, how would the government act to rehabilitate men irmocently convicted?20 Surviving "Black Hand" leaders sent a lengthy appeal to the Yugoslav parliament in June 1922: Five years have passed since the famous Salonika Trial as a result of •


302

which some of our comrades were shot, others imprisoned, some ar rested without legal decision, pensioned, sent to Afric a, and interned in s i land prisons . . . . For five years the entire official press and its organs have written against us repeating the insolent slander begun by the Salonika court and regime. Silence now by the survivors would merely confirm they had done wrong. The signatories reaffmned that "Black Hand" had been solely a patriotic organization operating outside Serbia. They had entered it believing as officers and citizens they could devote themselves to national work. The Salonika verdict that "Black Hand" members were in touch with the enemy and had conspired against the dynasty was a repulsive slander. The petitioners detailed many violations of legal procedures at the Salonika Trial. Concluding that its verdict had been "legal murder with premedita tion," they requested parliament "to give us full satisfaction for injustices and slanders against us

.

. . .

"21

There was no response .

After King Alexander was murdered in Marseilles in October 1934, ex General Vojislav Gojkovic, former "Black Hand" leader, urged War Min ister Zivkovic to correct injustices committed against Serbian officers at the Salonika Trial: Of three innocent men who were shot, two participated in the May Coup which brought the present dynasty to the throne. Apis was the soul of the May conspiracy and without him there would never have been a May coup. It was high time to retry the Salonika case and exonerate wrongly convict ed Serbian patriots: Apis was incapable of the deed for which he was shot since above all he was a patriot scarcely equalled in our en tire country. When shot he shouted: 'Long live Yugoslavia!' Even facing the grave his patriot ism never wavered. Since Zivkovic did not deign even to reply to his appeal, Gojkovic wrote Regent Paul Karadjordjevic the following spring wondering why the War Minister had not responded. "Your Royal Highness . . . it is time to remove

Exonerated!

303

this blot from us. The foundations of our country have been built from the bones of our dead comrades."22 But the Regent also apparently did not reply. Perhaps the most perceptive of former "Black Hand" officers doubted the efficacy or wisdom of a retrial. Writing a fellow officer from Italy in 1 9 1 9 former Major Radoje Jankovic stated: The success of our national cause provides Apis and his comrades the halo of martyrdom which is the greatest punishment for their mur derers. The death of Apis is an historic injustice, and from such an accusation the murderers cannot save themselves no matter how they may distort history. Receiving the Colonel's message urging revision of the case as "our only salvation," Jankovic concluded that every reason spoke against a retrial. No one believed they were traitors to Serbia; all knew they were patriots who had suffered innocently . In Serbia and abroad the Salonika Trial was described

as

an inexcusable act of force. "Those who will blame us none

theless-our opponents-will not have their minds changed by a retrial." However, if one occurred, they had copious and convincing documenta tion. Many witnesses would appear in their behalf and former Salonika advisers were turning against the Crown. Who can remove Apis and Vulovic from their graves? What I regret from the depths of my soul is that a retrial cannot restore them to life. And I fear that . . . their present moral grandeur as murdered patriots may emerge tarnished from a retrial because I simply do not believe in full justice in our courts. For historic vindication of the dead officers no trial was needed and migl1t even harm their reputations. As things stood, "our patriotic work during the last twenty years is complete, historically significant and cannot be negated."23 No revision of the Salonika verdict proved possible in royal Yugoslavia. General Zivkovic eventually retired, but from behind the scenes he contin ued to control the regime through generals he had promoted. After the coup d'etat of March 27, 1941 overthrew the pro-Axis regency of Prince


304

Paul Karadjordjevic, General Du�an Simovic's new government resolved to rehabilitate Apis and his friends. 24 Before such plans could be implement ed the Nazi invasion of April 6 , 1941 destroyed the Simovic government and royal Yugoslavia, scotching any rehabilitation effort. During World War 11 some architects of the Salonika affair, such as General J osif Kostic, collaborated with Axis occupiers by serving the Nedic regime in Serbia. Others like General Zivkovic fled abroad where he became a leader in the royal Yugoslav exile government in London. Gaining the trust of British leaders, Zivkovic was named acting supreme commander. He died in France in 1947, a bitter enemy of new socialist Yugoslavia.25 With the triumph of Communist-led Partisans led by Josip Broz Tito over the royalist Cetniks and the establishment of socialist Yugoslavia in 1 945, agitation revived to retry the Salonika case. An interpellation to Yugoslavia's premier in 1 945 referred to it as "the most shameful crime in Serbian history." During all this time the bones of the three national martyrs have lain in unmarked graves in the shadow of shame and dishonor . . . . We feel that the moment has come to remove the curtain concealing that dark judicial crime . . . and remove the blot from the faces of 6 the Salonika martyrs . . . . 2 After Yugoslavia's liberation, Milan Zivanovic , Apis' beloved nephew, dedicated his efforts to exonerate his uncle and began writing articles about him for Belgrade newspapers. His "The Twenty-sixth of June 1 9 1 7 in Salonika" stigmatized the Salonika Trial as "simple murder," planned on Corfu in 1 9 1 6 , in order to consolidate the power of the Prince Regent and the Radicals. 27 Milan prepared a doctoral dissertation , "The Salonika Trial of 1 9 1 7 ," utilizing copious materials from Apis' friends and "Black Hand" survivors. 2a

A lengthy speech by lawyer, Dragoslav llic, prepared for delivery in the Yugoslav parliament in 194 7 indicated that agitation for a retrial enjoyed official support. Since socialist Yugoslavia, following the Soviet Union of Stalin, was then a centralized, one-party state, lliC's speech required official sanction. His stated purpose was to rehabilitate victims of the Salonika Trial whose essence as a "legal crime" remained a riddle to the Yugoslav public because of the wall of secrecy erected around it by the royal regime.

Exonera ted!

305

Ilic praised Colonel Apis as a major historic figure, a born revolutionary, the predestined leader of the patriotic, revolutionary "Black Hand." Around the latter's two main figures-Apis and Radenkovic-had gather ed "young, bold officers and civilians representing everything most intel ligent and most noble in the officer corps and citizenry of Serbia." Hie's objections to the Salonika Trial resembled those of its interwar critics. Membership in "Black Hand," he argued, provided no basis for convicting officers of treason since its statutes portrayed it as patriotic, not subversive. No legal basis had existed for accusing it of plotting against the dynasty or gove rnment. Nor had it been truly secret since the Interior Minister, informed about it in 1 9 1 1 , had instructed his police not to disturb it. The Trial had violated accepted judicial principles that everything pertinent for and against the accused should be presented in court. Numerous witnesses had testified falsely at Salonika, coached by the ' 'Committee of Ten." Ilic cited a note from Peter Zivkovic to Rado vanovic-Koca suggesting that witnesses had been "prepared" to give false testimony. Both military courts had been packed with defendants' foes and their verdicts predetermined by the "Salonika regime ." The Salonika Trial, concluded Ilic, had been based on invented or distorted charges. i dicated that the new regime's true target was its predeces The lawyer n sor: the Karadjordjevic dynasty and the Radical Party: They [the convicted] paid with their lives or long years of prison for the ambition, love of power, impatience, and low inclinations of a future ruler-dictator and the greed for power of a corrupt i moral and perverted Court camarilla. I political party and an m am happy if I have unmasked a godless crime and removed from the names and faces of innocent people a severe stain which has burdened them for over twenty-five years. 2a A retrial, wrote Slobodan Jovanovic from political exile, became es sential as soon as the Salonika verdict was issued. Pasic and Stojan Protic had stated that Apis had been denied mercy because of a document which for "higher reasons of state' ' must remain secret. To condemn men to death by secret documents violated elementary principles of law. But Jovanovic questioned whether a Communist regime bitterly opposed to


306

the Radical government which conducted the initial trial could hold an impartial retrial. 29 Late in 1952 Interior Minister Alexander Rank.ovic, a leading Serbian

Exonerated !

307

Prior to the Retrial, a Sarajevo newspaper interviewed seventy-seven year old Radoje Lazic, sole surviving Salonika defendant, who spoke of his arrest and the Salonika Trial. Prince Regent Alexandef, claimed Lazic,

figure in the Tito regime, received a letter which Major Vulovic wrote

was already then a sinister individual. Jealous of ApiS' popularity, he and

just before his execution and gave to Lieutenant Protic. It suggested the

his favorite, Zivkovic , forged plans to destroy Apis. The entire Salonika

enire Salonika Trial had been staged and the defendants innocent. Ran kovic ordered an investigation, and Protic confirmed Vulovic' s allega tions. Requests for a retrial then were submitted by Radoje Lazic, Apis'

Trial had been so awkwardly prepared that it had resembled theater more than reality .31 The famous Dreyfus Case, often compared with the Salonika Trial,

nephew, and Vulovic's widow. Dragic Mirkovic, assistant public pro

caused a great furor in the France of its time, observed Zagreb' s

secutor of Serbia, after examining the Salonika Trial records, proposed

Thanks to efforts by the writer Emile Zola, it ended in revision. But the

that the Supreme Court of Serbia hold a retrial.

Salonika affair was not just legal error but premeditated judicial murder.

Vjesnik.

In the preliminary investigation new evidence was collected . In Janu

Prince Alexander's clique and the Radicals had plotted to destroy an of

ary 1953 Temeljko Veljanovic and Djordje Kostantinovic , supposed ''eye

ficers' group critical of their domestic and foreign policies. Led by Apis,

witnesses" to the attempt on the Prince Regent, confirmed they had

those officers had been leading fighters for South Slav unification. Their

testified falsely under duress. ''Everything stated in court against Major

conviction was a precondition for concluding a possible Austro-Serbian

Vulovic and Muhamed Mehmedbasic, " stated Konstantinovic , "was writ

separate peace. 32 Such articles in the carefully controlled Yugoslav press

ten for me by the government commissioner, Ranko Trifunovic . . . . "

suggested that the verdict of the Retrial, like Salonika's, was foreordained.

The investigators ascertained that testimony about the defendants' al

Serbia's Supreme Court would surely reverse the Salonika decisions.

leged plans to overturn the Radical regime, introduce military rule, and

As the Retrial began, an article in Sarajevo's Oslobodjenje: "Clearing up

kill the Heir and Pa§ic had been false. One witness, Pragisa Stojanovic,

the legal crime of Alexander Karadjordjevic," confirmed this. The Retrial's

declared in February 1953:

Radical Party. Ostensibly its purpose was "to establish the truth, correct

At Salonika was being carried out a bloody settling up between the Karadjordjevic dynasty and those people who had brought it to the throne . . . . It was clear to me that the main role in

principal targets evidently were King Alexander, his entourage, and the

all

this was

an historic injustice to the accused, and bring into the open a historical falsification." Before the Serbian Supreme Court were documents treating all aspects of the Salonika Trial and revealing its architects and their pur

played by Peter Zivkovic . . . through people such as Ranko Tri

poses. Present at the Retrial, noted the paper, were families and friends of

funovic, Kosta Tucakovic and Jovan Cirkovic, all government

the accused, contempararies of Colonel Apis, and former soldiers.33

agents . . . . The fate of Apis was decided the moment of his arrest.

Public sessions of the Retrial began June 2, 1953 at the Serbian Supreme Court in Belgrade . This unprecedented event aroused great public interest. Declared Public Prosecutor Mirkovic in his opening speech:

Stated Public Prosecutor MirkoviC's proposal to the Serbian Supreme Court:

If for any reason innocent people were convicted, the public pro secutor

i s

empowered and duty-bound without regard for the elaps

New evidence uncovered, statements of Veljanovic, etc., and other

ed time to demand repetition in full l of testimony ] in order to cor

facts brought out in this proposal are sufficient to cause a change

recent an unjust verdict.

in the legal verdicts of the Lower Military Court and Higher Mili tary Court for Officers in favor of the accused .30

At the Salonika Trial, he noted, only evidence believed to be damaging to


308

309

Exonerated!

the accused was presented. Witnesses were pressured to give false testi

that the Apis group, lacking broad Yugoslav views, stressed liberation of

mony in return for promotion, payment, or release from prison.

Serbian areas under foreign rule. Working solely for Serbian national inter

That same day Radoje Lazic testified before the Supreme Court:

ests, they remained silent about South Slav equality. Nonetheless, con cluded

Po/itika,

Apis and his followers "were far removed from people like

In my view, based on my deepest convictions and knowledge , the

Alexander, Zivkovic, Pasic, and the clique around them," although "Black

Salonika Trial was constructed not to discover the truth or examine

Hand" lacked any deep popular roots. 39

facts and reach concrete conclusions, but only to take Dirnitrijevic Apis' head.

The final summations by the public prosecutor and Apis' defender, Prvoslav Vasiljevi6, on June 1 2th were virtually identical. The evidence had demonstrated the validity of the Retrial , declared Prosecutor Mirkovi6, and

The others had been included "to construct a legal bluff' and deceive

the dishonesty of the Salonika courts and investigative organs. Since King

public opinion abroad. Prince Alexander had initiated the Salonika Trial :

Alexander and Zivkovi6 would have been revealed as judicial murderers,

"It was his idea and his affair."J.4 Apis never advocated taking control of

the case could not be retried in royal Yugoslavia. This Retrial had generat

Serbia, stated Lazic , and urged his friends repeatedly to scotch such ru

ed ample evidence for a just verdict. There was no proof the accused had

mors. Insisting army morale must be preserved, he opposed involving it

planned a coup in May 1 9 1 4 . The admissions of Veljanovi6 and Konstan

further in politics. There had been no plans for a military coup or to mur

tinovic and correspondence among Radical leaders had revealed no plot to

der the Prince Regent. 35

kill

the Prince Regent. The Salonika Trial, agreed Prvoslav Vasiljevic, had

In court extensive excerpts were read from testimony at Salonika re

marked the end of parliamentary democracy in Serbia. Inaugurating the

vealing how Prince Alexander, Peter Zivkovic, Pasic , and J ovanovic-Patak had staged the Trial. "The former 'giants' appeared in their roles as in tri

autocratic rule of Alexander Karadjordjevic, it had "prepared the way for his monarcho-fascist dictatorship of June 6, 1929."40 The Retrial's chief

guers and criminals," commented the daily, Politika. 36 Next day was read

purpose apparently was to condemn royal Yugoslavia rather than to re

a description of the dramatic court duel between MiSic and Apis as the

habilitate Apis and the "Black Hand."

Chairman sought in vain to get the Colonel to admit guilt. Apis had as

On June 16, 1953 Svetolik Lazarevic , chairman of the Supreme Court

sured the Salonika court that neither he nor "Black Hand" had committed

of Serbia, pronounced the verdict. The decisions of both Salonika military

the criminal acts they were accused of.37

courts were overturned and nullified. All defendants were declared inno

By June 6th, reported

interest in the Retrial was so great that

cent of all charges made against them.41 In a legal proceeding as dubious as

hundreds thronged the court to hear the proceedings. Then began testi

the original Salonika Trial, Apis and his friends were exonerated. But the

mony from surviving witnesses. When he had returned to Salonika, stated

executed trio still lay in unmarked graves outside Salonika.

Politika,

Radovanovic-Koca, Zivkovic had told him: "While you have been there in [North] Africa, I have been here preparing witnesses and working hard on the trial." "Against whom?" Radovanovic had queried. "Against Apis," responded Zivkovic. "Now I'll take his head." Radovanovic explained : "I was an intimate of Peter Zivkovic until I grew convinced that it (the Trial?] concerned a fllthy affair."38 Summarizing revelations thus far in the Retrial , Politika concluded that the "Black Hand" had committed none of the crimes alleged by Prince Alexander and Pasic. The Prince's entourage had sought to eliminate of ficers blocking Alexander's autocractic rule. Most witnesses confirmed

Verdict of History

311

Serbia into a military dictatorship. On the personal level, worshipers cited his alleged unselfishness, modesty, dedication, and praised him as an ex emplary patriot and family man. Comrades lauded .him ·as an intelligent, courageous, hardworking officer who followed orders and deferred to superiors. Detractors denounced him as inordinately ambitious, ruthless, and unscrupulous. There is likewise a total divergence of views as to his significance. Partisans credited him with inspiring and directing the May coup, reforming the army and preparing it for wars of national liberation,

CHAPTER XXV

and masterminding national-revolutionary activities abroad. Critics con fmn that no low ranking officer could exert predominant n i fluence in the army and allege that Apis did more to divide than to unite Serbs and

THE VERDICT OF HISTORY

Yugoslavs.

He was a major historic figure, a born revo lutionary, an amazin g mixture of soldier and politician, realist and romantic . . . . He was the greatest son the Sumadija has produced for the last century . . . . D. llic to the Yugoslav Parliament in There were other Serbian army with

194 7

colonels

greater military knowledge and ex

Uninvolved in bitter controversies in Serbia and Yugoslavia which con tributed to such divergent assessments of Apis' character and significance, the author will construct here a balance sheet based on evidence collected for tltis volume. Presented first will be a summary of the views of admirers and critics of Apis among Yugoslav writers and scholars. Then at least tentative answers will be supplied to questions posed at the beginning of this volume. Finally, this neutral observer will seek to assess Apis as man and leader. Previous admiring biographers, Milan Zivanovic and Milos Bogicevic ,

1903

pertise . . . . . Apis failed to perform his as

depicted Colonel Apis as Serbia's dominant military figure between

signed duties as chief of Serbian intelligence

and

and aimed to become a dictator and lord it

sonally as an exemplary, saintly , and heroic character. "Apis died like a

over the army.

hero in the knowledge he had always acted honorably and well," wrote

Colonel Peter Opacic to the author, June

1986

1917, involved positively in all key events occurring there, and per

his nephew. Admitting he had sometimes selected the wrong road, Apis affirmed-and Milan Zivanovic agreed-that he had always acted in good faith, convinced he was doing whatever Serbian and Yugoslav interests

Apis has been glorified extravagantly by admirers, relatives, and col

required. Thus Apis, he asserted, should be placed among Yugoslavia's

leagues and vilified unduly by enemies and opponents. He remains one of

leading creators. Apis died "without fear, hesitation, or suffering," believ

the most controversial figures in modern Yugoslav history. Admirers,

ing his mission in life had been completed. Quoted by Apis' nephew was

viewing him as a martyr to the Serbian national cause, considered Apis

a statement by the respected English scholar, R. W. Seton-Watson: "Dim

a dedicated national revolutionary, a spiritual architect of modern Yugo

itrijeviC' s enthusiasm for the achievement of the Yugoslav idea caused him

slavia. Critics accused Apis of being a ruthless terrorist and traitor, a re

to be remembered in every home in Serbia."1

actionary praetorian who repeatedly sought power and aimed to turn

Writings of Apis' brother-in-law and of a "Black Hand" colleague ex emplify laudatory views of him as a man and leader. According to Zivan

310

Zivanovic, Apis' helpfulness and human concern won him nearly universal

312


313

Verdict of History

devotion and respect which persisted long after his untimely death. Exert

enslaving powers of Austria-Hungary and Turkey and the liberation and

ing a "magnetic force" over his comrades, he acquired a broad circle of

uniflcation of the Yugoslav peoples.""

friends and admirers among officers and politicians in Serbia and abroad .

However, soon after the Retrial two leading Yugoslav scholars asserted

His outgoing, winning personality and the May Coup's outstanding success

that neither "Black Hand" nor Apis had held progressive views or played

began to transform Serbia's political, military, and economic situation

a progressive role . While praising the Retrial's verdict as correct, they char

and accounted for his great personal influence. He had led that coup out

acterized the "Black Hand" as a reactionary, chauvinistic, and militarist

of deep love and concern for Serbia. The cooperation Apis received from

organization and described

military and political leaders, stressed Zivanovic, came volunt�rily , not

views. 5 Similarly ,

from fear or pressure. Exerting vast influence in the anny and over govern

noted that whereas King Alexander had adopted barbarous means against

1903 until 1 9 1 6 as Serbia's "grey eminence," Apis

Apis and friends in the Salonika Trial, tl1at did not signify that Apis or

nonetheless subordinated himself properly to his army superiors and to

"Black Hand" were true national revolutionaries. "Black Hand's" program

political leaders. "The strength of his influence stemmed from his forceful

of August

arguments in support of a proposal or desire."2 Former "Black Hand"

espoused praetorianism. A Zagreb newspaper compared

leader, Captain Pavle Pankovic, who knew Apis for almost twenty years,

tarist ideology to that of the Pan-German League. "Black Hand's" Con

ment leaders from

Borba,

Piedmont,

its official organ, as reflecting Apis'

official paper of the Yugoslav Communist Party ,

1 9 1 1 in Piedmont had opposed democratic freedoms and

Piedmont's

mili

the May Coup

stitution had been attacked justifiably by Croatian leaders like Hinko

"because I was firmly convinced that everything Apis does or intends to

Hinkovic for espousing Greater Serbian hegemony by designating Croatia

recalled he had agreed unhesitatingly to participate

in

do is solely for the good of the country." On another occasion Pankovic

and Slovenia as "Serbian lands. " 6

stated: "In all his undertakings Apis was outstanding. He was the hinge

Some Yugoslav officers have criticized Colonel Apis severely for mili

around which all events turned." Apis' devoted efforts contributed greatly

tary shortcomings and for involving himself and the anny deeply in poli

to "Black Hand" goals of liberating and unifying all Serbs. 3

tics. Other Serbian colonels displayed greater military expertise, argued

Prvoslav Vasiljevic, Apis' defender at the Retrial , reflects the moderate

Dr. Peter Opacic, especially since Apis focused so greatly on political

defense of Apis' role and views which emerged after World War Il. Com

activity. Apis' role in anny reorganization and refonn after

paring "Black Hand" to nineteenth century European nationalist organi

zed by "Black Hand" colleagues, was actually minimal since he held low

zations in its romantic struggle for national liberation , Vasiljevic afflrmed

rank. Instead these refonns should be ascribed to earlier efforts by King

that Apis' national views were broader and more progressive than those

Milan and General Putnik. As chie f "Black Hand" leader, Apis headed a

of the organization. Concluding that true unification involved more than

subversive military faction which undennined army unity. His elevation

Greater Serbia, Apis aproached ever closer to the Yugoslav idea, working

as chief of military intelligence may have resulted partly from "Black

closely with Croatian and other South Slav leaders. Thus Apis' national

Hand" pressure. Nor did military intelligence flourish under his direction:

views had diverged markedly from the Serbia-first, hegemonistic, exploita

he failed to perfonn all assigned tasks or to gather full infonnation about

tive approach of King Alexander and Pasic. Morally purer than theirs,

Austrian military plans in

Apis' view was "devoid of calculation, of proflt, and of plans to enslave

were promoted rapidly with little regard for length of service. Apis' aim

other Yugoslav peoples." As the strongest leader of "Black Hand," Apis

after

"in his work was so independent that he did many things without the

His political role was strictly illegal. Since his behavior was inexcusable

knowledge of the CEC . . . . " Thus, whereas "Black Hand" was not "pro

and divisive, the Serbian regime had adequate grounds to act against hin1

gressive" as an organization, Apis, while belonging by virtue of his politi

and the "Black Hand."7

1904, dramati

1913-14. Hig11ly ambitious, Apis and his friends

1906, affumed Opacic, was to dominate the army and seize power.

cal views to the bourgeoisie , "was a progressive individual insofar as his

Let us now attempt to supply answers to questions raised at the begin

actions and those of his organization contributed to destruction of the

ning of this study. Colonel Apis and the ·'Black Hand," at least in their

314


Verdict of History

315

own perception, were undoubtedly patriotic, working mainly outside of

Apis' role in the Sarajevo assassination was secondary and far smaller

Serbia to liquidate remnants of Turkish rule and destroy Austria-Hungary.

than he himself claimed in his report to the Salonika court. The initiative

Most "Black Hand" leaders were Greater Serbian nationalists, though a

for the Archduke's murder stemmed from revolutionary·"Young Bosnia"

few such men as Bogdan Radenkovic and yuba Jovanovic-Cupa, two of

which had committed similar acts previously . They and Malobabic per

its founders, were idealistic protagonists of an egalitarian Yugoslav federa

suaded and drew along Apis whose aim while participating in the as

tion. Apis himself, at first favoring a Greater Serbia, evolved later quite far

sassination plot was to prevent or delay war with Austria-Hungary. After

in the direction of Yugoslavism and enjoyed excellent relations with Croat

discussing this issue in the "Black Hand's" CEC, Apis sought belatedly to

ian leaders.

recall the assassins and prevent the murder. In the entire Sarajevo affair

Apis and his associates appear to have been innocent of most charges

Apis revealed uncharacteristic vacilation and indecisiveness.

brought against them at Salonika but guilty of violating military regula

As a man, family member, and ardent patriot Apis possessed many ad

tions and of impermissible political activities. Thus the Retrial's verdict

mirable and well-nigh unique qualities which made him a remarkable in

will likely stand, although it was not reached by accepted judicial pro

dividual. His ability to win the loyalty, support, and love of others was

cedures. There is no convincing evidence Apis ever envisioned seizing total

virtually unequalled. He made the most difficult and dangerous under

state power or creating a praetorian dictatorship in Serbia. But there are

takings appear simple, and never did he ask others to undertake some

intimations in his messages to his friends in Skoplje in May 1 9 1 4 that he

thing he was not prepared to do himself. Apis' constant encouragement

favored removing certain Radical civilian officials in Macedonia in the

of others, his loyalty and devotion to family members, especially to his

interests of the army and the public. Failing to obtain support from his

nephew, Milan, and grandniece, NenuSka, reveal him as a warm and moral

comrades, he abandoned the scheme. Had he and the "Black Hand" been

human being in private life and as an admired military comrade . Nowhere

resolved to strike, there were opportunities to establish a military regime

was this revealed more graphically than in Salonika Prison where he won

in 1903, May 1 9 1 4 , and December 1 9 1 5. On none of these occasions did

over both his officer jailors. Apis was able to infuse followers with an

Apis or the others draw up definite plans to act. On Corfu and at the Sal

energy and courage which they otherwise lacked. Without his direction

onika Trial he seems not to have even considered undertaking a military

and driving energy, "Black Hand" soon lost its influence and dissolved.

coup. In general Apis favored strong, effective civilian rule responsive to

However, Apis, as Slobodan Jovanovic noted, lacked true political ability

the popular will, not military rule. His political ideology was never clearly

or discernment, nor did he possess the flexibility to adapt to changing

defmed, but he did not share the chauvinism and praet9rianism of ele

political circumstances. 8 This was shown especially during the Priority

ments which took over Piedmont after Jovanovic-Cupa's death.

