Charles Poliquin - PICP Level 1 Manual1.pdf

CONTENTS

Foreword Introduction The Poliquin International Certification Program

1 2

Chapter 1 5 Classification of Strength Qualities Chapter 2 Manipulating Reps for Optimal Strength Gains

11

Chapter 3 IVianipulating Sets for Optimal Strength Gains

41

Chapter 4 The Science of Rest Intervals

55

Chapter 5 The Science of Tempo

65

References

79

Afterword

85

Mission Statement It is the mission of the Poliquin International Certification Program to globally foster and educate our strength coaches and personal trainers. Providing them with superior education and practical application, in turn will raise the level of sport performance and healthy lifestyle ideas. Poliquin Performance was founded on this philosophy and continues to be our driving force to help us remain the world leader in strength and conditioning education.

Program Overview The Poliquin International Certification Program (PICP) recognizes strength coaches around the world who demonstrate the knowledge and skills able to effectively train athletes internationally. Higher-quality strength coaching is an imperative component in improving sports performance. The PICP will provide strength coaches with unsurpassed skills in program design and teaching methodogies.

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual © Poliquin Performance Center 2010

SPECIAL ^ THANKS TD

Fergus Connolly, PhD Fergus Connolly, PhD, is an internationally respected sports performance consultant based in Ireland. Through his company, Connolly Sports Performance, Connolly works with and advises elite coaches and athletes in many sports all over the world, translating theory to on-field results. Having been fortunate to work with and learn from several of the world's best coaches in many sports, Connolly is consistently bridging the theory-practice gap in strength, speed, training organization, injury prevention and rehabilitation. Some of his continuing research interests include the following: • Nervous System Monitoring, Feedback and Optimization • Optimal Power and Speed Development for Team Sport Athletes • Elite Athlete Nutrition and Targeted Supplementation • Applied Kinesiology and Biomechanical Analysis • Injury Prevention and Elite Athlete Rehab Connolly's research into physical therapy, injury prevention and athlete monitoring includes product design for monitoring, biofeedback, injury prevention and training software aimed at team sports to maximize player playing time and eliminate downtime and fatigue.

Some of the elite athletes and coaches he has worked with and advised include . . . •Ashley Jones, Strength and Conditioning Coach, Canterbury Crusaders, New Zealand • John McCloskey, Armagh Coach, All-Ireland Winners 2002, Ulster SFC 2004, 2005, 2006 • Phil Morrow, Strength and Conditioning Coach, Ulster Rugby, Celtic League Champions 2005/2006 • Enda McNulty, Armagh Senior Footballer, All-Ireland Winner 2002, All-Star 2002 •Aldan O'Connell, Strength and Conditioning Coach, Munster Rugby, European Cup 2006 • Tom Crick, Sprints Coach, Loughborough University Track and Field, UK • Many individual athletes in many other teams and sports, including rugby, soccer, hurling, and track and field. Connolly's by-invitation-only website and forum for his clients and elite coaches - The Elite Edge - is the fastest-growing resource for athletes and coaches looking for cutting-edge knowledge across the world. Contact Fergus Connolly at www.fergusconnolly.com.

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual © Poliquin Peii'ormance Center 2010

FDREWDRD

Charles Poliquin is an extremely well-paid strength coach who has trained countless elite athletes, both amateur and professional. He began as a young man fascinated with weight training and looking for a way to make it his life's work. You may be in a similar position; or you may be a personal trainer, a coach, a student of exercise theory and methodology, an athlete looking for an edge or a physician or physical caregiver. Regardless, this course contains the theories and methodologies that dictate how he writes strength training routines. These routines are his bread and butter - they separate a coach of winning athletes from a coach of wannabes. It is Coach Poliquin's aim to share with you the science of strength coaching from his experience. It is also his aim to help you become as successful as he has been in the field of strength coaching. Yet, even more importantly, he wants to help a new generation of coaches to take the athletes of the next century to greater feats and new world records through intelligent training rather than anabolics and other chemical means. With increased contributions from the scientific community, the subject of training methodologies - in particular, loading parameters - has become rather complex. However, science has not yet provided all the answers; and therefore, we will continue to see much variation in training methods. This course will help to open doors as we continue to progress.

This primer in strength coaching theory is not meant to answer every conceivable question. However, Coach Poliquin believes it will bring you a big step closer to answering most questions, and it will also prepare you to draw the logical and correct conclusions as science provides us with more keys to training success. It will also help you coach athletes regardless of their particular sports. Although this variety increases the difficulty of determining the most effective program for each athlete, this course is designed to be the most thorough treatise available on modern strength coaching techniques. Upon completion of the Poliquin Performance Certification Course you will be able to write better routines for a wider variety of sport-specific applications, enabling your athletes to fulfill their physical potential. There's a lot of intense studying ahead for you, but when you're finished I'm certain you'll agree that your investment has certainly been worth it. Kim Goss Strength and Fitness Writer/Editor US Air Force Academy Strength Coach, 1987-94

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual © Poliquin Peii'ormance Center 2010

Foreword

1

The Poliquin International Certification Program (PICP)

The Poliquin Strength Institute team is proud to present our program to meet the needs of strength coaches throughout the world: the Poliquin International Certification Program (PICP). The mission of the PICP is to improve the level of sports performance the world over though high-quality strength coaching. We do this by providing coaches with the latest information on program design and teaching methodologies.

Program Levels Levels 1 to 3 of the program are designed for strength coaches who work with developing athletes participating at levels ranging from regional to national. Each level of the PICP has three components: theory, technical and practical. The PICP issues a diploma upon completion of each component. Levels 4 and 5 of the program are for well-established strength coaches interested in coaching at the international or professional sports level. Levels 4 and 5 are geared to highly qualified strength coaches. By the end of Level 5, the strength coach will have completed 12 requirements.

PICP Level 1: Regional Coach Upper Body Structural Balance At the conclusion of the PICP Level 1 Course, coaches and trainers will: 1. Understand all Theory 1 Principles

4. Understand Upper Body Exercise Progressions and Variations 5. Be able to differentiate strength programs and have an introduction to Program Design 6. Have an introduction to stretching techniques

THEORY The Theory component is the Level 1 Theory Manual. In the Theory 1 Manual, coaches and trainers will learn to differentiate strength qualities and know the scientific basis of the following training loading parameters: Manipulation of Reps, Manipulation of Sets, Rest Intervals and Science of Tempo. Upon completion of the Theory 1 Manual, the Theory 1 Exam (50-question, Multiple Choice) will need to be submitted. The passing grade is 92% and must be passed before attending the course.

TECHNICAL The Technical component consists of an in-class lecture/presentation based on designing effective strength programs. By the end of the course, a written exam will be given. The passing grade is 92%.

PRACTICAL To complete the Practical component, the coach or trainer will administer an Upper Body Structural Balance Assessment. Grades will be based on a Pass/ Fail System.

2. Understand the concept of Structural Balance 3. Be able to perform the Upper Body Structural Balance Assessment

2

Introduction


PICP Level 2: State/Provincial Coach, Lower Body Structural Balance At the conclusion of the course, coaches and trainers will: 1. Understand all Theory 2 Principles

PICP Level 3: National Coach 9 Tasks {7 of 9 Tasks must be completed to fulfill PICP Level 3 Requirements) At the conclusion of the course, coaches and trainers will:

2. Understand the concept of Structural Balance

1. Understand Principles of Nutrition

3. Be able to perform the Lower Body Structural Balance Assessment

2. Know how to design effective Nutritional Plans

4. Understand important Lower Body Exercise Progressions 5. Have an introduction to Short Term Periodization 6. Have an introduction to Rehabilitation Principles

THEORY The Theory component is the Level 2 Theory Manual. In the Theory 2 Manual, coaches and trainers will learn Principles of Safe and Effective Training, Exercise Selection, Number of Exercises, Rate of Exercise Exchange, Exercise Order, and Training Frequency. Upon completion of the Theory 2 Manual, the Theory 2 Exam (50-question, Multiple Choice) will need to be submitted. The passing grade is 92% and must be passed before attending the course.

TECHNICAL The Technical component consists of an in-class lecture/presentation. The technical exam is designing a lower body program with a given case study. Grades will be based on a Pass/Fail System.

PRACTICAL To complete the Practical component, the coach or trainer will administer a Lower Body Structural Balance Assessment. Grades will be based on a Pass/Fail System.

3. Understand factors influencing Energy System Prescription 4. Understand Principles of Energy Systems 5. Know how to help Prevent and Rehabilitate Upper and Lower Body Injuries 6. Understand Supplementation for effective Training and Athletic Performance 7. Understand Exercises and Variations for Applied Functional Strength 8. Know how to design an effective Short-Term Periodization program 9. Understand the fundamentals of Olympic Lifting 10. Understand new techniques for instant muscle strengthening

THEORY The Theory component is the Nutrition Manual. In the Nutrition Manual, coaches and trainers will learn the principles of Macronutrients, Calories, Hormones, Diet Programs and Medication and Supplements. Upon completion of the Nutrition Manual, the Nutrition Exam (72-question, Multiple Choice) will need to be submitted. The passing grade is 92% and must be passed before attending the course.

TECHNICAL The technical component consists of 14 gym-hours and 14 hours of in-class lecture throughout the duration of the course.

PRACTICAL The practical component is designed to provide coaches with feedback on their effectiveness when coaching in the weight room.

The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual © Poliquin Peitormance Center 2010

Introduction

3

At this level, there is a specific criterion the PICP will need to grant you in this component. You will have to prove that you have at least one athlete who followed your program and has participated in a national championship and finished at a performance level representing 90% of the average of the first 3 competitors. For example, if the average throw is 20 meters, the athlete will need to throw 18 meters.

PICP Level 4: International Coach 6 Tasks At the conclusion of the course, coaches and trainers will: 1. Understand Principles of Long Term Periodization 2. Know Training Recovery Methods 3. Learn How to Increase Your Revenue

PICP Level 5: Master Strength Coach The highest goal in the Poliquin International Certification Program is to reach the International Master Course Conductor (IMCC) level. This level falls under jurisdiction of the Poliquin Strength Institute with the collaboration of the National Sport Governing Organization (NSGO). The identification of an IMCC needs the approval of both organizations. This level is competency-based according to the coach's experience and his form of education. The coaches who desire this level of certification have to submit their curriculum to the Poliquin Strength Institute. All curriculums are based on the achievement of the candidate. Only active coaches can qualify for this level. You need to meet four of the seven following criteria to obtain the IMCC qualification: • Train a medalist at the Olympic Games

4. Know Advanced Strength Training Techniques 5. Learn Stretching Techniques

• Train a medalist at the Senior World Championships

6. Understand the Fundamentals of Plyometrics and Speed Progressions

• Participate officially as a coach or athlete at the Olympic Games or World Championships

PICP Level 4 represents one of the final steps of the PICP for coaches and is designed for those working with high performance athletes and for those interested in pursuing a successful career in coaching. Level 4 consists of Six Tasks. Coaches will learn new tools that assist in the training of national caliber athletes. They need to successfully complete the tasks Only active coaches qualify for this level. You need to complete the six tasks and have two of the 5 criteria to obtain the ICC qualification: • Participate officially as a coach or an athlete at the Olympic Games

• Train a World Record Holder in a recognized discipline • Train an athlete who wins a distinguished award in the professional league: i.e. Norris (NHL), Cy Young (MLB) • Develop course material for the PICP • Work as a National Coach for 5 years * Note: World Championships are for recognized disciplines where coaching is a factor: i.e. track and field, alpine skiing, volleyball, etc... Examples of sports not recognized are: ice dancing, speed skiing.

• Participate officially as a coach or an athlete at the World Championships • Participate officially as a coach on the World Cup circuit • Coach an athlete to the Senior World Championships • Coach an athlete to the Olympic Games • Coach an athlete on the World Cup circuit

4

Introduction


Classification of Strength Qualities

strength can be classified into many different types, each defined by differing capabilities of the neuromuscular system and different time frames of strength expression. Some types of strength can be defined even more specifically by the type of muscular contraction. This chapter classifies these capabilities and defines these contraction types.


Chapter 1

PRE-TEST

1. Maximal involuntary strengtii is another term for which of the following? A. maximal strength B. limit strength C. fascia strength D. explosive power

neuromuscular system to produce the greatest possible force in the shortest possible time frame? A. reactive strength

2. How many types of maximal voluntary strength are there? A. 3

7. Which of these is a plyometric activity? A. depth jumping B. bounding C. hurdle hops

B. 4 C. 15 D. 16

B. speed-strength C. compensatory acceleration D. B and C

D. All the above 8. The athlete's tolerance level to fatigue in strength performance of longer duration is related to what term? A. aerobic volume B. strength endurance C. anaerobic endurance D. neuromuscular volume

3. Which of these activities best represents an isometric contraction? A. the set position in sprinting B. the shift phase of a roundhouse uppercut C. the lowering phase of a bench press D.B and C 4. The maximal stimulus to the neuromuscular system is achieved by what type of contraction? A. concentric B. isometric C. helvetica D. eccentric

9. Optimal strength can best be described by which of the following definitions? A. the maximal force an athlete can generate, irrespective of bodyweight and time of force development B. the optimal level of maximal strength needed for a particular sport C. the capacity to develop a vertical rise in force once movement has been initiated D. the ability to maintain postural balance in acyclic activities

5. Isokinetic strength training would be most appropriate for which sport/s? A. canoeing B. swimming C. ice squash D. Aand B 6. What term is used to represent the ability of the

10. In what phase is intensity the main stressor? A. accumulation phase B. intensification phase C. Gamma phase D. Both Aand B

a-OI. a-6 9-8 Q-L a-9 a-9 a-t'V-e V-3 an sjeMsuvisai-eJd 6

Chapter 1


C HAPTER 1 In certain sporting movements, such as moving out of starting blocks in sprinting, an isometric contraction in the set position precedes a concentric contraction, but there is no external movement.

Classificatidn of Strength Qualities Experimental research and empirical evidence have shown over and over that the amount of resistance (load) used for a specific exercise is probably the most important variable in resistance training (McDonagh & Davies 1984, Spassov 1988). In other words, the level of tension imposed upon the muscle is critical for obtaining a strength response. The degree of loading is usually described in terms of repetitions maximum (RM). For instance the maximal weight that can be lifted correctly four consecutive times without significant rest would be known as 4RM. The relationship between repetitions and the maximum is known as the 1RM continuum. Strength can be classified into many different types, each defined by differing capabilities of the neuromuscular system and different time frames of strength expression. Some types of strength can be defined even more specifically by the type of muscular contraction. This chapter classifies these capabilities and defines these contraction types. Limit Strength. The peak force or torque the neuromuscular system is capable of exerting in a single maximal contraction. Limit strength is typified by a survival (instinctual) response to a life-threatening situation that involves little or no prior thought or preparation. Limit strength is also known as maximal involuntary strength. IVIaximal Strength. The peak force or torque the neuromuscular system is capable of producing in a single maximal voluntary contraction, irrespective of the time element. There are three types of voluntary maximal strength, one for each type of muscular contraction: isometric, concentric and eccentric. Isometric (Static) Contraction. A muscle develops tension while its length remains unchanged, thus producing no external movement. In other words, a muscle develops tension without a change in joint angle. However, the muscle belly and accompanying fascia do shorten internally during the process of developing tension, but this shortening in the agonist is countered equally by a shortening in the antagonist.

Concentric Contraction. The muscle develops tension and shortens, causing movement to occur During a chin-up, the joint angle at the elbow is decreased from 180 degrees to 15 degrees as the biceps works concentrically, resulting in an elevation of the body. Eccentric Contraction. The muscle lengthens while producing tension, thus braking or controlling the speed of movement. This contraction is exemplified by the action of the quadriceps during the lowering phase of the squat. An eccentric contraction of the biceps occurs by lowering the body from the completed chin-up position, with the elbow joint angle increasing from 15 degrees to 180 degrees. During the positive phase in the bench press, the triceps contract concentrically as the joint angle at the elbow increases, but contract eccentrically as the joint angle decreases during the return phase (the weight moves up, and then down, respectively). The highest forces that the human body is voluntarily capable of occur during an eccentric contraction, i.e., forces of 40 to 50 percent above values produced by concentric contractions. Maximal eccentric strength exercises provide maximal stimulus to the neuromuscular system, but at a cost to the athlete of greater levels of muscle soreness. Isokinetic Contraction. Literally, "same speed," meaning that the muscle performs a maximal contraction in moving the joint at constant speed throughout the full range of motion. With an isokinetic action the contraction is maximal throughout the range of motion: thus, the resistance against which the muscle works varies depending on the length of lever arm offered by the changing joint angle. An accommodating resistance apparatus allows a constant and predetermined speed of movement. The force exerted by the contracting muscle must be maximal during an isokinetic contraction. Some isokinetic devices also allow the maximum speed of contraction to be preset and thereby enable the simulation of contraction speeds required by a specific sport. Isokinetic strength training is most specific to the so-called isokinetic sports, such as swimming.


