Cracking the Philosophers Stone Preface and Introduction

CRACKING THE PHILOSOPHERS’ STONE Origins, Evolution and Chemistry of Gold-Making __________

J. Erik LaPort & Roger Gabrielsson PhD

Quintessence

CONTENTS Acknowledgments ........................................................................ i Foreword ................................................................................... iii Author’s Preface .......................................................................... v Editor’s Preface ......................................................................... xi Introducing the Stone ............................................................... xiii Chapter 1 – Sophic Substances ............................................... 1 Chapter 2 – Moses and the Golden‐Calf .............................. 69 Chapter 3 – Maria Hebrea’s Tincture ................................. 115 Chapter 4 – The White Stone of Hermes ............................ 167 Chapter 5 – Stephanos’ Chrysopœia .................................. 217 Chapter 6 – From Chrysopœia to Al‐Kīmyāʼ ...................... 259 Chapter 7 – Paracelsus and the Alkahest ........................... 299 Chapter 8 – Labors of Hercules .......................................... 357 Chapter 9 – The Chemical Wedding ................................... 395 Chapter 10 – Powder of Projection ...................................... 415 Chapter 11 – Aurum Potabile ............................................... 477 Chapter 12 – Universal Medicine ......................................... 551 Appendix A – Timeline of Developmental Alchemy ................ 573 Appendix B – The Scorpion Formula for Gold‐making ........... 583 Appendix C – Alchemical Imagery Index ................................ 593 Afterword ............................................................................... 599

FIRST PREFACE During early 2009, Roger and I were researching novel a gold compound, when it occurred to me while browsing through 16th and 17th century literature on the development of gold salts, that the legendary Philosophers’ Stone of alchemy was perhaps a type of gold‐salt. Delving a little deeper into the alchemical literature, it became clearly apparent that many famous writers on alchemy specifically stated that the Philosophers’ Stone was nothing more than gold in its finest state, whereas other sources were adamant that the Philosophers’ Stone was indeed a salt. One thing was certain; all these alchemical authorities treated the Philosophers’ Stone as a genuine compound synthesized in a laboratory. After a cursory study, I concluded that the chemical identity of the Philosophers’ Stone remained an unsolved mystery that would potentially yield its secrets. I was immediately captivated and initial curiosity quickly gave way to sheer obsessive and compulsive research into the matter. It was an honorable riddle pursued by great minds throughout history and I immediately regarded the quest as a worthy endeavor. I knew that I could not do this alone and harangued my good friend and mad scientist‐genius Dr Roger Gabrielsson PhD into collaborating with me as the chemistry consultant and co‐author. I am deeply indebted to him for his help and unfailing encouragement. I knew that he would not decline because it was Roger who once explained to me that any question of chemistry was valid as far as he was concerned and that there was no such thing as an absurd or unimportant chemistry question, as long as it was not framed in terms of unicorns and rainbows. The result of that

collaboration and years of passionate research is this treatise – Cracking the Philosophers’ Stone. This book is divided into three sections. The first is a general introduction to the Philosophers’ Stone, its origins and historical development in Alexandria, Egypt during the pre‐Islamic period. The Stone’s composition, applications and cultural value are presented in historical context and explored in detail. Section 2 describes the preparation of the basic alchemical ingredients, overall chemistry and confection of the Philosophers’ Stone, along with accounts of reproducibility experiments performed in our laboratory. Section 3 examines the traditional applications for the Philosophers’ Stone and expands on the notion of the alchemical process as a workbench wisdom tradition. Any exploration of history and this is especially implicit concerning alchemy, is that a conclusion is primarily a work of interpretation. The purpose of this book is to present just such an interpretation, which ultimately leads to a working hypothesis, or more accurately, a series of hypotheses to explain the phenomenon of the Philosophers’ Stone, its origins, evolution, chemistry, valuations and applications. We repeatedly stress plausibility statements throughout the book that are not to be construed as statements of fact, but rather address plausible, possible or most likely scenarios for the subject at hand. This serves to stimulate future research efforts and to advance current understanding while leaving the subject fully exposed to alternate hypotheses and scenarios. We have attempted to remain unbiased with regard to any particular school or system of alchemy, focusing our concerns throughout on numerous scenarios that we felt made most sense given several factors and substantiating evidence. This was not always easy and often the only evidence available was scanty or circumstantial in which case we plainly state as much in the narrative.