Dispute which dealt his influence a strong blow. Likewise , Apis was poor

All evidence suggests that no attempt against Prince Alexander's life

at realizing the consequences of his actions and the inappropriateness of

occurred in August 1 9 1 6 . If any such plans existed , Apis surely had no

means he often adopted in his incessant struggles. Once Prince Alexander

thing to do with them. Lacking any discernible motive to murder his

became de facto ruler of Serbia in June 1 9 1 4 and showed he could pro

former benefactor, especially amidst a war of national survival, Apis was

vide military and political leadership, Apis' star faded rapidly. No longer

too competent a conspirator to plan anything as amateurish as the alleged

coul d he function as the irresponsible and dominant power in the army

attempt to kill the Prince. Similarly, Apis' strong patriotism and actions

he had been under King Peter.

appear to exclude any betrayal of Serbia to the Central Powers or arrang

Colonel Apis revealed grave shortcomings as an officer and committed

ing a separate peace with Austria. The Salonika Trial, planned deliberately

acts incompatible with his status. His perpetual involvement in politics

by Prince Alexander's entourage and Radical leaders, was revenge by the

and conspiracy , to which he seemed drawn irresistibly , was intolerable to

"White Hand" and the fmal showdown in the civil-military conflict. Prince

any regime based on primacy of the civil over military authority . And

Alexander had concluded the Apis group had to be destroyed before he

those political activities absorbed so much of his time and energy that he

could control the army and rule Serbia.

316


proved unable to carry out his military assignments with the thoroughness and precision for which his training as a general staff officer had prepared him. This was most evident during his tenure as chief of the intelligence division of the General Staff when he failed to obtain adequate informa

•

tion about Austro-Hungarian invasion plans. Apis' political significance , far greater than his often exaggerated mili tary role, was based more on his execution in Salonika than on his role at Sarajevo. It was his untimely death, viewed as intolerable and totally un just by his comrades and Serbian nationalists, which bestowed upon him a notoriety and reputation out of all proportion to his actual achivements. Had the Serbian exile regime followed the advice of some of its members: either to post Apis abroad as military attache, or retire him and his chief colleagues from the army, his prominence would swiftly have faded. It would have been equivalent to cutting Samson's hair. Instead, the Radicals and Alexander provided him with a halo of martyrdom by shooting him for crimes they could not prove in court, rather than removing him for severe violations of military discipline which he readily admitted. It was his enemies' unwise and unprincipled actions, not his own accomplish ments, which made Apis a unique historical figure. His tragic death made Apis a famous and disputed name in Serbia and Yugoslavia. Whatever his faults of judgment or behavior, Apis died courageously proclaiming his belief in Serbian and Yugoslav unification. Ironically he had done more to divide Serbs and their army than to unify them. Apis fell victim to his remarkable naivete, optimism, and faith in people. He proved willing to accept assurances of the thoroughly dishonorable Colonel Zivkovic rather than offers of reconciliation by the able Prince Regent he had previously supported loyally. By renouncing his only valid defense against the Salonika charges, he doomed himself and his closest comrades to death. Apis succumbed to the dark underside of human char acter, revealed by "White Hand" intrigue, to the insatiable thirst for vengeance by the "Yugoslav Rasputin."

NOTES Notes to Chapter I 1.

1 May 29th is the "Old Style" date of the Julian calendar used in

many Greek Orthodox countries, including Serbia and Russia, until l918. The "New Style" date of the Gregorian calendar employed in Western Eur ope and the United States for this event is June 1 1th. "Old Style" dates have been utilized here for events in Serbia and Russia until 1 9 1 8 unless otherwise indicated. 2. To contemporary Serbs Greater Serbia suggested uniting Serbs of Bosnia, Hercegovina, Montenegro, and the Vojvodina (part of Hungary) with the independent kingdom of Serbia. Yugoslavia, besides those terri tories, would include Croatia, Slovenia, and Dalmatia. The term, Yugo slavia, means land of the South Slavs. Some believed therefore that the Bulgars, a South Slav people, should likewise be included within it. 3. Milan .Z. Zivanovic, Pukovnik Apis. Solunski proces hiljadu de vetsto sedamnaest (Belgrade, 1955) (Colonel Apis. The Salonika Trial of 1 9 1 7. ) An English summary appears on pages 7 15-733. 4. Milos Bogicevic, Le Colonel Dimitrijevic-Apis (Paris, 1 928) and Le proc es de Salonique, juin 1 9 1 7 (Paris, 1927). 5. Vladimir Dedijer, Sr.zrajevo 1 914. 2nd edition, 2 vols., Belgrade 1978. This was was published originally in English as The Road to Sara jevo (New York, 1964). 6. The author intends to write a sequel: The Black Hand on Trial, dealing specifically with that organization and its fate.

317

318

APIS: The Congenial Conspirator 7.

That phrase was employed by Bruno BreJun in Apis und Este (so

Notes to Chapter 1 1 4.

319

Milan Zivanovic argues persuasively that since the entire Apis

fing es an) (Munich, 193 1 ?).

Paunovic conversation, according to Captain StojkoviC's precise account,

Notes to Chapter 11

in his report, would have taken an old man slow of speech that long to de

lasted only twenty minutes, and the "sermon" which the priest inserted liver, clearly Paunovic "rewrote" and considerably expanded his report

1.

This account of the death of Apis and his friends is based primar

ily on four eyewitness reports prepared for the Serbian authorities, i.e., for Prince Alexander and Colonel Peter Zivkovic. Those by Paunovic , Dabic, and Stojkovic were published in full with explanatory notes by Milan Zi vanovic in his Pukovnik

Apis, pp. 5 7 1 -95. Lieu tenant ProtiC's "Last hours

of those condemned to death" ("Poslednji cas osudjenih na smrt") is in Ziv. 1963. Another version of Protic's account is Stevan Zec, "Vojnici gadjaj te dobro!"

Duga, No. 324, June 1986, pp. 67-72. Another signifi

cant though controversial source for the execution is Bruno BreJun's "Hin richtung des Apis" from

Apis und Este ( 1 93 1 ). This literary version by an

Austrian novelist with a military background, agrees in all fundamentals with the eyewitnesses. The latter, viewing things from various vantage points, disagree only on minor details. They had been instructed to record every word and action by Apis and his friends in the hours before execu tion. Most thorough is the report of Captain Stojkovic, commander of the Salonika Officers' Prison, who had sent detailed reports during Apis' six months incarceration there to Prince Alexander and Zivkovic. He knew Apis far better than most and in this final report revealed clear sympathy with

him .

In cases of dispute among the eyewitnesses, the author has relied

chiefly on StojkoviC's and Protic's accounts. The other significant source is Apis farewell letter to his nephew, Milan Zivanovic , which the latter never received, first published by Vladirnir Dedijer in

Sarajevo 1914 (2nd

ed., Belgrade, 1978, l l , 33840). Additional data were culled from "Crna uspomena," Ziv. 6 1 2 ; "Solunska afera," Ziv. 7 1 6 ; S. Jovanovic,

Moji savremenici (Windsor, Canada, 1968), pp. 67-68; Milos Bogicevic , Le pro ces de Salonique( Paris, 1928), pp. 94-96; and Ljubomir Dabic, "Streljanje pukovnika Apisa," Politika, June 26, 1922, p. 3. 2.

Pasic and Protic were the chief leaders of the Radical Party of

Serbia which held political power for most of the period, 1 903- 1 9 1 8 . 3.

This refers to the alleged attempt by members of the "Black

Hand" to assassinate Prince Regent Alexander near Ostrovo, Greece on August 29, 1 9 1 6 (O.S.).

afterwards. Furthermore his primitive "sermon" could not have persuaded Apis, argues Zivanovic. Instead his uncle must have decided upon confes sion and communion as an ancestral rite to provide solace as he faced a tragic death. 5.

Instead, Paunovic turned over the latter to Colonel Dunjic who

doubtless transmitted it to the Prince Regent. In the first draft of his own report, notes Milan Zivanovic, Stojkovic wrote that Apis had asked

him

whether he could give Paunovic "a letter to my nephew," then in the fmal version changed this to a "last testament." Clearly, Stojkovic avoided men tioning the letter so no one would learn of it and so Paunovic could trans rnit it to Apis' nephew. When the latter saw Paunovic in Nice, France in the fall of 1 9 1 7, the priest said nothing about such a letter but communi cated some of its contents to him orally. Thereafter, Paunovic had averted his gaze whenever he encountered the nephew in Belgrade

(Pukovnik Apis,

pp. 567-77). 6.

This package, kept by Prince Alexander, was found in 1941 by

the invading Germans, and some of its documents were published by Hans Obersberger in

Auswdrtige Politik (July 1943). Apis' last testament was

published in several places between the two world wars. 7.

This letter, returned with other documents relating to Apis from

Austria in 1975, was first published by Dedijer in

Sarajevo 1914 (II, 338-

340). 8.

Zivan Zivanovic, Milan's father and Apis' brother-in-law, a promi

nent Serbian politician and historian, was then interned in Austria. 9. 10.

Dedijer, Sarajevo

1914, 11, 340.

Besides the three prin�ipals were convicted Damjan Popovic, M.

G. MilovanoJic, Radoje Lazic, Cedo Popovic, Vladimir Tucovic, Vladimir Vemic, Bogdan Radenkovic, and M. MeJunedbasic . 1 1.

This was a top Serbian military decoration named after Kara

djordje Petrovic, leader of the first Serbian insurrection against the Turks, 1 804-13, and ancestor of Prince Regent Alexander. 12.

Zec, "Gadjajte dobro!",

Duga, No. 324, Belgrade, June 1986.

\


320 13.

Apis was referring, noted Milan Zivanovic, to the Karadjordjevic

Notes to Chapter li

22.

321

Major Vulovic had found Malobabic there in October 1 9 1 5 acute

dynasty which he and his comrades had restored to power in May 1903.

ly ill of tuberculosis. Apis had urged him to remain at Kursurnlje, but Malo

At that time Peter Karadjordjevic, who became King Peter I, was living in

babic had insisted they take him along so he would not be hung by the

straitened circumstances in Swiss exile.

Austrians.

14.

Apis was referring to Lieutenant Colonel Velimir Vemic, a found

23.

Vulovic, the pessimist, anticipated Serbia's def�at and resultant

er of the "Black Hand." Apparently, Vemic's bitte1 attacks on him in front

misery whereas Apis, ever the optimist, foresaw victory in World War I

of his friends during recesses of the Salonika Trial prompted this unchar

for Serbia and the realization of his dream of Greater Serbia and Yugo

acteristically sharp criticism.

slavia.

15.

Apis referred, notes Zivanovic, to his letter to Prince Alexander

24.

This was the site near the present Albanian frontier of the famous

of May 30, 1 9 1 7 explaining his role in the assassination of Franz Ferdin

Battle of Kosovo of June 15/28, 1389 where the Serbian army of Prince

and in Sarajevo. See below Chapter XXI. Apis suggested that Prince Alex

Lazar was defeated by the Ottoman host of Sultan Bayezid "the Thunder

ander was personally responsible for his death.

bolt." Curiously, that defeat was celebrated ever after by the Serbs as a

16.

Colonel Radoje Radojlovic, at Prince Alexander's instruction, was

day of glory because of their heroic resistance against overwhelming odds.

buried on Corfu in 1 9 1 6 with special honors. Quickly shifting sides after

Significantly, the Sarajevo assassination of 1 9 1 4 occurred on Kosovo' s . anniversary.

the May Coup of 1903, Radojlovic had become a trusted friend and sup

25.

porter of Alexander.

17.

There is some disparity in the· times cites by various eyewitnesses

about their arrival at the execution site, but it was between 1 :30 and 2:30 AM.

18.

The first Balkan War of 1 9 1 2 in which the Balkan League defeat

ed Turkey.

26.

There are various versions of this. According to Brehrn, Apis

stated: "You haven't made it deep enough . . . but at least it is long Apis claimed that the entire affair had been arranged in advance

by Radical leaders and by his enemies among the officers. Captain Arand jelovic had been an investigator in Salonika just before the triaL Temeljko Veljanovic and Djordje Konstantinovic were key prosecution witnesses

enough."

27.

According to Protic, Apis shouted: "Soldiers aim truly! Long live

Yugoslavia!" Vulovic shouted: "Long live Serbia!"

28.

Duga,

No. 324, p. 7 1 .

Eyewitness accounts differ considerably over Apis' death. Pauno

who later recanted their testimony. See below Chapters XVlll, XX and

vic claimed that Apis and Vulovic remained alive after two volleys and the

XXIV.

doctor's examination requiring additional shots. Wrote Stojkovic: "I order

19.

This refers apparently to Colonel Milan Tucakovic, commander

of the Vardar Division of the Third Army.

20.

ed another salvo

la

set.:ond one J since those two were not yet dead and in

an instant it was over." According to Dabi¥'about twenty shots had to be

Both Dabic and Paunovic in their reports sought to include an

ftred at Apis and Vulovic who suffered a considerable time before dying.

admission of guilt by Apis. Earlier, Dabic had recorded Apis' belief that

Recalled Protic: "After the first volley, Apis fell, the rope broke, but he

Serbia required his death because of the Sarajevo assassination and the

did not die yet. After another volley , the doctor confirmed his death."

Serbian government's efforts to arrange a separate peace with Austria.

Brehrn's account seems exaggerated: "Vulovic hung forward and beat with

Thus Zivanovic ftnds it puzzling that Apis should tell Dabic that his death

his arms around him: "Bad, bad! Shoot again please . . . lApis] stood up

resulted from "excessively strained relations" with Serbian political leaders

his bonds displaced: "End it brothers. Make an end."

and thus from diffe rences over internal policy.

21.

Paunovic never carried out these requests. After his role as an

agent of the Salonika regime had been revealed, he avoided even chance meetings with Milan and Zivan Zivanovic, nor did he deliver VuloviC's bequests to his wife.

•

No1es 10 Chapler Ill 1.

Materials about Apis' childhood and education are rather sparse.


322

Most useful were the memoir of his siste r, Jelena: "Sestra o bratu" in M. Zivanovic , Pukovnik Apis, pp. 64345, and Ziv. 1 94 1 , "Iz zivota Pukov nika D. D. Apisa," by Zivan Zivanovic . Also valuable were P. Pankovic , "Prevrat izvrsen 29. maja 1903 g." Ziv. 1985, by a fellow officer con spirator ; Ziv. 209 1 , "Apis . . . ," by M. Zivanovic, and his "D. D. Apis," Ziv. 1927.

2.

See D. MacKenzie, The Lion of Tashkent: The Career of General

M. G. Ch emiaev (Athens, Georgia, 1 974).

3.

An excellent general account of Serbia's development is M . B.

Petrovich, A History of Modern Serbia,

1804-1918 (2

vols., New York,

1976). Briefer is Fred Singleton's A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge, England, 1985). 4.

On the Cincars see D. J . Popovic, 0 cincarima (Belgrade, 1937).

5.

Jelena Zivanovic, "Sestra," in Zivanovic, Pukovnik Apis, pp. 643-

44. Information about Jelena Dirnitrijevic's efforts during 1884 to secure a transfer from the Kraljevo school is contained in several documents, inclu ding three letters by her to the Minister of Education, in AS, Ministry of Education, f. XXXI, July-December 1884.

6.

On the Military Academy see Spomenica 70-godi!njica Vojne

Akademije, (Belgrade,

1925), and GliSic, Program predavanja djeneral

!tabnog (Belgrade, no. date).

7.

Ziv. 1 94 1 , Z . Zivanovic, "Iz zivota Pukovnika D. D. Apisa."

8.

Herbert Vivian, The Ser)Jian Tragedy (London, 1904 ) , pp. 40, 43.

A British officer who visited Serbia in 1896 and 1902 and was decorated by the King, he was very pro-Obrenovic and eulogized Alexander and Draga, dedicating his book "to the memory of his most gracious Majesty, King Alexander 1, Patriot, Statesman, hero-Rest in peace."

9.

Ibid., pp. 40-50; Ziv. 1 9 4 1 . For details on the Milan-Natalija

troubled relationship and its impact on Alexander see Sava Grujic, AS, PO 82.

10.

Lazare Marcovitch, "Nikolas Pachitch ," unpublished manuscript,

1955. 11.

Marco, "Pripremanje 29. Maja 1903," NE, XV, br. 12, pp. 405 - 1 3 ;

ibid., "Preporod srpske vojske i borba za ujedinjenje," NE, XVI, br. 2.

1 2.

VIA, Belgrade. Colonel D. T. Dirnitrijevic's official service record.

13.

Ziv. 7 ; "Beleske Tucovica"; Ziv. 8 , "Papers of Col. Ceda Popo

vic"; Ziv. 6 1 7 , B. Simic, "Ujedinjenje ill smrt!"; Marcovitch, Pachitch.

Notes to Chapter Ill

323

Noted a prominent contemporary , Aca Novakovic: " . . . The attempt against King Milan was the affair of his son, Alexander and Draga Ma5in," Tribuna, Aug. 1 9 , 1 9 1 1 .

14.

Ziv. 4, "Beleznik Andra Djordjevica." In October 1897 Djordje

vic, Minister of Education, was informed by Dr. Sirna Lozanic, a Belgrade physician, that the King was impotent. Allegedly a girl had been taken to him for his pleasure, but Alexander had proven totally incapable.

15.

Vivian, op. cit., pp. 66 ff. ; Ziv. 8, Papers of C. Popovic .

16.

z.

Zivanovic, Politicka istorija Srbije. . . , 4 vols., Belgrade, 1923-

25, IV; S. Jovanovic , Vlada A leksandra Obrenovica (2 vols., Belgrade, 1929-31), 11, 1 3 6 ff. ; Ziv. 8, Popovic. For a general account in English see i Between East and West (Stanford, 1954), pp. 1 ff. Wayne Vucinich, Serb a

17.

Ziv. 8, "Oko veridbe i zenidbe . . . ," Popovic papers.

18.

Ibid.; "Sestra o bratu," Pukovnik Apis, p . 644.

Notes to Chapter I V

1.

Those elections confirmed the Radical Party's split as younger

more radical elements led by Ljubomir Zivkovic defected to form the Independent Radicals. However, Pa5ic's "old" Radicals won 84 out of 130 Skupstina seats and the Progressives 26. ZivkoviC's rebels, opposing a coali tion with the Progressives or any cooperation with King Alexander, advo cated uncompromising struggle against the King. S. J ovanovic, V/ada Alek sandra Obrenovica, II, 21 8-22 1 . For background of the May Coup in Eng lish see W. Vucinich, Serbia Between East and West, pp. 7-23 and A. Dragnich, Serqia, Nikola Pasic and Yugoslavia, pp. 54-58.

2.

On the false pregnancy, see Vucinich, pp. 1 8 - 1 9 ; J ovanovic , V/ada

Aleksandra, II, 1 7 1 ff. ; Z. Zivanovic, Politicka istorija, IV, 24749.

3.

Ziv. 1985, P. Pankovic , "Prevrat z i vrsen 29. maja 1903 g."

4.

See above, p. 00.

5.

These included infantr.y captains Radomir Arandjelovic and Milan

I. Petrovic, lieutenants Dragutin Dulic, M. Marinovic-Piga and Antic.

6.

Destroying the Obrenovic dynasty would leave the Karadjordjevic

family unchallenged.

7.

Ziv. 1985, Pankovic .

8.

Djordje Karadjordjevic, lstina o mom iivotu (1969), p. 149.

9.

M. B. Petrovich,A History, ll, SOS.


324 10.

The seven were Apis, Antic, Milan Marinkovic, Nikodije Popovic,

vic,

Vucinich, p. 47; DragiSa Vasic, Devetsto

Vlada Aleksandra,

treca,

suggested that politicians be recruited for the plot. Atanackovic recom mended Gencic as an enemy of Queen Draga. Agreeing, Gencic consented

Radomir Arandelovic, Milan Petrovic, and Dragisa Dulic. 11.

325

Notes to Chapter IV

pp. 54-S S ; J ovano-

to sound out other politicians in September 1902. Vivian affmned that Colonel Masin recruited by Gencic, possessed "ani

ll, 351-52.

mal courage." Ma5in allegedly "invented every sort of calumny against

12.

Ziv. l 987, Pankovic.

13.

V. Gojkovic, "Radikali i vojska,"

XVIll ( 1928), pp. 324-27.

Queen Draga and even accused her of poisoning her first husband. He is a

14.

Cedo Popovic, "Organizacija 'Ujedinjenje ill smrt!' Uzroci i nacin

squat, villainous looking man . . . [with] shifty eyes and a cruel, wolfish

NE,

mouth." Servian

postanka," NE, XV, br. 12 (June 1 1 , 1927), p. 397. 15.

Ziv. 3803, "Uzroci majske zavere 1903 g."

16.

"Sestra o bra tu," Zivanovic, Pukovnik

17.

i.

18.

Commented Vivian: "The plot . . . was engineered with diabolical

Zivanovic, Po/iticka

istorija,

Apis,

p. 644; Ziv. 2091.

IV, 343-4 7.

Tragedy,

pp. 93-94.

26.

Ziv. 8, Popovic Papers.

27.

Ziv. 38, "Vojislav Tankosic."

28.

Ziv. 40, "Petar Zivkovic."

29.

Novakovic stresses his intimate relations with King Alexander

cunning. Fully two years were spent in preparing it. A few discredited

prior to his marriage, then their relationship deteriorated into dislike. He

politicians and unruly officers, moved by private resentments and greed

attributed Alexander's infatuation with Draga to a lack of normal tender

. . . pledged themselves to kill the King and Queen (p. 88). He listed the

feelings toward women. "That was Alexander's lack which caused his

original conspirators as Djordje Gencic, Colonel Masin and Dragornir Rajo

destruction and that of the dynasty!" The King and Queen by their acts

vic (p. 92), but they entered the plot later. "Surely never can a conspiracy

dragged their country in the mire to such an extent that it was shameful

to kill a King and Queen have been known beforehand by so many people

to admit one's nationality abroad."

(p. 95).

The Servian Tragedy.

Ziv. 617, Bozin Simic, "Istorija 'Ujedinjenji ili smrt!"

Zivanovic, IV, 346-47.

31.

Zivanovic, Politic ka

20.

Vivian stressed GenciC's "inordinate vanity." "As a minister, his

32.

Ziv. 1987, Pankovic.

airs and graces were the standing jokes of [Belgrade] , his wild ambitions

33.


21.

Tragedy,

September 3-5, 1911.

30.

19.

kept growing by leaps and bounds." Servian

Tribuna,

istorija,

IV, 346 and note.

p . 92.

NovakoviC's detailed account of the May Coup's preparation-"ls

povesti o prevratu 29. maja 1903 g," was published by

Tribuna

Notes to Chapter V

in 47 in

stallments in August-September 1911. He emphasized the role of civilian leaders. Antic, he claimed, "was a rather limited person . . . who absolutely lacked his own views . . . and did precisely what Gencic instructed him to

11

Ziv. 3808, Milan Zivanovic, "Uzroci Majske zavere 1903," letter

2.

Accounts of the May Coup in English included: Herbert Vivian,

to NIN, February 1960.

1903-

The Servian Tragedy (London, 1904); Chedomile Mijatovich, A Royal Tragedy . . (New York, 1907), and Wayne Vucinich, Serbia Between East and West . . . , pp. 46-70. .In Serbian, see D. Vasic, Devetsto treea . . . (Belgrade, 1925); Z. Zivanovic, Politicka istorija, IV, 329 ff.; and S. Jo vanovic, Vlada Aleksandra Obrenovica, 11, 338 ff. 3. Vivian, pp. 95-98; Austro-Ugarska i Srbija, I, 58, Pomiankowsky

1918 (Belgrade, 1973), pp. 303-10, Colonel Mi�ic noted that meetings of

to von Beck, June 15, 1903: "Alexander was totally informed of the nega

the conspirators' "Main Committee" convened in General Atanackovic's

tive mood against him in the Sixth Infantry Regiment . . . . The King very

and Colonel Damjan PopoviC's homes. At one meeting a relative of Antic

often received threatening letters and warnings. On the day before the

do."

Tribuna,

August 22, 1911.

22.

Ziv. 1987, Pankovic.

23.

Ibid.; Va�ic, pp. 63-64.

24.

Ziv. 8, Ceda Popovic Papers.

25.

Ln his account of the May Coup, appended to Dumba to Foreign

Minister Goluchowski in A. Radenic, ed.,

.

Austro-Ugarska i Srbija,

APlS: The Congenial Conspirator

326

Notes to Chapter V

327

murder two letters arrived informing the King of the imminent execution

15.

Jovanocic,

of the conspiracy."

16.

Ibid.; Marcovitch , p. 66. Wrote Vivian: "The conspirators were

4.

Vivian, p. 99. "It was a great carouse: many bottles of wine and

slivovica (plum brandy) were consumed. The officers' faces were red, their eyes sparkled like wild beasts." 5.

Z. Zivanovic notes in

Politicka istorija,

IV, 34 7 that MiSic , luke

warm about the conspiracy, had intimated he might not participate fur ther. Apis warned him he had signed the conspirators' oath and that if

Vlada Aleksandra,

II, 367-70; Vasic, pp. 88-89.

mad with drink and excitement and can scarcely have known what they were doing." (p. 1 05). 17.

Z. Zivanovic, IV, 353-54; Marcovitch, p. 66.

18.

Austro.:Ugarska i Srbija,

I, 49, Porniankowsky to War Ministry ,

June 12, 1903. 19.

Ibid., I, 6 1 , Pomiankowsky to von Beck, June 1 5 : "It cannot be

the coup failed, he would surely share their fate. That may have persuad

doubted that the great majority of the army approved the conspiracy and

ed him to implement, albeit tardily, his scheduled role.

was determined somehow to remove the King and Queen." Zivanovic, IV,

A dramatic but grossly inaccurate account of the coup in

The Evening

329-30, 353 note; Vucinich, p. 5 9 ; Vasic , p. 1 1 3 .