Chapter 1

7

synchronized swimming, canoeing and kayaking, where acceleration occurs against the resistance provided by water (i.e., water is an isokinetic medium). It has low specificity in sports such as sprinting, jumping and throwing, where acceleration against gravity plays a major role. However, it does provide the option in any sport of exposing the nervous system to a different stimulus for all athletes, thus adhering to the principle of variety.

per unit of time; the ability of the neuromuscular system to continue developing the already initiated force as quickly as possible; the rate at which one can develop maximal or peak force.

Maximal strength plays a major role in sports where great external resistance must be overcome, such as hammer throwing, shot-putting and weightlifting. Its importance as a determinant of athletic performance diminishes as the duration of the event increases. For example, swimming for 50 meters requires more maximal strength than swimming for 1500 meters. As Table 1.1 indicates, strength requirements vary greatly from one sport to another. Sports of an intermittent nature (such as racquetball), which require intense bursts of power interspaced with lower-intensity recovery periods, are also dependent on high levels of maximal strength.

Reactive Strength. The ability to quickly switch from an eccentric contraction to a concentric contraction. This is also known as the stretch-shortening cycle. Reactive strength regulates performance in sports where stretch-shortening activity of the musculature is great, e.g., volleyball, basketball and weightlifting.

Speed-Strength (power or fast strength, elastic strength). The ability of the neuromuscular system to produce the greatest possible force in the shortest possible time frame. It is the capacity of the neuromuscular system to overcome resistance with the greatest contraction speed possible. Speed-strength is a high priority in most cyclical sports, such as in the field events; in the sprinting, kicking, jumping and throwing activities of team sports; and in the starts and acceleration phases of sprinting, cycling, rowing, cross-country skiing, ice skating and kayaking. Speed-strength encompasses three other strength qualities: starting strength, explosive strength and reactive strength. Starting Strength. The capacity to generate maximal force at the beginning of a muscular contraction; the capacity to overcome resistance and initiate movement. Starting strength is of importance in movements that require great initial speed, such as boxing blows and racquetball thrusts. Starting strength is a key determinant of performance in sports where the resistance to overcome is relatively light. It is dependent on the number of motor units accessed at the beginning of the contraction. Explosive Strength. The capacity to develop a vertical rise in force once movement has been initiated, measured in terms of the increase in force

8

Chapter 1

Explosive strength is a key determinant of performance in sports where the resistance to overcome is relatively great, such as wrestling, hammer throwing and shot-putting.

Plyometrics. A form of training that utilizes fast eccentric contractions followed by explosive concentric contractions. Such activities as bounding, depth jumping and certain forms of medicine ball work satisfy this requirement. The term "plyometric" refers to the enhancement of force development of a concentric contraction that occurs when it is immediately preceded by a rapid eccentric contraction. As a training method, plyometrics bridge the gap between pure strength training and speed-strength training. This training method aims at producing the explosive-reactive movements inherent in takedowns in wrestling and in jumping, throwing and sprinting. Strength Endurance (muscular endurance). The athlete's tolerance level to fatigue in strength performances of longer duration. It is the capacity of a muscle to maintain consistent force output with repeated contractions over time at a percentage of maximal strength superior to 30 percent, the capacity of muscles to resist fatigue while generating force over a period of time. Strength endurance is characterized by high strength levels coupled with high levels of endurance. It is of particular importance in cyclical endurance events, such as rowing, cross-country skiing, swimming and canoeing/kayaking, where the ability to overcome exceptional resistance must be maintained over long periods. It also plays a key role in sports or events of a cyclical nature, such as gymnastics, wrestling, boxing, judo, downhill skiing and most team sports. Absolute Strength. The maximum force an athlete can generate, irrespective of bodyweight and time of force development. Bodyweight and performance are closely correlated in athletes where absolute strength is an important physical quality, such as throwers and


Discipline

Qualification

Full Squat in kg

Bench Press in kg

Weightlifting

220 kg jerk

285

Shot Put

20 m

235

200.0

Hammer Throw

72 m

225

190.0

Sprint

9.78 s

200

190.0

Cycling

Sprint

205

97.5

Bobsleigh

Olympic team

200

140.0

Hammer Throw

60 m

180

150.0

Judo (86 kg)

Olympic team

180

140.0

Alpine Ski

National team

170

80.0

Speed Skating

40.5 s

150

-

Shot Put

14 m

140

115.0

Decathlon

8,000 points

145

110.0

Decathlon

7,500 points

130

95.0

Rowing

National class

140

90.0

Badminton

National league

95

65.0

70.0 (100)

TABLE 1.1 Maximal strength performances of male athletes in different sports and with different levels of qualification. (Modified from Letzeiter & Letzeiter 1986, Poliquin 1988).

American football linemen. These athletes can use maximal strength gains through hypertrophy methods. Relative Strength. The maximum force an athlete can generate per unit of bodyweight irrespective of time of force development. High relative strength is of critical importance to performance in sports in which athletes have to move their entire bodyweight, e.g., jumps, gymnastics and sports that involve weight classes, such as judo, wrestling and boxing. Strength training for these athletes should aim at improving the neural drive (maximal weights/nervous system methods). Optimal Strength. The optimal level of maximal strength needed for a particular sport (any further increase in maximal strength would not improve performance). In sports such as powerlifting, where strength is expressed at slow speeds, the level of optimal strength is open-ended; that is, the more strength the athlete has, the higher the sports performance. In sports where motor skill predominates, such as table tennis, the levels of optimal strength are quite low, since maximal strength and performance are not highly correlated in these sports. Table 1.1 illustrates the different levels of strength commonly found in elite athletes.

Accumulation Phase. A training phase where the main stressor is volume. Increased muscle crosssection or increased strength endurance levels are sought in this phase. Intensification Phase. A training phase where the main stressor is intensity. Increases in relative strength or speed-strength are sought in this phase. In strength training the total volume of work varies considerably from one sport to another. What represents intensification for one sport is accumulation for another. For example, when synchronized swimmers are working in the 6-8RM range, they are doing intensification work; for weightlifters this range represents accumulation.


Chapter 1

9

The Four Strength Qualities

RELATIVE

FUNCTIONAL

Athletes who need high levels of relative strength include gymnasts, high jumpers, short track speed skaters, and sports that involve weight classes, such as judo, wrestling and boxing.

HYPERTROPHY

Athletes who need high levels of functional strength include football skill positions, sprinters and baseball players.

ENDURANCE

Athletes who need high levels of hypertrophy include football lineman and shot putters.

Athletes who need high levels of strength endurance include rowers, cross-country skiers, swimmers, canoeists, kayakers and figure skaters.

PICTURES 1.1-1.4 10

Chapter 1


Manipulating Reps for Optimal Strength Gains

The first step in designing workout programs should be deciding how many reps to perform. The selection of reps affects all other components of a workout. Sets, tempo, rest intervals and even exercise selection are influenced by the number of reps performed.


Chapter 2

PRE-TEST

1. What determines how much tension is imposed on a muscle? A. how much weight is lifted

6. MUA is an acronym for what exercise term? A. muscular unit activity B. motor-unit activation 0. motor-unit acceleration D. none of the above

B. friction of the muscle fibers during muscular contraction C. volume

7. What is the optimal intensity zone for a single muscle group? A. 50-70 percent of maximum B. 70-80 percent of maximum C. 70-85 percent of maximum D. none of the above

D . B and C 2. What is the effect of reducing the speed of movement of an exercise? A. increase in the time a muscle is under tension B. increase of muscle friction C. increase in the intensity of the exercise D. increase in the activation of Nelson motor units 3. What is a simple way to describe the intensity of an exercise? A. neuromuscular manipulating B. repetition maximum (RM) C. set maximum (SM) D. volume/intensity ratio 4. What is a common way to explain the relationship between reps and sets? A. accumulation

8. Which of the following rep brackets would best apply to functional training? A. 1-5 reps B. 6-8 reps C. 10-12 reps D. 10-15 reps 9. A 3011 tempo would yield a time-under-tension value of how many seconds? A. 4 B. 5 C. 6

B. Orion sequence C. co-dependent

D. 7

D. 1RM continuum 5. Which of the following is true? A. Low repetitions produce greater gains in maximal strength. B. High repetitions produce greater gains in maximal strength. C. The capital city of Iran is Iraq.

10. A 301X tempo would yield a time-under-tension value of how many seconds? A. 4 B. 5 C. 6 D. 7

D. Low repetitions produce greater gains in strength-endurance.

v-01 a-6 a-8 a-z a-9 v-9 a-t^ a-e v-z v-i. sjbmsuv isej-ejd 12

Chapter 2


Manipulating Reps for Optimal Strength Gains There is an abundance of peer-reviewed literature that suggests the amount of resistance used for a specific exercise is probably the single most important variable in strength training (McDonagh & Davies 1984; Fleck & Kraemer 1987). How much weight is lifted (the load) determines how much tension is imposed upon a muscle, and how much tension is imposed upon a muscle determines the strength training response. Because the number of repetitions performed influences how much an athlete can lift, this chapter will review the basic principles for selecting reps. I've come up with 24 principles, many that overlap and all of which are important.

those performed by strength-power athletes, according to the universally accepted definition of "intensity." To increase training intensities using conventional resistance training, a coach can either have his or her athletes work at a higher percentage of maximum ability (lifting heavier weights) or have them move the weight faster during the concentric portion of an exercise. Regarding this second point, proponents of the "super-slow" weight training programs often claim that their protocols are more intense than conventional programs. Not quite. Reducing the speed of movement of an exercise merely increases the time a muscle is under tension, not the intensity.

I suggest you read this chapter several times and review it periodically, as the information I'm about to share with you is especially important and immediately applicable to training.

The intensity of an exercise can be described in terms of repetitions maximum (RM). For example, the maximum weight that can be correctly lifted four consecutive times without significant rest would be known as the 4RM. The relationship between reps and repetition maximum is known as the 1RM continuum (Fig. 2.1).

Principle 1: The number of reps for a given time under tension dictates the training effect

Note: For this standard terminology, all reps are performed at a moderate tempo for the eccentric range (3-4 seconds) and as rapidly as possible for the concentric contraction.

How much weight an athlete lifts during a set gives the coach immediate feedback about how closely athletes are working to their maximum capacity. The concept of workout intensity is often misunderstood because bodybuilding magazines use the term "intensity" to describe workouts that are especially difficult. But the fact is, because bodybuilders use relatively lighter weights (compared to powerlifters, Olympic-style weightlifters and other athletes involved in strength-power sports such as football), bodybuilders' training cannot be as intense. It's not that bodybuilders' training is easy but that their workouts are not as hard on the nervous system as

Although the number of reps an athlete performs influences the training effect (Fig. 2.2), it's also important to consider the speed at which these reps are performed. Unfortunately, in the strength training literature most researchers have failed to take into consideration the effects of different repetition speeds, assuming that all reps are performed at roughly the same tempo. The number of repetitions you select will fall on what's called a neuromuscular axis (Fig. 2.3). This theory states that for a given tempo of execution, lower repetitions emphasize neural adaptation and higher repetitions emphasize muscular adaptation. The scientific basis for this premise has been proven


Chapter 2

13

1RM CONTINUUM

100

90

E 3 E 'S ro Z

Rowers

80

# 70

Normal

60 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

1 1

1 2

Repetitions FIGURE 2.1 The relationship between reps and the one-repetition maximum is known as the 1RM continuum. time and again: Groups training with low repetitions achieved greater gains in maximal strength; groups training with high repetitions achieved greater gains in strength-endurance.

Principle 2: Maximal voluntary contractions are essential to the strength training process The foundation of all successful resistance training programs is the inclusion of maximal voluntary contractions (Fleck & Schutt 1985, MacDougall 1986). Maximal voluntary contractions can be defined as "the attempt to recruit as many motor units as possible to develop force." This definition has some limitations, however, because neural mechanisms may inhibit an athlete's ability to exert maximal force. A maximum voluntary contraction does not necessarily equal a 1RM load. It could mean the performance of the last repetition of a 6RM load, wherein the 7th repetition is impossible to perform. Therefore, the last repetition of the set is accomplished by a muscle reaching a fatigued state, at which point maximal force is produced.

maximums, MUA increases with each subsequent submaximal contraction, becoming maximal with fatigue. The use of repetition maximums complies with the principle of overload because the muscle must exert force against a resistance it normally does not encounter. In other words, maximal effort must be exerted to achieve maximal MUA, which will stimulate neural adaptations and lead to enhanced strength. If you accept the idea that one of the most important physiological factors in strength training is maximal MUA, an effective way to strength train would be the rest-pause method. With the rest-pause method the athlete begins with a 1RM load, causing all motor units to be fully activated. Because fatigue would prevent the athlete from lifting this weight again, the weight is reduced slightly (2-5 percent) so that he or she can perform another repetition. Although the weight is lighter, maximal MUA would occur because the athlete is fatigued from the previous rep (Fig. 2.4). The process would be repeated, usually for no more than a total of 8 reps.

Working with 1RM loads enables an athlete to achieve maximal motor-unit activation (MUA) with each contraction. With a greater number of repetition 14

Chapter 2


POLIQUIN TRAINING EFFECT CURVE

u u

I Relative

lU OI c c

I Functional

ro I.

I-

Hypertrophy

t*-

o

IEndurance

^ ® ®

1213

Repetitions

To 16 17 la

® —

Endurance Relative

FIGURE 2.2 The Poliquin Training Effect Curve illustrates how the number of reps influences the training effect.

NEUROMUSCULAR AXIS

100

Metabolic Adaptations

FIGURE 2.3 The Neuromuscular Axis illustrates that lower reps emphasize neural adaptation, and higher reps emphasize muscular adaptation.


Chapter 2

15

Principle 3: Use 70 to 100 percent of maximum capacity to develop maximal strength

Principle 4: The range in repetitions for strength training decreases with training age

According to leading experts in strength training, the best way to develop maximal strength is to use weights that allow an athlete to perform 1-12 reps at 70-100 percent of the athlete's maximum (Feser 1977; Letzeiter & Letzeiter 1986; McDonagh & Davies 1984) (Fig. 2.5). There is, however, controversy as to what is considered minimum intensity.

Training age influences the 1RM continuum. Training age refers to the number of years an athlete has been participating in serious strength training. If an athlete has been strength training seriously for one year, that athlete has a training age of one; if it's two years, that equals a training age of two, and so on.

Some sport scientists believe the minimum intensity level in strength training is 75 percent (Harre et al. 1989), while others suggest a minimum intensity as low as 60 percent (Allsen et al. 1984; MacDougall 1986). Although beginners (and especially women) can often make excellent progress using 60 percent intensities, this intensity level may be better suited for the development of muscular endurance (Letzeiter & Letzeiter 1986; Schmidtbleicher 1985). The bottom line is that there is an optimal threshold of intensity required to stimulate strength gains, and as such a coach must closely monitor and adjust intensity levels and repetition ranges.

The average beginning weight trainee can often perform a 20RM at 75 percent of maximum. After one year of training he or she may be down to 10RM for the same percentage, and after five years the same athlete may barely be able to perform 4RM (Table 2.1). Also, differences in the 1RM between sexes have been demonstrated (Table 2.2), as well as differences between individuals (Chernik 1983, Poliquin & Leger 1990). Applying this knowledge to the development of maximal strength, a male athlete with a training age of one year who can bench press 200 pounds may be able to do 12 reps at 140 pounds (70 percent of max). By the time this athlete can bench press 400 pounds, he may be able to complete only 6 reps at his new 70

MOTOR-UNIT ACTIVATION

100

Pounds

100% MUA

1

2

3

4

5

6

Repetitions

FIGURE 2.4 This graph demonstrates how fatigue can influence motor-unit activation. 16

Chapter 2


DEVELOPMENT OF MAXIMAL STRENGTH

FIGURE 2.5 The leading experts in strength training have determined that the best way to develop maximal strength is to use weights at 70-100 percent of the athlete's maximum. Lighter weights may cause an athlete to lose strength. percent of maximum, which in this case is 280 pounds. Because it is generally agreed upon in the strength training community that 70 percent of maximum is the minimum threshold for strength development, it would not be wise to use programs that emphasize weights lower than 70 percent (or repetitions higher than 6), as the weight would be too light to elicit a strength response (Fig. 2.6).

Principle 5: The intensity-zone repetition bracket is specific to the muscle The 1RM continuum varies greatly among muscle groups. At 12RM in the bench press an athlete may be working at 70 percent of maximum, but at 12RM for the leg curl he or she may be working at only 57 percent of maximum. And for lower-body exercises with a high stretch-shortening cycle, such as the leg press, some athletes may be able to complete as many as 65 repetitions at 70 percent of maximum (Fig. 2.7)!

Principle 6: Long-term aerobic work modifies the IRIVI continuum Athletes who compete in events in which there is a high cyclical component often can perform abnormally high repetitions at a very high percentage of maximum. Australian rowers have been shown to be able to complete 12 reps at 97 percent of their maximum, in contrast to the average athlete who may be able to complete only 1-2 repetitions at that percentage (Fig.

2.8).

