FIRST DIVISION [G.R. No. 47800. December 2, 1940.] MAXIMO A!A!ANG, Petitioner , Petitioner , ". A. D. #I!!IAMS, $T A!., Respondents. Respondents. M%&'mo %(%(%)* ') +' o-) be+%(. So('c'/or Ge)er%( O%e/% %) A'/%)/ So('c'/or Ge)er%( Am%ro or reo)e)/ #'(('%m, Fr%*%)/e %) 3%%) '/ F'c%( M%b%)%* or /+e o/+er reo)e)/. S5!!A36S
1. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW; CONSTITUTIONALITY OF COMMONWEALTH ACT No. 648; DELEGATION DELEGATION OF LEGISLA LEGISL ATIVE POWER; AUTHORITY OF DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC WORKS AND SECRETARY OF PUBLIC WORKS AND COMMUNICATIONS TO PROMULGATE RULES AND REGULATIONS. — T! "#o$%&%o'& o( &!)*%o' 1 o( Co++o',!-* A)* No. 648 /o 'o* )o'(!# !0%&-*%$! "o,!# "o' *! D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ *! S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'&. T! -*o#%* *!#!%' )o'(!##!/ "o' *!+ -'/ '/!# ,%) *! "#o+0-*!/ *! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& 'o, )o+"-%'!/ o( %& 'o* *o /!*!#+%'! ,-* "2%) "o%) /!+-'/& 2* +!#! *o )-## o* *! !0%&-*%$! "o%) -%/ /o,' 2 2 *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2 %' &-%/ A)*5 *o ,%*5 *o "#o+o*! &-(! *#-'&%* "o'5 -'/ -$o%/ o2&*#)*%o'& o'5 #o-/& -'/ &*#!!*& /!&%0'-*!/ -& '-*%o'- #o-/& 2 -)*& o( *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2 o# 2 !7!)*%$! o#/!#& o( *! P#!&%/!'* o( *! P%%""%'!& -'/ *o )o&! *!+ *!+"o#-#% *o -' o# - )-&&!& o( *#-) ,!'!$!# *! )o'/%*%o' o( *! #o-/ o# *! *#-) *!#!o' +-3!& &) -)*%o' '!)!&&-# o# -/$%&-2! %' *! "2%) )o'$!'%!')! -'/ %'*!#!&*. T! /!!0-*!/ "o,!#5 %( -* -5 *!#!(o#!5 %& 'o* *! /!*!#+%'-*%o' /! *!#+%'-*%o' o( ,-* *! -, &- 2!5 2* +!#! *! -&)!#*-%'+!'* o( *! (-)*& -'/ )%#)+&*-')!& "o' ,%) *! -""%)-*%o' o( &-%/ -, %& *o 2! "#!/%)-*!/. To To "#o+0-*! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& o' *! &! o( '-*%o'- #o-/& -'/ *o /!*!#+%'! ,!' -'/ o, o'0 - '-*%o'- #o-/ &o/ 2! )o&!/ *o *#-)5 %' $%!, o( *! )o'/%*%o' o( *! #o-/ o# *! *#-) *!#!o' -'/ *! #!9%#!+!'*& o( "2%) )o'$!'%!')! -'/ %'*!#!&*5 %& -' -/+%'%&*#-*%$! (')*%o' ,%) )-''o* 2! /%#!)* /%&)-#0!/ 2 *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2. A&&!