(London) of December 1 , 1955 was entitled: "The Echo That Kill

20.

Zivanovic, IV, 333-34.

ed 20 Million." Crediting Apis with indirect responsibility for World War

21.

Ibid., pp. 355-56; Marcovitch, pp. 67-68. The new cabinet inclu

News

I, Godwin described him as "a shadowy figure, half thug, half patriot with

ded: Premier Jovan Atanackovic (Liberal) ; Foreign Minister Ljubomir Kal

a weakness for brandy." (A pis was a teetotaller!). "On the broiling hot

jevic (a Conservative Austrophile); Interior Minister Stojan Pro tic (Radical);

night of June 1 1 , 1903, Apis staged a hectic drinking session at a Belgrade

Justice Minister Ljubomir Zivkovic (Independent Radical); War Minister

club for 84 fellow officers [sic] . The party had reached its peak and empty

Jovan Atanackovic, a conspirator; Communications Minister Alexander

bottles were crashing against the walls when 'The Bull' got up, still sober

Ma5in , the conspirators' military commander.

in spite of the enormous quantities of brandy he had consumed [sic] . In a

Vojislav Gojkovic, a conspirator, asserted that for the only time in

voice shaking with simulated fury he announced he had defmite informa

world history leaders of a successful military coup had relinquished power

tion that Queen Draga was plarming to seize the throne for one of her two

voluntarily and promptly to politicians: "Radik.ali i vojska,"

brothers. A bellow of rage answered him and Dirnitrijevic jumped on the

( 1 928), p. 326.

NE,

XVIII

table shouting: 'What are we waiting for? That pair in the palace must die

22.


so that Serbia can live!' Swords leaped from scabbards, pistols were drawn

23.

Ziv. 6 1 7 , Bozin Sirnic, "Ujedinjenje ili smrt-1; ibid., "Pripremanje

and the swarm of drunken officers followed Dirnitrijevic to the palace." Evidence is lacking that

any

of the 28, not 84, officers was drunk or that

Apis publicly exhorted them to kill the royal couple. 6.

Ziv. 7, " Notes to Vladimir Tucovic ."

7.

"Crna i Bela Ruka,"

Ziv. 40 and 620, "Petar

Beogradska nede/ja, No. 173 Zivkovic"; Vasic, Devetsto treca.

in Ziv. 3289;

NE, XV, br. 12 (June von f om �rje, Das Haus am Bal/platz, pp. 29. Maja 1903,"

1 1 , 1927), pp. 416-19; A. Musulin 124-25.

24.

Ziv. 6 1 8, Simic, "Ujedinjenje-11."

25.

Ziv. 7 1 8 , Tucovic? , "Apis."

26.

M. Bogicevic,

Le Colonel Dimitrijevic-Apis,

pp. 28-30. On the

other hand, Vladimir Dedijer, the well-known Yugoslav historian, felt Apis

8.

Marcovitch, "Pachitch," p. 64; Z. Zivanovic, IV, 34849.

reflected the contradictory tendencies of Serbian militarism which from

9.

Ibid., p. 349.

1903 contributed to liberating Serbs and South Slavs. Dedijer quoted Serb

10.

Ibid., p. 350.

ian Social Democrat leader, Dusan Popovic:

1 1.

Ziv. 38, "Tankosic."

which was felt the lofty historical spirit of a national movement and low

12.

Vucinich, p. 5 7 ; Z. Zivanovic , IV, 350.

hatred by a handful of the dissatisfied."-Dedijer, Sarajevo

13.

Ibid.

II, 78-79; Dedijer and Pavicevic, "Dokazi," Misao, July 1953, p. 222. Prvo

14.

Vucinich affums that Velirnir Vemic noticed the doors behind

slav Vasiljevic, Apis' defender at the 1953 Retrial, wrote on the May

the draperies where the royal couple was concealed.

"This was a revolution in

1914,

2nd ed.,


328

Notes to Chapter VI

329

Coup's flftieth anniversary that: "Apis, as its organizer and inspirer, ap

Consul Thesiger expressed an almost equally negative view of Pasic whose

peared on the political stage of Serbia in whose later struggles, successes

past political life had been "broadly marked by the betrayal of friends and

and defeats he would play a leading role." Formerly treated merely as a

party to his own interests." Thesiger to Lansdowne, May

military conspiracy, the Coup marked the end of despotism and the estab

27,

lishment of bourgeois parliamentary democracy. Only the officers could

16. Lazare Marcovitch, "Pachitch," pp. 72-77; See also Dragnich, pp. 6 1 ff. 17. S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, "Nikola Pa5ic," pp. 19-21. 18. Dumba, pp. 233-35, 207-08. 19. Nikola P. Pa!ic (Belgrade, 1937), pp. 48-52. 20. Radovich, pp. 7 1 ff. 2 1 . Dumba, pp. 193-94. 22. Ziv. 718, "Apis" (by Vladirnir Tucovic?). 23. J ovanovic, Moji savremenici, "Pasic ," pp. 29-3 1 . 24. Edward Legge , King Edward in His True Colours (London, 1 9 1 2), pp. 8 1 -82. 25. Thesiger to Lansdowne, January 18, May 27 and 3 1 , 1905, in Radovich, pp. 1 68-72. Public pressure was widening conspirator rifts. Col

resolve the deep political crisis because the political parties 'lacked the and boldness to undertake revolutionary popular struggle."' Vasilje

will

vic, "Srbija u

1903," Politika,

June

2 1 , 1953, p. 6.

Notes to Chapter VI 1.

For a general view of Serbia's political situation after the May

Coup see Vucini ch, Serbia, pp. ff., and Dragnich, Serbia, pp.

2.

61

6 1 -70;

M. Petrovich, A History, II,

534

ff.

"Ima li krivice u dogadjaji od

grade), June

1903,

mentioned in Z.

29. maja?" Trgovinski glasnik (Bel Zivanovic, Politicka istoruja, IV, 337-

338. 3.

Frances Radovich, "Aftermath to Regicide," pp.

22 ff.

4.

Constantin Dumba, Dreibund und Entente-Politik in der A/ten

12,

26. 27.

that he had paid no

the plot.

1 5 , 1905,

No.

55.

These included Colonels Masin, D. Popovic and MiSic , Lieutenant VIA, Service record of D. T. Dirnitrijevic ; Ziv.

1941, z.

Zivano

vic, "D. Dimitrijevic-Apis."

28.

Ziv.

7 1 8,

"Apis." M. BogiceviC's account in Le Colonel Dimitrije-

vic-Apis is based very closely on this account. Risimic and his comrades, explained Zivanovic, offered to help

\

defray the costs of Apis' treatments and hospitalization.

9. 10. 11. 12.

but six of them, including Colonels Popovic and Ma5in, refused adamantly

Colonels Solarevic and Lazarevic, and Major Ljubomir Kostic.

heed to a number of hints dropped by Apis in casual conversation about

8.

1 69-70.

to resign. Thesiger to Lansdowne, November

Lansdowne , June

No.

onel MiSic headed a majority demanding self-sacrifice by senior conspirators'

und Neuen Welt (Zurich and Vienna, 1931), pp. 192-93.

5 . Radovich , op. cit., p. 38, citing Plunkett to 1903, No. 158. 6. Ibid., pp. 59-60. 7. z. Zivanovic, IV, 334-35. Zivanovic adds

quoted in Radovich, op. cit., pp.

3 1 , 1905,

Zivanovic, IV,

337, 339.

Djordje Karadjordjevic, Istina o mom tivotu. p. Ibid., pp.

196.

200-03.

Dumba, op. cit., pp.

194-95 ; D. Vasic, pp. 1 79-80; A. Todorovic, Zivot i rad Novakovica (Belgrade , 1907); Vucinich , Serb a, i pp. 70-74. 1 3 . Ziv. 617, B. Simic (Marco), "Ujedinjenje ili smrt" ; Vasic, pp. 176-8 1 . 14 . Slobodan J ovanovic, Moji savremenici, "A pis," pp. 29-30. 15. Ziv. 2067, M. z . Zivanovic, "Kritika Apisova rada." British Vice-

29. 30. 31.

Ziv.

718,

"Apis."

6 1 7,

Bozin Sirnic, "Ujedinjenje." This seems to refer to Gen

Ibid. Ziv.

eral Mirko Milisavljevic, the High Military Court's chairman in

32.

Ziv.

6 1 7.

1 9 1 7.

Sirnic clearly exaggerated the Apis group's influence.

Officer conspirator Vojislav Gojkovic blamed the Radicals and Pa5ic for obstructing modernization of the Serbian army after

1903.

33. For a general account of the Macedonian imbroglio see Vucinich, pp. 122 ff. and Petrovich, A History, ll, 544-48. On Serbian guerrilla bands see Narodna Odbrana. a patriotic Serbian weekly published in royal Yugo slavia, and A. Jovanovic, ed., Spomenica dvadesetpetgodiinjice oslobod-


330

jenja Juine Srbije (Skoplje, 1937), notably pp. 271-325. Also see Ziv. 1985, Pankovic, "Prevrat izvrsen." 34.

Ziv. 1937, Z. Zivanovic, "Dimitrijevic-Apis."

35.

Ziv. 38, "Vojislav Tankosic."

36.

Ziv. 34, "Major Ljubomir Vulovic."

37.

Ziv. 37, "Bogdan Radenkovic." See below, Chapter VII.

38.

Vucinich, pp. 1 22-32, 1 5 5-60.

39.

C. Popovic, "Organizacija 'Ujedinjenje ili smrt!," NE, XV, br. 12,

pp. 397-98. 40.

Dj. Karadjordjevic, Istina, pp. 196-98.

Notes to Chapter VII 1.

B. Bogie, Ci/jevi Narodne Odbrane (Belgrade, 1 934). On the An

nexation and its impact in English see Petrovich, A History, II, 554-62 and Dragnich, Serbia, pp. 94-98. See also D. Ljubibratic, Mlada Bosna i Sara·

jevski atentat (Sarajevo, 1964), pp. 33-35. 2.

Ziv. 1940, "D. T. Dimitrijevic-Apis. "

3.

C. Popovic, "Organizacija 'Ujedinjenje ili smrt," NE, XV, no. 1 2

(June 1 1 , 1927), pp. 398-99. 4.

S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 252-56. Marcovitch, Pachitch,

pp. 96-107 is most sympathetic with Milovanovic and Pasic. Commented a subsequent founder of "Black Hand," Velimir Vemic : "We agreed that of the politicians Balacka [Milovanovic ] was the most intelligent but lacks character."-Ziv. 6, Vemic Diary, September 19, 1908.

-

5.

Ljubibratic , Mlada Bosna, pp. 34-35.

6.

C . Popovic, "Organizacija," NE, XV, 400-02.

7.

Ibid., pp. 402-05 ; Lj ubibratic, pp. 35-36. Vemic's diary entry of

March 3, 1 9 1 1 points to Radenkovic as chief initiator: "With Silja [Tanko sic] and Bogdan I met at "Kasina" and agreed to form a club with revolu tionary aims . . . Bogdan will work out the statutes according to those of the Burschenschaften and Carbonari, then we will discuss them . . . " Ziv.6. 8.

Ziv. 6 1 7 , Simic, "Ujedinjenje ."

9.

Lj. Jovanovic-Patak, "SmiSljanje i pripremanje Cme Ruke," Samo

uprava, January 3 , 1920. 10.

Ibid., January 1 , 1920. Dragoslav Ilic viewed "Unification or

Death!" as a spontaneous expression of patriotic enthusiasm among the Serbs: Ziv. 2062, UiC's speech of 1947.

Notes to Chapter VII 11.

331

Apis was named to that post July 24, 1910. VIA, Service record

of D. Dimitrijevic. 12.

Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi i odbrana . . . Apisa" ; TPO, pp. 1 77-80. Vernic on

February 22, 1 9 1 1 wrote about bringing Apis into plans for the new organization: "At the 'Moskva' cafe TankosiC, Bogdan and I agreed to bring in Apis and Ilija Radivojevic. At 1 0 PM I found Apis at the 'Grand Hotel,' explained our idea for 'Black Hand' and proposed that he join us. He agreed in principle without hesitation."-Ziv. 6. A CEC member, Cedo Popovic, noted Tankosic had summoned him to VemiC's apartment March 3, 191 1 where all were gathered who knew about the proposed organization. "There we made the fmal decision to found the organization. Six days later we seven as original founders signed the Constitution worked up from the draft of Bogdan, Cupa and Tankosic." Soon added to the CEC were Ilija Jovanovic-Pcinjski, Macedonian guerrilla leade r; Major Milan Vasic , secretary of Narodna Odbrana; and Colonel of General Staff M. G. Milovanovic-Pilac-Popovic, "Organizacija," NE, XV, 401-05. 13.

Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi i odbrana."

14.

Ibid.

15.

Ibid.

16.

"Cma i Bela Ruka," Beogradski Nede/ja, in Ziv. 3289.

1 7.

Ljubibratic, Mlada Bosna, p. 40.

18.

A Belgrade newspaper.

19.

Ziv. 3 , "lskazi i odbrana." I have shortened some of Colonel

MisiC's questions while retaining their original meaning. 20.

SANU 1 4 2 1 1, Panta DraSkic , "Moji memoari."

21.

Ziv. 5, Diary of General Milos Bozanovic .

22.

"Cma Ruka," Tribuna, October 23 and 24, 1 9 1 1 .

23.

Ibid., November 5 and 8. But Mali iurnal, a Belgrade paper close

to the official conspirators, declared November 4: "We affirm categorically th t 'Black Hand' is an invention of pro-Austrian reporters . . . to compro· \ mise Serbian officers." Three days later this paper wrote: "If 'Black Hand' really existed and resembled the Mafia, we do not think there would be of ficers in it."-"Crna Ruka," November 7. 24.

HHSA, P. A. Serbien XlX/62, November 12, 1 9 1 1 , No. 94A, von

Ugron to Aehrenthal. 25.

Ibid., XlX/62, November 1 3 , No. 95A; XIX/63, January 29,


332

1912, No. 1 OB. The Russian military attache was also reporting about

333

Notes to Chapter VIII 14.

Ziv. 5, "Diary of Miles Bozanovic. Excerpt for 1 9 1 1 ; PRO FO

"Black Hand" to the General Staff. See MOEI, Series 11, Part 1 , Arta

37 1 1 1219, Charles Barclay to Grey, No. 1 8 , March 16, 19 1 1 . Added Bar

monov to General Staff, January 1 7 and 28, 1 9 1 2.

clay: "The chief reason, I am told, is to make the Prince known in the

26.

PRO FO 37 1 1 1472, Barclay to Grey, January 25, 1 9 1 2 , No. 5

army." 15.

and February 1 , No. 6. 27.

Ziv. 6, Vemic Diary, entry of August 30, 1 9 1 1 .

28.

Ljubibratic, p. 37.

29.

0. Tartaglia, Veleizdajnik

30.

Ibid., pp. 24-26.

(Split, 1928), pp. 26-28.

Notes to Chapter VIII

.

HHSA, P. A. Serbien XIX/63, von Ugron to Berchtold, January

1 5 , 1 9 1 2 , No. 3A. 16.

Ibid., XIXI62, Ugron to Aehrenthal , November 14, 1 9 1 1 .

1 7.

SANU 1 1 45 1 , General Dragutin Milutinovic's reminiscence.

18.

SANU, Dra8kic, pp. 44-47.

19.

Ziv. 5 , Bozanovic diary, p. 46.

20.

SANU, Dra8kic, p. 54.

21.

Ibid., p. 137.

22.

A hostile but credible brief biography by Aca Blagojevic (SANU

1.


2.

See above, pp. 53-54.

3.

Djordje Karadjordjevic,

4.

Ziv. 7, "Beleske Tucovica."

VIII. See also Ziv. 40 and 620, "Petar Zivkovic," by M. Z. Zivanovic,

5.

Accounts of this attempted murder concur on the main points:

also hostile accounts; and SANU, Draskic's memoirs.

13609 I 1 , "Kratka biografija") provides the fullest information on Ziv

Istina,

pp. 154, 196.

kovic . There is a brief entry on Zivkovic in

Enciklopedija Jugoslavije,

SANU, 142 1 1 , DraSkic Memoirs; Ibid., 13609 / 1 , "Kratka biografija

23.

See above, pp. 000.

demona Jugoslovenske ideje u mundiru." Zivkovic asked Apis, affirms

24.

SANU, DraSkic, pp. 240-44.

Blagojevic, to keep the letter he had obtained from Prince Alexander. At

25.

Djordje Karadj ordjevic, Istina, pp. 3 7 1 -72.

flrst Apis refused. Next day when he asked Zivkovic for it, the latter said

26.

Slobodan Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, "Apis," pp. 40-4 1.

he had destroyed the letter. Actually, Zivkovic kept it, informing Alex

27.


ander later he had it in a bank with instructions to publish it abroad if

28.

S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, "Apis," pp. 43-44.

anything happened to him . Also Ziv. 3289, "Cma i Bela ruka."

29.

SANU, Milutinovic reminiscence.

6.

Ziv. 6, Vemic diary.

30.

Ziv. 7, "BeleSke Tucovica."

7.

PRO FO 3 7 1 /733, Whitehead to Grey, No. 37, March 27, 1909.

31.

Ziv. 5 , Bozanovic diary, p. 22.

Another variant was: Dr. Sondermaier killed Kolakovic intentionally

32.


while operating on him .

33.

SANU 13609 I 1 , Blagojevic, "Kratka biografija."

34.

Ziv. 7, "Beleske Tucovica." Tucovic was appalled at the bitter

8.

SANU 13609 I 1 , Blagojevic, "Kratka biografija."

9.

Ziv. 1936, Trisa Kaclerovic to M. Z. Zivanovic, no date.

enmity among former intimate friends and the nefarious means employ

10.

PRO FO 371 /733, Whitehead to Grey, No. 39, April 1 , 1909.

ed, notably by the Zivkovic clique, to achieve their aims.

11.

Ziv. 7 , "Beleske Tucovica."

12.

SANU, Draskic, p. 5 1 .

Bozanovic, "was that the Heir stood at the head of those officers who at

13.

PRO FO 3 7 1 1982, Whitehead to Grey, January 20 and'May 26,

tributed deliberately subversive aims to us. They had so filled his head

1 9 1 0, and Sir Ralph Paget to Grey, September 29, 1910. British diplo

35.

Ziv. 5 , Bozanovic diary, pp. 23-25. "What was worst," lamented

that he was convinced we were against

him and the

matic reports from Serbia in 1 9 1 0 described Prince Djordje' s antics in

36.

Ziv. 718, "Apis," by V. Tucovic?

detail.

37.

Ziv. 5, Bozanovic diary, pp. 43-44.

dynasty."


334 38.

Ibid., pp. 47-49.

39.

Ziv. 2062, llic speech; S . Jovanovic , "Apis," p. 4 3 ; Svetozar

Pribicevic, Diktatura Kralja Aleksandra, p. 303. 40.

Ziv. 5, Bozanovic diary, p. 55.

2.

Pijemont, December 8 , 1 9 1 1 , "Predstavnik nase diplomacije."

Later, it reiterated: "With the coming to power of Milovanovic , Serbia clearly renounced her national aspirations . . . . He is fatal for Serbia." January 12, 1912, "Grobna ploca Srbije." Ibid., pp. 273-74.

6.

M. Bogicevic, "Die serbische Gesellschaft . . .

," BM,

IV ( 1926),

p. 665. 7.

VIA, DimitrijeviC's service record; Ziv. 3289, "Crna i bela ruka."

8.

Ziv. 4019, "Rad organizacije"; Ziv. 7, "Beleske Tucovica."

9.

M. Zavacil, "Na izvidjanju .

.

.

," Politika,

October 22, 1922,

pp. 6-7. I bid; Ziv. 1 9 4 1 , Z. Zivanovic, "Iz Zivota." Apis family only

learned about this highly secret reconnaissance mission later. 11.

Ziv. 3289, "Crna i bela ruka."

12.

P. Pankovic , "Secanje na Apisa," in M. Zivanovic,

Pukovnik

pp. 648-49. Pankovic had agreed to enter the May Coup at Apis'

urging "because I was convinced that everything he did or intended to do was for the good of the country.

All during our friendship,

I could never

find he had done anything ill-advised or damaging to Serbia. He was an idealist, extremely honorable, open, accessible, brave , and intelligent . . . . I would have done anything he asked without reflection." (p. 649). 13.

Ibid., pp. 648-49.

14 .

Slobodan J ovanovic affirmed: Heir Alexander himself summon

ed Dr. Cinn paying all medical costs

himself Moji savremenici, -

p. 32.

2. Zivanovic, "Iz zivota." Karadjordjevic , Istina, pp. 370-72.

15.

Ziv. 1 9 4 1 ,

16.

Djordje

Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, "Apis," p. 32; Ziv. 3, "Iskazi."

DSPKS, Vl/2, SANU,ed. Du�an Lukac (Belgrade, 1981), pp. 638-

2.

Especially DragiSa Stojadinovic's unpublished manuscript, "Srbija

i Nemacka u svetskom ratu," discussed by Dedijer in

Sarajevo

1914 II,

197 ff. A chief source for pro-Salonika historians was the official,

Tajna

prevratna organizacija . . . (Salonika, 1 9 1 8). Others holding this view inclu ded D. Jelenic in Nova Srbija i Jugoslavija and Ljubornir Jovanovic-Patak, Samouprava

�

Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi i odbrana."

Apis,

18.

an architect of the Salonika Trial , in articles in the Radical newspaper,

5.

10.

SANU 1 3 609 I 1 , Blagojevic, "Kratka biografij a."

4 1 , Bogicevic to Pasic, June 24/July 7, 1 9 1 3 .

S. J ovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 266-6 7.

4.

335

17.

1.

1.

Jovanovic, p. 272.

Notes to Chapter X

Notes to Chapter X

Notes to Chapter IX

3.

•

"Apis,"

during 1920.

3.

Dedijer, Sarajevo

4.

Ibid., p. 199; Ziv. 6, Vemic diary .

5.

Dedijer, Il, 202,

ll, 197 ff.

1914,

Piejemont,

April 3, 1 9 1 2 and "Davison's" article

of March 6, "Marsal Gale i nemacka omladina" in Dedijer, II, 200-01 . April 3 , 1 9 1 3 and April 1 8 in ibid., p. 203.

6.

Pijemont,

7.

Dedijer, ll, 203-06.

8.

Ziv. 1941,

9.

S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 406-10.

2.

Zivanovic, "Iz zivota."

10.

Ziv. 35 and 536, on Rade Malobabic .

1 1.

Ziv. 35.

12.

Ibid.

13.

Ibid.; V. Bogicevic,

"0

Radi Malobabicu," Sarajevski atentat, pp.

1 26-27. 14.

S. Zec, "Bele senke Crne ruke," Ill and IV, Duga, June 1986.

15.

DSPKS, VII/2, ed. Dedijer and Anic (Belgrade, 1980), Royal Ser

bian General Staff, Intelligence Division to Operational Division, Belgrade, June 8/21, 1 9 1 4 , pp. 363-64. 16.

.

Ibid., p. 366, Colonel Zecevic to Operational Division, June 9/22,

1914.

Notes to Chapt er XI 1.

On the May Crisis see Dragnich, op. cit., pp. 75-79. A recent


336

Serbian treatment is Dusan Batakovic , "Sukob civiljne i vojne vlasti . . .

JC,

Notes to Chapter XI

337

,"

19.

Ziv. 7, "Beleske Tucovica" ; P. Vasiljevic in

1 982-83, pp. 477-9 1 . See also V. Vuckovic, "Unutrasnje krize Srbi

20.

PRO 3 7 1 /2099, Crackenthorpe to Grey,

je . . .

," IC,

XIV-XV, 184 ff. and Ziv. 7 1 9 , "Konflikt 1 9 1 4 g."

Politika, July 5 , 1953. 1 9 13 Annual Report;

ibid. to ibid., November 1 8 , 1 9 1 3 .

•

. January 5 , 1914, "Zasto Radikali nascru na vojsku".

2.

HHSA, Serbien XIX/64, Ugron to Berchtold, August 1 3 , 1 9 1 3 .

21.

Pijemont,

3.

Ibid., XIX/66, Giesl to Berchtold, no. 54A, April 10, 1 9 1 4 .

22.

Ibid., January 3 1 , 1914, S. Krcevinac, "Protiv anti-militarista."

4.

PRO FO 3 7 1 / 1 748, Paget to Grey, June 6 , 1 9 1 3 , 1 9 1 2 Annual

Report.

Italics are

Pijemont's.

23.

HHSA, Serbien XIX/66, Ugron to Berchtold , May 8, No. 67A.

5.

Ibid.

24.

Ziv. 12, "Zabeleske Milovanovica-Pilca."

6.

PRO 371 /2099, Crackenthorpe to Grey, 1913 Annual Report.

2 5.

Pijemont,

Pijemont, July 28, 1 9 1 3 . Ziv. pitanje," Borba, July 1953. Pijemont, September 1 , "Kakav 8. 7.

9.

Ziv. 719, "Konflict

2024, "Crna Ruka i nacionalno

No.

1914 g.", probably by Colonel Vladimir

Tucovic, a close friend of Apis, or another well-informed contemporary. 10.

Ibid.

11.

Bozanovic fell after securing by dubious means a royal pardon for

"Cast danasnjeg kabineta" ; May 6, "Vlada i

Ziv. 12, "Zabeleske ,"; PRO 371 /2099, Crackenthorpe to Grey,

95, May

27.

10.

S. Jovanovic,

pp. 1 99-200; DDF, Serie 3, X,

Moji savremenici,

Doscos to Doumergue, June 4, 1914, p. 495. 28.

Major Velirnir Vemic, a "Black Hand" leader. The officer corps backed

5,

Kruna"; May 8, "DvogodiSnji bilans." 26.

rezim u Novoj Srbiji."

May

Pijemont,

March 27-3 1 , "Oficirska zadruga," five leads on the Of

ficers' Club issue. See also "Crna ruka i nacionalno pitanje," Borba, August 26,

1953; Dedijer and Pavicevic,

"Dokazi," No vi Misao, July 1953.

Vernic, who had been convicted of killing a disobedient soldier, but the

29.