Principle 7: The number of repetitions is the loading parameter that athletes adapt to most quickly Because the body adapts very quickly to a given rep range, frequent variation in rep prescriptions is necessary to ensure optimal progress. I've found that most athletes adapt to a given number of repetitions in six workouts. After six workouts the rate of progress is so insignificant that it is often futile to continue the same program. One approach to program design I particularly like is to use a given rep bracket for two workouts, lower it by 1 rep for two workouts and then lower it again by


Chapter 2

17

FIGURE 2.6 As an athlete's training age increases, lower reps with heavier weights are necessary to elicit a strength response.

another rep for one or two workouts. I've had great success using this approach with the more than 70 National Hockey League players I've trained and with track stars Michelle Freeman and Carlette Guidry (Fig. 2.9). Here is one example of such a progression: Workouts 1-2: 4 sets x 6-8 reps Workouts 3-4: 5 sets x 5-7 reps Workouts 5-6: 5 sets x 4-6 reps

Principle 8: Individualize the rep prescription The unique qualities of the individual athlete must be addressed when designing a workout. Some athletes respond better to rapid changes of reps and sets (every 1-2 weeks), while other trainees respond better to less rapid changes (every 3-4 weeks). Many factors that influence the rate of adaptation to training are genetic, including muscle fiber makeup, systemic recovery rate and hormonal response. I have also found that athletes in the so-called nervoussystem sports (such as the throws and the 100-meter sprint) adapt much more rapidly to strength-training prescriptions (Fig. 2.10).

18

Chapter 2

When helping Cathy Millen prepare for her onslaught of powerlifting world records, I wrote a training program for her in which the rep bracket was changed downward every two workouts. In contrast, for Olympic bobsleigh gold medalist Pierre Lueders, who established start records worldwide, I wrote programs in which a complete overhaul of the loading parameters occurred every training session. The difference between Cathy's and Pierre's training was necessary because Pierre's sport required him to be more explosive than Cathy.

Principle 9: Elite athletes must pay attention to specificity of contraction force Repetitions in the 1RM to 5RM range increase maximal strength with minimal gains in muscle mass. Reps in the 8RM to 15RM range produce greater hypertrophy gains with less effect on maximal strength. Reps between 6RM and 7RM produce equal changes in hypertrophy and strength. But these are general guidelines. Coaches must pay special attention to specificity of contraction force. When training athletes with several years of lifting experience, low repetitions (1-5) must be used with high loads (85 percent or higher) for both


UPPER BODY UP TO 12 REPS

LOWER BODY UP TO 65 REPS

FIGURE 2.7 The 1RM continuum varies greatly among muscle groups. As such, the most effective repetition ranges for lower-body exercises such as the leg press are much higher than for upper-body exercises such as the triceps extension.

1 RM CONTINUUM

100 E

3

E

•>< n>

Endurance

Z

Normal 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13

15 16 17

18 19 20

Repetitions FIGURE 2.8 Athletes who compete in sports in which there is a major cyclical component, such as rowing, can perform abnormally high repetitions at a very high percentage of maximum.


Chapter 2

19

REPETITIONS MAXIMUM IN THE SCOTT CURL 1 Mean

ELITE

1 Mean

n SD

NOVICE

—1 SD

Ratio

90%

2.48

1.27

4.29

1.14

0.58

85%

4.59

1.44

6.28

1.37

0.73

80%

6.28

1.88

8.23

1.79

0.76

75%

8.55

2.52

10.42

2.16

0.82

70%

10.84

2.66

12.52

2.08

0.87

50%

23.64

3.79

33.44

4.29

0.71

TABLE 2.1 Repetitions Maximum in tlie Scott Curl Achieved at Loads Corresponding to 50-90% of 1RM.

ELBOW-FLEXION STRENGTH 11 Mean

MALE

FEMALE

11

Mean

SD

SD

Ratio

409.0

90.0 ***

190.0

33.0

2.15

90%

3.5

1.9 NS

3.7

2.2

0.95

80%

8.0

2.6 NS

9.1

4.5

0.88

70%

12.0

2.3*

17.0

6.2

0.71

60%

20.0

6.6 **

33.3

7.8

0.60

50%

34.8

66.5

27.2

0.52

1RM(N)

14.2

TABLE 2.2 Elbow-Flexion Strength and Number of Repetitions Achieved at Loads Corresponding to 50-90% of 1RM (*p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.00^)(Maughan et al. 1986)

relative and absolute strength; mid-repetitions (6-12) must be used with submaximal loads (70-84 percent) for absolute strength gains; and high repetitions (13 and higher) should be combined with light loads for strength-endurance (less than 70 percent). What this means is that athletes with more weight training experience who are interested in absolute strength increases can afford to train with a broader spectrum of repetitions. This specificity of contraction force has its physiological basis within both the nervous and muscular system (Table 2.3).

Principle 10: Don't perform low reps too frequently Robert Roman is a Russian sport scientist who wrote extensively on the training of competitive weightlifters. Roman suggested that training loads be distributed

20

Chapter 2

among intensity zones, and that the most successful weightlifters tended to do most of their sets in the 3RM to 4RM range. This belief was echoed by Canada's most successful weightlifting coach, Pierre Roy. Roy believes that the average rep for a strength athlete should be around 3. In other words, if the athlete does singles or doubles too often, or for periods extended too long, progress will stagnate. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, I was able to analyze training programs of athletes from various Eastern Bloc countries such as Hungary, Cuba, Romania and the former East Germany. I found that lifts above 90 percent generally represented between 5 and 13 percent of the volume. The percentages for that intensity zone were normally in single digits in the


LINEAR VS. WAVE 100

ts 0) it Ul O)

c

re

u

I-

Linear Loading Wave Loading

FIGURE 2.9 The wave loading method alternates the repetition bracket. This is in contrast to the linear loading method, in which there is a gradual, even decrease in the repetition bracket.

INDIVIDUAL NEED FOR CHANGE

FIGURE 2.10 The unique qualities of the individual athlete, such as muscle fiber makeup and hormonal response, influence the distribution of the repetition brackets.


Chapter 2

21

preparatory periods, and rarely exceeded 12 percent in the competitive periods.

Principle 11: Each muscle group or lift responds best to a specific average rep range The optimal average rep range should be specific to the muscle group or the exercise chosen. Analysis of the training logs of the athletes I have coached demonstrated that in the case of the elbow flexors, the best strength gains were obtained when no less than an average of 2.5 reps per set were performed, with a minimum total of 15 reps completed per workout. This principle explains why both the sets/reps prescription in Figure 2.11 were equally successful. The bottom line is that there is a minimum-volume threshold of reps and an average rep per set necessary for optimal strength gains.

Principle 12: Intensity dictates hormonal response Repetition selection affects the hormonal response of the workout. Finnish researchers Hakkinen and Pakarinen (1993) demonstrated that moderate loads (10 sets of 10 at 70 percent) produced a twentyfold increase in growth hormone production compared to only a slight change in a high-intensity protocol (21 reps at 100 percent). It is imperative that your training protocols achieve your desired hormone response. When you are concerned with producing body-composition changes in your athletes, strive to maximize growth hormone output. In contrast, if relative strength is the primary goal, then minimize the anabolic response and increase neural adaptations (Fig. 2.12).

If relative strength is the primary goal, choose reps at a given tempo that do not exceed 20 seconds of time under tension (TUT). For example: • 3 reps at a 4020 tempo yielding a TUT of 18 seconds per set • 4 reps at a 3011 tempo yielding a TUT of 20 seconds per set • 2 reps at a 3210 tempo yielding a TUT of 12 seconds per set • 2 reps at a 8010 tempo yielding a TUT of 18 seconds per set My tempo prescription will be explained in detail in Chapter 5. In brief, I use a four-digit system to represent the time it takes to complete the different phases of a strength training repetition. Here are the basics: The first number is the eccentric lowering: that is, when you lower the resistance (i.e., going down in the squat, or bringing the bar to your chest in the bench press). As a rule of thumb, this is when the muscle is being placed under stretch. The second number is the time of the pause in the stretched position. The pause (an isometric contraction) is usually between the eccentric phase or lowering phase and concentric phase or lifting phase (e.g., the bottom position in the squat, or when the bar makes contact with the chest in the bench press). The third number is the concentric contraction; that is, lifting the weight (e.g., raising in the squat, or pressing the bar at arms' length in the bench press). In this case the muscle is shortening. An "X" instead of a number is used to denote "as fast as possible" or "explosive action with full acceleration." The fourth number is the time of pause in the contracted position, such as the top of a curl or a chinup.

Principle 13: The number of repetitions dictates the load

Obviously, there are quite a few permutations possible (Fig. 2.13)

When I write workouts, I first determine the desired training effect and then select a repetition bracket that suits that goal. If you're writing a program to maximize muscle mass, select a load that enables the athlete to complete between 6 and 12 reps. If the athlete can perform only 5 reps with the weight, the weight is too heavy; if he or she can perform 13 reps, the weight is too light.

Principle 14: Novice lifters require higher repetitions

22

Chapter 2

It is wise to use higher repetitions when introducing trainees to strength training. At the initial stage of instruction, beginners can make significant gains in strength with as many as 20 reps because they are at the lower end of their training-potential curve. Also,


SPECIFICITY OF THE CONTRACTION FORCE REPS

INTENSITY

Relative

1-5

85%

Functional

6-8

79-84%

Hypertrophy

9-12

70-78%

Endurance

13+

69%

TABLE 2.3 Athletes with more weight training experience can afford to train with a broader spectrum of repetitions, such as the four major repetition bracl
Principle 15: The extent of effort applied influences the training effect if you do not apply the overload principle in designing your workouts, there is no reason for your athletes

to get stronger. Athletes must periodically force themselves to use higher loads or they will not experience gains in strength or size (Fig. 2.14). The decision to determine the extent of fatigue an athlete should work towards, however, involves a number of factors. Before deciding to work to complete muscular failure on each set, consideration must be given to the athlete's ability to recover from this type of training. Therefore, you must also try to determine if the training approach will optimize the training effect.

Principle 16: The muscle fiber type dictates the number of reps The fiber composition of any given muscle influences

FIGURE 2.11 There is a minimum-volume threshold of reps for strength training. For example, when training the elbow flexors, best results are obtained when a minimum total of 15 reps is completed. Option A: 3x1,3x2, 3x3 total reps for that lift per workout: 18 reps

fi

Option B: 6 X 2-3 total reps for that lift per workout: 12-18 reps

• •'s'l

FIGURE 2.10 The unique qualities of the individual athlete, such as muscle fiber makeup and hormonal response, influence the distribution of the repetition brackets.


Chapter 2

23

HORMONAL RESPONSE

U M (D U

{D

GH production FIGURE 2.12 Training protocols affect hormone response. This graph illustrates that higher repetitions produce maximum growth hormone output.

ZONE TO TRAIN RELATIVE STRENGTH

Time under tension (TUT) per rep cycle (seconds) 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

FIGURE 2.13 Manipulating the tempo prescriptions allows for a considerable variety in the number of repetitions performed in a set to achieve a specific training response.

24

Chapter 2


HYPERTROPHY LEADING PATTERNS FOR BEGINNERS Training Type

% 1RM* Reps

Sets

German Volume Training

60% 10

10

Hypertrophy 1

70-75% 10-12

3

76-78% 8

3

Hypertrophy II

70% 12

3

75% 10

3

76-78% 8

Strength Endurance 1

60% 20

3

65-68% 12-15

3

Strength Endurance II 60% 20

3

50% 30

3

% 1RM* Reps

Sets

% 1RM* Reps

Sets

%1RM* Reps

Sets

3

7% 12

3

70-75% 10

2

60% 20

3

65-68% 10-12

3

TABLE 2.4 This table shows optional set/rep prescriptions for beginners who need to increase muscle mass.

TRAINING LOAD

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11 12

13

Effect of a Session

• Workout 1

a Workout 2

• Workout 3

FIGURE 2.14 Proper application of the overload principle, such as shown here by increasing training loads, elicits an optimal strength training response.


Chapter 2

25

the number of repetitions required to achieve a training effect. A muscle with a high percentage of slow-twitch fibers may require a higher number of repetitions. For example, the soleus muscle in the lower leg contains 88 percent slow-twitch fibers. Repetitions in the 15-25 range may be needed to give sufficient time under tension for this muscle to receive a stimulus for growth. There is an optimal number of reps per muscle group for each individual, and this is strongly influenced by the fiber makeup of the muscles. Athletes gifted with a large number of fast-twitch motor units always do fewer reps at a given percentage of maximum. Thus, while the average trainee does 7RM at 80 percent of his or her maximum, a high fast-twitch individual may complete only 3 reps at this percentage. Conversely, high slow-twitch individuals who are highly trained aerobically have been shown to do 12RM to 37RM at 95 percent of maximum, in contrast to the average person's ability to do only 2RM to 3RM at this percentage (Sayers 1998). Because there is substantial empirical evidence and scientific research to suggest that the development of maximal strength is best accomplished by using loads representing 70 to 100 percent of maximum, it's essential to determine the exact number of repetitions to be performed at this percentage range.

For most fast-twitch athletes the optimal rep bracket for strength gains falls within the 1-to-6-rep range, while most individuals will make gains in the 1-to-12rep range. In both of these examples they are working at 70 to 100 percent of maximum. Furthermore, the fast-twitch athletes would normally use more sets and may even respond well to short rest intervals (1-3 seconds between reps) (Fig. 2.15).

Principle 17: The function of the muscle dictates the number of reps A well-known fact in physiology is that form dictates function. Moreover, even though the following conclusion has yet to be validated by science, it is my experience that there are specific repetition ranges that are more appropriate for certain muscle functions. For example, training the knee flexors with sets of 12 repetitions appears to have little bearing on hypertrophy gains. Conversely, when training the knee extensors, sets of up to 50 repetitions can induce hypertrophy. The reason for this appears to be that knee flexors are used mainly for explosive tasks, while

FAST-TWITCH ATHLETE BRACKET

6-12 reps Type lla 12+ reps Type I FIGURE 2.15 The repetition bracket affects the fiber types stimulated in a strength training workout. As shown here, the fast-twitch fibers (Type Mb) respond best to 1-5 reps.

26

Chapter 2


FUNCTION OF THE MUSCLE DICTATES THE NUMBER OF REPS

PICTURES 2.1 & 2.2 The knee flexors, which are emphasized with leg curls (left), respond best to lower reps. The knee extensors, which are emphasized with leg presses (right), respond best to higher reps.

the knee extensors are used in maintaining posture against gravity and are also used for repeated stretchshortening tasks such as rowing (Pictures 2.1 & 2.2).

Principle 18: The skill requirements of the exercise dictate the number of reps If an exercise involves multiple joints in a complex skill, such as the Olympic lifts, excessive repetitions will bring about undesired technical and motor-learning changes. Analysis of the training of weightlifters (especially elite weightlifters) reveals that the snatch is rarely performed for more than 2 reps per set, while the clean and jerk is often performed for slightly more reps per set. In the case of the power clean, when performing more than 6 repetitions small muscles (such as the rhomboids, an upper back muscle) would tire out first, causing a change in exercise posture. This fatigue would lead to improper technique, impaired motor learning and perhaps a greater risk of injury. The same goes for front squats, where the postural muscles will tire out isometrically before the prime movers if the time under tension is too long. This is why knowledgeable strength coaches rarely prescribe more

than 6 reps per set for the front squat and even fewer for the power clean (Fig. 2.16).

Principle 19: The velocity of the contraction determines the load in eccentric contraction When prescribing eccentric work, the coach should have a good understanding of the time under tension prescribed for the lowering of the load. If the target is sets of 3 with 8 seconds lowering, the exercise should be immediately stopped if the athlete cannot meet the time restriction. Let's say an athlete is told to lower 300 pounds for 3 repetitions of 8 seconds in the squat. Repetition 1 is performed for a smooth 8 seconds, but repetition 2 lasts only 5 seconds. The set should be stopped immediately, as another repetition would likely be done at a pace that would be far too risky and could lead to injury (Fig. 2.17).

Principle 20: Use lower reps with eccentric training Eccentric work is best accomplished with sets of 1 to 6 repetitions, since supramaximal loads are used in this method. Depending on the muscle group or exercise


Chapter 2

27

EXERCISE VS. REPS

1. Complex skill: Olympic lift, front squat, etc. 2. Compound: squat, bench press, deadlift, pull-ups, etc.

w

c o

3. Simple: most machines, isolation, etc.

« a

&

12

3

COMPLEXITY COMPONENT FIGURE 2.16 Complex exercises using multiple joints, such as the Olympic lifts, should be performed for fewer reps than are needed in simple exercises that use only one joint.

VELOCITY OF CONTRACTION

*

* ^ %

eccentric

concentric

^ »

•

A

•A w

velocity FIGURE 2.17 When performing eccentric work, attention must be paid to the time the weight is lowered to achieve the optimal training effect and ensure the safety of the athlete. 28

Chapter 2


CONTROLLED CONCENTRIC REPETITIONS

1 rep

2 reps

3 reps

4 reps

5 reps

FIGURE 2.18 Depending on tlie muscle group exercised or the exercise used, loads as high as 175 percent of the 1RM can be used safely.