We began the journey of decoding the Philosophers’ Stone from the dual premise that 1) the stone was an actual chemical compound, and 2) that it had manifested as various diverse products at different times in history. Research into the matter has confirmed both, yet a dangling question remained. What was the original archetypal Philosophers’ Stone and could it be rediscovered and reestablished today? The attempt to answer these questions brought me into contact with some wonderfully intriguing and insightful people on a journey through history, traditions and practices that broadened my understanding of the alchemical process in unpredictable yet very welcome ways, least of which was developing a profound admiration for alchemal traditions. One might assume that the chemistry would prove the greatest challenge. It was actually the language of alchemy however, that presented an almost insurmountable yet ironically marvelous obstacle to writing this book. A tremendous amount of data and a robust conceptual framework lie just below the surface of every cover‐name and cover‐term encrypting alchemical substances and processes. I realized that if I were to decode alchemical abstractions, it would be of tremendous value to approach someone fluent in the arcane language of alchemy for assistance. After several attempts at collaboration with authorities in the field, followed by snubs, polite responses to the negative or no reply at all, I realized that I was on my own in this regard. I began to self‐study the etymology and history of each cover‐term, which exposed a fantastic world of imagery, historical context, mythology, and trade‐jargon, which upon being understood, revealed that each cover‐term was far from haphazard, encrypting substances and processes in many layers of subtle and interconnected meaning. Indeed some terms were truly multi‐ cultural with their practical use spanning millennia. Learning the language of alchemy was as difficult as learning any other – bits and pieces at first, crude phrases later, before becoming fluent in alchemy’s dialects and sophisticated abstractions. vii

The research process was arduous. Upon decoding a cover‐name or terminology, we then embarked upon a detailed study of each corresponding substance or process. We attempted to find the earliest record of each, its discoverer and its various applications, which were often at odds with established scientific literature. If it were a substance, we attempted to glean whether it may have been used in a chemical technology prior to the accepted scientific date of discovery, then searched for a body of evidence to support an earlier date. Each time we felt close to understanding a substance or process fully, we then consulted numerous traditional alchemical texts and compared those accounts to what we observed in the laboratory. A primary consideration was that perfect reproducibility may prove challenging on the basis that adepts were artisans and extremely skilled at their art. It could take one’s career to develop the skills possessed by an adept‐alchemist. As any chemist knows, it can take innumerable tries before a reaction happens in an expected or optimal manner. Only after ensuring that historical and alchemical texts accorded with our lab results and observations, did we feel confident to present the hypotheses herein. The entire book project took over four years to complete, thousands of hours of research, entire libraries of books and journal articles, ancient and modern, scoured and scrutinized for helpful information. Library efforts were combined with laboratory frustration and elation before the book reached its final form. I began to understand that an Alexandrian alchemist was more an artisan and philosopher than proto‐chemist, yet alchemists would go on to assume many roles throughout alchemical history such as pharmacologist and experimental chemist of later alchemical traditions. It also became clear that much of the existing research into Alexandrian alchemy was based on Pseudo‐Democritus and his Persian‐Babylonian approach to chemical technologies, reinforced by works such as the Leyden and Stockholm papyri that typified this tradition. The Philosophers’ Stone however originated with Maria Hebrea

and her Judeo‐Egyptian school or alternately a Hermetic Greco‐Egyptian school – these being completely dissimilar in every manner to the Pseudo‐Democritan type. The challenge was to elucidate this long‐held misunderstanding in regards to Alexandrian alchemy beyond a reasonable doubt. Today’s alchemy enthusiasts, historians and chemists understandably have specific areas of interest or specialization in their respective fields of research. Nevertheless, Cracking the Philosophers’ Stone promises something new and interesting to everyone. While it is possible to read this treatise from cover to cover, it is not necessary to do so, which is to say that this book is written so that each chapter stands on its own merit as a mini‐course on the specific aspect of the Philosophers’ Stone addressed. For those new to alchemy, begin with chapter 1, followed by 10‐12 prior to delving deeper. For those primarily interested in the Philosophers’ Stone from a socio‐historical perspective, read chapters 2‐ 7, followed by 10‐12 and Appendix A. For the rare aspirants, operative alchemists or qualified chemists primarily interested in operative reproducibility of Alexandrian alchemy’s substances and processes, read chapters 1, 3, 4, 6‐9 and Appendix B to satisfy curiosity before moving on to the remainder of the Stone’s historical context. For those more interested in the speculative aspects of the Philosophers’ Stone, its philosophical and psychospiritual connotations, its value as an early cosmological model or as a wisdom tradition, chapters 4, 5 and 12 focus on these intriguing valuations of the Stone. It is my sincerest aspiration that each reader discovers something of lasting value by reading this book and enjoys the journey as much as we did. J. Erik LaPort Q’era‐Tech Research, Thailand

