Topic
Page No
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Organizational Behaviour What Is An Organization? What Is Organizational Behaviour? How Much Do You Know About Organizational Behaviour Goals Of Organizational Behaviour Predicting Organizational Behaviour Explaining Organizational Behaviour Managing Organizational Behaviour Early Prescriptions Concerning Management The Classical View & Bureaucracy The Human Relations Movement
3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 6
CHAPTER 2 Personality What Is Personality? Personality & Organizational Behaviour The Five Factor Model Of Personality Locus Of Control Self Monitoring Self Esteem Recent Development In Personality & OB Proactive Personality General Self Efficacy Core Self Evaluation Social Cognitive Theory Modeling Self Efficacy Self Regulations Organizational Behaviour Practices Organizational Behaviour Modifications Employee Recognition Programs Training Programs Career Development
7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 14
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Organizational Behaviour What is an Organization? In the social sciences, organizations are studied by researchers from seve severa rall disci iscip pline lines, s, the most com common of whic which h are sociology, sociology, economics, economics,
poli politi tica call
scien science ce,,
psychology, psychology,
management, management,
and
organizational communication. communication. The broad area is commonly referred to as organizat organizational ional studies studies,, organizat organizational ional behavior behavior or organi organizat zation ion analysis. analysis. Therefore Therefore,, a number number of different different theories theories and perspective perspectives s exist, some of which are compatible, Organizatio Organizations ns are social inventions inventions for accomplishing accomplishing goals through effort. Individuals are assembled into organizations for a reason. To achieve their goals, organizations are staffed with people who operate toge togeth ther er in a coor coordi dina nate ted d fash fashio ion. n. Orga Organi niza zati tion onal al beha behavi viou ourr is a relatively young field of inquiry that studies what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations. Organizations are groups of people who work interdependently toward some purpose. OB concepts help us to predict and understand organizational events, adopt more accurate theori theories es of realit reality, y, and influe influence nce organi organizat zation ional al events events.. This This field field of knowledge also improves the organization’s financial health.
What is an organizational behaviour? A field of study that investigates the impact that individual, groups, and struct structure ure have have on behavi behaviour our within within organi organizat zation ions, s, for the purpos purpose e of applying such knowledge towards improving organizations effectiveness OB studies three determinants of behaviour in organizations: •
Individuals
2
•
Groups
•
Structure
OB applie applies s the knowle knowledge dge gained gained about about indivi individua duals, ls, groups groups and the effect of structure on behaviour in order to make organizations work more effectively. OB is an applied behavioural science that is built upon contributions from a number of behavioural disciplines. The predominant areas are psychol psychology ogy,, anthro anthropol pology ogy,, and politi political cal science science.. As we shall shall learn, learn, psychology’s contributions have been mainly at the individual or micro level of analysis, while the other four disciplines have contributed to our unde unders rsta tand ndin ing g of macro acro conc concep epts ts such such as grou group p proc proces esse ses s and and organization.
Another definition: OB refers refers to attitu attitudes des and behavi behaviour ours s of indivi individua duals ls and groups groups in orga organi nizat zatio ions ns.. The The fiel field d of orga organi niza zati tion onal al beha behavi viou ourr invo involv lves es the the systematic study of these attitudes and behaviours, and should be of interest to all students s tudents of management.
How
much
do
you
know
about
organizational behaviour: People are amazingly good at giving sensible reasons as to why a statement is true or false. The ease with people can generate such cont contra radi dict ctor ory y resp respon onse ses s sugg sugges ests ts that that “com “commo mon n sens sense” e” deve develo lops ps through unsystematic and incomplete experiences with organizational beha behavi viou our. r. Howe Howeve ver, r, beca becaus use e comm common on sens sense e and and opin opinio ions ns abou aboutt organizational behaviour affect management practice, practice should be based on informed opinion and systematic study.
3
Goals of organizational behaviour The field of organizational behaviour has a number of commonly agreed upon goals. Chief among these are effectively predicting, explaining and managing behaviour that occurs in organizations. •
Predicting organizational behaviour Predicting the behaviour of others is an essential requirement for every day life, both inside and outside of organizations. The very regularity of behaviour in organizations permits the prediction of its its futu future re occu occurr rren ence ce.. Thro Throug ugh h syste systema mati tic c stud study, y, the the fiel field d of organi organizat zation ional al behavi behaviour our provid provides es a scient scientifi ific c founda foundatio tion n that that helps improve predictions of organizational events.
•
Explaining organizational behaviour: Another goal of organizational behaviour is explanation of events in organizations – why do they occur? Organizational behaviour is especially especially interested interested in determin determining ing why people people are more or less motivated, satisfied, or prone to resign. The ability to understand behaviour is a necessary prerequisite for effectively managing it.
