Origin of painting in India (overview) There is a Legend in India that Brahma taught a king how to bring back to life the dead son of a brahmin by executing a portrait of the deceased, which he endowed with life. Brahma as the creator is also associated with Vishvakarma, The divine architect and the presiding genius of art and crafts.
An ci ent Peri od Ori gi n: Paintings as an art from flourished in India from very early times as is evident from the remains have been discovered in caves, and the literary source. The history of art and paintings in India begins with the pre historic rock paintings at Bhimbetka caves [Madhya Pradesh] where we have drawings and paintings animals. The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh show skins of spotted deer left drying. Thousands of years ago paintings and drawings had already appeared on the seals of Harappa Civilization. Both Hindu and Buddhist literature prefer to paintings of various types and techniques for example: lepyacitras: Represents of folklore. Lekhacitras: Line drawings and paintings on textile. Dhulitcitras: Paintings on the floor. Buddhist Vinayapitaka describes the existence of painted figures in many royal buildings. The play Mudrarakshasa mentions numerous paintings or patas. The 6th century A.D. text on aesthetics Kamasutra by Vatsyayana has mentioned paintings amongst 64 kinds of arts and says that it was based scientific principles. The Vishnudharmotlara purana [7th century A.D.] has a section on paintings called Chitrasutra which describes the six organs on paintings [Shadanga or Limbs]. [i] Rupabheda - Knowledge of appearances [ii] Pramanam - Correct perception, measure and structure. [iii] Bhava - Action of feeling on forms. [iv] Lavanya Yoganam Yoganam - Infusion of grace, artistic representation. representation. [v] Sadrisyam - Simlitude [vi] Varnikabhanga - Artistic manner of using the brush and colours. Indian Rock paintings are dated 10,000 years back on the basis of archaeological findings from excavations of the painted caves and India is also the first country to recognise the antiquity of the rock paintings. In Bimbetka near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh Pradesh is largest and oldest collection of rock paintings, belonging belonging to The Neolithic Age and depicting depicting the everyday lives of the people- hunting, dancing, decoration decoration of bodies. The earliest paintings are pictures of animals such as bison, bears and tigers. The paintings are mainly in red and white, with occasional use of green and yellow. The Superimposition of paintings shows that the same canvas was used by different people at different times. The paintings presumably were of magical significance. The paintings in what has c ome to be called The “ZOO ROCK SHELTER” include those of a Mesolithic boar painted in dark red and animals like the elephant, rhinoceros, bara singh spotted dear, cattle, snake etc. Later paintings include battle scenes painted in red and an elephant painted in white. The Boar Rock, which is the last among the rock shelters accessible to tourists has a depiction of a mythical boar with horns that is many times larger than the human beings chased by it.
Of the ancient paintings done on perishable materials no specimens exist. The earliest extant paintings of the historical period consists of a few irregular rows of human figures in yellow and ochre. Materials Used: Different materials were used in different different types of paintings mention of Chitra Shalas Shalas Shilpasastra[ Technictreatise on Art] have been made in Literary sources.
[Art Gallery] Gallery] and
The Principal colour used were Red ochre - Dhaturaga Vivid Red - Kum Kum or Sindura. Yellow ochre- Haritala. Indigo - Blue [ Lapblazuli blue] Lamp black - Kajjala Chalk White - Khadi mitti Terra Verte - Geru mati
Green All These colours were locally available except lapis lazuli which came from Pakistan. Mixed colours E.g:Grey were used on rare occasions. Use of colours were decided by The Theme and local atmosphere.
Ar t i n m edi eval Ind ia: During the period of Delhi Sultanate, mural paintings has been reported from the Royal Palaces and Royal Bed Chambers and Mosques. These Chiefy depicts Flowers, Leaves and Plants. During The Time of illtutmish [1210-36] we have references of paintings. During the time of Alauddin Khaliji [1296-1316] we have Mural paintings, Miniature paintings and paintings on cloths. During The Sultanate period, we noticed The Persian and Arabic influences on Indian Paintings. During 14th -15th Centuries A.D. miniature paintings emerged as a powerful movement in Gujarat Gujarat and Rajasthan and spread to central north and Eastern India because of The Patronage of rich Jain merchants. Mandu in Madhya Pradesh, Jaunpure in Eastern Utter Pradesh and Bengal in Eastern Utter Pradesh and Bengal in Eastern India were other great centres of manuscripts illustrated illustrated with paintings. In Eastern India Bengal , Bihar and Orissa during The Palakingdom 9th-10th Century A.D. a new Kind of paintings developed called The miniature paintings in This Category Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were Illustrated on palm leaves. They resemble The Ajanta style but on a miniature scale. These were made on the request of the merchants, who donated them to the temples and monasteries. From the 13th century onwards the Turkish sultans of Northern India brought with them important features of Persian court culture. In The 15th and 16th centuries illustrated manuscripts of persian influence were produced at Malwa, Bengal Bengal , Delhi, Jainpur, Gujarat and The Deccan. The Interaction of Indian painters with Persian traditions resulted in the synthesis of the two styles evident in the works of the 16th century. During the early sultanate period, significant contribution to the Art of paintings was made by the Jain of Western India. The Art of textual illustrations got a New look under The Mughals Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to paintings and sensual illustrations. Beautiful illustrations are found on the pages of Baburnama and Akbarnama. The Art of paintings reached 1st climax during the period of Jahangir who him self was a great painter and connoisseur of Art. Shajahan was more interested in Architecture Splendours Splendours his eldest son Darasikoh Patronised paintings like his grandfather .He preferred depicting natural elements like plants and animals in his
Of the ancient paintings done on perishable materials no specimens exist. The earliest extant paintings of the historical period consists of a few irregular rows of human figures in yellow and ochre. Materials Used: Different materials were used in different different types of paintings mention of Chitra Shalas Shalas Shilpasastra[ Technictreatise on Art] have been made in Literary sources.
[Art Gallery] Gallery] and
The Principal colour used were Red ochre - Dhaturaga Vivid Red - Kum Kum or Sindura. Yellow ochre- Haritala. Indigo - Blue [ Lapblazuli blue] Lamp black - Kajjala Chalk White - Khadi mitti Terra Verte - Geru mati
Green All These colours were locally available except lapis lazuli which came from Pakistan. Mixed colours E.g:Grey were used on rare occasions. Use of colours were decided by The Theme and local atmosphere.
Ar t i n m edi eval Ind ia: During the period of Delhi Sultanate, mural paintings has been reported from the Royal Palaces and Royal Bed Chambers and Mosques. These Chiefy depicts Flowers, Leaves and Plants. During The Time of illtutmish [1210-36] we have references of paintings. During the time of Alauddin Khaliji [1296-1316] we have Mural paintings, Miniature paintings and paintings on cloths. During The Sultanate period, we noticed The Persian and Arabic influences on Indian Paintings. During 14th -15th Centuries A.D. miniature paintings emerged as a powerful movement in Gujarat Gujarat and Rajasthan and spread to central north and Eastern India because of The Patronage of rich Jain merchants. Mandu in Madhya Pradesh, Jaunpure in Eastern Utter Pradesh and Bengal in Eastern Utter Pradesh and Bengal in Eastern India were other great centres of manuscripts illustrated illustrated with paintings. In Eastern India Bengal , Bihar and Orissa during The Palakingdom 9th-10th Century A.D. a new Kind of paintings developed called The miniature paintings in This Category Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were Illustrated on palm leaves. They resemble The Ajanta style but on a miniature scale. These were made on the request of the merchants, who donated them to the temples and monasteries. From the 13th century onwards the Turkish sultans of Northern India brought with them important features of Persian court culture. In The 15th and 16th centuries illustrated manuscripts of persian influence were produced at Malwa, Bengal Bengal , Delhi, Jainpur, Gujarat and The Deccan. The Interaction of Indian painters with Persian traditions resulted in the synthesis of the two styles evident in the works of the 16th century. During the early sultanate period, significant contribution to the Art of paintings was made by the Jain of Western India. The Art of textual illustrations got a New look under The Mughals Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to paintings and sensual illustrations. Beautiful illustrations are found on the pages of Baburnama and Akbarnama. The Art of paintings reached 1st climax during the period of Jahangir who him self was a great painter and connoisseur of Art. Shajahan was more interested in Architecture Splendours Splendours his eldest son Darasikoh Patronised paintings like his grandfather .He preferred depicting natural elements like plants and animals in his
paintings .How ever withdraw of Royal patronage to paintings under Aurangazeb led to the dispersal of Artists to different places in the Country.
Modern era: In The Late Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries paintings comprise semi Westernised local styles which were patronised by British residents and visitors. With the Advent of European and more specifically the British new developments began in the field of paint During the later half of the Eighteenth century The paintings of Indian artists attracted the attention of the English traders at many places. The East India company’s merchants began to procure items of Indians Arts and Crafts. Simultaneously interested persons among them drew the attention of the Indian artists to the technique of Water-Colour paintings. Artists Artists were required to depict India life and scenes but in a medium of the Foreigner’s liking. Art Critics found this tendency dangerous and to them it was The beginning of the degradation of Indian Art since any imitation was suicidal. The company painters became The term for these artists who work to satisfy the needs of their new masters for some economic gain. When combined The Western technique and the Indian form brought about synthetic style. Towards the end of the 19th century a notable Indian artist Ravi varma, tried to re-established Indian Art Through Western methods, techniques, principles and traits. He studied The technique of oil paintings from the famous European portrait painter Theodore Jenson. The artist Chief concern was to reproduce Indian life and scenes as well as The traditional mythological subject matter in oil paintings in the Western style. Ravi varma employed This new medium in painting Indian mythological themes which at once attained wide wide recognition and through oleographs became popular through out the Country. Critics accuse him of having failed to convey adequate expression of Indian feelings or of the poetic faculty than an Indian allegory ought to be capable of evoking. *** Origin of painting in India *** Indian painting has a very long tradition and history in Indian art. The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of pre-historic times, the petroglyphs as found in places like Bhimbetka rock shelters, some of the Stone Age rock paintings found among the Bhimbetka rock shelters are approximately 30,000 years old. India's Buddhist literature is replete with examples of texts which describe palaces of the army and the aristocratic class embellished with paintings, but the paintings of the Ajanta Caves are the most significant of the few survivals. Smaller scale painting in manuscripts was probably also practised in this period, though the earliest survivals are from the medieval period. Mughal paintingrepresented a fusion of the Persian miniature with older Indian traditions, and from the 17th century its style was diffused across Indian princely courts of all religions, each developing a local style. Company paintings were made for British clients under the British raj, which from the 19th century also introduced art schools along Western lines, leading to modern Indian painting, which is increasingly returning to its Indian roots.
Famous Indian painting styles
Rajasthani Painting
Mysore painting
Tanjore painting
Madhubani painting
Pattachitra painting
Kalamkari painting
Mughal painting
Sadangas Sadanga or Six Limbs of Indian Painting – Painting – Evolved Evolved 1 BCE, they are series of Principles or Limbs of Indian Painting. Vatsyayana, who lived during the third century A.D., enumerates these in his work Kamasutra having extracted them from still more ancient works. 1.Rupabheda -The knowledge of appearances. 2.Pramanam - Correct perception, measure and structure. 3.Bhava - Action of feelings on forms. 4.Lavanya Yojanam - Infusion of grace, artistic representation. 5.Sadrisyam - Resemblance or Similitude. 6.Varnikabhanga - Artistic manner of using the brush and colours. (Tagore.)
Fresco Fresco paintings
Frescoes are paintings which are done on wet plaster in which colours become fixed as the plaster dries.
First, the rough stone surfaces were primed with a thick coating of paste made from clay, cow-dung, animal hair and vegetable fibre. Next, a finer layer of smooth white lime was applied. Before this was dry, the artists quickly sketched the outlines of their pictures using red cinnabar, which they then filled in with an undercoat of terre-verte.
They are found on the walls and ceilings at Ajanta. The paintings reflect different phases of Indian Culture from jain tirthankar mahaveer's birth to his nirvana in the 8th Century AD.
The artists used shading to give a three-dimensional effect. They depict themes of court life, feasting, processions, men and women at work, festivals, various natural scenes including animals, birds and flowers
Sittanavasal Sittanavasal Painting s
Mural Paintings, Sittanavasal Cave Temple
Tanjore, TN
Sanctum and ardha-mandapam of Aravirkovil have Fresco Paintings
Initiative by Mahendra Verma and Narsimha Verma
The ceilings have depiction of a lotus tank with natural looking images of men, animals, flowers, birds and fishes representing the Samavasarana faith of Jainism.
Ellora cave paintings
Aurangabad, Rashtrakuta Empire
3 Religions influence
Hinduism – Hinduism – Epics Epics and Mythological
Depiction of Flowers, Animals, Battle Scene, elephant in Lotus Pond, Shiva, Nature Etc
Found in 5 caves but currently preserved only in the Kailasa Temple
The paintings were done in two series - the first, at the time of carving the caves & the subsequent series was done several centuries later. The earlier paintings show Vishnu & Lakshmi borne through the clouds by Garuda, with clouds in the background.
The sinewy figures have sharp features & pointed noses. The protruding eye typical of the later Gujarathi style appears for the first time in Ellora. In the subsequent series, the main composition is that of a procession of Saiva holy men. The flying Apsaras are graceful . Very few murals in the Jain temples are well preserved.
Lepakshi Lepakshi paintings
Lepakshi Vijayanagara
Murals on Temple Walls
Non Religious Theme
Complete absence of Primary Colours
Decline in the quality of Paintings
This large painting of Veerabhadra measures about 23 feet by 13 feet.