+2. I* +&* /!"!'/ o' *! /%&)#!*%o' o( &o+! o*!# 0o$!#'+!'* o)%- *o ,o+ %& )o':/!/ *! /* o( /!*!#+%'%'0 ,!*!# *! "#o"!# o))-&%o' !7%&*& (o# !7!)*%'0 *! -,. -,. B* %* )-''o* 2! &-%/ *-* *! !7!#)%&! !7!#)%&! o( &) /%&)#!*%o' %& *! +-3%'0 o( *! -,. . ID.; ID.; POLICE POWER; POWE R; PERSONAL PERSO NAL LIBERTY; GOVERNMENTAL AUTHORITY. AUTHORITY. — Co++o',!-* A)* No. <48 ,-& "-&&!/ 2 *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2 %' *! !7!#)%&! o( *! "-#-+o'* "o%)! "o,!# o( *! &*-*!. S-%/ A)*5 2 $%#*! o( ,%) *! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& )o+"-%'!/ o( ,!#! "#o+0-*!/5 -%+& *o "#o+o*! &-(! *#-'&%* "o' -'/ -$o%/ o2&*#)*%o'& o' '-*%o'- #o-/&5 %' *! %'*!#!&* -'/ )o'$!'%!')! o( *! "2%). I' !'-)*%'0 &-%/ -,5 *!#!(o#!5 * !#!(o#!5 *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2 ,-& "#o+"*!/ 2 )o'&%/!#-*%o'& o( "2%) )o'$!'%!')! -'/ ,!(-#!. I* ,-& %'&"%#!/ 2 - /!&%#! *o
#!%!$! )o'0!&*%o' o( *#-)5 ,%) %&5 *o &- *! !-&*5 - +!'-)! *o "2%) &-(!*. P2%) ,!(-#!5 *!'5 %!& -* *! 2o**o+ o( *! !'-)*+!'* o( &-%/ -,5 -'/ *! &*-*! %' o#/!# *o "#o+o*! *! 0!'!#- ,!(-#! +- %'*!#(!#! ,%* "!#&o'- %2!#*5 ,%* "#o"!#*5 -'/ ,%* 2&%'!&& -'/ o))"-*%o'&. P!#&o'& -'/ "#o"!#* +- 2! &2=!)*!/ *o - 3%'/& o( #!&*#-%'*& -'/ 2#/!'&5 %' o#/!# *o &!)#! *! 0!'!#- )o+(o#*5 !-*5 -'/ "#o&"!#%* o( *! &*-*! >U.S. $. Go+!# ?!&&5 @1 P%.5 18. To *%& ('/-+!'*- -%+ o( o# Go$!#'+!'* *! #%0*& o( *! %'/%$%/- -#! &2o#/%'-*!/. L%2!#* %& - 2!&&%'0 ,%*o* ,%) %(! %& - +%&!#5 2* %2!#* &o/ 'o* 2! +-/! *o "#!$-% o$!# -*o#%* 2!)-&! *!' &o)%!* ,% (- %'*o -'-#). N!%*!# &o/ -*o#%* 2! +-/! *o "#!$-% o$!# %2!#* 2!)-&! *!' *! %'/%$%/- ,% (- %'*o &-$!#. T! )%*%!' &o/ -)%!$! *! #!9%#!/ 2--')! o( %2!#* -'/ -*o#%* %' %& +%'/ *#o0 !/)-*%o' -'/5 "!#&o'- /%&)%"%'!5 &o *-* *!#! +- 2! !&*-2%&!/ *! #!&*-'* !9%%2#%+5 ,%) +!-'& "!-)! -'/ o#/!# -'/ -""%'!&& (o# -. T! +o+!'* 0#!-*!# -*o#%* %& )o'(!##!/ "o' *! 0o$!#'+!'*5 o0%)- &o +) %& ,%*/#-,' (#o+ *! #!&%/+ o( %2!#* ,%) #!&%/!& %' *! "!o"!. T! "-#-/o7 %!& %' *! (-)* *-* *! -""-#!'* )#*-%+!'* o( %2!#* %& "#!)%&! *! $!# +!-'& o( %'&#%'0 %*& "#!&!