Bio Activities, Bioactive Compounds and Chemical Constituents of Mangrove Plants

Wetlands Ecology and Management  10: 421–452, 2002. Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. Netherlands. © 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

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Bioactivities, bioactive compounds and chemical constituents of mangrove plants W.M. Bandaranayake  Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville, MC, Q, 4810, Australia,  E-mail: [email protected] Received 30 August 2001; accepted in revised form 18 March 2002

Key words: chemical classes, chemical structures, mangal associates, medicinal and traditional uses

Abstract

This review article article presents the traditional and medicinal uses, uses, and examines recent investigations investigations on the biological activities of extracts, and chemicals identified from mangroves and mangal associates. Metabolites identified from mangrove plants are classified according to ‘chemical classes’, and some of their structures are illustrated. The article also presents some of the functions of the chemicals present and attempt to emphasize and create an awareness of the great of potential mangroves and mangal associates possess as a source of novel agrochemicals, compounds of medicinal value, and a new source of many already known biologically active compounds.

Introduction

Mangroves have long been a source of astonishment for the layman and of interest for scientist. For many people living in the Indo-West Pacific and AmericasEast Atlantic regions, the word mangrove will be a familiar one. For a selected few, long standing familiarity is based, perhaps on vague and romantic mental pictures of waterlogged woodlands in which tangled aerial root systems foil the would-be explorer. However, majority sees them as swamps, which are ridden with mosquitoes mosquitoes and sandflies, sandflies, inhospitabl inhospitable, e, unhealthy unhealthy and dangerous. There is another category of the population where their knowledge of mangroves is derived from recent publicity given by concerned conservationists tionists to preserve preserve the ever-dwind ever-dwindling ling mangrove mangrove areas of the world. Yet others living in these regions and rest of the world have little or no concept concept of what it is that constitutes the mangroves. The collective noun mangrove designates a intertidal tidal wetlan wetland d ecosys ecosystem tem formed formed by a very very specia speciall associati association on of animals animals and plants which proliferate proliferate luxuri luxuriant antly ly in the coasta coastall areas areas and river river estuar estuaries ies through out the low lying tropical and sub-tropical latitudes. latitudes. These wetland ecosystems ecosystems are among the most productive and diverse in the world and more

than 80% of marine catches are directly or indirectly dependent on mangrove and other coastal ecosystems worldwide. They occupy large tracts along sheltered coasts coasts,, estuar estuaries ies and in deltas deltas where they are influenced by tides and widely different conditions of  salini salinity ty and rainfa rainfall ll regime regimes. s. They They are also also found found around coastal lagoons, communicating with the sea and where the effect of tides may be weak and the salini salinity ty very very low low. The term mangro mangrove ve is also also used used to designate halophytic (salt loving) and salt resistant marine marine tidal tidal forests forests compri comprisin sing g of trees, trees, shrubs shrubs,, palms, palms, epiphytes, ground ferns and grasses, which which are associated in stands or groves (166). Mangroves are usually found only in tropical climates, as they need consistently warm conditions conditions for developme development nt and survival. survival. They occur approximately in 112 countries and territories (94) and are largely confined to the regions between 30’ north and south of the equator. Notably, extension extension beyond this are to the north in Bermuda Bermuda (32’ 20’ N), Japan (31’ 22’ N), and to the south in Australia (38’ 45’ S), New Zealand (38’ 03’ S) and on the East Coast of South Africa (32’ 59’ S). Among recent methods used to assess the quantity of mangrove wealth in a country, remote sensing is now considered the most practical technique for mangrove inventory. Humans Humans have have been been reside residents nts of mangro mangrove ve wetlan wetlands ds for

422 centuries. As the coastal zone is home to approximately 65% of the global population, they are of great importance to many people who live along tropical shorelines. In countries such as Indonesia, mangroves provided provided protection protection for people, people, a function often invaluable in a region long renowned for its piracy and kidnapping forays. Mangroves have traditionally been importa important nt habita habitatt for certai certain n mariti maritime me people people in SouthSoutheast Asia, such as Orang Orang Laut of Malaysia Malaysia and western western Indonesia. Indonesia. Furthermore, Furthermore, mangroves mangroves typically border streams streams and river river mouths sites, sites, which were particularly favorable for settlement because of accessibility and availability of fresh water. Mangroves can be classified into three broad categories. True mangroves are mainly restricted to intertidal areas between the high water levels of neap and spring tides. Plant species from true mangroves mangroves belong belong to at least 20 different different families. families. About 80 species of true mangrove trees/shru trees/shrubs bs are recognized, recognized, of  which 50–60 species make a significant contribution to the structure of mangrove forests. forests. Minor species species of mangroves are distinguished by their inability to form conspicuous elements of the vegetation and they rarely form pure communities. The mangal associates, are salinity tolerant plant species, which are not found exclusively in the proximity of mangroves and may occur only in transitional vegetation, landwards and seawards seawards.. However However,, they do interact interact with true mangroves (18, 207). Mangroves (mangroves, mangrove minors and mangal associates) are highly productive ecosys ecosystem tem with with variou variouss import important ant economi economicc and envir envir-onmental functions. The uses of mangroves are often quoted in scientific scientific and popular articles articles (18, 210) and fall in two major categories: Firstly the indirect use of the mangrove ecosystem are in the form of vital ecological functions such as control of coastal erosion and protection of coastal coastal land, stabilizat stabilization ion of sediment, natural purification of coastal water from pollution. Secondly, the economic benefits which are many and varied. Apart from prawn fisheries, fisheries, many other species of economic importance are associated with mangroves; these include crabs, shrimp, oysters, lobsters and fish. Traditionally, the mangroves have been exploited for firewood and charcoal and their uses include construction of dwellings, furniture, boats and fishing gear and production of tannins for dying and leathe leatherr product production ion.. Mangro Mangroves ves provide provide food and a wide variety of traditional products and artifacts for mangrove dwellers. The mangrove leaves are useful contributors to the nutrient system of the mangrove environme environment. nt. It is known that mangrove mangrove leaves leaves contain

sufficient sufficient amounts of minerals, vitamins vitamins and amino acids, acids, which are essential essential for the growth, and nournourishment of marine organisms and livestock. Mangrove foliage plays an important role in the formation of detritus, tritus, which which is utiliz utilized ed by sever several al estuar estuarine ine and marine marine detritovorous organisms, and mangrove leaves make a superior fodder due to their high salt and iodine content (18, 173, 210). Two basic factors justify the study of the chemical constituents of mangrove plants. Firstly, mangroves are one of the easiest tropical forest types to generate. They have the ability to grow where no other vascular vascular plants can. The mangroves mangroves exist under stressful conditions such as violent environments onments,, high concen concentra tratio tion n of moistu moisture, re, high high and low tides of water, water, and abundant living microorganisms microorganisms and insect insects. s. They thrive thrive in a very peculia peculiarr envir environm onment ent and serve as a bridging ecosystem between freshwater and marine systems. These have imposed several modifica modificatio tions ns in these these plants plants.. They They posses possesss an unusual morphology and physiognomy and the path of  photosynthesis in mangroves is different from other glycophytes. glycophytes. They possess possess modifications modifications to establish establish water water and salt economy. economy. There are modifications modifications or alterations alterations in other physiological physiological processes processes such as carbohydrate metabolism or polyphenol synthesis and due to these reasons, they may have chemical compounds, pounds, which protect them from these destructiv destructivee elements. The second second reason reason is that that numerou numerouss mangro mangrove ve plants plants are been been used used in folklo folklore re medici medicine, ne, and recent recently ly,, extracts extracts from mangroves mangroves and mangrove-dep mangrove-dependen endentt species species have have proven proven activity activity against against human, human, animal animal and plant pathogens but only limited limited investig investigations ations have been carried out to identify the metabolites responsible for their bioactivities.

Chemical Chemical classes identified from mangrove plants

Metabolites, some with novel novel chemical structures, and and belonging belonging to a diversity diversity of ‘chemical ‘chemical classes’, classes’, have been characterized from mangroves and mangal associates. Aliphatic alcohols and acids, amino acids and alkaloids, alkaloids, carbohydrates carbohydrates,, carotenoids carotenoids,, hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons, free fatty acids including polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), (PUFAs), lipids, lipids, pheromones, pheromones, phorbol esters, phenolics, olics, and related compounds, compounds, steroids, steroids, triterpenes, triterpenes, and their glycosides, tannins, other terpenes and related compounds, compounds, are among these classes. classes. Among the latest additions are an array of substances from

423 gums and glues to alkaloids and saponins and other substances of interest to modern industry and medicine. Chemicals Chemicals such as amino acids, carbohydrates carbohydrates and proteins, are products of primary metabolism and are vital for the maintenance of life processes, while others like alkaloids, phenolics, steroids, terpenoids, are products of secondary metabolism and have toxicological, pharmacological and ecological importance.

Heterocycli Heterocyclicc compounds compounds

Heterocycles are those molecules having rings composed of both carbon and one or more heteroatoms, chiefly, chiefly, nitrogen (i), oxygen (ii) and sulfur (iii). They can be unsaturated or ‘aromatic’ heterocycles (i, ii) or saturated heterocycles (iii, iv), and are usually be five or six membered. They exist either as ‘independent’ rings or fused normally to benzene rings (i, v). Alkaloids, chromenes, coumarins, flavonoids, xanthones etc. belong to this general class.

aldehydes or ketones. Glucose is by far the most common carbohydra carbohydrate, te, and although although it occurs occurs free in a variety fruit juices, honey etc., it is more commonly encountered encountered in polymers polymers such as cellulose and starch starch which are termed polysaccharid polysaccharides. es. Lignins Lignins (ix) are non-carbohydrate polymers present in wood. The insoluble polysaccharide in plant is cellulose, while soluble polysaccharides serve as carbohydrate food storage: Starch in plants and glycogen in animals. Polysaccharides of plant origin have emerged as important class class of bioacti bioactive ve natural natural produc products. ts. Those Those isolat isolated ed from fungi usually usually show anti-tumor anti-tumor activity activity,, while polysac polysaccha charide ridess of higher higher plants plants posses possesss immuno immuno-stimulatory, anti-complementary, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and anti-viral activities activities and algal polysaccharides saccharides,, which often contain sulfate anions, are good anti-coagulants anti-coagulants.. Carbohydrat Carbohydrates es in general, general, are essential constituents of all living organisms and are associ associate ated d with with a varie variety ty of vital vital functio functions, ns, which which sustain life.

Fatty acids and lipids Alkaloids

Alkaloids Alkaloids are nitrogenous nitrogenous bases (usually (usually heterocycheterocyclic), lic), and are struct structura urally lly the most most diver diverse se class of  secondary metabolites (60). They range from simple structures (i, iii, vi) to complex ones such as those of  many neurotoxins. In very rare instances they contain sulfur (iii, vii, viii), as encountered in the diothiolanes isolat isolated ed from specie speciess of  Brugeira. Their manifold manifold pharmacological activities have always excited man’s interest, and selected plant products containing alkaloids have been used as poison for hunting, murder and euthanasia euthanasia,, as euphoriants, euphoriants, psychedelic psychedelics, s, stimulants stimulants and medicine. Basic nitrogen compounds from higher plants include many representatives that are potent inhibito hibitors rs of variou variouss oxidat oxidativ ivee process processes es both both in vivo and in vitro.