Paintings depict the incarnations of Vishnu
Ap abr ahm sa Mi ni atu re
Origins in Mewad and Gujarat Region
The Themes are often Jainism and Vaishnavism
Features
Miniature Paintings
Pointed Nose
Bulging Eyes
Double Chin
Bright and Gold Colours
Stiff Figure
Animals and Birds are represented as Toys
Aj ant a Pain ti ng s
They are Mural and Fresco paintings on the walls of the caves
29 caves altogether
Features
Expressions through hand Postures
Hairstyles differ for females
Emotions – Emotions – Even Even for Birds and Animals
USE OF TEMPERA STYLES – STYLES – Using Using Pigments
These are Fresco Paintings – Paintings – Wet Wet Plaster
JATAKA THEME
Minature Paintings
Human Characters are on Side Profile
Bulging Eyes, Pointed nose and Slim Waist
Skin colour painted in Brown
Women have long hair
Colour of hair and Eyes is in Black
Indian Traditional Dress is always painted
Men have Turban on their Head
Bagh Paintings
North of Ajanta
Themes are both Secular and Religious
Buddhism and Hinduism theme often seen
Highly Influenced by the Ajanta Paintings
Uses the Fresco method and Tempera methods of Ajanta
Striking resemblance to the Srigiriya Fresco paintings
Petro glyphs: Petroglyphs (also called rock engravings) are pictogram and logogram images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, and abrading.
Historic
Carvings, Engravings on Caves etc
Features
Bold Lines and Use of Colours Like Ochre Red, Yellow Earth and Black Sooth
Figures of Animals, horses hunting scenes, riding scenes etc
Eg – Bhimbhetka Caves ( 30 000 Years Old ) – Found by V S wakankar – 1957-58
Three Periods
Upper Paleolithic – White, Dark Red and Green Lines -
Mesolithic - Mainly Red Colours ( Group Hunting )
Calcolithic – Green and Yellow Colours ( Battle Theme)
Mural Paintings Large Work – On walls generally Theme on 3 Indian Religions Eg: Ajanta Cave Ellora Cave
Minature Paintings Detailed and small ( <25 Sq inch) Paper, palm leaf, cloth, Glass Level of Detail is Intriguing Composition, perspective and Colour are important Derived from word ‘Minium’ – Red Lead
Bison; Elephant, Rhino, Tiger.
Bagh Cave
1/6th of actual Size
Lepakshi
Adult head 9” – 1.5”
Sitannavasal
Eg – Pala School, Ragmala, Mughal, Kishangadh and Apabrahmsa
Indian Art Mughal painting reflects an exclusive combination of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles. As the name suggests, these paintings evolved as well as developed during the rule of Mughal Emperors in India, between 16th to 19th century. The Mughal paintings of India revolved around themes, like battles, court scenes, receptions, legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, portraits, etc.
Mewar School (Raagamala)
Based on Raaga – Fusion of Painting, Music and Poetry
However inferior on Quality
Famous only among the common man
Mix of Visual Art and Performing Art.
Ruknuddin of Bikaner
Sahibuddin on Mewar
Kishangarh School
Portraits and love scenes of Radha and Krishna
Primary Colours and liberal use of Gold
Male and Female faces are similar - Narrow Eyebrows
Lotus Petal shape Eyes
Bani Thani – is a famous painting of this school ( Indian Monalisa) by Nihal Chand
Raja Sawant Singh is also a painter
Bundi School
Detailed paintings of local vegetation – Aravalli Region
Love scenes
Primary and Secondary colours along with Gold
Human face is round and pointed nose
Mostly miniature
Sky – Different colours and water with lush stroked on dark background
Jaipur School
Rajasthan Style
Mughal Style also seen
All features of the Miniature Rajasthani Schools Raja Sawai Jai Singh - Patron
Pahari Painting s
Kashmir , Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand
Lord Metcalfe discovered Pahari paintings in 1835-36
Has both Mughal and Rajasthani Influence
Themes
Love – Radha Krishna
Boyhood Pranks of Krishna
Delicate graces of Indian Womanhood
Manku and KishanLal- Painters
Kangara School
Promoter – Raja Sansar Chand
Poetry into Painting
Love scene of Radha Krishna made the Bulk of this school (Shringar)
Bhakti Cult – Driving force
Verdant greenery depicted in them. The style is naturalistic, and great attention is paid to detail, at quite an amazing scale in the miniatures
Thanka Schoo l
Ladhak Region
Chinese Influence – Dragon Symbol incorporated
Buddhist Influence
Use of Silk
South Indian Painting Paintings in South India are famous for their intricate curves and bright colors. There are many schools for painting in South India like the Mysore, Tanjore, Nayaka, Chola and so on.
Tanjore painting Thanjavur painting is a classical South Indian painting style, which was inaugurated from the town of Thanjavur(anglicized as Tanjore) and spread across the adjoining and geographically contiguous Tamil country. The art form draws its immediate resources and inspiration from way back about 1600 AD, a period when the Nayakas of Thanjavur under the suzerainty of the Vijayanagara Rayas encouraged art—chiefly, classical dance and music—as well as literature, both in Telugu and Tamil and painting of chiefly Hindu religious subjects in temples. However, it can safely be surmised that Thanjavur painting, as we know it now, originated in the Maratha court of Thanjavur.
Tanjore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting native to the town of Thanjavur (anglicized as Tanjore) in Tamil Nadu, India. The art form dates back to about 1600 AD.
Tanjore paintings are known for their surface richness, vivid colors and compact composition.
Tanjore paintings serving as devotional icons, the themes of most of these paintings are Hindu gods and goddesses, and saints as well.
Mughal painting
Indian Persian and European Influence
Features
Brilliant red, blue and green colors predominate the pink, eroded rocks and the vegetation, planes and blossoming plum and peach trees are used for coloring.
Accuracy in Line Drawing
Variety of Themes – Non Religious with Ornamentation
Mostly Miniature
Fore sighting Technique
In the fore sighting technique objects are drawn in a way that they look closer and smaller than they really are
Babur – No time for paintings – Patronised Bihzad
Humayun – Abdus Sammad and Mir Saeed Ali from Persia
Akbar
Established different departments of Paintings – Kharkhanas
Means of Study and Amusement
One of the First Mughals to allow Portrait Paintings
Awards and Recognition to the Painters. Hindu Painters got involved in the Kharkhanas
Akbar’s Era
3D Figures
Use of Fore sighting Technique
Calligraphy
Theme – Fairs and Festivals
Combined Efforts of Painters – Popular art to Court Art
Daswant, Baswan, Kesu, Miskina, Nanha, Knha Etc
Jehangir
Mughal Paintings reached its climax during Jehangir period
Naturalist – Most paintings were pictures of Flora and Fauna i.e. birds, animals and flowers
Emphasis also on Portrait, Decorated margins started to get prominence. He, himself was an artist and also had his own workshop
Direct contact with the English Crown and was sent gifts of oil paintings, which included portraits of the King and Queen
Encouraged his royal atelier to take up the single point perspective favoured by European artists
Ustaad Mansur was a prominent painter or Jehangir’s period
Shah Jahan
Continued –Too much gold and Bright colours
Liveliness of the paintings Lost- Pencil Sketching
Aurangazeb Discouraged Painting Leading to Decline and Later Regional
Rajasthani Painti ng Evolved and flourished in the royal courts of Rajputana in India. Each Rajput kingdom evolved a distinct style, but with certain common features. Rajput paintings depict a number of themes, events of epics like the Ramayana only. Miniatures in manuscripts or single sheets to be kept in albums were the preferred medium of Rajput painting, but many paintings were done on the walls of palaces, inner chambers of the forts, havelis, particularly, the havelis of Shekhawati, the forts and palaces built by Shekhawat Rajputs. The colours were extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived by processing precious stones. Gold and silver were used. The preparation of desired colours was a lengthy process, sometimes taking weeks. Brushes used were very fine.
Rajasthani Painting also known as Rajput painting.
Based on Hindu Traditions and Mythology – Battle, Hunting scenes Etc
Stages
16th – Simple and Subtle – Straight forward on dark solid background
17th – Sophisticated
18th – Portraits
The colours were extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived by processing precious stones. Gold and silver were used.
The preparation of desired colours was a lengthy process, sometimes taking weeks. Brushes used were very fine.
Mysore painting Mysore painting originated in and around the town of Mysore in Karnataka encouraged and nurtured by the Mysore rulers. Painting in Karnataka has a long and illustrious history, tracing its origins back to the Ajanta times. The distinct school of Mysore painting evolved from the paintings of Vijayanagar times during the reign of the Vijayanagar Kings. Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colours, and attention to detail. The themes for most of these paintings are Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology.
Mysore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting that originated in the town of Mysore in Karnataka.
Mysore traditional painting are off-shoots, made a great historical contribution to the art of India.
Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colours, and attention to detail.
The themes for most of these paintings are Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology
Famous paint works There is a Legend in India that Brahma taught a king how to bring back to life the dead son of a brahmin by executing a portrait of the deceased, which he endowed with life. Brahma as the creator is also associated with Vishvakarma, The divine architect and the presiding genius of art and crafts.
Cave and mu ral painting s Mural paintings are large works executed on the wall, ceiling or other large permanent surface. A distinguish characteristic of Mural paintings is that the architectural elements of the given space are harmoniously incorporated into the picture.
Paintings in Ajanta: There are 30 caves at Ajanta all excavated in the face of a semicircular rocks scarp. Their execution covers a
period of about eight centuries. The earliest of them is probably out in the 2nd century B.C. and the latest is sometime in the 7th century A.D. The subject matter of these paintings is almost exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the ceiling and the pillars They are mostly associated with The Jatakas, collection of stories, recording ,the previous births of the Lord Buddha. The composition of these paintings are large in extent but the majority of the figures are smaller than life size. The background figures some what above those in the foreground. The effect is to make the figures stand out from the wall. The decorative designs include patterns and scrolls and figures of animals, flowers and trees. Graceful figures or fantastic forms and mythical beings such as suparnas, garudas yakshas, gandharvas and apsaras have been freely used to fill space. The painters of Ajanta had realised the true glory of Buddha,the story of whose life was employed here by them as a motif to explain The eternal pattern of human life. The stories here are continuous and elaborate presenting The drama of Ancient India enacted in the palaces of The Kings and in The Hamlets of The common people equally engaged in the quest for the beautiful and spiritual values of life. The contours of Ajanta figures are superb and reveals a keen perception of beauty and form. The earliest paintings at Ajanta are bin cave no1x and x of which The only surviving one is a group on the left wall of cave x. The later paintings at Ajanta by far the largest part of which survives was done between the mid 6th and 7th century A.D. and are in cave no II and I. They also illustrate the Jataka stories with great details and ornamental designs The scene of MahaJanakaThe future Buddha discusses the problem of the Kingdom with his mother, the queen who is shown in an extremely graceful pose and is surrounded by maids. A few of them with fly whisks are seen standing behind The King in their discourse the prince probably is seeking his mother’s advice before beginning his march to reconquer his kingdom which has been usurped by his uncle. The paintings of Bodhisatva padmapani from cave-I is one of the Master pieces of Ajanta paintings executed in the late 6th century A.D. In princely fashion he is wearing a crown adorned with sapphires, his long black hair falling gracefully. This beautifully ornamented figure is more than life size and is shown stopping slightly and holding in his right hand a lotus flower. The way of holding the lotus and the gestures of the hand as shown is the greatest achievement of the Ajanta artists. The representation of one of the memorable events of Buddhist life after enlightenment and which ranks among the best of the paintings at Ajanta , is in cavbe no. XVII [17] painted probably in circa 6th century A.D. This represent Buddhas visit to the door of Yashodara’s abode in the city of Kapilva while she herself has come out with her son Rahula to meet the great King. The artist had drawn The figure of the of the Buddha on large scale apparently to indicate his spiritual greatness as compared with ordinary beings for instance the representation of yashodara and Rahula looks very small by comparison. A beautiful depiction of a feminine beauty as conceived by an Ajanta artist is apparently recognized as Maya Devi ,the mother of Buddha whose beauty The artist wanted to delineate without restriction imposed by the incident of any story.Along these Buddhist paintings there are also a few Brahman figures of iconographic interest. Indra, a Hindu divinity is depicted flying amid clouds together with celestial nymphs holdings musical instruments.
Indra ,is wearing a royal crown, pearl necklaces and in his girdle a sward and a dagger. The speed of his fight is suggested by the backward movement of pearl necklaces .This is from cave no. XVII[17] and belongs to circa 6th century A.D. Besides these religious paintings there are decorative designs on ceilings and pillars of these cave temples. Unlike the epics and continuous Jataka paintings there are complete designs within their squares the whole flora and fauna in and around the artists world are faithfully portrayed but never do we find any repetition of form and colour. An example of ceiling decoration is from cave no .XVII[17] and belongs to circa 6t h century A.D. The pink Elephant is from the same decorative paintings and can be seen in detail. Padmapani at Ajanta
Bagh Caves: The paintings at Bagh caves in Madhya Pradesh represent only an extension of the Ajanta school and in variety of design, vigorous execution decorative quality seem to have ranked as high as those at Ajanta. They are more earthly and human than those of Ajanta ,cave IV locally known as Rang Mahal contains beautiful paintings on walls which like those of Ajanta , are relatics to Buddhist and Jataka stories. These paintings, though decayed and scanty, are regarded more secular in nature, as religious themes are depicted in the light of contemporary life style of the people.
Badami Caves The earliest Brahmanical paintings so far known, are the fragments found in Badami caves, in cave no. III belonging to circa 6th century A.D. The so called siva and parvathi is found somewhat well preserved. Though the techniques follows that of Ajanta and Bagh, The modelling is much more sensitive in texture and expression and the outline soft and elastic. The paintings of Ajanta, Bagh and Badami represents the classical tradition of North and the Deccan at its best sittanavasal and other centres of paintings show the extent of penetration in the south.
Ar mam alai and Sit tan avas al The classical tradition is seen in the South at Armamalai and Sittanavasal. The natural caves at Armamalai in Vellore district Tamil Nadu were made into Jain temples in around the 8th century A.D. Mud and unbaked brick structures, located within the cave were the resting place of Jain saints. Beautiful colour paintings are seen on the cave roof and walls of the structure. These paintings depict the stories of Jainism and Astathik palakas [deities of eight corners] with their mounts. These resemble sittanavasal paintings... sittanavasal is located 16km north – west of Pudukottai town in Tamil Nadu. It is famous for the rock cut caves and paintings in the Jain temples. These paintings according to some scholars, belong to the period of pallava king Mahendravaraman-I who excavated the temple, others ascribe them to the 9th century when the shrine renovated by the pandya ruler.