#$-*%o'. @. ID.; ID.; SOCIAL ?USTICE. — So)%- =&*%)! %& '!%*!# )o++'%&+5 'o# /!&"o*%&+5 'o# -*o+%&+5 'o# -'-#)5 2* *! +-'%-*%o' o( -,& -'/ *! !9-%-*%o' o( &o)%- -'/ !)o'o+%) (o#)!& 2 *! S*-*! &o *-* =&*%)! %' %*& #-*%o'- -'/ o2=!)*%$! &!)-# )o')!"*%o' +- -* !-&* 2! -""#o7%+-*!/. So)%- =&*%)! +!-'& *! "#o+o*%o' o( *! ,!(-#! o( - *! "!o"!5 *! -/o"*%o' 2 *! Go$!#'+!'* o( +!-&#!& )-)-*!/ *o %'&#! !)o'o+%) &*-2%%* o( - *! )o+"!*!'* !!+!'*& o( &o)%!*5 *#o0 *! +-%'*!'-')! o( - "#o"!# !)o'o+%) -'/ &o)%- !9%%2#%+ %' *! %'*!##!-*%o'& o( *! +!+2!#& o( *! )o++'%*5 )o'&*%**%o'-5 *#o0 *! -/o"*%o' o( +!-&#!& !0- =&*%:-2!5 o# !7*#-)o'&*%**%o'-5 *#o0 *! !7!#)%&! o( "o,!#& '/!#%'0 *! !7%&*!')! o( - 0o$!#'+!'*& o' *! *%+!o'o#!/ "#%')%"! o( &-& "o"% !&* &"#!+- !7. So)%- =&*%)!5 *!#!(o#!5 +&* 2! (o'/!/ o' *! #!)o0'%*%o' o( *! '!)!&&%* o( %'*!#/!"!'/!')! -+o'0 /%$!#& -'/ /%$!#&! '%*& o( - &o)%!* -'/ o( *! "#o*!)*%o' *-* &o/ 2! !9- -'/ !$!' !7*!'/!/ *o - 0#o"& -& - )o+2%'!/ (o#)! %' o# &o)%- -'/ !)o'o+%) %(!5 )o'&%&*!'* ,%* *! ('/-+!'*- -'/ "-#-+o'* o2=!)*%$! o( *! &*-*! o( "#o+o*%'0 *! !-*5 )o+(o#*5 -'/ 9%!* o( - "!#&o'&5 -'/ o( 2#%'0%'0 -2o* *! 0#!-*!&* 0oo/ *o *! 0#!-*!&* '+2!#.
DECISION LAUREL, J.:
M-7%+o C---'05 %' %& )-"-)%* -& - "#%$-*! )%*%!' -'/ -& - *-7"-!# o( M-'%-5 2#o0* 2!(o#! *%& )o#* *%& "!*%*%o' (o# - ,#%* o( "#o%2%*%o' -0-%'&* *! #!&"o'/!'*&5 A. D. W%%-+&5 -& C-%#+-' o( *! N-*%o'- T#-) Co++%&&%o'; V%)!'*! F#-0-'*!5 -& D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3&; S!#0%o B--'5 -& A)*%'0 S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'&; Eo0%o Ro/#%0!5 -& M-o# o( *! C%* o( M-'%-; -'/ ?-' Do+%'0!5 -& A)*%'0 C%!( o( Po%)! o( M-'%-. I* %& -!0!/ %' *! "!*%*%o' *-* *! N-*%o'- T#-) Co++%&&%o'5 %' %*& #!&o*%o' o(
? 15 145 #!&o$!/ *o #!)o++!'/ *o *! D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ *o *! S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'& *-* -'%+-/#-,' $!%)!& 2! "#o%2%*!/ (#o+ "-&&%'0 -o'0 Ro&-#%o S*#!!* !7*!'/%'0 (#o+ P-- C-/!#o' /! B-#)- *o D-&+-#%-& S*#!!*5 (#o+ @ -.+. *o 1@ ".+. -'/ (#o+ 1@ ".+. *o <@ ".+.; -'/ -o'0 R%- A$!'! !7*!'/%'0 (#o+ *! #-%#o-/ )#o&&%'0 -* A'*%"oo S*#!!