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EDITOR’S NOTE As the editor of this book, I am one of its first readers. When Erik LaPort asked me to edit his tome, I initially had very little idea of the weight of what he had actually set out to do with this publication. This is not merely an attempt at giving a chronological account of the development of alchemy. It is rather the work of a practising alchemist (although he asserts that he isn’t) who sets forth an incredibly exciting new theory of what the Philosopher’s Stone really is, and what it has been through the ages in the Middle East, in Europe, and elsewhere. This book contains daring new ideas and surprising twists, but none that may be described as myth making. Meticulous details in the language of chemistry support historical and textual research. The scholarship behind this book is massive, but the language is still accessible to the enthusiast as well as the advanced student of alchemy. Before I read LaPort’s text, I was convinced – by Carl Gustav Jung actually, whom he of course references – that alchemy was first and foremost metaphorical and its real relevance was limited to the depths of the human soul. Those ways of reading alchemical texts remain and LaPort emphasizes how rich alchemy’s cultural and philosophical tradition really is. He presents an entirely plausible hypothesis that allows for the practical use of alchemy, rooted in tradition but relevant to today’s man. I am sure that many a reader will experience the kind of excitement that I felt reading this book. Adam Mayer Webster University, Thailand

Introducing the Stone All truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; the point is to discover them. Galileo Galilei

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racing the development of most sciences from their ancient origins – and this is particularly true regarding pharmacy and chemistry –

ultimately leads to alchemy. For millennia, the beating heart of alchemy was a legendary substance that was believed to confer wealth, power and immortality to anyone who could unlock the secret of its confection. This substance was called the Philosophers’ Stone. The recipe to create this substance dates back to the Bronze Age in Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Levant. Because of the numerous sources, there seems to be very little doubt that this substance actually existed – the real mystery lies with the secret of its confection. The quest to rediscover the Philosophers’ Stone has spanned numerous cultures over thousands of years until the present day. The Philosophers’ Stone was the source of two interrelated products: the universal medicine, believed to confer unnatural longevity to all who ingested it; and the powder of projection that transmutes copper, lead or mercury into alchemical gold. The promise of immortality and unlimited wealth earned the Philosophers’ Stone special status as one of the greatest mysteries to captivate early scientists, physicians, philosophers, nobility, and con artists throughout history. The quest to reveal the process for confecting the Stone exposed one to many unique dangers of the period, among the worst being self‐ poisoning, madness, torture, or execution. Despite ever‐present perils,

LAPORT & GABRIELSSON

the promise of rediscovering the secrets of the Philosophers’ Stone served as the proverbial carrot‐on‐a‐string that played a large role in driving the donkey cart of scientific pursuits of ancient and mediæval times into the modern age of advanced science and technology. The philosophers The Philosophers’ Stone dates back thousands of years to a time in history when science, philosophy, magic, and mystery were synonymous. Philosophers in former times addressed important issues such as the nature of reality, forms of knowledge, social organization, technology, and the human condition. These lovers of wisdom attempted to understand and harness the forces of Nature through what might today be described as a multidisciplinary holistic approach. Alchemy began with the manipulation of minerals and metals for medicinal and industrial purposes. It was an ancient science of matter based upon trial and error. Early alchemists sought to discover a single substance that would enable them to perfect matter. The Philosophers’ Stone fit the profile so well that, because of their attempts to reveal its secrets, alchemists developed equipment and discovered new substances and processes very relevant to modern science and chemistry. The secret of the Philosophers’ Stone – believed to be a key that would unlock the mysteries of creation and change – played a central role in the philosophical pursuits of all alchemical traditions. Success at confecting the Stone was a rite of passage and a milestone accomplishment passionately pursued by ancient alchemists and philosophers. Those who attained success became legends, whereas others were led to absolute ruin, madness and, in some cases, death arising from their obsessive pursuit of the Stone.

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INTRODUCING THE STONE

The Philosophers’ Stone made its appearance in Europe around the 12th century, remaining mainly within alchemical circles. By the time of the Italian Renaissance of the 16th century, the legend of the Philosophers’ Stone and its power was so great that it rivaled the Holy Grail and the Ark of the Covenant as an object of quest. The Stone’s potential power was no longer secret, posing a great threat to the Catholic Church and Europe’s ruling elite. They addressed this threat by criminalising the practice of alchemy for all but court and church sanctioned alchemists. In the frenzy to gain access to the Stone and its power, even royalty were ensnared by the quest. Europe’s powerful elite – such as the Medicis of Florence, King Charles II of Britain, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, and Queen Christina of Sweden, among others – not only supported court alchemists, but also outfitted private alchemical laboratories and actively participated in the search for the Philosophers’ Stone. Although Pope John XXII issued a papal bull against alchemy, the words in his prohibition applied to ‘poor’ alchemists, meaning false ones. He was reputed to have maintained a personal alchemical laboratory in Avignon and was respected by skilled alchemists as a patron of their art. Countless friars, monks, bishops, and archbishops practiced and published alchemical treatises. Religious reformer Martin Luther, through his support of alchemy, played an important role in inspiring German alchemists to continue alchemical pursuits and advance chemical technologies: The Art of Alchemy is rightly and truly the Philosophy of the Sages of old, with which I am well pleased, not only by reason of its virtue and manifold usefulness, which it hath through Distillation and Sublimation in the metals, herbs, waters, oleities, but also by reason of the noble and beautiful likeness which it hath with the Resurrection of the Dead on the Day of Judgment.