Ellora The next series of wall paintings to survive are at Ellora a site of great importance and sanctity. A number of Hindu Buddhist and Jain temples were excavated between 8th and 10th century A.D. from The living rock. The most impressive of the kailashnath temple is a free standing structure which is in fact a monolith there are several fragments of paintings on the ceiling of the different parts of this temples and on the walls of some associated Jaincave temple. The composition of the paintings at Ellora is measured out in rectangular panels with thick borders. They have thus been conceived within the given limits of frames that hold the paintings. The space in the sense of Ajanta therefore does not exist at Ellora. But the most important characteristic features Ellora paintings are the sharp twist of the head, painted angulabents of the arms, The concave curve of the close limbs, the sharp projected nose and the long drawn open eyes which can very well be considered as the medieval character of Indian paintings.
The flying figures from cave temple no. XXXII at Ellora belonging to mid ninth century A.D are beautiful examples of swift movement through clouds.
Lepakshi Temple The last series of wall paintings in India are from Lepakshi temple near Hindpur belonging to 16th century A.D. The paintings are pressed within board friezes and illustrate Saivaite and Secular themes. A scene with three standing women in spite of their well built forms and contours has in this s tyle become somewhat stiff. The figures are shown in profile rather in an unusual fashion, specially the treatment of the faces where the second eye is drawn projecting horizontal in space. The Boar Hunt from the same temple is also an example of two dimensional paintings which almost becomes characteristic of late Medieval paintings either on wall or on palm leaf or paper.
Tanjaore The most important wall paintings in south India are from Tanjore, Tamil Nadu. The Dancing figures from Raja Rajeshwara temples of Tanjore belonging to early 11th century A.D are beautiful example of medieval paintings. The wide open eyes of all the figures are a clear negation of Ajanta tradition of half closed drooping eyes. But the figures are no less sensitive than the Ajanta figures , they are full of movement and throbbing with vitality. Another example of dancing girl from Brihadiswara temple of Tanjore belonging to the same period is a Unique representation of switt movement and twisted form.
Modern oriental art As it came to be called, came up under the eff orts of E.B Havell who taught Art in the late 19th century at the Madras school of Art and then in Calcutta. Havell was of the firm opinion that it was necessary to revive past traditions rather than go in for Western Art technique. E.B.Havell and Abanindranath Tagore began the Bengal school in paintings which was called The Renaissance school as well as the revivalist school. The movement endeavoured to revive the lost values, and revitalise the indigenous system. The old and The New could be developed together. The artistic creed of this school was gradually challenged and New developments came about, a genuinely individual search for content and from led to a successful synthesis of Indian and European techniques. Other artists of the Tagore Family such as Rabindranath Tagore and Gaganendranath Tagore, as well as new artists of the early 20th century such as Amrita sher Gil were responsible for introducing avant garde Western styles into Indian paintings. Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore
Folk paintings and traditions of India These paintings are especially inspired by the Jaganadh and Vaisnava cult, the themes are from Gita Govinda of Jayadev, the Navagunjara the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. These subjects may also be inspired by Shaiva and Shakti cults. With the emergence of Bhakti movement the paintings of Radha and Krishna were painted in vibrant shades of orange, red and yellow. Some paintings also depict social scenes. Some of the popular themes represented through this Art form are: n The Badhia - depiction of the temple of Jagannath n Krishna lila - Enactment of Jagannath as Lord Krishna displays his powers as child. n Dasabatara patti - The ten incarnations of Vishnu. n Panchamuki - depiction of lord Ganesh as a five headed diety. n More than anything the themes are really the essence of the Art form. Madhubhani paintings Madhubhani paintings also called Mithila paintings have been done traditionally by the women of villages around the present town of Madhubhani in Bihar. It is also practised in the adjoining parts of Terai in Nepal. This style of paintings has been traditionally done by women of the region, though today men are also involved to meet the demand. These paintings are popular because of their tribal motifs and use of bright earthy colours for commercial purposes. The work is now being done on paper, cloth, canvas etc. Cotton wrapped around a bamboo stick forms the brush. * Black colour: obtained by mixing soot with cow dung. * Yellow colour: from turmeric or pollen or lime and the milk of banyan trees. * Blue colour: from indigo. * Red colour: from kusum flower juice or red sandal wood. * Green colour: from the leaves of wood apple tree. * White colour: from rice powder. * Orange colour: from palasha flowers. The colours are applied flat with no shading and no empty space is left. Though the origins of Madhubani painting art not clear it is said that they originated during the Ramayana age when Janaka, king of Mithila, made people paint the floors and walls of their houses on the occasion of his daughter Sita’s Marriage with Rama. The folk belief that the gods visit each house in the morning is an inspiration behind the paintings tradition. Figures from nature and mythology are adopted to suit their style. The themes and designs widely painted are of Hindu deities such as Krishna, Rama, Siva, Durga, Lakshmi, Saraswati, sun and moon, Tulasi plant, court scenes, wedding scenes, social happening , Floral, animal, and bird motifs, geometrical designs are used to fill up all the gaps. Symbolic meanings are attached to most crafted their massage accordingly. Now they create scrolls reflecting social issues, such as literacy and environment., with globalization patuas are responding with stories featuring international issues but with local twist. With the advent of television and movies the patuas are losing their traditional audiences and are now attracting western tourists. They travel to hotels where they sell their scrolls to tourists as “folk Art”. The ability of indigenous Art survive. Kalighat paintings Kalighat paintings was a product of the changing urban society of the nineteenth century Calcutta. With the growing importance of the Kalighat temple as a pilgrimage centre in the British, Calcutta the scroll painters and the potters who had migrated from rural Bengal and settled in and around temple, practised this type of paintings. They used water colour and painted on mill paper with brushes made from squirrel and calf hair. Kalighat paintings started on a religious note with the subjects being Hindu gods and goddesses a long with their incarnations. However over time, social sentiments came to be expressed in the medium of paper and colours. Kalighat paintings was the first of its kind in the Indian sub content and addressed customers directly.
There were romantic depictions of women. There were satirical paintings lampooning the hypocrisies of the newly rich and the changing role of men and women after the introduction of education for women. While some critics opine that Kalighat painting style has distinctive British influence others hold that local technique and social settings are entirely responsible for the kalighat style, of The figures depicted in Madhubani paintings. Fishes in madhubani for instance represents good luck, fertility and serpents are identified as divine protectors. The skill has been handed down the generate mainly by women, in the families of the region, and hence the traditional designs and patterns are widely maintained madhabani paintings has remained confined to a compact geographical area, and the content and the style have largely remained the same. That is reason this has been given the G-I(Geographical indication) status. Madhubani paintings got national recognition in 1970 when the president of India gave an award to Jagadan devi of jitbarpur village near madhubani. Some of the famous names associated with this style of paintings in recent times are Bharti Dayal, ‘Ganaga Devi’, Bua Devi, Sita Devi etc. Patua art Pauta art of Bengal goes back some 1000 years. It is an art form native to west Bengal . Patuas like the kumars started out in the village tradition as painters of scrolls or pats telling the popular mangal stories of the gods and goddesses. The paintings are traditionally made from handmade paper backed with cloth, scrolls are typically 8 to 15 feet long and contain vibrantly painted scenes of a mythology or history stories indigenous plants and minerals are still used to create the paint including turmeric, vermillion and burnt rice. As the scroll is unrolled frame the artists narrates mythology and historical stories through song. Which typically lasts five to fifteen minutes. Patua scroll painters wander from village. The village singing stories about pictures depicted in their scrolls and make a living. The stories also depict Hindu saints and Muslim saints with changing times, the patuas have Jadipatia This form of paintings is practised in Dumka district of the state. Artists make the narrative scrolls called the “ Jado” or Jadopatia for the “ Santhals” of Dumka district, depict the santhal creation myth, the Tiger God and scenes from the afterlife, originally drawn from natural inks and colours. These paintings are belived to have magical and healing powers. They are used as visuals aids by the story telling Jadopatia painters. This is a languishing art. With great difficult we have been able to prove it. Kalamkari paintings As the name suggests kalamkari is the art of painting with a kalam i.e, a pen which is sharp pointed bamboo that regulates flow of colour. The art of paintings using organic dyes on cloth was popular in several parts of India, but this style of kalamkari flourished at kalahasti( 80miles North of Chennai) and at Masulipatnam(200miles East of Hyderabad). The kalamkari tradition chiefly consists of scenes from Hindu mythology figures of deities with rich boarder embellishments were created for the temple. In Masulipatnam the weavers were involved in the block printings art, while at kalahasti, the Balojas( a caste involved in making bangles) took this art. Owing to Muslims rule in Golconda, the Masulipatnam kalamkari was influenced by Persian motifs and widely adopted to suit their taste. The outlines and main features are done using hand carved blocks. The finer details are later done using pen. The kalahasti tradition which developed in the temple region mostly concentrated on themes form Hindu mythology. Epics( Ramayana, Mahabharata) images of gods and heroes. The dyes are obtained by extracting colours form parts of plants- roots, leaves, along with mineral salts of iron, tin, copper and alum etc. In the 20th century that this art started getting the attention and appreciation that it deserves. Warli paintings Maharastra is known for its warli folk paintings. Warli is the name of the largest tribe found on the Northern out skirts of Mumbai in western India. Warlis carry on painting tradition going back to 2500 to 3000 B.C. their mural paintings are similar to those done between 500 and 10,000 B.C. in Bhimbetka, M.P, Rudimentary in style the wall paintings use a very basic graphic vocabulary involving a circle, a triangle and square. The circle and
triangle are drawn from observation of nature . the circle representing the sun the moon, and the triangle could have been derived from the shape of mountains and conical shaped trees. The square, seems to be a human invention, indicating a sacred enclosure or a piece of land. The central motif in each ritual paintings is the square , know as the chauk or chaukat. Two triangles joined at the tip are used to represent human and animal bodies. Women are mainly engaged in the creation of these paintings. These paintings do not depict mythological characters or images of deities, but depict social life. Images of human beings and animals along with scenes from daily life are created in loose rhythmic pattern. These tribal paintings are traditionally done in the homes of warlis. Painted white on mud walls, they are pretty close to prehistoric cave paintings in execution and usually dedicates scenes of hunting, dancing, sowing and harvesting. Thangka paintings Traditionally Thangka paintings are not only valued for their aesthetic beauty, but primarily for their use as aids in meditational practices. Practitioners use thanks to develop a clear visualization of a particular deity. Strengthening their concentration, forging a link between themselves and the deity. Historically thangkas were also used as teaching tools to convey the lives of various masters. A teacher or lama would travel around giving talks on dharma, carrying with him large thangka scrolls to illustrate his stories. The sacred Art of thangka paintings dates back to the 7th century originating in Nepal it evolved in to several schools of paintings. There are 3 types of thangkas one depicts the life of Buddha, his birth, his disillusionment with life, his search for enlightenment and his understanding of life. * The second is more abstract representing Buddhist beliefs of life and death; on example could be wheel of life which symbolises the Buddhist belief of transmigratory existence. * The third type consists of paintings that are often used as a tool for meditation or as offerings to the deities. These paintings are usually done against a white background. The colours used in Thangka have special significance. White- serenity, Golden- birth or life, enlightenment, and parinir vana, red- for the intensity of passion, n-both love and hatred, black- anger, yellow- compassion, green- consciousness. The colours used in making a thangka are all vegetable or mineral dyes extracted from nature.
Heritage Sites of India The Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage was adopted on 17 November 1997 following the General Conference of the UNESCO held from 17 October 1972 to 21 November 1972. India’s first two sites inscribed on the list at the Seventh Session of the World Heritage held in 1983 were the Agra Fort and the Ajanta Caves. Over the years, 30 more sites have been inscribed, the latest being the Rani ki vav in Gujarat and Great Himalayan National Park from Himachal Pradesh in 2014. Of these 32 sites, 25 are cultural sites and the other seven are natural sites. A tentative list of further sites/properties submitted by India for recognition includes 51 sites. The cultural sites in India are marked by their brilliant craftsmanship on stone. Most of the temples of India which are inscribed on this list are built in stone, without any mortar and with sculpture carved on it. India is well known for its cultural heredity and India has 25 cultural sites which are recognised by UNESCO
There are 32 World Heritage Sites in India that are recogni sed by th e Unit ed Nation s Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as on 2014. These are
places of imp ortance of cu ltur al or natural herit age as describ ed in the UNESCO World Heritage Conventi on, establish ed in 1972. Ag ra Fo rt Near the gardens of the Taj Mahal stands the important 16th-century Mughal monument known as the Red Fort of Agra. This powerful fortress of red sandstone encompasses, within its 2.5-km-long enclosure walls, the imperial city of the Mughal rulers. It comprises many fairy-tale palaces, such as the Jahangir Palace and the Khas Mahal, built by Shah Jahan; audience halls, such as the Diwan-i-Khas; and two very beautiful mosques.
Aj ant a Caves The first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. During the Gupta period (5th and 6th centuries A.D.), many more richly decorated caves were added to the original group. The paintings and sculptures of Ajanta, considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, have had a considerable artistic influence.
Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi On a hill overlooking the plain and about 40 km from Bhopal, the site of Sanchi comprises a group of Buddhist monuments (monolithic pillars, palaces, temples and monasteries) all in different states of conservation most of which date back to the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. It is the oldest Buddhist sanctuary in existence and was a major Buddhist centre in India until the 12th century A.D.
Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeolog ical Park A concentration of largely unexcavated archaeological, historic and living cultural heritage properties cradled in an impressive landscape which includes prehistoric (chalcolithic) sites, a hill fortress of an early Hindu capital, and remains of the 16th-century capital of the state of Gujarat. The site also includes, among other vestiges, fortifications, palaces, religious buildings, residential precincts, agricultural structures and water installations, from the 8th to 14th centuries. The Kalikamata Temple on top of Pavagadh Hill is considered to be an important shrine, attracting large numbers of pilgrims throughout the year. The site is the only complete and unchanged Islamic pre-Mughal city.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, formerly known as Victoria Terminus Station, in Mumbai, is an outstanding example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India, blended with themes deriving from Indian traditional architecture. The building, designed by the British architect F. W. Stevens, became the symbol of Bombay as the ‘Gothic City’ and the major international mercantile port of India. The terminal was built over 10 years, starting in 1878, according to a High Victorian Gothic design based on late medieval Italian models. Its remarkable stone dome, turrets, pointed arches and eccentric ground plan are close to traditional Indian palace architecture. It is an outstanding example of the meeting of two cultures, as British architects worked with Indian craftsmen to include Indian architectural tradition and idioms thus forging a new style unique to Bombay.