ADAM NELSON CHEST AND BACK ECCENTRIC ROUTINE Order

Exercise

Sets

Reps

Tempo

Rest

A-1

Eccentric

7

1

10/0/X/0120

Incline Presses Weight sequence; 390-410-420-450-460-450-390 lbs (bodyweight included) A-2

Incline 45°

7

1

40X0

0

Thick Bar (3") Presses Weight sequence; 320-340-350-360-370-380-320 lbs (bodyweight included) A-3

Chin-Up

7

2-4

30X0

120

Supinated Grip Weight sequence; 260-300-310-310-310-310-310 lbs (bodyweight included)

Shot-putter Adam Nelson, shown here with Charles Poliquin, took a silver medal in two Olympics, 2000 and 2004.

TABLE 2.5 The above exercise prescription was used by Adam Nelson in preparation for the 2004 Olympic Games.


Chapter 2

29

Workout FIGURE 2.19 A classical pyramid training workout consists of loads with a wide variety of intensity levels. In this example, the intensity spread is 70 to 100 percent. used, loads as high at 175 percent of maximum for controlled eccentric repetitions have been used successfully (Fig. 2.18). The athlete also should have completed two years of strength training before trying eccentric work. As he or she progresses in qualification, the number of reps per set can be progressively reduced to allow for higher intensities (Table 2.5).

Principle 21: There should be no more than a 10 percent intensity spread for a rep bracket By keeping the intensity spread at 10-12 percent, workouts will respect the Law of Repeated Efforts, and the body's adaptive mechanisms will not be confused by wide variation in training intensity. At the same time, the 10-12 percent spread is sufficiently wide to keep the training interesting. This pyramid can be considered a "broad" pyramid, as opposed as the classic "narrow" pyramid. When selecting a repetition bracket there should be no more than a 10 percent intensity spread between sets. That is why the standard narrow-pyramid approach still prescribed by many US college football strength coaches does not produce exceptional results. In fact, my NHL hockey players can outlift most linemen in the

30

Chapter 2

NCAA, who outweigh them by more than 80 pounds! The pyramid system is a classical training system that has been criticized by a number of strength training experts, such as Vladimir Zatsiorski of the former Soviet Union. A classical pyramid system would look something like the pattern illustrated in Figure 2.19. Critics of the classical pyramid system assert that the intensity spread of 70 to 100 percent of maximum is far too wide. They argue that the 30 percent intensity spread crosses too many borders to be effective, so that the body has a hard time figuring out what exactly the training stimulus is. These critics generally favor set/rep schemes that obey the Law of Repeated Efforts at a given intensity: for example, 6 sets of 3 reps at 90 percent of maximum. Romanian strength expert Tudor Bompa does not reject the pyramid system entirely, but he argues instead for using only a 20 percent intensity spread (e.g., 60-80 percent, 70-90 percent or 80-100 percent). I take this line of thought a step further and argue that it is even more effective to limit the intensity spread to 10-12 percent, while keeping the bottom end of the range at not less than 70 percent of maximum (1RM). This is in agreement with my colleagues Hartmann and Tunnemann from the former East Germany. Possible intensity spreads using this approach would be 70-80 percent, 75-85 percent, etc.


BROAD PYRAMID HYPERTROPHY

u

c

o

3

4 Set Number

FIGURE 2.20 Research suggests that a narrow intensity spread is more effective for achieving an optimal training effect. In this example for developing hypertrophy, the intensity spread is 78 to 87 percent.

BROAD PYRAMID RELATIVE STRENGTH

FIGURE 2.21 In this workout to develop relative strength, the intensity spread is 85 to 94 percent.


Chapter 2

31

LOADING PARAMETERS FOR BENCH PRESS, CONVENTIONAL SET REP

LOAD

ECCENTRIC CPNTRACTION TIME

CONCENTRIC CONTRACTION TIME

(lbs)

(seconds)

(seconds)

1

240

4

1.2

2

240

4

1.2

3

240

4

1.3

4

240

4

1.4

5

240

4

1.4

6

240

4

1.8

7

240

4

2.3

1680 240

28 4

10.6 1.5

Total Average

TABLE 2.6 A conventional set of bench presses performed with 240 pounds for 7 reps, lowering the weight with a 4-second count.

LOADING PARAMETERS FOR BENCH PRESS, DROP SET REP

LOAD

ECCENTRIC CONTRACTION TIME

CONCENTRIC CONTRACTION TIME

(lbs)

(seconds)

(seconds)

1

300

4

2.2

2

285

4

2.3

3

270

4

2.5

4

260

4

2.8

5

250

4

2.8

6

240

4

3.1

7

230

4

3.2

1835 262

28 4

Total Average

18.6 2.6

TABLE 2.7 A drop set of bench presses performed with 300 pounds to 220 pounds, which results in an average load that is 7.4 percent higher than the set described in Table 2.6.

32

Chapter 2


MOTOR UNIT ACTIVATION ON THE BENCH PRESS

"O c 3 O 0.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

I

Conventional

240

240

240

240

240

240

240

I

Drop Set

300

285

270

260

250

240

230

FIGURE 2.22 Using tlie examples shown in Tables 2.6 and 2.7, this graph and chart show that the drop set produces a higher overall level of muscle tension. With the drop set 1,835 pounds were lifted, compared to 1,680 for the conventional set.

1,680 lbs vs. 1,835 lbs There are many possible variations of the broad pyramid, depending on the training objective. Two examples are found in Figures 2.20 and 2.21. The broad pyramid system has been a staple of strength training routines in the German-speaking nations. There it has been used in the training routines of bobsledders, throwers, jumpers, strongmen, powerlifters and weightlifters. I have used the broad pyramid system successfully with many athletes who compete in short-duration power events. I also used the system successfully with hockey defensemen.

Principle 22: Vary reps for tlie upper body more than for the lower body Research studies have shown that periodization models using greater variation in intensities were more beneficial in upper-body exercises than in lower-body exercises. For example, if you plan a training cycle for the bench press, you should inject more training

variety in terms of reps than if you were training for the squat or the deadlift. For women, it has been shown that the hypertrophic and strength responses occur earlier in the upper body than in the lower body.

Principle 23: Use drop sets to create maximal tension on the neuromuscular level Motor units are functional units of nerve and muscle. Motor units consist of a nerve cell (motor neuron) and the muscle fibers it controls. The body of the nerve cell is located in the central nervous system, in the brain stem or spinal cord. Another portion of the cell, the axon, connects the cell body to individual muscle fibers. Motor units have activation thresholds. If your 1-rep maximum for a particular lift is 300 pounds, lifting

The Poliquin International Certification Program Theory 1 Manual © Poliquin Performance Center 2010

Chapter 2

33

DAVID BOSTON ARIVIS DROP-SET ROUTINE Order

Exercise

Sets

Reps

Sequence

Tempo Rest

A-1

Seated 80°

5

4-7

3,2,1,1

2210

120 sec

4010

120 sec

4,2,2

3110

90 sec

4,2,2

4010

90 sec

Half Press Weight sequence: 245-240-230-220 lbs A-2

Hoagland

5

4-7

3,2,1,1

Bar Reverse Scott Curl Weight sequence: 155-145-135-125 lbs B-1

One-Arm

4

8

Low Pulley Rope French Press Weight sequence: 125-115-110 lbs B-2

Standing

4

8

Thick Bar (2.5") Curls Weight sequence: 245-240-230-220 lbs TABLE 2.8 NFL receiver David Boston's drop-set routine for arms shows a combination of heavier loads and slower movements. 150 pounds (50 percent intensity) will activate only lower-threshold motor units. A higher training intensity (e.g., 90 percent, or 270 pounds) would be required to tap into motor units with higher activation thresholds. Fast-twitch muscle fibers are associated with higher-threshold motor units. These fibers are capable of generating more force than their slow-twitch counterparts, which are more resistant to fatigue. As the name implies, fast-twitch fibers are also capable of higher rates of force generation. The fast-twitch fibers associated with the highest-threshold motor units are the most difficult to recruit. They also have the greatest potential for growth. The body's response to weight training depends in large part on the amount of tension applied to muscles. To activate the highest-threshold motor units, it is necessary to apply maximal tension. One of the best ways to maximize muscle tension and motor-unit activation is to vary the load during a set. Let's compare two training protocols. First we'll look at a conventional set. Let's say an athlete can bench press 300 pounds for 1 rep and 240 pounds for 7 reps, lowering the weight to a 4-second count. Table 2.6 shows loading parameters for a conventional set done with 240 pounds. 34

Chapter 2

Now, let's have the same individual perform a 7-rep set, but lift 300 pounds for the first rep, 285 for the second, 270 for the third, and so forth, as shown in Table 2.7 and Figure 2.22. The average load for a 7-rep set is 7.4 percent higher with the second protocol. The drop-set protocol therefore produces a higher overall level of muscle tension. Also, the average concentric speed is lower with this protocol (2.6 seconds per rep compared to 1.5 seconds per rep), because each rep is performed at 100 percent of momentary maximal strength. The combination of heavier loads and slower movements (higher intensity and increased time under tension) makes the second protocol more effective than the first for developing strength. On all exercises, there is a 10-second rest between weight drops. This break will provide enough recovery to allow the reactivation of high-threshold fibers. The weight drops are accomplished most effectively with the help of two partners. They should quickly strip the bar when the weight is at the top position, after the trainee completes the concentric portion of the movement and before they begin to lower the bar for another eccentric contraction.


For each series of exercises A-1 and A-2, begin with a weight that corresponds to the trainee's momentary 2RM. Perform 2 reps and rest 10 seconds. Drop the weight 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds. Drop the weight another 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds. Drop the weight another 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds. This produces a total of 5 gut-wrenching reps. For each series of exercises B-1 and B-2, begin with a weight that corresponds to the athlete's momentary 3RM. Perform 3 reps and rest 10 seconds. Drop the weight 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds. Do three more single reps, dropping the weight 5 percent on each and resting 10 seconds after each, for a total of 7 reps. You will see a practical use of such a system system in Table 2.8. You might expect that the momentary 2RM and 3RM on the second and third series will be lower than on the first series due to fatigue. In fact, the momentary 2RM and 3RM could actually be higher on the second and third series due to neural facilitation, especially among advanced athletes. The tempo prescription for all exercises has a 3-second eccentric component, an explosive concentric component, and a pause. Although an explosive concentric movement is prescribed, the actual velocity of execution may be considerably slower due to the very heavy loads. Don't worry. As long as your athletes try to lift the weight explosively, they will elicit the desired training effect. Canadian researcher David Behm has demonstrated that the intent of the trainee matters more than the actual velocity of execution. On repetitions where the velocity of execution is in fact explosive, make sure that the trainees keep the weight under control. They should try to accelerate the weight through the concentric range. Near the end of the movement, however, they will need to decelerate the weight to prevent injuries.

Principle 24: Use 1-5 reps for maximal relative strength Repetitions in the 1RM-to-5RM range (85-100 percent intensity zone) develop maximal strength by training the nervous system. The changes you can induce in the nervous system with low reps are as follows: • Increased neural drive to muscle • Increased synchronization of motor units • Increased activation of the contractile apparatus • Decreased inhibition by the protective mechanisms of the muscle The 1-5 repetition bracket produces minimal increases in muscle mass, and as such is of great value for athletes who need higher levels of relative strength; that is, athletes in sports in which hypertrophy can be detrimental to performance. This would include the following sportsmen, for the following reasons: • Wrestlers, boxers and judokas (who have attained the upper limit of their weight class) • Jumpers and gymnasts (smaller mass to accelerate) • Lugers and ski jumpers (better aerodynamics) • Swimmers and synchronized swimmers (buoyancy) The repetition bracket is also valuable in sports that require the expression of maximal strength for a single contraction, such as in weightlifting, shot put, and the high jump. Training with high loads is highly effective for these athletic activities because it has a specific training effect on the nervous system (Harre et al. 1989; MacDougall 1986). Exercising with near-maximal loads is also beneficial to the athlete because it increases adjunctive skills, such as timing of mobilization of will power and the ability to switch from relaxation to tension. Although these adjunctive skills are more subjective in their science, these are often the qualities in an athlete that will make the difference between the gold and the silver. The following charts shows loading patterns for developing maximal and relative strength (Fig. 2.23, 2.24, 2.25, 2.26, 2.27, 2.28).


Chapter 2

35

WAVE LOADING 1

•Workout

3

4

Set Number FIGURE 2.23 A loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.

WAVE LOADING 2

I Workout

3

4

Set Number FIGURE 2.24 A second loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.

36

Chapter 2


KULESZA METHOD 3-5 SETS

FIGURE 2.25 A third loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.

ALAN & BAROGA METHOD 5 SETS

Sets FIGURE 2.26 A fourth loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.


Chapter 2

37

iillll BULGARIAN METHOD

^ U) c (U c

90 85

80

75 70

^ 13

5

7

9

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

Set Number FIGURE 2.27 A fifth loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength. This method was used by weightlifters from Bulgaria, a country that has consistently produced the top weightlifters for the past 30 years.

STEP LOADING

3

4

Set Number FIGURE 2.28 A sixth loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.

38

Chapter 2


C HAPTER 2 REFERENCES

Principle 1 The number of reps for a given time under tension dictates the training effect Shimano et al. 2002, 2006, Campos et al. 2002, Gentil, Oliveira, Bottaro, 2006, Mo Donagh & Davies 1984, Paulsen et al. 2003, Cronin et al. 1997, Tran et al. 2006, Gillies et al. 2006

Shimano 2006 Principle 8 Individualize the rep prescription Folland & Williams 2007, Vikne et al. 2006, Jackson et al. 1990, Taaffe et al. 1996, Kraemer et al. 1998

Principle 2 Maximum voluntary contractions are essential to the strength training process

Principle 9 Elite athletes must pay attention to specificity of contraction force

Van Cutsem et al. 1988, 1997, Griffin & Cafarelli 2005, Patten & Kamen, 2000, Duchateau, et al. 2006, Farina et al. 2005, Leong et al. 1999, Aagaard et al. 2000, Izquierdo 2004, Izquierdo 1999, Nosaka & Newton 2002, Taaffe et al. 1996, Michaut et al. 2003

Huxley & Kress, 1985, Judge et al. 2003, Nosaka and Newton 2002, Nosaka & Clarkson, 1997, Desbrosses et al. 2006, Gabriel et al. 2006, Kraemer et al. 1998, Kraemer et al. 2000

Principle 3 Use 70 to 90 percent of maximum capacity to develop maximal strength Campos et al. 2002, Leong et al. 1999, Linnamo et al. 2005, Hortobagyi et al. 1996, Nosaka & Newton 2002a, 2002b, Cormie et al. 2007, Paddon-Jones & Abernethy 2001, Nosaka & Clarkson 1997 Principle 4 The range in repetitions for strength training decreases with training age Smilios et al. 2006, Hakkinen & Pakarinen 1995, Hostler 2001, Reeves et al. 2006 Principle 5 The intensity zone repetition bracket is specific to the muscle Folland & Williams 2007, Benson et al. 2006, Philippou et al. 2004, Pincivero et al. 2004, Abdessemed et al. 1999, Pincivero et al. 1999, Izquierdo et al. 2006 Principle 6 Long term aerobic work modifies the 1RM continuum Arciero et al. 2006, Hickson et al. 1980, Bell et al. 2000, Goto et al. 2004, Kraemer 2003, Putman et al. 2004 Principle 7 The number or repetitons is the loading parameter that athletes adapt to most quickly

Principle 10 Don't perform low reps too frequently Adreani et al. 1997, Allen et al. 1995, Bigland-Ritchie 1986a, 1986b, Willardson and Burkett 2005, Pasquet et al. 2000, 2005, 2006, Chiu et al. 2004, Fry et al. 1994, 1998, Kay etal. 2000, Hakkinen 1995 Principle 11 Each muscle group or lift responds best to a specific average rep range Sullivan et al. 1986, Allen et al 1995, Lawton et al.

