LET Reviewer Biology Majorship
Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology 1 Systematics classification of organisms and the evolutionary relationships among them •
Taxonomy •
study of grouping and classification Taxon •
any named group of organisms that is sufficiently distinct to be assigned to a certain category
Levels of Classification Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species inomial system of classification by Carolus Linnaeus use of Genus and Species o ma!e up the scientific name o first letter of the genus is al"ays capitali#ed$ "hile the species name starts "ith a small letter% &t should be in italics 'underlining the genus and species means it is in italics( )xample* Homo sapiens Mus musculus Common name less precise could refer to more than one organism • •
• •
Six !ingdom scheme +chaebacteria pro!aryotic '"ithout true nucleus( extremophiles no peptidoglycan in the cell "all classification • • • •
Group Thermophile .ethanogen -alophile +cidophiles
Characteristic -eat loving ,elease methane as by product Salt loving +cid loving
)ubacteria •
true bacteria
,epresentativespecies Thermus aquaticus Methanobacterium Halobacterium Ferroplasma acidarmanus
• • •
Group Coccus acillus Spiral
pro!aryotic '"ithout true nucleus( "ith peptidoglycan in the cell "all classification 'based on shape( Shape ,epresentativespecies ,ound Staphylococcus ,od Streptobacilli T"isted Spirillum
Classification 0iplococci Streptococci Tetrad Sarcinae Staphylococci
Characteristic/s T"o cocci Chain of cocci Four '1( cocci2 division in t"o '3( planes )ight '4( cocci$ Cube li!e arrangement2 division in three '5( planes Clusters of cocci
Protista eu!aryotic '"ith true nucleus( "ith plant$ animal and fungus li!e characteristics unicellular eu!aryotes Fungus li!e Protists Phylum Characteristics ,epresentativespecies 6ater .olds Found in damp environments Phytophthora infestans Slime .olds lac! chitin in their cell "alls Physarum polycephalum • • •
)conomicimportance Causes potato blight 0ecomposition
+nimal li!e Protists Phylum Sarcodina Ciliata
.odeo f locomotion Pseudopodia Cilia
,epresentatives pecies Amoeba Paramecium
.astigophora
Flagella
Trypanosoma
Sporo#oa
7one
Plasmodium
Plant li!e Protists Phylum 0escription ,hodophyta ,ed algae
,epresentativespecies Porphyra
Chlorophyta Phaeophyta Chrysophyta
Green algae ro"n algae yello"8green algae
Caulerpa Sargassum 0iatoms
0inoflagellates
Some are bioluminescent
Gonyaulax
)conomic importance Causes amoebiasis Plays a !ey role in the food chain of ponds Causes +frican sleeping sic!ness Causes malaria
)conomicimportance Source of nori$ an edible sea"eed Source of food -abitat for marine animals Produces the diatomaceous earth used for abrasives and filtering aids Causes red tides
Fungi • • • •
eu!aryotic '"ith true nucleus( heterotroph 'consumer( some are saprophytes 'consume decaying plants( and some are parasitic classification o #ygomycetes 'common molds( § resistant spherical spores
living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material example8blac! bread mold 'hi!opus stolonifer( basidiomycetes 'club fungi( § fungi "ith gills or pores § examples are mushrooms and brac!et fungi% ascomycetes 'sac fungi( § examples of sac fungi include morels$ truffles$ yeast deuteromycetes 'imperfect fungi( § have no sexual reproduction § examples Penicillum § §
o
o
o
Plantae • • •
eu!aryotic '"ith true nucleus( autotroph 'producer( photosynthetic Plants 7on vascular 'ryophytes( 9ascular .oss 'ryophyta( Liver"ort '-epatophyta( -orn"ort '+nthocerophyta Seedless Seeded Fern allies Fern 7on Flo"ering Flo"ering Gymnosperm +ngiosperm .onocot 0icot
Type of flo"ering plant .onocot
Type of flo"er Floral parts in multiples of 5:s Floralpartsin multiples of 1:s or ;:s
0icot
7umber of cotyledon one seed leaf T"o seed leaf
+rrangement of vascular bundles Scattered vascular bundles 9ascular bundles in rings or circular arrangement
Type of leaf venation
Type of root system
Parallel leaf veins
0iffused or fibrous
7etted leaf veins
Taproot system
+nimalia •
eu!aryotic '"ith true nucleus(
•
heterotroph 'consumer(
0ichotomous !ey determines the classification of an organism •
asic needs of plants solid 'although soil less farming called hydroponics can be done( minerals .anganese$ #inc$ iron$ boron$ copper$ nic!el$ molybdenum and chlorine Sulfur$ phosphorus$ carbon$ hydrogen$ oxygen$ nitrogen$ potassium$ calcium and .agnesium air 'CO3( "ater light • •
• • •
Some benefits of plants Food Shelter Source of oxygen for other organisms Phytoremediation8help in the brea!do"n or reduce the concentration of pollutants in the environment • • • •
asic needs of animals food "ater air 'O3( • • •
Some benefits of animals food biological regulation medicinal use • • •
Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology ! Plants ,oot • • •
anchorage and absorption protection$ support$ reproduction$ and storage 'by speciali#ed roots( root systems include taproot$ fibrous$ and adventitious o Taproot8 composed of the primary secondary and tertiary roots o Fibrous8 of an extensive mass of similarly si#ed roots o +dventitious8arise from the other parts of the plant li!e in the main branches$ t"igs and leaves
Stem • • • • • •
main support system composed of the main stem and their branches can be "ith lenticels 'serve as the breathing organ( can be "ith leaf scars and bundle scars "ith annual rings 'can estimate the age of a tree( can be speciali#ed 'ex tuber$ stolon(
Leaf • • •
serves in photosynthesis "ith stomata 'entry of CO 3 and exit of -3O vapor( can be speciali#ed 'ex tendrils$ spines(
Flo"er • • • •
reproductive structure male part is the stamen 'pollen( female part is the carpel 'ovary( develop to become the fruit
Transport •
•
7utrition by photosynthesis light •
CO3 = -3O 88888888888888> C?-@3O? = O3 Chlorophyll may be supplemented by carnivory 'usually consumption of insects( li!e in the 9enus fly trap and Pitcher plant ,eproduction pollination 'transfer of pollen to the stigma( follo"ed by fertili#ation 'union of sperm and egg( has double fertili#ation may be sexual 'using seeds( or asexual reproduction life span can be annual$ biennial or perennial •
•
• • •
+nimals 7utrition can holotrophic 'feeding on solid organic material($ saprotrophic 'feeding on soluble organic compounds obtained from dead animals and plants( or parasitic 'feeding on the organic substances present in the body of another living organism( some structures for obtaining food are tentacles$ cla"s$ teeth$ and pinchers food is ta!en into the gut or alimentary canal Food is subAected to chemical and physical digestion then absorbed •
• • •
Transport can be "ater8filled canals 'li!e in Aellyfishes( or in circulatory system 'li!e in vertebrates and certain invertebrates( •
•
circulation can be open or closed 'blood stays in the vessels(
Gas exchange can diffuse in the tracheal tubes 'li!e in insects($ s!in 'li!e coelenterates$ flat"orms and many annelids($ gills 'li!e in fishes($ and lungs 'li!e in most vertebrates( •
)xcretion and Osmoregulation !idney 'li!e in vertebrates($ malphigian tubules 'li!e in insects( •
Locomotion "ings 'in birds($ tails and fins 'in fishes and aBuatic mammals li!e dolphin and "hales( •
,eproduction may be asexual 'no gametes needed( •
Fission8 divides into t"o or more eBual8si#ed parts udding8 outgro"th develops on the parent animal that becomes a ne" individual may be sexual 'gametes needed( •
ehavioral +daptations ,eflex actions8 can happen unconsciously Learning8 adaptive change in behavior due to past experiences habituation8 subAected to repeated stimulation • • •
Principle of nity in 0iversity +ll organisms are made up of cells The continuity of life from generation to generation is explained by the presence of the genetic material% The complimentarity bet"een structure and function is true to all living forms )volutionary change is the !ey to the diversity of life% &nteraction "ith the environment Stability and homeostasis ,eproduction • •
• • • • •
Complimentarity bet"een Structure and Function a relationship bet"een the structure and function example o cell provided "ith great number of mitochondria must be a very active cell in terms of energy consumption • •
"norganic and #rganic $hemistry
.atter •
anything that has mass and occupies space
.atter Pure .ixture )lement Compound -omogenous -eterogeneous
+tom • •
• •
tiniest particles of an element have subatomic particles o proton8positive o neutron8 neutral o electron8negative has atomic number 'number of protons( has atomic mass 'number of protons and neutrons(
&sotopes • •
same atomic number but of different mass number )xample o -ydrogen8@$ -ydrogen83 and -ydrogen85 o Carbon 8@3$ Carbon8@1
&on • •
charged particles can be cations 'positively charged( or anions' negatively charged(
)lement •
composed of one type of atom that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means%
.olecules •
aggregate of at least t"o atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds
Compound composed of atoms of t"o or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions can be decomposed by chemical means into simpler substances • •
.ixture • • •
•
consist of t"o or more substances "herein their composition varies .ay be homogenous 'one phase( or heterogenous 'multiple phase( )xamples of homogenous mixture o vinegar )xamples of heterogenous mixture o Soil
Periodic Table hori#ontal ro"s called period 'indicates the number of energy levels( •
vertical column called group or family 'indicates the number of valence electrons( element in the periodic table can be metals$ metalloids or non metals Covalent bond sharing of valence electron • •
•
&onic bond formed by oppositely charged ions there is complete transfer of electron from one atom to another • •
-ydrogen bond 'in "ater( bond that exist bet"een an atom of a hydrogen in one "ater molecule and an atom of oxygen in another "ater molecule •
States of matter Solid •
molecules are closely bound to one another by molecular forces holds its shape volume of a solid is fixed by the shape of the solid% LiBuid o molecular forces are "ea!er than solid o ta!es the shape of its container o can flo" Gas o molecular forces are very "ea!% o ta!e both the shape and the volume of the container o o
o •
•
o
can flo"
Carbon • •
forms the bac!bone of biology for all life on )arth% Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded "ith other elements$ especially oxygen$ hydrogen and nitrogen 'carbon is able to bond "ith all of these because of its four valence electrons(
6ater • • • • • • •
contracts until it reaches 1 D C then it expands until it is solid% Solid "ater is less dense that liBuid "ater 'thus$ ice floats( Can be attracted to other "ater 'cohesion(% can be attracted to other materials 'adhesion(% -igh surface tension -igh boiling point 6ater has a high specific heat 'amount of heat per unit mass reBuired to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius
Chemical reactions Synthesis o + = à + 0ecomposition o C0 à C = 0 Single displacement o )F = G à )G = F 0ouble displacement •
•
•
•
o
&E =Kl à &L =KE
Biochemistry and $ell Biology iomolecules Carbohydrates o &mmediate source of energy •
o o o o
o
o
made of carbon$ hydrogen$ and oxygen atoms simplest carbohydrate formula of C-3O Can be classified as monosaccharide$ disaccharide and polysaccharide )xamples of monosaccharide § Fructose8fruit sugar § Glucose § Galactose )xamples of disaccharide § .altose 'glucose = glucose(8for ma!ing beer § Sucrose 'glucose = fructose(8table sugar § Lactose 'glucose = galactose(8mil! sugar )xamples of polysaccharide § Glycogen8storage carbohydrate of animals § Starch8storage carbohydrate of plants § Cellulose8for protection § Chitin8 polysaccharide found in the outer s!eleton of insects$ crabs$ shrimps$ lobsters and cell "all of fungi
•
Proteins o uilding bloc!s are amino acids § +mino acids may be essential 'can not be synthesi#ed by the body( Ø phenylalanine$ valine$ threonine$ tryptophan$ isoleucine$ methionine$ leucine$ and lysine '+ny -elp( "n Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly %aluable § +mino acids may be non essential 'can be synthesi#ed by the body( Ø +lanine$ +sparagine$ +spartate$ Cysteine$ Glutamate$ Glutamine$ Glycine$ Proline$ Serine$ Tyrosine$ +rginine$ -istidine § &ndividuals living "ith phenyl!etonuria 'PK( must !eep their inta!e of phenylalanine extremely lo" to prevent mental retardation and other metabolic complications% -o"ever$ phenylalanine is the precursor for tyrosine synthesis% 6ithout phenylalanine$ tyrosine cannot be made and so tyrosine becomes essential in the diet of PK patients%
o o
•
Special proteins that hastens chemical reaction is called en#ymes Protein deficiency leads to a disease called !"ashior!or 'characteri#ed by edema$ irritability$ anorexia$ ulcerating dermatoses$ and an enlarged liver(
Lipids o o
-uge storage of energy Can be phospholipid$ fats$ "axes$ oils$ steroids
§
§
§
§
Fats8glycerol = 5 fatty acids Ø unsaturated fats are liBuid at room temperature Ø unsaturated fats can be made saturated by adding hydrogen atoms 'hydrogenation( Ø saturated fats are solid at room temperature Ø Consumption of large amount of saturated fats has been associated "ith atherosclerosis% 'plaBues are deposited on the "alls of blood vessel reducing blood flo"( 6axes Ø fatty acid lin!ed to alcohol Ø more hydrophobic and serve as natural coats Ø covers of fruits and leaves of plants that appear shiny Ø Some insects have "axy coats that prevent then from drying out% Phospholipid Ø important in cellular membranes Ø T"o fatty acids are lin!ed to glycerol% + phosphate group is attached to the glycerol Steroid Ø example is cholesterol Ø The bac!bone is not an alcohol but a four8ring hydrocarbon
7ucleic acids o Storage of information o Transmit parental traits to offspring o uilding bloc!s are called nucleotide 'sugar = nitrogenous base =phosphate group( o Can be 07+ or ,7+ Criteria 07+ ,7+ Pyrimidine base Cytosine 'C( and thymine 'T( Cytosine 'C( and racil '( Purine base +denine '+( andguanine 'G( +denine '+( and guanine 'G( Sugar 0eoxyribose ,ibose Phosphate group Present Present 7umber strands of 3 @ Location 7ucleus$ mitochondrion$ chloroplast 7ucleus$ cytoplasm$ ribosomes •
,obert -oo!e discovered the cell •
Theodor Sch"ann '#oologist( and .atthias Ea!ob Schleiden 'botanist( stated that cells "ere the basic unit of life% •
,udolf 9ircho"
•
stated tat cells come from pre8existing cells
Cell theory Cells are the basic unit of life +ll organisms are composed of cells% )very living thing is either single8celled or multi8 celled% all cells arise from pre8existing cells ')xcept for the origin of life itself(% • •
•
Pro!aryote 7o true nucleus 6ith nucleoid region • •
)u!aryote 6ith true nucleus Structures Cell "all •
Plasmamembrane organelles Sub8cellular Structure in cytoplasm
Cilia and flagella Centriole 7ucleus
nucleolus
Pro!aryoticcell )u!aryoticCell Peptidoglycan "ith uniBue amino cellulose disaccharide present present 7otmembrane8bound .embrane8bound ,ibosomes ' DS( ,ibosomes '4DS( Thyla!oid )ndoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus 9acuole and vesicle
0oes not have a = 3 pattern of microtubule absent 7ucleoid'notenclosedbya membrane( &nnumerable en#ymes Chromosome 'loop of 07+( absent
Lysosome Peroxisomes .itochondrion Chloroplast cytos!eleton 6ith = 3 pattern of microtubules =Dpatternofmicrotubule 7uclear envelope surrounding nucleoplasm$ chromatin and nucleolus Concentratedareaofchromatin$ ,7+ and proteins
Cellular structures Cell membrane o For protection o )xplained by the fluid mosaic model § Phospholipid is bilayer interspersed "ith proteins § Fluid because component move throughout the membrane § mosaic because of integral proteins$ peripheral proteins$ glycoproteins$ phospholipids$ glycolipids$ and in some cases cholesterol$ lipoproteins% •
•
.itochondrion
Production of +TP )nclosed by the inner membrane is a Aelly8li!e matrix% o folds are called cristae o has its o"n 07+ Chloroplast o pigment8containing o has of small flattened sacs called thyla!oids § thyla!oids are arranged in stac!s called granum o has its o"n 07+ o o
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
,ibosome o .a!e proteins o .ay be attached 'in rough endoplasmic reticulum( or free )ndoplasmic ,eticulum o .ay be ,ough )ndoplasmic ,eticulum ',),( § Contain ribosomes § For protein synthesis § Flattened o .ay be Smooth )ndoplasmic ,eticulum 'S),( § 7o ribosomes § For lipid synthesis and detoxification § Tubular Golgi +pparatus o modifies and pac!ages materials 9acuole o Surrounded by tonoplast o For storage and osmotic regulation Lysosome o For intracellular digestion o Contain digestive en#ymes o Suicide bag of the cell o .ay destroy cellular debris$ pathogenic bacteria and fungi% .icrotubules o provides structural support and allo"s motion o has protein subunits called tubulin% 7ucleus o Control center of the cell because of the presence of genetic material o Surrounded by the nuclear membrane Flagellum/Cilia o -as =3 microtubular arrangement o For movement Centrioles o -as =D microtubular arrangement
o
•
For cellular division
7ucleolus o +ssembles r,7+
Plant and animal cell +nimal Cell .itochondria
Plant Cell
present
present 7one Hes 7o Hes One or more small vacuoles One$ large central vacuole 'much smaller than plant ta!ing up DI of cell volume% cells(%
Cell "all Plastids 9acuole ,ibosomes
Present
Present Only
+l"ays present
Centrioles
Lysosomes occur in cytoplasm% Present +bsent
Lysosomes Plasma.embrane Cell "all Chloroplast
present
in lo"er plant forms% Lysosomes usually not evident% Present Present
+bsent
7ucleus
Present
Present Present
Transport Passive •
o o
o
0oes not use +TP 'the energy currency of the cell( .ovement is through the concentration gradient 'from high concentration to lo" concentration( )xamples § 0iffusion Ø movement of particles 'atoms$ ions or molecules( from a region in "hich they are in higher concentration to regions of lo"er concentration% &t continues until the concentration of substances is uniform +pplications v Gas exchange for respiration v Gas exchange for photosynthesis Facilitated diffusion Ø movement of specific molecules do"n a concentration gradient$ using a carrier protein Osmosis Ø 0iffusion of "ater through a partially permeable membrane Ø 6ater movement in v -ypotonic environment8net "ater movement is going Ø
§
§
Ø
•
+ctive o o
o
•
inside2 animal cell burst2 plant cell turgid 'no bursting because of presence of cell "all( v -ypertonic environment8net "ater movement is leaving the cell2 cell plasmoly#ed 'shrin!( v &sotonic environment8"ater entering and exiting the cell is the same2 cell remains the same in shape +pplications v +bsorption of "ater by plant roots v ,e8absorption of "ater by the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the nephron 'basic unit of the !idney( v +bsorption of "ater by the alimentary canal
ses +TP .ovement is against the concentration gradient 'from lo" concentration to high concentration( )xample § Sodium potassium pump
ul! transport o )ndocytosis8cell membrane folds to ingest particles § Phagocytosis8Jeating: § Pinocytosis8Jdrin!ing: o )xocytosis8release of materials from the cell2 very important in "aste disposal
Cell division &nterphase G@8 The cell increases in si#e S8 07+ is synthesi#ed G38 significant protein being synthesi#ed • • •
GD8non dividing phase Through .itosis -appens in somatic cells 'all cells except the sex cells( 0aughter cells are the same "ith the parent cells Some importance of mitosis o -ealing of "ound o ,eplace of "orn out tissue • • •
o
,eplacement of s!in cells
has four phases Phase )vents Prophase Chromosome condensation Spindle formation rea!do"n of nuclear envelope .etaphase .ovement of chromosome in the eBuatorial plate 'also called metaphase •
+naphase Telophase
plate$ eBuatorial plane$ metaphase plane( Separation of sister chromatids .ovement of separated sister chromatids to opposite poles ,eformation of the nuclear envelope Cleavage furro" is prominent in animal cell Cell plate is prominent in plant cell
Through .eiosis -appens in sex cells 0aughter cells have half of the genetic materials 'haploid cell( of the parent cells Some importance of meiosis o ,estore diploid state of parent cell o Production of sperm and egg cells -as t"o divisions 'First division is called reductional phase2 Second division is called eBuational phase( • • •
•
Prophase &
.etaphase & +naphase & Telophase & Prophase && .etaphase && +naphase && Telophase &&