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Great scientific figures such as Roger Bacon, Robert Boyle, Johann Rudolf Glauber, and Sir Isaac Newton pursued the Philosophers’ Stone enthusiastically. Even founding father of the United States Benjamin Franklin took a keen interest in alchemy. Things appeared to change after Robert Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist and Antoine Lavoisier ushered in the age of modern chemistry. However, the lore of the Philosophers’ Stone was kept alive by accounts of colorful figures such as Giacomo Girolamo Casanova, Count Alessandro di Cagliostro and the enigmatic Comte de St. Germain who consorted with European aristocracy, providing elixirs and organising secret societies in grand fashion. Comte de St. Germain initiated Comte François de Chazal who passed on the Rosicrucian tradition to noted Swedish adventurer and doctor, Sigismund Bacstrom. Bacstrom did much to preserve the Rosicrucian tradition and the secrets of confecting the Philosophers’ Stone. The formula The earliest account clear enough to identify the materials, methods and application of the Philosophers’ Stone is found in the teachings of Alexandrian alchemist and teacher Maria Hebrea (also known as Maria Prophetissa) sometime between the 1stand 3rd centuries of the Common Era (CE). In cryptic fashion, she lists the three ingredients and divulges not only the archetypal method, but also reveals knowledge of an alternative faster process to confect the Stone. In Europe these two methods would come to be known as the Ars Magna (or Great Art) and the Ars Brevis (or Brief Art) respectively. Maria Hebrea also clearly explained that the application of the Philosophers’ Stone was to change the properties of copper. This important clue argues for a technology originating during the Bronze Age and is important because, at the time of Maria’s Alexandria, bronze technology was already considered a remnant of great antiquity that had xvi


reached an advanced level. Maria also implied that the Philosophers’ Stone was a legacy of the race of Abraham, yet disclosed nothing of its origins. One interpretation from a much earlier source reveals an encrypted recipe in accordance with Maria’s methodology. A legendary work called the Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus – known to Alexander the Great centuries prior to Maria – suggests Græco‐Egyptian origins for the recipe. The names Enoch (Jewish), Thoth (Egyptian) and Hermes (Greek) were synonymous for the mytho‐legendary individual who introduced science and technology to humanity during the development of early civilization. The Stone’s value In Alexandria, the art of alchemy was described by some as chrysopœia, meaning gold making. This art of aurifaction involved changing copper to a unique type of alchemical gold. This was in direct contrast with established gilding technology of the period, which involved surface treating bronze that resulted in what might be described as aurifiction meaning falsified gold. Alchemists believed that they were harnessing the powers of creating and transmuting inner properties, rather than merely falsifying an outer appearance. Philosophers and alchemists made keen observations of the natural world, and witnessed transformation and change as a daily phenomenon. In the animal kingdom, eggs transformed into hatchlings and caterpillars morphed into butterflies. From seeds, sprouts emerged and flowers became fruit in the plant kingdom. The philosophers and alchemists realized that man could participate in the process of transformation via practical means such as creating butter and cheese from milk, bread from grains, or wine from grapes and vinegar from wine. Long before living cells or chemicals and their reactions were identified, alchemists

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witnessed the dynamic processes of transform‐ation and change in Nature and termed it transmutation. The mineral kingdom likewise showed signs of growth and regeneration. Seawater crystallized into salt and cinnabar ore ‘magically’ produced mercury and sulfur. Gold was a byproduct of stibnite mining. The observation that sulphide ores, such as cinnabar and stibnite, commonly occur in the presence of gold caused alchemists to determine that metal ores and base metals were in an organic geological process of maturing into gold. From the perspective of an alchemist, the idea of transmuting a base metal into alchemical gold was merely the act of assisting the quickening of a natural process. If transmutation is understood to mean a change in the properties of matter, it engenders a better understanding of the alchemists’ mindset. The Stone’s ability to affect transmutation in base metals, resulting in alchemical gold, was a very real primary power in the minds of those in search of its secrets. The Stone’s dual value is best described by 13th century Franciscan friar, philosopher and early European advocate of the scientific method, Roger Bacon. Bacon explained that alchemy: … is the science which teaches how to make and generate a certain medicine, called elixir, which when projected onto metals or imperfect bodies perfects them completely at the moment of projection.