* *o E)-0! S*#!!*5 (#o+ -.+. *o 11 ".+.5 (#o+ - "!#%o/ o( o'! !-# (#o+ *! /-*! o( *! o"!'%'0 o( *! Co0-'*! B#%/0! *o *#-); *-* *! C-%#+-' o( *! N-*%o'- T#-) Co++%&&%o'5 o' ? 185 14 #!)o++!'/!/ *o *! D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3& *! -/o"*%o' o( *! +!-&#! "#o"o&!/ %' *! #!&o*%o' -(o#!+!'*%o'!/5 %' "#&-')! o( *! "#o$%&%o'& o( Co++o',!-* A)* No. <48 ,%) -*o#%!& &-%/ D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3&5 ,%* *! -""#o$- o( *! S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'&5 *o "#o+0-*! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& *o #!0-*! -'/ )o'*#o *! &! o( -'/ *#-) o' '-*%o'- #o-/&; *-* o' A0&* 5 145 *! D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3&5 %' %& :#&* %'/o#&!+!'* *o *! S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'&5 #!)o++!'/!/ *o *! -**!# *! -""#o$- o( *! #!)o++!'/-*%o' +-/! 2 *! C-%#+-' o( *! N-*%o'- T#-) Co++%&&%o' -& -(o#!&-%/5 ,%* *! +o/%:)-*%o' *-* *! )o&%'0 o( R%- A$!'! *o *#-) *o -'%+-/#-,' $!%)!& 2! %+%*!/ *o *! "o#*%o' *!#!o( !7*!'/%'0 (#o+ *! #-%#o-/ )#o&&%'0 -* A'*%"oo S*#!!* *o A)-##-0- S*#!!*; *-* o' A0&* 15 145 *! S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'&5 %' %& &!)o'/ %'/o#&!+!'* -//#!&&!/ *o *! D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3&5 -""#o$!/ *! #!)o++!'/-*%o' o( *! -**!# *-* Ro&-#%o S*#!!* -'/ R%- A$!'! 2! )o&!/ *o *#-) o( -'%+-/#-,' $!%)!&5 2!*,!!' *! "o%'*& -'/ /#%'0 *! o#& -& -2o$! %'/%)-*!/5 (o# - "!#%o/ o( o'! !-# (#o+ *! /-*! o( *! o"!'%'0 o( *! Co0-'*! B#%/0! *o *#-); *-* *! M-o# o( M-'%- -'/ *! A)*%'0 C%!( o( Po%)! o( M-'%- -$! !'(o#)!/ -'/ )-&!/ *o 2! !'(o#)!/ *! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& *& -/o"*!/; *-* -& - )o'&!9!')! o( &) !'(o#)!+!'*5 - -'%+-/#-,' $!%)!& -#! 'o* -o,!/ *o "-&& -'/ "%)3 " "-&&!'0!#& %' *! "-)!& -2o$! +!'*%o'!/ *o *! /!*#%+!'* 'o* o' o( *!%# o,'!#& 2* o( *! #%/%'0 "2%) -& ,!. I* %& )o'*!'/!/ 2 *! "!*%*%o'!# *-* Co++o',!-* A)* No. <48 2 ,%) *! D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3&5 ,%* *! -""#o$- o( *! S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'&5 %& -*o#%!