)vents Synapsis or pairing of the homologous Crossing8over 'recombination or physical exchange of eBual pieces of adAacent non8sister chromatids ( follo"s -omologous chromosomes align at the eBuatorial plate -omologous chromosomes separate "ith sister chromatids remaining together% T"o daughter cellsof are formed "ith each daughter cell containing only one chromosome the homologous pair 07+ does not replicate Chromosomes align at the eBuatorial plate Sister chromatids migrate separately to each pole% Cell division is complete% Four haploid daughter cells are produced%
Cyto!inesis cytoplasm divides to form t"o daughter cells happens after telophase • •
Cancer • • •
cells have uncontrolled mitosis resulting to uncontrolled gro"th division beyond the normal limits may spread to other parts of the body 'metastasis(
&enetics and E vol'tion Genetics study of heredity o -eredity is the transmission of genes from one generation to the next generation •
Gregor .endel Father of Genetics •
• •
•
used the garden pea 'Pisum sati"um( ,esults of )xperiment o First generation8 purebred tall plants "ere crossed "ith purebred short plants all the offspring "ere tall plants% o Second generation8 tall plants$ "hich "ere the progeny of the first generation$ "ere crossed "ith themselves ;I or of the resulting progeny "ere tall plants and 3;I or M of the plants "ere short .endelian La"s of Genetics o .endel La" of 0ominance § 6hen recessive genes are "ith the dominant genes $ the dominant genes are the ones expressed o La" of Segregation § states that all the genes for all the traits of an organism are eBually divided and are eBually distributed in all the resulting gametes after meiosis o La" of &ndependent +ssortment § states that alleles of different genes are distributed randomly to the gametes and fertili#ation occurs at random
7on .endelian Patterns of inheritance &ncomplete 0ominance o states that a cross bet"een homo#ygous dominant and recessive genes "ill result to a progeny of hetero#ygous genes determining an intermediate trait bet"een the dominant trait and recessive trait o )xample8,ed and "hite flo"ers produce pin! flo"ers Co8dominance o 0etectable genetic expression of t"o alleles o )xample8lood group .ultiple +llelism o + given gene can have more than t"o '3( alleles o Can only be studied in populations o )xample8+O blood group2 ombay phenotype 'a person "ith antigens for blood type +$ or + has lood type O( Sex Lin! o gene responsible for a specific trait is located on a sex chromosome o )xample8 Color blindness and hemophilia in humans •
•
•
•
Sex limited o The phenotype is the same in a specific gender regardless of the genotype o )xample Phenotype Genotype emale .ale -)en*+eathered -en8feathered •
-h hh
)en*+eathered )en*+eathered
-en8feathered Coc!8feathered
Sex influenced o -etero#ygous genotype may exhibit one phenotype one sex and the contrasting one on the other o )xample Phenotype Genotype Female .ale •
B, bb
ald -otBald 7otald
ald Bald 7otald
Chromosome Theory of &nheritance .endelian factors or genes are located on chromosomes &t is the chromosome that segregates and independently assort .endelian inheritance has its physical basis on the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles% '&n the early @DDs$ geneticists sho"ed that chromosomal movements in meiosis account for .endel:s la"s%( .organ traced a gene to a specific chromosome "hich led to the discovery that the < chromosome in #rosophila carries a gene for eye color% This supported the chromosome theory of inheritance • • •
•
.utation change in genes or chromosomes$ "hich causes a ne" trait to be inherited may be inheritable 'change occurs in the sex cells( or non heritable 'change occurs in the somatic cells( mutations may be negative 'cause of sic!ness li!e sic!le cell anemia( or positive 'cause desirable traits li!e superior intelligence( mutation possible causes 'mutagen( o radiation 'x8rays$ ultraviolet rays$ cosmic rays and radioactive substances( o chemical 'formaldehyde$ ben#ene( Types o Single gene disorders • •
•
•
•
o
o
o
§ information contained the particular aberrations gene is either changed or absent Chromosome +bnormalities orinChromosomal § Changes in number § Changes in structure .itochondrial disorders § genes in the mitochondria 'egg contains most of the mitochondrial cells( is altered .ultifactorial disorders § caused by a combination of genetic changes and environmental factors
07+ replication n#ipping o 07+ un"inds o se the en#yme helicase to un#ip •
•
Complementary base pairing o
•
nucleotides match "ith place by complementary bases § + binds "ith T and vice versa § G binds "ith C and vice versa
Eoining of adAacent nucleotides o The Aoining of the sugar/phosphate parts of adAacent nucleotide molecules causes the length of the ne" 07+ molecule to increase
Protein Synthesis Transcription •
o o
o
•
n#ipping or &nitiation Complementary base pairing § + pairs "ith § T pairs "ith + § G pairs "ith C and vice versa Eoining of adAacent nucleotides
Translation o m,7+ codons are read in the ribosomes% o o
ends thethe production of proteins% t,7+"ith carries amino acids to the ribosome2 t,7+ anticodons match "ith the codons
,egulation of Gene )xpression • •
in pro!aryotes$ control of transcriptional initiation is the maAor point of regulation in eu!aryotes the regulation of gene expression is controlled nearly eBuivalently from many different points
+pplications of Genetics Genetic )ngineering +nimal Cloning Plant Cloning 07+ Fingerprinting • • • • • •
Creation of .onoclonal +ntibodies Tissue )ngineering
enefits of iotechnology &n +griculture* &mproved crop varieties and animals in terms of Buality traits$ resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses )nhanced crop protections thru diagnostics N biodrugs for plant and animal diseases% Plants have also been engineered to produce hormones$ clotting factors and antibodies iotechnology has helped to increase crop productivity by introducing such Bualities as disease resistance and increased drought tolerance to the crops •
• • •
&n .edicine Production of pharmaceutical products li!e hormones 'insulin($ vaccines$ interferons$ complements$ important proteins li!e the anti8clotting factor% •
•
•
•
&n pharmacogenomics 'study of ho" the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body:s response to drugs%( iotechnology lead to development of tailor8made medicines and more accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages$ improvements in the drug discovery and approval process$ safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering% Gene therapy may be used for treating$ or even curing$ genetic and acBuired diseases li!e cancer and +&0S by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity%
&n )nvironmental Protection and ,ehabilitation
•
• •
6hen genetic engineering results in reduced pesticide dependence$ it leads to less pesticide residues on foods$ reduced pesticide leaching into ground"ater$ and minimi#e farm "or!er exposure to ha#ardous products% Creation of genetically modified microbes to clean the environment or for bioremediation Genome8based global studies open a ne" era providing unprecedented in silico vie"s of metabolic and regulatory net"or!s$ as "ell as clues to the evolution of degradation path"ays and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions
)volution gradual change of structure and function of organisms due to the changes in the environment descent "ith modification •
•
)vidences for )volution Fossils o ,emains of one existing organisms Chemical and anatomical similarities o the more similar the structures are$ the more related they are Geographic distribution o maAor isolated land areas and island groups often evolved their o"n distinct plant and animal communities% ,ecorded genetic changes in living organisms over many generations •
•
•
•
o
the more similar the genes are$ the more related they are Micro,iology and Biotechni.'es
Toxins •
•
)xotoxins o toxins secreted by a pathogen o proteins in nature o )xample § Clostridium botulinum releases exotoxin causing paralysis )ndotoxins o part of some bacterial cell "all o lipopolysaccharide 'lipid and carbohydrate( in nature o )xample § Salmonella typhi releases endotoxin causing typhoid fever
ioremediation process of cleaning contaminants in the environment using living organisms% acteria are efficient organisms for this purpose • •
Probiotics food supplements using bacteria or fungi $actobacilli is a common probiotic ingredient • •
9irus • •
means poison in ancient ,ome characteri#ed by the presence of capsid 'protein coat covering the nucleic acid(
.ultiplication o attachment § virus locates a specific binding site on the recipient host cell% o penetration § genetic materials or the "hole virus enters the cell o replication and synthesis § the genetic component of the virus dictates to the host cell to reproduce materials needed by the virus for reproduction o assembly § viral materials are structured to become ne" viruses o release § ne" viruses are liberated from the host cell Path"ays to achieve the process of multiplication of virus o lytic cycle § all steps in multiplication 'see above( are immediately and successively done% o lysogenic cycle § the incorporated viral genetic material does not immediately produce the needed material% § genetic materials stay incorporated in the genetic ma!e up of the host cell until triggered to produce materials needed for virus assembly% Classification 07+9irus 0iseasecaused -erpessimplex -erpes Chic!enpoxvirus Chic!enpox •
•
•
,7+9irus 0iseasecaused 0enguevirus 0enguefever .umpsvirus .umps -uman &mmunodeficiency virus +cBuired &mmunodeficiency Syndrome '+&0S( acteriophage o group of virus that infects bacterial cell •
-erbarium collection of plant specimens "hich are dried$ arranged and classified serves as basis of identifying plants in succeeding collection • •
+Buarium miniature "ater ecosystem •
Terrarium •
miniature terrestrial ecosystem
Taxidermy art of preserving the s!ins of different animals for study or exhibition provides realistic visual aid in teaching concepts in animals li!e &ntegumentary system and habitat% • •
.icroscopic techniBues 'microtechniBues( prepare materials for microscopic observation and study Some steps Steps 0escription • •
+nestheti#ation 0issection and Subdivision Fixation 6ashing 0ehydration Clearing &nfiltration )mbedding Sectioning
Cutting 'use of microtome$ instrument that can section specimen thin enough for a slide( to desired thic!ness
0eceration Staining .ounting 0rying$ cleaning$ and labeling
•
,educe or eliminate pain of animals during dissection Careful exposition of desired animal part Forpreservationoftissuesanditscomponents improves staining potential of specimens ,emovalofexcessfixativeagents ,emoval of "ater from the specimen and replacing it by alcohol Clearingagentreplacesthedehydratingagent Substance li!e paraffin is used to penetrate inner layers of the tissue specimen2 this allo"s sectioning possible Substance li!e paraffin is allo"ed to solidify around the specimen
+n improvised microtome can be used% The specimen to be sectioned may be placed in bet"een styrofoam or potato before cutting using the ordinary blade 'must be very sharp( ,emovalofparaffinfromthespecimen Coloringofthespecimenusingstains Placing the specimen on the slide and covering "ith glass slide Letting the mounting medium to dry2 cleaning "ith solvent of the mounting medium2 identifying the specimen prepared
Some methods o Teasing § parts are dissociated by a solution then separated by fine needles § example o
o
o
Ø striated muscle fibers preparation Smear § spreads the specimen on the slide § example Ø blood grinding § hard tissues are treated then thinned using abrasives% one tissues 'cross section( are prepared using this means% SBuashing § done by gently crushing the specimen to loosen the aggregation § example Ø Onion root tips sho"ing the chromosome
Culture media any material designed for gro"th of microorganisms .icrobes placed in the culture medium are called inoculum% microbes gro"ing from this setup are called culture% agar is the most commonly used o characteristics of agar § fe" microbes can degrade it ma!ing it in solid form § liBuefies at @DDDC and remains liBuid until about 1DDC § may be used in petri dish or test tube • • • •
-ay infusion usually used in studying protists o Steps in ma!ing •
§ § §
add hay 'grass( in pond "ater% drop glucose 'to start gro"th of bacteria$ the food of protists( set aside for a fe" days to allo" proliferation of protists
)'man Anatomy and Physiology Levels of organi#ation
+tom .olecule iomolecule Organelle Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism
&ntegumentary system protection from harmful elements of the environment prevents dehydration • •
• • •
synthesi#es 9itamin 0 precursors regulates body temperature components o s!in § )pidermis layer Ø stratum corneum v composed mainly of dead cells v !eratin is found on this layer Ø stratum granulosum v
plays a big role in !eratini#ation granular in appearance Ø stratum spinosum v spiny in appearance Ø stratum basale/germinativum v site of active mitotic activity 0ermis layer Ø 7ext layer after epidermis Ø Contain sebaceous gland 'secretes sebum/oil( and s"eat gland 'secrete s"eat( Ø arrector pili 'contract resulting to goose bumps( muscle present -ypodermis layer Ø also !no"n as the subcutaneous layer hair Ø adipose tissues present v
§
§
o
hair §
parts Ø
shaft
v v
Ø
hair follicle v
o
capable of mitosis
nails § § §
•
protrudes over the epidermis made up of dead cells
for protection for grasping obAects for scratching%
Some diseases o +cne inflammation of the hair follicles and sebaceous glands% common areas affected are the face$ chest$ bac! and sometimes the scalp 0ermatitis § &rritation of the integument § §
o
.uscular system give shape provides movement gives posture capable of heat production o Types of .uscles § S!eletal8 striated$ multi8nucleated$ voluntary movement § Cardiac8 striated$ uni8nucleated$ involuntary movement § Smooth/visceral 8non8 striated$ uni8nucleated$ involuntary movement$ spindle shape • • • •
•
Some disease o .uscular dystrophy § disintegration and degeneration of muscle fibers o .yasthenia gravis § autoimmune disease § too little acetylcholine reaching the neuromuscular Aunction causing severe exhaustion and muscle fatigue
S!eletal system for frame"or! and protection storage of calcium production of blood cells compose of cartilage 'tough but elastic( and bone division o +xial § Comprises of the s!ull$ thorax and the vertebral column o +ppendicular § Constitutes the shoulder girdle$ upper extremities$ pelvic girdle and the lo"er extremities Types of Aoints o all and soc!et8exemplified by the shoulders o Gliding8 exemplified by the carpals '"rist( o -inge8 exemplified by the elbo" o Pivot8exemplified by the nec! • • • • •
•
•
Some diseases o Scoliosis § lateral curvature of the spine o Osteoporosis § bones of become brittle and porous due to decrease in calcium and phosphorous
7ervous system for transmission of nerve impulses throughout the body •
7ervous System Central 7ervous system Peripheral 7ervous system Somatic nervous system 'voluntary( +utonomic nervous system 'involuntary( Sympathetic 'control organs in times of stress( Parasympathetic 'control organs in times of rest
Central 7ervous system compose of the brain and the spinal cord component of the brain o Cerebrum § Seat of consciousness • •
o
o
o
Cerebellum § body movements 0iencephalon § Composed of thalamus and the hypothalamus'seat of emotion( § control body temperature$ thirst$ hunger and even sexual urges rainstem § Composed of midbrain$ pons$ and medulla oblongata § responsible for respiration$ breathing$ heart beat$ regulation of blood flo" and blood pressure
Peripheral nervous system serves as a receiving site of nerve impulse transmission coming to and from the brain and spinal cord •
Some 0iseases of the 7ervous System ell:s Palsy •
o
paralysis of the facial muscles loses of the ability to close the eye on the affected side along "ith muscle "ea!ness$ loss of taste and facial deformity% +l#heimer:s 0isease o progressive memory loss and deterioration of intellectual capacity% o ,esults from a decrease in acetylcholine receptors$ smo!ing$ alcoholism$ infection and heredity Par!inson:s disease o .uscular rigidity$ resting tremor$ general lac! of movement o ,esults from deficiency or absence of dopamine o
•
•
Circulatory system lood composed of plasma 'made up of "ater$ proteins$ electrolytes$ and other substances( and formed elements 'blood cells( •
lood cells erythrocyte o red blood cell o carrier of oxygen and carbon dioxide leu!ocyte o for protection against invading organisms o may be granular 'neutrophil$ eosinophil$ and basophil( or non granular 'lymphocyte and monocyte( Thrombocyte o Platelets o For initiation of blood clotting •
•
•
lood vessels +rtery •
o o
carries blood a"ay from the heart usually carries oxygenated blood 'exception is the pulmonary artery(
•
9ein
•
carries blood to"ards the heart usually carries deoxygenated blood 'exception is the pulmonary vein( capillary o o
o
-eart •
site of exchange of materials
1 chambers o 3 receiving atria o 3 pumping 'blood a"ay from the (ventricles o Contraction initiated by Sinoatrial node 'S+ node or pacema!er(
0iseases of the Circulatory System +rteriosclerosis o hardening large arteries +therosclerosis o lipid deposits in the arteries •
•
,espiratory system for exchange of gases parts include nose$ pharynx$ larynx$ trachea$ bronchi$ bronchioles$ alveoli o 7ose § For pre"arming or air § Filtration of air o Pharynx § Common path"ay of food$ "ater and air o Larynx § 9oice box § Opens and closes the larynx o Trachea • •
§ § o
o
o
6ith C8shape cartilage 6ith cilia 'for filtration(
ronchi § Path"ay of air ronchioles § Smaller than bronchi +lveoli § Site of exchange of gases
0iseases of the ,espiratory System •
•
Tuberculosis o Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis o Signs and symptoms include as fever$ night s"eats$ fatigue and coughing "ith Pneumonia o &nflammation of the lungs
&mmune system for protection types o innate 'non specific2 exemplified by inflammation$ phagocytosis$ chemical mediators( or adaptive 'specific2 exemplified by antibody formation( o active 'antibody produced by the body in response to an antigen( or passive 'actual antibody is transferred to the person( o 7atural 'natural exposure( or artificial '"ith human intervention li!e vaccination( • •
0iseases of the &mmune System +&0S '+cBuired &mmunodeficiency Syndrome( o Caused by -uman &mmunodeficiency 9irus '-&9( § attac!s helper T cell 'functions in signaling other immune cells to fight antigens( o could be acBuired by an exchange of body fluids during sexual intercourse from an infected individual$ blood transfusion$ sharing of needles$ tattooing$ body piercing o attac!s helper T cell 'functions in signaling other immune cells to fight antigens( •
)ndocrine system Secretes hormones Some examples Gland -ormone Pituitary Oxytocin Gro"thhormone Prolactin Follicle stimulating hormone Pineal .elatonin Thyroid Thyroxine 'T 1( and Triiodothyronine Calcitonin Thymus Thymosin +drenal +drenaline Pancreas &nsulin Glucagon Testis Testosterone • •
+ction Stimulatescontractionoftheuterus Stimulatesgro"th 'specially thebones( Stimulatesproduction Stimulates production of sperm and egg iologicalcloc! Stimulate and maintain metabolic needs Lo"ers blood calcium level StimulateT8celldevelopment emergency hormone Lo"ersbloodglucose &ncrease blood glucose 0evelopment of secondary male sex characteristics
Ovary
)strogen Progesterone
0evelopmentofsecondaryfemalesexcharacteristics2 Promotes uterine lining gro"th Promotesuterinelininggro"th
0iseases/disorder of the )ndocrine System 0iabetes o insufficient production of insulin 0"arfism o insufficient production of gro"th hormone •
•
0igestive system brea!do"n and assimilation of food parts o .outh § brea!s do"n the food into smaller pieces "ith the help of the teeth 'incisors$ canine$ premolar and molar( and tongue o Pharynx § Common passage of food$ "ater and air o Stomach § Temporary storage of food § -ighly acidic o Small intestine § Complete digestion occurs § ,eceives secretion of pancreas and liver • •
Large intestine § ,eabsorption of "ater § production of some vitamins by help of microorganism o +nus § )xit of feces +ccessory glands o Liver § Produce bile 'emulsifies fats( o Gall bladder § Stores bile o Pancreas o
•
§
Secrete en#ymes for digestion
Peristalsis ,hythmic contraction of gastrointestinal tract to propel food do"n"ard •
0iseases/0isorder of the 0igestive System +ppendicitis § &nflammation of appendix § needs appendectomy 'removal of appendix( •
rinary system
• •
elimination of "aste 'urine( parts o !idney § nephron is the basic unit o reter § propel urine from the !idneys to the urinary bladder o rinary bladder § Temporary storage of urine o rethra §
•
connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body