2006 Principle 12 Intensity dictates hormonal response Allen, et al. 1995, Hakkinen 1993, 1998, 2003, Kraemer et al. 1998, Athianinen et al. 2005, 2004, 2003, Tran et al. 2006, Goto et al. 2007, Smilios et al. 2003, Hakkinen 1989, Izquierdo et al. 2006 Principle 13 The number of repetitions dictates the load Mc Donagh & Davies 1984, Gabriel 2006, Campos et al. 2004 Principle 14 Novice lifters require higher repetitions Folland & Williams 2007, Pyka et al. 1992, 1992, Smilios et al. 2006, Paulsen et al. 2003, Faighenbaum et al. 1999, Newton & Alen 1998, Izquierdo et al. 2001

Benson 2006, Enoka 1988, 1997, Hakkinen 2003, The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual © Poliquin Performance Center 2010

Chapter 2

39

Principle 15 The extent of effort applied influences the training effect Fleck & Schutt 1985, Campos et al. 2004, Pasquet et al. 2000, 2005, 2006

Principle 24 Use 1-5 reps for maximal relative strength Mc Donagh & Davies 1984, Athianinen et al. 2005, 2004, 2003, Campos et al. 2002,

Principle 16 The muscle fiber type dictates the number of reps Friden et al. 1984, Rayment et al. 1993, Van Cutsem, etal. 1988, 1997, Taaffe et al. 1996 Principle 17 The function of the muscle dictates the number of reps Allen, etal. 1995, Otten, 1988, Reeves etal. 2006, Cronin 2004, Chen et al. 2006 Principle 18 Coordination requirements of the exercise dictate the number of reps Griffin & Cafarelli 2005, Vikne et al. 2006, Kawamori & Haff 2004, Chen et al. 2006 Principle 19 The velocity of the contraction determines the load in the eccentric contraction Gillies et al. 2006, Gleeson 2003, Hortabagyi et al. 1997, Van Custom et al. 1988, Vikne et al. 2006, Michaut et al. 2003, Farthing & Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b, Nosaka & Clarkson 1995, Nosaka & Newton 2002 Principle 20 Use lower reps with eccentric training Athianinen et al. 2004, 2003, 2005, Hortabagyi et al. 1997, McNeill et al. 2004, Pasquet et al. 2000, 2005, 2006, Nosaka & Clarkson 1995, Nosaka & Newton 2002, Seger et al. 1998, Seger & Thorstensson 2005, Paddon-Jones et al. 2001, 2004 Principle 21 There should be no more than a 10 percent intensity spread for a rep bracket Duchateau et al. 2006, Farina et al. 2005, Hostler et al. 2001 Principle 22 Vary reps for the upper body more than for the lower body Cormie et al. 2007, Larsson & HarmsRingdahl 2006, Leong et al. 1999, Van Cutsem, et al. 1988, 1997, Aagaard et al. 2000, Taaffe et al. 1996, Chen et al. 2006, Chen & Nosaka 2006, Hakkinen et al. 1997 Principle 23 Use drop sets to create maximal tension on the neuromuscular level Athianinen et al. 2003, 2004, 2005, Griffin & Cafarelli 2005, Pasquet et al. 2000, 2005, 2006, Tran et al. 2006, Van Cutsem, et al. 1988, 1997, Lawton et al. 2006

40

Chapter 2


Manipulating Sets for Optimal Strength Gains

There has been considerable debate about whether or not only one set is needed to elicit strength gains, with a vocal group of strength coaches saying there are no advantages in performing multiple sets of an exercise.


Chapters

PRE-TEST C HAPTER 3

1. What type of workout system generally produces strength and power gains at a higher rate? A. single sets of eacli exercise to failure B. multiple sets of each exercise C. multiple sets for upper-body exercises, one set for lower-body exercises D. multiple sets for lower-body exercises, one set for upper-body exercises

6. During a specialization phase, what modification is probably needed in weight training workouts? A. a decrease in sets B. an increase in sets C. a decrease in intensity D. Aand C 7. What effect does the use of chains have on an exercise? A. increases volume B. changes the strength curve C. decreases "time under tension" D. Aand C

2. The Law of Diminishing Returns applies to which of the following statements? A. Sets to failure only leads to failure. B. The relative reward for every set diminishes with each additional set. C. The relative volume for every set diminishes with each additional set. D. Intensity is directly proportional to volume.

8. Which creates the greatest hormonal response? A. an increase in sets B. an emphasis on isolation exercises C. a decrease in volume D. a decrease in reps

3. How many sets would achieve the greatest neural training effect? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 5

9. A high-jumper would emphasize what type of training protocol? A. high number of exercises and sets B. high number of sets and low number of exercises C. low number of sets and high number of exercises D. low number of sets and low number of exercises

4. What is the basic premise of the critical drop-off point? A. High-intensity workouts must be preceded by high-volume workouts. B. If you walk in a straight line long enough, you will fall off the edge of the earth. C. Never increase quantity of stimulus at the expense of quality. D. Never decrease quantity of stimulus at the expense of quality. 5. Which of the following is true? A. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on sets, not intensity B. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on reps, not intensity C. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on intensity, not sets D. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on volume, not reps

42

Chapters

10. What rep bracket would best train the Type I muscle fibers? A. 1-5 B. 2-6 C. 3-7 D. 12+

-0^

a-6 v-8 a-z a-9 v-9 O-P a-e a-s a-i. sjeMsuy }S9)-0Jd


MANIPULATINC3 SETS FDR OPTIMAL STRENC3TH GAINS Because those who promote one-set systems are often charismatic and because some athletes enjoyed progress on these programs for brief periods, a perception grew that weight training was simpler than we had thought. It would be great if this were true, but the fact is if you want your athletes to get as big or as strong as possible as fast as possible, you can't adopt such a simplistic approach to training. Chapter 2 examined the first step in program design: rep selection. This chapter focuses on the next step, which is set selection. I wish this subject could be covered with a few simple guidelines such as the oneset proponents advocate, but sometimes a "dummies" approach is simply dumb.

Principle 1: IVIultiple sets lead to higher and faster rates of strength gains A workout system that entails performing multiple sets of an exercise generally induces strength and power gains at a higher rate (McDonagh & Davies 1984) and of a higher magnitude (Gotshalk et al. 1998, Kraemer 1997, Kraemer et al. 1995, Marx et al. 1998, Sanborn et al. 1998, Stowers et al. 1983, Atha 1981). This means strength increases conform to a "doseresponse" that is correlated to the number of sets prescribed. Usually 1 or 2 sets are enough for beginners as a training stimulus, but after 6-12 workout sessions the coach must increase an athlete's volume of training because the muscles will have adapted (Fleck & Kraemer 1987). If the volume is not increased, progress will slow down and plateau for extended periods. The coach must realize that the first 30 percent of strength gains come from improvement of intermuscular coordination. In effect, athletes "learn" to lift so that they become more efficient by being able to turn on the systems that are needed and to turn off

those that are not. This learning curve explains why a novice lifter will often have a very erratic bar path during his or her first attempt at the bench press, even though it is a rather simple motor task. Once initial strength fitness is achieved, a multiple presentation of the stimulus (3-6 sets) with specific rest periods between sets is superior to a single presentation of the stimulus. However, it's important that this increase is performed progressively. When an athlete has completed several years of proper training, I commonly prescribe 10-12 sets of a single key exercise that is highly correlated to performance in that athlete's sport. For example, international success in the luge and the hammer throw is highly correlated to maximal strength performance in the pull-up. The athletes I've trained in luge who had the fastest start times at the Olympics could do 3 wide-grip pull-ups with 120 pounds tied to their waist, at a bodyweight of 175 pounds. They achieved these impressive demonstrations of strength by using protocols of multiple sets (6-12) of low repetitions (1-3) (Fig. 3.1).

Principle 2: The number of sets is subject to the law of diminishing returns Even though multiple sets induce far greater maximal strength gains than single-set training protocols, those gains are asymptomatic in that the adaptations increase with the number of sets up to a certain point. That is, the number of sets is subject to the Law of Diminishing Returns in that the relative reward for every set diminishes with each additional set (Fig. 3.2). This principle explains why, when time is limited, such as during the competitive season of a professional sport, it is important to perform 1 or 2 sets of an exercise to maintain, or even in some cases gain, maximal strength. Without the stimulation these sets provide over and above the demands of the sport, this


Chapters

43

FIGURE 3.1 Athletes with a higher training age achieve better results with more sets. law comes into play, and the athlete's strength can begin to diminish. Professional hockey player Chris Pronger is one of my athletes. The first man since 1972 to win awards as both the NHL's most valuable player and top defenseman, Pronger is a strong advocate of in-season training.

Principle 3: The more reps, the fewer the sets There is a minimum threshold of work that must be performed for optimal size and strength gains. Many former Eastern Bloc and Western strength training authorities and weightlifting coaches have suggested that there is an inverse relationship between the number of sets and the number of reps (Medvedyev 1989, Worobojow 1984, Hartmann and Tunnemann 1993, Dreschler 1998). In other words, when using low reps, do a high number of sets; when using high reps, do a low number of sets (Fig 3.3). From the perspective of practical application, the fewer reps an athlete performs per set, the more sets he or she needs to achieve the appropriate training response (Tables 3.1 and 3.2, Fig. 3.4). The rationale is that there is a minimal optimal volume for strength development and that when training with low reps, a higher number of sets would ensure sufficient time of loading. More recently, a mathematical

44

Chapters

model establishing the inverse relationship has been proposed (Kovarik 1991). The rule to remember is that the higher the neural training effect desired, the higher the number of sets (for example, 5 or more) are needed. When training with low repetitions (1-5), most of the adaptations occur in the nervous system, hence the term (from the German) "intramuscular coordination training" to describe that intensity zone. Training with high loads is like learning a foreign language: Multiple presentation of the learning stimulus must be present to assure modification and retention of the acquired learning process. Conversely, when a coach is seeking morphological or biochemical adaptations in their athletes (6 or more reps), he or she should prescribe fewer sets (3-5).

Principle 4: Individualize the number of sets It is my experience (as well as the experience of many other successful strength coaches) that an athlete's tolerance to greater workloads is one of the markers for predicting success in building impressive levels of maximal strength. The requirements for exercise vary greatly from one athlete to another because every athlete has unique


responses to a given program. As a rule of thumb, the athletes most gifted for strength development can tolerate the highest number of sets. When performing multiple sets, even if you allow nearly complete rest intervals to replenish the phosphagens, after a few sets the muscle will become fatigued to the degree at which fewer and fewer reps can be performed before reaching muscular failure. This point is what I call the critical drop-off point (Fig. 3.5). The basic premise of the critical drop-off point, which I learned from discussions with track and field coach Charlie Francis, is that a coach should never increase the quantity of stimulus at the expense of quality. It is pointless to do sets in which the resistance is lowered so much that (a) sufficient tension is not put on the muscle to elicit strength gains, and/or (b) motor units of a lower threshold are trained. These additional "garbage sets" would impede recovery by putting excessive strain on the nervous system, energy stores and neuroendocrine response. The cumulative effect could be overtraining. The critical drop-off point is highly individual and can even vary from workout to workout. There is also

empirical evidence, however, that athletes with a high fast-twitch fiber makeup tend to reach the critical drop-off point faster. In contrast, the intake of various substrates such as creatine and ribose will tend to delay the onset of the critical drop-off point. The threshold for the drop-off point will also depend on which strength quality the coach is attempting to improve. In the case of maximal strength training, once an athlete reaches a 5-7 percent drop in performance, it is time to move to another exercise or body part. That 5-7 percent drop translates into having to lower the load by the equivalent percentage to maintain a selected rep range (e.g., 6-8 reps), or can be demonstrated by a sudden drop of 2-3 repetitions from one set to the next one. From the world of pharmaceuticals we know that there is a very wide variance in the dose-response curve in substances such as ephedrine. To elicit "x" physiological response, the dose may vary from 12 to 240 mg between subjects. The same applies for the need to individualize the prescribed exercise stimulus. Ideally, for the purpose of selecting a strength athlete, a coach must look for a fast-twitch individual who

LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS

Relative gains in strength

Number of sets FIGURE 3.2 The Law of Diminishing Returns states that the relative reward for every set diminishes with each additional set.


Chapters

45

INVERSE RELATIONSHIP

FIGURE 3.3 There is an inverse relationship between sets and reps, meaning that when performing fewer reps, athletes need to perform more sets to achieve an optimal training effect.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VARIOUS LOADING PARAMETERS Reps

Sets

Percentage of Maximum

Rest Interval (seconds)

Speed of Execution

2-3

6-12

90-95

300-480

Moderate to Explosive

4-7

5-10

80-88

180-300

IVIoderate to Explosive

4-6

4-8

70-78

180-300

Extremely Slow

8-10

4-8

75-79

120-140

IVIoderate to Fast

11+

3-6

<72.5

30-180

IVIoderate

TABLE 3.1 A more detailed explanation, using several loading parameters, of the inverse relationship between sets and reps.

46

Chapter 3


MINIMUM VOLUME OF REPETITIONS Intensity Zone Percentage (%)

Total Reps

Sets Range

95-100

12-20

6-20

90-95

18-36

6-12

85-90

28-60

9-20

80-85

55-85

8-27

75-80

70-110

22-35

TABLE 3.3 Optimal rep-and-set ranges for various training percentages.

The Inverse Relationship Between Repetitions & Sets Reps

1

3

5

7

9

11

13

15 +

J f

Sets

k r

High (4)

Low (2)

TABLE 3.4 A simple illustration showing the inverse relationship between sets and reps.

demonstrates superior work capacity. A classical example of this would be three-time weightlifting Olympic gold medalist Pyros Dimas from Greece, who in one workout performed 12 sets of front squats at the United States Olympic Training Center in preparation for the Sydney Olympics. He averaged 1-3 repetitions per set and, at a t)odyweight of 181 pounds, worked up to approximately 600 pounds!

Monday: 5 sets of 4-6RM

Principle 5: To prevent overtaining, cut back first on sets, not intensity

Saturday you decide to increase the starting weight to 230 kg, since you know your athlete can comfortably do 225. Now your athlete's workout turns out like this:

if an athlete has not fully recovered from a workout, first cut back on the number of sets, not the intensity. It is generally a mistake to reduce the weight when an athlete is tired; instead, just decrease the number of repeated efforts performed at that load. Let's say a male athlete has done the following workout on Monday:

Saturday: 5 sets of 4-6RM (intended)

Set 1: 220 kilos x 6 reps Set 2: 225 x 6 Set 3: 225 x 5 Set 4: 225 x 4 Set 5: 225 x 4 Terminate exercise; move on to next exercise

Set 1 : 230 x 6 Set 2 : 230 X 3 Terminate exercise; move on to next exercise The athlete has become stronger (230 x 6 on Saturday versus 225 on Monday), but on the second set there


Chapter 3

47

CRITICAL DROP-OFF POINT IRelative

100

93%

#

iFunctional

(0

87%

c

0)

Hypertrophy 80%

•Endurance 73%

Time of Training Unit

FIGURE 3.3 The critical drop-off point is the point at which it is futile to perform additional sets when excessive fatigue is reached.

was a significant loss in his ability to do repeated efforts. Therefore, to maintain a high quality of training stimulus, the athlete must immediately terminate that exercise after the second set.

Principle 6: A high number of sets develops the skill of activating muscle fibers for maximal efforts

By adhering to this principle of the critical drop-off point, by the following Thursday (the next workout) your athlete will be stronger because he will have sufficiently recovered.

Just as a student would not expect high results on an exam after a single night of cram studying versus multiple exposures to the study material over a few weeks, an athlete cannot expect motor-learning acquisition from single-set sessions. This is particularly true for lifts such as the power snatch and the jerk when aiming to improve the rate of force development (Fig. 3.7).

In contrast, the standard approach to handling a similar scenario that I see in colleges all over the United States is as follows: Set 1 Set 2 sets Set 4 sets

230x6 230x3 210x6 210x6 210x6

Terminate exercise; move on to next exercise In this case, the athlete's recovery will be taxed so harshly with low-quality work that he will regress again during the next workout instead of being stronger. The body is very well equipped to not overtrain by intensity - it will just not lift the weight. It is not well equipped to deal with too great a volume until it is too late (Fig. 3.6).

48

Chapters

To improve maximal strength, the body must learn what the new "normal" weight is; and to become comfortable with this new weight, it must be exposed to it several times. If not, the nervous system is like the cramming student in that after the exam, all knowledge is lost!

Principle 7: The metabolic cost of an exercise influences the number of sets to be performed in any given exercise The larger the mass involved in an exercise, the higher the metabolic cost. Thus, lactate production will be much greater with squatting than with forearm work, so it is much easier to tolerate a great number of sets for the forearms than for the squats. Anybody who has


TRAINING VS. OVERTRAINING

90-! 80-| 0)

>

70-1

o

60

>»

50

0) c LU

40 30 20 10 0

I Training I Overtraining

Microcycles

FIGURE 3.6 Performing too many sets results in overtraining, wliich drastically reduces the training effect.

THE LAW OF REPEATED EFFORTS -m %

w

FIGURE 3.7 When performing complete exercises such as snatches, athletes must perform a high number of sets to achieve a proper motor-learning response.


Chapters

49

ever done Peary Rader's breathing squats or German Volume Training (10x10) can certainly attest to that! Range of motion should also be factored into the workout equation: for example, power snatches from the floor require more flexibility than power snatches from the hang. Similarly, the metabolic cost of a back squat varies greatly between someone who is 5 feet tall and someone who is 6 feet tall. The same can be said for quantity of muscle mass per inch of height.

Principle 8: During a specialization phase, more sets may be needed Sometimes there is a need for specialized work that will warrant a greater-than-normal number of sets, such as 8-12 (Fig 3.8). In this case, you must consider that the number of exercises consequently needs to be reduced. This condition was very evident in my work with the Canadian National Ski Team. Alpine skiers tend to lose hamstring strength during the competitive season. Further, the torque-producing capabilities of their quadriceps may actually rise during the competitive season, despite the fact that little strength training is normally performed. Those gains in quadriceps strength can be due to the overload

created by the g-forces held during the high-speed turns inherent in alpine skiing. Thus, the hamstrings/ quadriceps strength ratio may decrease just because of the lack of strength training for the hamstrings during the competitive period. To resolve the problem, it would be wise at the start of the general preparatory period to increase the overload on the hamstrings at the expense of volume of load on the quadriceps. Normative data collected from the Canadian National Alpine Ski Team showed that when the ham/quad ratio went from 58 percent to 80 percent, the incidence of knee injuries was drastically reduced.

