BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS: Biological disasters of natural origin are largely the result of the entry of a virulent organism into a congregation of susceptible people living in a manner suited to the spread of the infection. In crowded areas, anthrax spreads by spore dispersalin the air, small pox spreads by aerosols, typhus and plague spread through lice, fleas, rodents,etc. The average epidemic spreads locally and dies down if the contagion is localised, but there have been instances where diseases have spread widely, even across national boundaries. Disasters have occurred when environmental factors were conducive, e.g., Black Death occurred when conditions were favourable for increase in the number of rats, and cholera attained a pandemic form when the causative agent entered urban areas which had inadequate sanitation facilities. Similarly, post WW I, the movement of population led to the rapid spread of the Spanish influenza virus. Biological Agents as Causes of Mass Destruction: Whether naturally acquired or artificially introduced, highly virulent agents have the potential of infecting large numbers numbers of susceptib susceptible le individual individualss and in some cases establish establishing ing infectious infectious chains. chains. The potential potential of some infectious agents is nearly as great as that of nuclear weapons and, are therefore, included in the triad of Weapon of Mass Destruction (WMD): Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC). The low cost and widespread availability of dual technology (of low sophistication) makes BW attractive to even less developed countries. BW agents, in fact, are more efficient in terms of coverage per kilogram of payload than any other weapons system. In addition, advances in biotechnology have made their production simpler and also enhanced the ability to produce more diverse, tailor-made agents. Biological weapons are different from other WMD as their effects manifest after an incubation period, thus allowing the infected (and infectors) to move away from the site of attack. The agents used in BW are largely natural pathogens and the illnesses caused by them simulate existing diseases. The diagnosis and treatment of BW victims should be carried out by the medical care system rather than by any specialised agency as in the case of the other two types of WMD. Another characteristic of some of these attacks, e.g., smallpox, is their proclivity to set up chains of infection. The production and use of biological agents is simple enough to be handled by individuals or groups aiming to target civilians. Thus, BT is defined by CDC as, ‘the intentional release of bacteria, viruses or toxin for the purpose of harming or killing civilians’. Sources of Biological Agents: Theoretically, any human, animal or plant pathogen can cause an epidemic or be used as a biological weapon. The deliberate intention/action to cause harm defines a biological attack. A well known example is the incident in the USA where members of a religious cult caused gastroenteritis by the use of Salmonella typhimurium. The organism causing the illness was such a common natural pathogen, that, only the confessional statements of the perpetrators (when the cult broke up) revealed the facts. However, certain characteristics need to be present for an organism to be used as a potentia potentiall biologica biologicall agent for warfare or terroris terroristt attack. attack. Of these, anthrax,sm anthrax,smallpo allpox, x, plague, plague, tularemia, brucellosis and botulinism toxin can be considered as leaders in the field. It is the causative agents that have to be catered for in the context of BT at all times. As already mentioned, the use of agents that target livestock and crops could could be as devast devastati ating ng as human human pathog pathogens ens,, in terms terms of their their probab probable le econom economic ic impact impact on the community. Biological Disasters (BT): Events in the recent past have shown that the threat of BT is real. ‘The arguments advanced to defer consideration of the issues issues relate related d to bioter bioterror rorism ism have have been been “witho “without ut validi validity” ty” and we cannot cannot delay delay the develo developme pment nt and implementation of strategic plans for coping with civilian bioterrorism’. Reconstructed scenarios in the case of attacks by the more likely BT agents reveal two patterns. In the case of anthrax and botulinum toxin which have high initial effect but no secondary cases, the scenario is similar to chemical attacks. However, when the pathogen used has the ability to set up secondary cases, and probably an epidemic, the scenario is far more complex. The preparation and action have to be tailored appropriately. Bioweapons are particularly attractive to terrorist groups because of the ease of their production and also their low cost. They have been termed ‘the poor man’s nuclear