/ *o "#o+0-*! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& (o# *! #!0-*%o' -'/ )o'*#o o( *! &! o( -'/ *#-) o' '-*%o'- #o-/& -'/ &*#!!*& %& ')o'&*%**%o'- 2!)-&! %* )o'&*%**!& -' '/! /!!0-*%o' o( !0%&-*%$! "o,!#. T%& )o'*!'*%o' %& '*!'-2!. A& ,-& o2&!#$!/ 2 *%& )o#* %' R2% $. P#o$%')%- Bo-#/ o( M%'/o#o >@ P%5 665 5 T! #! -& 'o,!#! 2!!' 2!**!# &*-*!/ *-' %' *! !-# O%o )-&! /!)%/!/ 2 ?/0! R-''!5 -'/ &%')! (oo,!/ %' - +*%*/! o( )-&!&5 '-+! T! *#! /%&*%')*%o' *!#!(o#! %& 2!*,!!' *! /!!0-*%o' o( "o,!# *o +-3! *! -,5 ,%) '!)!&&-#% %'$o$!& - /%&)#!*%o' -& *o ,-* %* &- 2!5 -'/ )o'(!##%'0 -' -*o#%* o# /%&)#!*%o' -& *o %*& !7!)*%o'5 *o 2! !7!#)%&!/ '/!# -'/ %' "#&-')! o( *! -,. T! :#&* )-''o* 2! /o'!; *o *! -**!# 'o $-%/ o2=!)*%o' )-' 2! +-/!. >C%')%''-*%5 W. J . R. Co. $. Co++#&. C%'*o' Co'*5 1 O%o S*.5 88. D%&)#!*%o'5 -& !/ 2 C%!( ?&*%)! M-#&- %' W-+-' $. So*-#/ >1 W!-*.5 1 +- 2! )o++%**!/ 2 *! L!0%&-*#! *o -' !7!)*%$! /!"-#*+!'* o# o)%-. T! L!0%&-*#! +- +-3! /!)%&%o'& o( !7!)*%$! /!"-#*+!'*& o# &2o#/%'-*! o)%-& *!#!o(5 *o ,o+ %* -& )o++%**!/ *! !7!)*%o' o( )!#*-%' -)*&5 :'- o' 9!&*%o'& o( (-)*. >U.S. $. K%'3!-/5 48 F!/.5 141. T! 0#o,%'0 *!'/!') %' *! /!)%&%o'& %& *o 0%$! "#o+%'!')! *o *! '!)!&&%* o( *! )-&!.)#--, $%#*-1-, %2#-# S!)*%o' 1 o( Co++o',!-* A)* No. <48 #!-/& -& (oo,&=0))-'#o2!&.)o+."
SECTION 1. To "#o+o*! &-(! *#-'&%* "o'5 -'/ -$o%/ o2&*#)*%o'& o'5 #o-/& -'/ &*#!!*& /!&%0'-*!/ -& '-*%o'- #o-/& 2 -)*& o( *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2 o# 2 !7!)*%$! o#/!#& o( *! P#!&%/!'* o( *! P%%""%'!&5 *! D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3&5 ,%* *! -""#o$- o( *! S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'&5 &- "#o+0-*! *! '!)!&&-# #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& *o #!0-*! -'/ )o'*#o *! &! o( -'/ *#-) o' &) #o-/& -'/ &*#!!*&. S) #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'&5 ,%* *! -""#o$- o( *! P#!&%/!'*5 +- )o'*-%' "#o$%&%o'& )o'*#o%'0 o# #!0-*%'0 *! )o'&*#)*%o' o( 2%/%'0& o# o*!# &*#)*#!& ,%*%' - #!-&o'-2! /%&*-')! (#o+ -o'0 *! '-*%o'- #o-/&. S) #o-/& +- 2! *!+"o#-#% )o&!/ *o -' o# - )-&&!