Complete List of Unfamiliar Text Terms Texts: Prose, Poetry, Visual, Oral A few notes to start: - When answering questions in 1.3, you must use the correct terminology and provide an example or two from the text itself. This is often the bare minimum to get to an Achievement grade. - Fill the space given if you can. - Read the whole text before reading the questions. You will pick up on subtle things like repetition, tone , structure, irony, image groups etc that you m ay miss if you are just scanning for an answer to the question. - If you have read the text twice and still don‟t understand it (particularly the poem), you ma y still be able to scrape a few marks from picking out things like similes and alliteration, and discussing those as thoroughly as you are able. As you do so, the meaning of the text may become a little clearer, too. - Before the exam, make sure you know and understand all the terms below. Make flash cards with the term on one side, the definition and an example on the other. - Always keep in mind that texts tex ts are created to create effects. How is the use of X technique creating an effect? - Use what you have learnt in other units to help with your reading of the poetry and prose Written Texts. They will both usually have a single main idea, and generate some kind of mood. - Visual texts are usually one of three – three – they they are either trying to sell you something, or educate you/persuade you to a different or new way of thinking, or getting you to donate money to a cause. Sometimes all three. Always figure out the intention behind the text, and the intended demographic (audience they are trying to appeal to). Your answers to the questions should be informed by these. - Oral texts will almost always be speeches, and usually by a politician or campaigner. The y will try to persuade, motivate, excite or subdue (calm) their audience. Figure out their intention and you will be in a good position to answer the questions.
Verbal Features These will be used for ALL texts. * Figurative Language – Language – figurative is figurative is the opposite of literal , so anytime you see something that isn‟t intended to be taken as literal, it will be one of these terms. * Simile – a – a comparison using „like‟ „like‟ or or „as‟ „as‟ , making us link the subject to the image and/or sound of something else. Often this „something else‟ will relate in some way to the overall effect of the text. You must analyse why the comparison has been made. * Metaphor – a a comparison that says one thing IS a dif ferent ferent thing. This can be explicit (“The (“The building was a cliff of glass”) glass”) or implied (“Shards (“Shards of light scattered across the floor ” – this this implies that the light is made of glass). Again, the metaphor used may ma y relate to the overall effect or intention of the text. * Personification – giving giving human qualities to a non-human thing (like an animal, an object, an emotion or a concept). “ Fear clawed at his throat ”. ”. Generally, the effect of personification is that it gives the non-human non-human thing more intent and an „active‟ sense (“waves (“waves threatened to to topple the raft ”) ”) – the the thing is behaving like a sentient being. This can be used in a variety of ways, depending on the text and language. For example, a tree can be made gentle and welcoming (“the (“the tree unfurled her arms to me”) me”) or scary and dangerous (“the (“the tree‟s fingers grasped at my shirt ”). ”). * Hyperbole – exaggerating exaggerating something for effect. Sometimes to show exasperation (“ I‟ve told you a million times…”), times…”), sometimes to show that the speaker is putting on a façade (“ I‟ve climbed I‟ve climbed a thousand mountains…”). mountains…”). You must decide why hyperbole is being used – used – look look at the context of the whole text, and who is using it.
Emotive Language – words words or phrases that provoke an emotional reaction in the audience. They are based on instinctual human reactions rather than cold, hard facts. Can be quite manipulative as a result. Used particularly in Oral Texts. Colloquialisms – slang, slang, informal language associated with particular groups (cultures, age groups, countries…). Can be used to appeal to the intended audience, or to make a text more informal and relaxed. Personal Pronouns – I, I, you, me, we, us, u s, our, their, them, they, my, your… Often used in Oral Texts to include the audience in a group (“We will fight together!”) or to polarize two groups (“We will fight them together!”). Can make something abstract or seemingly unconnected more immediate and personal (to speaker and/or audience). Also used in other texts (Prose, Poetry, Visual). Pun – a a play on words, usually using the sound of words to create humorous effects (homophones). “ Atheism is a non-prophet organization” organization” relies on the homophone „prophet/profit‟. The sentence actually makes sense with both. Puns are often used as the punchline in knock-knock jokes. Neologism – a a newly made-up made-up word. Look at the poem „ Jabberwocky‟ Jabberwocky‟ – – full full of made-up words that are more effectively creepy than existing words (“Twas (“Twas brillig and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe…”). Neologisms wabe…”). Neologisms are also frequently used in advertising, especially if the product is newly-invented. Imperative – a – a command that does not no t allow for uncertainty. “Get it NOW”, “Don‟t go anywhere else!” “Be in quick”. quick”. Used most in Visual Texts, but also Oral and the two written texts. Synonyms – different different words that have the same or similar meaning. Can be used to emphasise an important idea or image. Antonyms – words – words that have the opposite meaning: meanin g: “public/private”, “clarity/ambiguity”, “darkness/light”. Verbs – „active‟ – „active‟ or „passive‟ verbs for effect. A series of active verbs will show us that the individual/character is decisive and, literally, active. You can use infinitives here – here – the the infinitive form of a verb is the verb in its original state – state – „„to get dressed‟, „to jump‟, „to act‟. Proper Nouns – place place names, people, significant events (the Holocaust for example). Abstract Nouns – names names of things you cannot see or touch or quantify – quantify – freedom, freedom, love, heartache, longing, liberty, destiny… Conjunction – small – small words that join minor sentences or clauses. „But‟, „and‟, „if‟. Look out for intentional use and repetition of particular conjunctions. Oxymoron – putting putting two images together which seem to contradict each other, but in fact create an effect. Oxymorons are often used ironically, for humorous or satirical effects, or to create an interesting mood (“the (“the fire chilled him to the bone”). bone”). Paradox – a a seeming contradiction. Statements such as Oscar Wilde‟s “ I can resist anything except temptation” temptation” and Chesterton‟s “ spies do not look like spies” spies” are examples of paradox. Polonius‟ observation in Hamlet that Hamlet that “though “though this be madness, yet there th ere is method in‟t ” is also paradox. Suggestive Language – „suggests‟ – „suggests‟ something rather than „tells‟ explicitly. Negative or Positive Connotations – words – words that are „loaded‟ with a positive or negative „feeling‟. Will probably only be identifiable if two or more are used in close proximity.