The second power inherent in the Philosophers’ Stone was that it could extend human life to its fullest potential. This was mistakenly interpreted by some to mean that one in possession of the Philosophers’ Stone had access to potential immortality. Bacon addresses this property as follows:

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That medicine which will remove all impurities and incorruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the incorruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries.

Similar ideas occur in Chinese, Indian, Persian, and Islamic alchemical traditions long before arriving in Europe. The idea that life might be prolonged by centuries, or possibly to the extent of immortality, was appealing to many who encountered descriptions such as these. The ability to create gold would provide the alchemist or his patron with unparalleled power through manipulation of local and worldwide economies based upon a gold standard. It was viewed by the benevolent as a weapon with the potential to topple unjust power structures. By devaluing gold, some alchemists hoped to usher in an age of enlightenment, as the Harvard educated American physician and alchemist George Starkey, writing under the pseudonym Eirenæus Philalethes, alludes to in the following: I hope that in a few years gold (not as given by God, but as abused by man) will be so common that those who are now so mad after it shall contemptuously spurn aside this bulwark of Antichrist. Then will the day of our deliverance be at hand … for then gold, the great idol of mankind, would lose its value, and we should prize it only for its scientific teaching.

The incredible power attributed to the Philosophers’ Stone, and the secret of its manufacture, obsessed many of the greatest minds throughout the history of science and chemistry. The allure of a single substance – created and held in the palm of one’s hand – which embodied potentially unlimited wealth, power and immortality … this proved such a difficult temptation to resist that it kept many seekers of the Philosophers’ Stone spellbound.

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Transmission During the 12th century, alchemy and the Philosophers’ Stone were making a three‐pronged arrival into Europe. Muslims settled in Spain and Sicily in the western Mediterranean where Islamic literature was translated into Latin. Muslims valued science and technology and, according to their writings, held alchemy and the Philosophers’ Stone in high regard. Crusaders returning from the East also imported alchemical works from Constantinople and the Holy Land. It is primarily through Arabic translations of original Greek, Egyptian and Hebrew alchemical texts, along with a corpus found at Constantinople, that European intellectuals were first introduced to alchemy and the Philosophers’ Stone. Knowledge of the Philosophers’ Stone remained within tight circles, as a mystery‐craft tradition, for approximately 300 years after arriving in Europe. Tales of its power and eyewitness accounts increased its status in Europe to the point where the quest for the Philosophers’ Stone was on par with great mysteries like the Holy Grail and the Ark of the Covenant. The Stone’s secrecy, yet alleged achievability, added to its allure. Much like masonry, glass making, metallurgy and art, alchemy was considered a mystery‐craft whereby one learned through long apprenticeship with a master artisan. The trade was passed on primarily through oral teachings and physical work. Any written instructions or records were encoded in images or symbolism intelligible only to those initiated into the particular tradition being studied. Throughout alchemy’s history, and in each culture that practiced it, transmission of the art followed this manner. This approach allowed for the communication of discoveries and new techniques, and a general sharing of information between brothers‐in‐the‐craft without revealing any secrets to outsiders. Doctor, Rosicrucian and alchemical adept, Sigismund Bacstrom explains that: xx


… many wrote on this art, more for the purpose of showing to others who possessed the secret, that the author also knew it, than from any desire to communicate knowledge to the ignorant – and what is worse, many wrote and published books who knew nothing whatever of the subject.

This fact is what makes modern research into the Philosophers’ Stone so challenging. The elaborate alchemical jargon – which has so successfully encrypted the secrets of the Philosophers’ Stone – forms a complex matrix of symbols, cover‐names, allegory, and emblematic art. For many alchemists, the grand test or rite of passage was to decode the encryption and rediscover the secret substances and processes necessary to confect the Stone. Often only a fraction of the recipe or a few of the easier procedures would be uncovered, revealing just enough to keep the alchemist encouraged. From the time of the scientific revolution up until fairly recently, alchemical jargon had been derided as charlatanism, superstition and of no relevance to modern scholarship. Glauber’s biographer, K.F. Gugel, attempted to impress upon the reader that alchemical imagery was actually the language of science for that era, comparable to the chemical equations of modern chemistry, by declaring that: The convoluted symbolic language [of alchemy] was just as comprehensible to the chemists of his day as modern formulae are to us now.