Carbohydrates, lignins and polysaccharides

The carbohydrate carbohydratess or saccharides saccharides (‘hydrate (‘hydrate of carbon’) of general formula Cn (H2 O)n are mostly sweet sweet compounds (hence the term sugar) are found abundantly in higher terrestrial plants, fungi, and seaweed and consist of compounds such as sugars, starch, and cellulose (60). The simple sugars or monosaccharides of known known molecular weight are either either polyhydroxy polyhydroxy

Fatty Fatty acids acids are long chain chain alkano alkanoic ic acids acids and refer refer principally to straight chain, saturated or unsaturated monocarboxylic acids with an even number of carbon atoms, atoms, usuall usually y 12 to 28 in number number.. The term also includes includes Polyunsatur Polyunsaturated ated Fatty Fatty Acids (PUFA (PUFA’s) ’s) and such derived structures as unsaturated, hydroxylated, branched branched acids. These fatty fatty acids are ubiquitous in nature. They are found only in trace amounts in living cells in their free, unesterified form, and are of  greatest importance as components of lipids which, upon alkaline hydrolysis, hydrolysis, afford afford the alkali metal salts of the fatty acids other components. These include the acylglycerols, the waxes and other species.

Anthocyanins, flavonoids phenolics and quinones

The expressio expression n ‘phenolic ‘phenolic compounds’ compounds’ embraces embraces a vast vast range of organic substances, which are aromatic compounds with hydroxyl substituents and some possessing antibiotic properties. Most are polyphenolic and flavon flavonoid oidss (ii) (ii) form the larges largestt group, group, which which occur occur widely in the plant kingdom (60). However, However, phenolic quinones, quinones, lignans, lignans, xanthones, xanthones, coumarins coumarins and other classes exist in considerable numbers. In addition to monomeric and dimeric structures, there are three important groups of phenolic phenolic polymers- lignins, lignins, black 

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Figures Figures (i)–(xvi). (i) n-Methyflindersine, an alkaloid from X. granatum granatum; (ii) Tricin; sexangula; (iv) Xylomollin, Tricin; (iii) Brugine, Brugine, an alkaloid alkaloid from B. sexangula a monoterpen monoterpenoid oid from X. molluscensis ; (v) Benzoxazoli Benzoxazolinone; none; (vi) Fagaronin Fagaronine, e, an alkaloid alkaloid from F. zanthoxyloides; (vii) Gerradin Gerradine; e; (viii) (viii) Cassipourine; (ix) Basic unit of lignin; (x) A chalcone from P. pinnata; (xi) Cyanidin, an anthocyanidin; (xii) Rotenone; (xiii) Basic unit of  proanthocyanidin; (xiv) A phytoallexin, a naphthofuranone; (xv) Linalool, a monoterpene; (xvi) A diterpene from C. inerme.

425 melanin pigments of plants, and the tannins of woody plants. Plant polyphenols are economically important because because they make major contributions contributions to the taste and flavor flavor (tea, (tea, and beer), beer), and color color (red (red wine) wine) of  our food and drink. In nature, phenolics protect plants from herbivores, and act as chemical signals in the flowering and pollination and in the process of plant symbiosis and parasitism. It has been recognized for some time that several classes of flavonoids play a significant role in many physiological processes and show antioxidant and fungicidal activity (110) and are natural antihistamines. Flavonoid, and flavonol-lignan derivati derivatives ves inhibit lipid peroxidation and are potent quenchers quenchers of triplet triplet oxygen. oxygen. A variety variety of modificamodifications of the flavonoid skeleton lead to a large class of compounds that includes isoflavones, isoflavones, isoflavonones isoflavonones and chalcones, Some isoflavones are now been marketed as therapeutic agents for menstrual disorders. Polyhydroxylated chalcones (x), such as those found in Pongamia pinnata, which are biosynthetic biosynthetic intermediates between cinnamic acids and flavonoids also show considerable antioxidant activity. Anthocyanins, are pigments, which occur as glycosides (often glucosides), osides), hydrolysis hydrolysis of, which provides colored colored aglycones, known as anthocyanidins (xi). The isoflavone, rotenone (xii), is a natural insecticide. The term ‘proanthocyanidin anthocyanidin’’ (xiii) is not structurally structurally explicit, explicit, but is based based solely solely upon upon the experi experimen mental tal observ observati ation on that these colorless compounds yield anthocyanidins upon upon treatm treatment ent with strong strong acids (177, 190). 190). They They are astringent to the taste and have the ability to tan leather. Indeed, the so called ‘condensed tannins’ belong to this class of substances. ‘Oxidized’ phenolic compounds are commonly referred to as quinones.

Phytoalexins

A wide wide range range of organi organicc compou compounds nds,, collec collecti tivel vely y called called phytoale phytoalexin xins, s, many many of them them fungit fungitoxic oxic or fungifungistatic, appear in the sapwood of trees after wounding, injury injury or fungal fungal attack. attack. A diver diverse se range of chemchemical classes including alcohols, alkaloids, flavonoids, lignans, lignans, polyketides, polyketides, polyacetylen polyacetylenes, es, quinones quinones (xiv), (xiv), stilbene-derived compounds and terpenes have been identified as phytoalexins.

Tannins

Tannins are polyphenolic substances widely distributed among higher plants. plants. They differ differ from most other

natura naturall phenol phenolic ic compou compounds nds in their their abilit ability y to preprecipitate cipitate proteins such as gelatin gelatin from solution. solution. This property, sometimes called astringency, is the reason for their past and present use in the tanning of animal skin. Tannins are distributed distributed in two groups according to their structures: Proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins) tannins) and hydrolysable hydrolysable or water-so water-soluble luble tannins (Scalbert, 1991; Stafford, 1988). The class of natural polymers variously referred to as condensed tannins, flavotannins, proanthocyanidins or flavolans have the general general formula formula (xiii), (xiii), with with ‘n’ varying varying from 2 to alcoholic hydrochloric acid, acid, ∼20. Upon heating with alcoholic they yield anthocyanidin pigments. Proanthocyanidins are found found in many many food produc products ts such such as tea, tea, cococoa, coa, sorghum sorghum or carob carob pods. pods. Hydroly Hydrolysab sable le tannin tanninss are esters of phenolic acids (e.g. gallic acid and gallotannins) and a polyol, which is usually glucose. The leather leather tanning tanning industry industry requires requires water-solub water-soluble le tannins. Although tannins probably evolved in plants as a defense against microbial attack, they are also instrumental in regulating terrestrial herbivory from predation, either by increasing resistance against pathogens or by protecting essential tissues such as wood against decay. decay. Increasing Increasing attention attention is also being paid to the use of tannins tannins as antimicrobia antimicrobiall agents (e.g. wood preservation) or prevention of dental caries. They impart flavor to wines. Recently, evidence has been obtained in support of their potential value as cytotoxic or antineoplastic agents. In addition, tannins are now being used in the manufacture of plastics, paints, ceramics and water softening agents. Members of the families Avicenniaceae, Avicenniaceae, Rhizophoraceae, and Sonneratiaceae are rich source of tannins (17).

Limonoids, terpenes, steroids and saponins

The diverse, widespread, and exceedingly numerous family of natural products constructed from five carbon building-units (isoprenyl carbon skeleton) and so comprising compounds with C5 , C10 , C15 , C20 , . . ., C40 skeletons skeletons,, are synonymous synonymously ly termed terpenoids, terpenes, or isoprenoids, with the important subgroup of steroid steroidss someti sometimes mes singled singled out as a class class in its own own right. right. Howe However ver,, as more and more terpenoi terpenoid d compounds were discovered, their structures departed from, or ‘violated’ this ‘isoprene’ rule. These compounds are typically found in all parts of higher plants and also occur in mosses, liverworts, algae etc. Members of the class, as components of oil or in extracts, have been used since antiquity as ingredients of fla-

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Figures Figures (xvii)–(xxix). (xvii) β -Amyrin, -Amyrin, a triterpen triterpene; e; (xviii) (xviii) β -Carotene, -Carotene, a carotenoid; carotenoid; (xix) Stigmaster Stigmasterol; ol; (xx) A steroidal steroidal saponin; saponin; (xxi) A triterpenoidal saponin; (xxii) Xyloccensin, a limonoid from X. granatum; (xxiii) An anilide from A. donax ; (xxiv) 1-Triacontanol, a long chain aliphatic alcohol; (xxv) A substituted cyclobutane diimine from A. donax ; (xxvi) Rocaglamide, a benzofuran derivative from A. odorata; (xxvii) Brugierol, a 1,2-dithiolane from B. cylindrica; (xxviii) Hygroline; (xxix) Vallapin, a sesquiterpenoid piscicide from H. littoralis.

427 vors, vors, preservati preservatives, ves, perfumes, perfumes, medicines, medicines, narcotics, narcotics, soaps soaps and pigments. pigments. The number of isopren isoprenee units units they contain in their structures subdivides subdivides terpenes into monoterpenes (C10 compounds) (xv) sesquiterpenes penes (C15 ) diterpe diterpenes nes (C 20 ) (xvi), (xvi), and triterpen triterpenes es (C30 ). Triterpenes are the most common terpenes in plants, usually with pentacyclic structures like those of amyrin (xvii). The most common example of tetraterpenes (C40 ) are the carotenoids carotenoids (xviii), (xviii), which are pigmen pigments ts whose whose princip principal al recogni recognized zed role is to act as photorecepti photoreceptive ve ‘antenna pigments’ for photosynphotosynthesis. Some of them also have a protective function against against oxidative damage. damage. Some of the terpenes were known from antiquity and were employed as medicines. cines. Steroids Steroids (xix) are merely modified modified triterpenes and are widespread in both animal and plant kingdoms and many microorganisms. The saponins have attracted much attention in recent years because of  their varied biological properties, some of which are dele delete teri riou ous, s, but but many many of whic which h are are bene benefic ficia iall to huma human n health (120). They are plant glycosides, which have the property of forming a soapy lather when shaken with water. They are used in traditional and modern medicine and in food and agriculture and are classified as steroidal (xx) or triterpenoidal (xxi) saponins depending upon the nature of the aglycone: The sapogenin. A third groups of saponins, which are called basic steroid saponins, saponins, contain contain nitrogen nitrogen analogues analogues of  steroid sapogenins as aglycones. The primitive people knew the use of saponins as natural detergents and the leaves leaves containing containing them are used as natural soaps. soaps. Most molluscicides of plant origin are saponins and these compou compounds nds are toxic toxic to fish. fish. Triter Triterpen penoid oidal al saponsaponins exhibit divergent antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, antibiotic, hemolytic hemolytic analgesic, analgesic, hypoglycemic hypoglycemic,, anthelmintic thelmintic and cytotoxic cytotoxic activities activities.. The use of plant saponi saponins ns in a liposo liposomal mal drug delivery delivery system system has been demonstrated. The interesting pharmacological properties associated with the Chinese drug ‘ginseng’, which is considered a panacea and a drug for longevity, ity, is attrib attribute uted d to the vario various us saponi saponins ns present present in it. Steroidal Steroidal saponins are commerciall commercially y sought after as starti starting ng materi materials als for the synthe synthesis sis of steroid steroidal al hormones. hormones. Limonoids Limonoids (xxii) are modified modified triterpenes triterpenes.. They are the most distinctive secondary secondary metabolites of  the plant order Rutales. In particular, they characterize members of the family Meliaceae, where they are diverse and abundant and to a limited extent, in the family family Rutaceae. Rutaceae. Recently Recently limonoids limonoids have attracted attracted much attention because of the marked insect antifeedant, insecticidal, antifungal, bactericidal, and antiviral

activity, growth regulating properties, and a variety of  medicinal medicinal effects effects in animals animals and and humans (33). The bitbitterness of fresh citrus juice is due to flavonones. The bitter taste gradually gradually increases increases after expression expression and the causative factor was found to be due to limonoids.