bomb’ since it is estimated that a large-scale operation, against a civilian population with casualties, may cost about $ 2,000 per sq. km with conventional weapons, $ 800 with nuclear weapons, $ 600 with nerve gas weapons and $ 1 with biological weapons. There have been numerous documented attempts at BT. Biological agents are more efficient in terms of coverage per kilogram of payload than any other weapons system. Terrorism by means of weaponised biological agents such as anthrax is no longer a theoretical concept. Anthrax spores can be milled to an unexpectedly fine degree— 100 times smaller than the human strain in size and easily inhaled deep into the lungs. Even the delivery system for weaponised anthrax need not be sophisticated. Accidental release of anthrax bacilli from a bioweapons unit at Sverdlovsk [in the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, (USSR)] and an outbreak of salmonellosis in Dallas, Oregon, in 1984 are well known incidents. The postal dissemination of anthrax spores (after 9/11) caused 22 cases, including 5 deaths, and ‘ushered in the transition from table top bioterrorism exercises to real world investigation and response’. The crucial role of well trained, alert health care providers like Larry Bush, the infectious diseases physician from Florida, USA, who diagnosed the first case promptly, is underlined by this outbreak. Impact of Biological Disasters: Dispersal experiments have been attempted using non-pathogenic Bacillus globigii, which has physical characteristics similar to Bacillus anthracis. The variables in dissemination have been worked out and the impact of bioterrorist attacks estimated. The dispersal experiments showed that an attack on the New York subway system would kill at least 10,000 people. WHO studies show that a 50 kg dispersal on a population of 500,000 would result in up to 95,000 fatalities and over 125,000 people being incapacitated. Other experiments have also shown similar disastrous outcomes. In the case of smallpox, the emergence of secondary cases at the rate of 10 times the number of primarily infected subjects, would add to the burden. There would also be a demand for large scale vaccination from meagre stocks and no ongoing production. Inevitably, epidemics would break out and social chaos would ensue. The economic impact of BT would be a major burden that could transcend the medical consequences. It has been estimated that the use of a lethal agent like Bacillus anthracis would cause losses of $26.2 billion per 100,000 persons exposed, while a less lethal pathogen, e.g., Brucella suis would cause $477.7 million. The study also shows that a post-attack prophylaxis programme will be cost-effective, thereby justifying expenditure on preparedness measures. The major economic losses that occurred due to the fallout of the 1994 Surat plague epidemic of natural origin is an example of the larger ramifications of BT/ BW. A BT attack on agriculture can cause as much economic loss as an attack on human beings. The spread of the Parthenium hysterophorus weed, which entered India in the late 1950s along with imported wheat, affected the yield of fodder crops and became a crop pest. This is an excellent case study on how an inadvertent entry of exotic pests can occur and lead to adverse consequences in the long term. With properly equipped emergency crews, designated meteorological experts to track the movement of airborne particles, stockpiling of prophylactic and therapeutic antibiotics, and a mechanism for going rapidly to emergency mode, the estimated casualties can be reduced to just 5–10% of the normal casualty rates. This analysis succinctly expresses the need for, and value of, a proper response to BT. Prevention of Biological Disasters:
a)
Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment
b)
Environmental Management i. ii. iii. iv.
c)
Water supply Personal hygiene Vector control Burial/disposal of the dead
Prevention of Post-disaster Epidemics
d)
Integrated Disease Surveillance Systems
e)
Pharmaceutical Interventions: Chemoprophylaxis, Immunisation and Other Preventive Measures
f)
Non-pharmaceutical Interventions i. ii.
Social Distancing Measures Disease Containment by Isolation and Quarantine Methodologies
g)
Biosafety and Biosecurity Measures
h)
Protection of Important Buildings and Offices
CHEMICAL DISASTER: Handling large quantities of HAZCHEM in installations, isolated storages, and during transportation, poses the grave risk of a sudden release of copious quantities of toxicants in the environment. There are about 1666 MAH units in India, handling a large number of chemicals as raw materials, in processes, products, and wastes, with flammable, explosive, corrosive, toxic and noxious properties. Any accident involving these may have an adverse impact on both the community and the environment. Sources of Chemical Disasters:
Chemical accidents may originate in: i)
Manufacturing and formulation installations including during commissioning and process operations; maintenance and disposal.
ii)
Material handling and storage in manufacturing facilities, and isolated storages; warehouses and godowns including tank farms in ports and docks and fuel depots.
iii)
Transportation (road, rail, air, water, and pipelines).