Alchemists needed to be fluent in Latin and possibly many other languages in order to read and compare various source works. John T. Young explains that the scientific language of alchemy required extraordinary talent and insight on the part of the alchemist in order to interpret alchemical texts and create symbolic imagery to apply to new discoveries: xxi


Hermetic writing was certainly not incomprehensible to the initiated, but its elucidation depended on a combination of skills far more diverse than would be expected of a twentieth‐century research specialist in any field. It demanded great practical experience, extensive familiarity with a vast range of rare literature, and in many cases access to a particular key obtainable only through personal contact with the author or his friends [although the key was sometimes discovered independently]. It also demanded highly advanced reading skills of a type regarded nowadays as far more the province of the literary scholar. Symbol, metaphor and often very heavily veiled allusion, not to mention deliberate red herrings and self‐proclaimed self‐contradictions, were the stock‐in‐trade of these authors.

Most important in the quote above is the mention of a master Key – usually obtained by an initiate through direct transmission – which allowed the would‐be adept to unlock the secret to confecting the Philosophers’ Stone. It was this all‐important Key that was the most guarded and greatest secret of alchemy. The uninitiated generally experienced an overwhelming sense of impenetrability. Accomplished alchemists, as part of their tradecraft, would attempt to sidetrack or even completely discourage seekers by contradicting themselves in their writings, unnecessarily repeating or presenting procedures out of order, or including imagery that had nothing to do with the actual recipe. Starkey, writing as Philalethes, reveals as much: And truly it is not our intent to make the Art common to all kind of men, we write to the deserving only; intending our Books to be but as Way‐ marks to such as shall travel in these paths of Nature, and we do what we may to shut out the unworthy: Yet so plainly we write, that as many as God hath appointed to this Mastery shall certainly understand us, and have cause to be thankful unto us for our faithfulness herein. This we shall receive from the Sons of this Science, whatever we have from

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others: therefore our Books are intended for the former, we do not write a word to the latter.

By encrypting the details of their craft in this manner, alchemists protected medical and industrial chemical trade secrets and ensured that only the worthy would ever gain access to the Philosophers’ Stone. For the uninitiated, alchemical research often proved to be a frustratingly labyrinthine exercise. Modern private and professional research aimed at decoding alchemy’s entire corpus of materials and methods remains ongoing after centuries of effort. Properties and Applications The Philosophers’ Stone was not naturally occurring, but rather a compound substance resulting from skilled artisanship. The alchemist’s role in the Stone’s confection was to prepare the materials properly and combine them in the correct proportions. Once prepared, sealed in a vessel and fired at exactly the correct temperature regimen, the Philosophers’ Stone was said to create itself by means of a self‐ synthesising process; attention need only be paid to the degrees of fire. The deceptive simplicity of the process was enticing; yet discovering the exact ingredients presented a seemingly insurmountable obstacle to the uninitiated. Some alchemists became obsessed with rediscovering these secrets, to the point of insanity. Some tantalising success stories encouraged determined souls to continue by presenting descriptions of the finished product. An alchemist who achieved success at confecting the Stone was called an adept. One of the earliest European adepts to provide a description of the finished Philosophers’ Stone was the 14th century French alchemist, Nicholas Flamel, who wrote: When the noble metal [gold] was perfectly prepared, it made a fine powder of gold, which is the Philosophers' Stone.

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The primary ingredient in the archetypal Philosophers’ Stone recipe is always alchemically prepared gold. George Starkey would echo Flamel three centuries later, writing that: Some Alchemists who are in search of our Arcanum seek to prepare something of a solid nature, because they have heard the object of their search described as a Stone. Know, then, that it is called a stone, not because it is like a stone, but only because, by virtue of its fixed nature, it resists the action of fire as successfully as any stone. In species it is gold, more pure than the purest; it is fixed and incombustible like a stone, but its appearance is that of very fine powder … It does not exist in Nature, but has to be prepared by Art, in obedience to Nature's law. Its substance is in metals; but in form it differs widely from them, and in this sense the metals are not our Stone. Thus, you see that though our Stone is made of gold alone, yet it is not common gold.