HHSA, Serbien XIX/66, Giesl to Berchto1d, May 8, No. 67A.

cabinet had disavowed the pardon. The British minister viewed this affair

30.

Ziv. 12, "Zabeleske ."

as a cabinet revolt against "Black Hand" influence. PRO 371 /2098,

31.

Ziv. 3, "Iskazi i odbrana";

TPO,

pp. 169-70. Members of the

Crackenthorpe to Grey, December 3 1 , 1 9 1 3 ; 2099, ibid. to ibid., No. 1 2 ,

CEC of "Black Hand" once discussed the Priority Decree informally at

January 17, 1914.

TankosiC's without reaching any decision.

Ibid., 3 7 1 /2099, ibid. to ibid., January 26; HHSA, XIX/66, Giesl

32.

Ziv. 12, "Zabeleske. "

to Berchtold, January 6 , 7, 20, 1 9 1 4 . The "Black Hand" viewed Stefano

33.

Ziv. 719, "Konflikt."

vic as a renegade bribed by the Pasic regime:

34.

Ibid. Declared Apis: "I told him [Putnik] that l would immedi

14.

Pijemont.

May 2, 1914,

"Portret vladinog sluga," affirming this "miserable" new war minister had

ately inform the Opposition and asked him if he would be on my side and

pensioned off able generals for political reasons.

support this effort through his powerful influence with the King."

15.

Vuckovic, "Unutra5nje krize," pp. 184 ff. ; OUA, VII, No. 9260;

Ziv. 6, Vemic diary, entry of January 27, 1914. 16.

Radnicke Novine

(Belgrade) had a series of articles on this ques

tion during 1 9 1 3 . 17.

Pijemont.

May 6, 1 9 1 4 , "Vlada

i

Kruna"; May 8 , "DvogodiSnji

bilans." 18.

PRO 371 /2099, Peckham to Crackenthorpe, February 4 and

35.

Ziv. 12, "Zabeleske."

36.

Ibid.

37.

38.

TPO, p. 594; Zivanovic, Pukovnik Apis. TPO, p. 596.

39.

Ziv. 12, "Zabeleske."

40.

B. Neskovic,

158-60; Vuckovic,

p. 9 1 .

lstina o Solunskom procesu

"Unu trasnje ,"

p.

181.

(Belgrade, 1953), pp.

Understandably , Draskovic

March 4, 1914, from Skoplje. Crackenthorpe wrote Grey February 2nd:

denied this at the Salonika Trial, but he did not deny discussing overturn

"The Serb regime in Macedonia offers as fair a prospect of ultimate

ing the

im

provement of life there as any alternative regime." However, in his Annual Report for 1 9 1 3 the minister took a much more pessimistic view (No. 59, 19 14).

41.

Pasic cabinet with Apis. TPO, p. 172; Ziv. 3, "lskazi."


338 42.


43.

VIA, Pop. V, K. 480; Zivanovic,

Pukovnik Apis,

pp. 23 1 ff. Ziv.

3, "Iskazi."

f.

44.

VIA, Pop. V, K. 480,

45.

Ziv. 12, "Zabe1eSke."

46.


47.

Ibid.; Jovanovic , Moji savremenici, pp. 406-07.

48.

Apis had spoken earlier with GliSic at the "Kolarac" restaurant

1.

and had intimated the need for forceful action. . . 49 . Z - IV. 3 , "I S k azt. Vuckovic, "Unutrasnje," p. 1 8 1 ; Zivanovic,

Pukovnik A pis,

p.

220.

2.

See D. Lj ubibratic,

4.

Especially TPO,· D. Stojadinovic, "Srbija i Nemacka . . . ," cited

Mlada Bosna i Sarajevski atentat (Sarajevo, 1964); V. Maslesa, Mlada Bosna (Sarajevo, 1964); B. Jevtic, Sarajevski atentat (Sarajevo, 1924); and B. Cerovic, Bosanskie ?mladinci i sarajevski atentat (Sarajevo, 1930). See M. Zivanovic, Pukovnik Apis; M. Bogicevic, Le Colonel 3. Dragutine Dimitrijevic-Apis and Le proces de Salonique; and C. Popovic, "Organizacij a 'Ujedinjenje ili smrt' ," NE, XV, no. 1 2 . Sarajevo 1914, Il, 197 ff. ; S. Stanojevic, Ubistvo austrijskog presto/onaslednika Ferdinanda (Belgrade, 1923); and Dj . Jelenic, "Vidov danski atentat 1914 . . . ," Politika, March 26, 1926. 5. Ziv. 719, "Konflikt." Pa5iC s letter to Putnik could not be locat '

51.

Ziv. 12, "Zabeleske . "

52.

Zivanovic, Pukovnik

53.

VIA, Pop. V, K. 480, f. 2.

54.

Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi."

55.

VIA, Pop. V, K. 480, f. 2 ; Zivanovic, Pukovnik Apis, p. 219. The

Apis,

ed by the author.

p. 220.

6.

commands have reported in. What you have instructed cannot take place. About

this

Plazina and Dusan have already written, and I have nothing

more to say. Greetings to you and Pilac from your Milutin." The three replies to Apis were published in

Srpski G/asnik

(Salonika), June 4, 1 9 1 7

"Pokusaj prevrata u 1 9 1 4 g."; Ziv. 4384. 56.

J ovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 445-47.

57.

Ziv. 3, "lskazi ."

58.

Ziv. 7 1 9 , "Konflikt."

59.

Ibid.; Jovanovic, pp. 199-202; HHSA, Serbien XIX/66, Giesl to

Berchtold, May 29 and June 6, 1 9 1 4 , Nos. 77B and 108 and June 1 7 .

Notes to Chapter Xll 1. Remak,

The literature on the Sarajevo murder is massive. In English see J .

Sarajevo

S.

Pribicevic, Diktatura,

pp. 298-99. Other Serbian army leaders

likewise favored peace, Pribicevic learned at

third letter from Colonel Lazarevic to Apis read: "Bitolj and Novi Pazar

as

339

by Dedijer,

"

50.

Notes to Chapter XII

(New York, 1959) and V. Dedijer,

The Road to Sarajevo (New York, 1966) and R. W. Seton-Watson, Sarajevo (London, 1926). A recent Yugoslav bibliography is N. TriSic, Sarajevskiatentatu svjetlu biblio grafskih podataka (Sarajevo, 1964). The most complete treatmentis Dedi jer, Saraje11o 1914 (2 vols., Belgrade, 1978).

Srbobran,

leading Serbian

publication in Croatia, which he edited. 7.

S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 406-07.

8.

Ziv. 4019, "Rad Organizacije,"; Ziv. 719, "Konflikt."

9.

Ibid.

10. 11.

Dedijer,

Sarajevo 1914, 197. Albertini, The Origins of the War of 1914

(3 vols., New York,

1952-57), Ill, 87. Apis spent several months in Berlin convalescing in 1 9 1 3 , but not "in the Serbian embassy." 12.

Ziv. 207 5, "Smrt Pukovnika Apisa i Sarajevski atentat."

13.

Ziv. 684, "Moj rad . . . ," Blagojevic's autobiographical account

which he gave to Milan Zivanovic in 195 1 . 14 .

Ljubibratic, M/ada Bosna, pp. 165-66; Pribicevic, pp. 299-300.

15.

P. Opacic, "1zgovor za pocetak svetskog rata," Politika, June 28,

1984. 16.

L. Chlumecky, "Franz Ferdinands Aussenpolitik," BM, Xll (June

1934), pp. 455-66. 17.

Ziv. 2067, M. Zivanovic, "Kritika Apisova rada."

18.

Ziv. 209 1 ,

.Z.

Zivanovic, "Licne podatke o Apisu"; Ziv. 2075, M.

Zivanovic, "Smrt Pukovnika Apisa." 19.

Bogdan .Zerajic in protest against Austro-Hungarian rule of Bosnia

attempted abortively in June 1 9 1 0 to murder General Varesanin, governor of Bosnia, then committed suicide. See P. Bogicevic, "Atentat Bogdana

\


340

Notes to Chapter XII

34 1

(Sarajevo), N, 1954. Major Milan Vasic affirmed

fiery Serbian patriot "entirely lacking in balance or common sense , ruth

there were two attempts in 1 9 1 2 to organize the Archduke's murder.

less in ambition." Learning of Russia's probable support of Serbia, Apis

Vasic was then Apis' close colleague. Ziv. 4019, pp. 9-1 1 .

on June 2/15 convened the CEC and told it he had sent l'ankosic's Bos

Zerajica,"

GIDBiH

20.

Ziv. 2075, "Smrt."

nian pupils to kill the Archduke. Since he and Tartkosic were the only

21.

Ziv. 4019, "Rad Organizacije."

members favoring this, Apis agreed to abandon the plan. Either he tried

22.

Ziv. 35, Colonel PavloviC's reminiscences about Malobabic.

to recall the assassins or neglected to act. Short of holding the assassins

23.

Ziv. 34, "Ljubomir Vulovic."

in Serbia forcibly, wrote Seton-Watson, even Apis probably could not

24.

Apis to Salonika court, March 28, 1 9 1 7 in F. Wtirthle, Die

ajewoer Gerichtsakten

Sar-

have prevented their action. Despite Apis' connection with two assassins via Tankosic , there is no proof he conceived a plot initiated apparently

(Vienna, 1975), unpaginated.

25.

M. Zivanovic, Republika, December 18, 1945.

inside Bosnia. Declared "Young Bosnian," Borivoje Jevtic, later: the

26.

Ljubibratic, Mlada Bosna, p. 138.

Sarajevo murder was "not the work of an isolated individual in national

27.

Dedijer,

1914, I , 29, 430. Dedijer informed the author

exaltation, but of the entire youth of Bosnia." The murder, noted Seton

about a secret dossier on Apis prepared by the Okhrana for Nicholas 11

Watson, was the sixth in four years against Austrian leaders, all by Serbs

stating that Dr. Branko Pavicevic had obtained a copy on a research visit

and Croats from the Monarchy , none connected with Serbia. An article

to Kiev. The author could obtain no infom1ation on this from Pavicevic.

of 1922 asserted that Apis' organization of the Sarajevo murder gave

Affirming

initially that the murder was organized by Serbian military

Austria the pretext to declare war on Serbia. "A private person, an ordin

intelligence (Apis) at Russia's order, a Soviet writer later withdrew that

ary citizen, arbitrarily . . . dragged his country into war despite the

Saraevskoe ubistvo (Moscow, 1930), ix; Voznik novenie pervoi mirovoi voiny (Moscow, 1964), pp. 236-37. 28. Wtirthle, Die Sarajewoer.

wishes of its responsible leaders"-Radikal, March 25, 1922, "Politicka

Sarajevo

claim-N. P. Poletika,

V. A. Artamonov, "Erinnerungen an meine Militarattachezeit in

29.

Serge in

Clarte

38.

V. Bogicevic, "Jos nekoliko . . .

39.

Especially S. Stanojevic, Dj. Jelenic, D. Stojadinovic, and Lj .

, " Oslobodjenje,

June 1 7 , 1953.

Jovanovic. See note 4 above.

Belgrad," BM ( 1 938), pp. 588-602. 30.

zmca."

(Paris, 1925). In his Memoires

d'un revolution

40.

Milos Bogicevic came from a prominent Serbian family which

1901 a 1941 (Paris, 1 95 1 ) , pp. 198-99, Serge claimed he obtain

backed the Obrenovic dynasty until King Alexander in 1900 removed

ed his information from Bozin Simic and Milos Bogicevic. See Dedijer,

Milos' father as minister in Berlin. Supporting the May Coup, Milos was

noire de Sarajevo, 31.

educated in Vienna and obtained a doctorate there. He served in the

I, 430.

Serbian diplomatic corps in Paris and Berlin where he belonged to the

Ljubibratic, Mlada

32.

Bosna, p. 163. V. Bogicevic, Sarajevski atentat. Pisma,

33.

Ibid., pp. 1 20-22; Bogicevic, "Jos nekoliko podataka . . . ,"

Oslobodjenje

pp. 1 25-26.

(Sarajevo), June 1 7 , 1953, p. 4.

Eulenberg Club which was close to William ll. During World War I he defected to Germany . 41.

Dedijer,

Sarajevo,

Il, 1 98-99; M. Bogicevic,

Le Colonel,

p. 1 2 .

34.

Ibid.

42.

Ljubibratic, Miada B9sna, p. 163.

35.

Pribicevic, Diktatura, pp. 293-302.

43.

See Dedijer, Sarajevo, I, 205 ff.

36.

With no executive post in the CEC, Apis had no authority to

44.

Lj ubibratic, pp. 14647.

45.

Ibid., pp. 14748.

46.

Sarac's manuscript biography, wrote Lj ubibratic, was in Matica

convene a meeting; he claimed it no longer met as such in 1 9 14. 37.

Pribicevic, pp. 299-300. Wrote the British scholar, R. W . Seton

Watson in "Murder in Sarajevo," FA, I l l (1925), pp. 500-06: Apis decid

Srpska Library in Novi Sad. It had been edited by Dusan Slavic, a Bel

ed to forestall an Austrian attack by a sensational terrorist act. He was a

grade writer, who often met with Sarac and other national activists.


342

Notes to Chapter XIII

343

47.

Ljubibratic, pp. 1 5 1-53.

12.

Ziv. 10, Diary of Milovanovic-Pilac, entry of February 23, 1 9 1 8 .

48.

Ibid., pp. 153-55.

13 .

Ziv. 692, "Razni podaci."

49.

C. Popovic,

50.

Ljubibratic , pp. 159-64.

;

"0

Sarajevskom atentatu,"

Novosti, June 28, 1924.

14.

Ziv. 1 0 , Milovanovic-Pilac diary, May 30, 1918. -

15.

Ziv. 35, Dr. Srdjan Budisavljevic on Malobab.ic. •

16.

Ziv. 3, "Iskazi."

17 .

Ibid.

18.

Ziv. 35, on Malobabic.

General accounts in English about Serbia in World War I n i clude

19.

Ziv. 3, "Iskazi."

A History, 11, 6 1 2 ff. ; Fred Singleton, A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (1985), pp. 1 14-30. Yugoslav accounts include Milan Zelenika, Prvi svetski rat 1914 godine (Belgrade, 1962); Zivan Zivanovic, Srbija u ratovima (Belgrade , 1958); S. Djuric and V. Stevanovic , eds. Go/gota i vaskrs Srbije, 1914-1918 (2 vols., Belgrade , 1986). Most com plete is Veliki rat Srbije za os/obodjenje i ujedinjenje Srba, Hrvata i Slo venaca (32 vols., Belgrade , 1926-29). 2. Pijemont, June 18, 1914, "Posle Zerajica-Princip."; June 20,

20.

Ibid., session of April 30, 1 9 1 7.

21.

Ibid., sessionof May 4 and Milan Zivanovic's comments.

22.

Wi.irthle, Die Sarajewoer.

23.

Ziv. 1 5 , A. Sredojevic, "Podaci o Solunskom aferu."

24.

SANU 142 1 1 , Draskic Memoirs.

25.

Ibid.; Ziv. 4215, M. Zivanovic , "Kapija kod Soluna." On Battle

Cerska operacija 1914 (Belgrade, 1953). Georg Markus claims in Der Fall Red/ (Vienna, 1984), pp. 1 9-20, that

"Austrija i Juzni Sloveni."

Marshal Putnik knew most plans and dispositions for a possible Austrian

Notes to Chapter XIII 1.

M. Petrovich,

3.

Ibid., June 22, "Austrijski problem," p. 1 ; "Austrija protiv

Srbije," p. 2. 4.

HHSA, P.A., I, Liasse Krieg, K. 810, Potiorek to Minister Presi

dent, June 29, from Sarajevo; Ibid., Lorcha to Berchtold, June 29, No.

offensive because of treason committed by Austria's Colonel Alfred Red!. 26.

Ziv. 4215, "Kapija";

27.

Ziv. 8, "Cedo Popovic's war reminiscences" ; Ziv. 38, Tankosic;

i S. B . Fay, The Austrian ultimatum of July 10/23rd is n

The

Origins of the World War (2 vols., New York, 1928 and 1966, 11, 26973). Reacted the Serbian Zastava of Novi Sad in Hungary : "Austria Hungary has created a fait accompli. If Serbia agrees to everything de

.Z.

Zivanovic, Srbija

u ratovima, pp. 14041.

Ziv. 6, Vemic Diary, entry of January 27, 1 9 1 5 . 28.

97A and June 30, No. 98. 5.

of Cerska see Milan Radenkovic,

Ziv. 10, Milovanovic diary, October 2, 1917.

Bitka na Drini (Belgrade , 1969), pp. 4 16-32. On the Battle of Kolubara see also Kolubarska bitka, I. I . , Zbomik Radova, 29.

Mitar Djurisic,

Knj. 3 (Belgrade, 1985). 30.

Archives de Terre (Vincennes (henceforth ADT), "Note de M. le

manded of her, then she will lose much of her national independence."

Professeur R. A. Reiss sur le complot serbe," September 20, 1917, attach

-Zastava, July 12/25, No. 153, "Na prelomu." Ljubibratic, Mlada Bosna, pp. 185-86. 6.

ed to a report of Carbonnier, French military attache at Serbian General

7.

Kissling, "Die serbische Mobilrnachung im Juli 1914,"

Headquarters in Salonika to the War Minister (Paris), September 23, 1917.

BM, X,

1932, pp. 681-86. A Serbian account contends Belgrade ordered its army mobilized only after Giesl's departure at 6:30 PM on July 12/25: Jovan Jovanovic in

Politika, February 8, 1932, No. 8530.

I t was published by Dubravka Stojankovic as "Rudolf A. Reis o Solun

skom procesu," /G, 1984, 1-2,.pp. 99-107. 31.

S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 408- 1 1 .

32.

D. Jankovic, Introduction to

Zapisnici sednica Ministarskog sa-

8.

Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi."

9.

V. Bogicevic, Sarajevski atentat, pp. 1 26-27.

33.

SANU, Draskic Memoirs, pp. 25-26, related by Dusan Stefanovic.

10.

Ziv. 3, "Iskazi."

34.

PRO FO 371 /2460, C. des Graz (Nis) to Grey, December 8 , 1914.

11.

Ziv. 1 1 , Diary of Milovanovic-Pilac, December 22, 1919.

35.

S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, p. 4 1 6 .

veta Srbije,

1915-1918 (Belgrade, 1976).

344

'


345

Notes to Chapter XVI

S. Skoko, Vojvoda Radomir Putnik, II, 228-36. Serb forces on all

36.

Ziv. 1937, TriSa Kaclerovic to M . Z. Zivanovic.

37.

Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, p . 4 1 7.

fronts in October 1 9 1 5 numbered 247,257 men and 685 cannon of which

38.

SANU, DraSk.ic Memoirs, pp. 124-40.

94,784 with 226 cannon faced Bulgaria. Serbia's ally, Montenegro, had

39.

ADT, K. 7 1 7, No. 2, Fournier to Cabinet du Ministre, March

53,000 men and 159 cannon (p. 236).

15, 1915. 40.

Ibid., ibid. to ibid., September 22, 1 9 1 5 . At the start of World

4.

5.

Ibid., p. 236; Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 1 73-74.

6.

WO 106/1402, Letter of Serbian Minister November 1 9 1 5 ; Sko

War I, noted Fournier, the Serbian army totalled about 450,000 men plus

ko, 11, 228 ff. On September 12/25 Foreign Minister Sazonov was given

35,000 men of the class of 1 9 1 5 . Remaining in September 1 9 1 5 were

Pasic's telegram insisting that Russia authorize an immediate Serbian pre

about 300,000 combattants, and the only remaining reserve, the class of

emptive attack on Bulgaria. Sazonov replied he would consider that "as

1 9 1 6 , was being called to the colors.

grave a crime as action by the Bulgars." MOEI, Series lll, vol. VIII, Part

41.

AJ , fond J . J . Pizona, Kutija 80/2, Report of Colonel D. N ilic

from Petrograd, March 28, 1 9 1 5 . Minister Spalajkovic warned P3Sic that the Nis government needed to refute the myth that Serbia's aims were aggressive but rather reflected efforts to achieve common ideals of the liberation and unity of all South Slavs-Spalajkovic to Pas i c, March 7.

2, Sazonov to Trubetskoi, September 12/25, No. 780, p. 366. 7.

Gerald Silverstein,

"The Serbian Campaign of 1915," AHR,

LXXIII, No. 1 (October 1967), pp. 5 1 -69. 8.

Ibid.; CAB 1 7/ 1 3 1 , "Precis . . . regarding the Anglo-French Ex

pedition to Salonika," and "Extracts from Allied Conferences." 9.

Pribicevic, Diktatura, pp. 304-05.

42.

AJ , f. Pizona, K. 80/2, Spalajkovic to Pa5ic, April 2 1 , telegram.

43.

Ibid., ibid. to ibid., April 24, telegram No. 705.

10.

Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 202-05.

44.

Ziv. 3 , "lskazi." Among Bosnians remaining with the Uzice staff

11.

ADT, 7N 719, Carton 2302, Colonel Foumier to War Minister,

were Nezir, Ciganovic, Djuro Sarac and Mustafa Golubic. 45.

Dusan Marinkovic, "Jedan susret

sa

'Apisom' is saslusanje kod

ministra policije," Oslobodjenje (Sarajevo), May 1 6 , 1 9 5 3 , p. 5 . 46. Nores

�

Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi."

ro Chapter XIV

from Kragujevac, October 6/19. 12.

Skoko, PU!nik, 11, 238 ff. ; MOEI, Series lll, vol. VIII, Part 2, No.

914, Trubetskoi to Sazonov, October 1 / 14, p. 492. 13 .

Ziv. 3, "lskazi, April 29 session; Ziv. 35, Malobabic; TPO, p. 3 5 1 .

14.

WO 1 06 / 1400, C. des Graz (NiS), telegrams October 1 1 , 22.

15.

Ibid., Sir Ralph Paget telegram, October 23 ; Consul Greig (M on

astir), October 27; C. des Graz (NiS), October 27. The Allies informed Serbian leaders that Bulgaria's cooperation

16.

Jovanovic , Moji savremenici. pp. 204-05 .

was needed and asked them to promise to cede to it part of Serbian

17.

WO 106/ 1335, "Military Position of the Allies in the Near East

I.

Macedonia if Sofia joined the Allies. Russia's minister to Serbia warned

(October 1915)." A fonner British staff officer in the Balkans wrote

Pasic rejection of this demand would threaten Serbia's future and rela

Colonel Hankey privately October I 5th opposing any large expedition to

tionship with Russia. MOEI, Series Ill, vol. VIII, Part 1 , No. 429, Four

Serbia: "For our army, requiring more transport than any other, difficul

Power Declaration, July 22/ August 4, 1 9 1 5 ; Trubetskoi to Sazonov, July

ties would be insuperable if we sent out a large force . . . . Our new armies

22, No. 434, telegram, p. 555.

are only armed men with little discipline and led by inexperienced officers.

2.

When Minister Trubetskoi objected to that phrase, Pasic declared:

"I believe Russia did everything it could . . . but it cannot expect the im

. . . It will be playing the German game to detach troops from here l west ern front] and send them out there."-CAB 17/ 1 1 3 .

possible from us." MOEI, vol. Vlll, Part 2, Trubetskoi to Sazonov, August

18.

WO 106/1335, "Expedition to the Near East.'.

3/16, No. 522, p. 86.

19.

CAB 1 7I 1 1 3, "Summary of the Situation in Macedonia," and

3.

Jovanovic , Moji savremenici, pp. 202-05 ; Pribicevic, Diktatura.

comments of Lieutenant General A. J . Murray, British chief of staff.

346 20.

APIS: The Congenial Conspirator WO 106/1400, Sir R. Rodd (Rome) to War Office, October 29.

On the Allied diplomats' trek from NiS to the Adriatic see A. Boppe A la suite du gouvernement serbe (Paris, 1 9 1 7). Serbia's defeat at the Battle of

Notes to Chapter XV 47.

347

Jovanovic , Moji savremenici, pp. 174-75, 4 1 7-18.

Nores 10 Chapter X V

•

Kosovo ( 1389) doomed the medieval Serbian kingdom. Ziv. 1962, Stefan Trifunovic to Zivanovic, February 1 1 , 1946.

1.

Ziv. 7 1 8, "Apis," by Vladimir Tucovic?

Explained Trifunovic: "To preserve memories about a great man like Apis,

2.

Ziv. 207 1 , M. Zivanovic, "Smrt Pukovnika Apisa."

everything must be gathered which is known about him . . . . "

3.

Ziv. 1 93 1 , N. Arandjelovic, "Pukovnik Dragutin Dimitrijevic."

21.

22.

WO 106/ 1402, November 25, 1 9 1 5 . C.I.G.S.

4.

Ziv. 207 1 , "Smrt."

23. 24.

ADT, K. 7 1 6 , Fournier to War Ministry (Paris), November 8 / 1 2.

5.

Ziv. 194 1 , Zivan Zivanovic, "Iz zivota."

SANU, Draskic Memoirs, pp. 1 5 1 -52.

6.

Ziv. 2067, M. Zivanovic, "Kritika Apisova rada." Dragoslav llic

25.

Ziv. 3718, M. Zivanovic , "Povlacenije preko Albanije 1 9 1 5 g."

in a 194 7 speech asserted Apis had been an amazing mixture of soldier and

26.

WO 106/ 1403, "Serbian Military Situation,"November 24, 1 9 1 5 .

politician, had been unselfish, dedicated, self-sacrificing, but with a healthy

27.

VIA, Pop. 3 , K. 3 , br. 25, November 12 (25); Ziv. 3718.

ambition-Ziv. 2062.

28.

VIA, Pop. 3 , K, 3 , br. 25, December 1 / 14, Skadar.

29. mg. .

Ibid., Milovanovic's notes from November 18/December 1 meet-

7.

See SANU 14,520, Kosta Pecanac, "Moja ispoved"; ADT, "Note

du Professeur R. A. Reiss sur le complot serbe"; Ziv. 207, lvkovic's ac count.

30.

Ziv. 4215, "Kapija kod Soluna."

31.

Apis still suffered after-effects of the Maltese fever. J ovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 4 1 7 - 1 8 .

was killed in October 1 9 1 2 the first day of the Serbo-Turkish War.