Medicinal uses, bioactivity of extracts, and metabolites characterised from selected mangroves and mangal associates

useful in the treatme treatment nt  Acanthus illicifolius, a plant useful of paralysis, paralysis, asthma, asthma, rheumatic rheumatic pains and possesspossessing analgesic, anti-inflammatory and, leishmanicidal activ activitie ities, s, is a rich source source of long long chain chain alcoho alcohols, ls, triterpenes, steroids and triterpenoidal saponins. Stigmasterol masterol (xix), a common plant steroid, abundantly abundantly present in A. illicifolius many other other mangro mangrove ve illicifolius and many plants, has been shown to have hypercholesterolemic effects. effects. 2-Benzoxazo 2-Benzoxazoline line (v), a synthetic synthetic compound used extensively as a central nervous system depressant, also exhibiting antipyretic, hypnotic, and muscle relaxan relaxantt activ activity ity has been been isolat isolated ed from the plant. plant. Benzoxazoline also showed resistance to fungi. Furthermore, the ribose derivatives of this compound are activ activee as antica anticance ncerr and anti-v anti-vira irall agents agents (88, 101, 101, 140). 140). Jongsu Jongsuva vatt (1981) (1981) found found that that the extrac extracts ts of  the plant plant were were not toxic toxic to experim experiment ental al mice but but displayed displayed significant significant anti-leuke anti-leukemic mic activity activity.. A novel novel alkaloid, alkaloid, acanthicifol acanthicifolin, in, has been isolated from the plant (103). Benzoquinones have been identified from  Aegicers corniculatum and Kandelia candel. Decoctions made from the rhizome of the reed grass Arundo donax  has been used as emollients and diuretics and are said to stimulate menstrual discharge and diminish secretion of milk. Triterpenes, sterols, alkaloids, and the novel novel compound, compound, N-(4’-bromophen N-(4’-bromophenyl)-2, yl)-2,22diphenylace diphenylacetanili tanilide de (xxiii), hitherto hitherto known known only as a synthe synthetic tic compound, compound, has been isolat isolated ed from different ferent parts parts of this this plant. plant. Bioas Bioassa says ys indica indicated ted that that while sterols sterols showed showed limited limited anti-feedant anti-feedant activity, activity, significant activity was shown by the isolates tricontanol tanol (xxiv), (xxiv), tricin tricin (ii), (ii), and tetrameth tetramethylyl-N, N, N-bis N-bis (2,6-dimethylphenyl) cyclobutane-1, 3-diimine (xxv) (138). Tricin (ii), a flavonoid, is the metabolite common to most mangroves showing anti-feedant activity. Known triterpenes, steroids, and a novel triterpenoid ester have have been isolated isolated from from Acrostichum  Acrostichum aureum and  Rhizophora apiculata , a mangrove fern and tree respectively, The extracts of these plants are being used in folklore folklore medicine medicine (102, 103, 103, 193). 193). Rocagl Rocaglami amide de

428 (xxvi), a substituted benzofuran, along with its congeners, geners, has been identified identified as the active insecticidal insecticidal consti constitue tuent nt of the Chines Chinesee rice rice flower flower bush bush Aglaia Clopentabenzofuran zofuran,, and aglaiastatin, aglaiastatin, two odorata. Clopentaben protein synthesis inhibitors, have also been identified (78, (78, 80, 148, 175). 175). Anti-pl Anti-plasm asmodi odial al and cytoto cytotoxic xic activities of  Alstonia macrophylla are due to an array of alkalo alkaloids ids prese present nt in the extrac extracts. ts. Avicennia naphthoquinones. es. Injection Injection alba is a rich source of naphthoquinon of the tissues of  A.marina by a fungus belonging to the genus genus Phytophthora produced produced three chemically chemically related related phytoalexins phytoalexins (xiv). Naphthoquino Naphthoquinone ne derivatderivatives occurring in the Diospyros species have potent anti-tumor promoting activity. Novel sesquiterpenoid quinones and related compounds have been characterized from the mangal associates. Tannin from species of Diospyros has anti-hemorrha anti-hemorrhages ges (snakebite (snakebite)) effects. effects. Plants of the family Rhizophoraceae may be generally divided into mangrove species and inland species. species. Either Either group group of the plants plants contai contains ns organi organicc sulfur sulfur contain containing ing compou compounds nds.. The alkalo alkaloids ids brugin bruginee (iii) (iii) and gerradine (vii) are 1,2-dithiolane 1,2-dithiolane (sulfur containing) compounds, have been isolated from Bruguiera sexangula (mangrove species) and Cassipourea ger(mangal associate) associate) respectiv respectively ely.. Extracts Extracts of  rardii (mangal  B.sexangula bark were active against two tumors, Sarcoma 180 and Lewis Lewis Lung Carcinoma. Carcinoma. The activity was was partly partly associ associate ated d with with tannin tanninss and partly partly with with tannin-free tannin-free aqueous residue residue containing containing the alkaloid alkaloid brugine (iii) as well as tropine and its acetic acid ester. The alkaloids were found to be toxic (118, 219). Kato and coworkers (96, 97) identified 1,2-dithiolane compou compounds nds,, brugier brugierol ol (xxvii) (xxvii),, isobrug isobrugiero ierol, l, and 4hydroxy-1, 2-dithiolane-1-oxide, from the mangrove species B. conjugata Brugie ierol rol and and seve severa rall of its its conjugata. Brug synthetic synthetic derivative derivativess such as the carbamates, carbamates, phosphates, and N, N-dialkylates of dithiolane or trithiane showed antibacterial and insecticidal activities. Kato and Hashimoto (97) established to a certain extent, the relationship between insecticidal activity and the chemic chemical al struct structure uress of the natura naturall metabo metabolit lites es and their synthetic analogues. The bark of  Gymnotroches axillaris has yielded hygroline (xxviii). Metabo Metabolit lites es belong belonging ing to differe different nt ‘chemi ‘chemical cal classes’ have been identified as antifungal agents and in chemical chemical narcosing of fish. Antifungal Antifungal metabolites metabolites include alkaloids, flavonoids and related compounds, modified fatty acids, oxygen heterocyclics, proanthocyanidins, cyanidins, quinones, quinones, stilbenes, stilbenes, terpenoids terpenoids and tritertriterpenoid saponins. The extracts of the bark and root of  the mollucidal and piscicidal plant Balanites aegyp-

treatmentt of abdomi abdominal nal tiaca, are also used for the treatmen pains, as a purgative, and as an anthelmintic, while the bark is employed as a detergent, fish poison, and also as a remedy for malaria and syphilis (129). The leaf is edible and has been once regarded as an effective medicine for sleeping sickness. The effects of oral administration of crude saponin extract of the plant caused myositis or peritonitis among chicks. The piscicidal effect of  B. aegyptaica to the Nile Tilapia and the molluscicidal activity is due the metabolites balanitin, 1,2, and 3 (116, 208). The saponins are the main constituent constituent responsible responsible for the piscicidal piscicidal activity of   Aegiceras  Aegiceras majus, Derris trifoliata, D. elliptica, and D. urucu. Rotenone (xii), a well-known fish poison and a natural natural insect insectici icide de (141), (141), is found found among among tropic tropical al plant plant species such as, Derris, Lonchocarpus, and Tephrosia. The sesquiterpenes heritianin, heritol, heritonin, vallapin (xxix) and vallapianin are the ichthyotoxins isolated from the mangrove plant Heritiera littoralis. Vallapin and vallapianin also showed activity against Boll Weevils (137). A triterpene ester isolated from  H. littoralis showed significant anti-fungal and Boll Weevil eevil anti-feedant anti-feedant activities activities (103). The piscicidal piscicidal activity of the extracts of  Aegiceras corniculatum is due the benzoquinone benzoquinoness embelin embelin (xxx) and 5-O-methyl embelin embelin (xxxi). 5-O-Methyl 5-O-Methyl embelin also inhibited the growth of the fungi Pythium ultimum. FagaronFagaronine (2-hydroxy-3, (2-hydroxy-3, 8, 9-trimethoxy-5 9-trimethoxy-5-methy -methylbenz lbenzo(c) o(c) phenanthridine phenanthridine)) (vi), an antileukemic antileukemic alkaloid, has been isolated from Fagara zanthoxyloides. The The alkaloid kaloid was found found to be bacteri bactericid cidal al but but not mutamutagenic. Caesalpinia bonducella, extens extensiv ively ely used in Jamaican folk medicine is a rich source of furanoditerpenes collectively referred to as caesalpins (xxxii) (155). (155). The oleores oleoresin in from from the bark of  Callophyllum inophyllum (Guttiferae) is used as a cicatrisant, whereas an infusion or decoction of the leaves has been traditionally used for the treatment of eye diseases and as an ingredient in aromatic powders and liniments. Anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and phagocytosis stimulant activities have been reported for this plant. Guttiferaceous species are a rich source of  xanthones (xxxiii), biflavonoids, biflavonoids, benzophenones, benzophenones, neoflavonoids, and coumarin derivatives (156). Recently, various various bioactivities bioactivities such as cytotoxic, cytotoxic, and antitumour, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, enhancement of  choline acetyltransfera acetyltransferase se activity activity,, and inhibition inhibition of  lipid peroxidase due to xanthones have been revealed. Two new xanthones, xanthones, calaxanthone calaxanthoness A (xxxiii) (xxxiii) and B have have been isolated isolated from the root root bark bark of  C. inAfrican snail, snail, Achatina fulica, ophyllum. The giant African

429

Figures Figures (xxx)–(xlv). (xxx) Embelin; (xxxi) 5-O-Methyl embelin; (xxxii) A caesalpin from C. bonducella; (xxxiii) Calaxanthone A, a xanthone from C. inophyllum; (xxxiv) Callophillolide, a coumarin derivative from C. inophyllum; (xxxv) A neolignan from C. inerme; (xxxvi) Cleroinermin, a diterpenoid from C. inerme; (xxxvii) Ellagic acid; (xxxviii) A phorbol from H. mancinella; (xxxix) (xxxix) Excoecaria Excoecariatoxin toxin,, a piscicida piscicidall constituent of  E. agallocha; (xl) A hibiscone hibiscone from H. tiliaceus; (xli) Lapachol, Lapachol, a quinone quinone from H. tileaceus; (xlii) β -Damascenone from I.  pes-caprae; (xliii) Phytol; (xliv) A stilbene from M. leucadendron; (xlv) A eudesmane from P. indica.