Process of rine Formation o Filtration § "aste products are further eliminated in the form of Glomerular filtrate "hich enters the o"man:s capsule o ,eabsorption § allo"s necessary nutrients and substances to be absorbed by the blood "hile eliminating ammonia$ urea and other "aste products o Secretion § urine is already formed in this final process
0iseases/0isorder of the -uman )xcretory System rinary Tract &nfection 'T&( o inflammation to any of the parts of the urinary tract •
o
females have shorter urethra compared to males ma!ing them more susceptible to infection
,eproductive system for perpetuation of species male parts o Scrotum § enclosing the testes § for thermoregulation% o Testes § Produce sperms 'in seminiferous tubules( § give rise to male secondary sexual characteristics% o )pididymis § Place "here sperm mature% o 9as deferens § duct "here sperms pass through o Seminal 9esicles § secretes sugar$ protein$ and other substances that nourish the sperm% o )Aaculatory duct § results from the fusion of the seminal vesicle and the vas deferens o Prostate gland § secretes an al!aline fluid neutrali#ing the vagina from its acidic condition% o ulbourethral glands § pea8si#ed structure situated belo" the prostate gland § helps lubricate the penis during intercourse • •
•
female parts o Ovaries secretes the hormones estrogen and progesterone production of egg Fallopian Tubes § +lso called oviducts § serves as a passage"ay egg cell § site of fertili#ation 'ampulla( terus § §
o
o
§
o
9agina § §
o
Place of the fetus for gro"th and development% receives the erected penis provides a passage"ay for the fetus to be delivered during the process of labor%
9ulva part of the vagina located externally% &ncorporated in this area are pairs of lip8li!e structures !no"n as the labia% The outer portion is the labia maAora and the inner is the labia minora% .ammary glands § mil! production §
o
0iseases/0isorder of the ,eproductive System Gonorrhea o yello"ish discharge accompanied by an inflammation of the urethra •
o o •
difficultyby and pain "hile urinating$ pelvic pain and fever caused %eisseria gonorrhoeae
Syphilis o
o o
o
infection penetrates the mucosal linings of the reproductive tracts causing ulcerations signs and symptoms such as s!in rashes$ alopecia$ fever and body aches may reach the brain resulting to a mental illness and paralysis that could possibly lead to death caused by Treponema pallidum
'ndamentals o+ Physics System • • •
collection of parts confined in a specific boundary )cosystem$ the maAor unit in ecology is an example of a system .ay be an open 'may acBuire inputs from the environment2 ecosystem is an example ( or a closed system '7o input can pass through the boundary of the system(
Thermodynamics study of collective effects of heat$ "or! and energy in a system% First La" of Thermodynamics o la" of conservation of energy o energy is not created nor destroyed but simply converted to another form o )xample § the light energy of the sun is converted by the plants into chemical • •
•
energy% 6hen humans "al! using the chemical energy$ then the chemical energy is converted to mechanical energy% Second La" of Thermodynamics o that heat flo"s spontaneously from a higher temperature material to a lo"er temperature material o can also be vie"ed in terms of entropy 'conversion of matter and energy to a more random or disorgani#ed state( o example § et"een "inter and spring$ ice melts% This means that ice accepts heat ma!ing it in a more disorgani#ed state 'since liBuid molecules have more freedom of movement(
-eat transfer can be through conduction$ convection and radiation% These can be differentiated "ith the media used% •
-eattransfer Conduction Convection ,adiation •
•
•
•
.edium Solids Fluids 'liBuid and gas( 7one
Conduction o .aterials "hich conduct heat "ell are called thermal conductors 'example is "ood( o .aterials that do not conduct "ell are called thermal insulators o )xample § + li#ard resting on its belly on the soil is losing heat in a sunny day by conduction Convection o 6hen fluids are heated$ they expand% This results to increase in volume and a subseBuent decrease in density% On the other hand$ "hen fluids area cooled they decrease in volume and the density increases% o fluid flo"ing "ith it is called the convection current% o )xample § dispersing pollutants in cities § &n la!es or oceans$ valuable nutrients settling at the bottom can not be accessed by phototrophic organisms above unless the bottom "aters move up% This is achieved "hen there is a turnover$ convection current% ,adiation o )xample § 0uring forest fires$ trun!s acBuires heat form burning materials through radiation § Lemurs "ith "hite fur are able reflect light to the surrounding% 0uring cold mornings$ they allo" their small blac! s!in on their belly to"ards the sun% This captures more heat for "arming up
Ecology Study of the interaction of organisms to their environment
Physical factors in the environment
• • • • •
Temperature Light 6ater 6ind% +ir
,elationships .utualism o both members are benefited •
o
•
•
)xample § Flo"er and insect Commensalism o One benefits 'commensal( "hile the other is not affected 'host( o )xample § )piphytes 'li!e orchids( and tall trees Parasitism o One is benefited 'parasite( and the other is harmed 'host( o Classification of parasite § )ctoparasite Parasite lives outside the host 'li!e mosBuito( § )ndo parasite Parasite lives inside the host 'li!e intestinal "orms( Competition o .ay impart limiting effects on both members o may be &nterspecific 'competing organisms belong to different species( intraspecific 'competing organisms belong to the same species( competitions Predation o One is benefited 'predator( and the other is harmed 'prey( o )xample § Sna!e 'predator( and mouse 'prey( •
•
•
•
7iche • •
role or status of the organism in the community or ecosystem this can be through participation in the transfer of energy$ recycling of materials$ shaping communities
-abitat •
place "here an organism lives
Food chain series of eating and be eaten example o rice plantàmouseàsna!e8decomposer • •
Food "eb composed of different food chains •
Food pyramid sho"s the energy transferred to each trophic level •
• • •
producers occupy the base of the pyramid final consumers at the tip follo"s the rule of @D 'energy transfer from one trophic level to the next is about @DI%(
iomes •
Tundra o o o
o •
Taiga
in polar region Limited plant gro"th little precipitation "ith permafrost 'permanently fro#en soil(
also called boreal or coniferous forest found in cool$ elevated areas o "ith tall conifers "ith needle8li!e leaves Temperate deciduous forest o 6ith deciduous trees 'leaves change color together "ith the season$ and shed in "inter( Tropical Forest o Climate here is mild$ as summer remains "arm and "inter is cold o Strata include canopy$ understorey and floor Savanna o grasslands "ith fe" shrubs and trees o site of safari Grasslands o +bundant "ith grass o o
•
•
•
•
•
0esert o o
least amount of precipitation al"ays dry but 7OT al"ays hot
+Buatic ecosystem Fresh"ater o ,iver o La!e .arine 'salt( "ater o Sea o Ocean •
•
Succession change in the species structure of an ecological community over time may be primary succession 'ta!es place on an area that is srcinally completely empty of • •
life( ordestroyed( secondary succession 'occurs in an area "here life once existed but has then been 7atural ecosystem present in the environment that receives no human intervention example o forest • •
.anaged ecosystem receives no human intervention example • •
o o
aBuarium terrarium
)ffects of natural disturbances flood species are endangered 'very fe" species remaining( extinction 'elimination( of species • • •
Statistics +or Biology Graphs • •
representation of a set of obAects "here some pairs of the obAects are connected by lin!s Types o Line § plotted pea!s and dips on the grid allo" you to monitor and compare improvement and decline o ar § data in a simple format consisting of rectangular bars o -istogram § displays the data by using vertical bars of various heights to represent the freBuencies o Pie § data comparison$ consisting of a circle that is split into parts o Pictographs § use small picture symbols to compare information o Scatter Plot § effective "ay in illustrating the relationship bet"een t"o measures
FreBuency number of times the event occurred •
,atio • •
comparison of t"o numbers )xample o 4*@3 o 4/@3
Proportion •
statement )xample that t"o ratios are eBual o 5/1 ?/4 o 3/1@/3 Probability belief that an event "ill occur or has occurred •
•
Central tendencies needs to be able to understand summaries of large amounts of data that use simple measures to best represent the location of the data as a "hole% measures of central tendency •
•
o
.ean § § §
o
.edian § § §
o
arithmetic mean simply the average of the group )xample Ø .ean of @5$ @1 and @; is @1 '@5=@1=@; 132 13 ⌯ 5 @1( middle score or the midpoint of the data .edian is a better description than the mean of the maAority "hen the distribution is s!e"ed )xample Ø .edian of @@$ @5$ @;$ 3@$and 1; is @; 'numbers are arranged in increasing/decreasing order2 there are ; numbers$ thus the midpoint is the 5rd number "hich is @;( Ø .edian of @@$ @5$ @;$ 3@$ 3; and 1; is @4 'numbers are arranged in increasing/decreasing order2 there are ? numbers$ the midpoint is bet"een the 5rd and 1th numbers2 thus @;=3@ 5?2 5?⌯3@4(
.ode § §
most freBuent score )xample Ø .ode of 3$ 3$ 5$ ; and ? is 3
Correlation describes the degree of relationship bet"een t"o variables • •
•
)istory and Philosophy o+ Science Prehistoric Times o Stone +ge* Paleolithic +ge'5DDD8@DDD C N 7eolithic +ge 'DDD8;DDD C( § Stones Ø sed for chopping$ cutting or digging § Fire Ø sed to "arm their body and coo! their food § Containers of food § Coo!ing of food using fire o ron#e +ge 5;DD'5;DD83;DD C( § Creation of the First +lloy §
•
ron#e8 combination of copper and tin
+ncient Civili#ation '5;DD C8 +>0> @3DD( o Sumerian Civili#ation 8Sumer$ is the cradle of the "orld:s earliest !no"n civili#ation § Standardi#ed .easurement follo"ing the sexagesimal system 'using number ?D as base(% They divided the circle into 5?D degrees$ an hour into ?D minutes and a minute into ?D seconds( § Canals$ di!es$ "ires and reservoirs § Potter:s 6heel § 6heeled 9ehicle
Sailboat Systemati#ed Farming § &rrigation system constructed canals for irrigation § leaching$ dyeing$ preparing paints$ cosmetics and perfumes § .ateria .edica8 Compilation of prescriptions for different diseases made from assorted botanical$ #oological$ and mineralogical ingredients% § First "riting system called cuneiform "hich is a set of "ord pictures depicted in symbols pressed into "et clay tablets and then sun dried abylonian Civili#ation § -anging Gardens of abylon § Sun 0ial § Calendar § 0eveloped an elaborate irrigation system of canals )gyptian Civili#ation § -ieroglyphics § Papyrus8 first paper § )arly "eather forecasting § +stronomy § Production of read and eer § -enna § )mbalming § .etallurgy .inoan/ Cretan Civili#ation § 0rainage System Gree! Civili#ation § §
o
o
o
o
§
Logical Thin!ing +stronomy +tomic Theory § First Classification of Living things § First accurate measurement of the earth:s diameter § +rchimedes Scre" § 0issection of +nimal corpses § Geometry Persian Civili#ation § Common Calendar § Postal service § niform system of gold and silver coinage ,oman Civili#ation § &nstallation of public toilets § +dapted Gree! teachings +rabic/ &slamic Civili#ation § §
o
o
o
§ §
+lchemy 7umerical System Glass lens for magnification § Produced the first gun Chinese Civili#ation § LacBuer § Sil! Production § ,ecords on eclipses § +pothecaries and acupuncture § Paper .a!ing § Gun Po"der §
o
o
o
o
§ Printing &ndus8-indu Civili#ation § 0eveloped metallurgy § +ccuracy in measurement § Prevention and treatment of ailments The .iddle +ges § +lgebra "as organi#ed and expanded § Comprehensive medical encyclopedia8Canon of .edicine § &ntroduction of the -indu +rabic system The ,enaissance § &mproved process of paper ma!ing and printing § Scientific method § .icroscope § +ge of exploration
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
St/ Lo'is Review $enter0 "nc/ 5rd Floor C+P ldg% Corner Tiano8Gaerlan St% 'D44( 4;@8@1@5/ 5D85?1@
-and Outs for Special )ducation L)T ,)9&)6 6hat &s Special +bout Special )ducationQ Special education is governed by federal la" in most educational Aurisdictions% nder &ndviduals "ith 0isabilities )ducation +ct '&0)+($ Special )ducation is defined as* RSpecially designed instruction$ at no cost to parents$ to meet the uniBue needs of a child "ith a disability%R Special education is in place to provide additional services$ support$ programs$ speciali#ed placements or environments to ensure that all students educational needs are provided for% Special education is provided to Bualifying students at no cost to the parents% There are many students "ho have special learning needs and these needs are addressed through special education% The range of special education support "ill vary based on need and educational Aurisdictions% )ach country$ state or educational Aurisdiction "ill have different policies$ rules$ regulations and legislation that governs "hat special education is% &n the S$ the governing la" is* "ndivid'als with isa,ilities Ed'cation Act("EA Typically$ the types of exceptionalities/disabilities "ill be clearly identified in the Aurisdictions la" surrounding special education% Students Bualifying for special education support have needs that "ill often reBuire support that goes beyond "hat is normally offered or received in the regular school/classroom setting% The @5 categories under &0)+ include* +utism 0eaf or lindness 0evelopmental 0elays )motional 0isturbance • • • •
• • • • • • • • •
-earing &mpairments .ental ,etardation .ultiple 0isabilities Orthapedic &mpairments Other -ealth &mpairments Specific Learning 0isabilities Speech and Language &mpairments Traumatic rain &nAury 9isual &mpairments%
Gifted and talented are vie"ed as exceptional under &0)+$ ho"ever$ other Aurisdictions may also included Gifted in part of their legislation% Some of the needs in the above categories cannot al"ays be met through regular instructional and assessment practices% The goal of special education is to ensure that these students can ta!e part in education and access the curriculum "henever possible% &deally$ all students need to have eBuitable access to education in order to reach their potential% + child suspected of needing special education support "ill usually be referred to the special education committee at the school% Parents$ teachers or both can ma!e referrals for special education% Parents should have any necessary information/documentation from community professionals$ doctors$ external agencies etc% and inform the school of the childs disabilities if they are !no"n prior to attending school% Other"ise$ typically the teacher "ill being to notice anomalies and "ill relay any concerns to the parent "hich can lead to a special needs committee meeting at the school level% The child "ho is being considered for special education services "ill often receive assessment's($ evaluations or psycho testing 'again this depends on the educational Aurisdiction( to determine if they Bualify to receive special education programming/supports% -o"ever$ prior to conducting any type of assessment/testing$ the parent "ill need to sign consent forms% Once the child Bualifies for additional support$ an &ndividual )ducation Plan/Program '&)P(is then developed for the child% &)Ps "ill include goals$ obAectives$ activities and any additional supports needed to ensure the child reaches his/her maximum educational potential% .ore on &)PS% The &)P is then revie"ed and revised regularly "ith input from the sta!eholders% BE)A%"#R M#""$AT"#0)F&7&T&O7 OF T),.S @% aseline* Process by "hich information is collected regarding the occurrence of the behavior prior to any intervention% 3% ehavior* +ny overt or covert activity of a person% also*response 5% Chaining* .ethod of teaching a complex behavior involving the systematic teaching of component s!ills of the behavior andseBuencing the s!ills together% 1% ConseBuences* The non ambiguous reaction to "hatever behavior is exhibited by the learner% also* Positive reinforcement$punishment ;% 0,&* 0ifferential reinforcement of incompatible behavior% ,einforcement contingent on emission of behavior incompatible"ith the target behavior% ?% 0,L* 0ifferential reinforcement of lo"er rates of behavior% ,einforcement contingent upon lo"8 rate responses% % 0,O* 0ifferential reinforcement of other behavior% Procedure in "hich reinforcement follo"s any behavior emitted except target behavior% 4% )xtinction* ,emoval of all reinforcement contingent on target behavior% % Generali#ation* Phenomenon by "hich behavior taught in onestimulus situation tends to be emitted in other stimulus situations% @D% 7egative ,einforcement* 'S, ( ,emoval of stimulus "hich$"hen removed contingent on response increases the li!elihood of future occurrence of the response% +lso conseBuence$contingency
@@% Overcorrection* ,eductive procedure reBuiring restitution of previous environment and positive practice in order to decrease the occurrence of the target behavior% @3% Positive ,einforcement* 'S, ( Presentation of a stimuluscontingent on a response "hich results in the strengthening of that response% also* conseBuence$ contingency @5% Premac! Principle* The use of a high8rate behavior toincrease the occurrence of a lo"8rate of behavior% also*positive reinforcement$ conseBuence$ contingency* @1% Prompt* +dditional information given to facilitate theprobability of a correct response% @;% Punishment* The contingent presentation of a stimulus orevent "hich results in a future "ea!ening of response rate$duration$ or intensity% also* contingency$ conseBuence @?% ,esponse Cost* ,esponse8contingent "ithdra"al of a specified amount of reinforce% also* conseBuence$ contingency* @% S0 '0iscriminative Stimulus* Stimulus "hich signals thatreinforcement is available contingent upon the emission of acertain response% also* antecedent$ command$ instruction @4% Shaping* .ethod of teaching a complex behavior involving the reinforcement of successive approximations to the target behavior% @% Stimulus Control* 6hen behavior is situation or person specific$ it is said to be under stimulus control% 3D% Time Out* ,emoval of access to all sources of reinforcement for a specified time period contingent upon the target behavior% also* conseBuence$ punishment$ contingency 3@% To!en )conomy* +rtificial reinforcers given in a specificnumber upon emission of target behavior to be later used toRpurchaseR reinforcement% also* positive reinforcement$ conseBuence$ contingency A2T"SM 6hat causes +utism Spectrum 0isorders '+S0(Q -o" do +S0 affect the learning and behaviour of persons "ith the disorderQ The 0iagnostic and Statistical .anual health of .ental 0isorders8Fourth )dition '0S.8&9$ @1($ the maindiagnostic reference of mental professionals$ places +S0 &9 under the diagnostic umbrella category of Pervasive 0evelopmental 0isorders 'P00(% P00 includes autism and four other related developmentaldisorders* +sperger:s Syndrome$ Childhood 0isintegrative 0isorder$ ,ett:s$ and Pervasive 0evelopmental 0isorder7ot Other"ise Specified% &mportant aspects to !eep in mind about +S0 include* +S0 affect the neurodevelopment system$ "hich results in distinct learning and behavioral characteristics% +S0 have an underlying biological/genetic cause that produces organic and/or physical changesduring brain development$ "hich result in atypical cognitive and social development and behaviors% +S0 affect individ uals uniBuely$ although individuals "ill exhibit many of the characteristic behaviors in varying degrees throughout their lifetime% +S0 do not result from poor parenting% +S0 impact more than behavior% +S0 affect the individual:s ability to integrate sensory information and regulate their emotions% 6hat deficits form the basis for a diagnosis of an +S0Q The 0S.8&9 provides five deficit areas to consider as diagnostic criteria for identifying individuals "ith +S0* Communication Sociali#ation/Social s!ills ,estricted interests Sensory integration ehavior )ach of these deficit areas "ill be discussed in greater detail later in this guide% +ny education personnel"or!ing "ith people "ith +S0 must remember that these individuals al"ays exhibit varying degrees of difficulties in these five areas% Students "ith +S0 exhibit varying