Causative Factors Leading to Chemical Disasters: Chemical disasters, in general, may result from: i) Fire. ii) Explosion. iii) Toxic release. iv) Poisoning. v) Combinations of the above
Chemical disasters may occur due to process deviations concerning the chemistry of the process, pressure, temperature and other identified parameters with regard to the state of the substance i.e., solid, liquid or gas, proximity to other toxic substances and the probability of a runaway reaction due to the incidental mixing of two or more HAZCHEMs with dissimilar properties. In addition, it may be due to hardware failure, resulting in large-scale spills of toxic substances (in any form) due to loss of containment, or an explosion. Further, Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE) may occur due to sparks, shocks or frictional forces on the chemicals during
transportation. The effects can be further compounded by the micro-meteorology of the area, wind speed and direction, rate of precipitation, toxicity/quantity of chemical released, population in the reach of release, probability of formation of lethal mixtures (fuel-air or other mixtures) and other industrial activities being performed in closer vicinity. It is very important to understand that the state of the chemical substance (solid, liquid or gas) contributes substantially to the gravity of the accident and affects control measures. Chemicals in solid form may have devastating effects if their properties are suddenly changed (e.g., sublimation) due to pressure and temperature conditions to which they are accidentally exposed. If solids continue to remain in solid form, the damage will be negligible. Any human/mechanical failure may cause large scale spills of liquids or of compressed gases like chlorine or Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) which can cause BLEVE and can directly affect human lives and the environment. The release of compressed gases give rise to thermal and cryogenic stresses, which may also impact the surrounding structure or building, compounding the damage.
Initiators of Chemical Accidents: a) Process and Safety System Failures: A number of factors including human errors could spark off chemical accidents with the potential to become chemical disasters. These i)Technical errors: design defects, fatigue, metal failure, corrosion etc. ii)Human errors: neglecting safety instructions, deviating from specified procedures etc. iii)Lack of information: absence of emergency warning procedures, nondisclosure of line of treatment etc. iv)Organisational errors: poor emergency planning and coordination, poor communication with public, noncompliance with mock drills/exercises etc., which are required for ensuring a state of quick response and preparedness. b) Natural Calamities: The Indian subcontinent is highly prone to natural disasters, which can also trigger chemical disasters. Damage to phosphoric acid sludge containment during the Orissa super cyclone in 1999 and the release of acrylonitrile at Kandla Port, during an earthquake in 2001, are some of the recent examples . c) Terrorist Attacks/Sabotage: Vulnerability to chemical disasters is further compounded by likely terrorist and warfare activities, which include sabotage and attack on HAZCHEM installations and transportation vehicles. Impact of Chemical Disasters:
In addition to loss of life, the major consequences of chemical disasters include impact on livestock, flora/fauna, the environment (air, soil, water) and losses to industry as shown in Figure 1. Chemical accidents may be categorised as a major accident or a disaster depending upon the number of casualties, injuries, damage to the property or environment. A major accident is defined in the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals (MSIHC) Rules, 1989, issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, whereas ‘disaster’ is defined in the DM Act, 2005. Major Chemical Accidents in India: Following the Bhopal Gas Disaster in 1984, major incidences of chemical disasters in India include a fire in an oil well in Andhra Pradesh (2003); a vapour cloud explosion in the Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited Refinery (HPCL), Vishakhapatnam (1997); and an explosion in the Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited (IPCL) Gas Cracker Complex, Nagothane, Maharashtra (1990). Over 20 major chemical
accidents have been reported in MAH units during 2002–06. Details of these accidents that involved chemicals like chlorine, ammonia, LPG and other HAZCHEMs are indicated in Annexure A.