Churches and Convents of Goa The churches and convents of Goa, the former capital of the Portuguese Indies – particularly the Church of Bom Jesus, which contains the tomb of St Francis-Xavier – illustrate the evangelization of Asia. These monuments were influential in spreading forms of Manueline, Mannerist and Baroque art in all the countries of Asia where missions were established.
Elephanta Caves The 'City of Caves', on an island in the Sea of Oman close to Bombay, contains a collection of rock art linked to the cult of Shiva. Here, Indian art has found one of its most perfect expressions, particularly the huge high reliefs in the main cave.
Ellora Caves These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more than 2 km, were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad, in Maharashtra. Ellora, with its uninterrupted sequence of monuments dating from A.D. 600 to 1000, brings the civilization of ancient India to life. Not only is the Ellora complex a
unique artistic creation and a technological exploit but, with its sanctuaries devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, it illustrates the spirit of tolerance that was characteristic of ancient India.
Fatehpur Sikri Built during the second half of the 16th century by the Emperor Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri (the City of Victory) was the capital of the Mughal Empire for only some 10 years. The complex of monuments and temples, all in a uniform architectural style, includes one of the largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid.
Great Li ving Chola Temples The Great Living Chola Temples were built by kings of the Chola Empire, which stretched over all of south India and the neighbouring islands. The site includes three great 11th- and 12th-century Temples: the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. The Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram, built by Rajendra I, was completed in 1035. Its 53-m vimana (sanctum tower) has recessed corners and a graceful upward curving movement, contrasting with the straight and severe tower at Thanjavur. The Airavatesvara temple complex, built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram features a 24-m vimana and a stone image of Shiva. The temples testify to the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting.
Group o f Monuments at Hampi The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built Dravidian temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the Deccan Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned.
Group o f Monuments at Mahabalipuram This group of sanctuaries, founded by the Pallava kings, was carved out of rock along the Coromandel coast in the 7th and 8th centuries. It is known especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots), mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs such as the famous 'Descent of the Ganges', and the temple of Rivage, with thousands of sculptures to the glory of Shiva.
Group o f Monuments at Pattadakal Pattadakal, in Karnataka, represents the high point of an eclectic art which, in the 7th and 8th centuries under the Chalukya dynasty, achieved a harmonious blend of architectural forms from northern and southern India. An impressive series of nine Hindu temples, as well as a Jain sanctuary, can be seen there. One mas terpiece from the group stands out – the Temple of Virupaksha, built c. 740 by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her husband's victory over the kings from the South.
Hill Forts o f Rajasthan The serial site, situated in the state of Rajastahan, includes six majestic forts in Chittorgarh; Kumbhalgarh; Sawai Madhopur; Jhalawar; Jaipur, and Jaisalmer. The ecclectic architecture of the forts, some up to 20 kilometres in circumference, bears testimony to the power of the Rajput princely states that flourished in the region from the 8th to the 18th centuries. Enclosed within defensive walls are major urban centres, palaces, trading centres and other buildings including temples that often predate the fortifications within which developed an elaborate courtly culture that supported learning, music and the arts. Some of the urban centres enclosed in the fortifications have survived, as have many of the site's temples and other sacred buildings. The forts use the natural defenses offered by the landscape: hills, deserts, rivers, and dense forests. They also feature extensive water harvesting structures, largely still in use today.
Humayun's Tomb , Delhi This tomb, built in 1570, is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent. It inspired several major architectural innovations, culminating in the construction of the Taj Mahal.
Hajuraho Group of Monuments The temples at Khajuraho were built during the Chandella dynasty, which reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. Only about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups and belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a perfect balance between architecture and sculpture. The Temple of Kandariya is decorated with a profusion of sculptures that are among the greatest masterpieces of Indian art.
Mahabodh i Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is one of the four holy sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and particularly to the attainment of Enlightenment. The first temple was built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C., and the present temple dates from the 5th or 6th centuries. It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely in brick, still standing in India, from the late Gupta period.
Mountain Railways of India This site includes three railways. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway was t he first, and is still the most outstanding, example of a hill passenger railway. Opened in 1881, its design applies bold and ingenious engineering solutions to the problem of establishing an effective rail link across a mountainous terrain of great beauty. The construction of the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 46-km long metre-gauge single-track railway in Tamil Nadu State was first proposed in 1854, but due to the difficulty of the mountainous location the work only started in 1891 and was completed in 1908. This railway, scaling an elevation of 326 m to 2,203 m, represented the latest technology of the time. The Kalka Shimla Railway, a 96-km long, single track working rail link built in the mid-19th century to provide a service to the highland town of Shimla is emblematic of the technical and material efforts to disenclave mountain populations through the railway. All three railways are still fully operational.
UNESCO has recognised 32 world heritage sites in India which has cultural and environmental importance in the country.
Qutb Minar and its Monum ents, Delhi Built in the early 13th century a few kilometres south of Delhi, the red sandstone tower of Qutb Minar is 72.5 m high, tapering from 2.75 m in diameter at its peak to 14.32 m at its base, and alternating angular and rounded flutings. The surrounding archaeological area contains funerary buildings, notably the magnificent Alai-Darwaza Gate, the masterpiece of Indo-Muslim art (built in 1311), and two mosques, including the Quwwatu'l-Islam, the oldest in northern India, built of materials reused from some 20 Brahman temples
Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat Rani-ki-Vav, on the banks of the Saraswati River, was initially built as a memorial to a king in the 11th century AD. Stepwells are a distinctive form of subterranean water resource and storage s ystems on the Indian subcontinent, and have been constructed since the 3rd millennium BC. They evolved over time from what was basically a pit in sandy soil towards elaborate multi-storey works of art and architecture. Rani-ki-Vav was built at the height of craftsmens’ ability in stepwell construction and the Maru-Gurjara architectural style, reflecting mastery of this complex technique and great beauty of detail and proportions.
Red Fort Complex The Red Fort Complex was built as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad – the new capital of the fifth Mughal Emperor of India, Shah Jahan. Named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone, it is adjacent to an older fort, the Salimgarh, built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546, with which it forms the Red Fort Complex. The private apartments consist of a row of pavilions connected by a continuous water channel, known as the Nahr-iBehisht (Stream of Paradise).
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are in the foothills of the Vindhyan Mountains on the southern edge of the central Indian plateau. Within massive sandstone outcrops, above comparatively dense forest, are five clusters of natural rock shelters, displaying paintings that appear to date from the Mesolithic Period right through to the historical period. The cultural traditions of the inhabitants of the twenty-one villages adjacent to the site bear a strong resemblance to those represented in the rock paintings.
Sun Temple, Konârak On the shores of the Bay of Bengal, bathed in the rays of the rising sun, the temple at Konarak is a monumental representation of the sun god Surya's chariot; its 24 wheels are decorated with symbolic designs and it is led by a team of six horses. Built in the 13th century, it is one of India's most famous Brahman sanctuaries.
Taj Mahal An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by order of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favourite wife, the Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage.
The Jantar Mantar, Jaipu r The Jantar Mantar, in Jaipur, is an astronomical observation site built in the early 18th century. It includes a set of some 20 main fixed instruments. They are monumental examples in masonry of known instruments but which in many cases have specific characteristics of their own. Designed for the observation of astronomical positions with the naked eye, they embody several architectural and instrumental innovations. This is the most significant, most comprehensive, and the best preserved of India's historic observatories. It is an expression of the astronomical skills and cosmological concepts of the court of a scholarly prince at the end of the Mughal period.
Great Himalayan National Park Cons ervation A rea This National Park in the western part of the Himalayan Mountains in the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh is characterized by high alpine peaks, alpine meadows and riverine forests. The 90,540 ha property includes the upper mountain glacial and snow meltwater sources of several rivers, and the catchments of water supplies that are vital to millions of downstream users. The GHNPCA protects the monsoon-affected forests and alpine meadows of the Himalayan front ranges. It is part of the Himalaya biodiversity hotspot and includes twenty-five forest types along with a rich assemblage of fauna species, several of which are threatened. This gives the site outstanding significance for biodiversity conservation.
Kaziranga National Park In the heart of Assam, this park is one of the last areas in eastern India undisturbed by a human presence. It is inhabited by the world's largest population of one-horned rhinoceroses, as well as many mammals, including tigers, elephants, panthers and bears, and thousands of birds.
Keoladeo National Park This former duck-hunting reserve of the Maharajas is one of the major wintering areas for large numbers of aquatic birds from Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, China and Siberia. Some 364 species of birds, including the rare Siberian crane, have been recorded in the park.
Manas Wild life Sanctuary On a gentle slope in the foothills of the Himalayas, where wooded hills give way to alluvial grasslands and tropical forests, the Manas sanctuary is home to a great variety of wildlife, including many endangered species, such as the tiger, pygmy hog, Indian rhinoceros and Indian elephant.
Nanda Devi and Valley o f Flow ers National Parks Nestled high in West Himalaya, India’s Valley of Flowers National Park is renowned for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and outstanding natural beauty. This richly diverse area is also home to rare and endangered animals, including the Asiatic black bear, snow leopard, brown bear and blue sheep. The gentle landscape of the Valley of Flowers National Park complements the rugged mountain wilderness of Nanda Devi National Park. Together they encompass a unique transition zone between the mountain ranges of the Zanskar and Great Himalaya, praised by mountaineers and botanists for over a century and in Hindu mythology for much longer.
Sundarbans Nation al Park The Sundarbans covers 10,000 km2 of land and water (more than half of it in India, the rest in Bangladesh) in the Ganges delta. It contains the world's largest area of mangrove forests. A number of rare or endangered species live in the park, including tigers, aquatic mammals, birds and reptiles.
Western Ghats Older than the Himalaya mountains, the mountain chain of the Western Ghats represents geomorphic features of immense importance with unique biophysical and ecological processes. The site’s high montane for est ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon weather pattern. Moderating the tropical climate of the region, the site presents one of the best examples of the monsoon system on the planet. It also has an exceptionally high level of biological diversity and endemism and is recognized as one of the world’s eight ‘hottest hotspots’ of biological diversity. The forests of the site include some of the best representatives of non-equatorial tropical evergreen forests anywhere and are home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna, bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species.
Qutb Minar and its Monum ents, Delhi Built in the early 13th century a few kilometres south of Delhi, the red sandstone tower of Qutb Minar is 72.5 m high, tapering from 2.75 m in diameter at its peak to 14.32 m at its base, and alternating angular and rounded flutings. The surrounding archaeological area contains funerary buildings, notably the magnificent Alai-Darwaza Gate, the masterpiece of Indo-Muslim art (built in 1311), and two mosques, including the Quwwatu'l-Islam, the oldest in northern India, built of materials reused from some 20 Brahman temples
Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat Rani-ki-Vav, on the banks of the Saraswati River, was initially built as a memorial to a king in the 11th century AD. Stepwells are a distinctive form of subterranean water resource and storage s ystems on the Indian subcontinent, and have been constructed since the 3rd millennium BC. They evolved over time from what was basically a pit in sandy soil towards elaborate multi-storey works of art and architecture. Rani-ki-Vav was built at the height of craftsmens’ ability in stepwell construction and the Maru-Gurjara architectural style, reflecting mastery of this complex technique and great beauty of detail and proportions. Designed as an inverted temple highlighting the sanctity of water, it is divided into seven levels of stairs with sculptural panels of high artistic quality; more than 500 principle sculptures and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological and secular imagery, often referencing literary works. The fourth level is the deepest and leads into a rectangular tank 9.5 m by 9.4 m, at a depth of 23 m. The well is located at the westernmost end of the property and consists of a shaft 10 m in diameter and 30 m deep.
Red Fort Complex The Red Fort Complex was built as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad – the new capital of the fifth Mughal
Emperor of India, Shah Jahan. Named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone, it is adjacent to an older fort, the Salimgarh, built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546, with which it forms the Red Fort Complex. The private apartments consist of a row of pavilions connected by a continuous water channel, known as the Nahr-i-Behisht (Stream of Paradise). The Red Fort is considered to represent the zenith of Mughal creativity which, under the Shah Jahan, was brought to a new level of refinement. The planning of the palace is based on Islamic prototypes, but each pavilion reveals architectural elements typical of Mughal building, reflecting a fusion of Persian, Timurid and Hindu traditions The Red Fort’s innovative planning and architectural style, including the garden design, strongly influenced later buildings and gardens in Rajasthan, Delhi, Agra and further afield.
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are in the foothills of the Vindhyan Mountains on the southern edge of the central Indian plateau. Within massive sandstone outcrops, above comparatively dense forest, are five clusters of natural rock shelters, displaying paintings that appear to date from the Mesolithic Period right through to the historical period. The cultural traditions of the inhabitants of the twenty-one villages adjacent to the site bear a strong resemblance to those represented in the rock paintings.
Sun Temple, Konârak On the shores of the Bay of Bengal, bathed in the rays of the rising sun, the temple at Konarak is a monumental representation of the sun god Surya's chariot; its 24 wheels are decorated with symbolic designs and it is led by a team of six horses. Built in the 13th century, it is one of India's most famous Brahman sanctuaries.
Taj Mahal An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by order of th e Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favourite wife, the Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage.
The Jantar Mantar, Jaipu r The Jantar Mantar, in Jaipur, is an astronomical observation site built in the early 18th century. It includes a set of some 20 main fixed instruments. They are monumental examples in masonry of known instruments but which in many cases have specific characteristics of their own. Designed for the observation of astronomical positions with the naked eye, they embody several architectural and instrumental innovations. This is the most significant, most comprehensive, and the best preserved of India's historic observatories. It is an expression of the astronomical skills and cosmological concepts of the court of a scholarly prince at the end of the Mughal period.