33. . g�ven.

SANU, Draskic Memoirs, pp. 1 5 7 , 154. No precise date was

before her father's death. Ziv. 3194, Apis to Stanislava GliSic (Valjevo),

34.

CAB 1 7 I 1 1 3, "Situation of Allied Forces in Serbia and at Salon-

32.

8. 9.

Alexander Zivanovic, Milan's older brother and Apis' nephew, Jelena, daughter of Alexander and Stanislava Glisic, born a month

August 29, 1914.

ika," by Colonel M. P. A. Hankey, November 23/Decernber 6, 1 9 1 5 . 35. Ziv. 3718, "Povlacenije."

10.

Jelena Zivanovic, wife of Zivan and Apis' elder sister.

11.

Ziv. 3 1 95, Apis to Stanislava (Valjevo), October 1 1 , 1914.

12.

Ziv. 3 1 96, ibid. to ibid., March 20, 1 9 1 5 .

36.

Ziv. 42 1 5 , "Kapija kod Soluna."

13.

Ziv. 1085, "Uspomene Milana Zivanovica" (Nice, May 1 9 1 6).

37.

Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, p. 4 1 8.

14.

Ziv. 1085, ibid., notebook 2, Nice, June 1 9 1 6.

38.

SANU, DraSkic Memoirs, pp. 1 5 6 ff.

15.

Ibid.

16.

Ziv. 209 1 , "Apis."

17.

Ziv. 3197, Note of Milan Zivanovic.

18.

Ibid., Apis to Milan Zivanovic , April 16, 1916 (Corfu).

19.

On the way through Albania during the Serbian retreat, notes

ADT, K. 7 1 9 , Fran9ois and F oumier telegrams; L es armees franqaises dans la grande guerre, VIII/ 1 , annex 3 (Paris, 1927), pp. 2, 8-9. 39.

40. 41. 42. 1933.

Ziv. 193 1 , N. Arandjelovic, "Pukovnik Dragutin Dimitrijevic." Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi," May 4, session. SANU 1471 /2, Kosta Pecanac , "Moja ispovest," November 29,

Milan Zivanovic, Sapinac had been attacked by Albanian tribesmen and robbed of everything. In Elbasan Apis had given him money and a coat.

43.

Ziv. 2 1 8 , "Narodna Skupstina."

20.

Ziv. 3 198, Apis to Milan, April 28 (Corfu).

44. 45.

Ziv. 194 1 , Zivan Zivanovic, "lz Zivota." Ziv. 3 7 1 8 , "Povlacenije."

21.

Ziv. 3 1 99, Apis to Milan, May 8 (Corfu).

22.

Ziv. 3200, Apis to Milan, October 22 (Vostarane).

46.

Ziv. 4 2 1 5 , "Kapija"; Dj. Karadjordjevic, lstina, p. 375.

23.

Ziv. 3201 , November 1 (Vostarane).

348

•


349

Notes to Chapter XVII

24.

Ibid.

25.

Ziv.

26.

Ziv. 3202A, November 20.

18.

Ziv. 7, "BeleSke Vladimira Tucovica."

27.

Ziv. 3203, December 3, 9 PM.

19.

CAB 1 7 / 1 3 1 , January 17,

28.

Ziv. 3204, December

20.

Ibid., "Precis of recent proposals by the French GHQ and British

17. 3202, November

11.

12.

Ziv. 207, "Jedna karakteristicna episoda iz vremena za pripreme

Solunske afere," by Colonel Milojko Ivkovic .

Apis evidently realized that his cor

respondence was under surveillance.

General Staff on Salonika."

Notes to Chapter X VI

Notes to Chapter X VII

1.

In Skadar on December 30,

1916

the Prince Regent formally re

placed Marshal Putnik with General Peter Bojovic as chief of staff, and General Bozidar Terzic became war minister. On Corfu Colonel Peter Pesic

'

a crony of Alexander, replaced Colonel Zivko Pavlovic as assistant chief of staff. Skoko, Putnik, 11, 29 1 .

2.

"0

S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 4 1 8-20; Dragoslav Jankovic,

radu srpske vlade . . . ," in Zapisnici sednica Ministarskog saveta Srbije,

1915-1918 (Belgrade,

1976), p. 62.

3.

Jovanovic , p. 42 1 .

4.

Ziv.

5.

Ibid.

6.

Contrary to their name, the Progressives had been a conservative,

7 1 6,

"Solunska afera."

to Colonel Hankey .

10, 1916. For the Sal onika campaign in English see Alan Palmer, The Garden ers of Salonika (New York, 1978). In Serbian see Petar Opacic, Srbija i Solunski fronr (Belgrade, 1984) and his popular Solunski front (Belgrade, ( 1 978), and M. Alirnpic, Solunski front (Belgrade, 1967). 2. VIA, Pop. 3, K. 3, br. 25, "Operacijski dnevnik operativne odel enja Vrhovne Komande od 10. marta do 6. juna 1 916," reports of March 1 0, 22, 26 and mid-May 1916;Armees [rancaises, VIII/2, pp. 1-3. 3. Alirnpic, pp. 94-95; Opacic, Srbija, Chap. 1 and Solunskifront, p. 55; Nikola Popovic, Srbija i Rusija, 1914-1918 (Belgrade, 1977), p. 267. i Vlll/2, pp. 8-16. 4. Ziv. 4215, "Kapija ;Armees francases, 5. VIA, Pop. 3, K. 3, br. 25, Colonel Dimitrijevic to Colonel Milo vanovic, 8:50 AM, August 7/20; Dimitrijevic to Maric, 6:30 PM. 6. Ibid., Dimitrijevic to Colonel Kalafatovic, August 8, 4 PM; Di 1.

VIA, Pop.

3,

K. 3, br. 25, Report of March

"

pro-monarchist party without significant popular support in Serbia. 7.

Jovanovic, p. 426 ; Dj . Karadjordjevic, fstina, pp.

8.

Jovanovic, pp.

9.

Radoje Lazic, then the only surviving Salonika defendant, con

firmed this at the

1 9 16,

426-27; Jankovic, "0

1953

Retrial.

375-76.

radu," Zapisnici, p. 62.

Oslobodjenje,

June 3 , 1953, "Rasvetlja

vanje sudskog zlocina Aleksandra Karadjordjevica." 10.

Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi," session of April 28.

11.

Ibid., Apis asked the court to call as a witness Colonel Milutin

Vukicevic, housing officer of the Timok Army, to confirm his account.

mitrijevic to Milovanovic, 6:50 PM. 7.

Ibid., Order of General Bojovic, No. 4040 (Salonika), August

8.

Ibid., Dimitrijevic to Maric, 10: 1 5

Dimitrijevic to Kalafatovic,

3:45

PM; same

4 PM .

9. 10.

VIA, Pop. 3, K.

14,

"Resume of operations," August

Ibid., session of April 30.

13.

Ibid., session of May 4.

1 1.

Ibid., Dimitrijevic to Maric, August

14.

"Svaba" in Serbo-Croatian. "Schwabe," comparable to "Kraut"

12.

Ziv. 3, "Iskazi," session of May

13.

ln

15.

16. Dnevnik

Ziv.

6. Introduction

of Milan Zivanovic to Vemic Diary.

Ziv. 3 5 , on Malobabic; Radoje Jankovic, "Rade Malobabic," in (Belgrade), April

24, 1921.

4-15,

1916.

Ibid., K. 3, br. 25, "Operacijski dnevnik," Colonel Maric to Chief

12.

in English, was a common slang term in Serbia for a German.

9. AM and 3:45 PM, August 9; to Colonel Pesic, August 13,

of Staff, Supreme Command, August 1 5 .

1901

19, 7 AM. 2, 1 9 1 7.

Colonel Milos Vasic was the only senior officer who

agreed to serve in Alexander Obrenovic's so-called "wedding cabinet." As War Minister he ordered army officers to collect contributions for the "future heir" supposedly expected by Queen Draga.


350 14 .

Ziv. 35, On Malobabic.

15.

Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi," session of May 3. Chairman MiSic cited Malo

babic's testimony that Apis had told him on Corfu that the Serbian poli tical system would have to be changed by elections or by "other means." 16.


17.

Ibid., session of April 30.

18.


19.

Ziv. 246, "Zavrsna rec . . . Milovanovica."

20.

SANU, Draskic Memoirs, pp. 14-15.

21.

VIA, Pop. 3 , K. 1 5 , br. 1 , General Sarrail to Serbian Chief of

Staff, (August 25)/September 7, (August 30)/September 1 2 , and (August 24)/September 7, No. 478. 22.

Ibid., General Bojovic to Prince Alexander, (August 26)/Septem-

ber 8. Ibid., Prince Alexander to Commander, First Volunteer Division,

23.

(August 29)/September 1 1 . 24.

Ibid., Dimitrijevic to Kalafatovic, August 3 0 , 4 : 10, 9: 45 PM.

25.

Ibid. to ibid., August 3 1 , 9:25 PM.

26.

Ibid. to ibid., September 10.

27.

Dimitrijevic to Maric, September 1 3 , 2 1 : 40 (9:40PM).

28.

Dimitrijevic to Kalafatovic , September 1 7 , 4 PM.

29.

VIA, Pop. 3, K. 150, f. 5 , Nikolajevic (London) to Serbian Su

preme Command (Salonika), October 1 1 . 30.

Ibid., General Ra5ic to Prince Alexander, November 4 I 17, No. 6 1

(from Salonika). 31.

Ibid., Pop. 3, K. 1 6 , br. 1 , "Operacioni dnevnik od 1 4 . novembra

do 10. decembra," Dimitrijevic to Kalafatovic, November 1 4 , 4 PM; Dimi trijevic to Maric, November 16, 2:40 PM. 32.

Ibid., Maric to Dimitrijevic, 4:40PM.

33.

Ibid., Dimitrijevic to Milovanovic, 9:30AM; Dimitrijevic to Maric,

9:55 PM. 3�.:35.

Ibid., November 20, Dimitrijevic to Maric, 9:45 PM. Ibid., K. 140, f. 8, General Bojovic to Army Commanders, No

vember 9. On November 27th, noting he had requested relief for the ex hausted Serbs, General Ra5ic reported that 90,000 French troops were awaiting embarcation for Salonika-Ibid., K. 150, f. 5 , Ra5ic to Prince Alexander, No. 696, November 27.

Notes to Chapter XVIII 36.

35 1

AJ, Jovanovic-Pizon, K. 8/43, No. 8957, Nikola Pasic to Jovano-

vic-Piion, December 19. 37.

Ibid., Pasic to Jovanovic-Pizon, December 1 9 .

38.

Ibid., Jovanovic-Piion to Pa5ic, December 23.

39.

VIA, Pop. V, K. 483, f. 1 , br. 1 2 , "Ocene za pukovinka Dragutin

Dimitrijevica od strane Natelnika Stabe 3 . Armije, Pukovnika Mihailo Lj. J ovanovica, March 9, 1 9 1 7 . 40.

Ibid., General Milos Vasic, "Ocena," March 1 0 , 1 9 1 7 .

41.

Ziv. 246, "Zavrsna rec." Testified Colonel M . G. Milovanovic at

Salonika, who had been closely associated with Apis on the Salonika Front: "I can assure the court that Colonel Dimitrijevic never by the slightest sign gave me any reason to believe that he had prepared anything against the Heir or the existing regime."

Notes ro Chapter 1.

Dedijer,

X VIII

Sarajevo

1914, ll, 125-26. The author compiled the list

of "associates." July 1 7 , 1953, article of Prvoslav Vasiljevic.

2.

Politika,

3.

For the "Salonika regime" see especially

Beogradski dnevnik

(Belgrade) which ran long series of articles starting in mid-January 1920. 4.

Ziv. 7 1 6 , "Solunska afera." TucoviC's name appears on the last

page of this informative expose, which apparently he wrote. 5.

Dedijer,

Sarajevo

1914, 1 1 , 197 ff. discusses Dragisa Stoj adinoviC's

unpublished "Srbija i Nemacka . . . . " In M. ZivanoviC's archive (Ziv. 1 88 1 ) is a mysterious anonymous paper suggesting relations of some "Black Hand" members with German officers in Salonika. 6.


7.

Ibid.

8.

Pravda,

dnevnik, 9.

January 14 and

IS,

1920, "Solunski rezim";

Beogradski

January 1 6 and 29, 1920, "Odbor desetorice." SANU, Draskic Memoirs, pp. 1 5 - 1 7 .

10.

Ibid., pp. 1 8 ff.

11.


12.

Ziv. 14, "Excerpts from General Damjan Popovic's letters."

TPO

published some in incorrect order to incriminate Apis and his friends. 13. 1919.

Ziv. 1 1 , MilovanoviC's Diary, December 18, 1 9 1 7 and August 10,


352 14.

Ziv. 7 1 6, "Solunska afera."

353

Notes to Chapter XIX Nores to Chapter XIX

¥

15.

Ziv. 3, "lskazi."

16.

Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 429-30; Ziv. 7 1 6; Ziv. 520,

1.

For general political and military history of World. War 1 see Alan

"Radnja oko obrazovanj a prekog suda . . . ," apparently by Dr. Moacanin,

Clark, Suicide of the t:mpires: The Ballles on the Eastern From, 1914-18

September 23, 1 9 1 6. Colonel Pavlovic gave War Minister Terzic a proposed

(New York, 1 97 1 ); W. R. Griffith, Tile Great War (Wayne, N.J., 1 986);

draft law on a special court and related the "attempt" on the Prince, in

and James Stokesbury, A Short History of World War I (New York, 1 9 8 1 ) .

which Apis allegedly had been involved. Initially, Terzic replied: "Then we must finish them," but later he warned Pavlovic: "Things won't be so sim

2.

Beogradski dnevnik, J anuary 29, 1920. "Odbor desetorice-hap-

senje Dragutina Dimitrijevica."

ple since lawyers of the Ministry think differently." Opposition leaders

3.

SANU, Draskic Memoirs.

raised legal obj ections as did Premier Pasic .

4.

Politika, July 1 7 , 1953, article of Prvoslav Vasiljevic.

17.


5.

Ziv. 1 0, Milovanovic's Diary, entry of December 18, 1 9 1 7.

18.

Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 428-29.

6.

Politika, July 17, 1953, Vasiljevic article ; Ziv. 598, "Ponuda Aus

19.

Ibid., pp. 427-28.

20.

Ziv. 3, " I skazi ," May

21.

Introducing Ziv. 1 5 , Milan Zivanovic explained that Sredojevic,

1921.

from Novi Pazar sandjak, had joined the Serbian national movement in

8.

trije za separatni mir."

I

session.

7.

Ziv. 632, "Podaci dobiveni od M. Radovanovica-Koce," May 19, AS, "Solunski proces," F. 4, 2097, Interior Minister to War Min

1905. So he could organize an agents' network, Sredojevic was named to

ister, December 1 2, 1 9 1 6 ; Ziv. 463, "lzvod o radu Gospodina Ministra

the Interior Ministry. On the Salonika Front first with Vojvoda Vuk's

Yojnog po krivicu Pukovnika A pisa." Interior Minister, December 1 2, No.

volunteers, he worked later with Major Vulovic in intelligence. After his

1 9 1 , Confidential, "prezidijalno. "

arrest, he was sent to Salonika Officers' Prison, then was interned in

9.

Even if this was a new style date, when converted into old style

Bizerte until the war ended. Briefly restored to service, he soon retired

it would become August 30th, not coinciding with the day when the as

and died in Belgrade in 1937.

sassination attempt allegedly occurred.

22.

Ziv. 1 5 , "Data on witnesses in the Salonika affair . . . ," by Sre

dojevic in a voluntary statement of 1 9 1 9 in Belgrade.

10.

AS, "Solunski proces," F. 4, 2097, Interior Minister to War Min

ister, December 1 2.

23.


1 1.

Ziv. 463 War Minister to Supreme Command, December 13.

24.

Ibid.; D. Jankovic, "0 radu," Zapisnici sednica, p. 63. At the pro

12.

Ibid., Chief of Staff Supreme Command (General Bojovic) to

posal of the War and Interior ministers, the Serb cabinet October 25th decided to request Belgium to accept Apis as its military attache. 25.

Borba, June 1 1 , 1 9 5 3 , p . 7, "Poverljiva prepiska izmedju Pasica

Colonel Gojko Pavlovic, December 1 3 , No. 1899, Confidential. 13 .

Ibid., Colonel Pavlovic to Supreme Command, December 14.

14.

Ibid., Mihailo Rankovic to Prince Alexander Karadjordjevic, No

i Lj ube Jovanovica . . . . " Only in November 1 9 1 6 did Alexander and

vember 25 / December 8 (Salonika); M. Zivanovic, Pukovnik Apis, pp.

Pasic agree to remove Apis from the front-V. Vuckovic, "Diplomatska

69-70.

pozadina," JRMP, ll ( 1 959), p. 250. But D. Jankovic considers it more

1 5.

likely they agreed on tlus in September or October-"0 radu ," Zapisnici sednica, p. 63. 26.

HHSA, Nachlass Milosa Bogicevica.

27.

Ziv. 3 , "Iskazi," April"30 session; Vulovic to Dimitrijevic, Novem

ber 27, 1 9 1 6.

•

Ziv. 463, Jovan Milosavljevic to Police Section, Supreme Com-

mand, December 1 2 /25, 1 9 1 6. 16.

Zivanovic, Pukuvnik Apis. pp. 70-7 1.

1 7.

Ziv. 463, Colonel Pavlovic to Supreme Command, December

14/27. 18.

Ibid. On December 1 6/29th the Supreme Command in a confi

dential document No. 1 9 1 9 asked the War Minister to assign temporarily

354


to the service of Colonel Dunjic Lieutenant Colonel Milivoje Joeic to assist him in conducting the investigation . That same day Joeic came to Dunjic and the investigation of A pis and his colleagues began immediately. I

Ibid., War Minister to Supreme Command, December 13 / 2 6 ; Ziv.

19. 20.

Ziv. 3205, Diary of Stojkovic , entry of March 8 , 1 9 1 7 ; Zivanovic,

Pukovnik A pis,

p. 82. A recent popular treatment of the arrest and events

before and after is Bogolj ub Pejcic, "Solunska proces 1 9 1 7. Hapsenje na frontu,"

procesa, 22.

Jntervu,

January

Zivanovic,

2, 1987, pp. 47-50. Pukovnik Apis, pp. 8 1 -82; Stenobeleike Solunskog

p. 1033, "Saslusanje ordonansa Milica llica." Zivanovic,

Pukovnik Apis.

pp. 82-83 lists the contents of Apis'

trunk. 23.


24.

Zivanovic,

ovic

12.

Pukovnik Apis, in Beogradski dnevnik.

p. 87, citing article of M. G . Milovan

XX

355

Ibid., Interior Minister to War Minister, December 23, Strictly

Confidential. 13.

Ibid., Pop. 5, K. 482, F. 2, br. 27, "lzveHaj narocitog odredjenog

islednika Vrhovne Komande o rezultatima ispita . . . ," March 26. 14.

4137.

21.

Notes to Chapter

Protic Memoirs, Ill.

Borba, June 1 1 , kovnik Apis, pp. 500-07. 15.

16.

Pu

R. R. Filipovic was PasiC's office chief on Corfu. See Pribicevic ,

Diktatura, 17.

1953, "Poverljiva prepiska"; M. Zivanovic,

pp. 3 1 4 - 1 5 and Zivanovic, Apis, pp. 499-507.

Milan Zivanovic affirms that Pasic thus predetermined a fatal out-

come of the Salonika Trial-Ibid., pp. 506-07. 18.


19.


20.

Ziv. 632, "Podaci od . . . Radovanovica-Koce." Zivkovic alleged

ly told Koca: "Why did I install as jailors Mica S tojkovic and J osif Protic i f not to poison him?"

25.

Ibid., pp. 87-88.

21.

Ibid.

26.

Ziv. 463.

22.

Ziv. 692, Milenko Stojic, "Razni podaci."

23.


24.

VIA, Pop. 5, K. 483, F. 2, "Dokumenti o istrazi po delima ofi

27.

-

Ziv. 3205, Diary of Stojkovic.

cira-zaverenika": K. 484, F. 3, "Dokumenti po krivici Dragutina Dimitri

Notes to Chapter XX

jevica."

I.

Ziv. 3205, Stojkovic Diary, entries of December 18-22 , 1 9 1 6 .

25.


2.

Ibid., entries of December 23 and 28, January I , 1 9 1 7.

26.

Ziv. 4 1 20, "Podaci o svedocima u Solunskoj aferi . . . . "

3.

Ibid., January 8 ; S. Zec, "Bele senke Crne Ruke-I I l ," Duga, No.

27.


28.

Ibid.

This is the onJy account mentioning treatment of Apis in Vienna

29.

Ziv. 10, Milovanovic Diary, entry of January 3 , 1 9 1 8 .

in 1903. His brother-in-law , who visited him at Belgrade Military Hospital,

30.

AJ, Pizon, 80-9-25, Pasic to Jovanovic-Pizon, January 1 5 , 1 9 1 7 ,

-

320, June 1986 (henceforth Protic Memoirs). 4.

No. l 9 1 .

made no reference to this.

PRO FO 3 7 1 /2870, des Graz to Foreign Office , January 13. On

Protic Memoirs,

6.

Ziv. 3 205, S tojkovic Diary, entries of January 1 1 - 1 7 , 1 9 1 7.

January 5 des Graz had reported: "The Serb government has information

7.

Ibid., entries of J anuary 1 8 - 2 1 .

from Salonika indicating the existence of plotting against the government

8.

Protic Memoirs, 11.

and the Prince Regent. Serbian military authorities at Salonika have in

9.


stituted an enquiry and one or two officers have been arrested."

10. 11.

ll, Duga,

No. 3 1 9, May 1986; Ill, No. 320.

31.

5.

S. J ovanovic, Moji savremcnici, pp. 450-54.

VIA, Pop. 3 , K. 474, F . 1 , Order ofCh iefof Staff to all officers ' December 22, 1 9 1 6 (Salonika).

•

32.

AJ, PiZon, 30-843

[Jovanovic-PiZon]

to Pasic, December 23,

1916. 33.

Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, appendix 3 ; Ziv. 206 1 .

356


34. VIA, Pop. 5, K. 16, F. 1 , War Minister Terzic to Commander of the Serbian Volunteer Corps in Russia (Odessa). That search turned up nothing incriminating: ibid., Terzic to Supreme Command, December 30; Pop. 3 , K. 4 74, br. 38, War Ministry Order No. 6905 to military attache in Petrograd, no date given. 35. Ibid., K. 474, F. 3, General Zivkovic to War Minister, March 14, 1917. J ankovic wrote later he had learned of the arrests of Apis and the others in February 1 9 1 7 . Learning then of Pasic's secret circular on trying "traitors" in Salonika, J ankovic promptly telegraphed Prince Alexander urging him to block the Trial. The reply he received convinced him that the Crown was working with the government to remove Apis' head. Thus Jankovic decided to remain in Petrograd in order to try and save his ar rested comrades. Ziv. 369, Jankovic to Dear Colonel, June 26, 1919. 36. Ziv. 716, "Solunska afera." 37. Ziv. 3205, Stojkovic Diary. 38. AS, "Solunski proces," F. 11-3, "Razna prepiska za vreme procesa u vezi optuzenih." 39. Ibid., No. 1 1 02. Nores ro Chapter XXI 1 . A complete stenographic record of the Trial is in AS, "Solunski proces," F. 16-19. Many documents from the Trial are in M. Zivanovic, Pukovnik Apis. A general account favorable to Apis is M. Bogicevic, Le proc�s i de Salonique (Paris, 1927). 2. Ziv. 7, "Beleske Tucovica." Much more on the court, judges, and witnesses will be included in the author's planned sequel, The Black Hand 011

Tral. i

3 . Ziv. 7 1 6, "Solunska afera." 4. Ibid. 5 . Ziv. 1 3 and 632, "Podaci." Radovanovic-Koca broke with the "White Hand" once he realized the nature of its intrigues against the ac cused at the Trial. He had sworn at Colonel Okanovic and Colonel M. Gavrilovic, associated with the "Committee of Ten," and recorded their personal ties with Premier Pasic. At the insistence of Interior Minister Jovanovic-Patak, Radovanovic was then transferred to the front at Bitolj. 6. Ziv. 716.

Notes to Chapter XXI

35 7

7. Ziv. 4 77, Circular of Pasic. 8 . Ziv. 604, "Witnesses at Salonika," by Milan Zivanovic. 9. AJ, Jovanovic-PiZon, 80-9-1 3 1 , Pa�ic to Jov�novic-PiZon, April 2, 1917 (wrongly dated March 2). 10. Smail-aga, the name of a valiant guerrilla fighter against the Turks, had been young Protic's nickname as a guerrilla fighter in Macedonia. Al though a complimentary term, it suggested as Protic realized, that Stoj kovic suspected that he sympathized with Colonel Apis and other officers under whom he had served previously . 12. Protic Memoirs, 11. 13. See above, Chapter X, pp. 000. 14. Protic Memoirs, Ill. 1 5 . Ziv. 8, Papers of Ceda Popovic. 16. Protic Memoirs, IV. 17. Ziv. 3205, Stojkovic, entries of March 20-26. 18. Ziv. 590, "Veliko iznenadjenje 27. marta." 19. Ziv. 3205, Stojkovic. 20. Ziv. 296, "Bele�e za govor." 2 1 . Ziv. 716, "Solunska afera." Slobodan J ovanovic agrees that the assassination attempt was improbable and unsubstantiated. Had the French police report contained anything which incriminated Apis or Malobabic, the Interior Minister would have hastened to deliver it to the Salonika court. Moji savremenici, pp. 438-39. 22. Ziv. 395, Lazar Milosavjlevic, "lstina o 'Austrijskom �pijunu ' Radu Malobabicu." 23. Ziv. 3205, entry of March 28, Stojkovic. 24. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, p. 43 1. 25. Ziv. 716, "Solunska afera." 26. Beogradski dnevnik, January 1 , 1920, "Dokument-ubica," lead by Krsta Cicvaric. 27. See above chapter 12, pp. 1 29-3 1. Text of Apis to Salonika Court, March 28, 1 9 1 7 in Zivanovic, Pukovnik Apis, pp. 556-59. 28. Ziv. 2075, "Smrt Pukovnika Apisa i Sarajevski atentat." 29. Ziv. 3205, Stojkovic. 30. Ibid., entry of April 5th. 3 1 . Ziv. 1933, "Vase Kraljevsko Visocanstvo," March 30, 1917.