CYCLONES: Tropical Cyclone (TC), also known as ‘Cyclone’ is the term used globally to cover tropical weather systems in which winds equal or exceed ‘gale force’ (minimum of 34 knot, i.e., 62 kmph). These are intense low pressure areas of the earth atmosphere coupled system and are extreme weather events of the tropics. India has a coastline of about 7,516 km, 5,400 km along the mainland, 132 km in Lakshadweep and 1,900 km in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Although the North Indian Ocean (NIO) Basin (including the Indian coast) generates only about 7% of the world’s cyclones, their impact is comparatively high and devastating, especially when they strike the coasts bordering the North Bay of Bengal . The frequency of cyclones in the NIO Basin is bi-modal, which is specific to this region. Cyclones occur in the months of May–June and October–November, with their primary peak in November and secondary peak in May. Cyclogenesis: Cyclones are atmospheric and oceanic phenomena. Listed below are some of the favourable conditions identified through observational facts and scientific studies for the formation of TCs. The weightage of individual conditions is, however, yet unknown . i) A warm sea surface (temperature in excess of 26o–27oC) and associated warming extending up to a depth of 60m with abundant water vapour in the overlying air (by evaporation), ii) High relative humidity in the atmosphere up to a height of about 5,000 metres, iii) Atmospheric instability that encourages the formation of massive vertical cumulus clouds due to condensation of rising moist air, iv) Low vertical wind shear between the lower and higher levels of the atmosphere that do not allow the heat generated and released by the clouds to get transported from the area (vertical wind shear is the rate of change of wind between the higher and lower levels of the atmosphere), v) The presence of cyclonic vorticity (rate of rotation of air) that initiates and favours rotation of the air cyclonically, and vi) Location over the ocean, at least 4–5o latitude away from the equator. Impact: Cyclones are characterized by their destructive potential to damage structures such as houses, lifeline infrastructure such as power and communication towers, hospitals, food storage facilities, roads, bridges, culverts, crops, etc., due to high velocity winds. Exceptionally heavy rainfall causes flooding. Storm surge inundates low-lying areas in the coastal areas resulting in loss of life and destruction of property, besides eroding beaches and embankments, destroying vegetation and reducing soil fertility. Besides the loss of lives and livestock, cyclones have high destructive potential due to the strong winds that damage structures, and heavy rainfall which causes floods and storm surge that inundates low-lying coastal areas. Although it is not possible to completely avoid natural disasters, their effects can be minimised by taking some known long- and short term structural and non-structural mitigation measures such as developing proper early warning systems, creating awareness at all levels in the concerned communities, coastal afforestation, construction of shelters, embankments, dykes, coastal roads, bridges, canals, etc., through better preparedness, mitigation measures and improved response mechanisms.
Institutional Framework: a) National Disaster Management Authority b) The National Executive Committee c) National Disaster Response Force d) National Reserves National Institute of Disaster Management e) State Disaster Management Authority f) District Disaster Management Authority g) Local Authorities h) Civil Defence
National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project:
The Government of India has drawn up the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) to be implemented with World Bank assistance. Initially, the MHA formulated the project that was transferred to NDMA in September 2006. The main aim and objective of the project is to strengthen the structural and non-structural cyclone mitigation efforts and reduce the risk and vulnerability of the coastal districts which are prone to cyclones. NCRMP will assist states/UTs which are prone to cyclones and will go a long way in building capacities for cyclone risk mitigation. This is the first such effort at the national level with World Bank assistance of about US $300 million, covering 13 coastal states and UTs. NCRMP consists of the following four components: i) Component A: Improvement of early warning dissemination system by strengthening Last Mile Connectivity (LMC) of cyclone warnings and advisories from source/district/sub-district levels to community. ii) Component B: Cyclone risk mitigation investment which has identified nine subcomponents like construction of cyclone shelters, construction of saline embankments, mangrove plantations, shelterbelt plantations, etc. iii) Component C: Technical assistance for hazard risk management and capacity building iv) Component D: Project management and institutional support.
EARTHQUAKES:
According to the latest seismic zone map of India about 59 percent of India’s land area is vulnerable to moderate or severe seismic hazard, i.e., prone to shaking of MSK intensity VII and above. In the recent past, most Indian cities have witnessed the phenomenal growth of multi-storied buildings, super malls, luxury apartments and social infrastructure as a part of the process of development. The rapid expansion of the built environment in moderate or high-risk cities makes it imperative to incorporate seismic risk reduction strategies in various aspects of urban planning and construction of new structures. During the period 1990 to 2006, India has experienced 6 major earthquakes that have resulted in over 23,000 deaths and caused enormous damage to property, assets and infrastructure. The entire Himalayan Region is considered to be vulnerable to high intensity earthquakes of a magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter Scale, and in a relatively short span of about 50 years, four such earthquakes have occurred: Shillong, 1897 (M 8.7); Kangra, 1905 (M.8.0); Bihar–Nepal, 1934 (M 8.3); and Assam– Tibet, 1950 (M 8.6). Scientific publications have warned that very severe earthquakes are likely to occur anytime in the Himalayan Region, which could adversely affect the lives of several million people in India. Critical Areas of Concern in Earthquake Management: There is an increasing need being felt for a more systematic, holistic and integrated effort to address the critical areas of concern responsible for the weak seismic safety measures in India. These Guidelines have been drawn up to address these critical areas of concern and to provide the foundation for seismic safety. The regions away from the Himalayas and other inter-plate boundaries were previously.