•
Managing organizational behaviour: Management is defined as the art of getting things accomplished in organizations through others. If behaviour can be predicted and explained, it can often be managed. If prediction and explanation constitute analysis, then management constitutes action.
Early
prescriptions
concerning
management:
4
There are two basic phases in the pursuit of the correct way to manage an organization organization is to achieve its goals. goals. Experts Experts often call these these phases phases the classical view and the human relations view.
The classical view and bureaucracy: The classical view point is an early prescription on management that advoca advocated ted high high specia specializ lizati ation on of labour labour,, intens intensive ive coordi coordinat nation ion and centralized decision making. Scientific management was a system for using research to determine the optimum degree of specialization and standardization of work tasks.
The human relations movement The Hawtho Hawthorne rne studie studies s resear research ch illust illustrat rated ed how psycho psycholog logica icall and social processes affect productivity and work adjustment. After World War II, researchers and theorists took up the theme of the Hawthorne studie studies. s. This This human human relati relations ons movem movement ent was a critiq critique ue of classic classical al mana manage geme ment nt that that advo advoca cate ted d mana manage geme ment nt styl styles es that that were were more more participated and oriented toward employee needs.
5
CHAPTER 2
Personality What is personality? Personality is the relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that that inf influe luences nces the way way an indi indiv vidu idual int interact racts s wit with his his or her environment. It is reflected in the way people react to other people, situations and problems.
Personality & Organizational Organizational Behaviour: Pers Person onal alit ity y has has a rath rather er long long and and rocky rocky hist histor ory y in orga organi niza zati tion onal al behaviour that is demonstrated by the person situation. According to the disposit sitional
approach,
individuals
posses sess
stable
traits
or
characteris characteristics tics that influence their attitudes attitudes and behaviours. behaviours. According to the situational approach, characteristics of the organizational setting such as rewards rewards and punishment punishment influence influence people’s feelings, feelings, attitudes attitudes and behaviour. According to the interactionist approach, organizational beha behavi viou ourr is a func functi tion on of both both disp dispos osit itio ions ns and and the the situa situati tion on.. The The interactionist approach is the most widely accepted perspective within organi organizat zation ional al behavi behaviour our.. The role role of person personali ality ty in organi organizat zation ional al settings is strongest in “weak” situations where there are loosely defined roles and few rules. In strong situations which have more defined roles,
6
rules and contingencies, personality tends to have less impact. Thus, to extent to which personality influences people’s attitudes and behaviours depends on the situation.
The 5 factor model of personality: Psychol Psychologi ogists sts have have discov discovere ered d that that there there are about about five five basic, basic, but general dimensions that describe personality: •
Extraversion…sociable, talkative vs. withdrawn, shy
•
Emotional stability…stable, confident vs. depressed, anxious
•
Agreeableness … tolerant, cooperative vs. cold , rude
•
Consci Conscient entiou iousne sness ss … depend dependabl able, e, respon responsib sible le vs. carele careless, ss, impulsive
•
Openness
to
experience
…
curious,
original
vs.
dull,
unimaginative There is evidence that each of the “Big Five” dimensions is related to job performance. performance. High conscienti conscientiousnes ousness s is related related to performan performance ce for all occupations and the best predictor of performance of all the Big Five dime dimens nsion ions. s. The The Big Big Five Five dime dimens nsio ions ns have have also also been been foun found d to be related to motivation, job satisfaction and career success.
Locus of Control: Locu Locus s of cont contro roll is set set of beli belief efs s abou aboutt whet whethe herr one’ one’s s beha behavi viou ourr is controlled mainly by internal or external forces. High “externals” see thei theirr beha behavi viou ours rs cont contro roll lled ed by fact factor ors s like like fate fate,, luck luck and and powe powerf rful ul people. High “Internals” see stronger effects on their behaviour as a consequence of self initiative, personal actions and free will. Locus Locus of contro controll influe influence nces s organi organizat zation ional al behavi behaviour our in a variet variety y of occupat occupation ions. s. Intern Internals als are more more satisf satisfied ied with with their their jobs, jobs, earn earn more more money money and achieve higher higher organizat organizational ional positions. positions. In addition, addition, they 7
seem to perceive less stress, to cope with stress better, and to engage in more careful career planning.
Self-Monitoring: Self-Monitoring is the extent to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings and relationships. Individuals low in self-monitoring are said to "wear their hearts on their sleeves." They act like they feel and say what they think without regard to the situat situation ion.. Indivi Individua duals ls high high on self-m self-moni onitor toring ing behave behave somewh somewhat at like like actors, taking great care to observe and control the images that they project. In particular, they tend to show concern for socially appropriate behaviour, tune in to social cues, and respond accordingly. High selfmonitors tend to gravitate toward jobs that require a degree of roleplaying such as sales, law, public relations, and politics. In social settings that require a lot of verbal interaction, high self-monitors tend to emerge as leaders.