358


Notes to Chapter XXII 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Ziv. 3205, Stojkovic Diary, entries of April 6-1 1. Ibid., entries of April 1 7-22. Pro tic Memoirs, IV. Ziv. 34, Vulovic. TPO, p. 167. See above Chapters VII and Xl for Apis' testimony. See above, Chapter XI, p. 1 1 5 . TPO, pp. 199-209.

10. 11. 12.

Ziv. 3205, April 30th entry prepared by Lieutenant Protic. Protic Memoirs, Il. Ibid. Ziv. 7, "Beleske Tucovica."

13. 14. 15.

Ziv. 8, "Papers of Ceda Popovic ." Ziv. 7 1 6, "Solunska afera." S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 43940.

16.


17.


18. 19. 20.

Ziv. 3814, "Solunski proces i politicka emigracija"; Ziv. 3205. Ibid. Apis was neither its founder nor head of its CEC.

2 1 . Ziv. 199, "Godpodu sudije," by Lt. Col. Radivojevic; TPO, pp. 396-98. 22. Ibid., pp. 404-05. 23. Ziv. 246, "Zavrsna rec M. G. Milovanovica," May 20, 1 9 1 7 . 24. On this issue see the author's The Black Hand on Trial. 25. Volja Naroda, June 14, 1 9 1 7 , No. 30. 26. PRO FO 371 /2870, des Graz to Balfour, April 25 and 26. 27. Ibid., Davies to General MacDonough (from London), April 27. 28. Ibid., May 1 , Colonel Harrison to Sir G. R. Clark, Confidential. 29. Ibid., Harrison to Clark, "Memorandum on the Serbian Situation," May 14. 30. Ibid., "Memorandum," May 18. 3 1 . Ibid., May 22, Intelligence Bureau. 32. AJ, J ovanovic-Pizon, 80-944, Pa5ic to J ovanovic-Pizon, June 2 .

Notes to Chapter XXlll

359

Notes to Chapter XXIII 1. Actually, as Milan Zivanovic confirmed, he .had written letters and postcards to his uncle throughout the Trial, but none were delivered apparently in order to heighten Apis' moral anguish. 2. Ziv. 3205, entry of May 22nd. 3 . Ibid., entry of May 23rd. 4. Ibid., entry of May 24th. 5 . Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 433-34. 6 . Ziv. 7 1 6 , "Solunska afera." Pasic supplied an official version of the Lower Court verdict to his London ambassador: "They [the Apis group] incited hatred . . . against the existing order, killed civilian youths and children . . . conducted robberies . . . and prepared to introduce a medieval military oligarchy by ten to fifteen officers . . . . They tried to murder the Heir, eliminate the Constitution, take away civil rights and end Serbia's existence."-AJ, PiZon 80-9-44, Pasic to J ovanovic-Pizon, May 29, 1 9 1 7. No concrete evidence supported PasiC's assertions. For comments of i)fficers and men at the front about the verdict see Dirnitrijevic, Srbija jaca od smrti (Kragujevac, 1970), pp. 200 ff. 7.

Ziv. 3205, entry of May 25th.

8. 9.

Protic Memoirs, ll. Nikola, or Nicholas I, prince of Montenegro, 1860-1910, then king,

1910-18. He was extremely vain, ambitious, inconsistent and insecure . See John Treadway, The Falcon and the Eagle (1983). 10. 11.

Ziv. 3205, Stojkovic Diary, entries May 29-June 2nd. Precani were Serbs and Croats living north of the Danube and

Sava. 12. H. Hinkovic, /z velikog doba (Zagreb, 1927), pp. 287-88. On the Yugoslav Committee see D. J ankovic, Jugoslovensko pitanje i Krfska Dek laracija 1 9 1 7 godine (Belgrade, 1967). 1 3 . Protic Memoirs, lll. 14. VIA, Pop. 5, K. 478, F. 2, br. 45, May 27/June 9, B. Sirnic, A. Srb, V. Gojkovic and R. J ankovic to Sir George Buchanan (Petrograd). 15. Ziv. 397, "Memorandum," June 10, 1 9 1 7 (Petrograd). 16. Created from liberal members of the Imperial Duma (parliament) after overthrow of the tsarist monarchy, it lasted until November 7, 1 9 1 7 (New Style).


Notes to Chapter XXIV

17. Ziv. 401 , Tereshchenko to Pelekhin, June l l /24th. 18. PRO FO 371 /2870, Serbian officers to King of England, June 1 1 /24th. 1 9 . Ziv. 402, Tereshchenko to Pelek.hln, June 1 7 /30, secret telegram; Ziv. 407, Pelekhin to Tereshchenko, June 20/July 2 ; Ziv. 648-652.

Notes to Chapter XXI V

360

361

197.

1 . For general treatments of royal Yugoslavia see Dragnich, Serbia, Niko/a Pa!ic, pp. 137 ff. and his First Yugoslavia (Stanford, 1983); F. Singleton, A Short History, pp. 1 3 1 - 7 1 . 2. S. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 450-54; Ziv. 3814, "Solunski proces is politicka emigracija"; SANU 14336.

2 1 . Ziv. 369, R. Jankovic letter of June 26, 1 9 1 9 ; VIA, Pop. 5 , K. 489, F. 2, br. 3 1 , "Zapisnik po nasem radu u Rusiji . . . ; br. 32, Jankovic drafts to Albert Thomas and Sir George Buchanan, May 25 and 27, 1 9 1 7.

3. Ziv. 4 2 1 5 , "Kapija"; Ziv. 1 6 , "Neuspeli pregovori . . . "; i. Zivan ovic, Poli1 icka islorija, IV, 363-64. 4. Ziv. 10, Milovanovic Diary, entry of April 1 5 , 1 9 1 8. He was refer-

Ziv. 1 1 , Milovanovic Diary, entry of August 28, 1 9 1 9 . Ziv. 7, "Beleske Tucovica." 24. Ziv. 1 l , Milovanovic Diary, entry of October 1 7 , 1 9 1 9 . Gatalovic himself supplied that information. 25. Ziv. 6, Vernic Diary, ZivanoviC's introduction ; Ziv. 7, "Beleske

ring to TPO (Salonika, 1 9 1 8). 5 . Ibid., entries of April 1 7 and October 6, 1 9 18. 6. Ibid., entries of November 21 and 28, 1 9 1 8.

20.

PRO FO 3 7 1 / 2870, Buchanan to C. des Graz, June (5)/18, no.

22. 23.

Tucovica." Later, Colonel Stevan Miletic told Tucovic his conscience bothered him for having voted for death sentences when it was obvious to him the entire trial had been staged. He had been assured that such action was essential "to save the country and the dynasty." 26. Ibid. 27. Ziv. 3205, Stojkovic Diary, entry of June 8 / 2 1 . 28. Ziv. 7 1 6, "Solunska afera." The official version was published as "Kominike Kraljevske Srpske Vlade," Srpske Novine, June 26, 1 9 1 8. On June 10/23 Pasic informed his London ambassador that the coalition gov ernment had fallen. Learning of the High Court's verdict, Davidovic and Dra5kovic had told the Prince in private audience they would resign unless he commuted all the death penal ties-AJ, Pizon, Pa5ic to J ovanovic-Pizon, June 10/23, telegram 1 55. 29. Ziv. 202, "Izvod iz zapisnika Ministarske sednice na Krfu povodom smrtnih presuda . . . "; Ziv. 203, "Jedan istoriski dokumenat." 30. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici, pp. 434-35. 3 1 . Ziv. 2075, "Smrt Apisa"; Ziv. 206 1 . 32. Jovanovic, Moji savremenici. pp. 477-82. 33 . 34. 35. Col. Lj.

Ziv. 1 1 , Milovanovic Diary, entry of December 1 5 , 1 9 1 9 . Ziv. 3 205, Stojkovic Diary, entry of June 1 2/25, 1 9 1 7. Ziv. 298, "Nacalniku sudskog odeljenje Vrhovne Komande," Lt. Dabic to Gojko Pavlovic, Chief of Legal Division, June 1 3 , 1 9 1 7.

7.

Ibid., entries of February 24 and March 28, 1 9 1 8 ; Ziv. 362.

Ziv. 1 3 , "Podaci Radovanovica-Koce." About that time Princess Naryshkin, who knew the Prince well, told French military attache, Four 8.

nier, that Zivkovic was having sexual relations with Alexander-Ziv. 632. 9. Ziv. 40, Zivkovic. See above pp. 000. 10. Ziv. 40 and 620. Appended to 620 is Radovanovic's written de fense: "My speech . . . on Peter Zivkovic's pederasty," May 5 / 1 8, 1 9 1 8. Koca left a copy with Belgrade lawyer, Kosta Timotijevic, and later asked the lawyer to give it to Pilac who was "tirelessly collecting data for com plete proof of his innocence . . . . " Milovanovic learned that Radovano vic's defense attorney, Milan Djordjevic, had asserted Zivkovic was respon sible for the conviction at Salonika. Calling Apis a martyr, Djordjevic pre dicted Prince Alexander would be mounting a bloodsoaked throne-Ziv. 10, entry of June 10, 1 9 1 8. Ziv., 632. Ziv. 620. Pravda (Belgrade), January 28, 1 9 20, "Solunski rezim-X l l l ." Ibid., January 24, "Solunski rezim-X." A new Yugoslav party formed in 1 9 1 9 from remnants of the In dependent Radicals, Progressives and Liberals. In the early postwar period it comprised the chief opposition to Radical rule in Serbia. 16. Samouprava. December 25, 1 9 1 9, "Kampanija o Crnoj Ruci." See also ibid., January 1-22, 1920, "Ujedinjenje ili smrt," parts 1-X. 1 7. Pravda. January 28, I 920. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.


362

18. Balkan, March 23, 1922, "Kako umiru revolucionari." For a fuller version of Apis' plea to Alexander see above, pp. 000. 19. Ibid., March 28, Milovanovic to editor; Ziv. 4157. 20. Ziv. 263, "lnterpelacija" of Ribarac, November 2 1 , 1919. 2 1 . Ziv. 2 1 8, "Narodnoj Skupstina SRS," June 1922. Among the numerous signatories were M. G. Milovanovic, Ceda Popovic, Radoje Lazic, Velimir Vemic, and Aca Blagojevic. Another similar appeal by Milovanovic et al. of February 1924 is in Ziv. 186. Italics in text. 22. Ziv. 209, "Your Royal Highness," by V. Gojkovic to Prince Paul, citing his letter to Zivkovic of November 29, 1934. 23. Ziv. 269, Radoje Jankovic to "Mon cher Colonel." Lured back to Yugoslavia in 1923 by assurances of forgiveness, Jankovic was thrown into Pozarevac prison. Soon pardoned and released, he served Yugoslavia in various diplomatic posts abroad. 24. Plans to rehabilitate Apis and the "Black Hand" were confirmed by a letter of Lieutenant Colonel Zivan L. Knezevic to BoSko N. Kostic of September 10, 1946 from Washington, D.C. Wrote Knezevic: "When my brother, Radoje, became Minister of Court, in agreement with Generals Simovic and [Bogoljub] Ilic [the new War Minister] it was decided to bring the late Apis with Ljuba [Vulovic] and Malobabic back to the country with full honors, promote Apis to anny general . . . and for the young King [Peter Karadjordjevic 11] personally to give a speech at his reburial. Then to promote all living coworkers of Apis, the so-called "Black Hand ers," to ranks held by their classmates, decorate them and retire them im mediately We wanted to reconcile the [Karadjordjevic] Dynasty with the most honorable Serbian national families so that the young King could liquidate the unhappy past and correct an injustice." Mr. Bosko N. Kostic, a nephew of Apis, kindly sent the author a copy of this letter. 25 . Ziv. 3814; "Petar Zivkovic," in Enciklopedija Jugoslavije (Zagreb, 1960). For Zivkovic's role in the exile government in London see S. Pav lovic, Razgovori sa Slobodanom Jovanovicem (Windsor, Canada, 1969). 26. Ziv. 547, "Interpellation to Premier of Yugoslavia, 1945." 27. M. Zivanovic, "Dvadesetsesti juni 1917 g. u Solunu," Republika, December 18, 1945. June 26th was the new style date of Apis' execution. 28. Ibid., "Solunski process hiljadu devetsto sedamnaeste," Belgrade University, 1953. The published version was retitled: Pukovnik Apis Sol unski process 1917 (Belgrade, 1955). On the defense and awarding of Ziv anovic's doctoral degree see Politika, June 3 , 1953, p. 4. .

363

Notes to Chapter XXIV

29. Ziv. 2062, Dragoslav llic to Narodna Skupstina, 1947. 30. Jovanovic , Moji savremenici, pp. 446 ff. Jovanovic questioned (p. 447) the Serbian Supreme Court's impartiality after the spectacular 1946 trial of Cetnik leader, Dra:Z.a Mihajlovic, who was condemned to death on circumstantial evidence. 3 1 . Politika, May 7, 1953, "Podnesen predlog . . . "; Protic Memoirs, ll, p. 72. 32. Oslobodjenje, May 17, "Krvavi obracun Karadjordjevica." 33. Vjesnik, May 27, ''Solunski aveti," p. 5. Another reason for the Radical regime to destroy the Apis group, alleged Vjesnik, was that it favored a republic and federal structure for a future Yugoslavia, a claim disputed by V. Dedijer and B. Pavicevic. 34. Oslobodjenje, June 3, "Rasvjetljavanja sudskog zlocina Aleksandra Karadjordjevica," p. 3. 35. Polirika, June 3, "Posle 36 godina." 36. Ibid., June 4. 37. Ibid., June 5, "Juce je nastavljeno citanje . . . . 38. Ibid., June 6, "Zavrseno je citanje dokumenata." 39. Ibid., June 7, "U svojim iskazima svedoci potvrdjuju daje atentat na Aleksandra bio izmiSljen." 40. Ibid., June 10, "Sta je pokazao pretres." 4 1 . Ibid., June 13, p. 5, "Javni tuzilac i odbrana dokazali da su svi optuzeni nevino osudjeni . . . . " 42. M. Zivanovic, Pukvovnik Apis, pp. 619 ff. "

Notes to Chapter XXV Ziv. 4354, "About Dragutin Dirnitrijevic," by Milan Zivanovic, and quoting R. W. Seton-Watson, "Serbia Must Choose," The New Europe, October 2 1 , 1922. 2. .Ziv. 1941, z. Zivanovid , "Iz zivota." 3. Ziv. 1985, Pankovic, "Secanje na Dirnitrijevica-Apisa." 4. Polit ika, July 5, 1953, P. Vasiljevic, "Organizacija 'Ujedinjenje ili smrt! "'; August 29, "lspravka Prvoslava Vasiljevica." 5. Nova Misao, July 1953, V. Dedijer and B. Pavicevic, "Organizacija 'Ujedinjenje ili smrt!" ; Politika, Dedijer, "J os jedan odgovor Politici." 1.

'

364

APIS: The Congenial Conspirator 6.

Ziv. 2024, Borba, July 1953, "Crna Ruka i nacionaJno pitanje"; Zagrebacka Borba, August 25, and August 26, citing H. Hinkovic, "lz po zadine Solunskog procesa," Knjitevna republika, No. 2, 1924. 7. Author' s interviews with Colonel Dr. Peter Opacic, June 1 6 , 1986 and December 1 1 , 1987. 8. S. Jovanovic,Moji savremenici, pp. 44143.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

l AR CHIVES A. AUSTRIA: Haus-, Hof-, und Staatsarchlv (HHSA)1 . Politisches Archlv, Serbien XIX: 62 ( 1 9 1 1); 63 ( 1 9 1 2) ; 64 ( 1 9 1 3); 66 ( 1 9 1 4 ; 74 Liasse X: Ermordung des Serbkonigpaares, 1903). 2. P. A. XL, Interna 58: Tagesbuch des Ministers des Aussern, 1 9 1 7 . 3. P. A. 1/10, Krieg 1914- 1 9 1 8 : Karton 8 10, 8 1 1 , 8 1 2-19 14; K. 8 1 3- 1 9 1 6 ; K. 8 1 4 ( 1 9 1 7-18). 4. Sonderbestande: a. M. Boghitschewitsch (Milos Bogicevic). b. Morsey-Samelkarton 3. c. Obersberger-Samelkarton 6. B. FRANCE: Les archives de l'armee de terre, Vincennes-(ADT) 1 . 7N 339, 340, 383-385 (Armee serbe , 19 15-18), 332. 2. 7N 7 1 6 (Balcan), 724, 725, 726, 729 (Armee serbe), dossiers 1-6. C. GREAT BRITAIN: Public Record Office, Kew Gardens. (PRO) 1 . Foreign Office (FO): 733, 734-Servia 1909; 982 ( 1 9 1 0); 1 2 1 9 (19 1 1 ) ; 1472 ( 1 9 1 2) ; 1748 ( 1 9 1 3) ; 2098 ( 1 9 1 4); 2460 ( 1 9 1 5) ; 2756 ( 1 9 1 6); 2870 ( 1 9 1 7). 2. War Office (WO) 106/1335, 1400, 1402, 1403, 1404, 1407 . 3. Cabinet (CAB) 1 7 / 1 1 3 , 1 3 1 . D. YUGOSLAVIA: Belgrade 1. Arhlv Jugoslavije (AJ): fond Jovana Jovanovica-Pizona-Karton 1 , 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9' 10, 1 1 , 12, 24, 42. •

365

366


3: "lskazi i odbrana Pukovnika Dirnitrijevica-Apisa" (Apis' testi-

2. Drzavni Arhiv Srbije (DAS)-

mony at the Salonika Trial, April-May 1 9 1 7)-152 pages.

a. Dvorski arhiv, K. 1 . b. Licni fond Nikolaja Arandjelovica. c. Ministarstvo Unutrasnjih Dela, Krf 1916, K. 6. d . Poklon i otkupa (PiO) 69/56,57: Dnevnik Vukasina Petrovica. e. Solunski proces: Karton 1 - 1 9 . a. Pop. 3: Supreme Command-K. 1-4, 6, 106-09, 1 1 1 -13 , · 1 22, 1 24-26, 1 3 1 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 9 , 140, 142, 149, 1 5 1 , 156-58, 1 79-82, 187-90, 1 9 5 , 196, 430-3 1 , 466, 473-75 (Salonika Trial). b . Pop. 5 : War Ministry , Adjutant division-K. 1 6 (Salonika Trial hearings), 56 (Salonika Trial : investigations), 92, 135, 47890 (Salonika Trial materials received from Austria). c. Pop. 14: Standing and active army: General Staff. d . Pop. 16: Archive of Milan Radojevic-K. 1 , 5 , 7, 8, 28A, 3 1 , 32, 40, 43 , 44, 46, 47, 5 1 . 4. Srpska Akademija Nauke i Umetnosti (SANU): a. Avakumovic, Jovan Dj : Memoari IV-VI-9287. b . Blagojevic, Aca, "Gradja za biografiju Generala Petra Zivkovica-13609. c. Draskic, Panta: Memoari, 145 1 1 . d. "Gradja o nasem parlamentamom zivotu na Krfu": 13253. e. "Opozicioni blok Regentu Aleksandru na Krfu, 1 9 1 8"-13429. f. "Zaostavstina Nikole Pasica:" Pisma 1903 g.- 1 1 623. g. Pecanac, Kosta, "Moja ispoved" (1933): 14520. h. Zaostavstina Mihaila Radivojevica: Zapisnik Glavnog Odbora Samostalne Radikalne Stranke- 13252. i . "Srpska vojska u XIX i pocetku

XX v."- 1 36 1 1 .

j. Stojanovic, Ljubomir-Prepiska: 12394, 12576, 12579, 1 2 9 1 8 . k. Trbic, Vasilije: "Uspomene," III-14148. Zivanovic, Milan Z : Zaostavstina-14434:

Papers of Milan Z. Zivanovic:

These were acquired by the Serbian

Academy of Sciences and Arts in June 1978 and include over 4,000 separate items listed in four huge catalogues. This collec tion reflects the work of many years by Apis' nephew who refer red to it as the Archive of the Salonika Trial (Arhiv Solunskog Procesa). The most important items utilized in this biography are as follows:

4 : "Beleznik Andre Djordjevica . . . , " 1897-1 900." 5: "Dnevnik Generala Milosa Bozanovica" (excerpts for 1 9 1 1). 6: "Diary of Cavalry Colonel Velimir Vemic" -39 pages. 7 : "Excerpt from notes of Colonel Vladimir Tucovic, 1903 - 1 9 1 7." 8: "From the papers of Colonel Cedomir Popovic"- 1 8 pages.

3. Vojno-istorijski arhiv (VIA):

l.

367

Bibliography

9: "Excerpts from the war diary of Colonel N. V. Zavacila." 10: "Excerpts from the diary of Colonel M. G. Milovanovic-19171919." 1 1 : "Excerpt from the Belgrade diary of Colonel Milovanovic ( 1 9 1 9)." 1 3 : "Data from Lieutenant Colonel Milorad Radovanovic-Koca, 1921." 14 : "Excerpts from the letters ofGeneral Damjan Popovic ( 1 9 1 6)." 1 5 : Atanasije T. Sredojevic, "Information about witnesses in the Salonika Affair ( 1916)." 1 6 : M.

.Z.

Zivanovic, "Neuspeli pregovori oko obrazovanja koali-

cione vlade na Krfu ( 19 1 8)." 34: "Artillery Major Lj ubomir Vulovic." 3 5 : "About Rade Malobabic." 36: "Testimony about Muhamed Mehmedbasic." 3 7 : "Testimony about Bogdan Radenkovic." 38: "Guerrilla chieftain Major Vojislav Tankosic." 40: "Peter Zivkovic: biography and role in the Salonika Trial" ; Radovanovic-Koca's "Moja rec pred vojnim sudom . . . . " 43. Pavle Pankovic, "Reminiscences about Dragutin Dimitrijevic Apis." 186: Colonel M. G. Milovanovic et al. to Narodna Skupstina of Yugoslavia (February 1924). 199: "Gospodu sudije," by Lieutenant Colonel Milan Radojevic (His 0

defense of Apis at the Salonika Trial). 202: "Excerpt from the minutes of a cabinet meeting on Corfu . . . " 203: "One historical document: why were Colonel D. Dirnitrijevic and his friends shot?" 207: "One characteristic episode from the time of the preparation of the Salonika affair"-Belgrade, September 1945.

368


209-2 10: General Vojislav Gojkovic, "Your Royal Highness" ( 1 934, 1935). 215-216: "Query of Opposition on Corfu 1 9 1 8 about the Salonika affair."

2 1 8 : Colonel M . G . Milovanovic et al. "To Narodna Skupstina of Yugoslavia," June 1922.

Bibliography

184 7-1868: Photographs of Colonel Dimitrijevic-Apis. 1931 : N ikolaj Arandjelovic, "Colonel D. T. Dimitrijevic, man and officer."

193 7 : 1940: 1941:

246: "Final speech of Colonel M. G . Milovanovic at the Salonika Trial."

Borivoje Neskovic, "D. Dimitrijevic-Apis." J elena Zivanovic: "Dragutin T. Dimitrijevic-A pis." Zivan Zivanovic: "From the life of Colonel D. DimitrijevicApis."

1963:

296: Stojan Ribarac, "Notes for a final speech about 'The secret conspiratorial organization.'"

30 1 : "Topical memorandum" by M . Radovanovic-Koca, 1 9 1 7. 369: Letter of Major Radoslav J ankovic, June 1 9 1 9 . 397: Memorandum from four Serbian officers in Petrograd , June 10, 1 9 1 7. 401, 403, 406, 407: Russian Foreign Minister M. I . Tereshchenko protests the Salonika verdict, 1 9 1 7. 420: Vojislav Gojkovic, "Kasacionom sudu" (protesting Salonika verdict).

489: On "Tajna prevratna organizacija" and "Dodatak" (supplement).

Ueutenant Josif G . Protic: "The Last Hour of those Condemned to Death," June 13, 1 9 1 7.

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Dragoslav Ilic: "Speech prepared for Narodna Skupstina in favor of those convicted in the Salonika Trial" ( 1 947).

2067: 207 1 : 2075:

Milan Z. Zivanovic: "Critique of Apis' work." Milan Z. Zivanovic: "The Death of Colonel Apis." "The Death of Colonel A pis and the Sarajevo Assassination."

209 1 : 3205:

Milan Z. Zivanovic: "Apis-Personal." "Excerpts from the Diary of Captain Milan Stojkovic"

( 1 9 1 7) ( 1 1 3 pages). 4 1 20:

495: Report of Captain Stojkovic on the death of Apis. 4170:

586: "The Salonika affair: violation oflaw . . . . 590: "The surprise at the session of March 27, 1 9 1 7."

4215:

598: "The Austrian offer of separate peace in the World War." 6 1 2: "Black memory." 617-618: "Ujedinjenje ili smrt!" by Bozin Simic. 620: "Peter Zivkovic" (by Bozin Simic?).

4354:

692: "Data obtained from M . Radovanovic-Koca" (May 1921). 7 1 6 : "Solunska afera" ("The Salonika Affair"). 7 1 7-718: "Apis and the Salonika Affair." 719: "The Conflict of the year, 1914." 753: Aca Blagojevic: "My Quarrel with Stojan Protic in May 191 4," -May 1946. I 084- J 085: "Reminiscences of Milan z . Zivanovic ( 1 9 1 5-16)." 1818-1846: Apis' correspondence, chiefly with family members.

"Data about witnesses in the Salonika Affair from a very knowledgeable person."

536: "About Rade Malobabic . . . ," by Mita Pavlovic ( 1 932). 576: "The affair of Colonel Peter Zivkovic" (on his pederasty). "

369

•

Vojislav Gojkovic: "Kasacionom sudu," April 1924 ("To the court of appeals' '). M.

z. Zivanovic: "The Gate at Salonika" ("Kapija kod

Soluna"). "About Dimitrijevic-Apis" (by Milan Zivanovic?).