Principle 9: Nutrition and supplementation influence work capacity There is an abundance of evidence in the scientific literature pointing to the positive influence on work capacity of a variety of supplements, such as ribose, creatine, post-workout drinks and glutamine. Such nutrition support translates into the ability to handle greater average loads when performing multiple sets.

SPECIALIZATION PHASE

Sets Session FIGURE 3.8 During a specialization phase of training, a higher number of sets may be needed.

50

Chapters


SETS VS. TUT

FIGURE 3.9 The number of sets is inversely proportionate to the total time under tension per set. Thus, the more reps performed, the fewer sets are needed to achieve the same TUT.

It is critical to pay attention to nutrition and supplementation to augment work capacity. This will enable an athlete to create greater overloads on the neuromuscular system and thereby accelerate progress. Just by looking at my athletes' work capacities during training sessions, I can determine their commitment to their supplementation programs. I have been criticized for my strong recommendation of supplements, and it's true I recommend the supplements produced by many different companies. But I am hired to produce results. In my experience, supplementation is vital to the success of my athletes. Supplementation is paramount, especially for the natural athlete.

Principle 10: Specific exercises require specific sets-and-reps combinations in analyzing the training logs of the athletes in all the various sports that I have been fortunate to coach, I have been able to formulate optimal thresholds for sets and reps that are specific to chosen lifts. My analysis of the training logs of athletes training the elbow flexors for relative strength revealed that a minimum of 16 lifts must be performed per workout and the average rep for each set should not fall below

2.5 reps. In my conversations with Bulgarian- and Chinese-trained successful weightlifting coaches, this observation has been further validated. It's been my experience that there are superior sets-and-reps combinations that are specific to the exercises intended to be improved. For example, squat poundages in preparatory periods are best driven upwards using a minimum of 7-8 sets of 4-5 repetitions. However, once the athlete fails to respond to training volume as a stimulus, intensity becomes the stimulus of choice. In that case, 6-10 sets of 1-3 reps produce the best results.

Principle 11: The number of sets is inversely proportionate to the total time under tension per set The understanding of "time under tension" is critical for fastest results. For example, the optimal sets of 3RM in the bench press will vary depending on whether they are performed with chains or without chains attached to the ends of the barbell, which alters the strength curve. With added-on chains, the time under tension will be greater; thus the number of optimal sets must be fewer. With chains, the athlete cannot move the load in the concentric range as fast as without them; therefore the time under tension per rep increases. So when training with just the barbell alone,


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CHRIS HETHERINGTON'S PROGRAM Order

Exercise

Sets

Reps

Tempo

Rest (seconds)

A-1

Thick Bar

6

6,6,4,4,2,2

40X0

120

40X0

120

(2.5") Mid-Grip Incline Presses Weight sequence: 250-260-290-300-340-350 lbs A-2

Pronated 6 Narrow-Grip (3-4" apart) Pull-Ups

6,6,4,4,2,2

Weight sequence: 270-280-285-295-295-300 lbs (bodyweight included) B-1

Incline Flys On Swiss Ball

4

6-8

4010

90

6-8

4010

90

3

8-10

30X0

60

Neck 3 Extension on Hammer Machine

8-10

30X0

60

Weight sequence: 50-52.5-55-57.5 lbs

B-2

Upright Cable Row

4

Weight sequence: 205-215-225-235 lbs C-1

One Arm Dumbbell Cobra

Weight sequence: 25-27.5-30 lbs C-2

Weight sequence: 120-130-140 lbs

FIGURE 3.2 World-class athletes such as pro football player Chris Hetherington know that multiple sets produce more strength and hypertrophy gains. Here is one of his pre-season workouts.

Chris Hetherington 52

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EXERCISE AND SETS

FIGURE 3.10 The number of sets is inversely proportionate to the number of exercises.

one may prescribe 6-8 sets of 3RM; when chains are added, the coach should prescribe only 4-6 sets (Fig. 3.9).

Principle 12: The more sets performed, the greater the hormonal response The larger increases in strength seen with multipleset protocols may be explained, in part, by the finding that higher volumes of total work produce significantly greater increases in circulating anabolic hormones during recovery (Gotshalk et al. 1997). Because the first 30 percent of maximal strength is due solely to intermuscular adaptations, to infer that 1 set produces the same results as 3 sets is true only for novice lifters, which unfortunately is the standard in the bulk of university studies on optimal loading parameters. What is true for an unmotivated physical education student who trains for an extra 5 percent on a term paper has little to do with a dedicated national team member, or even a state champion candidate.

Those of us who have produced world-class athletes in a consistent manner know that multiple sets produce more strength and hypertrophy gains. For example, refer to one of Chris Hetherington's (NFL) protocols (Table 3.2).

Principle 13: The number of sets per exercise is inversely proportionate to the number of exercises This principle comes into play because the nature of the athlete's sport influences how many exercises per training session are necessary. For example, high jumping requires emphasis on the lower-body musculature, while judo requires the athlete to be able to apply or resist force at many different angles or planes. Thus, a high jumper's strength training may consist of only 3-4 exercises, whereas a judoka's may contain 8-12 exercises. Because the high jumper is going to perform only 3-4 exercises, he or she will be able to do more sets for optimal overloading without compromising the ability to recover (Fig 3.10).


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Principle 1 Multiple Sets lead to higher and faster rates of strength gains Benson et al. 2006, Paulsen et al. 2003, Cronin & Crewther 2004, Munn et al. 2005, Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006, Denton & Cronin 2006, Principle 2 The number of sets is subject to the law of diminishing returns Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Hass et al. 2000, Izquierdo et al. 2006, Chen et al. 2006 Principle 3 The more reps, the fewer the sets Hass et al. 2000, Kawamori & Haff 2004, Munn et al. 2005, Hakkinen 1989, Lawton et al. 2006 , Kovarik 1991 Principle 4 Individualize the number of sets Jackson et al. 1990, Paulsen et al. 2003, Teramoto & Golding 2006 Principle 5 To prevent overtraining, cut back first on sets, not intensity Chiu et al. 2004, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Paulsen et al. 2003, Hakkinen 1989, Hakkinen 1995, Izquierdo et al. 2006 Principle 6 A high number of sets develops the skill of activating muscle fibers for maximal efforts Cronin & Crewther 2004, Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006, Goto et al. 2004, Hass et al. 2000

Principle 9 Nutrition and supplementation influence work capacity Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Kanaley et al. 2001, Denton & Cronin 2006, Kraemer et al. 1998 Principle 10 Specific exercises require specific sets-and-reps combinations Hass et al. 2000, Kawamori & Haff 2004, Abdessemed et al. 1999 Principle 11 The number of sets is inversely proportionate to the total time under tension per set Kawamori &. Haff 2004, Teramoto & Golding 2006, Denton & Cronin 2006, Gentil et al. 2006 Principle 12 The more sets performed, the greater the hormonal response Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Goto et al. 2007, Kraemer et al. 1999, Raastad et al. 2000, Smilios et al. 2003, Hakkinen etal. 1998, Hakkinen 1989 Principle 13 The number of sets per exercise is inversely proportionate to the number of exercises Abdessemed et al. 1999, Ahtianen et al. 2005, Kang et al. 2005

Principle 7 The metabolic cost of an exercise influences the number of sets to be performed in any given exercise Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006, Goto et al. 2004, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Hunter et al. 2003, Hakkinen 1989 Principle 8 During a specialisation phase, more sets may be needed Hass et al. 2000, Kawamori & Haff 2004, Kraemer et al. 1999, 2003, Ahtianen et al. 2005

54

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THE SCIENCE DF REST INTERVALS

Rest intervals, also known as rest periods, refer to the length of rest between sets and exercises. We can also elaborate on the concept of rest between repetitions within a set. It is an important but often underestimated loading parameter.


Chapter 4

PRE-TEST

1. What is another name for rest intervals? A. tempo pause B. aerobic phase C. anaerobic phase D. rest periods

when training the alactic power system? A. Use shorter rest intervals B. Use longer rest intervals C. Use a combination of shorter and longer rest intervals

2. Which are among the five main causes of fatigue in intense exercise? A. the accumulation of fatigue substrates B. the depletion of energy substrates C. disturbed coordination of movement D. all the above 3. The neuromuscular basis of relative strength training methods centers around the use of which of the following? A. brief, submaximal voluntary contractions B. brief, maximal voluntary contractions C. brief, maximal involuntary contractions D. brief, submaximal voluntary contractions 4. How much longer does it take the nervous system to recover than the muscular system? A. two to three times longer B. three to four times longer C. four to five times longer D. five to six times longer

5. Which of the following is true? A. The length of the rest intervals dictates the hormonal responses to a given workout. B. The motor-unit magnitude decreases the hormonal responses to a given workout. C. The sky is blue because it reflects the ocean. D. Aand B

6. How should you manipulate the rest intervals

D. Aand B

7. What is the effect of pairing antagonistic muscles? A. It allows for greater motor unit recruitment B. It decreases motor unit recruitment C. It allows for shorter rest intervals D. Aand C

8. What would be the best pairing of exercises? A. overhead presses and chin-ups B. bench presses and rows C. deadlifts and chin-ups D. squats and deadlifts

9. What is the effect of shorter rest periods? A. greater psychological anxiety B. decrease in fatigue C. lactate reduction D. B and C

10. What is an appropriate ratio of aerobic training to strength training for a football lineman to develop an aerobic base? A. 1:2 ratio (1 aerobic to 2 strength training) B. 1:3 ratio C. 3:2 ratio D. A football lineman does not need an aerobic base

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THE SCIENCE OF REST INTERVALS The rest interval during the strength training session impacts the extent and nature of involvement of the anaerobic energy sources and the intensity of the training load. You must realize that there are five main interrelated causes of fatigue (see Table 4.1) all of which affect recovery from exercise bouts.

Principle 1: The length of the rest interval is dictated by the training goal "What is the training objective?" is the question the strength coach must answer before deciding on the length of the rest intervals. The next question to answer is "Do you want full recovery or incomplete recovery?" The training effects of various rest periods in strength training have been extensively documented in the scientific literature. Generally, if you want to maximize impact on the nervous system, full recovery is recommended. When maximal strength is a concern, longer rest intervals are more likely to promote strength gains than shorter ones because near-maximal recovery offeree generation parallels restoration of energy substrates (Figure 4.1). The neuromuscular basis of relative strength training methods centers around the use of brief, maximal voluntary contractions. The great voluntary effort (and excitation) normally associated with these brief bursts of maximal exercise recruits the highest-threshold motor units to make use of their greater strength and rate of force development. This is why every repetition must be performed with full concentration and maximum effort. The high intensity required calls for the use of long rest intervals. The ability to restore neural drive, active muscle tension and energy substrates is a time-dependent process, demonstrating the importance of a non-contractile period of rest following exercise. Rest intervals need to be prescribed based on the training intent, such as strength, relative strength, hypertrophy and strength endurance.

The length of the rest interval used in heavy resistance training appears to bring about specific changes. The work of Kraemer et al. (1987) demonstrated that powerlifters, even though accustomed to highresistance training, have little tolerance to resistance training with minimal rest intervals. Bodybuilders who tend to train in this fashion tolerate this type of work with greater ease.

Principle 2: The nervous system takes five to six times longer to recover than the muscular system Many exercise physiologists tend to prescribe rest intervals in strength training that are far too short because they make their recommendations based on muscle cell physiology recovery studies. They forget that the nervous system is hooked to these muscles, and they are not aware that the nervous system takes five to six times longer to recover than the muscular system (Figures 4.2,4.3 & 4.4). As such, they tend to underestimate the length of the rest interval. Olympic lifting coaches have known this for a very long time and just by sheer experience have prescribed the correct length of rest interval by taking into account the nervous system.

Principle 3: The length of the rest interval dictates the hormonal response to a given workout Generally, the shorter the rest interval, the greater the metabolic adaptation. When you keep the number of RM identical (e.g., 10RM) but manipulate only the rest interval (1 minute versus 3 minutes), the growth hormone response varies dramatically. In this case, the shorter the rest interval, the greater the GH response. When repetitions are low and the length interval is long, there is minimal hormonal response (Figure 4.3).


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57

THE FIVE MAIN CAUSES OF FATIGUE IN INTENSE EXERCISE

1. The accumulation of fatigue substrates (e.g., lactic acid) 2. The depletion of energy substrates (e.g., lowering of glycogen levels) 3. Changes in the physio-chemical state (e.g., lowered blood pH) 4. Disturbed coordination of movement 5. Lowering of neural conduction TABLE 4.1 There

are five main interrelated causes of fatigue, all of which affect recovery from exercise (adapted from Pahike and Peters 1992, Davis and Bailey 1997, Green 1997). Principle 4: When training the alactic power system, the longest rest intervals are indicated

Principle 6: The length of the rest interval is a function of the amount of muscle mass recruited

When training with maximal loads (1RM-5RM at 85-100 percent of maximum), length intervals of 3-4 minutes (Weiss 1991) or even up to 5 minutes (Schmidtbleicher 1986, Zatiorsky 1995) have been suggested to prevent the onset of early fatigue and to allow for repeated efforts at these high intensities. There is considerable debate in the literature on the length of the rest interval to replenish the ATP stores and the phosphocreatine stores (PCr). Some researchers have demonstrated that both PCr and ATP stores are almost completely restored following a 4-minute rest interval, suggesting that the energy contribution to successives from ATP and PCr is unchanged.

The larger the muscle mass recruited, the greater the length of the rest interval; for example, in back squats, as they recruit the largest muscle mass in the human body. Similarly, the glutes and thighs need longer rest intervals than biceps curls, which recruit only the relatively smaller elbow flexors.

Principle 5: The length of rest interval is a function of the magnitude of the range of motion The greater the range of motion, the greater the need for a longer rest interval (Picture 4.1). For example, power snatches performed while standing on a 4-inch platform require longer rest intervals than power snatches performed from the mid-thigh. Also, for a given repetitions range, heavy dumbbell work is more demanding than barbell work; so for a 6RM set, incline dumbbell presses require more rest than incline barbell presses for 6RM.

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Chapter 4

Principle 7: The length of the rest interval is a function of the size and strength levels of the athlete The bigger and stronger the trainee, the longer the rest interval should be. Empirical evidence shows a direct relationship between the length of the rest interval and the weight class of the weightlifter. One only has to attend a National Team Weightlifting Camp to verify this concept. In other words, the 54 kg lifter will tend to take shorter rest intervals than the super-heavyweight lifter. Conversely, aN offensive lineman would rest longer than a running back.

Principle 8: The length of the rest interval is a function of the neurological complexity of the exercise The more demanding an exercise is neurologically, the greater the length of the rest interval. Exercises of


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FIGURE 4.1 The length of the rest interval is dictated by the training goal. To maximize impact on the nervous system, full recovery is recommended.

59

RECOVERY COMPARISON OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Time in Seconds • Muscular

• Nervous

FIGURE 4.2 The nervous system takes five to six times longer to recover than the muscular system.

HORMONAL RESPONSE VS. REST INTERVALS

FIGURE 4.3 When repetitions are low and the length interval is long, there is minimal hormonal response.

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Chapter 4


TRAINING THE ALACTIC POWER SYSTEM

Atactic Power

Lactic

rapacity Pow

Capacity Power

Rest

1 :30

1 : 15

1:3

Ratio

1 ;50

1 :29

1:4

fapaci

FIGURE 4.4 Work-to-rest prescriptions to develop the various energy systems.

a highly coordinative nature, such as split jerks and power snatches, need far longer rest intervals than simple isolation exercises such as rotator cuff work. Olympic lifts and their variations demand very precise patterns of force application and smooth coordination as opposed to machine exercises, which are relatively no-brainers. Again, this explains why heavy dumbbell pressing work requires longer rest intervals than heavy barbell pressing work. Another example would be single-leg dumbbell calf raises versus seated one-leg calf press.

Principle 9: Pairing antagonistic muscles allows for greater motor unit recruitment, shorter rest intervals and greater total volume done per training session By having the antagonistic pairs contracting alternately (e.g., flexion followed by extension) instead of employing agonist contractions alone (precontraction of antagonists), the ability to achieve full motor unit activation (MUA) in a muscle contraction is often enhanced. This has the added benefit of allowing you to double the workload per training unit. A good plan


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PICTURES 4.3 & 4.4 Intra-set pause should be taken at the advantageous position of the exercise to increase workout intensity. is to alternate exercises working agonist muscles with exercises working antagonistic muscles together, while respecting long rest intervals. For example, after doing a 3RM set of close-grip triceps presses, rest 2-3 minutes, perform a heavy set for the antagonist muscle (e.g., a 3RM to 4RM set of dumbbell curls for the biceps), rest another 2-3 minutes and repeat the above procedure for the required number of sets. By training in this fashion, an athlete can do greater tonnage per training unit, as alternating antagonist pairs has been shown repeatedly to lower drop-off curves more effectively than traditional standard sets even with complete rest intervals. The paired muscle groups are normally in opposite motor patterns. For example, overhead presses are alternated with forms of chins-ups, and lying forms of presses are alternated with rows. You do not necessarily need to pair large motor patterns with other large ones. For example, deadlifts can be alternated with tibialis raises, and chin-ups can be alternated with rotator cuff work.