Self-Esteem Self Self-e -est stee eem m is the the degr degree ee to whic which h a pers person on has has a posit positiv ive e self self-evaluation. People with high self-esteem have favourable self-images. Accordi According ng to behavioural behavioural plastici plasticity ty theory theory, peop people le with with low low self self-esteem tend to be more susceptible to external and social influences than than those those who have have high high self-e self-este steem em.. People People with with low self-e self-este steem em tend to react badly to negative feedback – it lowers their subsequent performance and they do not react well to ambiguous and stressful situ situat atio ions ns..
Desp Despit ite e
a
poss possib ible le down downsi side de to exce excess ssiv ive e
este esteem em,,
organi organizat zation ions s will will genera generally lly benef benefit it from from a workfo workforce rce with with high high selfselfesteem. Such people tend to make more fulfilling career decisions, they
8
exhibit higher job satisfaction, and they are generally more resilient to the strains of everyday work life.
Rece Recent nt Deve Develo lopm pmen ents ts in Pers Person onal alit ity y and and Organizational Behaviour Five Five more recen ecentt
pers person onal alit ity y
varia ariab bles les
that that are imp import ortant for
organizational behaviour are positive and negative affectivity, proactive personality, general self-efficacy, and core self-evaluations. 1- Posi Posittive ive 2- Negati Negative ve Affect Affectivi ivity ty People who are high on positive affectivity have a propensity propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a positive light. People who are high on negative affectivity have a propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a negative light. People who have high positive affectivity report higher job satisfaction while those with high negative affectivity report lower job satisfaction. People with high negative affectivity tend to experience more stressful conditions at work and report higher levels of workplace stress and strain.
Proactive Personality Proactive behaviour involves taking initiative to improve one’s current circumstances or creating new ones. It involves challenging the status quo. Proactive personality is a stable disposition that reflects a tendency to beha behav ve proa proact ctiv ivel ely y and and to effec ffectt posi positi tiv ve chan chang ge in one’ one’s s enviro environme nment. nt. Indivi Individua duals ls with with a proact proactive ive person personali ality ty are relati relative vely ly uncons unconstra traine ined d by situat situation ional al forces forces and act to change change and influe influence nce their environment. Proactive personality is related to a number of work outcomes including job performance, tolerance for stress in demanding
9
jobs, leadership effectiveness, participation in organizational initiatives, work team performance, entrepreneurship, and career success.
General Self-Efficacy General General self-effi self-efficacy cacy (GSE) is a general trait that refers to an individual’s belief in his or her ability to perform successfully in a variety of challenging situations. It is a motivational trait rather than an affective trai trait. t. Indi Indivi vidu dual als s with with high high GSE GSE are are bett better er able able to adap adaptt to nove novel, l, uncertain, and adverse situations and have higher job satisfaction and job performance.
Core Self-Evaluations Self-Evaluations Core self-evaluations refer to a broad personality concept that consists of more more specif specific ic traits traits that that reflec reflectt the evalua evaluatio tions ns people people hold hold about about themselve themselves s and their self-worth. self-worth. The four specific specific traits traits that make up a person’s person’s core self-evalua self-evaluations tions are self-estee self-esteem, m, general general self efficacy, efficacy, locu locus s of cont contro rol, l, and and neur neurot otic icism ism (emo (emoti tion onal al stab stabil ilit ity) y).. Core Core self self-evaluations are positively related to job satisfaction, job performance, and life satisfaction.
Social Cognitive Theory Learning and behaviour often occurs without the conscious control of posi positi tive ve and and nega negati tive ve rein reinfo forc rces es by mana manage gers rs.. Peop People le have have the the cognitive capacity to regulate and control their own thoughts, feelings, motivation, and actions. Social cognitive theory emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in regulating people’s behavior. According to social cognit cognitive ive theory theory,, human human behavi behavior or can best best be explai explained ned throug through h a system system of triadi triadic c recipr reciproca ocall causat causation ion in which which person personal al facto factors rs and environmental factors work together and interact to influence people’s
10
behavior. In addition, people’s behavior also influences personal factors and the enviro environme nment. nt. Accord According ing to Albert Albert Bandur Bandura, a, social social cognit cognitive ive theory theory involves involves three components: components: modelling modelling,, self-effica self-efficacy, cy, and selfregulation.
Modeling Modeling is the process of imitating the behaviour of others. At times, workers learn to behave in a certain fashion through modeling or the process of imitating behavior they observe. Thus, an aspiring executive might seek to dress the way the CEO does, or a junior clerk might even smoke a certain brand of cigar if upper level managers do. When the observed behavior results in positive consequences, then the observer is likely to imitate the behavior and to expect similar consequences when the behavior is learned. In general, dynamic, successful people are more often used as models than boring, unsuccessful individuals.
Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy ref refers ers to beli belief efs s peop peoplle have ave abou aboutt thei theirr abil abilit ity y to successfully perform a specific task. It is a cognitive belief that is task specific and is the result of four sources of information: experience performing
the
task;
observation;
verbal
persuasion
and
encouragem encouragement; ent; and physiologica physiologicall state. state. Self-effi Self-efficacy cacy influences influences the acti activ vitie ities s peopl eople e cho choose ose to perfo erform rm,, the the amo amount unt of effor ffortt and persistence devoted to a task, affective and stress reactions, and job performance.
Self-Regulation When employees use learning principles to manage their own behavior, they they
are are
prac practi tici cing ng
self self-r -reg egul ulat atio ion. n.
Self Self-r -reg egul ulat atio ion n
invo involv lves es
self self
11
observatio observation, n, observatio observation n of others, others, goal setting, setting, rehearsal, rehearsal, and selfreinforcement. A key part of the process is self-set goals that guide people people’s ’s behavi behavior. or. When When there there exists exists a discre discrepan pancy cy betwee between n one’s one’s goal goals s and and perf perfor orma manc nce, e, indi indivi vidu dual als s are are moti motiva vate ted d to modi modify fy thei their r beha behavi vior or in the the purs pursui uitt of goal goal atta attain inme ment nt,, a proc proces ess s know known n as discre discrepan pancy cy reduct reduction ion.. When When indivi individua duals ls attain attain their their goals, goals, they they are likely to set even higher and more challenging goals, a process known as discrepancy production. In this way, people continually engage in a pro process cess of sett settin ing g goal oals in the the pur pursuit suit of ever ever high igher lev levels els of performance. Thus, discrepancy reduction and discrepancy production lie at the heart of the self-regulatory process. Self regulation has been found to improve learning, attendance, and job performance.
Organizational Learning Practices Organi Organizat zation ions s emplo employ y a number number of practi practices ces to enhanc enhance e employ employee ee learning. These practices include organizational behavior modification, empl employ oyee ee
reco recogn gnit itio ion n
prog progra rams ms,,
trai traini ning ng prog progra rams ms,,
and and
care career er
development.
Organizational Behavior Modification Organi Organizat zation ional al
behavi behavior or
modif modifica icatio tion n
(O.B.
Mod.)
involves
the
syste systema mati tic c use use of lear learni ning ng prin princi cipl ples es to infl influe uenc nce e orga organi niza zati tion onal al behavior. For example, in one study the use of a slide show illustrating safe, versus unsafe practices resulted in an immediate improvement. When the rein forcers were w ere terminated, however, the percentage of safe practices returned to the old level. The effects of O.B. Modification on task performance tend to be stronger in manufacturing than in service organizations. As well, money, feedback, and social recognition have all been found to be effective forms of positive reinforcement. Although money has been found to have stronger effects on performance than
12
feedback and social recognition, the use of all three together has the strongest effect on task performance.
Employee Recognition Programs Employee recognition programs are formal organizational programs that publicly publicly recognize recognize and reward reward employees employees for specific specific behaviors. behaviors. To be effective, a formal employee recognition program must specify (a) how a person will be recognized, (b) the type of behavior being encouraged, (c) the manner manner of the public acknowledgeme acknowledgement, nt, and (d) a token or icon of the event for the recipient.
Training Programs Training refers to planned organizational activities that are designed to facil facilit itat ate e know knowle ledg dge e and and skil skilll acqu acquisi isiti tion on to chan change ge beha behavi vior ors s and and impr improv ove e perf perfor orma manc nce. e. One One of the the most most wide widely ly used used and and effe effect ctiv ive e methods of training is behavior modelling training (BMT) which is based on the model modellin ling g compon component ent of social social cognit cognitive ive theory theory.. Behavi Behaviour oural al mode modell llin ing g trai traini ning ng has has a posi positi tive ve effe effect ct on lear learni ning ng,, skill skills, s, and and job job behavior and the effects are greatest when trainees are instructed to set goals and when rewards and sanctions are used in the trainees’ work environment.
Career Development Career Career developme development nt is an ongo ongoin ing g proc proces ess s in whic which h indi indivi vidu dual als s progress through a series of stages that consist of a unique set of issues, themes, and tasks. This usually involves a career planning and care career er
mana manage geme ment nt
comp compon onen ent. t.
Care Career er
plan planni ning ng
invo involv lves es
the the
assessment of an individual’s interests, skills, and abilities in order to develop goals and career plans. Career management involves taking
13
the necessary steps that are required to achieve an individual’s goals and career plans.
14