11. NEWSPAPERS A. YugoslavBalkan (Belgrade)

.

Pravda (Belgrade)

Beogradska nedelja ( Belgrade)

Radikal (Belgrade)

Beogradske novine (Belgrade)

Radnicke novine (Belgrade)

Beogradski dnevn ik (Belgrade)

Radnik (Belgrade)

Borba (Belgrade)

Republika ( Belgrade)

Demokratija (Belgrade)

Samouprava (Belgrade)

Dnevnik (Belgrade)

Srpska zastava

370


Mali zurnal (Belgrade)

Srpske novine (Corfu)

N arodni list (Belgrade)

Srpski glasni.k (Corfu)

Novi pokret (Belgrade)

Stampa (Belgrade)

Novi Zivot

Tribuna (Belgrade)

Novo vreme

Vecernje novosti (Zagreb)

Novosti

Vjesni.k (Zagreb)

Oslobodjenje (Sarajevo)

Vreme (Belgrade)

Pijemont (Belgrade)

Zagrebacka Borba (Zagreb)

Politika (Belgrade)

Zastava (Novi Sad)

B. OtherLa Serbie (Geneva, Switzerland)

Neue Freie Presse (Vienna) Neues Wiener Tagblatt (Vienna) N ovoe Vremia (Petrograd) Volia Naroda (Petrograd)

Ill. JOURNALS AND ABBRE VIA TIONS Austrian History Yearbook (AHY) Berliner Monatshefte (sometimes Kriegsschuldfrage), Berlin (BM) Brastvo Current History (CH) Duga (Belgrade) East European Quarterly (Boulder, Colorado) (EEQ) European Studies Review (London) (ESR) Foreign Affairs (New York) (FA) G/asnik Srpske Pravoslavne Crkve (Belgrade) (GSPC) Golos Revoliutsii Godi!njak Muzeja grada Beograda (Belgrade) (GMgB) Godi!njica Niko/e Cupica (Belgrade) (GNC) Historical Journal. The (HJ) Historijski zbornik (Zagreb) (HZb) Historische Zeitschrij/ (HZ) Hrvatska revija (Zagreb) (HR) International History Review. The (Burnaby, Canada) (IHR) lntervju (Belgrade)

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Austria-Hungary . K. u . K. Ministerium des A.ussern. Zur Vorgeschichte des Krieges mit ltalien. Vienna, 1 9 1 5 .

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Les armies francaises dans la Grande Guerre, VIll (Salonique) (Paris, 1925). . Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres. Documents Diplomatiques Francais, 1871-1914. Paris, 1929- (DDF). Russia. Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia v Epokhu lmperializma: Dokumenty iz Arkhivov Tsarskogo i Vremennogo Pravitelstv 1871-1 9 1 7 gg. Series 11 (1900-1 91 3, ed. A. S . Erusalimskii et al.; Series Ill ( 1 9 1 4-1916), ed. M. N . Pokrovskii, et al., Moscow, 193 1 -40 (MOEI). Serbia. Austro-Ugarska i Srbija 1 903-1918: Dokumenti iz Beckih Arhiva, vols. 1-III ( 1 903-05). ed. Andrij a Radenic. Belgrade, 1973-85. Dokumenti o spoljnoj politici Kra/jevine Srbije, 1 903-1914. Knjiga V, 1 9 1 2, ed. Mihailo Vojvodic. Belgrade, 1984-85; Knjiga VI, 1913-14, ed. Dusan Lukac, V. Dedijer and Z . Anic. Belgrade, Knjiga VII, 1914. . Zapisnici Sednica Ministarskog Saveta Srbije, 1 915-1918. Arhiv Srbije. ed. Dragoslav Jankovic and Bogomil Hrabak. Belgrade, 1976.

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·--.

---

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OTHER ABBREVIATIONS ADT

-

AJ, Pizona AS br. CAB f. HHSA K. Pop. PRO FO SANU TPO

Archives de terre, Vincennes, France. =

Arhiv Jugoslavije, fond Jovana M. Jovanovic-Pizona.

- Arhiv Srbije, Belgrade - broj (number) -

-

Cabinet Papers in Public Record Office, London.

- fascikl (folder). - Haus-, Hof-, und Staatsarchiv, Vienna.

---

- Karton (carton). - Popisnik (register). =

Public Record Office. Foreign Office Papers, London.

- Srpska Akademij a Nauke i Umetnosti (Serbian Academy of -

----

Sciences and Arts, Belgrade).

Tajna prevratna organizacija: izveitaj sa pretresa u vojnom sudu za oficire u Solunu . . . Salonika, 1 9 1 8 . (Secret sub versive organization . . , the official designation of "Uje

---

.

VIA WO -

Ziv.

-

373

dinjenje ili smrt!" by the Serbian exile regime). Vojno-istorijski arhiv (Military Historical Archive). Belgrade .

- War Office Papers in Public Record Office, London. Archive of Milan Z. Zivanovic in SANU, No. 14434.

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-

0


374

Der Saloniki-Prozess,

ed. Hans Obersberger. Berlin,

1933 (translation of

TPO). Dirnitrijevic, Dragutin A. Srbija jaca od smrti. Kragujevac, Djordjevic, Dimitrije, ed.

The Creation of Yugoslavia,

1970.

1914-1918. Santa

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10-1 1 , 1927, pp. 308-29. Popovic , Cedornir. "Srpsko-bugarski rat 1 9 1 3 god. Rad organizacije 'Ujedinjenje ill smrt'." NE, XVIII, br. 10-1 1 , 1928. Popovic, Dirnitrije . "Nikola Pasic i Rusija," ICZ, 79. Prodanovic , Jasa. "Crna ruka i Radikali," Republika, July 1 1 , 1920. Radenic , Andrija. "Austro-Ugarska i Srbija, 1903- 1 9 18," Doku.menti iz beekih arhiva. Radenic, Andrija. "Iz strana�kih programa posle majskog prevrata 1903 godine ," IC, 1-2, 1960.

XIV,

23-26, 1938, pp. 1-2. IC, 1-2,

pp.

"0 spoljnoj

politici Nikole Pa.Sica," SKG, N.S., XXI,

46-52, 122-26.

Stojanovic, Petar. "Susreti

sa

Sarajevskim atentatorima,"

Borba,

June

17-

18, 1964. Sepic, Dragovan. "Srpska vlada i po�eci Jugoslavenskog Odbora," HZb,

1-

4, 1960, pp. 1-45. Tartaglia, Oskar. "Dragutin Dimitrijevic 'Apis' povodom desetgodiSnice njegove smrti," NE, XVI, br. 2, July 26 ,

1927.

Trisic, N. "Uspomene na Muhamed Mehmedba.Sic,"

Preglad,

July-August

1953, pp. 57-59.

1976, pp. 347-52.

1980, No. 4, pp. 46 1 -68.

April

Stojanoivc, Ljubomir.

Radenic, Andrija. "Klasno i nacionalno u nacionalno-oslobodilackim po

1906," EEQ,

1970, No. 2, pp. 37-68.

1964, pp. 99-107.

balkanski rat,'' NE, XVI, br.

Radovich, Frances A. "The British Court and Relations with Serbia,

May-August

Stojanovic, Dubravka. "Rudolf A. Rajs o Solunskom procesu,"

Popovic, Cedornir. "Rad organizacije 'Ujedinjene ili smrt'-Pripremanje za

i,

V/G,

Spalajkovic, Miroslav. "Moral i snaga Srbije u prvom svetskom ratu," Prav

'Ujedinjenje ili smrt' (Grani�ni

5, September 1 1 , 1927, pp. 139-52.

1804-1914," SOPJN, knj.

ego

sovremennom znachenii, 1 9 1 3 , pp. 37-67.

1 2 , 1927, pp.

Popovic, Cedomir. "Pre deset godina,"

kretirna,

pp.

Seeliger, Emil. "Aus den Geheimakten des Sarajaevoer A tentas,"

1926.

Popovic, Bogdan. "Majski prevrat i Sjedinjene Ameri�ke Driave," Sarajevskom atentatu,"

1936,

Remak," JMH, XLIV, September

Wiener Tagblatt,

0. "0

1 9 1 2 , br.

Schroeder, Paul W. "World War I as Galloping Gertie : A Reply to Joachim

NiNI, 1970,

1925.

Popovic, Cedornir

XIV,

23-42. "Ko drii Pa.Sit� a," Mali iurnal,

BM,

Savic, Boia.

Popov, A. "Pervaia balkanskaia voina," KA , XV and XVI,

pp.

6653.

Pasic ,"

Ratnik,

Popov, A . "Diplomaticheskaia podgotovka Balkanskoi voiny ," KA , VIII

1961,

1926,

Sasse, Heinz. "Staa"tsmanner und Diplomaten der Vorkriegszei t, Nicola

XXXV II, January-March

I,

XXII,

27 .

109, 1969, pp. 479-84.

Pesic, General Petar. "Solunski Front-vojno-politi�ka akcij a,"

and IX,

Politika,

Rosic, Vojislav. "Crna ruka i poslednja kriza," Mali iurnal, XIX,

3 10-18.

Pavlovitch, Stevan K. "Two letters concerning the Salonika Trial," SEER, XLVII, No.

385

1903-

I

Trivanovitch, Vaso. "The Responsibility for the Sarajevo Assassination,"

CH,

XXIX,

1929, pp. 987-992.

386

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387

J ankovic, Dragoslav. "0 radu srpske v1ade za vreme Prvog svetskog rata," in Zapisnici sednica Ministarskog saveta Srbije, 1915-1918 (Belgrade, 1976), pp. 1 7-73. Silverstein, Gerald. "The Serbian Campaign of 19i5," AHR, LXXII, No. 1 (October 1967), pp. 5 1 -69. MacKenzie, David. "Pukovnik Apis i sud istorije ," Knjiievna rec. (Belgrade), October 10, 1987, No. 307, pp. 6-7.

"

I

(

Addenda: Hrabak, Bogomil. "Delatnost clanova udruzenja 'Ujedinjenja i srmt! ' u Rusiji, 1 9 1 5- 1 8 godine," lstorija XX veka. Zbornik radova, Vll ( 1 965), pp. 195-271.

I

Index

389

Bojovic, General Peter (Serbian chief of staff) : 1 1 0-13, 1 1 5-16, 1 8 7 , 196, 224, 236 Bojovic,

Colonel

Radomir

(War

Minister): 148, 1 5 7 Boljetinac, Isa (Albanian chieftain): 87, 90, 9 1

INDEX

and

Albanians:

2,

Sarajevo assassination and, 1 24-

153;

see

Kara-

dj ordjevic, Alexander Allies:

see Triple

Annexation Crisis (1 908-09): 98; Bosnia and Hercegovina

"AN o" File: 2 1 2

Antic, Antonije (May conspirator): 77, 84, 1 8 7

SS,

Apis (Dragutin T . Dimitrijevic) :

see

throughout Arandjelovic,

General

N icholas:

165, 175 Arezina, Bosko (Bosnian volunteer): 188, 2 1 8 , 226, 240 Victor

A.

Bourbon-Parma, Prince Sixte de:

d'Avari, Marquis de: 202, 255-56

Balkan

(Belgrade newspaper): 301

Balkan League ( 1 9 1 2) : 87-89 Balkan Wars: 60, 87, 96 Barbusse, Henri: 167 Barclay, Charles: 73 Bardolff, Colonel von: 1 2 7 Barjaktarovic, Colonel: 83, 85, 86

Beogradski dnevnik (Belgrade newspaper): 258, 300 Berchtold, Count Leopold (Austro

Arandjelovic, Sotir: 1 6

Artamonov,

237, 274

258, 266, 293-95, 3 1 3 , 3 14, 3 1 6

22 1 , 242 Bozanovic,

Bakic, Dobrivoje: 173, 174

Anastas. Father Peter: 2 1 7

32-36, 47, 53,

1 5 1 -52, 165-66, 188, 223, 225,

Avakumovic, Jovan: 36, 5 5

Entente

America (USA): 270

see also

Bosnian volunteers (World War I):

1 5 , 138-52; 176, 209, 221 ' 242,

Albertini, Luigi (historian): 1 25-26

(Russian

military attache in Serbia): 1291 32, 258 Atanackovic , Jovan (Serbian politi cian): 36 Austria-Hungary (and Austria and Austrians): 2, 3, 10, 18, 23, 24, 26, 28, 3 1 , 34, 35, 4 1 , 48, 50, 5 1 , 56, 58, 64-66, 73, 77, 79,

Hungarian premier): 145 Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobold von: 99 Bismarck, Otto von: 2, 1 26 "Black Hand": see "Unification or Death!" Blagojevic, Alexander(Aca): 78, 84, 1 08, 1 26, 1 3 2-3 3, 134 Bogieevic, Milos (Serb minister in Berlin): 49, 97-98, 134, 3 1 1 , 3 4 1 Bogicevic, Dr. Vojislav (archivist) : 1 3 1-32, 134 388

65, 123, 1 28-37, 139, 1 4 3 , 1 5 1 52, 154

1 3 9 ; Austro-Serbian War, 1 9 1 4 -

175, 185 Alexander Karadjordj evic:

•

39; ultimatum to Serbia ( 1 9 1 4),

Serbian retreat through, 1 60ff. ;

(Belgrade newspaper) : 3 1 3

Bosnia and Hercegovina: 2, 1 0 , 64-

87-89, 97, 98, 1 0 1 -04, 106, 120;

Acimovic , Stevan (lawyer): 1 8 1 Albania

Borba

Milos

(Serbian

War

Minister, 1 9 1 3- 1 4 ) : 37, 38, 72, ,

80, 85, 86, 107 Bozovic, Branko Gournalist):

73,

189, 274 Brehm, Bruno (writer): 1 7 , 1 9 , 3 1 8 Budisavljevic, Dr. Srdjan: 1 0 1 , 1 4 1 Bulgaria and Bulgars:

1 8 , 24, 60,

62, 66, 70, 87-9 1 , 95, 97, 98, 105,

106,

151,

153,

156-58,

160, 163, 176, 1 80-8 1 , 1 94-96, 203 , 2 1 0

93, 164 Central Executive Committee (of

see

•

"Unifica-

tion or Death!" Cerska (Battle of,

Chlumecky,

Leopold

(Austrian

scholar): 1 27-28 Cicvaric, Krsta (Serbian journalist): 1 , 258, 300 Ciganovic, Milan (Sarajevo assassin): 1 88-89, 225, 226, 249, 274 Cincar-Markovic, Dimitrije: 38, 42 Cinn, Dr. (professor of bacterio logy): 94, 97 Cirkovic, Jovan (political comrnis sar) : 208, 2 1 1 , 306 Colovic, D . (Salonika witness): 188 "Committee of Ten for the Liquid ation of Colonel Apis": 207-08, 2 1 1 , 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 220-2 1 , 239, 305 Congress of Berlin ( 1 878): 24, 26 Conrad von Hotzendorff (Austrian chief of staff) : 1 2 7 , 138, 145 Constantine (King of Greece): 3 , 156, 189, 223 Corfu (island and town): 18, 149, 167, 1 75-77, 183, 208- 1 2 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 8, 221 , 223, 248, 286, 3 14 Croatia

and

Croatians:

73,

1 00,

3 1 2- 1 4

Cavalry Division (Serbian): 89, 92,

Hand"):

general): 23

1 0 1 , 103, 124, 126, 1 3 3 , 1 4 5 ,

Cabrinovic, Nedeljko: 135

"Black

Cherniaev, General M . G . tRussian

1914);

145-46

Cetinjska Street (Belgrade): 22 Chantilly Conference ( 1 9 1 6): 193, 221 Charles of Habsburg (Karl) (Aus trian emperor): 220-2 1 , 242

Cvetkovic, Vitornir (Salonika de fendant): 1 1 6 , 1 1 8 , 228 Dabic, Colonel

Ljubomir:

16-20,

300, 320 Danube Divisions:

108, 1 4 1 , 2 1 0

Davidovic , Ljubomir (Independent Radical leader): 1 1 4- 1 5 , 148-49, 186, 243 ; seeks clemency for Apis, 29 1 -92 "Davison" (correspondent for Pied

mont):

98


390 Dedijer,

Dr.

writer): 4,

Vladimir

(Yugoslav

98-99, 327

Delcasse, Theophile (French states man):

195

Democrats (of Serbia): Dimitrijevic, see

throughout

T. (Apis):

and Table of

Contents Dimitrijevic, Jelena: see Zivanovic. Jelena

Dimitrijevic, Milica (Apis' sister):

24 Dimitrijevic, Todor (Apis' father):

24

( 1903): 56-57

Dra8kic, Major Panta (Prince Alex ander's duty officer):

72, 79-8 1, 145, 150, 163, 202 , 2 1 1 - 12, 221

Dra8kovic,

Milorad

Radical

leader):

(Independent

1 14-15, 149, 186, 221, 243, 291-92,337

Dreyfus Case: compared with Sal onika Trial,

307

Drina Division (of Serbia);

62, 65,

203 Dual Monarchy : see Austria-Hun gary Dumba, Konstantin (Austrian min ister to Serbia): Dunjic,

Colonel

(Salonika

military commandant) :

10, 12,

14, 16-19, 229; arrests Apis ( 1 9 1 6), 226-27; 228-29, 232, 250, 281-82, 284, 286 Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (King of Bulgaria):

189, 223

238 in Serbia):

1 5 1 , 164-65, 344 France and French: 95, 145, 1 5 1 , 155-56, 1 59-6 1 , 167, 193-95, 205, 210, 242

3 , 73, 133, 155-56,

Illic, Danilo (Bosnian teacher):

173, 174, 2 1 5 , 260,

Stanislava (Apis' relative): General

Vojislav (May

Grabez, Trifko (Sarajevo assassin):

135, 137

Gacinovic , Vladimir (Bosnian na

Great Britain (and England, British):

135

153-56 158-59, 163' 194-9 5, ' 276,289 Greater Serbia: 2, 9, 14, 16, 20, 74, 128, 166, 1 8 1 , 200, 213, 267, 284, 309, 3 12-14 , 3 1 7 Greece: 72, 88, 153, 1 5 5-56, 193, 223 , 24 1

Garasanin, llija (Serbian statesmen):

55 Garibaldi, Giuseppe (Italian nation

74

Gatalovic , Branko (Salonika judge):

37, 290 221

Grey, Lord Edward (British For

7 1 , 207,

eign Secretary):

155-56, 158

214 Gavrilovic , Dr. Nikolaj :

Habsburg Empire and Habsburgs: see Austria-Hungary

29, 36,

Hadji-Toma, Nikola:

45, 55 , 325

Harrison,

General Staff, Serbian:

57, 60, 83, 90, 97, 1 0 1 , 103-04, 1 24, 130, 139-40, 142-44, 146, 190, 20506, 232, 258, 3 1 6 Germany: 2, 4, 5 7 ; A pis and, 9899, 134, 293-94 Giesl, Baron von (Austrian minister to Serbia):

1 1 1 , 139

13 5 ,

137 Dragoslav

(lawyer):

304-05,

3 10, 330 226-27

Ilic, Vlada:

177-78 l'lndependant (French newspaper): 285 Independent Radicals (of Serbia):

47, 48, 57, 62, 167, 186, 188, 2 1 6 , 219, 243, 248, 291-92, 323 Italy and Italians: 62, 87, 1 5 1 , 15354, 1 6 7 , 241 Ivkovic, Captain Dragisa: 191 lvkovic, Colonel Milojko: 109-92 Jaksic,

Svetolik

politician) :

Gournalist

and

1 8 5 , 1 8 7, 208

Janjic, Pop (Salonika witness) :

249 Jankovic, General Boza: 134, 166 Jankovic, Colonel Milutin: 207 Jankovic, Major Radoje (Apis' col-

43, 190, 192-93, 197, 242, 287-90, 303, 362 Jankovic , Velizar: 148 league):

117

and May conspirator):

25,

•

llic, Milic (Apis' orderly):

34, 65, 1 3 1 , 160, 165' 176, 188, 226, 242, 28788, 302,327, 329 Goltz, General von der: 98 Golubic, Mustafa: 226, 236

125, 127, 128, 221 Freemasonry: 69, 270-71

Holy Sava Street (Belgrade):

Ilic,

conspirator):

Franz Josef I (Austrian emperor):

Gavrilovic , Colonel Milan:

Glisic, Nenusvka (Alexander Glisic's

Gojkovic,

3 , 5 , 6, 123ff., 139, 209, 258-59

125

26, 35 Hrvatski dnevi'lik: 127

1 73-74, 1 8 1

archduke ) :

Hohenberg, Dr. Max:

94, 1 1 71 19 ; letter to Apis of, 1 9 1 , 173, 2 1 5 , 227 Glisic, Colonel Dusan: 1 16

Glisic,

164-65

"Gate of sabres":

Alex

315

Franc;:ois, Colonel (French military

alist):

Colonel

Lieutenant

daughter):

Gencic, Djordje (Interior Minister

56 Milan

Filipovic, R. R. (Pa8i6's secretary):

tionalist):

GliSic,

391

ander (A pis' relative ) :

Franz Ferdinand of Este (Austrian

12, 22, 26, 1 73

"Diplomatic Strike"

245, 247

attache ) :

Dimitrijevic, Jovanka (Apis' mother):

judge):

l

Fournier, Colonel (French attache

300

Dragutin

Filipovic, Colonel Miha (Salonika

Index

36

Jelenic, Djurdje (Prince Alexander's

Colonel Arthur (British

military attache):

276

'

Hartvig, Nicholas (Russian minister I

to Serbia):

91, 1 2 1 , 132, 275

High Command, Serbian: see Su preme Command Hinkovic, Hinko (Croatian leader):

286 , 3 13

secretary):

145, 150, 208, 239,

240, 299 Jeremic,

Colonel

Dragoljub:

207

Joffre, Fieldmarshal (of France):

193, 195 Jovanovic, Aleksa:

29

Jovanovic, Cedo (director of Of ficers' Club):

1 1 0, 1 4 1 , 242


39 2 Jovanovic, Jovan (auditor of Salon J ovanovic ,

Army

275, 290,295, 305-06, 320,362

194, 205

Karadjordjevic, Prince Alexander I

Mihajlo (Third

chief of staff):

Karadjordjevic dynasty: 9, 3 1 , 33,

25,

Jovanovic, Milutin (Foreign Min

Regent, 19 14-22, King of Yugo

politician): 55, 82, 89, 99, 100,

slavia, 1922-34): 2-8, 10, 1 2, 1 3 ,

1 1 9,

138,

1 7, 28, 53, 62, 72, 74, 76-86,

1 64,

183-86,

147-50,

153,

162,

2 1 7 , 236, 2 7 1 ,

95,

106, 1 1 1 - 1 2, 1 1 7, 1 20-2 1 ,

(pro

64; 1 6 6 , 168, 1 7 2 , 1 74, 183-89,

Yugoslav nationalist): 66-70, 73,

192-93; command of Salonika

74, 98, 224-25, 270-7 1 , 3 14

Front and, 1 95 ; "attempt" on

Ljubomir

Jovanovic-Pata.k, Ljubomir (Radical

life

of

( 1 9 1 6) :

201-02,

leader and Interior Minister): 6,

208- 17,

2 1 9-22,

224,

10, 1 3 , 1 6 , 67, 124, 133, 144,

235;

1 5 2 , 182, 208, 2 1 0- 1 1 , 2 1 6, 2 1 9 ;

237-38,

"Prezidijal" of(December 19 16),

letter to ( 1 9 1 7), 259-62; 263-

222-23, 237-38, 248, 266, 287,

65, 268, 274-76, 279-80; 285-

298, 300-01 308 ' Jovanovic-Piion, Jovan

(Serbian

202, 207, 2 1 1 - 14,

2 1 8, 222, 255-57, 299 Peter:

84,

on,

240-5 1 , 254-5 6 ; Apis'

I

213-14,

95

257

Karadjordjevic,

Peter 1 (King of

201 , 2 10, 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 1 9 , 235, 254-

Kostic, Lj ubomir: 5, 43

59, 263-66, 268-69, 272-74,278,

Kostic, Naum (Apis' uncle): 173-

280-8 1 , 294, 3 1 5 Maltese fever: Apis and, 93-94

Lansdowne ,

Lord (British states

Lazarevic, Colonel Milutin: 39, 1 1 21 1 6,

1 1 8,

League of German

87 149-50 ' "Kaisermanover": 57

Liberal Party : 188

74, 78-80, 83-86, 1 1 0-12, 1 1 7,

Lju bibratic,

Kajma.kcalan Mountain and Battle

2 1 6 , 233, 255, 3 1 5

132

clerk of court): 245-46

Youth

(Jung

98 min

Knezevic, Colonel Zivan: 362

Karadjordje, Star of (Serbian dec

Kala.kovic (Prince Djordje's servant):

tion Minister): 30, 243

45, 54-56 Masin, Draga (Queen of Serbia): 1 , 29, 35, 37�8, 42, 46, 252, 325 Ma5in, Svetozar: 29 May

conspirators

Coup):

(see also

May

2, 4, 74, 85-86, 107,

1 1 0, 1 2 1 , 185-86, 209- 1 0 , 241,

Dragoslav

(scholar):

275 May Coup ( 1 903): 2, 5 , 9, 1 5 , 38,

London , Treaty of ( 1 9 1 5 ): 1 5 3-54

40-49, 5 1 , 52, 55, 58-62, 69, 8 1 ,

Lunjevica, Nikodije : 32

85, 96, 246, 273, 301-02, 3 1 1 -

Lunj evica, Panta: 29

1 2 , 3 27-28 Mazzini, Giovanni (Italian nation

Knezevic (shot at King Milan): 28

Karadjordje Petrovic: 23, 24, 300 oration): 1 3 , 95, 2 1 3 , 232, 3 1 9

•

Marinkovic, Pavle (Serbian Educa

Draga's brother-in-law): 37, 42,

1 26, 1 30, 135-36

Katanic, Captain Bozidar (Salonika

Marinkovic, Dusan: 1 5 2

Masin, Colonel Alexander (Queen

Lebedev, Vladirnir (Russian

35, 48, 50, 5 1 , 54, 56, 57, 62,

Kalemegdan Fortress: 38, 39, 99,

187, 227, 267,

280, 296, 306-08

Kaclerovic, T risa (socialist leader):

of ( 1 9 1 6) : 194-96 , 203

Maric, Tihornir (Salonika witness): 188

man): 5 1 , 56

ister); 275

1 2 1 , 140, 149, 163-67, 1 83-84,

March Demonstration ( 1903): 38-39 Maric, Colonel: 196-97

Deulschland Bund):