combinations of and degrees of difficultyin each area$ "hich ma!es +S0 loo! different across student populations% 0o all students "ith +S0 exhibit the same early symptomsQ Hes% ,ecent research has sho"n that students "ith +S0 exhibit four early indicators% These include* Lac! of eye contact Lac! of Aoint attention 'i%e%$ attention to the same item or topic as another person( Lac! of reciprocal conversation 'i%e%$ ability to engage in verbal turn ta!ing( +typical sensory/motor processing &n addition$ people "ith +S0 exhibit core deficits of varying degrees and combinations in the follo"ing areas* 0ifficulty "ith identifying important global concepts and elements of tas!s '"hich differentiates +S0 from +ttenton 0eficit 0isorder/+ttention 0eficit "ith -yperactivity 0isorder(2 0ifficulty processing auditory informationUunderstanding$ retaining$ and retrieving2 0ifficulty generali#ing s!illsUs!ills must be taught in context2 0ifficulty "ith seBuencing information or steps in a tas!2 0ifficulty transitioning bet"een different activities2 0ifficulty "ith time concepts and time management2 +typical and/or uneven academic$ social$ or emotional development 'e%g%$ high functioning in some academic areas$ lo" functioning in others(% ATTE-T"#- E"$"T 3"T) )4PERA$T"%"T4 "S#RER Symptoms o+ A) Some symptoms of +0-0 are described as inattention$ difficulty in performing tas!s$ hyperactivity and impulsivity% +ccording to the 0S. &9 '0S.1( Criteria for +0-0% +% )ither '@( or '3( '@(% ? 'or more( of the follo"ing symptoms of inattention have persisted for at least ? months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent "ith developmental level* "nattention 'a( often fails to give close attention to details or ma!es careless mista!es in school"or!$ "or!$ or other activities 'b( often has difficulty sustaining attention in tas!s or play activities 'c( often does not seem to listen "hen spo!en to directly 'd( often does not follo" through on instructions and fails to finish school"or!$ chores$ or duties in the "or!place 'not due to oppositional behaviour or failure to understand instructions( 'e( often has difficulty organising tas!s and activities 'f( often avoids$ disli!es$ or is reluctant to engage in tas!s that reBuire sustained mental effort 'such as school"or! or home"or!(% 'g( often loses things necessary for tas!s or activities 'e%g% toys$ school assignments$ pencils$ boo!s$ or tools( 'h( is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli 'i( is often forgetful in daily activities '3( ? 'or more( of the follo"ing symptoms of hyperactivity8impulsivity have persisted for at least ? months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent "ith developmental level )yperactivity Symptoms 'a( often fidgets "ith hands or feet or sBuirms in seat 'b( often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in "hich remaining seated is expected 'c( often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in "hich it is inappropriate 'in adolescents or adults$ may be limited to subAective feelings of restlessness( 'd( often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities Buietly 'e( is often Ron the goR or often acts as if Rdriven by a motorR 'f( often tal!s excessively "mp'lsivity Symptoms
'g( often blurts out ans"ers before Buestions have been completed 'h( often has difficulty a"aiting turn 'i( often interrupts or intrudes on others 'e%g% butts into conversations or games( % Some hyperactive8impulsive or inattentive symptoms that caused impairment "ere present before age years% C% Some impairment from the symptoms is present in t"o or more settings 'e%g% at school Vor "or!W and at home(% 0% There must be clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social$ academic$ or occupational functioning% )% The symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of a Pervasive 0evelopmental 0isorder$ Schi#ophrenia$ or other Psychotic 0isorder and are not better accounted for by another mental disorder 'e%g% .ood 0isorder$ +nxiety 0isorder$ 0issociative 0isorder$ or a Personality 0isorder(
3hat "s %is'al "mpairment The term "isual impairments describes a "ide variety of conditions that affect vision abilities% 6e use the term to denote mild to most severe vision loss$ rather than to defects in the eye itself% +ccording to the &ndividuals "ith 0isabilities )ducation +ct '&0)+( of @$ a visual impairment refers to Xan impairment in vision that$ even "ith correction$ adversely affects a child:s educational performance% The term includes both partial sight and blindness%Y Sight impairment terminology can sometimes be confusing% .ost people classified as XblindY have a visual sense of lightness or dar!ness$ as "ell as an ability to see some shapes and images% To avoid confusion$ you should !no" the follo"ing terms commonly used to designate degrees of visual impairment* •
•
•
•
Totally blind% This term usually implies little or no visual sensitivity to light at any level% This condition is rare$ and people "ho are totally blind typically have severe physical damage to the eyes themselves or to the visual nerves% Legally blind% + legally blind person has a visual acuity of 3D/3DD or less in the better eye$ after correction% This means that "hat an individual "ith normal '3D/3D( vision sees at t"o hundred feet$ the legally blind person cannot see until he or she is "ithin t"enty feet% &n addition$ a person can be classified as legally blind if she has a field of vision no greater than t"enty degrees at the "idest diameter% '+ normal field of vision is close to @4D degrees%( Only about 3D percent of legally blind people are totally blind% Legally blind individuals typically use raille and visual aids% Lo" vision% People "ith lo" vision can read "ith the help of large8print reading materials and magnifying obAects% They may also use raille% Partially sighted% Partially sighted individuals have less severe loss of vision than people in the other three categories% + person "ith partial sight may be able to see obAects up
close or far a"ay and "ith corrective lenses may be able to function at normal levels% The human eye is li!e a camera that collects$ focuses$ and transmits light through a lens to create an image of its surroundings% &n a camera$ the image is created on film or an image sensor% &n the eye$ the image is created on the retina$ a thin layer of light8sensitive tissue at the bac! of the eye%Li!e a camera$ the human eye controls the amount of light that enters the eye% The iris 'the colored circular part of the eye( controls the amount of light passing through the pupil% &t closes up the pupil in bright light and opens it "ider in dim light% The cornea is the transparent$ protective surface of the eye% &t helps focus light$ as does the lens$ "hich sits Aust behind the iris% 6hen light enters the eye$ the retina changes the light into nerve signals% The retina then sends these signals along the optic nerve 'a cable of more than @$DDD$DDD nerve fibers( to the brain% 6ithout a retina$ the eye cant communicate "ith the brain$ ma!ing vision impossible%.any
people have some type of visual problem at some point in their lives% Some can no longer see obAects far a"ay% Others have problems reading small print% These types of conditions are often easily treated "ith eyeglasses or contact lenses%ut "hen one or more parts of the eye or brain that are needed to process images become diseased or damaged$ severe or total loss of vision can occur% &n these cases$ vision cant be fully restored "ith medical treatment$ surgery$ or corrective lenses li!e glasses or contacts%The +merican Foundation for the lind estimates that @D million people in the nited States are visually impaired% 9isual impairment is a term experts use to describe any !ind of vision loss$ "hether its someone "ho cannot see at all or someone "ho has partial vision loss%Some people are completely blind$ but many others have "hats called legal blindness% They havent lost their sight completely but have lost enough vision that theyd have to stand 3DD feet a"ay%3D feet from an obAect to see it as "ell as someone "ith perfect vision could from $a'ses %is'al "mpairment
Some babies have congenital blindness$ "hich means they are visually impaired at birth% Congenital blindness can be caused by a number of things U it can be inherited$ for instance$ or caused by an infection 'li!e German measles( thats transmitted from the mother to the developing fetus during pregnancy% $onditions that may ca'se vision loss a+ter ,irth incl'de5 •
+mblyopia 'pronounced* am8blee8oh8pee8uh( is reduced vision in an eye caused by lac! of use of that eye in early childhood% Some conditions cause a childs eyes to send different messages to the brain 'for example$ one eye might focus better than the other(% The brain may then turn off or suppress images from the "ea!er eye and vision from that eye then stops developing normally% This is also !no"n as a Rla#y eye%R Strabismus 'misaligned or crossed eyes( is aofcommon cause of amblyopia$ since the brain "ill start to ignore messages sent by one the misaligned eyes%
•
•
•
•
Cataracts are cloudy areas in part or all of the lens of the eye% &n people "ithout cataracts$ the lens is crystal clear and allo"s light to pass through and focus on the retina% Cataracts prevent light from easily passing through the lens$ and this causes loss of vision% Cataracts often form slo"ly and usually affect people in their ?Ds and Ds$ but sometimes babies are born "ith congenital cataracts% Symptoms include double vision$ cloudy or blurry vision$ difficulty seeing in poorly lit spaces$ and colors that seem faded% 0iabetic retinopathy 'pronounced* reh8ton8ah8pa8thee( occurs "hen the tiny blood vessels in the retina are damaged due to diabetes% People "ith retinopathy may not have any problems seeing at first% ut if the condition gets "orse$ they can become blind% Teens "ho have diabetes should be sure to get regular eye exams because there are no early "arning signs for this condition% To help prevent retinopathy$ people "ith diabetes should also avoid smo!ing$ !eep their blood pressure under control$ and !eep their blood sugar at an even level% Glaucoma is an increase in pressure inside the eye% The increased pressure impairs vision by damaging the optic nerve% Glaucoma is mostly seen in older adults$ although babies may be born "ith the condition and children and teens can sometimes develop it as "ell% .acular degeneration 'pronounced* mah8!yoo8lur dih8Aeh8nuh8ray8shun( is a gradual and progressive deterioration of the macula$ the most sensitive region of the retina% The condition leads to progressive loss of central vision 'the ability to see fine details directly in front(% .acular degeneration is often age related 'it occurs in older people$ especially older than ?D($ but sometimes it can occur in younger people% )xcessive exposure to sunlight and smo!ing can increase the ris! for age8related macular degeneration% Symptoms may include increased difficulty reading or "atching T9$ or distorted vision in
"hich straight lines appear "avy or obAects loo! larger or smaller than normal% •
Trachoma 'pronounced* truh8!o8muh( occurs "hen a very contagious microorganism called Chlamydia trachomatis causes inflammation in the eye% &ts often found in poor rural countries that have overcro"ded living conditions and limited access to "ater and sanitation% lindness due to trachoma has been virtually eliminated from the S+%
&f you$ your parent$ or your doctor suspects a visual problem$ youll probably pay a visit to an ophthalmologist 'pronounced* af8thal8mah8luh8Aist($ a medical doctor "ho speciali#es in examining$ diagnosing$ and treating eyes and eye diseases% 6hen someone goes for an examination$ the ophthalmologist "ill loo! at the structure of that persons eye% #ther simple tests an ophthalmologist may per+orm incl'de5 •
•
•
9isual acuity test% + person reads an eye chart to measure ho" "ell he or she sees at various distances% 9isual field test% Ophthalmologists use this test to measure side$ or peripheral$ vision% Tonometry test% This test determines the fluid pressure inside the eye to evaluate for glaucoma%
&f your doctor determines that you have an eye condition that is li!ely to cause visual impairment$ many treatments are available% Options may include eyeglasses$ contact lenses$ and eye drops or other medicines% &n some cases$ surgery may be reBuired% For instance$ cataracts are often treated by removing the clouded lens and replacing it "ith an intraocular lens 'an artificial plastic lens that reBuires no special care and restores vision(%Other methods can compensate for vision loss% Guide dogs can help people get from place to place independently% raille allo"s those "ith visual impairment to read and "rite% Special eBuipment such as microscopic and telescopic glasses and voice8recognition soft"are can ma!e school and home"or! easier% LEAR-"-& "SAB"L"T"ES What is Dyscalculia? 0yscalculia is a learning disability that affects the success that a person has "ith mathematical calculations% This learning disability cannot be officially diagnosed at present$ but it can obvious from several distinct symptoms$ such as the inability to visuali#e abstract mathematical concepts and the tendency to reverse numbers "hen doing calculations% Visualization Strategies There are several strategies you can use to help a student "ith dyscalculia "ith visuali#ing mathematical concepts% For example$ you can encourage students to dra" diagrams of problems before solving them% Hou can also help students connect "hat they are learning to real8life situations% oth of these strategies can help students to ma!e a concept more XrealY in their minds% &n addition$ students "ith dyscalculia can often benefit from being able to tal! out math problems in groups before solving them%
Se.'encing Strategies Students "ho have issues "ith number reversals and other seBuencing problems can also benefit from some dyscalculia strategies% For example$ you might encourage students "ith dyscalculia to do their calculations on graph paper or on a computer$ "hich can help them to !eep the numbers in the correct order% &f you have room on a "or!sheet or exam for students to do their calculations$ ma!e sure that you leave plenty of "hite space for their "or!% &n addition$
ensure that your "or!sheets are straightfor"ard and uncluttered% 6hat loo!s li!e a cute "or!sheet to some students can loo! li!e a convoluted mess to a student "ith dyscalculia% #ther Strategies Other dyscalculia strategies can help not Aust students "ho actually have dyscalculia$ but also other struggling students% 6hen students have to memori#e facts or concepts$ encourage them to put the information to a tune or rhythm% +lternatively$ sho" them ho" to ma!e up mnemonics or other hints to help them remember the information% &n addition$ give students a previe" of the information you "ill be teaching before you begin instruction% This "ill help students prepare mentally for the information they "ill be learning% $haracteristics and Bac6gro'nd "n+ormation +or St'dents with M'ltiple isa,ilities5 Children "ith multiple disabilities "ill have a combination of various disabilities that may include* speech$ physical mobility$ learning$ mental retardation$ visual$ hearing$ brain inAury and possibly others% +long "ith multiple disabilities$ they can also exhibit sensory losses and behavior and or social problems% Children "ith multiple disabilities 8 also referred to as multiple exceptionalities "ill vary in severity and characteristics% These students may exhibit "ea!ness in auditory processing and have speech limitations% Physical mobility "ill often be an area of need% These students may have difficulty attaining and remembering s!ills and or transferring these s!ills from one situation to another% Support is usually needed beyond the confines of the classroom% There are often medical implications "ith some of the more severe multiple disabilities "hich could include students "ith cerebral palsy and severe autism and brain inAuries% There are many educational implications for these students% Strategies and Modi+ications5 6hat can you doQ •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
)arly intervention is necessary 8 as soon as the child begins school &nvolvement of the appropriate professionals$ i%e%$ occupational therapists$ speech/language therapists$ physio therapists$ etc% + team approach at the school level involving external agency/community liaison "ho meet on a regular basis is essential The physical arrangement of the classroom "ill need to best accommodate this child% Consideration of special eBuipment and assistive technology is essential% &ntegration among their peers is important to assist these students "ith social development% &ts important to integrate multiply disabled children as much as is possible% ,esearch does indicate that "hen these students attend their community school and participate in the same activities as their peers is social s!ills develop and are enhanced% 'Sometimes these students are place full time in a regular classroom "ith support$ ho"ever$ in the maAority of cases$ these students are place in a developmental s!ills type of classroom "ith some integration% )nsuring that all students demonstrates respect for the multiply disabled student becomes a teacher responsibility and needs to be ta!en seriously "ith ongoing activities that develop respect from the other students in the class% +n &ndividual )ducation Plan "ill need to be carefully planned out and adAusted on a regular basis and "ill need to be aligned to the child% ,emember$ these children are often completely dependent upon others for most/all of their daily needs% +ssistive technologies may assist this child and the support team "ill need to decide "hich assistive technologies "ill be most appropriate% '&n the &0)+ act* +SS&ST&9)
T)C-7OLOGH% Consider "hether the child reBuires assistive technology devices and services% + safety plan "ill need to be developed and is often included in the &)P% •
Care needs to be given in your expectations of this student to ensure the child doesnt not become frustrated%
.ost importantly$ these identified children are to be given the same rights as non8identified school age children including screening$ evaluation and an appropriate program and services% 'al E7ceptionalities &i+ted and isa,led ifted students "ith disabling conditions remain a maAor group of underserved and understimulated youth 'Cline$ @(% The focus on accommodations for their disabilities may preclude the recognition and development of their cognitive abilities% &t is not unexpected$ then$ to find a significant discrepancy bet"een the measured academic potential of these students and their actual performance in the classroom '6hitmore N .a!er$ @4;(% &n order for these children to reach their potential$ it is imperative that their intellectual strengths be recogni#ed and nurtured$ at the same time as their disability is accommodated appropriately% ASSESSME-T &dentification of giftedness in students "ho are disabled is problematic% The customary identification methods 88 standardi#ed tests and observational chec!lists 88 are inadeBuate$ "ithout maAor modification% Standard lists of characteristics of gifted students may be inadeBuate for unmas!ing hidden potential in children "ho have disabilities% Children "hose hearing is impaired$ for example$ cannot respond to oral directions$ and they may also lac! the vocabulary "hich reflects the complexity of their thoughts% Children "hose speech or language is impaired cannot respond to tests reBuiring verbal responses% Children "hose vision is impaired may be unable to respond to certain performance measures$ and although their vocabulary may be Buite advanced$ they may not understand the full meaning of the "ords they use 'e%g%$ color "ords(% Children "ith learning disabilities may use high8level vocabulary in spea!ing but be unable to express themselves in "riting$ or vice versa% &n addition$ limited life experiences due to impaired mobility may artificially lo"er scores '6hitmore N .a!er$ @4;(% Since the population of gifted/disabled students is difficult to locate$ they seldom are included in standardi#ed test norming groups$ adding to the problems of comparison% &n addition$ gifted children "ith disabilities often use their intelligence to try to circumvent the disability% This may cause both exceptionalities to appear less extreme* the disability may appear less severe because the child is using the intellect to cope$ "hile the efforts expended in that area may hinder other expressions of giftedness% The follo"ing lists are intended to assist parents and teachers in recogni#ing intellectual giftedness in the presence of a disability% &i+ted St'dents with %is'al "mpairment Fast rate of learning •
•
Superior memory
•
Superior verbal communication s!ills and vocabulary o
o
o
advanced problem8solving s!ills Creative production or thought that may progress more slo"ly than sighted students in some academic areas )ase in learning raille
o