430 feeds on the leaves of  C. inophyllum. Fractionati Fractionation on of the extracts extracts of the animal yielded inophyllums inophyllums and calophylloli calophyllolides des (xxxiv) (xxxiv) previously previously isolated isolated from C. xanthone derivativ derivative, e, subellipten subelliptenone, one, inophyllum. A xanthone and related related compounds compounds showed showed intensive intensively ly inhibitinhibitory effect effect agains againstt topois topoisome omeras rases es 1 and 11, in in experiments.. These xanthones xanthones are claimed claimed to vitro experiments be prospective lead compounds for anticancer drugs and some compounds and their derivatives were active against HIV-1 in cell culture (62, 77, 156). The relationship between structures of the metabolites and activity has been investigated. Earlier phytochemical studies had revealed that C. inophyllum to be a rich source source of benzopyrans benzopyrans,, coumarins, coumarins, steroids, steroids, tritertriterpenes, and xanthones. Plants of the genus Clerodenwell known known for their their pestic pesticida idall proper propertie tiess dron are well (119). They are used as armyworm antifeedants and to arrest arrest bleeding bleeding from cuts cuts and other wounds, wounds, as well as for stopping post-partum hemorrhage. Clerodendron inerme, a mangal associate, is a recognized medicinal plant having febrifugal properties as well as exhibiting exhibiting larvicidal, larvicidal, antiviral antiviral and uterine uterine stimustimulant activity. Extracts of  C. inerme were effective as surface surface protectants protectants for cowpea cowpea seeds against pulse beetle beetle infestation infestation.. The anti-viral anti-viral resistanceresistance-induci inducing ng protein isolated from the plant is a polyncleotide (51, 149). 149). A number number of flavon flavonoid oids, s, a neolig neolignan nan (xxxv), (xxxv), and novel complex iridoids, phenyl propanoids, sterols and known known terpenes, a new diterpene diterpene acid have been characterized from the plant. The aerial parts of  the plant yielded yielded the diterpenoid cleroinermin cleroinermin (xxxvi), (xxxvi), and the flavonoid, apigenin, while the seeds yielded two new neolignans, novel sterols and phenols (4, 9, 31). Cyprus rotundus is among the useful plants used in traditional traditional control of insect insect pests. pests. Novel Novel sesquiter sesquiter-pene alkaloids were found to be the compounds with insecticid insecticidal al properties (3, 45, 81, 168). Triterpene Triterpenes, s, steroids, long chain aliphatic carboxylic acids are responsible sponsible for the antifeedant activity activity of  Eleocharis dulcis (139). Hippomane mancinella has enjoyed the reputation reputation of being one of the most toxic and and ill-famed ill-famed plants in tropical America. The sap causes a reaction charac character terist istic ic of a burn burn and contact contact with with eye, eye, proproduce severe conjunctiviti conjunctivitiss which, which, if complicated complicated by secondary secondary infection, infection, could result in loss of sight (65). Surprisingly Surprisingly,, the poisonous latex latex has been used as an ingred ingredien ientt in many many nativ nativee prepara preparatio tions. ns. It is a very very rich source of various various metabolites. metabolites. 2-Hydroxy-2, 2-Hydroxy-2, 6dimethoxyace dimethoxyacetophen tophenone, one, mono, di and trimethyl trimethyl ethers of ellagic acid (xxxvii), and a novel alkaloid have been isolated from various parts of the plant. Fraction-

ation of extracts of leaves and twigs, based on toxicity to mice, yielded ‘crystalline tannins.’ Hippomanin A and B were the toxic principles of the extracts. The irritant factor was assigned to esters of deoxyphorbol (xxxvii (xxxviii), i), resinif resinifero eronol, nol, and 13-hex 13-hexade adecaca-2, 2, 4, 6-trienoic 6-trienoic acid. Some aspects on structurestructure- activity activity relations have been deduced (7). Apart from its folk  medicinal utilization, Excoecaria agallocha contains toxic principles injurious injurious particularly particularly to the skin. The latex is well known for its biocidal effects on marine organisms organisms and phytoplankton phytoplankton,, causes causes metabolic metabolic depression of the rice field crab, Oziotelphusa senex  and is used as an uterotonic, fish poison, dart poison, and contains novel novel chalcones and piperidine alkaloids. alkaloids. The latex latex showed showed no activ activity ity agains againstt bacter bacteria ia and yeast yeast but some activity against fungi. Soil bacteria and yeast actively actively degrade the latex, which probably helps in the detoxification of the latex in nature. The infusion of leaves posses antioxidant and anti-tumor promoting properties. properties. Bioassay Bioassay guided isolation isolation led to the characterization of excoecarin, an irritant and a tumor promoter promoter and excoecariat excoecariatoxin oxin (xxxix), the metabolmetabolite responsible for the piscicidal activity, and whose activity was very comparable with natural rotenone. The activ activity ity was was associ associate ated d with with the alipha aliphatic tic side side chain chain in the molecu molecule. le. A novel novel phorbol phorbol ester was isolated as the anti-HIV principle of the leaves and stems (55, 105, 106, 130, 169, 217). Sesquiterpenoid quinones, the hibiscones hibiscones (xl), hibiscoquinones and benzoquinone benzoquinoness (xli) are the major constituent constituentss of  Hibiscus tileaceous. Ipomoea pes-caprae is a traditional medici medicinal nal plant plant used used in the treatm treatment ent of headac headache he and various various types of inflammation inflammation including jellyfish jellyfish sting dermatitis. The extracts from the leaves exhibits anti-inflammatory activity, reduce prostaglandin synthesis in vitro, and inhibit smooth muscle contraction. Bio-assay-guided fractionation of the extracts led to the isolation of 2-Hydroxy-4, 2-Hydroxy-4, 4, 7-trimethyl-1 7-trimethyl-1 (4H)naphthalenone, mellein, eugenol, and 4-vinylguaicol, which inhibited prostaglandin synthesis. The isoprenoids β -damasscenone (xlii) and E-phytol (xliii) were responsible for the antispasmodic and antinociceptive activities activities (108, 159, 174). Melaleuca leucadendron exists exists in three chemotypoes chemotypoes,, the volatile volatile leaf oil of  two of which are characterized by very high content of phenylpropan phenylpropanoids. oids. In addition to small amounts of  known mono-, di-, sesqui-, and tri- terpenes, stilbene glycosides, glycosides, novel triterpenoid triterpenoid esters, esters, and hydrolysable hydrolysable tannins, tannins, have been isolated isolated from the plant, whose extracts posses antifungal properties. The leaves were a rich source of a different class of terpenoids and along

431 with stilbenes (xliv), inhibited histamine release from rat mast mast cells cells and were were activ activee agains againstt Bacillus and Staphylococcus (46). Known glycosides, fatty acid esters, and a novel trisaccharide have been characterized from ripe fruits of  Morinda citrifolia, which is toxic to nematodes and Drosophila . Octanoic acid, toxic to many insect species, species, along with hexanoic and other carboxylic acids, are the main toxic compounds isolated from the extracts (214). Hirazuma and Furusawa (72) reported the presence of a ‘polysaccharide-rich substance’ with antitumor activity in the fruit juice of  showed anticancer anticancer and an M. citrifolia, which also showed algesic activity. A polysaccharide extracted from the leaves of  B. cylindrica, cylindrica, E. agallocha, agallocha, R. apiculata,  R. mucronata, Salicornia brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Sueda maritima and S. monica showed positive activity activity against human immunodeficiency viruses (151, 162). Antioxidative activity of extractives of  Pandanus odoratissimus has been demonstrated as due to phenolic olic and lignan type compou compounds nds,, and a benzofu benzofuran ran deriv derivati ative ve (83). (83). A number number of Pluchea specie speciess are noted noted for their ethnomedical ethnomedical properties, properties, of which the reputed reputed viper venom neutralization activities of  P.odorata and P. indica are probably the best known. Neuropharmacological actions (including viper venom neutralization) of the shrub P indica has been investigated (10, 179, 206). The leaves and roots of the shrub have been reported reported to possess possess anti-inflamma anti-inflammatory tory and anti-ulcer anti-ulcer,, astringent and antipyretic properties and are used as a diaphoretic in fevers. Fresh leaves are used in the form of poultices poultices against against atonic and and gangrenous gangrenous ulcers and chemicals with novel structures have been isolated from the leaves (xlv). Cigarettes prepared from the chopped stem bark are smoked to relieve the pain of sinusitis, and in Indo-China, the leaves and young shoots are crushed, mixed with alcohol, and applied in the back, in cases of lumbago and are also used to relieve rheumatic pains and in baths to treat scabies. A number of known compounds and a new eudesmane derivative (xlvi) have been identified from the leaves (143). (Z)-5-Tetradecenyl acetate and tetradecyl acetate were were identi identified fied as sex sex pheromo pheromone ne compone components nts of  an unnamed unnamed Planotortrix  leaf leaf roller roller moth moth specie speciess found in Avicennia resinifera. All parts of the plant Pongamia pinnata, used as a crude drug for the treatment of tumors, piles, skin diseases, wounds, ulcers, is a rich source of flavonoid and related compounds (197, 198). Extracts Extracts of the plant showed showed positive positive activactivity against human and Simian immunodeficiency vir-