Serbia, 1903-22): 2, 18, 24, 33-

152,

2 1 6, 239-40, 280, 290, 304

Lazic, Major Radoje: 20 1 , 253, 269,

•

140-44;

33, 72, 79, 80, 84-86, 207-08,

Lazarevic, Vaso : 1 42-43

Karadjordjevic, Prince Paul: 302-03

of ( 1 9 1 5),

157-58, 166; on Corfu , 190; Apis' concealment of, 197-

Lazarevic, Svetolik : 309

'

jevo assassination and, 1 23 , 1293 7 ; arrest

338

291-92, 294-96, 297-300, 307-

53, 54, 62, 76-79, 8 1 , 82 , 84, 85,

1 5 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 20, 97, 1 00-04; Sara

Kostic, General Josif (foe of Apis):

13,

Karadjordjevic, Prince Djordje : 34,

Jurisic, Pavle-Sturm (general): 84,

JuriSic,

"attempt"

09, 3 1 2-16, 332

Jurisic, Colonel Pantelije: 202 150,

of

and close friend): 2, 3 , 8-10, 14,

Kumanovo, Battle of ( 1 9 1 2): 94-95 I

Ma.ksimovic; Major Vojin: 165

Kosovo, Field of: 19, 90, 94, 139,

74, 180-81

88; Salonika death penal ties and,

diplomat): 185, 1 8 7 , 204-05

146,

date

232-33,

Ma.karije, Father:. 8 Malobabic, Rade (Apis' chief agent

362

204,

August

Kosovo, Battle of ( 1 389); 1 25, 1 3 9

Kostic, Bosko N. (Apis' nephew):

with Apis ( 1 9 1 5 ) ; 149-50, 163-

Jovanovic, Colonel Vlada: 290

Djordje (Salonika

159

t

Fieldmarshal

Mackensen,

von: 156-57, 160

witne�): 1 6 , 255, 274,306, 309

133, 140-4 1, 145-47; quarrel of

280, 294-95, 305-06, 3 1 5

restaurant):

(Belgrade

Konstantinovic,

(King Peter's father): 35

Jovanovic, Slobodan (historian and

"Kolarac"

34, 58, I 1 2

Karadjordjevic, Alexander 1 1 (Prince

istry official): 2 1 8

Jovanovic-Cupa,

,

48, 60, 106, 137, 223-25, 242,

ika court): 245, 247

393

Index

Macedonia:

•

24, 60-62, 65-69,

alist): 74

1 1 3,

Mehmedbasic, Muhamed (Bosnian

1 1 6-17, 1 5 1 , 155, 196, 227, 232,

volunteer and Salonika defend

3 14

ant):

71,

77-78, 332

3,

88-90,

94,

108- 1 1 ,

20 1 ,

226,

266, 278, 306

254, 258-59,

"Memorandum" of Apis' associates in Russia ( 1 9 1 7):

288

Mihl, Rudolf("Schwabe"): "swims"

189-90; 290 Mijatovic, Cedomilj: 42 Milanovic , Stevan: 37 with Apis,

Miletic,

Krsta (Salonika witness):

249 Miletic,

Stevan (Salonika judge):

290

42, 43, 54, 56, 57, 68, 70, 7 1 , 1 1 1 , 1 4 1 , 142, 144, 187, 189, 200-01 , 219, 2404 1 , 24546, 25 1 , 254-58, 265, 267-70, 279, 300, 308,326 Misic, Vojvoda Zivojin: 120, 145, 185-86 Mitrovic, Major Grgur: 177

Mondesir, Piaron (French general):

Milosavljevic, Jovan (police agent) :

4, 23, 33, 88, 9 1 , 153-54, 162, 167 "Moskva" Hotel (Belgrade): 73, 84

224-25 Milosavljevic, General Mirko (chair

190-

Milovanovic, Captain Blagoje:

bia):

92

226, 240

Narodna

Milovanovic, Milan G . :

see

Milo

Odbrana

(National

2, 65-66, 69-70, 74, 85, 87, 88, 89, 146, 270, 330, 334 Milovanovic, Colonel Stevan: 202 Milovanovic-Pilac,

Nikola Petrovic (Prince, later king

vanovic-Pilac, M. G . Milovanovic, Milovan (Serbian for eign minister):

Colonel M.

G.

37, 40, 83, 90, 1 1 1 , 1 18, 1 2 1 , 1404 1 , 162, 166, 1 87, 196,201-02, 2 1 2, 214-15, 221, 226-28, 23 1 , 23435 ' 24344, 250-51 ' 253 ' 259 ' 268; final statement of at Sal onika Trial, 274-75, 278, 28 1 82, 29 1 , 298,301 , 35 1 Mirko (Prince of Montenegro): 33 (close colleague of Apis):

60, 3 1 3 Obrenovic, bia):

Mirkovic, Dragic (Serbian prosecu

33, 73, 78, 286

Nikolai Nikolaevich, Grand Prince (Russian

Nikolic, man):

Andra

Nikolic, Colonel

Radga:

177-78,

207, 239

MiSic, Colonel Peter (chairman of

N is Declaration

(1914): 149 Novakovic, Aca: 36, 38, 45

150, 163,

,

18, 1 97-99, 202; "incident" at, 2 1 5 16, 226, 240, 255, 257, 260, 265

Ostrovo (village ; "incident at"):

(French news

Pasic, Niko1a (Radical Party chief, premier):· 6·,

9, 10, 26-28, 54-58, 62, 65, 73, 79, 106- 1 1 , 1 17, 1 2 1 , 22, 124, 1 27-28, 1 4 1 , 147, 1 5 1 , 1 54-56, 158, 162-64, 166-68, 183-86, 204-05 , 208, 214, 216, 2 19-22, 224, 236-38, 241-43, 245, 248-50, 252, 258, 275-77, 280, 287, 289; Salonika death penalties and, 291-94, 300-0 1, 305, 208-09, 3 1 2 , 359 Paunovic , Father Zdravko (confes

7-10, 1 2, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 3 1 9-20 Pavlovic, Colonel Dimitrije: 100-03, 129 sor of Apis):

Pavlovic , Colonel Gojko (head of legal division of Supreme Com

216, 220, 224-25, 232, 239, 246 , 281 Pavlovic, Todor: 40, 62 Pavlovic, Colonel Zivko: 146, 1606 1 , 164 mand):

Pecanac,

Kosta (guerrilla leader):

Pesic, Peter:

79

Pankovic, Captain Pavle (May con

4 1 , 44-46 Piedmont (Pijemont) (Belgrade newspaper): 2, 3 1 , 35, 74, 83, 86, 88-89, 98-99, 106-09, 1 1 5, 1 2 1 , 138-39, 189,224,261, 270, 3 1 3-14 Plazina, Colonel Milovan : 1 13, l 16, 1 1 8, 227 Politika (Belgrade newspaper) : 30809

32-34, 36-37, 92-93,

Popovic, Colonel Cedomir ("fron

Ottoman Empire:

see

Turkey

Pacu, Lazar (Radical finance min ister): f

Paris Soir-Dimanche paper): 125

1 66-67

21 1

55

Paget, Lady:

269

294 37, 40,

of Alexander's court):

chair

Nincic, Momcilo (Radical minister):

Salonika Lower Court):

Ostojic, Colonel Djordje (marshal

258, 292

Nikolic, Major Milan:

2, 5, 9-10, 23, 27, 32, 34, 59, 60, 85 Odjek (Belgrade newspaper): 33 Officers' Club (in Belgrade): 1 10, 242, 252 Okanovic, Colonel Dragu tin: 85, 207' 2 1 0-1 1 , 300 127, 130, 3 1 3 Oslobodjenje (Sarajevo newspaper): 307

160

(Assembly

23

Opacic, Colonel Peter (historian):

151

306-09 MiSic, Lazar: 225 tor):

•

commander-in -chief) :

Nikolajevic, Dobrivoje:

Milos (prince of Ser

Obrenovic dynasty:

fense) :

of Montenegro) :

22-24, 26-29, 32, 44,

of Serbia):

De

65-67, 74, 100, 103-04, 134, 1 5 2 Natalija (Queen of Serbia): 26, 29 Naumovic, Captain Mihailo: 42, 44 Negotin (Serbian town): 37, 80, 86 Nice (French city): 86, 176, 179 Nicholas 11 (Emperor of Russia): 3 1

39

Obrenovic , Milan (Prince, later king

Montenegro:

teer):

54-55, 85

Obrenovic, Mihailo (Prince of Ser

167

Nalic, Nezir Hadzi (Bosnian volun

terconspiracy):

1 , 22, 24, 26-38, 4 1 42, 46, 4849, 60, 1 85-86, 252, 322-23, 325

man of Salonika High Court):

2 1 5 , 236, 24 1 , 280, 290

Novakovic, Milan (leader of coun

Obrenovic, King Alexander:

77 , 216

1 , 25, 27, 28, 33, 60, 80, 8 1 , 89, 235

Military Academy (Belgrade) :

I

Ooacanin, Dr. (Prince Alexander's physician):

395

Index


394

295

Paget, Sir Ralph (British minister to Serbia): spirator):

312

158

Petrovic, Lazar:

tier officer," colleague of Apis):

396 37, 40, 65, 76, 97, 100, 102-03, 136-37, 146, 228, 23 1 , 250-54, (testimony of at Salonika Trial); 280, 298, 331 Popovic , General Damjan (comman der in Skoplje, Salonika defend ant): 37, 54, 109-12, 120, 214, 228, 246, 263, 276, 296 Popovic, Mileva: 214, 264 Popovic, Major Vojin Vuk: 146, 223 Potiorek, General Oskar (governor of Bosnia): 139, 145, 1 53 Pravda (Belgrade newspaper): 300 Pribicevic, Dr. Svetozar: 124, 133 Princip, Gavrilo (Sarajevo assassin): 5 , 128, 135-37 Priority Decree and Dispute: 105, 108-22, 124, 140, 184, 186, 243, 246, 268, 274, 3 1 5 Protic, Lieutenant Josif G . (assist ant warden at Salonika Prison): 13-16, 19-20, 230; arrives at the Prison, 232, 233-237, 239, 25053, 267, 270-7 1, 278-84, 28687, 306 Protic, Stojan (Radical leader, In terior Minister): 3 , 9, 10, 32, 48, 55, 73; "Priority Decree" of, 107- 1 12, 1 1 6 ; 141, 144, 148, 186, 214, 216, 221, 258, 286, 294-95 , 298, 300, 305 Provisional Government (of Russia, 1 9 1 7): 288-89 Prvalovic, Commissar: 142 Putnik, Vojvoda Radomir (Serbian chief of staff): 57, 60, 62, 74, 85, 89, 90, 9 1 , 95, 107, 1 1 0- 1 5 , 1 20-2 1 , 124, 129, 140-4 1 , 14547, 149, 154-55, 158, 160, 16364, 218 , 268, 313, 343

APIS: The Congenial Conspirator Radakovic, Lieutenant Colonel Radak: 207, 210 Radenkovic , Bogdan (Serbian na tionalist, "Black Hand" leader): 6 1 , 62, 66-69, 90, 9 1 , 228, 23 1 , 250, 254, 266, 278, 280, 305, 3 1 4 , 330 Radical Party (of Serbia): 3 , 4, 6, 9, 26-29, 32, 34, 38, 39, 48, 5458, 62, 65, 70, 73, 83, 85, 1081 1 1 , 1 1 6, 120-2 1 , 140, 184, 210, 220, 224, 236,246-47,258, 276, 291-92 298, 300, 305-07 ' 3 14, 323 Radivojevic, liija: 46, 47, 68, 72 Lieutenant Colonel Radojevic, Milan (Apis' defender at Salon ika): 273-74 Radojlovic, Colonel Radoje: 1 5 , 320 Radovanovic, Colonel Milorad Koca ("White Hand" leader): 178, 207, 214-15, 222,239, 248, 299, 305, 308 Rankovic, Alexander (Yugoslav In terior Minister): 306 Rankovic, Mihailo: 210, 224-26, 240, 272 Rasic, Mihajlo: 85 Rasic, General: 204 Ratni dnevnik (Salonika military newspaper): 23 1 "Remove uniforms, they or we!": 54 Retrial of 1953 (Belgrade): 5 ; op posed by Major Jankovic, 303; post-1945 agitation for, 304-06, 307-09 , 3 1 2-14 Reuss, Dr. Rudolph A. (also Reis and Reiss): 147 •.

Index Ribarac, Stojan (Liberal leader): 1 14, 301 Risimic, Milun: 37, 52-53,328 Ristic, Jovan (Serbian premier and regent): 24, 26 Ristic, Mihailo: 46-47 Ristic, Vaso: 140 Royal Guards: 38, 79, 8 1 , 299 Rujanac-Bacet, Aksenij e: 36 Rumania: 1 5 5 , 220 Russia: 23, 24, 26-28, 3 1 , 32, 50, 5 1 , 56, 62, 65, 87, 89, 129; Apis and, 130-31, 132, 140, 145-46, 1 5 1 , 154-55, 192-93; Apis' as sociates in, 287-88; Provisional Government and Salonika ver dict, 288-89 Russo-Japanese War ( 1 904-05): 60 St. John's Day (Ivandan) attempt against King Milan: 28, 3 2 St. Vitus Day (Vidovdan): 19, 139 Salonika: 12, 15, 18, 125, 154, 165, 1 67-68, 178, 193-95, 208, 2 1 1 , 214, 227 Salonika Front: 155-56, 159, 163, 188, 193, 194ff., 209, 2 1 9 ; ef fect on Apis' arrest on, 227, 24 1 42, 246, 268, 274, 28 1, 298 Salonika Military Courts ( 1 9 1 7) : 8, 9, 240-41, 245-47, 280-8 1 , 2909 1 , 305-06 Salonika Officers' Prison: 102, 186, 227, 228ff., 247, 282-83, 3 1 5 "Salonika Regime" (1916-17): 208, 210-1 1 , 240, 247, 298, 300-01 , 305 , 35 1 Salonika Trial ( 1 9 1 7) : 4-7, 10, 12, 37' 60, 67 ' 68, 70, 89, 98, 1 14, 1 16-20, 1 24, 1 29-30, 134, 141,

397 144, 170, 200-01 ;preparation of, 21 1-12, 2 1 5 , 217, 219,221, 236; ZivkoviC's role Jn preparing, 23840; 240-4 1, 24344, 245ff.; Apis' report to, 258-59, 295 ; Apis' testimony at, 268-72; foreign re actions to, 275-77; verdicts in, 278-8 1 ; protests against verdicts, 287-90; High Court reviews ver dicts, 290-91 ; clemency issue and, 291-95, 297-99, 301-05, 307-09 , 3 14-15 Samouprava (Radical Party news paper): 56, 300 Sapinac, Colonel Stevan: 179, 1 8 1 , 347 Sarac, Djuro (Bosnian nationalist): 135-36, 188, 225, 226 Sarajevo assassination ( 1 9 14): 3, 4, 1 5 , 102-03, 123-38; Apis and, 1 28-30, 133, 213, 248, 252, 257-59, 271, 293-95, 3 15, 3 16, 338 Sarrail, General Maurice (Allied commander-in-c.;hief of Salonika Front): 195, 202-04, 241 Sazonov, Sergei D. (Russian foreign minister): 1 5 1 Serbia: see throughout Serbian Volunteer Corps in Russia: 187, 242, 287 Serbo-Bulgarian Alliance ( 1912): 87-89 Serbo-Bulgarian War ( 1913): 95 Serbo-Turkish War (1912): 95 Serge, Victor: 1 3 1 Seton-Watson, Dr. R. W. (British scholar): 277, 298, 3 1 1 , 34 1 Seventh Infantry Regiment: 28, 39, 42

39 8 Simic, Bozin (colleague of Apis): 37, 39, 60,66, 89, 90, 1 1 6, 1 1 8, 1 3 1 , 152, 226, 242, 287-88 , 329 Simovic, General Dusan: 304 Sixth Infantry Regiment: 37, 39, 40, 42, 43 , 45 Skadar (Albanian port): 102, 16364, 166-67 Skoplje (Macedonian capital): 66, 94; and "Priority Dispute," 10910, 1 1 3-14, 1 16-18, 120, 268 Skoplje Committee: 60-62 "Slavija" (square in Belgrade): 43, 45, 78 Slivnica, Battle of (1885): 24-25 S/ovenski Jug (Serbian student newspaper): 225 Smiljanic, Colonel Krsta (General Staff officer): 120, 144 Social Democrats: 78, 1 14 Spalajkovic, Dr. Miroslav (Serbian minister to Russia): 1 5 1 , 344 Srb, Colonel Alexander: 242, 27888 Srpska Zastava (newspaper): 33 Srpske Novine (official newspaper of Serbia): 78 Sredojevic, Atanasije (police official): 144, 45, 21 7-28, 352 Stajic, General J ordan: 163 Stajic, Dr. Milan: 175 Stanojevic, Dr. Stanoje: 133-34 Stefanovic, Colonel Dusan (War Minister, 1914): 108-10, 1 1 3-15, 120, 141, 148 Stepanovic, General Stepa: 79, 83, 84, 9 1 , 95 , 120 Stojadinovic, Dragisa: 208, 266 Stojanovic, Bratislav (postal censor): 198

APIS: The Congenial Conspirator Stojanovic, DragiSa: 306 Stojanovic, Dragomir Sr.: 226 Stojic, Milenko (lawyer): 239 Stojkovic, Captain Milan ( commandant of Salonika Officers' Prison): 7 , 8 , 10, 13-16, 20,22832, 234-35, 239, 243-44, 248-49, 250, 252, 254-5 5 , 257,259, 26264, 266, 270-72, 281-82, 28586, 290-9 1 , 296, 298, 3 1 8-19 Stojsic, Colonel Alexander: 199-200 Sumadija Division: 1 1 3 , 1 1 6 Supreme Command (of Serbia): 144-45, 147, 150, 152, 154-56, 159-6 1 ; directive of on retreat of 1 9 1 5 , 163; replaced, 164, 168, 176, 183, 195-96, 200, 202, 208, 2 1 6 - 1 8 , 224, 227-28, 236-37, 266 Supreme Court of Serbia: 306-09 "Surprise of March 27, 1917": 254-55 Switzerland : 33, 62, 179, 210, 221 Tankosic, Major Vojislav (guerrilla leader): 38, 45, 6 1 , 65, 66, 74, 88, 1 1 2; Sarajevo assassination and, 131-36, 140, 146, 152, 252, 274, 331 , 341 Tartaglia, Oskar (Croatian journal ist): 73, 74 Tausanovic, Kosta: 28 Tereshchenko, M. I. (Russian for eign minister, 1917): 289 Terzic, Colonel Bozidar (Serbian war minister, 1916-17): 1 1 2-13, 182, 208-09, 212, 2 1 6 , 223-24, 226,242,287 Thesiger (British consul): 56, 329 Third Army (Serbian): 177, 179,

Index 180, 189, 194, 197-98, 205-06, 210, 218, 226, 239 Times, The (London newspaper): 5 1 Timok Army: 153, 157, 1 60-6 1, 163-65, 169, 175; dissolution of, 176, 188, 1 9 1 Tirnok Revolt ( 1 883): 26 Tirnotijevic, Kosta (cabinet min· ister): 259 Tito, Josip Broz (Yugoslav leader): 304, 306 Todorovic, Kosta: 100 Todorovic, Major Sretan: 208, 2 1 1 Tomic, Milutin (Salonika witness): 146 Tribuna (Belgrade newspaper): 72, 86, 1 1 4 Trifunovic, Ranko: 2 1 1 , 218, 306 Trifunovic, Stefan: 159-60 Triple Entente ( 1 907-18) (also the Allies): 99, 146, 154-55, 158-59, 1 60-6 1 , 167, 220-2 1 , 241-42, 289 Trivunac, Major Zivojin: 208, 2 1 1 , 212 Trydar-Burzynski: 1 3 1 Tucakovic, Kosta (Drina region chief) : 144-45, 200, 208, 217, 218, 306 Tucakovic, Colonel Milan: 1 14 Tucakovic, Panta (lawyer): 1 15 Tucovic, Colonel Vladimir (close Apis colleague, Salonika defen dant): 16, 43, 49, 50, 59, 72, 77 83-85, 184, 187 ' 192, 208' 09, 210, 2 1 2-13, 218, 227-28, 235-36, 239, 256, 259,267, 269, 2 7 1 , 280, 285 Turkey (and Ottoman Empire): 23, 6 1 , 66, 72, 87-92, 94, 3 12, 3 1 4

399 Ugron, von (Austrian diplomat): 73 "Unification or Death" ("Ujedin jenje ili smrt! ") (called the "Black Hand"): 2-5, 9, 10, 58, 60, 6 1 , 64, 66-75, 80, 83-9 1 , 96, 97, 1 00, 106, 108, 1 1 0-17, 1 1 922; Sarajevo association and, 124, 129, 130, 1 35-37, 146, 148, 150, 152, 163, 166, 182, 1 86-87, 190-9 1 , 201 , 206,210, 212, 215, 218, 221-25, 227, 23 1 , 236-37, 240, 242; at Salonika Trial, 248ff., 263; Apis' testimony about at Salonika Trial, 268, 27 1 , 273-77, 280, 287-89, 297305, 308-09, 3 12-15, 331 Uiice Army (renamed Timok Army in 1 9 1 5): 149-52 Vadar Division: 1 13, 202 Vasic, Milan: 74, 100, 103 Vasic, General Milos (War Min· ister, Third Army commander): 29, 30, 85, 197-99, 201-02; negative assessment of Apis by ( 1 9 1 6), 205-06, 217, 269, 272, 349 Vasiljevic, Prvoslav (Apis' defender at Retrial): 221-22, 309, 3 12- 13, 327-28 Velickovic, Dr. Zivojin: 1 5 8 Veljanovic, Temeljko (Salonika wit· ness): 16, 255-56, 272,274, 306, 309 Veljkovic, Vojislav (Liberal leader): 1 14 Vemic, Major Velirnir (a founder of "Black Hand"): 13, 15, 37, 39, 66-68, 73, 77, 90, 98, 108, 146, ) 5 1 , 226, 23 1 244, 253, 257,


400 259, 266, 269, 275, 278; escape of, 28 1 -84, 287, 330-3 1, 336 Venizelos, Alexander (Greek states man): 155, 156, 158 Verk.hovskii,

Alexander (Russian

war minister, 1 9 1 7) : 1 3 1 Vidovdan: see St. Vitus Day 322, 324 Vlajic, Velimir (Salonika witness): 249 Vohoska, Cedomir: 244 see

Putnik, Voj

voda Radomir Vuk,

Committee

( 1 9 1 5 - 1 8):

Yugoslavia of, 299-300, 302-04;

Yugoslavia and Yugoslavs: 2-4, 9,

Retrial and, 308-09, 3 1 6, 332, 333 "Zvezdana" (horse) : 93

286, 294 10, 20, 3 1 , 35, 66-67, 74, 137, 203, 2 1 3 , 294, 297, 299-301, 303-04, 309-1 1

Vivian, Herbert (British officer):

Vojvoda Putnik:

Yugoslav

Vojvoda (guerrilla leader):

166 Vukasin, Corporal (at Salonika Of ficers' Prison): 28 1 , 283 Vulovic , Major Lj ubomir (intimate friend of Apis, national activist): 3 , 8, 9 , 14-20, 6 1 , 97, 104, 129, 1 3 1 -32, 134, 144, 152, 1 5 7, 200, 216-19, 22 1 , 225-27, 232-34, 253,256,258,264, 266-68, 270, 278, 28 1 , 283-84, 286,292, 294, 296,303, 306

Zagreb Treason Trial: 100, 142, 286 Zavacil, Milan: 90 Zecevic, Veljko: 165, 226 Zerajic, Bogdan: 133 Zivanovic family: 93, 94, 169, 1 7677 Zivanovic, Alexander (Sasha): 93, 179 Zivanovic, Jelena, nee Dimitrijevic (Apis' sister) : 22-25 , 47, 169, 322 Zivanovic , Milan Z . (Apis' nephew): 3 , 4, 7, 10-12, 126, 128-29, 137, 144, 169-7 1 , 174; reminiscences of ( 1 9 16), 1 75 ; correspondence of with Apis, 1 77-82, 198, 226, 234-35, 304, 3 1 1 , 3 1 5, 3 1 9 Zivanovic, Zivan (Apis' brother-in law): 25, 36, 39, 44, 46, 47,

SO,

52, 53, 169; about Apis, 17 1-72,

"White Hand" (officers group fonn

1 76,

1 78-79,

1 80-8 1 , 3 1 1-12,

319

ed 1 9 1 1): 3 , S, 58, 76, 85, 86, 1 1 2, 1 20, 150, 164, 1 84-85, 208-

Zivkovic, Lju bomir: 4 7, 48, 77, 323

09, 2 1 1 , 214-17, 227, 236, 239, 24 1 , 260, 290, 297-300, 314,

mander of Volunteer Corps in

3 16 Wick.ham-Steed, journalist):

Henry

(British

SO-S 1

William I I (Gennan emperor): 133, 189, 223 "Young Bosnia" ("Mlada Bosna") (nationalist student group): 5 , 123, 135, 137, 237, 3 1 5 Young Turks: 66, 88

Index

Zivkovic, General Mihailo (com Russia): 242 Zivkovic, General Peter ("Pera") (Guards officer, "Yugoslav Ras putin"): 3, S, 6, 38, 42, 43, 53, 54, 62, 76-86, 95-96, 149, 150, 164, 1 77-78, 207-08; prepares Salonika Trial, 2 1 1-16, 219, 2303 1 , 234-35, 238-39, 246-49, 259-60, 270-7 1 , 287, 297-98; homosexuality accused of ( 1 9 1 8), 299; influence in royal

Zvono (newspaper) : 78

401

David MacKenzie - Apis: the Congenial Conspirator the Life of Colonel Dragutin T Dimitrijevice Congenial Conspirator

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