Euphemism – A polite way of saying something delicate or unpleasant “The “The little boys‟ room” room” instead of “toilet ”, ”, or “he “he has passed on” on” instead of “he “he died ”. ”. * Analogy – making making an interesting, poetic connection between things – things – ““ My loneliness was a forest missing its most majestic tree”. tree ”. (Yes, this is a metaphor too). Allusion/Reference – making making a direct or indirect reference to another text or historical event. For e xample, the characterisation of Adam Sutler in the film V For Vendetta makes Vendetta makes an allusion to both Adolf Hitler and „Big Brother‟ from the novel and film 1984. 1984. Rhetorical Question – asking asking a question without expecting a reply. They are designed to engage and make you think about your response. “What “What would you do?” Listing – efficiently – efficiently building information in a list (of attributes, verbs, objects, imperatives, impe ratives, adjectives…). Overuse of listing can be very unengaging and lazy, but used sparsely can be very effective. Cliché – a a phrase that has been used so often that it becomes be comes almost meaningless, or at least lacks any strong effect due to overuse. “ Her eyes sparkled like the sun”, sun”, “her hair was like spun gold”. Can denote laziness/a lack of creativity, or be used ironically ironicall y to comment on the dullness of someone/something else. Comparative – one one thing is better, stronger, faster, more than the other. Literally comparing two things. Superlative – one one thing is the best, strongest, fastest, most . Literally the best of its kind. Acronym – shortening shortening a phrase to its initial letters of each word, to make a new word - EFTPOS = electronic funds transfer at point of sale. Contraction – shortening shortening two words to one word wo rd with an apostrophe makes the tone less formal – formal – don‟t don‟t (do (do not), can‟t (can (can not). Antithesis – complete complete opposite. Usually used as a dramatic comparison. Jargon – words words that are associated with a particular p articular job, sport, interest… interest…
Sound Techniques These relate to the sound the word(s) make, rather than the images they put in your mind. You may need to read the text under your breath quietly in order to „hear‟ them. Alliteration – two two or more words within a close proximity p roximity to each other begin with the same letter OR same consonant sound. Remember that a „c‟ can have a hard „k‟ sound, a soft „s‟ sound, or when combined with with an „h‟, a „ch‟ sound, so be b e sure they make the same sound if you think it‟s alliteration. The effect of alliteration can be to highlight h ighlight the phrase as important/intended to be memorable, o r to create a sound that relates to the subject of the poem – poem – aa poem about the ocean could feature a lot of „s‟ sounds to evoke the sound of the waves; a text about a train journey could feature phrases that use a „t‟ or „ch‟ or „k‟ sound to evoke the sound of the train clattering along the tracks. Assonance – harder harder to identify than alliteration. It is the repetition of vowe l sounds within two or more words. “ H ow cl ou dy it is today/ The br ow mused l ou dly”. Again, you will have to look at the meaning ow cl ou dy ow n cow mused ou dly”. of the words and the text tex t to figure out possible effects, and remember that vowel sounds can be spelt differently („ou‟ („ou‟ and and „ow‟ „ow‟ can can make the same sound, „au‟ „au‟ and and „or‟ „or‟ and and „our‟ „our‟ and and „oar‟ „oar‟ can too). Consonance – like like assonance, but with repetition of consonant sounds within a group of words. Has a similar effect to alliteration and assonance.