uses (54, 164, 165). Porteresia coarctata and Carapa obovata are rich sources of steroids. The alkaloid rhizophorine (xlvi) is a major constituent of the leaves of  Rhizophora mucronata and a novel type of natural water soluble polymer has been isolated from the leaves of  R. stylosa (103). Triterpenoids from R. mangle possess insecticidal properties and has clinical use in the control of diabetes. Warm aqueous extract of the bark of  R. apiculata is used as an astring astringent ent for diarrho diarrhoea, ea, nausea nausea,, and vomitvomiting, and as an antiseptic. The extract is also used to stop bleeding in fresh wounds and for the treatment of chronic typhoid fever. The plant also has uses in the textile industry (102, 103). Using a new method of purification which involves high-speed centrifugal liquid chromatography chromatography followed by adsorption adsorption and partition chromatography, a nitrogen containing phorbol ester, sapintoxin A (xlvii), a piscicidal agent, has been been isolat isolated ed from the poison poisonous ous plant Sapium inThis is the first nitrog nitrogen en contai containin ning g phorbol phorbol dicum. This derivative to be isolated and its biological activity has been demonstrate demonstrated d in vivo using an erythem erythemaa skin skin vivo using test. Sapinine, a diterpine ester (a phorbol derivative), and a non-bi non-biolo ologic gicall ally y activ activee metabo metabolite lite was isolisolated using traditional traditional purification purification techniques (199). Skin irritan irritantt and tumor tumor promotin promoting g diterpe diterpene ne ester ester,, 12-deoxyphorbol, has been identified from Sapium Sapium sebiferum (178). Sesuvium portulacastrum, a salt marsh halophyte, is a rich source of an array of amino acids (85). An unusual secondary metabolite, 2-nitro-4- (2’nitroet nitroethen henyl) yl) phenol phenol (xlviii (xlviii)) has been isolat isolated ed from the fruits fruits of Sonneratia fruitss are used used as poultpoultSonneratia acida. The fruit ice in swell swelling ing and sprain sprains. s. Fermen Fermented ted juice juice of the fruit fruit is useful for arresting hemorrhage. hemorrhage. The wood has yielded three anthraquinones and the leaves contain plant growth regulators, the diterpenoid gibberellins (xlix) (25). Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Rhizophora mucranata and Sonneratia Sonneratia apetala apetala were also found to contain gibberellins (58, 123). Terminalia catappa is used in folk medicine for preventing hepatoma and treating hepatitis and is a rich source of tannins. tannins. Antioxidant Antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity, anti-sickling potential, and the effects of the major major tannin tannin compon component ents, s, punica punicalag lagin in and punicalin of  T. catappa carrageenan-induce induced d incatappa on carrageenanflammation flammation in rats, bleomycin-ind bleomycin-induced uced genotoxicity genotoxicity in rabbits, have been evaluated (37, 115, 130). Antibacterial bacterial activity of the leaves of  Thespesia populnea is due to the known triterpene lupeol, and gossypol was the activ activee ingred ingredien ientt in the flowers, flowers, which which accounted for its antifertility activity (64). Naturally oc-

432 OH OR1

H3C

NO2 CH3

H3C

O

OR2

CO2H H3C

N H

OH

H

xlvi

R1 = N-Methylaminobenzoyl R2 = Acetyl

H CH2OH

NO2

xlvii -

OSO3

xlviii

OH

O

OC

CH3

-

O3SO

O

HO CH3

COOH

xlix

OH

O

l

Figures (xlvi)–(l). (xlvi) (xlvi) Rhizophori Rhizophorine; ne; (xlvii) (xlvii) Sapintoxi Sapintoxin n A, a nitrogen nitrogen containing containing phorbol phorbol ester ester from S. indicum; (xlviii) (xlviii) A nitropheno nitrophenoll derivative derivative from S. acida; (xlix) A gibberllin from S. apetala; (l) A flavonoid sulphate.

curring quinones, the mansonones, extracted from the heartwood of  T. populnea showed cytotoxicity, antibacterial bacterial and anti-steroido anti-steroidogenic genic activities activities (70, 135). The limonoi limonoid d ester ester,, xylocce xyloccensi nsins ns (xxii), (xxii), the esters esters of alcohols, alcohols, isobutyrat isobutyrates es and alpha-methyl alpha-methylbutyr butyrates, ates, methyl angolensate angolensate,, gedunin, gedunin, phragmalin phragmalin were the novel novel constituent constituentss of  X. moluccenis (43, 144) 144).. In moluccenis (43, Fiji, Fiji, the bark pressing pressingss are used to treat treat fever fever includi cluding ng thos thosee caus caused ed by mala malaria ria.. Alvi Alvi et al. al. (13) (13) characterized two new liminoids, xyloccensin 1 and 2 from from the the Fiji Fijian an spec specie iess of  X. granatum granatum and X. These two two compoun compounds ds failed failed to show show moluccensis. These any positive biological activity. The fruit of  X. molluscensis is used in folk medicine in East Africa. The fruits are used as aphrodisiacs and the young fruits tasted tasted bitter. bitter. The bitter principle tested positive positive as an antifeedant and strongly inhibited the respiratory reactions reactions of mitochondria mitochondria from rat liver liver.. The metabolite responsible for these activities were identified as xylomollin (iv), an unusual unusual monoterpenoid monoterpenoid having a nonglycosidic hemiactal function (109). Insect antifeedant bioassays employing African armyworms and Mexican bean beetle has led to the isolation and characterization of N-methylflindersine N-methylflindersine (i) and several several benz benz [C] phenan phenanthri thridon donee alkalo alkaloids ids from the extrac extracts ts of  , The former metabolite has been identi X. granatum fied as the principle responsible for insect antifeedant activity (40). Submerged Submerged magrove roots, roots, trunks and branches are islands of habitat that attract rich epifaunal communiti munities. es. The epifauna epifauna include include a divers diversee array array of  invertebra invertebratate tate groups including including anemones, anemones, bivalves bivalves,,

barnacles, barnacles, bryozoans, bryozoans, hydroids, hydroids, mollusks, mollusks, polychaetes polychaetes and sponges. Epifaunal species that do occur in other habitats show distinctly different growth forms when they are attached attached to mangrove mangrove substrates substrates and these these organisms play important roles in the structure and functio function n of mangal mangal.. ‘Reef’ ‘Reef’ sponge sponges, s, for example, example, have anti-predatory anti-predatory defenses defenses including including siliceous siliceous or calcareous spicules and noxious or toxic chemicals. However, mangrove species are generally not as well defended defended chemically chemically as sponges sponges from reef habitats. Species here rely on faster growth or greater reproductiv ductivee output output to compen compensat satee for predati predation on losse losses. s. Mangrove sponges are also limited in allelochemicals that protect them from overgrowth by other species in space-limit space-limited ed coral environme environments. nts. In contrast contrast to the sponge sponges, s, some some of the mangro mangrove ve ascidian ascidianss have have unusual chemicals that are potent feeding deterrents. Despite a seeming lower level of anti-predatory and anti-competitor chemicals in mangal than in coral reef  communities, communities, epifaunal epifaunal invertebra invertebrates tes inhabiting inhabiting the mangroves mangroves and salt marshes marshes are sources sources of metabolites metabolites with useful biologicall biologicall activities activities.. Ecteinascid Ecteinascidia ia turbinturbinate, for instance, is a colonial ascidian that grows in the submerged prop roots of  Rhizophora mangle in many areas of the Caribbean. E. turbinate produces compounds that show strong activity against a variety of carcinomas, carcinomas, melanomas, melanomas, and lymphomas. lymphomas. Antifungal and cytotoxic effects of the methanol extracts of three mangrove mangrove dwelling dwelling mollusks mollusks have been evaluevaluated. Sea stars are dominant predators in many marine habitats, and spongivory by sea stars has been documented from polar seas to the tropics. The extracts

433 from the same sponges but from different different habitats responded differently to the predation by the same sea star. Epiphytic red algae of the order Ceramiales from mangrove and salt marshes produces varying levels of  different UV-absorbing compounds, the mycosporinelike like amino amino acids, acids, which which are conside considered red to be biochemical chemical photoprotecta photoprotectants nts against exposure exposure to UVUVradiation (18). Mangals are home to a group of fungi called ‘manglicolous fungi’ which are vitally important to nutrient cylcing in these habitats and many of  the species produce interesting interesting compounds. compounds. For example, most of the soil fungi produce lignocellulosemodifying modifying exoenzymes exoenzymes like lactase. lactase. Preussia Preussia aurantiaca synthesizes two new depsidones (Auranticins A and B) that that displa display y antimi antimicro crobia biall activ activity ity.. Cirrenalia producess melani melanin n pigment pigmentss that that appear appear to  pygmea produce protect the hyphae from sudden changes in osmotic pressure; when melanin synthesis in cultures is inhibited with tricyclazol tricyclazole, e, the fungus becomes becomes sensitive sensitive to osmoti osmoticc shock. shock. High High salini salinitie tiess also also increa increase se the number and types of amino acids this species produces. duces. The ethyl acetate acetate extrac extractt of a mangro mangrove ve endophyti dophyticc fungus fungus from the South South China China Sea Shows inhibi inhibitio tion n effec effectt on yeast yeast and mold. The studies studies on the secondary metabolites of the fungus revealed that the fungus could produce a series of antibiotics, including cluding griseofulvin, griseofulvin, which was originally originally found in Penicillium griseofulvum. Plants growing in or near the sea or in salt water marshes are subjected to influx of other ions besides sodium sodium and chlorid chloridee and it is concei conceiva vable ble that adaptation to other inorganic salts present in brackish waters may be necessary for survival of plants in such habitats. habitats. One such ion present present in sea-water sea-water in some quantity quantity is inorganic inorganic sulfate; sulfate; one possible route for inactiva inactivation tion or storage storage is through through conjugation conjugation with naturally occurring phenolic compounds, and particularly with flavonoids and remarkably enough, such compound occur principally in plants which are sub ject to water stress, and especially in halophytes. Flavon Flavonoid oid sulfat sulfates es (l) have have been been identi identified fied in land land halohalophytes such as Armeria Armeria maritima, Halophila Halophila ovalis,  Limonium vulgare, Nypa frutican, Suaeda maritima and species of  Atriplex, Frankenia and Tamarix . They also occur abundantly in sea-grasses such as Thalassia, Zannichellia and Zostera. Arsenic is accumulated in the leaves leaves of some some mangro mangroves ves (68). (68). Monocot Monocotyyledonous ledonous salt marsh plants accumulated accumulated potassium, potassium, the amino acid proline, proline, glycinebetai glycinebetaine ne and dimethyldimethylsulphonioprop sulphoniopropionate ionate (68, 132).

Cati Cation onss such such as Na+ K+ , Ca++, Mg++, and NH4 + and anions Cl − , Br − , NO2 − , NO3 − , SO4 −− etc. etc. have have been found in vario various us parts of specie speciess of   Avecennia  Avecennia Bruguiera and Rhizophora, K. candel, H. litoralis, E. agallocha and A. corniculatum. Organic acids such as citric, malic, oxalic and tartaric and carbohydrates such as glucose and sucrose is abundant in the roots and seeds of many mangrove plants. Most Most mangro mangrove ve specie speciess direct directly ly regula regulate te salts salts.. They may also accumulate or synthesize other solutes to regula regulate te and mainta maintain in osmoti osmoticc balanc balance. e. For example, Aegicer Aegiceras as corniculatu corniculatum, m, Aegialiti Aegialitiss annulata annulata and Laguncularia racemosa and the halophytes Aster tripolium and Armeria maritima accumulate mannitol nitol and two nitrogen nitrogen compoun compounds, ds, the protein protein imino acid acid proline proline and the quater quaternary nary nitrogen nitrogen comcompound glycine betaine. betaine. Avicennia Avicennia marina accumulates glycine, betaine, asparagine and Sonneratia alba synthe synthesiz sizes es purine purine nucleo nucleotid tides es (68). (68). It is propos proposed ed that that the high high level levelss of proline proline actually actually provid providee the basis basis of resist resistanc ancee to salt salt accumu accumulat lation ion.. Eviden Evidence ce that that the accumu accumulat lation ion of alipha aliphatic tic quater quaternar nary y ammonium compounds provide with relief from NaCl stress stress has been been obtain obtained. ed. Most Most attent attention ion has been + given to choline Me 3 N CH2 CH2 OH and the related acid acid betain betainee Me3 N+ CH2 CO2 − both both of whic which h are wide wide spread spread.. It is belie believed ved that the concentr concentratio ation n of acid acid betaine increases with salt stress (68, 94).