Indo Islamic architecture Indo-Islamic Architecture encompasses a wide range of styles from various backgrounds that helped shape the architecture of the Indian subcontinent from the advent of Islam in the Indian subcontinent around the 7th century. It has left influences on modern Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi architecture. Both secular and religious buildings are influenced by Indo-Islamic architecture which exhibit Indian, Islamic, Persian, Central Asian, Arabic and Ottoman Turkish influences, many of which themselves were influenced by
Indian architecture through the spread of Indian culture before the advent of Islam. This style of architecture saw the following features: Arch and Dome method used Minars also seen Mortar used as cementing agent No human representation Spaciousness, Massiveness and breadth Calligraphy and Arabesque technique Arabesque Method Geometricised vegetal ornament ; continuous stem which splits Leafy stem which eventually merge into root stem Figural representation of animals and humans strongly discouraged Use of geometry for drawing symmetrical patterns Jali-work on the walls ( Signifies Light in Islam) Water – Courtyard pools, fountains etc and Mirages Charbagh Style ; Peitradura Technique
Delhi Sultanate Style The Delhi Sultanate's greatest contribution to Indian fine arts was the introduction of Islamic architectural features, including true domes and arches, and the integration of Indian and Islamic styles of architecture. Some of the major features of the Delhi Sultanate Style are:Imperial and Provincial Slave Dynasty Ilbari Style / Mamluk Style Existing structure into Mosque Quwwat ul Islam mosque – Jain Temple Arhai Din Ka Johmpra Qutub Minar – Hindu Temple Khilji Seljyuk Red Sandstone and Arch and Dome method Mortar as the cementing agent Alai Darwaza – Alaunddin Khilji (Half Dome) Siri Fort. They established a city called siri near Delhi Tughluqs Grey Sand stone Crisis Period Focus on Straight lines rather than domes Baltars – Slant Lines combining the arch and Lintel technique 3 Cities Tughluquabad -GT Jahanpura -MBT Feroz shah Kotla -FST
Lodhi Crisis Period continued Double Dome concept was introduced Most of the work was in Tomb Making Hard based – Octagonal – 15m Diameter supported by a verandah Sikanadar Lodhi established the city of ________ and also made it his capital Repair works on Qutub minar
Delhi Indraprashta – 1705 7 cities ofDelhi
Lal Kot or Qila Rai Pithora 1060 AD Siri by AK Tughluqabad – 1321-23 Jahanpanah – Mid 14th Ferozabad 1354 Shergadh/ Dilli Shershahi 1534 Shahjahanabad 17th Century
Provincial Bengal School BB – Bricks and Black Marble Focus on massive buildings rather than decoration Kadam Rasul Mosque – Gaur , Bengal ; Adina Masjid Pandua Bengal Malwa School Absence of Minar in the Mosque Large Window and Wall Matt Arch with pillar and beams – Well designed stairways Rani Rupati Pavilion ; Ashrafi Mahal ; Jahaj Mahal, Mandu UP, Mandu Fort Jaunpur School Sharqi Style – No Minar Bold and forceful Character expressed -Huge and Imposing Atalo Masjid ; Babri Masjid
Bijapur School Adil Shahi - 3 arched Facet Bulbuous Domes Chajja on the Corners Ceilings without any apparent support Use of Iron Clamps and Strong Mortar Rich Stone Carvings
Mughal Architecture Mughal architecture is an architectural style developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries throughout the ever changing extent of their empire in Medieval India. It was an amalgam of Islamic, Persian,Turkic and Indian architecture. Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation. Few major features seen in the same are: Babur Humayun Not major Contributors Babur 2 mosques – Panipat and Rohilkhand Humayun Foundations of Dinpanah - 1534 Shershah Qila e Qunha GT Road Sher Shah Tomb at Bihar
Akbar 1556 – 1602 Agra Fort Red sandstone, initiated by Akbar Most of the construction done by ??? Mosti Masjid – Built by ? Diwan e Aam and Diwan e Khas Jehangir Mahal Char Bagh Style Harams – place where captured women were kept . Akabr’s haram had almost 5000 Women Fatehpur Sikri Fort
Buland Darwaza Panch Mahal and Jodha Bhai Palace Salim Chisti’s tomb – Jali work intricate
Jehangir Akbar’s tomb near Sikandra – Agra Itmad ud Daulah’s tomb by Noor Jahan – Agra Peitra Dura –Large Scale Complete use of white marble seen Moti Masjid –Lahore Own Tomb at Lahore
Shah Jahan Taj Mahal ( Original name of Mumtaz Mahal ?) Red fort at Delhi, Moti msjid inside Agra Fort Shalimar Bagh, Lahore Jama Masjid Shahjahanabad Peacock Throne Arabesque, Peitra Dura and Mosque building technique reached its climax
Au rag zeb Architecture Declined and Lost patronage Bibi ka Maqbara , Aurangabad Badshahi Mosque
Sikh Architecture Sikh Architecture, is a style of architecture that is characterized with values of progressiveness, exquisite intricacy, austere beauty and logical flowing lines. Due to its progressive style, it is constantly evolving into many newly developing branches with new contemporary styles. Although Sikh architecture was initially developed within Sikhism its style has been used in many non-religious buildings due to its beauty. 300 years ago, Sikh architecture was distinguished for its many curves and straight lines. Some of the most common features amongst these are:-
Harminder Sahib 1764
Foundation by Guru Ram Das and completion by Guru Arjun Dev
Mughal Influence
Features
Multiplicity of Chatris
Fluted dome with brass and copper covering
Shallow corners
Modern Indian Architecture Modern Indian Architecture largely includes the work of the Indian colonisers. Under colonial rule, architecture became an emblem of power, designed to endorse the patron. Numerous outsiders invaded India and created architectural styles reflective of their ancestral and adopted homes. The European colonizers created architecture that symbolized their mission of conquest, dedicated to the state or religion. The British, French, Dutch and the Portuguese were the main powers that colonized India.
Portuguese The style brought in by the Portuguese include:-
Iberian style
Brick is the main material with wooden roof and stairs
No new structures,, just reinterpretation of western
Paltering and carvings are prominent
Old Goa Church
Gothic
Red Sandstone
Mystical structures
British
Indo gothic and Neo Roman Styles
Indo Gothic
Indo Sarcenic Style
Hybrid of Mughal with Gothic and Hindu Style
Features
Elaborate and Large Construction
British Engineering Standards – Use of Steel Iron and Concrete
Thin Walls + Pointe Arches + Large Windows
Crucified Ground Plan
St Pauls Cathedral Kolkata
Victoria Memorial, Kolkata
Chepauk Palace
Lakshmi Vilas Palace
Gateway of India
Neo Roman
Neo Classical Style
Edwin Lutyen and Edward Baker
Anonymous construction – No particular dominant feature – Its a mix of all style
Circular building and unperturbed domes
Simplicity and utility compromised
Laurie Baker
Merged with building; Utilised locally available buildings
Filler Slab Construction
Ventilation and Thermal comfort arrangement in buildings
Revolutionised mass housing in Kerala – Architect of the poor
Folk dance forms of India Folk dances are the various tribal and religious dances performed on various harvest occasions and other festive seasons. There are more than a 100 folk dances in our country which add vibrancy and colour to our diverse nation. Not only that some of the folk dances have a satirical take on various social issues and some are intent on spreading social or political messages by the means of their act.
Gaur d ance Gaur means Bison, and in this dance, the dancers mimic the movements of a ferocious bison such as charging, tossing of horns, hurling wisps of grass into the air etc. This dance is performed in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh.
Pandavani dance Pandavani dance and music is a folk singing style of musical narration of tales from ancient epic Mahabharata with musical accompaniment and Bhima as hero. It is a folk dance of Chhattisgarh. Teejan Bai is a known Pandavani artist.
Chhau dance Chhau means a mask. Chhau dance probably originated as a martial art, and performers, apart from a mask, hold swords and shields and performing vigorous movements and leaps. This is a popular dance in Odisha, Bihar and Bengal. The stages are decorated and brightly lit by torches, lanterns and flickering oil lamps. The musical instruments used are the Dhol, Nagara and Shehnai. The themes often revolve around mythological heroes and warriors from the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
Jatra dance Jatra dance is a folk dance of West Bengal & Bangladesh. The name literally means ‘going’ or ‘journey’. It is performing art combining acting, songs, music and dance. The dance form developed from ceremonial functions conducted before setting out on a journey such as the processions brought out in honour of various deities.
Bidesia dance It is a popular form of dance drama prevalent in the Bhojpuri-speaking region of Bihar. Bhikari Thakur is believed to be the creator of these dramas. It dealt with many social issues, contradictory topics & conflict between the traditional and the modern, the urban and rural, and the rich and the poor. In Bidesia, the female roles are also played by the male actor-dancers. The plays and style of theatre is very popular for their rhythmic language, sweet songs and appealing music.
Bihu dance Bihu is a popular folk dance of Assam. It is an integral part of the Bihu festival in April performed after crop harvest. Young men and girls perform the Bihu dance together to the accompaniment of drums and pipes. Love forms the subject matter of the songs that are sung during the performance. The dances are performed in circles or parallel rows.
Jat-Jatin d ance It is one of the most admired folk dances of North Bihar (including the Mithila and Koshi region). It is normally performed in a couple. The original theme of the dance explains the story of the lovers Jat and Jatin, who were separated and living in difficult situations.
But now through many social situations are also discussed like natural calamities situation like droughts and floods. Many socially concern topics like poverty, sorrow, love; all find its expression in this dance.
Cheraw dance Cheraw is also known as Bamboo Dance. It is a folk dance of Mizoram, in which the dancers move by stepping alternately in and out of the pairs of horizontal bamboos. Thus, a grid of bamboo poles is an integral part of this dance. The performers tap the bamboos open and closed in; they tap the bamboos open and closed in rhythmic beats. The dancers step in and out of the squares formed by the bamboos with ease and grace. The pattern and stepping of the dance resemble the movements of birds, swaying of trees
Dumhal dance Dumhal dance is performed by the men folk of the Wattal tribe of Kashmir. This dance is performed with long colourful robes, tall conical caps. Dumhal dance is accompanied by songs which the performers themselves sing. Performers of this dance place a banner into the ground at a fixed location. They begin to dance around this banner.
Kariyala dance It is a popular art form of Himachal Pradesh. The plays celebrate local traditions of dress, worship, and morality, by telling stories of ordinary life using a range of familiar characters. Music, dance, and satirical humour enliven the performances, which sometimes last all night. There is also a religious element with a chorus that sings praises to the gods. This form of shows present sharp and pungent satires about the bureaucracy and social issues very boldly.
Bhangra dance Bhangra is a form of dance-oriented folk music that has now evolved into a pop sensation. It is the folk dance of the agriculturist class of Punjab. Traditionally this dance is associated with the harvesting season and was performed on a full moon day. People sing Boliyaan (lyrics or couplets) in the Punjabi language. Dhol is an integral part of Bhangra. Bhangra has eventually become a part of social occasions including weddings Gidda Dance Gidda is a female counterpart of the Bhangra, performed by women and girls.
Langvir dance Langvir nritya is a folk dance form of Uttarakhand. The acrobatic dance movements are performed only by males. Dancer climbs a pole and balances himself on his navel on the top of the pole. To the accompaniment of drum beats and music, he balances skilfully and rotates on his belly, performing several acrobatic stunts.
Garba d ance The word Garba comes from the Sanskrit word for womb and so implies gestation or pregnancy - life. Traditionally, the dance is performed around a clay lantern with a light inside, called a Garbha Deep. This lantern represents life; the fetus in the womb in particular. The dancers thus honor Durga, the feminine form of divinity. Garba is performed in a circle as a symbol of the Hindu view of time. The rings of dancers revolve in cycles, as time in Hinduism is cyclical. As the cycle of time revolves, from birth, to lif e, to death and again to rebirth, the only thing that is constant is the Goddess, that one unmoving symbol in the midst of all of this unending and infinite movement.
The dance symbolises that God, represented in feminine form in this case, is the only thing that remains unchanging in a constantly changing universe ( jagat). The Garbha Deep has another symbolic interpretation. The vessel itself is a symbol of the body, within whom Divinity (in the form of the Goddess) resides. Garba is danced around this symbol to honor the fact that all humans have the Divine energy of Devi within them. Garba is now being appreciated worldwide Recently Garba dance was in news for the controversy surrounding it in Gujarat with some factions wanting it to be a festival for Hindus only and, muslims were to be kept away from it
Ghoomar dance Ghoomar is a folk dance of Rajasthan and is characteristic dance of the Bhils. It is a community dance performed by groups of women on auspicious occasions. The name is derived from the word ghoomna (pirouetting).
Kalbelia dance Kalbelia dance is performed by the womenfolk hailing from the Kalbelia (friends of death) community in Rajasthan. They pursue the centuries-old profession of catching snakes and trading snake venom. The dance movements and the costumes have an uncanny resemblance to the slithery creatures. Kalbelia dance has been included in UNESCO intangible cultural heritage list. Bhavai Dance in Rajasthan, this spectacular dance form consists of veiled women dancers balancing nearly seven or nine brass pitchers as they dance dexterously, pirouetting and swaying with the soles of their feet perched on top of a glass or on the edge of a sword. Gulabo sapera was awarded padmashri for her contributions in the field of art as the creator of the kalbeliya or the serpent dance.
Nati-Folk d ance Nati in Himachal Pradesh is one of the folk dances of india. Mainly celebrated with the Losai or the New Year Festival, Nati as a Performing Art in Himachal Pradesh has a languid yet abstract sequence. Much like the slowly swaying trees, soft hilly breeze and smoothly flowing rivers, this dance too reflects the languid elegance of Himachal Pradesh. Nati folk dance recently entered Guinness book of world records as the largest folk dance in the world.
Karakattam dance It is an ancient folk dance of Tamil Nadu performed in praise of the rain goddess Mariamman. The performers balance a pot on their head. Traditionally, this dance is categorised into two types- Aatta Karakam is danced with decorated pots on the head and symbolises joy and happiness. It is mainly performed to entertain the audience. The Sakthi Karakam is performed only in temples as a spiritual offering. The pots are decorated in many ways with the help of attractive flower arrangements, topped by a moving paper parrot. The parrot rotates as the dancer moves. When men perform this dance, they balance the pots filled with uncooked rice, surrounded by a tall conical bamboo frame decorated with colourful flowers.