& o( *#-) 2 *! D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ %& / -*o#%!/ #!"#!&!'*-*%$!& ,!'!$!# *! )o'/%*%o' o( *! #o-/ o# *! *#-) *!#!o' +-3!& &) -)*%o' '!)!&&-# o# -/$%&-2! %' *! "2%) )o'$!'%!')! -'/ %'*!#!&*5 o# (o# - &"!)%:!/ "!#%o/5 ,%* *! -""#o$- o( *! S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'&.)#--, $%#*-1-, %2#-# T! -2o$! "#o$%&%o'& o( -, /o 'o* )o'(!# !0%&-*%$! "o,!# "o' *! D%#!)*o# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ *! S!)#!*-# o( P2%) Wo#3& -'/ Co++'%)-*%o'&. T! -*o#%* *!#!%' )o'(!##!/ "o' *!+ -'/ '/!# ,%) *! "#o+0-*!/ *! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& 'o, )o+"-%'!/ o( %& 'o* *o /!*!#+%'! ,-* "2%) "o%) /!+-'/& 2* +!#! *o )-## o* *! !0%&-*%$! "o%) -%/ /o,' 2 *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2 %' &-%/ A)*5 *o ,%*5 *o "#o+o*! &-(! *#-'&%* "o' -'/ -$o%/ o2&*#)*%o'& o'5 #o-/& -'/ &*#!!*& /!&%0'-*!/ -& '-*%o'- #o-/& 2 -)*& o( *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2 o# 2 !7!)*%$! o#/!#& o( *! P#!&%/!'* o( *! P%%""%'!& -'/ *o )o&! *!+ *!+"o#-#% *o -' o# - )-&&!& o( *#-) ,!'!$!# *! )o'/%*%o' o( *! #o-/ o# *! *#-) +-3!& &) -)*%o' '!)!&&-# o# -/$%&-2! %' *! "2%) )o'$!'%!')! -'/ %'*!#!&*. T! /!!0-*!/ "o,!#5 %( -* -5 *!#!(o#!5 %& 'o* *! /!*!#+%'-*%o' o( ,-* *! -, &- 2!5 2* +!#! *! -&)!#*-%'+!'* o( *! (-)*& -'/ )%#)+&*-')!& "o' ,%) *! -""%)-*%o' o( &-%/ -, %& *o 2! "#!/%)-*!/. To "#o+0-*! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& o' *! &! o( '-*%o'- #o-/& -'/ *o /!*!#+%'! ,!' -'/ o, o'0 - '-*%o'- #o-/ &o/ 2! )o&!/ *o *#-)5 %' $%!, o( *! )o'/%*%o' o( *! #o-/ o# *! *#-) *!#!o' -'/ *! #!9%#!+!'*& o( "2%) )o'$!'%!')! -'/ %'*!#!&*5 %& -' -/+%'%&*#-*%$! (')*%o' ,%) )-''o* 2! /%#!)* /%&)-#0!/ 2 *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2. I* +&* /!"!'/ o' *! /%&)#!*%o' o( &o+! o*!# 0o$!#'+!'* o)%- *o ,o+ %& )o':/!/ *! /* o( /!*!#+%'%'0 ,!*!# *! "#o"!# o))-&%o' !7%&*& (o# !7!)*%'0 *! -,. B* %* )-''o* 2! &-%/ *-* *! !7!#)%&! o( &) /%&)#!*%o' %& *! +-3%'0 o( *! -,. A& ,-& &-%/ %' Lo)3!& A""!- > P-. 41 To -&&!#* *-* - -, %& !&& *-' - -,5 2!)-&! %* %& +-/! *o /!"!'/ o' - (*#! !$!'