Conclusion

Drugs Drugs of ‘natura ‘natural’ l’ origin, origin, either either the ‘origina ‘original’ l’ natnatural product, product, products products derived derived ‘Semi-synthet ‘Semi-syntheticall ically’ y’ from natural products or synthetic products based on natural products products models, play an invaluabl invaluablee role in the drug drug discov discovery ery proces process. s. Marine Marine organi organisms sms and plants produce novel metabolites unique to the environment. onment. Mangroves Mangroves and mangal associates associates living in yet another different environment to that of marine and terrestrial plants, can produce metabolites, which may may in turn, turn, are are uniq unique ue to thes thesee plan plants ts and are are of  interest to the ‘curious’ chemist. Although the chemistry of the natural products of mangrove plants is little known, there have been some examples in recent years to support the need to study the chemistry of  the mangroves. This belief is well supported by the illustrated examples. The chemistry of mangrove plants tends to establish that they may be a source of novel compoun compounds ds along with with provid providing ing a new new source source for many already known biologically active compounds.

434 They may have great potential as a source of novel agrochemical compounds (Table 1). They are also a rich source of toxic compounds. Rotenoids, alkaloids, terpenoids are among the classes of natural products which provide numerous toxins. Toxin in plants often has the role of feeding repellents. A remarkable number of insect insectici icidal dal plants plants seem seem to have have been been recogn recognize ized d first as fish poisons. Knowledge Knowledge of the toxins in higher plants has led to a variety of useful drugs. Metabolites though toxic, are still used clinically for the treatment of diseases. The physiological activity of an alkaloid manifests in an extreme toxicity; yet many alkaloids have have therapeutical therapeutically ly useful useful pharmacologi pharmacological cal properproperties at sublethal sublethal dosage and have have become established established as valuable drugs in general medicine. A typical example is that of the toxic drug sodium stiboggluconate and pentamidine, used in the treatment of  leishmania infection on (88). (88). Though Though numerou numerouss mangro mangroves ves donovani infecti and mangal associates associates are recommended in traditional medicine as active against various diseases (Table 1), very little attempts have been made to investigate the veracity of these assertions in controlled experiments. Few workers have investigated the reputation of such plants by performing in vitro and in vivo experiments in order to demonstrate whether there are any protective effects, using drugs or mixtures of drugs prepared using traditional traditional formulae. formulae. Different Different methods have been employed to test these effects: 1. Extracts were administered to mice, insect larvae, worms, fish, etc. 2. Bioass Bioassays ays were carried carried to test test their their capaci capacity ty to inhibit inhibit enzyme activities. activities. 3. Effects Effects on various various viruses and bacteria, and 4. Evaluation of physiological and biochemical properties (such as effects on uterine tone or protection of mitichondrial membranes). Even though though there there are few few recen recentt inves investiga tigation tionss of the chemchemical constituents describing several novel compounds, very little research has been carried out to identify the chemical chemical or chemicals chemicals directly directly responsible responsible for the specific biological activity. A knowledge of the chemical constituents of these plants is desirable, not only for the discovery of new therapeutic agents, but because such information may be of further value to those interested in ‘deciphering" the actual value of folklore remedies. The world world of plants plants,, and indeed indeed all-nat all-natura urall source sources, s, repres represent entss a virtual virtually ly untappe untapped d reserv reservoir oir of novel novel drugs awaiting imaginative and progressive organizations. Further more, infectious diseases are potentially the largest largest threat to human security security.. Coupled Coupled with continuin tinuing g threat threat to biodi biodiver versit sity y through through the destruc destructio tion n of  terres terrestria triall and marine marine ecosys ecosystem temss and proven proven record record of 

natural products in drug discovery, there is a compelling argument for expanding the exploration of nature as source of novel active agents.

Acknowledgements

My thanks are due Wendy and Stan Sparkes for assistance in formulating the Table in the text and Ms Mary Anne Tenby and Helen Crosby for assistance with the Bibliography. Assistance from Dr B. Bowden Bowden and Mr J. Doyle Doyle in editin editing g and critical critical comments comments and sugges suggestio tions ns from Dr E. Wolansk olanskii is gratefu gratefully lly acknowledged.

435 Table 1. Traditional uses, chemical constituents and activities of mangroves and mangal associates.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

Acanthus ebracteatus∗∗

as an anti antise sept ptic ic,, bloo blood d purifier, purifier, diuretic, diuretic, cure for colds, colds, diabetes diabetes,, gangrengangrenous wounds, wounds, rheumatism, rheumatism, skin allergies, snake bites, (B, Fr, L).

analgesic, antiviral activactivity, (B,L)

alkaloids alkaloids,, carbohydra carbohydrates, tes, flavonoids, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, saponins, steroids, tannins, (L,W)

42, 73, 121, 151, 151, 152, 152, 163, 163, 164, 164, 165, 166, 173, 176

Acanthus ilicifolius∗∗∗

as an aphrodisi aphrodisiac, ac, blood purifie purifier, r, diuret diuretic, ic, treattreatment of asthma, diabetes, dyspepsia dyspepsia,, hepatitis hepatitis,, leprosy, neuralgia, paralysis, ringworms, ringworms, rheumatism, rheumatism, skin diseases, snake bites, stomach stomach pains, pains, leukemia, leukemia, (B, Fr, L, R)

analgesic, antiinflammatory, leishmanicidal and antiviral antiviral activity activity,, activactivity towards leukemia virus and erythroleukemic Swiss mice, biotoxicity biotoxicity on finge fingerl rlin ings gs of fish, fish, and and mosquito larvae, (B, Fr, L, S, Fl, W, R)

alkaloids, long chain alcohols, steroids and triterpenes, triterpenoidal saponins, and sulphur, (S8 ), (B, L, R, S)

19, 19, 61, 61, 84, 84, 88, 88, 101, 103, 119, 140

Acrostichum aureum∗∗

to treat wounds boils andr andrhe heum umaatis tism, Rhizome).

biotoxici biotoxicity ty on fingerling fingerlingss of fish, (Fr, L, S, Sd, R)

amino acids, condensed and hydrolysable tannins, diterpenes, flavonoids, hydrocarbons, sesquiterpene, erpene, steroids, steroids, sugars, sugars, triterpenes, (B, L, P, R, S)

16, 119, 193, 196

Acrostichum speciosum∗∗

inorganic inorganic salts, salts, sugars, sugars, (L)

160, 161

Aegialitis annulata∗∗∗

aminoacids, inorganic salts, sugars, (L)

160

aminoacids, benzoquinones, carbohydrates, carotenoids, chlorophyl chlorophylll a, b, a + b, condensed and hydrolysable tannins, coumarins, flavonoids, minerals; polyphenols, proteins, sugars, saponins, triterpenes, triterpenes glycosides, (B,L,R,S)

16, 16, 20, 20, 63, 63, 69, 69, 160, 161, 212

alkaloids, benzofurans, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, triterpenes, (B, Fr, W)

74, 78, 176, 212

chlorophyll a, b, a + b, carotenoid carotenoids, s, proteins, proteins, polyphenols, tannins, (L)

20

inhi inhibi bittion ion of larva rval gro growth and protein synthesis, synthesis, insecticid secticidal al effects, effects, (L, B, S)

benzofurans, nitrogen heterocycles, triterpenes, (L)

78, 80, 148, 175

cytotoxic activity towards human lung cancer cells, cells, antiplasm antiplasmodial odial and antiantineoplastic activity, (L, St)

carotenoid carotenoids, s, chlorophyll chlorophyll a, b, a+b, alkaloids, polyphenols, proteins, tannins, (B, L, R, S, W)

1, 20, 98

quinones, (B)

40, 41

(L, (L,

Aegiceras corniculatum∗∗∗

cure for asthma, diabetes, rheumatism, and as a fish poison, poison, (B, L, S)

Aegiceras majus∗∗∗

treatment treatment of haematari haemataria, a, lepros leprosy, y, ulcers ulcers,, and as a fish poison, (B, L)

antiviral activity, activity, toxicity to fish and influenc influencee on the growth growth of fungi, fungi, (B, Fr, Fl, L, S, R, W)

Aglaia cucullata∗

Aglaia odorata∗

Alstonia macrophylla∗

Ardesia elliptica∗∗

inse nsectic cticid ide, e, (L) (L)

436 Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

Arundo donax∗

as an emollients and diuretic, etic, stimulati stimulation on of menstrual strual discharg discharge; e; dimindiminishes ishes secret secretion ion of milk, milk, (W)

antifeedant and agrochemical activity, (W)

aliphatic amines and anilides, aromatic anilides, flavonoids, steroids, (W)

138

Atriplex vesicaria∗

treatm treatment ent (B).

Avicennia africana∗∗∗

cure for cancer, cancer, gangrengangrenous wounds, lice, mange, ring ring worms worms,, skin skin para para-sites, sites, thrush, thrush, tumors, tumors, ulcers, (B)

naphth naphthoqu oquino inones nes,, (St, (St, B)

79

Avicennia Avicennia alba∗∗∗

treatment of antifertililty, antifertililty, skin diseases, tumors, ulcers, (Resin)

lipids, hydrocarbons, naphthoquinones, phytoallexins (Naphthofurans) thofurans),, triterpenoi triterpenoids, ds, (B,L,S)

79

Avicennia ebracteatus∗∗∗

as a blood purifier, purifier, treattreatment of boils, snake bites, (Fr).

Avicennia germinans∗∗∗

treatment treatment of rheumatism, rheumatism, throat pains, ulcers of the mouth, (B, L).

Avicennia marina∗∗∗

treatment treatment of rheumatism, rheumatism, small pox, ulcers, fodder fodder for livestock; (S)

of

leukem leukemia, ia,

173

173

analge analgesic sic and antiv antivira irall activity activity,, (B, Fl, Fr, L, R, S,W)

Avicennia vicennia marina marina (fungus (fungus phytophphytophthora) Avicennia nitida∗∗∗

cure cure for thrush, thrush, tumors tumors,, ulcers, (B, L, Resin, Sd)

Avicennia officinalis ∗∗∗

as an aphrod aphrodisi isiac, ac, diurdiuretic, etic, cure cure for hepati hepatitis tis,, leprosy, (B, Fr, L).

Avicennia tomentosa∗∗∗

treatment treatment of rheumatism, rheumatism, (B,S).