Great persistence
o
.otivation to !no"
o
Sometimes slo"er rate of cognitive development than sighted students
o
excellent ability to concentrate
•
'6hitmore N .a!er$ @4;( &i+ted St'dents with Physical isa,ilities 0evelopment of compensatory s!ills
•
Creativity in finding alternate "ays of communicating and accomplishing tas!s
•
&mpressive store of !no"ledge
•
+dvanced academic s!ills
•
Superior memory
•
)xceptional problem8solving s!ills
•
,apid grasp of ideas
•
+bility to set and strive for long8term goals
•
Greater maturity than age mates
•
Good sense of humor
•
Persistence$ patience
•
.otivation to achieve
•
•
Curiosity$ insight Self8criticism and perfectionism
•
Cognitive development that may not be based on direct experience
•
Possible difficulty "ith abstractions
•
Possible limited achievement due to pace of "or! 'Cline$ @2 6hitmore N .a!er$ @4;2 6illard8-olt$ @1(
•
&i+ted St'dents with )earing "mpairments 0evelopment of speech8reading s!ills "ithout instruction )arly reading ability
•
)xcellent memory
•
+bility to function in the regular school setting
•
,apid grasp of ideas
•
•
•
-igh reasoning ability Superior performance in school
•
6ide range of interests
•
7ontraditional "ays of getting information
•
se of problem8solving s!ills in everyday situations
•
Possibly on grade level
•
0elays in concept attainment
•
Self starters
•
Good sense of humor
•
)nAoyment of manipulating environment
•
&ntuition
•
&ngenuity in solving problems
•
Symbolic language abilities 'different symbol system( 'Cline$ @2 6hitmore N .a!er$ @4;( &i+ted St'dents with Learning isa,ilities -igh abstract reasoning ability
•
Good mathematical reasoning ability
•
Keen visual memory$ spatial s!ills
•
+dvanced vocabulary
•
Sophisticated sense of humor
•
&maginative and creative
•
&nsightful
•
)xceptional ability in geometry$ science$ arts$ music
•
Good problem8finding and 8solving s!ills
•
0ifficulty "ith memori#ation$ computation$ phonics$ and/or spelling
•
0istractibility and/or disorgani#ation
•
Supersensitivity
•
Perfectionism
•
Grasp of metaphors$ analogies$ satire
•
Comprehension of complex systems
•
nreasonable self expectations
•
Often$ failure to complete assignments
•
0ifficulties "ith seBuential tas!s
•
•
6ide variety of interests 'aum$ O"en$ N 0ixon$ @@2 Silverman$ @4(
,esearch indicates that in many cases$ a child is diagnosed "ith +0-0 "hen in fact the child is gifted and reacting to an inappropriate curriculum '6ebb N Latimer$ @5(% The !ey to distinguishing bet"een the t"o is the pervasiveness of the Racting outR behaviors% &f the acting out is specific to certain situations$ the childs behavior is more li!ely related to giftedness2 "hereas$ if the behavior is consistent across all situations$ the childs behavior is more li!ely related to +0-0% &t is also possible for a child to be OT- gifted and +0-0% The follo"ing lists highlight the similarities bet"een giftedness and +0-0% $haracteristics o+ &i+ted St'dents 3ho Are Bored Poor attention and daydreaming "hen bored •
•
Lo" tolerance for persistence on tas!s that seem irrelevant
•
egin many proAects$ see fe" to completion
•
0evelopment of Audgment lags behind intellectual gro"th
•
&ntensity may lead to po"er struggles "ith authorities
•
-igh activity level2 may need less sleep
•
0ifficulty restraining desire to tal!2 may be disruptive
•
Zuestion rules$ customs$ and traditions
•
Lose "or!$ forget home"or!$ are disorgani#ed
•
.ay appear careless
•
-ighly sensitive to criticism
•
0o not exhibit problem behaviors in all situations
•
.ore consistent levels of performance at a fairly consistent pace 'Cline$ @2 6ebb N Latimer$ @5(
•
$haracteristics o+ St'dents with A) Poorly sustained attention
•
0iminished persistence on tas!s not having immediate conseBuences
•
Often shift from one uncompleted activity to another
•
&mpulsivity$ poor delay of gratification
•
&mpaired adherence to commands to regulate or inhibit behavior in social contexts
•
.ore active$ restless than other children
•
Often tal! excessively
•
Often interrupt or intrude on others 'e%g%$ butt into games(
•
0ifficulty adhering to rules and regulations
•
Often lose things necessary for tas!s or activities at home or school
•
.ay appear inattentive to details
•
-ighly sensitive to criticism
•
Problem behaviors exist in all settings$ but in some are more severe
•
9ariability in tas! performance and time used to accomplish tas!s% 'ar!ley$ @D2 Cline$ @2 6ebb N Latimer$ @5(
8'estions to As6 in i++erentiating ,etween &i+tedness and A) •
•
•
•
•
•
Could the behaviors be responses to inappropriate placement$ insufficient challenge$ or lac! of intellectual peersQ &s the child able to concentrate "hen interested in the activityQ -ave any curricular modifications been made in an attempt to change inappropriate behaviorsQ -as the child been intervie"edQ 6hat are his/her feelings about the behaviorsQ 0oes the child feel out of controlQ 0o the parents perceive the child as being out of controlQ 0o the behaviors occur at certain times of the day$ during certain activities$ "ith certain teachers or in certain environmentsQ Gifted students "ith disabilities must be provided "ith appropriate challenges% The personal and societal costs of not developing their potential cannot be overstated%
e+initions o+ &i+ted School8ased 0efinitions Schools may use a definition of gifted based on relative ability% Students are identified by ho" "ell they perform compared to other students in the school% Students in the top ; or @D 'or some other number( percent are those singled out as needing a curriculum more challenging than the regular curriculum% Gifted in this definition is relative because a student "ho is identified as gifted in one school may not be identified as gifted in another school$ leaving parents confused% •
Giftedness as Potential That .ust be 7urtured 0efinitions that consider giftedness as potential to be developed ma!e a distinction bet"een "hat a child is capable of achieving and "hat the child "ill achieve% The fact that a child has exceptional potential is part of "hat ma!es him or her gifted% The child:s environment determines "hether potential leads to achievement$ so people "ho define gifted this "ay stress the importance of providing an appropriate environment% Gagne:s 0ifferentiated .odel of Giftedness and Talent is an example% Giftedness as +synchronous 0evelopment Linda Silverman added a ne" dimension to definitions of gifted "hen she included the uneven development of gifted children$ "hich she called asynchronous development% 0efinitions of gifted that include asynchronous development consider not only &Z and talent$ but also emotional traits of gifted children$ such as heightened sensitivity% The definition developed by the Columbus Group is an example of this type of definition% •
Columbus Group 0efinition RGiftedness is asynchronous development in "hich advanced cognitive abilities and heightened •
intensity combine to create inner experiences and a"areness that are Bualitatively different from the norm% This asynchrony increases "ith higher intellectual capacity% The uniBueness of the gifted renders them particularly vulnerable and reBuires modifications in parenting$ teaching and counseling in order for them to develop optimally%R 'Columbus Group$ @@( 0efinition* &Z is a measure of relative intelligence determined by a standardi#ed test% The first intelligence test "as created in @D; by +lfred inet and Th[ophile Simon to determine "hich French school children "ere too Xslo"Y to benefit from regular instruction% inet came up "ith the idea of mental age "hen he noticed that children are increasingly able to learn difficult concepts and perform difficult tas!s as they get older% .ost children reach the same level of complexity at about the same time$ but some children are slo"er reaching those levels% + ?8year8old child "ho can do no more than a 58year8old has a mental age of 5% 6ilhelm Stern divided the mental age by the chronological age to get a X.ental Zuotient%Y .ental +ge/Chronological +ge .ental Zuotient 0efinition* &ntelligence There are probably as many definitions of intelligence as there are experts "ho study it% Simply put$ ho"ever$ intelligence is the ability to learn about$ learn from$ understand$ and interact "ith one:s environment% This general ability consists of a number of specific abilities$ "hich include these specific abilities* +daptability to a ne" environment or to changes in the current environment •
•
Capacity for !no"ledge and the ability to acBuire it
•
Capacity for reason and abstract thought
•
+bility to comprehend relationships
•
+bility to evaluate and Audge
•
Capacity for srcinal and productive thought
+dditional specific abilities might be added to the list$ but they "ould all be abilities allo"ing a person to learn about$ learn from$ understand$ and interact "ith the environment% )nvironment in this definition doesn:t mean the environment of the earth$ such as the desert$ the mountains$ etc%$ although it can mean that !ind of environment% &t has a "ider meaning that includes a person:s immediate surroundings$ including the people around him or her% )nvironment in this case can also be something as small as a family$ the "or!place$ or a classroom% Learning isa,ility Testing * 2nderstanding Testing +or a Learning isa,ility 3hat oes Learning isa,ilities Testing "nvolve9
The learning disability testing process usually begins "hen a child has problems "ith academics or behavior in school% &n most cases$ a parents first encounter "ith special education happens "hen a child is not progressing$ and a learning disability is suspected% Typically$ parents notice early signs of a learning disability and contact the school for assistance% &nitially$ teachers may meet "ith the parent and decide to try interventions before referring a child for learning disability testing% &f the parent and educators suspect a disability$ they begin the testing process% Testing is necessary for children suspected of having a learning disability because* Learning disability testing is reBuired by federal and state regulations to determine eligibility for special education2 Learning disability testing provides important information about the childs suspected disability2 and &f the child Bualifies$ learning disability testing provides specific data for use in developing an &ndividual )ducation Program '&)P(% •
•
•
3hat does Learning isa,ility Testing "nvolve9 Learning disability testing is a complex processes of gathering information in all areas related to a students suspected learning disability% Current federal regulations reBuire that no more than sixty days should elapse from the time a student is referred for learning disability testing until the time the &)P is developed% To a parent$ those sixty days of "aiting for learning disability testing can seem li!e an eternity% 6hat goes on during that time periodQ 0epending on the area of disability and the uniBue Buestions surrounding each child$ the learning disability testing may include* ,evie" of educational records2 Observations2 ,evie" of student "or!2 • • •
•
• • • • • • • • •
.edical$ vision$ and hearing and audiological examination2 0evelopmental and Social -istory2 Fine and Gross .otor )valuation2 +daptive ehavior2 Speech and Language +ssessment2 &ntellectual +bility or R&ZR tests2 +ssessment of +cademic S!ills2 Social and )motional Testing2 ehavioral Testing2 and Psychiatric Testing%
3ho $ond'cts Testing +or Learning isa,ilities9 Testing may be provided by a variety of professionals as needed by the &)P team*
• • • • • • •
Teachers2 )ducational 0iagnosticians2 School Psychologists2 Speech Pathologists2 .edical Professionals2 Occupational and Physical Therapists2 Counselors
Learning a,o't isa,ility Testing Res'lts &n many cases$ the evaluators issue "ritten testing reports of their findings that are shared by the team% Some school districts provide testing results in one integrated report rather than individual reports from each practitioner% 6hen possible$ it is helpful for evaluators to attend &)P team meetings to share their results "ith team members and as! Buestions% +s al"ays$ parent input and participation is very important to the &)P team decision ma!ing process% sing Learning 0isability Testing ,esults to .a!e )ducational 0ecisions &)P team members revie" the information from the testing results and use the findings to* 0etermine if the students scores and other test results meet eligibility criteria for a learning disability established by the state2 &f the child Bualifies$ determine the diagnosis2 0evelop an &)P2 0etermine "hat specially designed instruction is needed2 and &f the child doesnt Bualify$ determine "hat other program supports or instructional interventions are available for assistance% •
• • • •
Learning disabilities are neurological differences in processing information that severely limit a person:s ability to learn in a specific s!ill area% )veryone has differences in learning abilities$ but people "ith learning disabilities have severe learning problems that persist throughout their lives% Learning disabled people may have difficulty in school or on the Aob% Learning disabilities may also impact independent living and social relationships% Learning disabilities are noticed "hen children struggle "ith learning in their school years% Parents and preschool teachers often see early signs of learning disabilities% Children "ith learning disabilities may have difficulty learning basic s!ills in reading or understanding reading% 0ifficulty "riting$ math$ or language may also signal learning disabilities% Some students "ith learning disabilities may easily learn basic s!ills but have difficulty applying s!ills in problem solving or higher level school "or!% Living "ith learning disabilities can be a painful struggle for both the parents and the child "ith the learning disability% &n many cases$ parents are relieved to find an ans"er "hen children are diagnosed "ith learning disabilities% The diagnosis of a learning disability is reassuring because it leads to additional support in school through specially trained teachers and special education programs% Students "ith learning disabilities "ill also have individual education programs developed to address their specific learning disability needs% Learning disabilities are supported "ith specially designed instruction based on each childs uniBue strengths$ "ea!nesses$ learning styles$and the impact of his learning disability% 3hat are Learning isa,ilities Anyway9 Learning disabilities are believed to be caused by neurological differences in the "ay the brain processes information% People "ith learning disabilities usually have average or higher intelligence% Simply put$ a person has a learning disability "hen his ability to learn an academic area is much lo"er than expected for his level of intelligence%Current learning disability regulations under the &ndividuals "ith 0isabilities )ducation +ct indicate that Learning disabilities
exist "hen a students ability to learn is average or higher$ but his s!ills in one or more academic areas are significantly "ea!er% This "ay of diagnosing a learning disability is typically referred to as the Raptitude achievement discrepancyR method%&n the diagnosis of learning disabilities$ the discrepancy is usually determined through assessment to determine the childs intelligence Buotient$ or &Z score$ and his achievement test scores in specific academic areas of reading$ math$ and "ritten language% Learning disabilities also include disorders of language processing$ listening comprehension$ and oral expression%+ complete revie" of the students educational history is conducted to rule out other possible explanations for the difference in s!ill development and &Z before a learning disability is diagnosed% )arly detection and intervention for learning disabilities are critical% &f you suspect your child has a learning problem$ find out ho" to recogni#e common signs of L0s% 0isabilities of Learning and -eredity 8 +re Learning 0isabilities iologicalQ True learning disabilities 'L0s( are believed to be an organic type of disability resulting from neurological processing problems that cause difficulty "ith learning and applying s!ills in one or more academic areas% )vidence suggests that a childs chances of having a learning disability increase "hen parents or other relatives also have learning disabilities% This suggests that heredity may play a role in some cases% -o"ever$ there are other possible causes of L0s that can be prevented in some cases% $haracteristics o+ Learning isa,led St'dents * 3hat :inds o+ St'dents )ave Learning isa,ilities9 0espite their difficulty in certain s!ill areas$ learning disabled students are usually of average or higher intelligence% Some students "ith L0s are also gifted% Types of Learning 0isabilities 8 6hat are the Types of Learning 0isabilitiesQ Learning disabilities can occur in reading$ "riting$ math$ and language What are Learning Disabilities? Learn about learning disabilities% &f your child is one of the millions "ho have learning disabilities$ learn "hat you need to !no" to understand these disorders and to help your child learn% Find facts about the various types specific learning disabilities$ related learning disorders$ and mental health issues that can affect your childs education and everyday life% Learning Disabilities in Reading, Dyslexia Types of ,eading 0isabilities 8 The &0)+ defines t"o main types of learning disabilities in reading% Learning disabilities in basic reading s!ills involve the foundational s!ills reBuired to understand the relationship bet"een letters$ sounds$ and the "ords they represent% ,eading comprehension disabilities involve complex thin!ing s!ills such as understanding "ords$ phrases and larger meanings of passages% Learn more about learning disabilities in reading and other diagnostic terms such as 0yslexia% Dysgraphia and Learning Disabilities in Writing Learning 0isabilities in 6riting 8 0oes your child struggle "ith "ritingQ &f you suspect a type of learning disability$ find information you need to understand "riting disorders% Learning disabilities in basic "riting s!ills include neurologically8based difficulty "ith producing "ritten "ords and letters% )xpressive "riting disabilities may involve comprehending and organi#ing "ritten thoughts on paper% Find information you need to help your child "ith learning disabilities in "riting and other "riting disorders$ such as 0ysgraphia%
Learning Disabilities in Math, Dyscalculia Learning 0isabilities in .ath 8 &f your child struggles "ith math calculation or problem solving$ you suspect a type of learning disability% Learn "hat you need to !no" about learning disabilities in basic math$ applied math s!ills$ and other disorders such as dyscalculia% Find information and resources you need to determine if further assessment is needed% Learning Disabilities in Language, Communication
Learning 0isabilities in Language 8 There are several types of learning disabilities in language% Students "ith language based learning disabilities may have difficulty "ith understanding or producing spo!en language$ or both% ,eceptive language disorder is a type of learning disability affecting the ability to understand spo!en$ and sometimes "ritten$ language% Learn more about the types of language disabilities and ho" to recogni#e them% ,eceptive Language 0isability 8 L0s in Listening Comprehension Learning 0isabilities in )xpressive Language 8 0isorders of Communication • •
eha!ior Disorders "ith Learning Disabilities Children "ith learning disabilities sometimes have behavioral problems% &n some cases$ problems "ith behavior may involve medical conditions such as attention deficit disorders% &n other cases$ behaviors may result from frustration "ith learning or learned because of environmental factors at school$ home$ or both% Learn about the types of behavior problems that may be occur "ith learning disabilities% ME-TAL RETARAT"#a condition$ usually present from birth$ characteri#ed by intellectual functioning that is belo" average* it ranges degree borderline '&Z of @841( to mild '&Z of to ;D8;; to approximately D( to moderate '&Zinof 5;81Dfrom to ;D8;;( to se"ere '&Z of 3D83; to 5;81D( profound '&Z of belo" 3D83;(* this technical classification has replaced the older terms moron& imbecile& and idiot' Mental Retardation * e+inition .ental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning% &t is characteri#ed by significantly sub8average intellectual functioning$ existing concurrently "ith related limitations in t"o or more of the follo"ing applicable adaptive s!ill areas* communication •
•
home living
•
community use
•
health and safety
•
leisure
•
self8care
•
social s!ills
•
self8direction
•
functional
•
academics
•
"or!