Drums and long pipes form the musical instruments that add vigor to the dance. They also dance standing over a plate i.e. rim of the plate, filled with water, without spilling water out of the plate while balancing the karakam on their head. Most expert artistes are from the regions of Karakattam is also very popular in countries with significant Tamil minorities such as Singapore, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.
Raut Nacha Is a dance performed by /yaduvanshis, a caste that consider themselves to be descendants of lord Krishna. For them it is as a symbol of worship to Krishna. They perform the dance at the time of 'dev udhni ekadashi'. It is believed that it is time of awakening of Gods after brief rest according to Hindu panhcang (calendar). The dance is a close resemblance of Krishna's dance or raas leela.
‘Dhol Dholak Cholam’, It is a drum dance featuring Holi . The drummers performed intricate rhythms while executing ‘Cholam’, graceful and dynamic body movements.
Puli Kali ("Puli" = tiger & "Kali" = Play) is a colorful recreational folk art from the Kerala state. It is performed by trained artists to entertain people on the occasion of onam, an annual harvest festival celebrated mainly in the Indian state of Kerala. On the fourth day of onam celebrations (Nalaam Onam), performers painted like tigers and hunters in bright yellow, red, and black dance to the beats of instruments like Udukku and Thakil. Literal meaning of Pulikali is the 'play of the tigers' hence the performance revolves around the theme of tiger hunting. The folk art is mainly practiced in Thrissur. Best place to watch the show is on the fourth day of onam, where Pulikali troupes from all over the district assemble to display their skills. The festival attracts thousands of people to the city. Pulikali is also performed during various other festive seasons. The government of India currently follows the following criteria to determine the eligibility of language to be considered for classification as “classical language”: High antiquity of its early texts/ recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years. A body of ancient literature/ texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers. The literary tradition is original and not borrowed from another speech community. The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots. It is worth noting that a question on classical languages appeared in 2014 and 2015. The questions are as follows Consider the following languages: 1) Gujarati
2) Kannada
3) telugu
Which of the following has been declared classical languages by the government? a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
The correct answer is option c
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 2, and 3
Which of the following was given the classical language status recently? a) Odia b) Konkani c) Bhojpuri d) Assamese The correct answer is option a
Mohiniattam Mohiniattam is one of the 8 classical dances of India and it belongs to Kerela.According to legends Vishnu appears as Mohini to save Lord Shiva from the demon Bhasmasura. The name Mohiniyattam may have been coined after Lord Vishnu; the main theme of the dance is love and devotion to God, with usually Vishnu or Krishna being the hero. Devadasis used to perform this in temples. It also has elements of Koothu and Kottiyattom. Mohiniyattam is a drama in dance and verse. Mohiniattam is derived from the words "Mohini" (meaning beautiful women) and "attam"(meaning dance). Mohiniattam is a solo female dance (in a single costume), where musical melody and the rhythmical swaying of the dancer from side to side and the smooth and unbroken flow of the body movement is the striking feature. The Mohiniattam dance focuses mainly on feminine moods and emotions. Usually, the theme of Mohiniattam dance is "sringara" or love. Subtle subjects of love are executed with suggestive abhinaya, subtle gestures, rhythmic footwork and lilting music. The performers of Mohiniattam dance usually wear an off-white colored sari with gold brocade borders. The Hastha Lakshandeepika is a classical text and forms the basis of hands and arms movement in Mohiniattam . A question appeared in 2014 related to Mohiniattam: Consider the following pairs: 1)
Garba : Gujarat
2)
Mohiniattam : Odisha
3)
Yakhshagana : Karnataka
Which of the following pairs is correctly matched? a)
1 only
b)
2 and 3 only
c)
1 and 3 only
d)
1,2, and 3
The answer is option c
Fairs and Festivals India is the second populous country. Religion in India is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices. The Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of some of the world's major religions; namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of the country's culture. Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both established in the country by the law and custom; the Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be a fundamental right
KumbhMela It’s a mass hindu pilgrimage where the largest congregation of humans happens at a single location to bathe in the sacred river. There are two major types of KumbhMela. 1. ArdhakumbhMela - Held Once in every 6 years 2. KumbhaMela - Held once in 12 years 3. MahaKumbhMela - Held after 12 PurnaKumbhmela The historical aspect of the KumbhMela says that there was a struggle between the TheAsuras and the Devatas for the Kumbha containing Surabhi, the Nectar. As par of the SamudraManthana, The Surabhi droplets fell at 12 major places in the world – Of these 4 places are in india – Haridwar, Ujjain, Prayag and Nashik. Mahakumbh andKumbh are held at these places where as ArdhakumbhMela is held at only two places – Haridwar and Allahabad. The rivers traditionally recognised with KumbhMela are 1. The Ganges – Haridwar 2. Ganga + Yamuna confluence – Allahabad 3. Godavari – Nashik 4. Shipra – Ujjain The KumbhMela is a One and a half monthpilgrimage at these places. Taking bath in these rivers during this time is believed to cleanse all the sins of the past. MauniAmavasyais the period when MahaKumbhaMela is celebrated.
BasantPanchami The festival is also called as Shree Panchami, a religious festival of Saraswati Puja in Hinduism. In the Sufi shrines of India it is celebrated as Sufi Basant. It’s a Spring Festival marking Saraswati Pooja and thereby Spiritual Enlightenment. The colour Yellow plays a prominent role in the celebrations. Yellow colour represents Spitritual Knowledge The festival marks a day of PitraDarpan, ie commemoration and remembrance of the ancestors. During the festival season, Mango flowers blossom indicating the start of a new Life. Spiritual and ethnic Dance, Sports, flying kitesare the major activities of Basant Panchami. The festival is celebrated extensively in Bengal, Bihar , UP. In Bihar the day is celebrated in remembrance of the founding of shrine of Deo-Sun in Auranganbad District. The shrine of Sun God is worshipped during the day. For the Sikhs the day starts with Basant Raga mainly at the Harminder Sahib, indicating a new beginning.
Shivaratri The most important festival for Shaiva belief system and Lord Shiva - one ofthe Holy trinity of the Hindu Religion. The festival is celebrated in reverence of Lord Shiva.
It is commemorated as the day of marriage of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati.MahaShivaratri is celebrated on the Krishna PakshaChaturdashi of Hindu calendar month. There happens to be Twelve Shivaratris in the year, however the MahaShivarathri is the most holy of them all. It is believed that by worshipping lord Shiva on this day, one is released from the cycle of birth and death and thus attain Moksha. The festival activities include Overnite chanting of the shiva mantras, Anoiting lingams and processions.
Holi The festival of Holi is based on the event of holikaDahan, the aunt of Prahalada and sister of Hiranyakashyapa. Holi is a two-day festival which starts on the Purnima (Full Moon day) falling in the BikramSambat Hindu Calendar. The first day is known as HolikaDahan or ChhotiHoliand the second as RangwaliHoli, Dhuleti,Dhulandi or Dhulivandan.The festival also marks the Advent of spring and end of winter. Holi is traditionally celebrated as a Festival of Colours. Holi is celebrated at the approach of the vernal equinox, on the Phalguna Purnima (Full Moon). The festival signifies the victory of good over evil, the arrival of spring, end of winter, and for many a festive day to meet others, play and laugh, forget and forgive, and repair broken relationships, and is also celebrated as a thanksgiving for a good harvest. In Barsana town of UP near Mathura, the festival is celebrated as Laath maar Holi. In the Lath Mar Holi women beat up men with sticks sing Holi songs and shout "Sri Radhey" or "Sri Krishna".
Nag Panchami Nagpanchami is a traditional festival of serpents. The worship to the Snake god is offered on the 5th day of the Lunarfortnight. Adishesha is the Snake form on whom Lord Vishnu is believed to recline during the intervals between destruction of the universe and the creation of the next. As part of the ritual Stone images of Snake are bathed in Milk, f ast is observed on this day and Brahmins are fed. The belief is that such worship provides for immunity from Snake Bites. The practices vary from region to region. In the Northwest the Akharas are cleaned, Painted Snake, Gurus are honoured with offerings. Snake Charmers are also adorned with charity. In Central India , in the famous Nagoba Temple of Nagpur, Maharashtra, food prepared as offering to the snake god is cooked in a kadai (a girdle). In the Western region, the Nagpanchami is known as Ketarpal or Kshetrapal, meaning, a protector of his domain. Bhujang is the name of the Snake known to be worshipped here. In the South, an image of snake is drawn on the floor in front of the house and milk is offered as oblation similarly the same is practiced on Stone Sculptures of Snakes.
Ganesh Chaturth i Ganesh Chaturthi is celebrated as the birthday of Lord Ganesha / Vighneshwara / Vinayaka. The festival is also known as VinayakaChaturthi and Ganeshotsav. It is celebrated on the fourth day of the bright half of Bhadrapad, as per the Hindu Calender. During the Ganesh Chaturthi festival, idols are made in great numbers.
These are usually made out of clay or metal in all sizes; some of them are even as big as 20 ft. People purchase deities of Lord Ganesha and put them in their homes and worship them for one to ten days. After this the deities are taken out majestically, through the str eets and are immersed into a river, sea or a well (especially in Maharashtra). Cultural feasts are also organized with main features like classical music and dance performances, folk dances, poetry recitations and film festivals.
Navroz The parsi new year is celebrated as JamshedNavroz. It is celebrated on the first day of the Fasli Calender, followed by the Parsi community worldwide. Nowruz marks the first day of spring or Equinoxand the beginning of the year in the Persian calendar. It is celebrated on the day of the astronomical Northward equinox, which usually occurs on March 21 or the previous/following day depending on where it is observed. The day of festival marks with the Worship at the Fire Temple. The Pravaashi idea is celebrated on the day i.e., Struggle of Goodagainst Evil.
Khordadsal It’s a Parsi festival marking the Birth of Zoaraster, the Prophet of 1 century BC. Special prayers and Jashans are also held throughout the day at various locations scred to the parsis. Clean, rangoli-strewn homes, children with vermilion spots on their foreheads, new clothes, fragrant flowers and delicious meals, all form part of the rituals. A grand feast is prepared to mark the occasion.
Mahaveera Jayanti This is a festival of Jain community marking the Birth of VardhamanaMahaveera, the 24th Theerthankara, celebrates the festival. Jains begin Pilgrimage to Jaina places –Girnar ,Palitana , Vaishali and Rajgriha. MahaveerJayanthi is a day of Intense prayer and re-propagation of Ahimsa. Large scale celebrations are conducted across the country in allJainaShirine.Mahaveera was known for his fearlessness and Honesty and Teachings. The idol of Mahavira is carried out on a chariot, in a procession called rathyatra.On the way bhajans (religious rhymes) are recited. Local statues of Mahavira are given a ceremonial bath called the abhisheka. During the day, most members of the Jain community engage in some sort of charitable act.
Good Friday Good Friday is a Christian religious holiday commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and his death at Calvary. According to traditional belief, Jesus Christ laid down life for the sake of Humanity and cleansing them of its sins. Resurrection of Jesus is celebrated on the following Sunday known as Easter Sunday. Good Friday is a prominent festival in Both Anglican and Catholic systems. As such there are no traditional celebrations on Good Friday, but Worship services, prayer and vigil services, fasting, almsgiving are conducted. Easter Eggs are distributed and a feast is conducted on the Easter Sunday.
Baisakhi Baisakhi is festival of the Sikh community. It is celebrated on the 1ST Day of the Vaishakmasa , the beginning of the Hindu Calender.
On this day the 10th Sikh Guru - Gobing Singh founded the Khalsa Path or the order of the Pure ones. Its also the New Year’s day in Punjab and the Sikh Community. The events of the festival include Music and Dance, continuous celebrations. It generally falls on the 13 or 14 April. The gathering of Aawatpauni is begun and Wheat Harvesting is initiated subsequently. Sikh devotees generally attend the Gurdwara before dawn with flowers and offerings in hands. Processions through towns are also common. In the, Nankana Sahib Procession is followed.
Gurupurab Gurupurab is the celebratory birth Anniversary of GruuGobind Singh, The 10th Sikh Guru. In 1699 Guru Gobin Singh at Anandpur Formed the Khalsa militant Fraternity. For 2 days and nights, preceding the festival, Guru Granth Sahib is read continuously from the beginning to the end .On the Day of the festival, the granthsabih is taken out in an impressive processions
Buddha Jayanti Buddha Jayanthi is celebrated on the Full moon day of Vaishaka Month. Its a celebration of Birth of Buddha , It’s the day Buddha Got Enlightenment, Attained Nirvana. All stages of Buddha on the same day but during Different Years. In the Theravada school disciples may wear white robes and only eat vegetarian food on and around Vesak.Many people also give money, food or goods to organizations that help the poor, the elderly and those who are sick. Caged animals are bought and set free to display care for all living creatures, as preached by Buddha.
Shab –e-Barat It’s a festival of light for the Islamic community and commonly also k nown as Diwali of Muslims. On this night God Registers the Actions of Men and dispenses their fate according to their Deeds . The festival falls on the 14th night of the month of Sha'aban. The festival of Shab-E-Barat is celebrated with pomp and enthusiasm by Muslims all over the world. It is considered one of the holiest nights on the Islamic Calendar
Eid al-Fitr Eid al Fitr / EidUlFitr is also known as Breaking the Fast Feast, Sugar Feast, Bayram, Hari Raya Puyasa. The day of Eid marks the End of the holy month of Ramadan. The day of Eid, therefore, falls on the first day of the month of Shawwal. It is believed that on this day Quran was revealed. It is completed with the New Moon . Prophet muhammed is believd to have laid down this day as the day of preaching and Belief. Charity is prominent activity of the festival with focus on empathy for the poor, worship, steadfastness, patience etc. Fasting is also believed by some scholars to extol fundamental distinctions, lauding the power of the spiritual realm, while acknowledging the subordination of the physical realm.
Id ulAzha / Bakrid Bakrid is also known as Festival of the Sacrifice. It honors the willingness of Abraham(Ibrahim) to sacrifice his son, as an act of submission to God's command, before God then intervened, through his angel Jibra'il and informs him that his sacrifice has already been accepted. The meat from the sacrificed animal is mainly to be divided into three parts. The family retains one third of the share; another third is given to relatives, friends and neighbors; and the remaining third is given to the poor and needy.Bakrid is celebrated on the 10th day of Zilhijia when the Haj celebrations of Mecca are rounded off by the sacrifice of goat or Camel
Muharram Muharram is the most important festival of the Shia Sect of Islam. Its also known as Festival of Piety . Muharram is celebrated on the 1st month of the Muslim year dedicated to the martyrdom of Hazrat Imam Hussein ( Grandson of Prophet Muhammed ). Hazrat Imam Died on the 10th day of Muharram while fighting the forced of Yazid.