* o# -)*5 %& *o #o2 *! L!0%&-*#! o( *! "o,!# *o -)* ,%&! (o# *! "2%) ,!(-#! ,!'!$!# - -, %& "-&&!/ #!-*%'0 *o - &*-*! o( --%#& 'o* !* /!$!o"!/5 o# *o *%'0& (*#! -'/ %+"o&&%2! *o ( 3'o,. T! "#o"!# /%&*%')*%o' *! )o#* &-%/ ,-& *%& T! L!0%&-*#! )-''o* /!!0-*! %*& "o,!# *o +-3! *! -,; 2* %* )-' +-3! - -, *o /!!0-*! - "o,!# *o /!*!#+%'! &o+! (-)* o# &*-*! o( *%'0& "o' ,%) *! -, +-3!&5 o# %'*!'/& *o +-3!5 %*& o,' -)*%o' /!"!'/. To /!' *%& ,o/ 2! *o &*o" *! ,!!& o( 0o$!#'+!'*. T!#! -#! +-' *%'0& "o' ,%) ,%&! -'/ &!( !0%&-*%o' +&* /!"!'/ ,%) )-''o* 2! 3'o,' *o *! -,+-3%'0 "o,!#5 -'/5 +&*5 *!#!(o#!5 2! - &2=!)* o( %'9%# -'/ /!*!#+%'-*%o' o*&%/! o( *! -& o( !0%&-*%o'. >F%!/ $. C-#35 14@ U. S. 645 64; @6 L. E/. 4. I' *! )-&! o( P!o"! $. Ro&!'*- -'/ O&+!-5 G.R. No&. 466 -'/ 465
"#o+0-*!/ ?'! 15 1@5 -'/ %' P-'0-&%'-' T#-'&"o#*-*%o' $. T! P2%) S!#$%)! Co++%&&%o'5 G.R. No. 46<5 "#o+0-*!/ ?'! 65 145 *%& Co#* -/ o))-&%o' *o o2&!#$! *-* *! "#%')%"! o( &!"-#-*%o' o( "o,!#& -& 2!!' +-/! *o -/-"* %*&!( *o *! )o+"!7%*%!& o( +o/!#' 0o$!#'+!'*&5 0%$%'0 #%&! *o *! -/o"*%o'5 ,%*%' )!#*-%' %+%*&5 o( *! "#%')%"! o( &2o#/%'-*! !0%&-*%o'5 'o* o' %' *! U'%*!/ S*-*!& -'/ E'0-'/ 2* %' "#-)*%)- - +o/!#' 0o$!#'+!'*&. A))o#/%'05 ,%* *! 0#o,%'0 )o+"!7%* o( +o/!#' %(!5 *! +*%"%)-*%o' o( *! &2=!)*& o( 0o$!#'+!'*- #!0-*%o'&5 -'/ *! %')#!-&!/ /%)* o( -/+%'%&*!#%'0 *! -,&5 *! #%0%/%* o( *! *!o# o( &!"-#-*%o' o( 0o$!#'+!'*- "o,!#& -&5 *o - -#0! !7*!'*5 2!!' #!-7!/ 2 "!#+%**%'0 *! /!!0-*%o' o( 0#!-*!# "o,!#& 2 *! !0%&-*%$! -'/ $!&*%'0 - -#0!# -+o'* o( /%&)#!*%o' %' -/+%'%&*#-*%$! -'/ !7!)*%$! o)%-&5 'o* o' %' *! !7!)*%o' o( *! -,&5 2* -&o %' *! "#o+0-*%o' o( )!#*-%' #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& )-)-*!/ *o "#o+o*! "2%) %'*!#!&*. T! "!*%*%o'!# (#*!# )o'*!'/& *-* *! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& "#o+0-*!/ 2 *! #!&"o'/!'*& "#&-'* *o *! "#o$%&%o'& o( Co++o',!-* A)* No. <48 )o'&*%**! -' '-,( %'*!#(!#!')! ,%* !0%*%+-*! 2&%'!&& o# *#-/! -'/ -2#%/0! *! #%0* *o "!#&o'- %2!#* -'/ (#!!/o+ o( o)o+o*%o'. Co++o',!-* A)* No. <48 ,-& "-&&!/ 2 *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2 %' *! !7!