&n practice the diagnosis of mental retardation reBuires a determination that a child has significantly sub8average intelligence$ "hich is expressed as an &Z score that is more than t"o standard deviations belo" the mean% 0epending upon the test$ an &Z score belo" D '6&SC8,(
or ? 'inet( is considered to be significant% Performance in all areas of functioning is also expected to be lo"$ and achievement and general development should coincide "ith the lo" functioning% + measure of adaptive behavior is also reBuired in order to prevent culturally RdifferentR children from misdiagnosis$ although tests of adaptive behavior have correlated highly "ith &Z tests$ meaning they measure the same traits and are probably interchangeable% &n reporting an &Z$ examiners should not disregard the standard error of measurement% + pupil "ith a score of D could very "ell have a Rtrue scoreR above or above D% &f a mista!e is made$ the pupil must suffer the conseBuences by having an inappropriate label attached and opportunities diminished because of lo"er expectations% &n many "ays$ retarded children present opposite characteristics of the gifted but also the same !inds of programming problems% The maAority of supervised children classified as retarded are to live independently as adults$ a small minority reBuire adult living$ and only a able very small number reBuire care in a private or state facility% Thus$ the maAority of children identified as retarded can and "ill attend public schools and$ given proper consideration and programming$ "ill be able to succeed in school and in a vocation% -o"ever$ Aust as in the case of the gifted$ the teacher is concerned principally "ith the vast average group of students and finds it difficult to provide necessary services for the retarded "ho reBuire individuali#ed attention and assistance% Children "ith mental retardation develop in the same "ay as people "ithout mental retardation$ but more slo"ly% y definition$ persons "ith mental retardation have problems "ith thin!ing and learning such as attention$ perception$ or memory% 0epending on the extent of the disability there "ill be different outcomes for academic$ social$ and vocational adAustment% Over 3DD causes of mental retardation have been identified$ but many others are not !no"n% The !no"n categories fall into these general classifications* Genetic 8 x8ray exposure$ genes inherited from parents$ ,h blood factor incompatibility$ 0o"ns Syndrome$ error in metabolism$ or recessive genetic traits% Problem in Pregnancy 'prenatal(8 poor nutrition$ measles$ tumors$ glandular disorders$ infections$ exposure to toxic agents and drugs$ or radiation% irth Problems 'perinatal( 8 premature birth$ prolonged birth$ reduction of oxygen to the infants brain% Post irth 'postnatal( 8 disease that affects the brain 'chic!en pox$ measles$ meningitis$ "hooping cough(2 fever$ inAuries to the brain$ lac! of certain chemicals in the blood$ or glandular imbalance% )nvironmental Factors 8 deprived environment and malnutrition% Only 5I of the population have mental retardation$ and only about @;I of this small group have greater than mild disabilities% y comparison to peers$ a mentally retarded person passes through developmental milestones more slo"ly and "ill be slo"er to learn and reveal slo"er development of physical s!ills% 0ue to other complications$ there may also be concomitant conditions associated "ith the condition such as physical handicaps$ speech impairments$ visual impairments$ hearing defects$ epilepsy$ and others% Characteristics The characteristics of mental retardation are some"hat circular$ because students are identified and diagnosed on the basis of criteria that are later used to describe them% &ntellectual S!ills% y definition mental retardation means that mental s!ills are subaverage$ so this is the primary characteristic% +daptive S!ills% 0ue to the fact that adaptation to ones social and physical environment reBuires intellectual ability$ persons "ith mental retardation are li!ely to demonstrate significant differences from others% &f they do not$ classification as mentally retarded is erroneous$ despite the measure intelligence Buotient% +cademic +chievement% 0ue to subaverage intellectual functioning$ persons "ith mental retardation are li!ely to be slo"er in reaching levels of academic achievement eBual to their peers% This stands to reason% -o"ever$ many students are ultimately able to reach some level of literacy$ it Aust ta!es much longer%
.otivation% .otivation is a problem for persons "ith any disability because it is learned% Constant comparison to others "ho perform in many areas "ith apparent ease can be frustrating and diminish motivation$ diminish self8esteem$ and sometimes create Rlearned helplessnessR and belief in failure% Speech and Language% 0ue to diminished intellectual functioning and associated neurological conditions$ many children "ith mental retardation have delayed language and speech problems% Physical Characteristics% +s in the case of speech and language problems$ mentally retarded persons have slo"er physical development 'e%g%$ toilet training$ "al!ing( and are li!ely to have some forms of associated physical problems% 0ifficulty +ttending% Children "ith mental retardation do not necessarily have more difficulty attending than children of the same mental age$ but they are often associated "ith age peers and the contrasts are more noticeable in terms of developmental delay% &mpairments in memory$ particularly short8term memory% ,esearch has sho"n that many persons "ith retardation have good long8term memory$ but they have difficulty remembering in the short term$ especially if the facts or complexity of the learning situation are not readily apparent% 0ifficulty "ith the generali#ation of s!ills% The inability to generali#e is related to the inability to thin! abstractly% Limitations in adaptive s!ill areas% +s a conseBuence of limited intellectual ability$ decisions important for adAusting to ne" circumstances and problems becomes evident in many areas of adaptation to daily activities that reBuire deliberation and decision ma!ing% Classroom +ccommodations Providing accommodations for students "ith mental retardation is similar to learning disabilities$ because in many "ays the problems of adAusting to the classroom are similar% 3hat is a isa,ility9 + disability is a condition or function Audged to be significantly impaired relative to the usual standard of an individual or group% The term is used to refer to individual functioning$ including physical impairment$ sensory impairment$ cognitive impairment$ intellectual impairment mental illness$ and various types of chronic disease%0isability is conceptuali#ed as being a multidimensional experience for the person involved% There may be effects on organs or body parts and there may be effects on a persons participation in areas of life% Correspondingly$ three dimensions of disability are recogni#ed in &CF* body structure and function 'and impairment thereof($ activity 'and activity restrictions( and participation 'and participation restrictions(% The classification also recogni#es the role of physical and social environmental factors in affecting disability outcomes% Types o+ isa,ilities Types of disabilities include various physical and mental impairments that can hamper or reduce a persons ability to carry out his day to day activities% These impairments can be termed as disability of the person to do his or her day to day activities% These impairments can be termed as disability of the person to do his day to day activities as previously% R0isabilityR can be bro!en do"n into a number of broad sub8categories$ "hich include the follo"ing* a( .obility and Physical &mpairments This category of disability includes people "ith varying types of physical disabilities including* pper limb's( disability% Lo"er limb's( disability .anual dexterity% 0isability in co8ordination "ith different organs of the body% 0isability in mobility can be either an in8born or acBuired "ith age problem% &t could also be the effect of a disease% People "ho have a bro!en bone also fall into this category of disability% b( Spinal Cord 0isability*
Spinal cord inAury 'SC&( can sometimes lead to lifelong disabilities% This !ind of inAury mostly occurs due to severe accidents% The inAury can be either complete or incomplete% &n an incomplete inAury$ the messages conveyed by the spinal cord is not completely lost% 6hereas a complete inAury results in a total dis8functioning of the sensory organs% &n some cases spinal cord disability can be a birth defect% c( -ead &nAuries 8 rain 0isability + disability in the brain occurs due to a brain inAury% The magnitude of the brain inAury can range from mild$ moderate and severe% There are t"o types of brain inAuries* +cBuired rain &nAury '+&( Traumatic rain &nAury 'T&( +& is not a hereditary type defect but is the degeneration that occurs after birth% The causes of such cases of inAury are many and are mainly because of external forces applied to the body parts% T& results in emotional dysfunctioning and behavioral disturbance% d( 9ision 0isibility There are hundreds of thousands of people that suffer from minor to various serious vision disability or impairments% These inAuries can also result into some serious problems or diseases li!e blindness and ocular trauma$ to name a fe"% Some of the common vision impairment includes scratched cornea$ scratches on the sclera$ diabetes related eye conditions$ dry eyes and corneal graft% e( -earing 0isability -earing disabilities includes people that are completely or partially deaf$ '0eaf is the politically correct term for a person "ith hearing impairment(% People "ho are partially deaf can often use hearing aids to assist their hearing% 0eafness can be evident at birth or occur later in life from several biologic causes$ for example .eningitis can damage the auditory nerve or the cochlea% 0eaf people use sign language as a means of communication% -undreds of sign languages are in use around the "orld% &n linguistic terms$ sign languages are as rich and complex as any oral language$ despite the common misconception that they are not Rreal languagesR% f( Cognitive or Learning 0isabilites Cognitive 0isabilities are !ind of impairment present in people "ho are suffering from dyslexia and various other learning difficulties and includes speech disorders% f( Psychological 0isorders +ffective 0isorders* 0isorders of mood or feeling states either short or long term% .ental -ealth &mpairment is the term used to describe people "ho have experienced psychiatric problems or illness such as* Personality 0isorders 8 0efined as deeply inadeBuate patterns of behavior and thought of sufficient severity to cause significant impairment to day8to8day activities% Schi#ophrenia* + mental disorder characteri#ed by disturbances of thin!ing$ mood$ and behavior% h( &nvisible 0isabilities &nvisible 0isabilities are disabilities that are n ot immediately apparent to others% &t is estimated that @DI of people in the %S% have a medical condition considered a type of invisible disability% The )volution of a .ovement -istorically$ disabilities have ofteneither been to cast in or a negative light% +n individual affected seen as being a XpatientY subAect cure to ongoing medical care% -isthus condition is "as seen as disabling2 the social reactions to it are Austified$ and the barriers unavoidable% This position is !no"n as the medical model of disability%Over the past 3D years$ a competing vie" !no"n as the social model of disability has come to the fore% &n this model$ disability is seen more as a social construction than a medical reality% +n individual may be impaired by a condition that reBuires daily living adaptations$ but the bul! of his problem 8 his disability 8 can be found in the attitudinal and physical barriers erected by society%oth the medical and social models agree$ to a point$ that facilities and opportunities should be made as accessible as possible to individuals "ho reBuire adaptations% 0ismantling physical barriers$ or setting up adaptations such as "heelchair ramps$ is !no"n as Rfostering accessibilityR% The Language and Terminology of 0isability
The term disability has replaced the older designations spastic$ handicapped$ and crippled% 6hile these t"o designations can be used interchangeably$ proponents of the social model of disability have appropriated the latter term to describe those social and economic conseBuences of the former% +n individual "ith a physical or intellectual disability$ then$ is said to be RhandicappedR by the lo"ered expectations of society% + person may also be RimpairedR either by a correctable condition such as myopia$ or by an uncorrectable one such as cerebral palsy% For those "ith mild conditions$ related impairments disappear "ith the application of corrective devices% .ore serious impairments call for adaptive eBuipment% #RT)#PE"$ A- -E2R#L#&"$AL "MPA"RME-TS 6hat 0oes Orthopedic &mpairment .eanQ +ccording to &0)+$ Orthopedic impairment is a severe disability that adversely affects a child:s educational performance% The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly$ disability caused by disease 'such as poliomyelitis or bone tuberculosis( and from other impairments that can cause contracture% •
•
Orthopedic impairment involves the central nervous system and is a disability of the brain$ spinal cord$ or nervous system % These impairments often result in compound motor problems that can affect several body systems% 7euromotor impairment can be loss of control of a certain part of the body$ lac! of ability to move$ use or feel% The t"o most common types of neuromotor impairments are cerebral palsy and spina bifida%
+lthough orthopedic and neurological impairments are t"o distinct and separate types of disabilities$ they can cause comparable limitations in movement% .any of the same educational$ therapeutic$ and recreational activities that "or! for students "ith orthopedic disabilities "ill also be appropriate for neurological impairments Types of Orthopedic &mpairment*
•
one 0iseases rachial Plexus/)rbs Palsy Cerebral Palsy
•
-ydrocephalus
•
.uscular 0ystrophy
•
Poliomyelitis
•
Scoliosis
•
Spina ifida
•
Spinal Cord &nAury
•
Spinal .uscular +trophies
• •
+s "ith most disabilities$ classroom accommodations for students "ith orthopedic impairments "ill vary depending on the individual needs of the student% .any students "ith orthopedic impairment do not have cognitive impairment$ so their collaboration may include most or all general curriculum% &n order to have access to the general course of study$ students "ith orthopedic impairment may need* @%
+ special seating arrangement to develop useful posture and movements
3%
Focus on development of gross and fine motor s!ills
5%
se of communication and other assistive devices
1%
Other things to consider are the individual:s medical condition and its affect on the student 'such as getting tired Buic!ly(% SP&7+ &F&0+
Spina bifida is a birth defect that involves the incomplete development of the spinal cord or its coverings% The term spina bifida comes from Latin and literally means RsplitR or RopenR spine%Spina bifida occurs at the end of the first month of pregnancy "hen the t"o sides of the embryos spine fail to Aoin together$ leaving an open area% &n some cases$ the spinal cord or other membranes may push through this opening in the bac!% The condition usually is detected before a baby is born and treated right a"ay% Types o+ Spina Bi+ida The causes of spina bifida are largely un!no"n% Some evidence suggests that genes may play a role$ but in most cases there is no familial connection% + high fever during pregnancy may increase a "omans chances of having a baby "ith spina bifida% 6omen "ith epilepsy "ho have ta!en the drug valproic acid to control sei#ures may have an increased ris! of having a baby "ith spina bifida% The t"o forms of spina bifida are spina bifida occulta and spina bifida manifesta% Spina ,i+ida occ'ltais the mildest form of spina bifida 'occulta means hidden(% .ost children "ith this type of defect never have any health problems$ and the spinal cord is often unaffected% Spina ,i+ida mani+estaincludes t"o types of spina bifida* 1/
Meningocele involves the meninges$ the membranes responsible for covering and protecting the brain and spinal cord% &f the meninges push through the hole in the vertebrae 'the small$ ring8li!e bones that ma!e up the spinal column($ the sac is called a meningocele%
!/
Myelomeningocele is the most severe form of spina bifida% &t occurs "hen the meninges push through the hole in the bac!$ and the spinal cord also pushes though% .ost babies "ho are born "ith this type of spina bifida also have hydrocephal's$ an accumulation of fluid in and around the brain% ecause of the abnormal development of and damage to the spinal cord$ a child "ith myelomeningocele typically has some paralysis% The degree of paralysis largely depends on "here the opening occurs in the spine% The higher the opening is on the bac!$ the more severe the paralysis tends to be%
Children "ith spina bifida often have problems "ith bo"el and bladder control$ and some may have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder '+0-0( or other learning difficulties$ such as hand8 eye coordination problems% -E2R#L#&"$AL "MPA"RME-T (pilepsy' &n epilepsy$ regardless of etiology$ degree of impairment "ill be determined according to type$ freBuency$ duration$ and seBuelae of sei#ures% +t least one detailed description of a typical sei#ure is reBuired% Such description includes the presence or absence of aura$ tongue bites$ sphincter control$ inAuries associated "ith the attac!$ and postictal phenomena% The reporting physician should indicate the extent to "hich description of sei#ures reflects his o"n observations and the source of ancillary information% Testimony of persons other than the claimant is essential for description of type and freBuency of sei#ures if professional observation is not available% Speech and Lang'age Terms and A,,reviations Terms Commonly sed to 0iagnose a Speech or Language 0isorder*
+cBuired rain &nAury '+&(* +n accident or trauma that causes inAury to the brain% +cBuired rain &nAury can also be called a Traumatic rain &nAury 'T&( and it may be caused by penetrating inAuries$ such as in a car accident$ or a Closed -ead &nAury 'C&( "hen the brain is damaged but there is no out"ard sign of trauma% The nature of the speech and language disorder depends on the type and extent of the inAury% +phasia* Childhood or developmental aphasia is a disorder characteri#ed by difficulty learning language in the absence of mental deficiency$ sensory and physical deficits$ severe emotional disturbances$ environmental factors$ or brain damage% Currently$ these children are more li!ely referred to as language impaired$ language disordered$ or language disabled% +praxia* 9erbalmotor apraxia a disorder of articulation characteri#ed by difficulty "ith seBuencing and organi#ing or is muscle movements specifically for the production of speech% &t may also be described as the impaired ability to motor8plan% .uscle "ea!ness is not associated "ith apraxia% This is part of the group of disorders often referred to as .otor Speech 0isorders% +rticulation* The movement of mouth$ lips$ tongue$ voice box$ etc 'called the articulators( to produce speech sounds% Poor or incorrect articulation may be due to problems "ith the position$ timing$ direction$ pressure$ speed$ or integration of the movement of lips$ tongue$ or other articulators% This also refers to the clarity of sounds in speech% Central +uditory Processing* Central auditory processing involves the analysis of sound "hich occurs in the brain 'ie% beyond the inner ear(% Children "ith central auditory processing disorders have normal hearing in the usual sense% -o"ever$ difficulty "ith central auditory processing "ill affect the ability to process$ or ma!e sense of$ the sounds they hear% &n the educational setting$ the term Rcentral auditory processing disorderR is a general one used to describe children "ho have difficulty listening in the classroom environment% Cleft Lip and/or Palate* + disorder of the musculo8s!eletal system "here bone and muscle tissues do not fuse during the pre8natal period$ causing a cleft in the lip and/or palate 'ie% arch of the mouth(% This may interfere "ith feeding and speech development% 0evelopmental 0elay or 0isability* + term used generically to refer to children "hose development is delayed compared "ith their age peers% &n education$ the term refers to a severe learning disorder characteri#ed by limited intellectual development and limited potential for academic learning% &n the education setting$ children may be identified "ith a Rdevelopmental disabilityR using the .inistry of )ducation Categories and 0efinitions of )xceptionalities% 0iscourse* Connected communication of thought seBuences2 continuous expression or exchange of ideas% 0ysarthria* 0ysarthria is diagnosed "hen the child has problems "ith ma!ing speech sounds 'one of the motor speech disorders( because of muscle paralysis$ muscle "ea!ness or poor co8 ordination "hich results from a neourological impairment$ such as cerebral palsy or acBuired brain inAury% The result may be distorted$ substituted or omitted sounds% 0ysfluency* 0ysfluency$ also !no"n as stuttering$ is an interruption in the smooth$ easy flo" of speech% )xamples include repetitions$ prolongations$ interAections$ and silent pauses% Other movementscharacteristics$ may become associated "ith grimacing$ the speechhead disruptions and are to as secondary such as facial movements$ or referred hand movements% 0ysphagia* + disturbance in the normal act of s"allo"ing% )lective .utism* )lective mutism refers to children "ho can use speech to communicate but do so only "ith selected people in certain environments% These children usually spea! only to immediate family% Some elective mutes may spea! to extended family or neighbourhood children and be primarily mute at school% -earing &mpairment* + full or partial loss of the ability to detect sounds% The inability to hear sounds$ or distinguish among different sounds$ "ill result in problems "ith speech and language development% 0eafness is the traditional term used to describe loss of hearing$ but hearing impairment is the preferred term that encompasses the fact there are different degrees of hearing