ID - IL – MILAD / Bara Wafat/ MiladUnNabi MiladunNabi -commemorates the Prophet Muhammad's (or Mohammad's) birthday. Sunni Muslims celebrate this event on the 12th of the Islamic month of Rabi' al-awwal, while the Shi'a community celebrates it on the 17th of Rabi' al-awwal. Major activities of the festival include - Night-long prayer meetings, Marches and parades involving large crowds,Sandal rites over the symbolic footprints of the Prophet Muhammad, Festive banners and bunting on and in homes, mosques and other buildings, Communal meals in mosques and other community buildings, Meetings to listen to stories and poems (nats) about Mohammad's life, deeds and teachings, Exhibitions featuring photos of mosques in the holy cities of Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia.
Rukmini Devi Arundale Rukmini Devi Arundale (29 February 1904 – 24 February 1986) was an Indian theosophist, dancer and choreographer of the Indian classical dance form of Bharatnatyam, and an activist for animal rights and welfare. She is considered the most important revivalist in the Indian classical dance form of Bharatnatyam from its original 'sadhir' style, prevalent amongst the temple dancers, Devadasis, she also worked for the reestablishment of traditional Indian arts and crafts. Rukmini Devi features in India Today’s list of '100 People Who Shaped India. She was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1956, and Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship in 1967. She later met the prominent British theosophist Dr George Arundale who was a close associate of Annie Besant and later the principal of the Central Hindu College in Varanasi, and soon build a lasting bond with him. Rukmini Devi was nominated as a member of the Indian Parliament's Council of States in April 1952, and renominated in 1956. Keenly interested in animal welfare, she was associated with various humanitarian organisations, and as a member of the Rajya Sabha, was instrumental for the legislation for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act and for later setting up of the Animal Welfare Board of India, under her chairmanship in 1962. She remained on the board until her demise in 1986. Google Doodle pays tribute to Rukmini on her 112th birth anniversary Recently Famous exponent of Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi Yamini Krishnamurthy was conferred with Padma Vibhushan.
FOLK FESTIVALS NicobareseDance of Pig Festival The fascinating tribal group on the island of Car Nicobar — performs this during the Ossuary Feast or the Pig Festival. Dedicated to the departed head of the family, the occasion is observed with night-long dancing in the full moonlight under the swaying palms. The dancers dressed in coconut fronds step gracefully in time to traditional songs. Feasting and good food followed by a pig fight in the morning are other highlights of the celebration.
BardoChham of Arunachal Pradesh is a folk dance of Sherdukpens, a small community of West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh, BardoChham is based on the stories of good and evil. The Sherdukpens mask themselves representing the different animals and dance to show an act of fighting the evil forces.
Bihu Festival of Assam, a Harvest Dance. This joyous dance is performed by both young men and women, and is characterized by brisk dance steps, and rapid hand movement. Dancers wear traditionally colourful Clothing.
Bwisagu Bag rumba is a festival dance of the Bodos of Assam .It is the usually practicedduring Bwisagu, a Bodo festival in the VishuvaSankranti (midApril). Bwisagu begins with cow worship; then, young people reverentially bow down to their parents and elders. Teej Festival involving Teej Dance, which is a dance performed by women on the Teej festival. Women and girls enjoy themselves on outdoor swings and sing. Teeyan Festival –`Teeyan` is the women`s dance festival celebrated in allover Punjab. The dance usually takes place on the bank of any river or pond under big shady trees, where women gather. Swings are thrown over the branches and singing, swinging and dancing starts
Ancient Indian Architecture Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the result of socio-economic and geographical conditions. Different types of Indian architectural styles include a mass of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique to India. India has a great history and every dynasty and civilization which flourished on Indian sub continent has a great impact on the Indian architecture. The architectural evolution can be divided depending on the civilization and time period when they were flourished. As per historical evidences and archeologists Indian architecture can be divided into three main periods 1.Ancient 2.Medieval 3.Modern
An ci ent Ind ian Ar ch it ectur e Ancient Indian Architecture can fairly be divided into four phases 1.Harappan Art 2.Mouryan Art 3.Post Mouryan Art 4.Gupta Art 5.South Indian Art
Harappan Art : The Harappan Civilisation has significance for not only historians and archaeologists but also the common man. Though the first Harappan sites were discovered way backing 1920-21, by archaeologists Dr D R Sahni and Dr R D Banerjee (Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-Daro in Sind - both in Pakistan now) fresh sites are still being unearthed, ading insight into the rich culture of the Harappan civilization.
Some of the most striking aspects of the discoveries are the town planning and architecture, art and crafts and the social, religious and economic condition of that era. Much has been known about the town planning and architecture of the Harappan civilization. The cities boasted of well-planned roads wide and straight, houses provided with an efficient drainage system and ventilation.
Wood, Stone, Glass, Metal etc. were used
Seals made of Steatite (2”*2”) – Square
Boustrophedon and 5 symbols, Animal Motifs – Tiger, Elephant, Lion, Goat, Buffalo Etc
Terracotta Figurines – Baked Clay, Mother Goddess, Toy cart with wheels
Bronze Sculptures – Lost Wax Technique , Dancing Girl Statue at Mohenjodaro.
Other Sculptures also found – Male Torso of Red Sandstone and Bearded Preist
Pottery – RED AND BLACK POTTERY WARE – Wheel based pottery . Red colour used to paint the background and black colour was used to put designs on the red Back ground – trees, Animals, patterns and Human Figures
Ornaments – Beads, precious stones, bones and even baked clay
Cotton spinning and wool also seen in Harappa
Town Planning – Baked Bricks, Citadel system, Two Storeyed buildings and even Public buildingsGREAT BAT, GRANARIES, ROADS, DRAINAGE
Maury an Art The art and architecture of the Mauryan Empire constitutes the culminating point of the progress of Indian art. The period was marked by mature use of stone and production of masterpieces. Classification: The Mauryan period art and architecture, except that of the relics of the palace of Chandragupta Maurya at Pataliputra, is mainly Asokan. It can be classified into Stupas, Pillars, Caves, Palaces and Pottery. Had both Court Art and Popular Art with pillar/Stupas and Caves, Sculptures, pottery respectively
Pillars
Motif – Abacus – Capital – Shaft
Motif – Animal
Abacus – Has Inscriptions – Either Circular or Square
Capital – Lotus or Bell shaped
Shaft – Single Stone , Hence Monolith
Outside Influence
Bell Shaped Capitals – Persian
Made of Chunar Sand Stone, Edicts present on Pillar
Mauryan are Monolith, Achamenian are not Monolith
Achamenian are no independently erected Laura Nandgarh - Champaran, Bihar & Sarnath near Varanasi
Stupas:
Funeral Cumulus in which ashes of the dead are buried
Buddhist Monument which is hemispherical in shape with Buddha’s relics and ashes inside
Stupas were originally built after the death of Buddha
8 stupas are over Buddha’s Relics and the 9th has the vessels in which the relics were deposited
Core of the stupa is made with unburnt brick and the outer surface is made with burnt brick + Thick layer of Plaster
Sanchi – MP (Asoka)
Barhut Stupa – MP (Sunga)
Priprahwa in UP is the Oldest Stupa
Popular Art Forms Caves:
Beginning of Rock Cut
Features Added
Polishing inside
Artistic Gateways
Barabar Caves & Nagarjuni Caves ( 4+3 ; 7 sisters )
Used as Viharas in Mauryan age
Given to Jain Monks of the Ajivika Sect
Sculptures:
Yaksha and Yakshini
Folk Religion – Worship
Yaksha found in UP and Pawaya near Gwalior
Yakshini found near Didarganj, Bihar
3 religion
Buddhist sculptures on Stupas
24 Theerthankaras associated with yakshini
Pottery
NBPW
Black colour with highly lustrous polish
Luxury ware
Highest level and quality of pottery making
Cultural development during Gupta period The last phase of ancient Indian history starts in early fourth century A.D. and ends in about the 8th A.D. The Guptas built a strong and powerful kingdom and under the political unity and state patronage that was provided by them, cultural activities increased manifold.
You will recall that following the Greek invasion, various art forms in India had been markedly influenced by Graeco-Roman styles. This art mainly depicted the Buddha or Buddhist thought. But during the Gupta period art became more creative and Hindu gods and goddesses als o came to be portrayed. The artistic achievement of the age is exh ibited in the delicate workmanship and the variety of designs shown in different kinds of Gupta coins.
The general scheme that was followed was to exhibit the portrait of the king on one side of the coin or an appropriate goddess with her associated symbols on the other side. The king is shown in many positions - shooting a tiger or a lion, playing a musical instrument seated on a high backed couch etc.
On the reverse in most cases was Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and in some cases Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and arts. Besides coins, Gupta art found adequate expression in monuments and sculptures. The skilled artists of this age used their tools and skills to express the ideals and philosophical traditions of India through various art forms.
They decorated even the niches and corners of religious places with statues of gods and goddesses. The images of gods were treated as symbols representing attributes associated with the gods. Hence the god were shown havin g four or eight arms in each c arrying a symbol or an ayudha (weapon) although they were depicted in human forms.
Stone, terracotta, and other materials were used to con struct the abodes of gods and goddesses. Examples of the Gupta art can be seen at the das havatara temple at Deogarh and the cave temples in Udaigiri hills. However, the most famous examples of Gupta art that still remain are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath.
The school of art that thrived at Sarnath provides us with some of the most pleasing and graceful images of the Buddha. Besides stone, Gupta artists w ere also skilled in bron ze. A two metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (ne ar Bhagalpur in Bihar). Examples of sculptures in caves created during this period are traced to the famous Ellora Caves.
Architecture The Gupta architecture has survived in a few shrines, rock cut caves (Ajanta) and temples, such as the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh. These structures were mainly made of stone and bricks. Some references in the works of Kalidasa give us a glimpse of Gupta architecture.
The poet has given a vivid picture o f a well-planned town with a network of roads, market places, big sky-touching palaces and mansions with terraces. The palaces had many inner apartments. They had court-yards, prisons, court-room and sabhagriha. Their verandahs opened on roofs lit with moon-beam at night.
The pleasure garden which was attached to palace contained all sorts of seasonal flow ers and trees. Archaeological evidence about Gupta architecture is however poor. However, examples of Gupta shrines have been discovered in the jungles of Central India, especially in the Bundelkhand region. These include the one at Bhitargaon in Kanpur district.
Painting Painting as an art form reached a high degree of perfection during the Gupta times. The wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and the one at Bagh caves (near Gwalior) bear evidence of this. Although Ajanta paintings belong to the period between the first to the seventh century AD yet most of these were produced during the Gupta time.
These paintings depict various scenes from the life of the Buddha. The skill with which the human, animal and plant figures have been drawn shows the refined and sensitive nature of Gupta art. The conception of beauty was a characteristic of Gupta art. Ex pression through art was given importance as it was regarded as a means for the attainment of spiritual joy.
Understanding Gupta Architecture he Gupta Dynasty ruled the North Central India between the 4th and 6th centuries CE and is considered a golden age for arts. The Dynasty was founded by Chandragupta I who acceded to the throne in 320 CE. The Guptas were the first to build Hindu and Buddist temples to fulfill a certain purpose. Their style of architecture displays a variety of beautifully adorned towers, engravings and carvings, and rock cut shrines in their temples. Unfortunately very few among the many temples of the Gupta Dynasty survive today. Gupta architecture includes a plethora of varied designs, styles and features and preceded the time of standardized structures of Hindu temples.
However, the influence of the same in even medieval temple architecture well after the Guptan era is indisputable. Gupta Architecture is a depiction of the strong religious beliefs that the people possessed during the time. It was also a time of prosperity and marked an end to previous styles and tendencies and introduced and entirely new style techniques especially in the area of architecture. Historians say that the Gupta rulers excelled in the fields of sculpting, architecture, painting and other forms of art more than most of the dynasties that have ruled India. Temple Architecture began and also reached its climax during this time. The greatest development of the Cave Architecture was also seen during this time. This era saw a great tolerance towards Buddhism and Jainism for while Gupta Architecture started with Hindu art, in later years it also contributed towards Buddist and Jain art. Three deities are largely depicted in the Gupta art Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti. Temples and Religious Architecture were seen in Caves, Sculptures, Stupas and Temples.
Aj ant a Caves Ajanta Caves are located in the Aurangabad District of Maharashtra. There is a total of 30 Caves altogether that date between 2 BCE to 480/ 650 CE. Masterpiece of Buddhist art were built in two phases, first phase in Second BCE and second phase in 480/650 CE. The caves were discovered in 19th Century. The caves are built on perpendicular Cliff, unlike Ellora. Since the caves are on perpendicular side there are not many chaityas. There are 25 Viharas and 4 Chaityas. Fresco was another art technique which was prevalent in Gupta Architecture seen in the Ajanta Caves. It first has a layer of clay mixed with cow dung and rice husk paste spread on rough surface followed by a coating of lime plaster and finally the surface is kept moist till the painting is done. Outlines for the same are in red colour and then other colours. Blue is not seen in Ajanta. The theme for such art is usually Jataka which are tales regarding the previous births of Gautama Buddha. Fahein and Hiuen tsang are mentioned in Ajanta. Five caves are of Hinayana Buddhism and rest depict Mahayana Buddhism. Cave 16 is the most elegant of all. Famous paintings include – Dying Princess, Flying Apsara and Preaching Buddha.
Ellora Caves: Three religions are depicted in each of the 34 caves (17 Hinduism + 12 Buddhism + 5 Jainism). It is on the sloping side of the hill. Contribution by Rashtrakuta is seen in these caves. Cave 10 is a Chaitya for Lord Vishwakarma, Cave 14 depicts Ravana ki Khai, Cave 15 the Dashavatara Cave and Cave 16, the Kailasha Temple. Three storeyed caves are also present in Ellora.