considered to be relatively safe from the devastating impact of earthquakes. However, the Koyna earthquake of 1967 and the Latur earthquake of 1993 dispelled this widely held view and influenced the revisions of the seismic zoning map. This map, however, only indicates areas with low, moderate and high seismic hazards based on past trends. There is an urgent need to revise the seismic zone map of India to reflect the return period related design accelerations. This work will be carried out in a phased manner covering the Himalayan ranges, the North-East and the western region in the first phase. Earthquake Engineering Education The University of Roorkee started a postgraduate programme in earthquake engineering in 1963. Several other institutions including the IITs and the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore, also began postgraduate degrees in civil engineering with a specialisation in earthquake engineering; and in earth sciences with a specialisation in seismology. The establishment of the Indian Society of Earthquake Technology (ISET) in 1964 provided a forum for scientists and engineers to explore areas for professionalising earthquake engineering in India. The ISET organises India’s seminal Earthquake \ Engineering Congress every four years and currently has a membership of over 1,400 geologists,architects, engineers and seismologists. The University of Roorkee built the first shock test facility mounted on railway wagons for testing full-scale proto types of structures to test earthquake resistance. The first modern shake table capable of handling full-scale models was built by the University of Roorkee in the early 1980s to test the seismic resistance of nuclear power plant equipment and for research on earthquake resistance of other structures. IIT, Powai (Mumbai) designed and developed a small-scale shake table in 1985 for testing the seismic resistance of equipment, materials and structures. Additional shake tables have also been built at institutions like the Central Water and Power Research Station (CWPRS), Pune; IISc, Bangalore; IIT, Delhi and Kanpur; and SERC, Chennai. The Approach to Earthquake Management Continuous improvements in structural and non-structural measures for earthquake risk reduction will improve seismic safety in India. Various agencies of the GoI at the national, state, district and local levels will carry out specific tasks for the prevention, preparedness and mitigation of disasters and for undertaking a holistic, coordinated and prompt response to any disaster situation. Earthquakes pose unique challenges during each phase of the disaster management cycle (i.e., during preparedness, prevention, mitigation, response, rehabilitation and recovery). International experience has shown that the maximum gains from earthquake management efforts are secured by strengthening the pre-earthquake preparedness and mitigation efforts. These Guidelines are, therefore, aimed at strengthening the preparedness and mitigation efforts in India, while simultaneously improving the country’s emergency response capacity. The Framework for Earthquake Management: DM plans in the past were primarily based on intuitive considerations and past lessons. While past experience provides valuable inputs for the development of risk reduction strategies, the absence of a rigorous RM framework has resulted in weak sustainability and inadequate extension of post-earthquake efforts in other earthquake-prone areas in India. The DM systems in several developed countries have evolved on the basis of a rigorous RM framework as practised in Australia, New Zealand and Canada. The RM framework, which provides the logic for these Guidelines, places local communities at the centre, helps to interface them with decision makers and provides the opportunity for continuous and effective feedback between the community at risk and other stakeholders. The essential feature of this RM framework is to view earthquake management issues in a holistic and integrated manner by identifying, analysing, evaluating and finally, effectively treating the risks. These steps will be implemented through a consultative and participatory process by involving the key stakeholders and will be monitored and reviewed concurrently at various stages of implementation. This type of RM framework was not employed in the past in India, primarily due to lack of appropriate institutional mechanisms, even though each element of this framework was practised separately. These Guidelines propose a holistic approach based on such an integrated RM