The above quotations clearly identify the primary ingredient as gold, yet traditional descriptions of the Stone’s color, density, structure, and even scent are at great variance with those of gold. The Philosophers’ Stone has been described as a heavy vermilion powder; a ruby colored waxy substance; a deep red translucent crystal; a saffron or yellow powder, and even a golden colored liquid. It has been described as possessing an odour of sea salt, or having no scent at all. Although descriptive accounts of these indicators may at first seem contradictory, they are each quite accurate in that what these depictions portray – a product at various stages of refinement. Depending upon the intended therapeutic or industrial application of the product, the Philosophers’ Stone needed to undergo further refinement. Alchemists used the basic Philosophers’ Stone product to create either a

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tonifying / rejuvenating universal medicine in liquid form – known as aurum potabile – or a powder of projection that facilitated the manufacture of alchemical gold from copper, lead, mercury, or a combination thereof. In some cases, the Stone was used for wet‐gilding silver with a layer of metallic gold. It is also the most likely candidate for the secret ingredient required in order to create the rose‐colored stained glass, which adorned the great Gothic cathedrals. Inherent Dangers Confecting the Philosophers’ Stone was fraught with dangers, both inside and outside the laboratory. The Stone required a laboratory, but due to widespread prohibitions on alchemy, if one was not a court‐sponsored alchemist it meant working in an illegal laboratory. Clandestine alchemical labs, as well as many operating under court patronage, featured built‐in charcoal furnaces posing the first obvious severe health threat. The toxic nature of various chemicals and gases associated with alchemy had not been fully understood, and alchemists handled these substances with little or no protective protocols. Alchemists routinely inhaled noxious fumes, such as mercury, and tested their products by tasting or ingesting them; in effect acting as human guinea pigs. In addition to severe health risks, alchemists also faced legal dangers. For clandestine laboratories, the danger of being discovered was an ever‐ present source of concern. Hauling large daily loads of charcoal into small private quarters – not to mention the noxious odours emanating from such labs – would have attracted unwanted public attention. Desperate characters suffering from disease also targeted alchemists, believing that they possessed secret cures. The mere hint that an alchemist may be in possession of the Philosophers’ Stone placed him in grave danger as Starkey, writing as Philalethes, reveals: It was only a short time ago that, after visiting the plague‐stricken haunts of a certain city, and restoring the sick to perfect health by means

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of my miraculous medicine, I found myself surrounded by a yelling mob, who demanded that I should give to them my Elixir of the Sages; and it was only by changing my dress and my name, by shaving off my beard and putting on a wig, that I was enabled to save my life, and escape from the hands of those wicked men. And even when our lives are not threatened, it is not pleasant to find ourselves, wherever we go, the central objects of human greed … I know of several persons who were found strangled in their beds, simply because they were suspected of possessing this secret, though, in reality, they knew no more about it than their murderers; it was enough for some desperate ruffians, that a mere whisper of suspicion had been breathed against their victims. Men are so eager to have this Medicine that your very caution will arouse their suspicions, and endanger your safety.

As will be detailed in subsequent chapters, alchemical gold differs from genuine elemental gold. Nevertheless, the ruling elite would not necessarily have fully understood the difference. A fundamental reason for the prohibition of alchemy was the state’s belief that if the Philosophers’ Stone was successfully achieved, alchemists could potentially tap into an unlimited source of wealth and thus destabilize currency markets and existing power structures. This attitude was first recorded during the late 3rd century CE, in an edict by the Roman Emperor Diocletian who feared that Alexandrian alchemical gold could pass for genuine currency and thus empower those who opposed him. He ordered all materials in the Empire “which treated of the admirable art of making gold and silver” destroyed. Diocletian’s edict was the first, but not final, criminalization of alchemy. During the 14th century, the Dominican Directorium inquisitorum, the inquisitors’ directory, lists alchemists among magicians and wizards. The perception that the Philosophers’ Stone could generate unlimited wealth and immortality was all too enticing for those in power, and is one xxvi


of the reasons for alchemy being patronized and pursued by Europe’s ruling elite and religious figureheads. For this reason, court sponsored alchemists achieved somewhat of a celebrity status. If unsuccessful, alchemists risked punishment for either being a fraud or withholding secrets. Far from guaranteeing protection, successfully achieving the Philosophers’ Stone presented its own unique set of perils. If success was even suspected, the alchemist in question faced interrogation, torture, imprisonment, or even execution; those in power would stop at nothing to acquire and harness the power of the Philosophers’ Stone. Greed enticed con artists, charlatans and impostors to seek out the Philosophers’ Stone and, upon inevitably failing, to use its reputation to defraud enthusiastic yet unwary patrons. This resulted in a very precarious and unstable environment for genuine alchemists operating with good intentions and endowed with a refined skill set. Despite these dangerous pitfalls, the Philosophers’ Stone continued to captivate some of the greatest intellectual minds of Europe. Alchemy survived public scandal, legal prohibition, political intrigue, and religious persecution. It evolved into the early modern chymistry, which played a foundational role in the development of pharmacy and modern chemistry. By the 19th century, alchemists were responsible for the discovery of a great many substances. Alchemy had played the role of proto‐science for chemistry, iatrochemistry, pharmacology, and physics, among others, and had contributed to the formulation of the scientific method. Alchemy also profoundly influenced the development of psychology, historiology, astronomy, astrology, and the occult sciences. As the various sciences became more compartmentalized alchemy seemed to fade into the background, with the art surviving among secret societies and fraternities or via individual transmission. Thousands of alchemical texts survive, many detailing in tantalisingly veiled language the secrets of confecting the Philosophers’ Stone. The search continues even today. xxvii