#)%&! o( *! "-#-+o'* "o%)! "o,!# o( *! &*-*!. S-%/ A)*5 2 $%#*! o( ,%) *! #!& -'/ #!0-*%o'& )o+"-%'!/ o( ,!#! "#o+0-*!/5 -%+& *o "#o+o*! &-(! *#-'&%* "o' -'/ -$o%/ o2&*#)*%o'& o' '-*%o'- #o-/&5 %' *! %'*!#!&* -'/ )o'$!'%!')! o( *! "2%). I' !'-)*%'0 &-%/ -,5 *!#!(o#!5 *! N-*%o'- A&&!+2 ,-& "#o+"*!/ 2 )o'&%/!#-*%o'& o( "2%) )o'$!'%!')! -'/ ,!(-#!. I* ,-& %'&"%#!/ 2 - /!&%#! *o #!%!$! )o'0!&*%o' o( *#-). ,%) %&5 *o &- *! !-&*5 - +!'-)! *o "2%) &-(!*. P2%) ,!(-#!5 *!'5 %!& -* *! 2o**o+ o( *! !'-)*+!'* o( &-%/ -,5 -'/ *! &*-*! %' o#/!# *o "#o+o*! *! 0!'!#- ,!(-#! +- %'*!#(!#! ,%* "!#&o'- %2!#*5 ,%* "#o"!#*5 -'/ ,%* 2&%'!&& -'/ o))"-*%o'&. P!#&o'& -'/ "#o"!#* +- 2! &2=!)*!/ *o - 3%'/& o( #!&*#-%'*& -'/ 2#/!'&5 %' o#/!# *o &!)#! *! 0!'!#- )o+(o#*5 !-*5 -'/ "#o&"!#%* o( *! &*-*! >U.S. $. Go+! ?!&&5 @1 P%.5 18. To *%& ('/-+!'*- -%+ o( o# Go$!#'+!'* *! #%0*& o( *! %'/%$%/- -#! &2o#/%'-*!/. L%2!#* %& - 2!&&%'0 ,%*o* ,%) %(! %& +%&!#5 2* %2!#* &o/ 'o* 2! +-/! *o "#!$-% o$!# -*o#%* 2!)-&! *!' &o)%!* ,% (- %'*o -'-#). N!%*!# &o/ -*o#%* 2! +-/! *o "#!$-% o$!# %2!#* 2!)-&! *!' *! %'/%$%/- ,% (- %'*o &-$!#. T! )%*%!' &o/ -)%!$! *! #!9%#!/ 2--')! o( %2!#* -'/ -*o#%* %' %& +%'/ *#o0 !/)-*%o' -'/ "!#&o'- /%&)%"%'!5 &o *-* *!#! +- 2! !&*-2%&!/ *! #!&*-'* !9%%2#%+5 ,%) +!-'& "!-)! -'/ o#/!# -'/ -""%'!&& (o# -. T! +o+!'* 0#!-*!# -*o#%* %& )o'(!##!/ "o' *! 0o$!#'+!'*5 o0%)- &o +) %& ,%*/#-,' (#o+ *! #!&%/+ o( %2!#* ,%) #!&%/!& %' *! "!o"!. T! "-#-/o7 %!& %' *! (-)* *-* *! -""-#!'* )#*-%+!'* o( %2!#* %& "#!)%&! *! $!# +!-'& o( %'&#%'0 %*& "#!&!#$-*%o'. T! &)o"! o( "o%)! "o,!# 3!!"& !7"-'/%'0 -& )%$%%-*%o' -/$-')!&. A& ,-& &-%/ %' *! )-&! o( Do22%'& $. Lo& A'0!!& >1< U.S. @5 @8; 4 L. !/. 165 *! #%0* *o !7!#)%&! *! "o%)! "o,!# %& - )o'*%'%'0 o'!5 -'/ - 2&%'!&& -,( *o/- +- %' *! (*#!5 2!)-&! o( *! )-'0!/ &%*-*%o'5 *! 0#o,* o( "o"-*%o' o# o*!# )-&!&5 2!)o+! - +!'-)! *o *! "2%) !-* -'/ ,!(-#!5 -'/ 2! #!9%#!/ *o %!/ *o *! "2%) 0oo/. A'/ %' P!o"! $. Po+-# >46 P%.5 445 %* ,-& o2&!#$!/ *-* -/$-')%'0 )%$%%-*%o' %& 2#%'0%'0 ,%*%' *! "o%)! "o,!# o( *! &*-*! *o/- *%'0&
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