Junagadh Caves These caves are found in Gujarath and are of Buddist religion. They contain Uparkots which are 30 – 50ft high Artificial platforms connected by a staircase to the hall.
Nashik Caves There are 25 Buddhist Caves belonging to Hinayana and date back to First Century AD. It is called Pandava Leni / Trirashmi. The spiritual presence of Buddha is denoted by a Throne and footprints. Most of the caves are Viharas except for the 18th cave which is a Chaitya.
Montperir Caves / mandapeshwar These caves are located near Mount Poinsur in Borivali, and were originally on the banks of River Dhaisa. An Eighth Century cut rock, dedicated to Shiva can be found in these caves. The caves are believed to have been built approximately 1500 to 1600 years ago. There is an open ground in front of the caves which is used as a playground and parking area by slum-dwellers from the slum in front of it. This was converted into a Christian Cave by the Portuguese
Sculptures A new school, Sarnath School of Sculpture was developed during this time. Cream coloured sandstone was used for this. Nakedness which was prominent till then was lacking among Gupta sculptures. The sculptures were dressed and properly covered. Halo was more decorative in these sculptures.
They were also most broadly circularised and persisted to influence Buddha illustrations in eastern India, and far beyond in Southeast Asia, for centuries. Even metal sculptures developed during this period. A famous sculpture from this time includes the Sultanganj Buddha. It is 2.3m high and 1m wide and weighs over 500 kg.
Stupa Dhamekh Stupa is a famous stupa built during this time. It is solid cylinder of bricks and stone reaching a height of 43.6 meters and having a diameter of 28 meters. The basement seems to have survived from Ashoka's structure. The stone facing is chiselled and displays delicate floral carvings of Gupta origin. Carvings on the walls are of Brahmi Script.
Temple Architecture Temple Architecture in the Gupta Age was a five stage development process. The first stage saw Flat Roof Temples, Square Temples, Shallow Pillared approach to the front and temples on low platforms. An example of this stage is Temple 17 at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In the Second stage Flat Roof and square temple continued and so did the pillar approach except it wasn’t shallow. Temples were now on high platforms/upraised platforms. There were Covered ambutary around the sanctum sanctorum. Instances of two storeyed temples were also seen. Third Stage included Square temples, the pillared approach, High platform, low and squared Shikars were also found and the Panchayatan Style was introduced along with the concept of subsidiary shrines. The Nagara style is a successor of the third stage of temple making. The fourth stage introduced Rectangular Temples while all other features continued. Fifth Stage included Circular Temples with shallow rectangular projections while all else continued. There are three styles of Temple Architecture: The Nagara Style, the Dravidan style and the Vesara.
Nagara Style The Nagara Style of Temple architecture saw the absence of tank in the temples. The temple walls were divided in to three vertical planes or ‘rathas’. Sculptures were made in these three rathas -Trirathas. Later Pancharatha, Saptaratha and even Navaratha emerged. This style was prominent in northern and central India but not in the Peninisular. Three sub schools developed in Nagara Style: Odissa School, Khajuraho School and Solanki School.
Khajuraho Style This style was developed by Chandela Rulers. Both the interior and the exterior of the temple are lavishly decorated with intricate carvings. Sculptures based on erotic themes seen on the temples. Temples lacked boundary walls. Shikaras were seen even on the subsidiary shrines and such style had temples on high platforms. There are three key elements seen in this style: Garbha Griha, Assembly Hall and Portico (Veranda surrounded by pillars)
Solanki School This school was based in Gujarath under the Solanki Rulers. Temples were constructed on the steps of massive rectangular stepped tank. The wall of the central shrine is devoid of carvings and the temple faces east. Hence every year on Equinox sun shines directly onto the Central Shrine. The central projections of the west, north and south faces are occupied by matching balconies with purna-kalasha columns and a deep porch frames. The entrance to the temple is in the east.
Dravidian Style This style was seen during the Pallava Period and can be divided into four stages. First Stage included the
Mahendra Group, Rock Cut Arches and the word Mandapa was used. The Second Stage included the Narasimha Group, decorations and Mandap became Rathas. Raja Simha Group, development of the real structural temples and the shore temple at Mahabalipuram and Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram are attested to the third stage. While the Nandi Varman Group, development of Small temples and Dravidian style further continued into the fourth stage. Shikara is the crowning element on the top of the temple, similar to Amalak and Kailash of Nagara Style. The entrance has sculptures of dwarpalas. There is only one vimana. Temples functioned as Religious Centres, Administrative centres and Centres of Education and Revenue.
Vesara It’s a mix of both the Dravidian and the Nagara Style of the Temple Architecture. The principle components of this style are Vimana and Mandapa. Covered ambulatory is not observed in this style. Pillars, Door frames and the ceilings are intricately carved.
Vijayanagara Slight variations are seen in the Temple Architectures. These being that the Gopurams were now enlarged, high enclosure walls were seen, there was more decoration and the sculpture of the Motiff of a supernatural horse were seen more frequently. Secular buildings were also seen. An example of this style is the Lotus Mahal.
Hoysala Hoysala is seen in South Karnataka in the Mysore Region. Multiple shrines are grounded around the central hall. It follows the Stellate Plan or star shaped shrines. This style has softsoap stone temples and both the exterior and the interior of the temple have carvings. The Shikara in each inner chamber is radically arranged in horizontal lines and mouldings which revolve in an orderly succession. There is an upraised platform or a Jagati and a star and zig-zag design is seen among these temples.
Indian Theatre The Indian theatre has a tradition going back to at least 5000 years. The earliest book on dramaturgy anywhere in the world was written in India. It was called Natya Shastra, i.e., the grammar or the holy book of theatre by Bharat Muni. Its time has been placed between 2000 B.C. to 4th Century A.D. A long span of time and practice is needed for any art or activity to form its rules and notifications. Therefore, it can be said with assurance that to have a book like Natya Shastra, the Indian theatre must have begun long, long before that if we go back to historical records, excavations and references available in the two great epics The Ramayana and The Mahabharata. Theatre in India started as a narrative form, i.e., reciting, singing and dancing becoming integral elements of the theatre. This emphasis on narrative elements made our theatre essentially theatrical right from the beginning. That is why the theatre in India has encompassed all the other forms of literature and fine arts into its physical presentation: Literature, Mime, Music, Dance, Movement, Painting, Sculpture and Architecture - all mixed into one and being called ‘Natya’ or Theatre in English.
In short, the follo win g features say it all about Indian theatre:
Reflects the society - Expresses the emotions of the society
Spontaneity is the spice of Indian theatre
Natural Rhythm
Continuity is the essence of Traditional Theatre , the complete play is done in one go – NO Episodes
Theatre is further divided into the followi ng: Classical Folk Modern Classical
Origins are Hard to Trace
1000 AD – Basic Rules – NATYASHAHTRA
It addresses acting, dance, music, dramatic construction, architecture, costuming, make-up, props, the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre
Basic Plot remains confined to the idea of Hero and his desire and the Attainment of his desire – Two Themes - Lokadharmi and Natyadharmi
Duty, Pleasure Wealth
Shudraka – Mrichhakatika
Kalidasa – Malavikagnimitram, Abhijnanashakuntalam and Vikamorvashiyam
Bhasa – Swapna Vasavadattam, Panchatanatram and Kamabhara
Bhavabhuti - mahaveeracharitha, Malathu – Madhava
Harsha – Priyadarshika, Ratnavali
Tradition al / Folk
Festivals or Fairs
Social Attitude and Perception – even at times have Religious or mythological
Narrative and Descriptive form of Theatre – Bhand Nach
Generally Theme depends on the occasion and the purpose
Emphasis is more on the acting form than the music and the other accompaniments
Descriptive Acting – Bidapat Nach
Narrative Art – Also seen in variations across the country – Nautanki, Tamasha, Bhavai, Etc
Bhand Pather
Traditional Theatre of Jammu and Kashmir
Dance + Music + Acting
Sattire, Wit, Parody – Theme
Farming Community
Surnai + Naga + Dhol
Impacts on the way of living, sensitivity and Ideals
Swang
Originally a Music based form of Theatrical
Softness grace along with rasa and development of character can be seen
2 forms
Rohtak
Haatras
Prose played in Dialogues
Rohtak – Haryanvi
Haathras – Brij Bhasha
Saang Dance -This is performed by a group of ten or twelve persons. They sing religious stories and folk tales in open spaces. It can be called an 'open air theater'. Swang incorporates suitable theatrics and mimicry (or nakal) accompanied by song and dialogue.
Nautanki Nautanki is a famous folk theater and operatic drama form, popular in northern India especially in Uttar Pradesh. Nautanki consists of folklore and mythological dramas with interludes of folk songs and dances
Kanpur , Lucknow, Haathras
Dauha, Chaubol, Chhapai, Behar- e- tabeel
Originally only men were part of this , but later women became members
Gulab Bai of Kapur gave a new versatility and new form for the old style
Rasleela Raslila is also known as Braj Raslila. It is originated from Braj area in Agra Region of Uttar Pradesh. It is a theatrical form performed now in many States of India. This performance is reveals around the life of Lord Krishna.
Lord Krishna Legends
Nand Das initially wrote the plays f or Rasleela
Life of Krishna
Prose is combines beautifully with the songs – Krishna Pranks
Bhavai Bhavai Dance – "Bhava" meaning expression of emotion or feeling. Continuous playing on the Bhungal, a very long wind brass instrument, before and during the performance calls the villagers to the scene of the Bhavai. Women are not strictly allowed to take part in the Bhavai. Therefore, the male artists perform female roles, which makes the entire drama more joyful.
Guajarati theatrical form
Kutch and Kathiawar Region
Rare Synthesis of Devotional and Romantic theme
Quick and Slow movements – Narrative in Drama
Tabla, Pakhwaaj, Sarangi, manjeera Etc
Jatra Jatra is a famous form of folk theatre from the eastern region of India. Jatra is the traditional theatre form of West Bengal. It is the enactment of a play. And performed with a cast and also comprises of music, dance, acting, singing and dramatic conflict in its performance.
Bengal
Fiars in honour of gods or religious rituals and ceremonies within their musical framework
Born and Nurtured in Bengal
Chaitanya’s influence is seen highly – Krishna Jatra
Earlier form was musical – Dialogues added later
Actors themselves, describe the change of scene, place of action etc.
Maach Maanch Dance -lyrical folk drama and a form of operatic ballet that is very popular in Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. The presentation style & technique of the Maanch, its various thematic elements, & suitable music and gaudy costumes all contribute in making this play a unique one.
Madhya Pradesh
Stage itself and also for the play
Songs have prominence over dialogues
Dialogue – Bol
Rhythm – Vanag
Tune – Rangat
Bhaona
Ankia Naat of Assam
Assam + WB + ORS + Mathura + Brindavan
Sutradhaar begins in Sanskrit and then later in Brij bholi or Assamese Tamasha
Tamasha - Kolhati and Mahar communities are associated with Tamasha. The poet singers known as shahirs composed many narrative and love songs for Tamasha. The word tamasha in Persian language means fun and entertainment. The word tamasha in Persian language means fun and entertainment.
Maharashtra
Sattritical
From Folk Forms of Gondhal + Jagran + Kritan
Female is the chief Proponent – Murki
Classical Music with footwork at Lightning Speed and Vivid gestures
Dashavatar
Goa and Konkan
Lord Vishnu – God of Preservation and Creativity
10 incarnations
Stylish Makeup
Masks of Wood or Papier Mache
Krishnattam
Kerala
17th Century – King Manavada of Calicut
Cycle of 8 plays – for 8 days
Themes of Lord Krishna – Life and Episode : Birth , Childhood pranks, deeds
Depiction of Victory of good over evil
Mudiyettu
Vrishchikam Month –November –December
Kali temple
Depicts the triumph of Goddess Bhadrakali over Asuras
7 characters are portrayed
Theyyam
Means – Daivam i.e. God
God’s Dance
Worshipping of Spirit of Ancestors, Folk Heroes and Deities of Various Diseases
Colourful costume + Headgears (Mudi) - made of Areca Nut Splices: 5-6 Feet, Bamboos, Wooden pranks and Strong colours – Turmeric, wax and arak.
Koodiyttam
Oldest and based on Sanskrit
Chakyaar – Actor
Nambiyaar – instrumentalist
Nangyar – Women
Sutradhar – Vidhushak – Dialogues
Emphasis on Hand Gestures and Eye movements
Yakshagana
Karnataka
Mythological and Traditional stories -Purana
Mahabharat – Dhraupadi Swayamvaram, Shubhadra Vivaham , Abhimanyu Vadha
Ramayana – Raajyabhisehkam, Lav-kush Yuddham, Bali –Sugreeva Yuddham and Panchavati
Ramman
Uttarakhand
Multiple activities – Theatre, Music, written and oral tales
Masked Dance drama by the bhandaris April Month
Bhumiyal Devta Temple
UNESCO intangible cultural Heritage of Humanity
Burrakatha
Its an oral storytelling technique in the Katha tradition, performed in villages of Andhra Pradesh & Telangana. The troupe consists of one main performer and two co-performers. It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers, solo drama, dance, songs, poems and jokes. The topic will be either a Hindu mythological story or a contemporary social issue
Andhra Pradesh – KTK, TN TS
Solo Drama, Dance, songs, poems, Prayers and Jokes
Theme – Mythological stories or Contemporary social problems
3 characters
Harikatha – Lord Krishna
Therukoothu
TN - Street Play
Time of Annual Temple Festivals at Mariamman temple – for Rich Harvest
8 pays based on the life of Draupadi
Sutradhar – Kattiakaran
Komali – Entertainer
Modern Theatre Modern Indian theatre developed due to the change in the socio political set up in India. Theatre before the independence of India was primarily a weapon to protest against the "British Raj". However it is certainly not an overstatement to say that the two hundred years of British colonialism brought the Indian theatre into a direct contact with the western theatre. Curiously, the very kernel of the modish aspects of the contemporary theatre was sown at that period. The harmonious blend of eastern and western culture gave birth to a rather modern form of Indian theatre.
With the Advent of the British India
Calcutta – East and Bombay and Surat – West
Setup theatres for entertainment
Levedef – Established Bengali theatre
Girish Karnd – Tighluq
Rabindranath Tagore -The Post office