Sibilance – A A specific type of alliteration using the „s‟ sound only. Onomatopoeia – the – the word makes the sound of the „noise‟ it is naming, such as „ splash‟ splash‟ or „crack „crack ‟ or „ pop‟ pop‟. This can punctuate, or create a „break‟, in the text. It can draw you into an engagement with the text by letting you „hear‟ the sounds being created. Structure Terms Paragraphs (for Prose and Oral) Stanzas (for Poetry) These should have one main idea in each. To get an understanding of how something is structured, look at these and their main ideas to see how how the text is „built‟. Enjambement – the the continuation of a line of poetry from the end of one stanza to the beginning of the next, without pause. Refrain – repeating repeating a key sentence or phrase, phrase, often used in poems and song lyrics. This relates to structure. It may be used to start each stanza. The meaning of the refrain should be analysed an alysed as well. Conventional Structure – an an identifiable Beginning, Middle and End. Unconventional or Unusual Structure – may may contain flashbacks/flash forwards, interjections, different narrative voices, may loop back to the beginning, or „circle‟ a main idea without moving forward. Parallel Structure – the the way a paragraph, pa ragraph, sentence or stanza is structured is repeated in the following paragraph/sentence/stanza. This does not mean the words and/or ideas are repeated. Anaphora – Repeating a word or phrase at the beginning b eginning of a series of clauses: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way…” Charles Dickens, A Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities. See also Martin Luther King Jr‟s “ I Have A Dream” Dream” speech. Tenses – is – is the piece written in past tense („was‟, („was‟, „were‟, „had ‟), ‟), present tense („is‟, („is‟, „are‟, „has‟) „has‟) or futur e tense („will („will be‟ )? )? Does this vary or change through the text? Why? Minor Sentence – a – a sentence with one subject and one verb. “Yes “Yes we can” can” (Barack Obama). Complex Sentence – usually usually a longer sentence, with more than one verb and more than one idea. Technically, it has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Look it up online for more detail. Narrative Voice – First – First person singular (“I”, “my”, “mine”), first person plural (“we”, “us”, “ours”), second person singular or plural (“you” – rare), – rare), third person (“he/she”, “they”, “them”, “their”, “his/hers”…). Creates intimacy or distance, immediacy or detachment. Visual Features (used in a Visual Text) Dominant Image – the the most prominent/biggest image – image – the the one intended to be looked at first, with the most importance. This can be through the use of colour, contrast, size or layout. Colour – think think about the associations we have hav e with different colours. Green can represent nature, or sickness/disease, depending on the context. Red can represent passion or danger – danger – it it is a dramatic colour. Contrast – the the effect of putting two different d ifferent images or colours next to each other (black/white, colour/no colour, bright colour/dull colour, sizes etc). Layout – a a general term for how images and/or and /or text are arranged, including relationship to each other (also includes dominant image).
Font – the the lettering of the words, not the words themselves. Does the lettering add meaning to the words, or complement the images in some way? Reverse Print – white white type on black background, instead of the regular black type on white background. Typographical Features – presentation presentation of text. You may need to use this term in place of „font‟ at times. Follow it with a clear description of the feature, and an example. Photographs – can can be used to appeal to a particular audience (such as a photo of Miley Cyrus to appeal to a „tween‟ audience), and can be presented in a meaningful way (such as sepia tone to to imply history/olden times). Think about focus here as well (sharp, soft). Rule Of Thirds – a a graphic design term meaning that visual texts are often separated into three distinct sections (Main Text, Image(s), Body Copy, for example). This ma y be applied top to bottom, or left to right. Helps with understanding each section clearly. Symbols – an an image that represents something abstract or complicated. A red poppy can represent the ANZACs. A silver fern can represent New Zealand. Logo – a a design feature, usually a combination co mbination of image and words (or letters) that represents the company/organization that is responsible for, or connected with, the visual text. A logo is often o ften used alongside a Slogan. Montage – a a collection of images – images – can can be orderly or seemingly seemingly „random‟ to have a particular effect. Cartoons/Illustrations – can can be used to make something scary (like medicine or politics) less intimidating, through the use of child-like humour and an informal tone. Diagrams/Graphs/Charts/Statistics – can can be used to give „authority‟ to a text, to make it seem more official or trustworthy. Verbal Features in Visual Texts Slogan – a – a brief phrase that is associated with a compan y or organization, or even a system s ystem of belief. “ Just Just Do It ” makes us think of Nike; “ It Just Tastes Better ” is Burger King‟s slogan. Slogans often appear alongside Logos. Body Copy – text text on a visual text that is usually small and contains the details and explanation (usually a number of sentences). Jargon Imperatives Personal Pronouns Minor Sentences Colloquialisms (all previously explained). Verbal Features in Oral Texts Many features from above, plus: Triple Construction – Repeating a key word or phrase to begin three consecutive clauses or sentences. This emphasizes or confirms something the speaker wants you to remember. Syntax – A variety of sentence lengths and constructions will make the speech more engaging to listen to and appeal to a variety of listeners. Generalizations – Can make as wide an emotional appeal as possible and avoids dwelling on the „exceptions‟ that might confuse their overall intention. Extended Metaphors – Think of how sports players or commentators constantly use „battle‟ imagery when speaking about a match. There is an overall metaphor of a battle, using different and frequent metaphors to extend the metaphor („they attacked our defense‟, „they stormed the barricades but we triumphed…‟) Comparisons – to make a contrast more effectively; used frequently in p olitical speeches to criticize the opposition party, or to show how far the country has come under the rule of the current party etc.