Principle 10: The length of the rest interval is a function of the tempo prescribed Another factor that influences rest interval selection is the cadence at which it is performed. Although there is a scarcity of research in this particular area, you may consider total time under tension of a given set before prescribing the proper rest interval. Given that information, you would prescribe a rest interval that is inversely proportionate to the total time under tension

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of that set. For example, there would be significant differences in the nature and the extent of the energy substrate for sets of single repetitions in the chinup done at a 5:0:1:0 tempo versus reps done at a 30:0:30:0 tempo.

Principle 11: The length of the rest interval is a function of the training age Tolerance to short rest intervals with loads in the 60-80 percent range (6-20 reps) is a function of years of accumulated training. Short rest periods are linked to greater psychological anxiety and fatigue, and the lactate buildup resulting from this type of training is tolerated by only the well-conditioned athlete. Consequently, shortening the rest intervals when working with 10RM loads should be done progressively as the buffering mechanisms adapt to increased muscle and blood lactate concentrations. I believe that rest intervals have to be shortened for only the advanced trainee, as lactate buildup will interfere with the maintenance of proper technique in the learning trainee. Even in neural training, rest intervals can be progressively shortened with no reduction in training weight. Adepts of the Westside Barbell Club style of training and the Bulgarian lifters are the living proof of the trainability of this physical quality.


PICTURE 4.5 To develop maximal strength, the intra-set rest intervals for a high fast-twitch individual should never exceed 15 seconds when training on complex compound exercises such as the squat.

Principle 12: Short, intra-set rest intervals recruit higher-threshold motor units The rest interval between repetitions within a series has received very little attention from the strength training community, yet it is an extremely important loading parameter. Experience in the gym over the last 50 years, also confirmed by scientific research during the last two decades, has clearly shown that taking small intra-set rest intervals in an advantageous angle of execution permits the recruitment of higherthreshold motor units (Picture 4.3 & 4.4). For a given submaximal force of contraction, motor unit activation is greater for repeated (intermittent) contractions than for sustained contractions. For the development of maximal strength, the intra-set rest interval should never exceed 15 seconds, and that is only for high fast-twitch individuals training only on complex compound exercises (Picture 4.5). Both the experimental and practical settings have confirmed this finding. That is why authors who recommend 20 pauses in cluster training have obviously no clue about how to train athletes.

Principle 13: The aerobic base is not a factor in strength development The higher the aerobic base of an athlete, the shorter the rest interval the athlete will want to take. However, this practice is a double-edged sword, as the aerobically fit trainee is normally weaker. Also, it is the author's experience that these athletes have a hard time grasping the concept of resting for a long time between heavy sets to bring about neural adaptations. For example, rowers and boxers will complain that they are not sweating enough when doing relative strength training and "there must be something wrong" with the training process. The work of Cooke et al. (1997) suggest that V02 max is a poor predictor of metabolic recovery rate from high-intensity exercise, and differences in recovery rate observed between individuals with similar V02 max imply that other factors such as peripheral adaptations and muscle fiber type influence recovery. The rate of recovery may be influenced to a greater extent by aerobic adaptation within the muscle and may or may not be associated with V02 max.


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Principle 1 The length of the rest interval is dictated by the training goal. Chiu et al. 2004, Willardson & Burlêtt 2005, IVIatuszal^ et al. 2003, Pincivero et al. 2004, Pincivero & Campy 2004, Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997 Principle 2 The nervous system takes five to six times longer to recover than the muscular system Chiu et al. 2004, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Kawamori & Haff 2004, Matuszaket al. 2003, Hakkinen 1989 Principle 3 The length of the rest interval dictates the hormonal response to a given workout Paulsen et al. 2003, Raastad et al. 2000, Smilios et al. 2003; Abdessemed et al. 1999; Pincivero et al. 2004; Pincivero & Campy 2004; Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997; Ahtianen et al. 2005; Fry et al. 1994, 1998; Hakkinen 1989; Richmond & Goddard 2004; Willardson & Burkett 2006a, 2006b; Willardson 2006 Principle 4 When training the alactic power system, the longest rest intervals are indicated Cronin & Crewther 2004, Willardson & Burkett 2005 Principle 5 The length of a rest interval is a function of the magnitude of the range of motion Willardson & Burkett 2005, Matuszak et al. 2003, Abdessemed et al. 1999, Pincivero et al. 2004, Pincivero & Campy 2004, Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997

al. 2004, Matuszak et al. 2003, Willardson & Burkett 2005, Richmond & Goddard 2004, Willardson & Burkett 2006a, 2006b, Willardson 2006 Principle 9 Pairing antagonist muscles allows for greater motor recruitment, shorter rest intervals and greater total volume done per training session Newton & Alen 1998, Chiu et al. 2003 Principle 10 The length of the rest interval is a function of the tempo prescribed Willardson & Burkett 2005, Abdessemed et al. 1999, Pincivero et al. 2004, Pincivero & Campy 2004, Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997 Principle 11 The length of the rest interval is a function of the training age Kawamori & Haff 2004, Kraemer et al. 1999, Kraemer etal. 1998, Hakkinen et al. 2000, Izquierdo et al. 2001 Principle 12 Short, intra-set rest intervals recruit higherthreshold motor units Willardson & Burkett 2005, Matuszak et al. 2003, Hakkinen 1995, Kang et al. 2005, Lawton et al. 2006 Principle 13 An aerobic base is not a factor in strength development Leveritt et al. (1999)

Principle 6 The length of the rest interval is a function of the amount of muscle mass recruited Kawamori & Haff 2004, Matuszak et al. 2003, Abdessemed et al. 1999, Ahtianen et al. 2005, Richmond & Goddard 2004, Willardson & Burkett 2006a, 2006b, Willardson 2006 Principle 7 The length of the rest interval is a function of the size and strength levels of the athlete Jackson et al. 1990, Taaffe et al. 1996, Ahtianen et al. 2005 Principle 8 The length of the rest interval is a function of the neurological complexity of the exercise Chiu et

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Chapter 4


THE SCIENCE DF TEMPO

Tempo is the least understood of all the strength-training loading parameters and the one most associated with popular myths: Slow training is best! Fast training is dangerous! Fast training is the only way to train fast-twitch fibers! This chapter teaches you the principles that regulate tempo of execution prescription while dispelling the myths.


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PRE-TEST

1. What does the first number represent in the tempo prescription 4210? A. eccentric lowering B. stretched position C. concentric contraction D. pause in the contracted position 2. What does the second number represent in the tempo prescription 4210? A. eccentric lowering B. the pause in the stretched position C. concentric contraction D. pause in the contracted position 3. Is training at slow speeds disadvantageous to power development? A. yes B. no C. only with advanced athletes D. all the above except A, B and C 4. How could you increase the degree of intramuscular tension during a bench press? A. shorten the rest intervals B. use lifting chains C. use a smaller-diameter barbell D. B and C 5. For maximal strength development, the resistance must be heavy enough that the concentric contraction takes roughly how long? A. 0.3-0.5 seconds B. 0.4-0.7 seconds C. 0.5-0.8 seconds D. 0.8-1.0 seconds 6. High-intensity, slow-speed training using

isokinetic loading is associated with increases in which of the following? A. muscle glycogen B. CP, ATP, ADP C. CP, ATP, IRS D. Aand B 7. Slow-tempo work is best applied to which of the following exercises? A. squats B. push jerks C. power snatch D. clean pulls 8. What can be said about the relationship between maximal strength and speed of movement? A. They are negatively correlated. B. They are positively correlated. C. They are inversely proportionate to magnitude of the training load. D. They're just friends. 9. When using eccentric contractions to develop relative strength, what is the maximal time limit of a single set? A. 5 seconds B. 10 seconds C. 10-12 seconds D. 20 seconds 10. Pausing in the advantageous isometric position will favor which of the following? A. muscle glycogen replacement B. high-threshold motor unit recruitment C. low-threshold motor unit recruitment D. Aand B

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V-I. sj0msuv isei-ejd


CHAPTER 5

PRINCIPLES OF TEMPO PRESCRIPTION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAXIMAL STRENGTH Here is the significance of the tempo symbol. I use a four-digit system to represent the time it takes to complete the different phases of strength training repetition (Figure 5.1). The first number is the eccentric lowering, that is, when you lower the resistance (e.g., going down in the squat or bringing the bar to your chest in the bench press). As a rule of thumb, that is when the muscle is being placed under stretch. During the eccentric contraction the muscle is actually lengthening. The second number is the time of pause in the stretched position. The pause is usually between the eccentric (lowering) phase and the concentric (lifting), phase (e.g., the bottom position in the squat or when the bar makes contact with the chest in the bench press). So the "2" in a 4210 tempo in the bench press would refer to a 2-second pause when the bar makes

contact with the chest. It can also refer to a pause taken during the middle of a concentric range. A 5310 tempo in the standing paused reverse curl would indicate a 3-second pause at a predetermined angle in the concentric range of the reverse curl. The third number is the concentric contraction, that is, lifting the weight (e.g., rising in the squat or pressing the bar at arms' length in the bench press. In this case the muscle is shortening. If X is present in the tempo expression instead of a number, it implies explosive action with full acceleration. The fourth number is the time of pause in the contracted position (e.g., the top of a curl or chin-up). Thus, 2010 in the flat dumbbell press would mean 2 seconds to lower dumbbells, no pause (0), lifting for a count of 1, and no pause at the top.

UNDERSTANDING TEMPO

TEMPO

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Time in seconds

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FIGURE 5.1 A four-digit symbol can be used to prescribe the appropriate tempo that should be used during a weight training exercise.


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FIGURE 5.3 Tension is critical for maximal strength development. If maximal strength is the desired goal, highresistance training at slow velocities appears more effective than high velocities with light loads. As another example, in the case of 4211 in the chinup, it would mean 4 seconds to lower yourself to the arms outstretched position, a 2-second pause in the stretched position, raising yourself for a count of 1, and pausing for 1 second at the top.

Principle 1: It is the brain's intent that determines the training effect, not the actual velocity of the bar There is some concern that displacing high loads at slow speeds may be disadvantageous for power development, but these fears are totally unfounded. It is the brain's intent that determines the adaptation to high-speed lifting. In other words, "concentrating on acceleration" while reaching muscle failure will bring about the same adaptation as will lifting at high speed, as long as you concentrate on accelerating the load. The key in power training for athletes is to keep the repetitions low (1-5) so that the high-threshold motor units are recruited. Training with higher reps (e.g., 1012), even though concentrating on acceleration, would still access lower-threshold fibers more so than if the reps were done at a controlled medium tempo. Training with loads moved purposely slow will move the force-time curve towards the right, which translates

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to less power even though the levels of maximal strength may have increased.

Principle 2: Tension is critical for maximal strength development if maximal strength is the desired goal, high-resistance training at slow velocities appears more advantageous than training at high velocities with light loads (Fig. 5.3). This is because high levels of intramuscular tension are the biological stimulus for the adaptive process of strength development. When you reach the upper levels of strength development, you must seek ways to increase the levels of intramuscular tension. This explains the success of training implements that accommodate the strength curve to increase the amount of tension throughout the strength curve. One such example is the use of chains added to the barbell squat to accommodate the ascending strength curve. Another example is the use of bungee cords attached to a bar for training the incline press. Even though science has yet to verify the following, in my experience the best way to achieve the optimal combination of slow velocity and high tension is not to use purposely slow contractions but to use low-reps


METABOLIC ADAPTATION

Speed FIGURE 5.4 For maximal strength development, the resistance must be heavy enough that the concentric contraction takes roughly 0.3 to 0.5 seconds.

.3 sec to 0.5 sec

85% descending sets (which, of course, are done with a proper warm-up). Here is an example of a descending set for strength athletes: 1 RM @100 percent of maximum Rest 10 seconds, drop load 5 percent 1 RM @ 95 percent of maximum Rest 10 seconds, drop load 5 percent 1 RM @ 90 percent of maximum Rest 3-5 minutes, repeat steps 1-6 another 4-5 times

• 100% Principle 3: For maximal strength development, the resistance must be heavy enough that the concentric contraction takes roughly 0.3-0.5 seconds For maximal strength development, high-threshold fibers must be recruited. High-threshold fibers take a minimum of 0.3 seconds to generate maximal tension (Fig. 5.4). Lifting explosively with light loads will not do much for strength development. A minimum of 85 percent of the 1RM is necessary to elicit a strength response when training explosively. In strength training circles, this refers to the method of maximal efforts, (a.k.a. relative strength training and weightlifter's method).


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Principle 4: Slow-speed lifting brings about more metabolic adaptations than does high-speed lifting High-intensity, slow-speed training using isol
Principle 5: For slow-tempo work, the exercise must be adapted to fit the strength curve Slow tempo can be best applied to all extensor work (e.g., squats, bench presses and deadlifts), particularly when you use chains or bands to make the resistance curve match more evenly the strength curve. However, in the case of the more bell-shaped force curve (a.k.a. ascending-descending) of certain muscles, slowtempo work appears to be appropriate in only partial ranges (e.g., the first 45 degrees) of elbow flexion if one uses constant-resistance devices such as the old reliable barbell and dumbbells. For example, in the case of slow-tempo elbow flexion work, I prefer to prescribe the use of a Scott bench and a low pulley for resistance overload. Using a barbell as the resistance implement for the full range in this case would waste most of the effort expended. If a constant-resistance mode (e.g., dumbbell) is the only means of resistance available, I would suggest partial work, such as the first 45 degrees of elbow flexion on a Scott bench. Concerning elbow flexion work, resistance training devices that permit the shape of the resistance to be adjusted, such as many of the Strive® machines and some of the Hammer® pieces, allow the optimalization of the resistance patterns for those ascending-descending force curve muscles.

Schmidtbleicher 1981; Heyden et al. 1988) (See Table 5.1). For example, consider a lineman who can incline press 400 pounds versus a quarterback who can incline press 250 pounds. If you test both athletes for maximal bar speed at 100, 150, 200 and 250 pounds, the lineman with the higher 1RM performance is more likely to move all those loads at greater speeds than the quarterback will. It goes without saying that the speed of the bar for the quarterback would be 0.0 with loads of 300 pounds and above.

Principle 7: It is easier to gain strength at slow speeds than at high speeds The potential for strength gains is much greater at slow speeds than at high speeds (Moffroid and Whipple 1970, Berger 1982, Coyle and Feiring 1980). For example, you can expect higher rates and magnitudes of improvement in back squats and bench presses (slow lifts) than in power cleans and power snatches (fast lifts).

Principle 8: The nature of the exercise dictates the tempo at which it will be optimally executed Some exercises by their very nature must always be done at high speeds, while others can be done

Another way to increase maximal tension when training the flexors is to include isometric pauses in the concentric range (see shaded box on isometronic training in this chapter).

Principle 6: Maximal strength and speed of movement are positively correlated at all loads Scientific research has demonstrated that there is a positive correlation between maximal strength and speed of movement at all loads (Burhle and

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FIGURE 5.3 Tension is critical for maximal strength development. If maximal strength is the desired goal, high-resistance training at slow velocities appears more effective than high velocities with light loads.


ISOMETRONIC TRAINING This routine's physiological basis is what American sport scientists Fleck & Kraemer and O'Shea call "functional isometric contractions" (FIC). Over thirty years ago, players of the Iron Game were introduced to this training method under the term "isometronics," which was a contraction of the terms "isometrics" and "isotonics." German strength experts such as Letzelter & Letzelter and Hartmann & Tunnemann prefer to use the term "auxotonics" to describe this training method. The concept behind this training method is to use the best of what the isometric method can offer and combine it with the regular type of lifting still known as "isotonics." With FIC you make use of the specific joint-angle strength gains of isometrics after pre-fatiguing the muscles involved by using heavy short-range repetitions in the power rack. In the bench press movement, you'll select three equally divided ranges of motion: start range, mid-range and end range. In all three ranges, you will select a specific weight that you can move from the bottom of the range of motion to its top position. In all ranges, the amplitude of the movement will be regulated by sets of pins. Here are the steps for performing FIC: 1. Perform 4-6 partial reps in the normal fashion on a 20X2 tempo. 2. When you come to the end of the last concentric repetition, make contact with the bar against the top pins. Apply as much force as possible for 6-8 seconds, trying to blast through the pins! Do not hold your breath during the isometric contraction; instead, use a very brief cycle of breathing, alternating rapidly between short inhaling and short exhaling. This would be performed on a 20X8 tempo. 3. If you've performed this set properly, you should not be able to perform another concentric repetition after lowering the barbell—if you can do the rep, the weight you used was simply too light. Make sure to do this program only once every 10 days. Do a more regular program on other training days.

at any speed (Pictures 5.1 & 5.2). Exercises that need to performed at only high speeds include the Olympic lifts (clean and jerk, snatch), partial Olympic lifts (e.g., power cleans, power snatch) and the numerous Olympic pulls. These exercises train the synchronization of muscular chains to improve the rate offeree development and involve a multitude of joints that have to be used in a precise order for optimal performance. Normally these are done at a XOXO tempo. However, in some instances, I may prescribe an isometric pause right in the middle of the concentric range. For example, in the power clean, if an athlete has a tendency to rush the lift, I may have him or her pause for 2 seconds once the bar clears the knees in the concentric range. Exercises that can be done at almost any speed are usually less complex in coordinative nature and are used most often for the purpose of building maximal strength and/or hypertrophy (e.g., presses, squats, curls).