framework that can be implemented in the field, considered for policy making, and incorporating different stakeholders in the process. In India, the state governments are primarily responsible for various aspects of DM within the states, including capacity building at various levels, as well as for fostering partnerships between the different stakeholders. These Guidelines provide the basis for the formulation of appropriate plans for the promotion of an earthquake resilient society, with the cooperation of various stakeholders, and to ensure the effective implementation of these plans at various levels. The earthquake management framework imposes the additional responsibility on professionals to improve their skills and expertise, to contribute to capacity development, and to cooperate with other stakeholders in ensuring seismic safety in India. Specialists, particularly scientists, engineers, architects and planners, will be closely involved in various earthquake management initiatives at all levels. The role of community participation in DM is critical for the long-term sustainability of these efforts. When the community becomes a part of the decision making system, its involvement grows. Thus, taking inputs from the community is the most important factor in sustaining the effort for effective DM initiatives, and for ensuring their ownership and accountability. Following these guidelines, the community will participate at the local level in the planning, implementation and monitoring processes. The Six Pillars of Earthquake Management:
i) Earthquake Resistant Construction of New Structures ii) Selective Seismic Strengthening & Retrofitting of existing Priority Structures and Lifeline Structures. iii) Regulation and Enforcement iv) Awareness & Preparedness v) Capacity Development (Education, Training, R & D, Capacity Building and Documentation) vi) Emergency Response
PREPARATION OF STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLANS
India is vulnerable in varying degrees to a large number of natural as well as man-made disasters— 58.6 per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity; over 40 million hectares (12 per cent of land) is prone to floods and river erosion; of the 7,516 km long coastline, close to 5,700 km is prone to cyclones and tsunamis; 68 per cent of the cultivable area is vulnerable to drought and hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches. Further, the vulnerability to Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC) disasters and terrorism has also increased manifold. Disaster Risks in India:
Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities. These include the evergrowing population, the vast disparities in income, rapid urbanisation, increasing industrialisation, development within highrisk zones, environmental degradation, climate change, etc. Clearly, all these point to a future where disasters seriously threaten India’s population, national security, economy and its sustainable development; therefore the urgency to issue the guidelines for the preparation of the State Plan for Disaster Management (DM) as mandated by the Disaster Management Act, 2005 (DM ACT, 2005). The DM plans will build in region and hazard specific management tools in the context of regional and multi-hazard vulnerabilities. The Role of the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)/ State Executive Committee (SEC) and the State Departments:
Section 23 of the DM Act 2005 provides that there shall be a DM plan for every state. It outlines the broad coverage of the plan as well as the requirements of consultation in the preparation of the state plans. It also provides for annual review and updating of the state plan, and enjoins upon the state governments to make provisions for financing the activities to be carried out under the state plans. It provides for the departments of the state governments to draw up their own plans in accordance with the state plan. The state plans shall be prepared by the SEC in conformity with the guidelines to be issued on related matters by the SDMA having regard to the guidelines laid down in this regard by the NDMA, and after such consultation with local and district authorities and the people’s representatives as the SEC may deem fit. The state plan prepared by SEC shall be approved by the SDMA. Guiding Principles for the Preparation of State Plans: Participatory Approach The plan preparation process essentially aims at strengthening the communities, elected local bodies and state administration’s response and preparedness. The plans should be prepared through a participatory approach including identification of vulnerabilities and risks, and also be holistic, inclusive, sustainable and environment friendly. The plans should be sensitive to the special needs of vulnerable sections such as pregnant and lactating mothers, children, the elderly and physically and mentally challenged persons. The concerns of women may be specifically addressed. Guiding Principles—Themes Underpinning the Plans •
The vulnerability of different parts of the state to different kinds of disasters.
•
The measures to be adopted for prevention and mitigation of disasters.
•
The manner in which mitigation measures shall be integrated with development plans and
•
The capacity building and preparedness measures to be taken.
projects.
•
The roles and responsibilities of each department of the government of the state in relation to the measures specified above.
•
The roles and responsibilities of different Departments of the government of the state in responding to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
• •
•
The state plan will be reviewed and updated annually Appropriate provisions will be made by the state governments for financing the measures to be carried out under the state plan. Copies of the state plan will be made available to the departments of the government of the state and such department will draw up their own plans in accordance with the state plan.