Bacopa monniera∗∗∗

as a nerve tonic, (L).

rat poison, (L)

Balanites aegyptiaca ∗

to reduce abdominal pain, as an anthelmintic, detergent, as a purgative, treatment of malaria, intestinal disorders, disorders, sleeping sleeping sicksickness, ness, syphil syphilis, is, as a fish poison, (B,L,R).

molluscicidal and poisonous activity activity,, fish poison, (B, Fr, L, R, St)

glycosides, (B, L) L)

56, 173, 183

alcohols, amino acids, carbohydrates, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, inorganic salts, minerals, phytoalexins, carboxylic acids, steroids, tannins, tannins, triterpen triterpenes, es, vitamins, (B, L, R, S, Sd)

21, 21, 73, 73, 12, 12, 151, 151, 152, 194

phytoalexins, (B)

194

119, 183 antiviral activity, activity, biotoxicity on fingerlings of fish, (B, Fl, Fr, L, R, S, Sd, W)

alkaloids, arsenic, carbohydrates, carotenoids, chlorophyll a, b, a + b, flavonoids, glycosides, lipids, lipids, polyphenol polyphenols, s, proteins, saponins, tannins triterpenoids, (B, L, S, W)

16, 16, 20, 20, 56, 56, 61, 61, 119, 176, 183

trit triter erpe peno noid ids, s, (B,L (B,L,S ,S))

123 123 185

balanitins, saponins, (B, Fr, L, R, St)

116, 173, 208

Barringtonia racemosa∗∗

tannins, (B)

16

Batis maritima∗∗

flavonoids, (B, L)

87

437

Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Bruguiera caryophylloides∗∗∗

treatment of ulcers, (B, L)

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

15, 150, 173

Bruguiera conjugata∗∗∗ antiv antivira irall and larvic larvicida idall activ activity ity,, biotox biotoxici icity ty on tobacco mosaic virus and fingerlings of fish, (B, Fr, L, W)

sulphur sulphur containin containing g alkalalkaloids, (B,S)

96, 97, 119, 150, 150, 151, 162, 184, 204

minera minerals, ls, ( Ca, Na, Mg, K ), sulphur containing alkaloids, tannins, (B, S)

89, 96, 119, 150, 150, 151, 173

alkaloids, inositols, (B, L, S)

118, 172, 173

anthocyanins, carbohydrates, carotenoids, catechins, condensed and hydrolysable tannins, diterpenes, gibberellins, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, inorganic salts, salts, lipids, lipids, flavans flavans and flavan polymers, minerals, phenolic compounds, procyanidins, proteins, steroids, carboxylic acids, triterpenes, (B, Fr, Fr, L, R, S)

6, 16, 58, 61, 73, 171, 173, 180, 184

carbohydrates, carotenoids, chlorophyll a, b, a + b, lipids, lipids, minerals, minerals, phenolic compounds, procyanidins, proteins, tannins, (B, L, S)

20, 23, 173, 180, 180, 184

Bruguiera cylindrica∗∗∗

treatment of hepatitis, (Fr, L, R).

Bruguiera exaristata ∗∗∗

as an antitumor agent, (B).

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza∗∗∗

treatment of eye diseases, (Fr).

Bruguiera parviflora∗∗∗

as an antitumor agent, (B).

Bruguiera rumphii∗∗∗

treatment treatment of diabetes, diabetes, (B, L).

Bruguiera sexangula∗∗∗

as an antitumor agent, (B)

anthocyanins, carbohydrates, carotenoids, chlo chloro roph phyl ylll a, b, a + b, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, lipids, minerals, phenolic compounds, procyanidins, proteins, proteins, steroids, steroids, alkalalkaloids, tannins, tannins, triterpen triterpenes, es, (B, L, S)

20, 20, 73, 73, 96, 96, 118, 118, 173

Caesalpinia bonducella, (bonduc)∗∗

as an anti antitu tumor mor agen agent, t, cure for rheumatism, rheumatism, (B, L).

diterpenes, fatty acids, isoflavon isoflavones, es, lipids, lipids, phenolic compounds, (B, L)

59, 155, 173

Calophyllum inophyllum∗

as a cicatrisant, anticancer agent, agent, disinfecta disinfectant, nt, treattreatment of bone fracture, and eye diseases, (B, Fr, L).

flavonoids, inophyllums, lipids, lipids, proanthoc proanthocyanid yanidin in polymers, polymers, xanthones, xanthones, (R, S)

62, 77, 156, 170, 170, 173, 202

growth growth hormone tests tests on plants, (B, R)

173

anticancer, anticancer, antitumour, antifungal, transferase and lipid lipid peroxidase peroxidase activity activity,, cytotoxicity, cytotoxicity, inhibitory effect against DNA, (B, L)

438

Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

antibacterial, antiinflammatory, inflammatory, antiviral and phagocytosis stimulant activity, inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse reverse transcript transcriptase, ase, (B, L, S)

benzopyra benzopyrans, ns, coumarins, coumarins, steroids, triterpenes, xanthones (B, L, S)

156, 170

Camposperma auriculata∗

alkaloids alkaloids,, saponins, saponins, stersteroids, triterpenes, (L, Fl, S, W)

32

Carapa guianensis∗∗

ster steroi oids ds,, trit triter erpe pene nes, s, (B) (B)

122 122

Calophyllum inophyllum (Afr (Afriican can sna snail Achatina fulica)

Carapa moluccensis∗∗

treatment of diarrhoea, and as a febrifuge, (Fr)

Carapa obovata∗∗

treatment of diarrhoea, and as a febrifuge, (Fr)

Carapa procera∗ Cassia fistula

173 steroi steroids, ds, triter triterpen penes, es, (B) antibacterial activity (W)

∗

antiviral activity, activity, toxicity to fish

61, 122, 122, 173 61, 122

alkaloids, gibberellic acid, organic acids; steroids, triter triterpen penes, es, (B, Fl, L, R, W)

122, 186

Cassipourea gerradii∗∗

carbohydrates, organic acids; alkaloids (B, L, S)

16, 44, 53, 82, 97, 219

Cassipourea gummiflua∗∗

carbohydrates, minerals, organic acids; alkaloids (L, S)

44, 160, 161, 219

trit triter erpe pene ness gluc glucos osid ides es

29, 29, 195, 195, 218 218

cardenolides glycosides, (L)

173, 220

cardenolide glycosides, (L)

220

anthocyanidins, procyanidins, tannins (B)

160, 161, 173, 181

carotenoids, flavonoids, chlorophyll a, b, a + b, lipids and waxes, polyphenols, proteins, steroids, tannins, triterpenes, (L)

20, 20, 61, 61, 91, 91, 122, 122, 162, 163, 173

alkaloids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, gibberellins, minerals, procyanidins, saponins, steroids tannins, trace trace metals; metals; triterpen triterpenes, es, (B, W)

35, 122, 176, 180, 181, 213

Casuarina equisetifolia∗∗

Cerbera manghas∗∗

activity towards soil arthropods, ropods, immunochemi immunochemical cal propertie properties, s, agrochemic agrochemical al trials (B, L) as a purgativ purgative, e, treatment treatment of rheumatism, (B, Fr, Sd)

Cerbera odollam∗ Ceriops candolleana∗∗

cure for diabetes, (B)

Ceriops decandra∗∗∗

cure for hepatiti hepatitis, s, ulcers, ulcers, (B, Fr, L)

Ceriops roxburghiana∗∗∗

antiviral antiviral activity activity,, (B, Fl, Fr, L, R, S, W)

439 Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Ceriops tagal∗∗∗

treatment of  haemorrhages, (B).

Clerodendron inerme∗

as a febrif febrifuga ugall and uterine stimulant, stimulant, a pest control agent and antisepti antiseptic, c, to arrest bleeding, bleeding, treattreatment of asthma, hepatitis, ringworm, stomach pains, (B, L, S)

Cocos nucifera∗

as a pest control, (Husk)

Concocarpus erecta (erectus)∗∗

treatment treatment of catarrh, catarrh, gonorrhoea, malaria, to stop bleeding, bleeding, as a febrifuge, febrifuge, (B, L, R)

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

condensed condensed and hydrolyshydrolysable tannins, tannins, fatty fatty acids, acids, hydrocarbons, inorganic salts, salts, inositols inositols,, aliphatic aliphatic carboxylic acids, steroids, carotenoids, chlorophyll a, b, a+b, a+b, indo indole le alkal alkal-oids, oids, polyph polypheno enols, ls, proproteins, teins, tannin tannins, s, (B, L, R, Sd)

16, 16, 20, 20, 73, 73, 160, 160, 161, 172, 173, 184

surface protectants of  seeds against insects, biotoxici biotoxicity ty on fingerling fingerlingss of fish, fish, toxici toxicity ty agains againstt mosquito larvae, antiviral activity activity,, (Fr, (Fr, L, S, Sd, R, W)

carboxylic acids, diterpenes, penes, flavonoids flavonoids,, hydrocarbons, iridoid bigylcoside, neolignans neolignans,, phenols, phenols, protein, protein, steroids, steroids, triglytriglycerols, cerols, triterpen triterpenes, es, (L, S, Sd)

4, 9, 31, 51, 119, 149, 173

pheromones

aliphatic long chain hydrocarbons and acids, aromatic aldehydes, ketones, phenols, (B)

66

173

Cynometra iripa∗∗∗ Cyprus rotundus∗

to contro controll insect insect pests pests

fungit fungitoxi oxicit city y, effec effectt on spore germination, cytoprotective cytoprotective effects, insecticidal properties, (Rhizome, L)

Dalbergia ecastophyllum∗∗∗ Derris araripensis∗ Derris elliptica ∗

toxi toxici city ty to fish, fish, (B) (B) fish poison, (L, B)

carotenoids, chlorophyll a, b, a + b, polyph polypheno enols, ls, proteins, tannins, (L)

20

phytotoxins, sesquiterpene alkaloids, sesquiterpenes, starch, (Rhizome)

3, 45, 75, 81, 86, 147, 168, 173, 209, 222

chalcones, flavonoids and isoflavonoids, steroids, (B)

2, 52, 131

rote roteno none ness (iso (isofla flavo vono noid ids) s),, (B, St)

128

piscicidal activity, (B, Fr)

173

Derris heterophylla∗∗

toxicity toxicity against against mosquito mosquito larvae (L)

alkaloids alkaloids,, saponins, saponins, stersteroids, triterpenes, (L, Fl, S, W)

32, 51

Derris nicou∗

toxi toxici city ty to fish, fish, (B, (B, L)

rote roteno none ness (iso (isofla flavo vono noid ids) s) (B, L)

128

Derris sericeae ∗

toxi toxici city ty to fish, fish, (B, (B, L)

rote roteno none ness (iso (isofla flavo vono noid ids) s) (B, L)

128

toxicity toxicity to fish, (B, L, Fr)

alkaloids alkaloids,, carbohydra carbohydrates, tes, flavonoids and flavonol glycosides, lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, rotenone, steroids and triterpenes, (L, R)