Principle 9: For relative strength development, the total time under tension per set should not exceed 20 seconds

Relative strength is the maximum force that an athlete can generate per unit of bodyweight irrespective of the time taken to develop this force. A high-level relative strength is of critical importance in sports in which athletes have to displace their entire bodyweight (e.g., jumps, gymnastics); in sports that have weight classes (e.g., judo, wrestling, boxing); and in sports in which sudden acceleration is critical (e.g., sprints, hockey, soccer). Strength training for athletes in these sports should be based on maximum-weights/nervoussystem methods, methods that enhance the neural drive, producing increased recruiting and firing rate of motor units. A list of sports requiring relative strength can be found in Table 5.2. For relative-strength sports, hypertrophic adaptations should be minimized, hence the need to access only high-threshold motor units and keep time under tension to a minimum. By keeping the time under tension short, you ensure that the high-energy phosphagens are the main fuel sources for those highintensity contractions (Table 5.3). Normally, for relative strength development, the athlete utilizes 1-5 repetitions per set. Of course, to keep the total time under tension under 20 seconds, the higher


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CORRELATIONS

Angular speed (°/s)

Group n GO

17

15,6

31,3

62,6

94,0

125,3

r

r

r

r

r

.97+++ .95+++ .92+++ .90+++ .95+++

G1

8

.95+++

G2

9

.97+++ .87+++

.89++

.73+

.60 ns

.78+

.80++

.74+

.69+

(ns = not significant; p < .05 = +; p < .01 = Hi-+; p < .00'i = +++

GO (weightlifters) G1 (strongest lifters) G2 (weakest) TABLE 5.1 Correlations Between Isometric Maximal Strength and the Relative Dynamic Strength Maximum at Different Speeds of Movement for the Three Groups: GO (all weightlifters), G1 (strongest weightlifters), G2 (weakest weightlifters) (Heyden et al. 1988). the number of reps per set, the lower the time under tension per repetition can be. Table 5.4 illustrates a sample tempo selection in relation to sets and reps for the development of relative strength.

Principle 10: Relative strength training allows for a great variety of tempos in the eccentric and pause phases When seeking to develop relative strength, eccentric contractions can be as slow as 10 seconds, while isometric pauses can be as long as 8 seconds. However, the length of the total set should not exceed 20 seconds. In the case of the 8-second isometric pauses, they are done with maximal tension against an immovable object like the pins in a power rack.

Principle 11: Time under tension per set should not exceed 40 seconds in absolute strength sports with a high speed component If you are in an absolute-strength sport with a high power component (e.g., bobsleigh, hammer throwing).

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do not exceed times under tension of 40 seconds. In those sports, you want hypertrophy but the hypertrophy must be functional, hence the short times under tension. It is my experience that hypertrophy gained by sets of longer time under tension negatively affects performance.

Principle 12: Variation in tempo is critical for long-term maximal strength development Various authors have contended that muscles gain in strength faster if trained at various speeds, rather than constantly being trained at the same speed (Biihrle and Schmidtbleicher 1981, Lilikow and Worobjow 1984, Poliquin 1988). A recent study (Harris et al. 1996) supports these authors. In this study performed at Appalachian State University, three separate groups of trainees were used. Group 1 trained at 30 percent of their onerepetition maximum, Group 2 trained at 80-85 percent of their one-repetition maximum, and Group 3 trained using two intensities, one day at 80-85 percent of their max and a second day at 55-60 percent of their one-repetition maximum. All three groups were divided


THE CONCEPT OF TIME UNDER TENSION When hypertrophy is the goal, research and empirical data both tend to support the 40-to-70-second rule of thumb, which states that a muscle must be loaded within that time frame to optimize the hypertrophy response. When relative strength is the primary concern, duration of the stimulus (set) should not exceed 40 seconds, and for even better results should not exceed 20 seconds. The reason for doing this is to recruit the high-threshold motor units, which use the high-energy phosphagens as a source of fuel. For the purpose of selective hypertrophy, here is how you can adjust the sets, reps and tempo to achieve the desired training effect: a. 3 x 15-20 on 2010 tempo will recruit slow-twitch fibers and stimulate specific biochemical adaptations. b. 4 X 4-6 on 4080 will stimulate the intermediate Ma fibers. c. 6 X 2-3 on 3011 will access high-threshold lib fibers, the fibers that have the highest potential for growth. In this case, the pause should be at a mechanically advantageous angle to permit higherthreshold fibers.

Slow Speed vs. Fast Speed

OPTIMAL TEMPO

PICTURES 5.1 & 5.2 Olympic lifting exercises such as the clean pull (left) should be performed at high speeds, whereas basic strength exercises such as the decline triceps extension should be performed at slow speeds.


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SPORTS REQUIRING RELATIVE STRENGTH Reason

Sports (Examples)

Buoyancy

Synchronized swimming

Hydrodynamics

Swimming, water polo

Aerodynamics

Luge, ski jump, cycling, downhill skiing

Weight-Class Sports

Combative sports (e.g., judo), lifting sports (e.g., weightlifting)

Jumping Power

Basketball, handball, pole vault, triple jump

Aesthetics

Figure skating, rhythmic gymnastics, synchronized swimming

TABLE 5.2 A list of sports requiring relative strength.

TIME UNDER TENSION FOR STRENGTH AND ITS RELATED ENERGY SYSTEM & FUEL SOURCE Time under Tension

Energy System

1-10 seconds

Anaerobic alactic power

ATP-CP

11-20 seconds

Anaerobic alactic capacity

CP

21-40 seconds

Anaerobic lactic power

Glycogen

41-120 seconds

Anaerobic lactic capacity

Glycogen

Fuel

TABLE 5.3 By keeping the time under tension short, you ensure that the high-energy phosphagens are the main fuel sources for those high-intensity contractions.

SAMPLE TEMPO PRESCRIPTIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIVE STRENGTH Tempo

Reps

Sets

Time/Rep

Time/Set

10/0/1/0

1

7-10

11

11

3110

2

6

5

10

3012

3

6

6

18

4010

4

5

5

20

TABLE 5.4 To keep the total time under tension under 20 seconds to emphasize relative strength, an increase in reps per set requires that the TUT per rep be reduced.

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equally in number, training for nine weeks using the same loading parameters in terms of sets and reps. Performance measurements demonstrated that the third group made the biggest improvements in athletic performance. Two recent studies have shown the superior value of periodizing speed compared to keeping the speed of contraction identical throughout a program. The study by Urdang et al. (1989) demonstrated that periodized training in which individuals move from low velocity to high velocity may be necessary if increases in force are required at both speeds. The work of Doherty et al. (1989) supports current theory with regard to velocityspecific resistance training; that is, low-velocity training produces greater increments in force production at low speed than does high-velocity training. However, their results suggest that high-velocity training alone does not produce changes as great as periodized low- and high-velocity training performed in sequence. These data support the practice of periodized training programs in which the velocity of the movement is varied over the course of the training program for athletes attempting to increase force production at high speeds. Recent studies support the concept that when athletic performance variables demanding

strength, power and speed are desired, a combination of training velocities is desirable (Harris et al. 1996; Little et al. 1996). However, for elite athletes the variation of training velocities may be necessary to elicit a training response. Various world-class athletes have reported enhanced sports performance from systematically planned variations in speed of contraction. For example, in hammer throwing, low-velocity work (e.g., slow-tempo deadlifts) has been perceived as beneficial for enhanced control of knee- and trunk flexion during turns, and high-velocity training (speed snatch) is used to ameliorate power in the release of the throwing implement (Picture 5.3 & 5.4). My experience with elite athletes indicates that the tempo of contraction for any given exercise should be varied every three weeks or less. In preparation for the Athens Olympic Games, shot-putters would vary the tempo on a four-training-day system. The very nature of the exercise helped dictate the velocity. The following workout shows how the hip extension movements were periodized.

TEMPO VARIETY

PICTURES 5.3 & 5.4 Elite athletes need a greater variety of training velocities to elicit a training response. This requirement necessitates a variety of exercise types.


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Principle 14: Pausing in the advantageous isometric position will favor high-threshold motor unit recruitment

Adam Nelson Program Workouts 1, 5, 9, 13 Snatch deadlifts on podium, 5 x 6-8, 5020 Workouts 2, 6,10, 14 Clean pulls from low blocks, 5 x 4-6, 32X0 Pause is taken just above the kneecap

This rest interval between repetitions within a series has received very little attention from the strength training community, yet it is an extremely important loading parameter. A question that has been raised recently is whether hypertrophy is best accomplished by pausing between reps or by continuous exercise (Pictures 5.5 & 5.6).

Workouts 3, 7,11, 15 Above-kneecap power cleans, 6 x 2-4, 10X0 Workouts 4, 8,12, 16 Mid-thigh power snatch, 9 x 1-3, XOXO As you can see, as the intensity is raised through the cycle by dropping reps, the tempo is shortened to work on acceleration. Thus, muscle adaptations are favored initially to move on to neural adaptations as you go through the cycle. Also, the range of motion is diminished as the tempo is shortened. Here is how varying the tempo can be used to im prove performance in the incline press: Workouts 1, 5, 9, 13 Incline dumbbell presses, 5 x 6-8, 4010 Workouts 2, 6, 10, 14 Inertia incline press in rack, 5 x 4-6, 2210 Workouts 3,7,11,15 Incline barbell presses with chains, 7 sets, (2,2,2,4,4,6,6) 3011 Workouts 4, 8,12,16 3-inch-thick-bar incline press, 9 sets (3,2,1,3,2,1,3,2,1), 20X0

Principle 13: The length of the eccentric contraction is proportionate to the range of motion of the exercise As a rule of thumb, for safety purposes, the longer the range, the longer the eccentric tempo; this is so the athlete can maintain proper bar pathway and reduce the probability of a musculoskeletal injury. Therefore, theoretically, a squat done on a 10X0 tempo is potentially riskier than a reverse wrist curl done on the same tempo.

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A Canadian study done six years ago has shown that sets of 15-20RM done in a continuous mode with one minute between sets increases primarily the crosssection of slow-twitch fibers. This study negates the ideas about fiber recruitment of Iron Man author Jerry Robinson. Japanese researchers have contended that these results may be due to the oxygen debt caused by continuous-tension sets. This debt may very well be the cause of the adaptation taking place in the slow-twitch fibers. In a talk on future trends in strength training held at the National Coaches Seminar in Ottawa, Canada, Australian strength and biomechanics expert Greg Wilson advanced the concept that pausing between the concentric and eccentric portions of reps may offset that oxygen debt and permit the recruitment of higher-threshold fibers such as the fast-twitch Mb fibers. So for bodybuilders who don't care where the hypertrophy comes from, both styles of rep performance can be used to maximize the cross-section of all fibers. On the other hand, strength and power athletes will want to pause between reps so that they hypertrophy only the fibers that they need - the high-threshold fast-twitch fibers. For relative strength development, it would be beneficial to pause in the advantageous isometric position. The placement of this pause would of course vary from one exercise to another. In most flexion exercises, such as biceps curls and hamstrings curls, the advantageous pause would be between the eccentric and concentric phases of the repetition cycles (Picture 5.5). In contrast, in most extension exercises such as bench presses and squats, the pause would be between the concentric and eccentric phases of the repetition cycle, when the limbs achieve the near-lockout position. Based on my experience, the length of the pause should be in the range of 1 to 2 seconds.


Principle 15: Threshold levels of maximal strength are needed before a fast lift can be improved When you need to improve performance on a fast lift lil
Principle 16: Purposely slow training is applicable only in rehabilitation phases or in the training of bodybuilders Purposely slow training, such as bench presses done on a 5050 tempo, only brings muscular adaptations. It only has applications in the early stages of injury rehabilitation or in the development of non-functional muscle mass.

At the Poliquin Strength Institute we use the ratios between the power snatch, power clean, front squat and back squats to determine the percentage of time devoted to power vs. maximal strength development,

TEMPO VARIETY

PICTURES 5.5 & 5.6 Pausing at the advantageous isometric position, as shown at left, will favor high-threshold motor unit recruitment.


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77

CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES

Principle 1 It is the brain's intent that determines the training effect, not the actual velocity of the bar Bottaro et al. 2007, Chen et al. 2006, Paddon-Jones et al. 2001, 2004 Principle 2 Tension is critical for maximal strength development Aagaard et al. 2000, Smilios et al. 2003, Taaffe et al. 1996, Hakkinen 1995, Gentil et al. 2006, Paddon-Jones et al. 2001, 2004 Principle 3 For maximal strength development, the resistance must be heavy enough that the concentric contraction takes roughtly 0.3-0.5 seconds Munn et al. 2005, Hunter et al. 2003, Michaut et al. 2003, Higbie et al. 1996, Hortobagyi et al. 1996a, 1996b, Housh et al. 1996 Principle 4 Slow-speed lifting brings about more metabolic adaptations than does high-speed lifting Bottaro et al. 2007, Hunter et al. 2003, Raastad et al. 2000, Brandeburg & Docherty 2002, Chapman et al. 2006, Higbie et al. 1996, Hortobagyi et al. 1996a, 1996b, Housh etal. 1996, Principle 5 For slow-tempo work, the exercise must be adapted to fit the strength curve Munn et al. 2005, Chen et al. 2006, Behm & Sale 1993, Paddon-Jones et al. 2001, 2004

For relative strength development, the total time under tension per sets should not exceed 20 seconds Abdessemed etal. 1999, Farthing & Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b, Gentil et al. 2006 Principle 10 Relative strength training allows for greater variety of tempos in the eccentric and pause phases Raastad et al. 2000, Michaut et al. 2003, Farthing & Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b Principle 11 Time under tension per set should not exceed 40 seconds in absolute strength sports with a high speed component Bottaro et al. 2007, Behm & Sale 1993, Chapman et al. 2006, Gentil et al. 2006 Principle 12 Variation in tempo is critical for long-term maximal strength development Aagaard et al. 2000, Jackson et al. 1990, Taaffe et al. 1996, Behm & Sale 1993 Principle 13 The length of the eccentric contraction is proportionate to the range of motion of the exercise Chen et al. 2006, Nosaka & Clarkson 1995, Nosaka & Newton 2002, Brandeburg & Docherty 2002, Farthing & Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b, Gentil et al. 2006, Higbie et al. 1996, Hortobagyi et al. 1996a, 1996b, Housh et al. 1996, Seger et al. 1998, Seger & Thorstensson 2005

Principle 6 Maximal strength and speed of movement are positively correlated at all loads Taaffe et al. 1996, Brandeburg & Docherty 2002

Principle 14 Pausing in the advantageous isometric position will favor high-threshold motor unit recruitment Chen et al. 2006, Michaut et al. 2003, Desbrosses et al. 2006, Hakkinen et al. 1997, 2000, Izquierdo et al. 1999, Philippou et al. 2004

Principle 7 It is easier to gain strength at slow speeds than at high speeds Bottaro et al. 2007, Munn et al. 2005, Teramoto & Golding 2006, Chapman et al. 2006

Principle 15 Threshold levels of maximal strength are needed before a fast lift can be improved Hakkinen 1989, Behm & Sale 1993

Principle 8 The nature of the exercise dictates the tempo at which it will be optimally executed Raastad et al. 2000, Farthing & Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b

Principle 16 Purposely slow training is applicable only in rehabilitation phases or in the training of bodybuilders Bottaro et al. 2007, Hunter et al. 2003, . Gentil et al. 2006

Principle 9

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Now that you've completed this theory section of the Poliquin Performance Certification Course, I'd like to discuss a few points that sum up the current situation in this profession: • There are no magical programs. If a magical program existed, every trainee would be able to squat 1,000 pounds and bench press 800 pounds. Then there would be no need for this course. • There are several ways to train. Athletes who have achieved world-class standards in the Iron Game have all experimented with various combinations of the loading parameters to get to their level of sporting excellence. Both Bulgaria and the former Soviet Union, for example, have produced numerous world records in weightlifting using very different training philosophies. • Knowledge about training programs has been hampered by the common use of anabolic steroids. Training on anabolic steroids makes it difficult to access which is working - anabolics or the training methods. Many anabolic users gain on programs

that are not optimal but produce slow changes due to the anabolics - therefore, they never optimize the training process and their methods contribute litte to the knowledge of training methods. • There are always new ways to improve your training program; that is, of course, if you are prepared to be open-mined and learn from others. In many instances people are not prepared to do so because they believe their way is the best and only way. The Poliquin Performance Certification Course reflects my way. As you begin to apply its methods, bear in mind the aforementioned points. Keep an open mind and don't try to look for a single, straightforward answer. Be an active participant and apply what you read to what you practice. Then analyze the results, and adjust the formula accordingly with your new knowledge. With that, we will both continue learning and traveling the path toward optimal performance. Charles Poliquin


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Charles Poliquin - PICP Level 1 Manual1.pdf

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