loss% Language &mpairment/0isorder* These terms are used interchangeably to refer to a disorder characteri#ed by a problem in the understanding and/or use of oral or "ritten language 'listening$ spea!ing$ reading$ "riting(% 6ithin education$ children may be identified Rlanguage impairedR using the .inistry of )ducation Categories and 0efinitions of )xceptionalities% Learning 0isability* + learning disorder that involves problems in the understanding and use of the symbols of communication 'including listening$ spea!ing$ reading$ "riting$ mathematics(% There is typically a significant difference bet"een academic achievement and intellectual ability% 6ithin education$ children may be identified "ith a Rlearning disabilityR using .inistry of )ducation Categories and 0efinitions of )xceptionalities% Pervasive 0evelopmental 0isorder 'P00(* P00 is a generic term referring to a group of disorders that are characteri#ed by * impairments in social interaction$ impairment in verbal and nonverbal communication$ and a restrictive$ stereotypic pattern of behaviours% There is considerable variability in symptoms among individuals "ith P00 and considerable variability in the severity of these symptoms% There are a variety of disorders that fall under this category 'including +utism$ +spergers Syndrome$ ,etts Syndrome$ etc%(% Phonological 0isorder* Child has difficulty "ith the development of speech sounds and the rules for the sound system% Semantic8Pragmatic 0isorder* Semantic8pragmatic disorder 'ie% language meaning and language use difficulties( is sometimes used to describe those children "ho demonstrate language difficulties similar to autism/P00 '( "ithout the non8verbal social and behavioural characteristics typical of autism/P00% Traumatic rain &nAury 'T&(* +n assault on the brain that causes mild to severe inAury% The t"o types of traumatic brain inAury are penetrating inAuries and closed head inAuries 'C&(% The nature of the speech and language disorder depends on the type and extent of the inAury% 9oice 0isorder* 9oice disorders include abnormalities in the pitch 'too high/too lo"($ Buality 'hoarse/breathy$ tight/harsh( $ loudness 'inadeBuate/too loud($ or resonance 'hyponasal$ such as "hen you have a cold$ or hypernasal$ "hen there is too much sound coming through the nose( of the voice% re.'ently 2sed Speech And Lang'age Terms5 +uditory89erbal Therapy* The auditory8verbal approach uses technology and teaching strategies that enable deaf and hard of hearing children to learn to listen$ understand spo!en language$ and communicate through speech% +ugmentative Communication* +ugmentative communication refers to a "ide variety of non8 verbal techniBues used to supplement or augment a persons oral speech "hich allo"s them to use and develop their language% These may include natural gestures$ sign language$ photographs and other !inds of pictures$ spelling out "ords on alphabet displays$ as "ell as higher tech devices such as voice output devices$ etc% Communication oard* This +ugmentative Communication device is a picture or alphabet display available to the child "hen he needs or has the opportunity to use it% The visual representation may include photographs$ Picture Communication Symbols 'PCS($ liss symbols$ alphabet letters/"ords$ etc% )xpressive Language* The ability to express oneself% This usually refers to language expression through speech$ but it also includes gestures$ sign language$ use of a communication board$ and other forms of expression% Fluency* The smooth$ uninterrupted$ effortless flo" of speech2 speech that is not hindered by excessive dysfluencies% Grammar* Systems$ rules or underlying principles that describe the structure of language 'eg% 6ord order in sentences$ grammatical mar!ers such as plurals$ verb tenses$ pronouns etc(%
Language* Language involves listening$ spea!ing$ reading and "riting% Language problems may affect the ability to use acceptable vocabulary and grammar$ to organi#e ideas for expression$ and to communicate in a socially appropriate manner% .orphology* -o" sounds and "ords are put together to form meaning% + morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has meaning% The addition of a morpheme$ such as RsR$ can change the meaning of a "ord% For example$ cat becomes cats a plural$ but the addition of RsR to bi)e can also change it from a noun to a verb$ bi)es' Language is made up of rules about ho" sounds and "ords are put together to create meaning and children often have difficulty learning and using the rules% Phonology* sound system of language including speech sounds$ speech patterns and rules that apply toThe those sounds% Pragmatics* The rules that govern and describe ho" language is used in different contexts and environments% For example$ the "ords and tone of voice "ill be more formal "hen tal!ing "ith the principal and may be very casual and include slang "hen tal!ing "ith other children% Social rules are very subtle% Some children have difficulty figuring these rules out and applying them appropriately% +s a result$ they may be identified as having inappropriate or poor behaviour% ,eceptive Language* The ability to understand or comprehend language% &t usually refers to the ability to understand verbal expression$ but it also includes the ability to understand sign language$ "riting$ braille and other forms of language% ,esonance* 9ibration of one or more structures related to the source of a sound% &n voice$ resonance relates to the Buality of the voice produced 'eg% hyponasal$ hypernasal(% Semantics* The study of the meaning of language$ including meaning at the "ord$ sentence$ and conversational level% Sign Language* +merican Sign Language '+SL( is a gestural language used primarily by the deaf community% &t has o"n structure$ independent of )nglish% There are other sign language systems in use as its "ell% Speech* Speech refers to the transmission of language orally% Speech impairment includes articulation and/or phonological disorder$ dysfluency$ apraxia$ dysarthria$ voice and resonance% Syntax* The order of language$ especially the "ay "ords are put together in phrases or sentences to produce meaning% Terms 2sed to escri,e Speech And Lang'age Personnel5 +udiologist 8 + professional "ho has completed a Bualifying degree and/or certification courses and is registered %+n audiologist is able to complete tests to determine level of hearing$ and to provide rehabilitation services to persons "ith hearing loss% +n +udiologist may also be Bualified to prescribe eBuipment and devices to enhance hearing% Sign Language &nterpreter 8 &ndividuals "ho have been trained to use sign language for a person "ith a hearing impairment% +n interpreter may be assigned to an individual or group to translate information% Speech +ssistant or -earing +ssistant 8 These terms are used to describe support personnel "ho are "or!ing under the direction and supervision of either a Speech8Language Pathologist or +udiologist Speech Teacher 8 ntil recently Teachers could ta!e extra courses "hich "ould Bualify them to deliver speech remediation programs% Some school boards in Ontario continue to utili#e Speech Teachers in the delivery of programs to children% Speech Therapist 8 + common term used to describe a Speech8Language Pathologist% Speech8Language Pathologist 8 +n individual "ith a university degree$ usually at the .asters level$ "ho is registered "ith the College of +udiologists and Speech8Language Pathologists of Ontario$ and is Bualified to assess speech$ language and voice disorders and prescribe and
implement therapeutic measures% )earing Loss egrees -earing loss "as srcinally defined in medical terms before the development of modern audiology% Today professionals use the consistent$ research8based terminology of audiology$ as "ell as less8defined educational and cultural descriptions% The follo"ing numerical values are based on the average of the hearing loss at three freBuencies ;DD -#$ @$DDD -#$ and 3DDD -#$ in the better ear "ithout amplification% The numerical values for the seven categories vary from author to author* 7ormal hearing '8@D d to @; d( Slight loss '@? d to 3; d( .ild loss '3? d to 5D d( .oderate loss '5@ d to ;D d( .oderate/Severe ';@ d to D d( Severe loss '@ d to D d( Profound loss '@ d or more( .ild -earing Loss 8 -earing loss averaging not more than 1D d% .ixed -earing Loss 8 + combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss% .oderate -earing Loss 8 -earing loss form 1D to D d% Ossicles 8 5 bones of the middle ear% .alleus 'hammer($ &ncus 'anvil( and Stapes 'stirrup( Otoacoustic )missions 'O+)( 8 Tiny sounds created in the inner ear in response to a stimulus% Otoplasty 8 Surgical reconstruction or re8shaping of the pinna 'outer ear(% Otosclerosis 8 + disease in "hich spongy bone gro"s around the stapes$ limiting movement$ and causing progressive$ conductive hearing loss% SH70,O.) + syndrome is a group of signs and symptoms that together are characteristic of a particular disease or disorder% Signs are things that a physician detects during physical examination$ such as something on the s!in$ the "ay the head is shaped$ or abnormal s"elling% Symptoms are things the patient reports$ such as pain$ difficulty moving a part of the body$ or "ea!ness% &f one element of a syndrome is present$ it alerts the physician to loo! for the others% .any times RsyndromeR is used for a group of characteristics that occur together$ though the reason "hy they occur is not !no"n% This is true for many rare syndromes% Sometimes the syndrome is named after the person "ho discovered it$ such as Sec!el syndrome 'a type of d"arfism( or 6est syndrome 'a sei#ure disorder(% Theory on $'rric'l'm and "nstr'ction Curriculum and instruction go hand in hand "hen it comes to meeting standards% 6ithout a strong curriculum$ instruction becomes lost and "ea!% Curriculum guides instruction and "ithout curriculum there is no instruction% .y theory is based on research and classroom experience as a teacher% The foundation for building a curriculum comes from having a strong$ detailed and "ell thought out standard% Standards that lac! organi#ation provide a "ea! foundation to build the curriculum% Since curriculum and instruction are so closely related$ it ta!es constant communication "ith the curriculum committees and teachers% Once the standard is set$ the curriculum is put into place as a means of meeting those standards% The instruction that is taught is the ho" the curriculum and the standards "ill be achieved and fulfilled% Curriculum and instruction share a very close relationship% One cannot "or! "ithout the other and both the curriculum must be strong in order for students to succeed%
XCurriculum is the content of "hat is taught along "ith an overall process of ho" that content is to be taught$ and instruction being the more detailed plans and the "ay those plans are implemented in order to teach the curriculum content$ it becomes easy to understand that the t"o must be compatible in order to maximi#e student learningY 'Hates 3DDD(% To effectively teach students$ teachers and staff must !eep in mind that all students including special needs students learn in different "ays% 6hen creating a curriculum based on the standards$ "e must !eep in mind ho" "e "ill reach students "ith learning disabilities to ensure that they too strive to meet standards% Curriculum and instruction ta!e constant communication "ithin the educational system for the benefit of the student% Curriculums are created from standards "hich are constantly changing and demanding more of students every year% +s a result$ the curriculum must also change and so should the instruction the helps to meet those standards% Students "ith learning disabilities and those "ithout must get instruction that helps them retain the information being taught% The curriculum must ta!e into account the different types of learners in the schools system and cater the curriculum to them% The instruction that is given is a more specific roadmap that "ill reach all learners% +ll in all both the curriculum and instruction are an essential part of education and meeting standards% 6ithout either one$ there is no "ay to effectively meet set standards%
+CCO..O0+T&O7S 8 8 C-+7G)S &7 T-) 6+H &7ST,CT&O7 &S .)0&+T)0 +ccommodation means changing the "ay in "hich instruction is delivered or changing the "ay in "hich a student is expected to respond to instruction% +ccommodations should be recorded in the Specially 0esigned &nstruction part of the students &)P% +ccommodation &S 7OT SH7O7H.OS "ith .odification% + child "ith a ;D1 plan is allo"ed accommodations$ but is not permitted modifications% &f a child reBuires modifications$ he or she should be re8evaluated for special education services% &n an adaptation one does not modify the content$ only the means of delivering the content$ or means of demonstrating mastery% C,&T),&O7 ,)F),)7C)0 T)STS Criterion referenced tests are designed to find out "hether a child has a set of s!ills$ rather than ho" a child compares to other children of the same age 'normed tests%( The test designers analy#e the component parts of specific academic s!ills$ say number understanding$ and then "rite test items that "ill measure "hether the child has all the component parts of the s!ill% + test of reading s!ills "ould see! to discover "hether a child can identify the specific sounds consonants ma!e before it "ould evaluate "hether a student can ans"er comprehension Buestions% The Buestions in a criterion referenced test "ould see! to find if the student has all those s!ills$ not "hether the student does as "ell as other third grade children% )xamples* The Key .ath Tests are criterion referenced achievement tests that provide both diagnostic information and achievement scores in math%Other criterion referenced tests include the Peabody &ndividual +chievement Test 'P&+T$( and the 6oodcoc! Eohnson Test of &ndividual .ainstreaming 0efinition* .ainstreaming is an ideal situation and &0)+s preference for the placement of exceptional students% Placement of exceptional students is to be in the least restrictive environment as possible$ "hich means$ regular classroom setting% +lthough mainstreaming and inclusion arent mentioned in the la"$ it is the preferred practice% .ainstreaming has many advantages* •
Students are more li!ely to attend the school they "ould normally attend%
•
The educational setting is more authentic%
•
,egular and special education support provides a more individuali#ed approach%
•
Greater social opportunities
•
Curricula is more relevant to the grade
•
Greater sense of belonging
•
The &)P is still in place in the regular classroom using the inclusional approach% "ncl'sion * * 3hat is "ncl'sion9 #ederal La" Re$uires Students "ith Disabilities Learn "ith %ypical &eers
&nclusion is the educational practice of educating children "ith disabilities in classrooms "ith children "ithout disabilities% Prior to the PL 18@13$ the )ducation of +ll -andicapped Children +ct$ promised all children a public education for the first time% Prior to the la"$ enacted in @;$ only large districts provided any programming for special education children$ and often the SP)0 !ids "ere relegated to a room do"n near the boiler room$ out of the "ay and out of sight%The )ducation of +ll -andicapped Children +ct established t"o important legal concepts based upon the )Bual Protection Clause of the @1th +mendment$ F+P)$ or Free and +ppropriate Public )ducation$ and L,) or Least ,estrictive )nvironment% F+P) insured that the district "as providing a free education that "as appropriate for the childs need% Public insured that it "as provided in a public school% L,) insured that the least restrictive placement "as al"ays sought% The first Rdefault positionR "as meant to be in the childs neighborhood school in a classroom "ith typically developing Rgeneral educationR students%There has been a broad range of practices from state to state and district to district% ecause of la"suits and due process actions$ there is increasing pressure on states to put special education students in general education classrooms for part or all of their day% Two Models There are generally t"o models for inclusion* push in or full inclusion% RPush &nR has the special education teacher enter the classroom to provide instruction and support to children% The push in teacher "ill bring materials into the classroom% The teacher may "or! "ith the child on math during the math period$ or perhaps reading during the literacy bloc!% The push in teacher also often provides instructional support to the general education teacher$ perhaps helping "ith differentiation of instruction% RFull &nclusionR places a special education teacher as a full partner in a classroom "ith a general education teacher% The general education teacher is the teacher of record$ and is responsible for the child$ even though the child may have an &)P% There are strategies to help children "ith &)Ps succeed$ but there are also many challenges% 7o doubt not all teachers are "ell suited to partner in full inclusion$ but s!ills for collaboration can be learned% 0ifferentiation is an incredibly important tool to help children "ith disabilities succeed in an inclusive classroom% 0ifferentiation involves providing a range of activities and using a variety of strategies for children "ith different abilities$ from learning disabled to gifted$ to successfully learn in the same classroom%+ child receiving special education services may participate fully in the same program as the general education children "ith supports from the special education teacher$ or may participate in a limited "ay$ as they are able% &n some rare occasions$ a child may "or! exclusively on goals in their &)P in a general education classroom alongside typically developing peers% For inclusion to truly succeed$ special educators and general educators need to "or! closely together and compromise% &t definitely reBuires that teachers have training and
support to overcome the challenges they must meet together% -o" To &ntegrate the Special 7eeds Student into Physical )ducation The &ndividuals "ith 0isabilities )ducation +ct '&0)+($ Public La" @D481?? '3DD1($ states that physical education is a reBuired service for children and youth bet"een the ages of 583@ "ho Bualify for special education services because of a specific disability or developmental delay%The term special education means specially designed instruction$ at no cost to the parents$ to meet the uniBue needs of a child "ith a disability$ including* instruction conducted in the classroom and instruction in physical education% The specially designed program "ill be outlined in the childs &ndividual )ducation Program/Plan '&)P(% Therefore$ physical education services$ specially designed if necessary$ must made available to every child "ith a disability F+P)%Physical )ducation forbe a special needs child "ill develop* Physical and receiving motor fitness2 Fundamental motor s!ills and patterns2 and s!ills in aBuatics$ dance$ and individual and group games and sports 'including intramural and lifetime sports(%Vp The implication of &0)+s la"s is basically to integrate all children "ithin instructional and extra class programs and to individuali#e the instructional strategies and activity areas to support the special needs children% Some activites "ill have more restrictions than others and some "ill be less vigorous than others depending on the needs% The teacher in conAunction "ith other supporting staff "ill decide if the physical education program reBuires mild$ moderate or limited participation% ,emember that you "ill be adapting$ modifying$ and changing the activity and or eBuipment to meet the needs of the special needs students% This may mean$ larger balls$ bats$ partner assistance$ using different body parts$ providing more rest time% The goal is to ensure the child is progressing and having some form of success% Thin! in terms of action$ time$ assistance$ eBuipment$ boundaries$ distance etc% 6hat is +ugmentative CommunicationQ'+C or +CC( +ugmentative$ sometimes referred to as alternative communication '++C( is a method of communication used by individuals "ith severe speech and language disabilities$ those "ho have Cerebral Palsy$ +utism$ +LS$ suffered from a stro!e$ etc% ++C is for those individuals "ho are unable to use verbal speech yet are cognitively able or "hen speech is extremely difficult to understand% These individuals "ill use gestures$ communications boards$ pictures$ symbols$ dra"ings or a combination of all of these% +n individual "ould point to a single meaning picture 8 for instance if the individual "as hungry$ the picture may loo! li!e somebody eating% &f the individual is also physically impaired$ a head pointer may be "orn to indicate the picture "hich "ould relay the feeling% The methods of ++C "ill vary and be personali#ed to meet the needs of the individual% .any forms of ++C "ith have an assistive technology component "hich "ill come in both high tech or lo" tech strategies% Hou dont need special s!ills for understanding an individual "ho is using +CC as the processes are self8explanatory% +ssessment 8 +ssessment in Special )ducation Programs 0efinition* +n assessment in special education programs refers to the procedures and tests used to* diagnose specific learning disabilities and other types of disabilities2 evaluate a students current achievement levels2 • •
• • •
provide specific information about a students academic strengths and "ea!nesses2 describe the students current intellectual functioning2 and/or determine the students learning style% Contents of an &ndividual )ducation Plan '&)P( A$$ (xceptional Students *ill equire an +(P
&ndividual )ducation Program '&)P( Program% ,eBuired Contents for an &)P% The &)P is a long
range 'yearly( planning document that is used in conAunction "ith the classroom teachers daily and long range plans% The actual programming details "ill be contained in the teachers daily and short range plans% )ach student has uniBue needs that must be recogni#ed and planned for in the academic program so that each student "ill be able to function as effectively as possible in the school environment$ this is "here the &)P comes into play% Placement of students may vary depending upon their needs and exceptionalities% A st'dent may ,e placed in5 a regular classroom and receive program modifications a regular classroom and receive program modifications and also receive additional support from the special education teacher • •
•
•
•
a regular classroom for a part of the day and a special education classroom for the remainder of the day a special education classroom "ith a variety of direct and indirect support from special education teachers and consultative support staff a treatment program or residential program "ith complete and ongoing support from a variety of staff%
,egardless of the placement of the student$ an &)P "ill be in place% The contents of the &)P "ill vary from state to state and country to country$ ho"ever$ most "ill reBuire the follo"ing* @%
The date the plan "ill be implemented along "ith the date that the placement of the student became effective%
3%
+ signature from the parent and depending upon the age of the student$ it too may be reBuired%
5%
The exceptionality of the student or the multiple exceptionalities of the student%
1% ;%
-ealth issues "ill also be noted if they are applicable% Personali#ed eBuipment that is reBuired for the student to function must be stated and any eBuipment that may be on loan to the student must also be included on the &)P%
?%
+ny eBuipment that is used on a regular basis$ such as a "al!er or a feeding chair%
%
Personnel that may be involved during the time that the &)P is in effect must also be listed% For instance$ the vision resource specialist or the physio therapist etc%
4%
Curricular modifications and or curric ular accommodations should be conta ined in the &)P%
%
The amount of support that the student "ill receive must be listed% For instance$ if the student "ill be in the regular class for physical education$ science$ social studies$ art and music 8 yet for language and math they "ill receive support in the special education classroom for 5DI of their day% Or$ it may simply state that the special education "ill provide language support for 3D minutes a day in the morning%
@D% The &)P should list the students strengths and interests also% This "ill help to provide motivation "hen programming for the student and is something that anyone "or!ing "ith the student should !no" about% @@% Standardi#ed assessment results and or scores should all be identified in the &)P% @3% +cademic functioning along "ith the date also needs to be listed% For instance$ if the student is in the ;th grade but is functioning academically at the second grade$ this too needs to be noted% &f there are supporting tests used to determine grade functioning$ those scores should also be included along "ith the date the tests "ere conducted% @5% +ll subAect areas reBuiring modifications or additional support should be listed% @1% Grade levels should also be included% &f the student is "or!ing at grade level in everything except math 8 this needs to be noted%