The Rediscovery The Philosopher’s Stone was an actual material substance; a tangible product synthesized by an impressive number of well‐respected historical personalities – alchemists, philosophers, physicians, and the like. The question has never been whether the Philosophers’ Stone was real, but rather what exactly is the molecular structure of the Stone (considered in the light of modern chemistry, pharmacology and industry) and how can it be reproduced? This is not a treatise regarding alchemy per se. Rather, this study focuses upon the reproducibility of a genuine Philosophers’ Stone substance according to traditional processes. The primary goal was to synthesize the exact substance traditionally understood to be the Philosophers’ Stone, using materials and methods detailed in alchemical texts, and to analyse the history and evolution of the chemistry involved. The study was limited to alchemical authors that were generally considered authentic – that is, the great adepts of alchemy in each tradition. The methodology was to find a common denominator inherent in the published syntheses of these alchemists and begin research from there. To do so, required an alchemical approach – solve et coagula. Hundreds of alchemical texts were examined for commonalities linking Maria Hebrea’s descriptions circa 200 CE with those of European alchemists writing between the 12th to 20th centuries. It was a quest for an archetypal materials list and methodology profile that stood the test of time. The search resulted in the identification of the standard ingredients and chemical reactions common to most recipes: 1.

Gold – featured as the primary and most obvious of the three basic ingredients; the gold described is always refined to a high purity, then reduced to the finest particle size possible before being used;

2.

Antimony – occurs naturally as a sulphide ore today called stibnite; in former times stibnite was called antimony, whereas purified metallic antimony was

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called regulus and, earlier in history, flowers of antimony; both stibnite and purified antimony are used at specific stages in the archetypal recipe; 3.

Flux / Menstruum – the final constituent was far more difficult to distinguish; it is a substance with the capability of dissolving gold without violence or corrosion, yet has the additional capacity to crystallize, congeal or coagulate under the right conditions; described as being metallic in nature, yet translucent and viscous.

The primary challenge was to identify the flux / menstruum. Gold and antimony are considered by alchemists to be related. The flux / menstruum is described as being intimately related to, and having the same nature as, both gold and antimony. The greatest and most guarded secret to confecting the Philosophers’ Stone is the identity of the flux, more commonly called the universal solvent. Complication arises because different substances were used at different periods throughout history. These substances ranged from a unique salt during the Alexandrian period, to the salt‐saturated urine of Islamic alchemy, to the unique chemical compounds developed and utilized throughout European alchemy. Put simply, the flux / menstruum is the Key to the whole art, and knowledge of it unites brothers in an invisible fraternity of adepts spanning centuries. Cross‐referencing and carefully analysing original sources resulted in reproducibility of the various flux / menstruum chemical reactions according to the materials and methods presented in alchemical texts. Various indicators were scrutinized, such as appearance, vapour temperature, viscosity, ability to dissolve gold without violence, etc. Once working samples of each were reproduced, the chemistry was scrutinized and compared to the reactions described in alchemical texts in order to discern historical variations. It became apparent that the flux / menstruum was achieved by a variety of techniques, which offered alchemists a margin for divergence in materials and methods. So ended the solve aspect of the research. What was next required was the xxix


coagulation of a vast body of arcane data, sourced from centuries of alchemical literature, into a coherent narrative of the evolution of the chemistry associated with the creation of the Philosophers’ Stone and its valuations and applications. Recipes – written by alchemists who shared a common approach, in accordance with an archetypal technique of uniting gold and antimony via a flux / menstruum – were gathered. Comparisons between various recipes provided further insight into the core process that ultimately enabled reproducibility. By the end of the 17th century, alchemists had developed comprehensively diverse techniques, yet the primary ingredients and finished products remained essentially equivalent to those of the Alexandrian adepts’ so many centuries earlier. Achieving reproducibility resulted in the writing of chemical equations for the Philosophers’ Stone, and to fully elucidating the subject of alchemical gold and transmutation from a contemporary scientific perspective. A comprehensive understanding of the Stone’s molecular structure was fundamental towards creating a hypothesis for a therapeutic mechanism of action in vivo. The following treatment reveals the origins and evolution of Alexandrian, Islamic and European methods to achieve the same single chemical compound – the Philosophers’ Stone.

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Cracking the Philosophers Stone Preface and Introduction

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