@;% Goals$ )xpectations and Performance Standards should be clearly identified "ith very specific details% @?% Strategies for ho" the student "ill achieve the goals or expectations must also be very clearly stated% @% )valuation comments should be added throughout the year as the &)P is a ,or)ing document% &t should be noted "hen something isnt "or!ing in the &)P and suggestions for improvement can then be added% @4% Parents and students 'if applicable( should have a copy of the &)P and the &)P is stored in a safe place at the school 8 usually in the office% Special )ducation Terminology Terminology +ccommodations$ Strategies$ and .odifications are all common terms used in Special )ducation today% +ccommodations refer to the actual teaching supports and services that the student may reBuire to successfully demonstrate learning% +ccommodations should not change expectations to the curriculum grade levels% )xamples • • • • • • • • • • •
taped boo!s math charts additional time oral test oral reports preferred seating study carrel amplified system braille "riter adapted !eyboard speciali#ed soft"are
.odifications refer to changes made to curriculum expectations in order to meet the needs of the student% .odifications are made "hen the expectations are beyond the students level of ability% .odifications may be minimal or very complex depending on the student performance% .odifications must be clearly ac!no"ledged in the &)P% )xamples • • • •
second language exemptions "ithdra"al for specific s!ills include student in same activity but individuali#e the expectations and materials student is involved in same theme/unit but provide different tas! and expectations
Strategies refer to s!ills or techniBues used to assist in learning% Strategies are individuali#ed to suit the student learning style and developmental level% )xamples • • • •
highlighting rehearsal color coding memory Aoggers
• • • • • • • • • • •
visual cues number lines alphabet strips !eyring sight "ords flip chart organi#ation/transition cards Aello po"der$ play doe$ seed spelling "indo" paint bingo dapper stencils in! stamps
,emember$ "hen developing and implementing accommodations$ strategies and modifications$ "hat "or!s for one student may not "or! for another% Keep it individuali#ed for optimum success\ Practical Strategies For The Classroom Strategies For Special (ducation There are many practical strategies that are effective in the classroom% &t is up to the classroom and special education teacher to ensure that appropriate strategies are being used in the classroom to assist individual learning styles and provide success to all students "ith special needs% &t is recommended that a multi8modal approach be used$ visual$ auditory$ !inesthetic and tactile for optimum success% Classroom )nvironment Provide the use of a study carrel "hen necessary% •
•
Seat student in area free from distractions%
•
)liminate all unnecessary materials from student des! to reduce distractions%
•
se a chec!list to help student get organi#ed%
•
Keep an extra supply of pencils$ pens$ boo!s and paper in the classroom%
•
Hou may have to allo" the student freBuent brea!s%
•
-ave an agreed upon cue for student to leave the classroom%
•
,educe visual distractions in the classroom%
Time .anagement and Transitions Space short "or! periods "ith brea!s% •
•
Provide additional time to complete assignment%
•
+llo" extra time for home"or! completion%
•
&nform student "ith several reminders$ several minutes apart$ before changing from one activity to the next%
•
,educe amount of "or! from usual assignment%
•
Provide a specific place for turning in assignments%
Presentation of .aterials .odify expectations based on students needs% rea! assignments into segments of shorter tas!s% Give alternative assignments rather than long "ritten assignments% • • •
•
Provide a model of end product%
•
Provide "ritten and verbal direction "ith visuals if possible%
•
rea! long assignments into small seBuential steps$ monitoring each step%
•
•
•
-ighlight to alert student attention to !ey points "ithin the "ritten direction of the assignment%% Chec! that all home"or! assignments are "ritten correctly in some !ind of an agenda/home"or! boo!% Sign it and have parents sign it as "ell%
•
7umber and seBuence steps in a tas!% Provide outlines$ study guides$ copies of overhead notes%
•
)xplain learning expectations to the student before beginning a lesson%
•
.a!e sure you have the students attention before beginning a lesson%
•
+llo" for student to use tape recorders$ computers$ calculators and dictation to obtain and retain assignment success%
•
+llo" oral administration of test%
•
Limit the number of concepts presented at one time%
•
Provide incentives for beginning and completing material%
+ssessment$ Grading and Testing Provide a Buiet setting for test ta!ing$ allo" tests to be scribed if necessary and allo"ing for oral responses% )xempt student from district "ide testing if possible% •
•
•
0ivide test into small sections%
•
Grade spelling separately from content%
•
+llo" as much time as needed to complete%
•
+void time test%
•
Change percentage of "or! reBuired for passing grade%
•
Permit reta!ing the test%
•
Provide monitored brea!s from test
ehavior +void confrontations and po"er struggles% Provide an appropriate peer role model% .odify rules that may discriminate against student "ith neurological disorder% 0evelop a system or code that "ill let the student !no" "hen behavior is not appropriate% &gnore attention see!ing behaviors that are not disruptive to the classroom% • • • • •
•
•
+rrange a designated safe place that student can go to% 0evelop a code of conduct for the classroom and visually display it in an appropriate place "here all students can see it$ revie" it freBuently%
•
0evelop a behavior intervention plan that is realistic and easily applied%
•
Provide immediate reinforcers and feedbac!%
0elivering an academic program to a room full of uniBue students is certainly a challenge% &mplementing some of the listed strategies "ill provide a comfortable learning place for all
students regardless of their academic abilities% -O6 0O)S T)+C-), COLL+O,+T&O7 ,)L+T) TO SP)C&+L )0C+T&O7 S),9&C) 0)L&9),H Teacher collaboration as it relates to special education services should not be considered in isolation from other aspects of a collaborative school% 6ith educational improvement for all students as the overriding goal of collaborative schools 'Smith N Scott$ @D($ teacher collaboration regarding students "ith disabilities should be Aust another aspect of a schools collaborative ethic and an integral part of the school culture% +pplications of Collaborative Principles Collaboration cannot exist by itself% &t can only occur "hen it is associated "ith some program or activity that is based on the shared goals of the individuals involved% +n examination of applications in "hich teachers "or! collabor atively is appropriate% 0epending upon their shared programmatic goals$ educators can "or! together in many diverse "ays to deliver services to students% Laycoc!$ Gable$ and Korine! '@@ ( have described several alternative formats or configurations that facilitate collaborative efforts to deliver educational services% The follo"ing sections consider applications of collaboration that may be used for improving the delivery of educational services to all students$ including those "ith disabilities% Co8Teaching% Co8teaching is becoming a viable approach for instruction in many school situations% For example$ in some high schools history and )nglish teachers are co8teaching classes that combine their subAect matter into a course called +merican Studies% Similarly$ in middle schools$ teams of teachers are meeting regularly to discuss instructional issues and to monitor student progress% .any teachers$ regardless of level$ contact colleagues to engage in shared classroom activities either formally or informally% This service delivery approach is also receiving increasing attention as a means of integrating students "ith disabilities into general education classes% &n co8teaching designed for this purpose$ t"o teachers 88one a general education teacher and the other a special education teacher88"or! primarily in a single classroom to deliver instruction to a heterogeneous group of students including students "ith disabilities% .any different types of co8teaching may occur '+dams$ Cessna$ Stein$ N Friend$ @32 au"ens$ -ourcade$ N Friend$ @42 Friend N Coo!$ @3(% The follo"ing are several common approaches* One teach$ one observe or assist% &n this type of co8teaching$ both teachers are present$ but one88often the general education teacher88ta!es a clear lead in the classroom "hile the other gathers observational data on students or RdriftsR around the room assisting students during instruction% This approach is simple2 it reBuires little planning on the part of the teachers$ and it provides the additional assistance that can ma!e a heterogeneous class successful% -o"ever$ it also has serious liabilities% +f the same teacher consistently obser"es or assists& that teacher may feel li)e a glorif ied aide and the students may ha"e troub le responding to him or her as a real teacher' +f this approach is follo,ed& the teachers should alternate roles regularly' Station teaching% &n this approach$ the teach ers divi de the conte nt to be delivered and each ta!es responsibility for part of it% &n a classroom "here statio n teaching is used$ some of the students may be completing independent "or! assignments or participating in peer tutoring% +lthough this approach reBuires that the teachers share responsibility for planning to sufficiently to divide the instructional content$ each has separate responsibility for delivering instruction% Students benefit from the lo"er teacher8pupil ratio$ and students "ith disabilities may be integrated into a group
instead of being singled out% Furthermore$ because "ith this approach each teacher instructs each part of the class$ the eBual status of both students and teachers is maximi#ed% One dra"bac! to station teaching is that the noise and activity level may be unacceptable to some teachers% Parallel teaching% The primary purpose of this type of co8teaching is to lo"er the student8teacher ratio% &n parallel teaching$ the teachers plan the instruction Aointly$ but each delivers it to half of the class group% This approach reBuires that the teachers coordinate their efforts so that the students receive essentially the same instruction% This type of co8teaching is often appropriate for drill and practice activities$ proAects needing close teacher supervision$ and test revie"% +s "ith station teaching approaches$ noise and activity levels may need to be monitored% +lternative teaching% Team teaching% &n team teaching$ both teachers share the instruction of students% The teachers may ta!e turns leading a discussion$ one may spea! "hile the other demonstrates a concept$ one may spea! "hile the other models note ta!ing on the chal!board$ and so on% Teachers may role play$ simulate conflict$ and model appropri ate Buestion as!ing% This approach reBuires the highest level of mutual trust and the most commitment% &t is an approach that some co8teachers may never enAoy% On the other hand$ many "eteran co-teachers report that this is the type c of co- teaching they find most re,arding' Some of these approaches reBuire close collaboration on 'e%g%$ team teaching( "hile others do not 'e%g%$ teaching "hile the other observes assists(% For all the approaches$ ,edditt '@@( hasone offered the follo"ing important points toor!eep in mind* +ll members of the school community 'i%e%$ teachers$ administrators$ parents( must understand that a co8taught class is not a duplication of effort or a "aste of one teacher2 the t"o teachers are accomplishing together "hat neither could do alone% Co8teaching is not for everyone% Some teachers simply "ill be too uncomfortable "ith a colleague present in the teaching situation to perform effectively% Co8teachers must be both flexible and committed to the co8teaching process% For co8 teaching to be successful$ each teacher gives up a little and gains a great deal% Scheduling is one of the greatest challenges in co8teaching% Teachers not only need a shared time to teach '"hether on a daily$ "ee!ly$ or occasional basis($ they also need time to plan instruction$ especially for the models in "hich more coordination bet"een the teachers is needed% Teams% +nother school application of collaboration is teaming% +lthough much of the information presented in the follo"ing paragraphs could apply to any type of team$ the emphasis "ill be on t"o types in particular* prereferral teams and multidisciplinary teams% Prereferral Teams% Prereferral team is a term used to refer to all the team approaches that address students academic and behavior problems prior to any consideration for special education eligibility% Some teams consist of only teachers$ "hile some include others "ho can assist in assessing student difficulties and supporting teachers% On all such teams$ the procedures used are generally consistent "ith those of the prereferral intervention system proposed by Graden$ Casey$ and
onstrom '@4;(* Stage @* ,eBuest for consultation% &n this stage the teacher reBuests assistance for a student$ sometimes through an informal contact "ith an individual "ho functions as a consultant and sometimes through presentation of student concerns at a team meeting% Stage 3* Consultation% 0uring this stage$ strategies to address the problems raised by the students teacher are suggested and systematically implemented% Generally$ the teacher has the primary responsibility for most of the strategies% Stage 5* Observation% Feedbac! on the strategies being implemented is sought to determine their effectiveness2 alternative strategies may also be suggested% On some teams Stages 3 and 5 are combined% Stage 1* Conference% +t this stage$ the team meets to consider the information gathered% The team may decide to continue or adapt interventions$ determine that a full assessment is needed$ or determine that no additional intervention is "arranted% &f the team recommends referral for full assessment to determine eligibility for special education$ the team process is extended and involves a multidisciplinary team% T-) 7)6O,7 SC,))7&7G The test is aptly called 7e"born Screening is a very simple test that should be given to ne"born babies "ithin 31 hours from birth% &f the test is given too late the baby can either die or eventually be severely retarded% &t is a blood test "herein the blood sample is ta!en from the heel of the baby and placed in a special paper % The test is bale to chec! five metabolic disorder such as $ Congenital -ypothyroidism$ Congenital +drenal -yperplaxia$ Galactosemia$ Phynel!etonuria and Glucose Six Phosphate 0ehydrogenase deficiency% "ntelligence tests The Stan+ord*Binet "ntelligence Scale +lfred inet '@4;8@@@( "as a French psychologist "ho "as interested in thestudy of thin!ing and mental processes% +s the director of physiological psychology at the Sorbonne$ he "as as!ed by the French .inistry of Public &nstruction to develop a method of identifying children "ho "ere too so far belo" average in intelligence that they could not be educated in ordinary public schools%The Stanford8inet scale tests intelligence across four areas* verbal reasoning$ Buantitative reasoning$ abstract/visual reasoning$ and short8term memory%The S8F) differs from earlier versions of the test because it gives subtestscores in the four areas as "ell as a single composite &Z score% The areas are covered by @; subtests$ including vocabulary$ comprehension$ verbal absurdities$ pattern analysis$ matrices$ paper folding and cutting$ copying$ Buantitative$ number series$ eBuation building$ memory for sentences$ memory for digits$ memory for obAects$ and bead memory%+ll test subAects ta!e an initial vocabulary test$ "hich along "ith the subAects age$ determines the number and level of subtests to be administered% Total testing time is 1;8D minutes$ depending on the subAects age and the number of subtests given% ,a" scores are based on the number of items ans"ered$ and are converted into a standard age score corresponding to age group%The mean$ or average$ score on the Stanford8inet test is @DD% This means ;Dpercent of people score above @DD and ;D percent score belo" @DD% The actualnumber is calculated by ta!ing the persons mental age as determined by the test results and dividing it by their chronological age then multiplying by @DD% For example$ if a @1 year old does as "ell as the average @? year old$ the&Z score is @?/@1 x @DD @@1% Scores generally range from about 1D 'very lo"( to @?D 'very high(% +n &Z score of @5D is higher than about 4 percent ofall people tested% The 3echsler "ntelligence Scales The 6echsler &ntelligence Scales consist of several different standardi#ed tests used to evaluate reasoning and intellectual abilities in pre8school children through adults%0avid 6echsler '@4?8@4@( "as an +merican psychologist "ho began his career by administering and
interpreting mental tests that had been designed for the nited States +rmy to assign recruits to army Aobs that best suited their abilities% The 6echsler +dult &ntelligence Scales are used to determine vocational ability$ to assess adult intellectual ability in the classroom$ and to determine organic deficits% oth adult and childrens 6echsler scales$ as "ell as the Stanford8inet test$ are often included in neuropsychological testing to assess the brain function of individuals "ith neurological impairments%The 6+&S8, "as revised in @4@ because of a need for a more contemporary norm group than the srcinal test sample% The test is designed for adults$ age @?81% #ther Types o+ "ntelligence Testing Other tests are designed to be given in groups% These include the Cognitive +bilities Test 'C+T( and the School +bilities Tests 'SC+T(%testing Theseistests can be given by test administrators andand areCollege computer scored%&ntelligence Aust one snapshot of untrained a persons abilities% The information from the test does not predict ones success in life% &t should be ta!en as Aust one factor in a complete neurological or psychiatric evaluation% Types o+ Sei;'res Sei;'re Basics .ost sei#ures are caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain or by fainting 'decrease in blood flo" to the brain(% Symptoms may vary depending on the part of the brain involved$ but often include unusual sensations$ uncontrollable muscle spasms$ and loss of consciousness% There have been many attempts to categori#e sei#ures$ based on both the causes of sei#ures as "ell as the different sei#ure subtypes% + "ell8recogni#ed classification system is the &nternational Classification of )pileptic Sei#ure%This divides sei#ure types by the location in the brain that they srcinate from% The t"o main categories of sei#ures include partial sei#ures and generali;ed sei#ures% Partial subdivided sei;'res are those that begin in a focal or discreet area of the brain% This type can be further into* Simple partial5 7o change in consciousness occurs% Patients may experience "ea!ness$ numbness$ and unusual smells or tastes% T"itching of the muscles or limbs$ turning the head to the side$ paralysis$ visual changes$ or vertigo may occur% 6hen motor symptoms spread slo"ly from one part of the body to another$ this Repileptic marchR has been termed .ac)sonian epilepsy 'first described by -ughlings Eac!son(% •
•
$omple7 partial sei;'res (temporal lo,e5 Consciousness is altered during the event% Patients may have some symptoms similar to those in simple partial sei#ures but have some change in their ability to interact "ith the environment% Patients may exhibit automatisms 'automatic repetitive behavior( such as "al!ing in a circle$ sitting and standing$ or smac!ing their lips together% Often accompanying these symptoms are the presence of unusual thoughts$ such as the feeling of deAa vu 'having been someplace before($ uncontrollable laughing$ fear$ visual hallucinations$ and experiencing unusual unpleasant odors% These interesting symptoms are thought to be caused by abnormal discharges in the temporal lobe%
&enerali;ed sei;'res areas of the brain$ hemispheres onset% They are further involve divided larger into many subtypes% The often moreboth common include* 'sides($ from the Tonic*clonic (grand mal5This subtype is "hat most people associate "ith sei#ures% Specific movements of the arms and legs and/or the face may occur "ith loss of consciousness% + yell or cry often precedes the loss of consciousness% Prior to this$ patients may have an aura 'an unusual feeling that often "arns the patient that they are about to have a sei#ure(% The person "ill abruptly fall and begin to have Aer!ing movements of their body and head% 0rooling$ biting of the tongue$ and incontinence of urine may occur% 6hen the Aer!ing movements stop$ the patient may remain unconscious for a period of time% The sei#ure usually lasts ; to 3D minutes% They often a"a!en confused and may sleep for a period of time% The patients may experience prolonged "ea!ness after the event2 this is termed Todds paralysis' •
•
•
A,sence (petit mal5Loss of consciousness only occurs$ "ithout associated motor symptoms% sually there is no aura$ or "arning% The loss of consciousness is brief2 the patient may appear to be involved "ith the environment and briefly stop "hat they are doing$ stare for ; to @D seconds$ and then continue their activity% 7o memory of the event exits% Subtle motor movements may accompany the alteration in consciousness% Myoclonic5 .yoclonic sei#ures are characteri#ed by a brief Aer!ing movement that arises from the central nervous system$ usually involving both sides of the body% The movement may be very subtle or very dramatic% There are many different syndromes associated "ith myoclonic sei#ures$ including Auvenile myoclonic epilepsy$ 6est syndrome and Lennox8Gastaut syndrome% .ost cases of myoclonic epilepsy occur during the first ; years of life%
3est Syndrome 6est syndrome involves a group of symptoms including infantile spasms$ retardation of psychomotor development$ and a particular abnormality on the electroencephalogram '))G( !no"n as hypsarrhythmia% &nfantile spasms are characteri#ed by a particular posturing of the infants body$ in "hich the child assumes a Aac!8!nife$ or folded$ position% These spasms may occur freBuently in the course of the day or may be continuous% 7eurological problems are ultimately found in most of these children% The hypsarrhythmia pattern seen on the ))G is a grossly disorgani#ed pattern of electrical brain activity% &t is often difficult to control the sei#ures in this syndrome because they usually respond poorly to most anticonvulsant medications% Lenno7*&asta't Syndrome Lennox8Gastaut syndrome is characteri#ed by the early onset of a common sei#ure type called minor motor sei#ures% These sei#ures include the aforementioned myoclonic sei#ures$ atypical absence sei#ures$ and atonic sei#ures% +typical absence sei#ures may involve staring and brief episodes of unconsciousness% They may occur in cycles and are associated "ith ))G findings different from those seen in typical absence sei#ures% +tonic sei#ures may be associated "ith sudden loss of muscle tone% Stat's Epileptic's Status epilepticus is prolonged$ repetitive sei#ure activity that lasts more than 3D to 5D minutes$ during time "hich the patient is unconscious% Status epilepticus is a medical emergency "ith a significantly poor outcome2 it can result in death if not treated aggressively% &ts causes include improper use of certain medications$ stro!e$ infection$ trauma$ cardiac arrest$ drug overdose$ and brain tumor%