61, 141, 173, 221

alkaloids, long chain nalkanes, (hydrocarbons), lipids, (L)

133, 173

Derris trifoliata∗∗∗

as a stimulant, spasmodic and counter irritant, laxative, fish poison, pesticide (L, R, T, W)

Derris uliginosa∗∗∗

as an antispasmo antispasmodic dic and stimulant, to arrest haemorrhages, (B, Fr)

440 Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

Derris urucu∗

fish poison insecticide (B, R)

activity against fly larvae, toxicity to fish, (R)

alkaloids, rotenones (isoflavonoids), saponins, triterpenes, (B)

128, 154, 173

piscicida piscicidall and antifunga antifungall activity, (Fr)

alkaloids, flavonoids, naphthoqui naphthoquinones nones,, saponsaponins, tannins, (W)

176, 203

Diospyros lancifolia∗

alkaloids, flavonoids, naphthoqui naphthoquinones nones,, saponsaponins, steroids, triterpenes, (L, Fl, S, W)

32, 203

Diospyros melanoxylon∗

triterpenes, (B)

126

antifeeda antifeedant nt activity activity,, (W)

long chain acids, acids, steroids, steroids, triterpenes, (W)

139

Diospyros cordifolia∗

Eleocharis dulcis∗ Excoecaria agallocha∗∗∗

as an uterotoni uterotonic, c, purgatpurgative, treatment of epilepsy, conjunctivitis, conjunctivitis, dermatitis, haematuria, leprosy, leprosy, toothache, toothache, as a piscicid piscicide, e, dart poison, and a skin irritant, (B, Fr, Fl, L, Lt, S, Sd, R, W)

antiviral, antiviral, antioxidant, analgesic, algesic, piscicid piscicidal al activactivity, antimicrobial activity against bacteria, yeast and fungi, fungi, activity activity against against tumour growth, growth, human immonodeficie monodeficiency ncy,, biotoxbiotoxicit icity y towa toward rdss fish, fish, and and field crabs, pest control, control, (B, L, Lt, S, W)

alkaloids, carotenoids, chalcones, chlorophyll a, b, a + b, cyclit cyclitol, ol, diter diter-penes, excoecariatoxins, excoecariatoxins, fluratoxin, glycerides of fatty acids, lipids and waxes; phorbol esters, polyphenols, polysaccharides, proteins, saponins, steroids, sugars, tannin tannins, s, triter triterpen penes, es, (B, Fl, L, Lt, S, W)

14, 20, 32, 55, 90, 92, 92, 93, 93, 94, 94, 105, 105, 106, 106, 107, 107, 119, 119, 130, 130, 150, 150, 151, 151, 160, 160, 161, 161, 162, 162, 163, 169, 173, 217

Excoecaria bicolor∗∗

as an uterotonic, skin irritant, toxic, (L, Lt)

piscicidal and tumour promoting activity, (L)

phorbol esters, excoecariatoxin, (B, L, S)

173, 217

Excoecaria oppositifolia∗∗

skin irritant (L, Lt)

Fagara zanthoxyloides∗

in dent dental al hygi hygien ene, e, (S) (S)

173, 217 alkaloids, (R)

158, 173

Ficus bengalensis∗

lipids, waxes, fatty acids, (L)

15

Ficus microcarpa∗

monoterpenes, isoflavones, phenols, triterpenes, (B, R, S)

38, 112

Gymnotroches axillaris∗

alkaloids, (B)

82

sulpha sulphated ted flavon flavonoid oids, s, (L)

51, 132

carotenoids, chlorophyll a, b, a + b, polyph polypheno enols, ls, proteins, tannins, (L)

20

alkaloids, aminoacida, carbohydrates, carotenoids, chlorophyll a, b, a & b, condensed and hydrolysable tannins, fatty acids; flavonoids, lipids and waxes; polyphenols, polysaccharides, proteins, saponins, sesquiterpenes, aliphatic carboxylic acids, suga sugars rs (gum), (gum), (B, (B, L, R, W)

15, 15, 16, 16, 20, 20, 49, 49, 59, 103, 136, 137, 160, 161, 173, 176

Halophila ovalis∗∗

bact bacter eric icid idal al and and ant antil ileu eukkemic activity, (R, W)

Toxici Toxicity ty to mosquito mosquito larvae (L)

Heritiera formes∗∗

Heritiera littoralis∗∗∗

control mosquitos and diarrhoea, as a fish toxicant, (S)

ichthytoxi ichthytoxicity city to fish, antifungal, antifeedant activity, (B, Fr, L)

441 Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Chemical constituents

References

Heritiera macrophylla∗∗∗

carotenoid carotenoids, s, chlorophyll chlorophyll a, b, a & b, polyphenols, proteins, tannins, (L)

20

Heritiera minor∗∗∗

alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, tannins, triterpenes (L, W)

176

alkaloids, amino acids, carbohydrates, organic acids, acids, fatty fatty acids, acids, saponsaponins, ins, sesqui sesquiter terpen penes es and sesquiterpenoid quinones, steroids, steroids, triterpen triterpenes, es, (Fl, L, S, W)

12, 12, 16, 16, 32, 32, 160, 160, 161, 173

alcohols alkaloids, aromatic ketones, carotenoid like substances, diterpene long chain chain hydrocarbo hydrocarbons, ns, hippomanin hippomanins, s, long chain (C29 -C35 ) hydrocarbons hydrocarbons,, nitrogen and sulphur containing compounds and their oxygen analogs, phorbols, sesquiterpenes, sugars sugars,, tannin tannins, s, (Fr, (Fr, L, Sap)

7, 65, 142, 173

Lipids (B, L)

188

Hibiscus tiliaceus∗∗

cure cure for ear infect infection ions, s, (Fl).

Hippomane mancinella∗

causes causes dermatiti dermatitis, s, severe severe conjuncti conjunctiviti vitiss and blindblindness, ness, to poison poison arrows, arrows, toxic poison, irritant to the skin, (Fr, L, Lt)

Tested for

poisonous constituents, skin irritant activity, activity, cocarcinogenicity and cryptic cocarcinogenicity cocarcinogenicity (L, Sap)

Inocarpus Inocarpus fagifer fagifer (fagiferus)∗∗ Intsia bijuga∗∗∗

dye

leucocyanidins, polyphenols; ols; stilbe stilbenes nes,, polysa polysacccharid charides, es, water water solubl solublee polymers, (B)

71, 173

Intsia palembanica∗∗

dye

leucocyanidins, polyphenols; ols; stilbe stilbenes nes,, polysa polysacccharides, water soluble polymers (B)

71, 173

Ipomoea pes-caprae∗

treat treat headache headache,, jelly jelly fish sting, sting, causes causes dermat dermatiti itiss (L)

alkaloids, aminoacids, monoterpenes, quinones, saponins, steroids, triterpenes, (Fl, L, S, W)

5, 32, 32, 50, 50, 108, 108, 159, 159, 173, 173, 174, 174, 211, 215

Juncus roemerianus∗

glucosides, glycosides, steroids, (B, L)

34

Kandelia candel∗∗∗

alkaloids, benzoquinones, carbohydrates, carotenoids, chlorophyll a, b, a & b, flavonoids, inorganic salts, polyphenols, proteins, tannins, saponins, short chain aliphatic carboxylic acids, sugars, (Gum, L, R, S, Sd, W)

20, 63, 113, 160, 160, 161, 176

anthocyanins, steroids and triterpenes

122, 173

Kandelia rheedii∗∗∗

treatment treatment of diabetes, diabetes, (B, Fr, L)

anti-infla anti-inflammator mmatory, y, antisantispasmodic, analgesic activity, antinociceptive antinociceptive action, inhibition inhibition of platelet platelet aggrgation (L, S)

442 Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

Laguncularia racemosa∗∗

Herbicide, (B)

antihypertensive, herbicide toxicity, (B)

amino acds; polysaccharides, sugars; tannins triterpenes, (B)

111, 173

Lumnitzera coccinea∗∗

treatment of thrush, (L)

sugars, (L)

160, 173

sugars, (L)

160

Lumnitzera littorea∗∗ Lumnitzera racemosa∗∗

antiferti antifertility lity,, treatment treatment of  asthma, diabetes, snake bite, (Fr)

antiviral antiviral activity activity,, (B, Fr, Fl, L, S, R, W)

cyclitols, sugars, tannins, (B, L)

16, 114, 125, 160, 162, 173

Melaleuca leucadendron∗

fungicide (L)

antifungal, anti HSV-1, herpes simplex virus activity, antigenic and allergenic cross-reactivity, cross-reactivity, inhibitors of induced histamine release, activity towards microorganisms, (Fr, L)

hydrolysable tannins, mono- and di- terpenes, sesquiterpenes, polyphenols, proteins, triterpenoids, stilbenes and stilbene glycosides, (B, Fr, L, Oil, Pollens)

27, 48, 173

flavones flavones and isoflavones isoflavones,, (W)

167, 191

aliphatic long chain carboxylic carboxylic acids, anthraanthraquinones, carotenoids, fatty fatty acid esters, glycosglycosides, ides, mineral mineral potassium, potassium, polysaccharides, steroids, trisaccharides, trisaccharides, vitamins, (Fr)

72, 173, 189, 214

Millettia auriculata∗ Morinda citrifolia∗

treatment of chronic renal diseases, (Fr,R)

anti-tumour, anticancer, anticancer, analgesic, antineoplastic, antineoplastic, and antinematodal activity, toxicity to mosquito larvae, (Fr, R)

Murrayella periclados∗

antibiotic, (B)

Nypa fruiticans∗∗∗

treatment treatment of asthma, asthma, diabetes, betes, leprosy leprosy,, rheumatrheumatism, ism, snake snake bite, bite, and as a beverage, (Fr, L)

acetic acetic acid, ethanol, ethanol, sugars, (W)

153, 173

Oncosperma tigillarium∗∗∗

added to rice rice as seasoning, (Fl)

organic organic acids, acids, sterols, sterols, (Fr)

173, 210

amino acids, carbohydrates, essential oils, organic acids, (L)

28, 160, 161

benz benzof ofur uran ans, s, lign lignan ans, s, phenolic compounds, (R)

83

phyt phytot otox oxic ic meta metabo boli lite tess

83, 83, 173 173

alkaloids alkaloids,, saponins, saponins, stersteroids, triterpenes, (L, Fl, S, W)

32

Vitamins, (Fr)

157, 173

173

Osbornia octodonta Pandanus odoratissimus∗

anti anti-o -oxi xida dant nt acti activi vity ty

Pandanus odoratissimus (Botryo-diplodia parasite)

causes post-harvest rot of  vegetables

Pandanus recurvatus∗ Pandanus spiralis∗ ∗∗

Pemphis acidula

Food, (Fr) purpos purposes es relati relating ng to human reproduction, (W)

Phoenix dactylifera∗ Phoenix paludosa∗

Food (Fr)

oestrogeni oestrogenicc and spasmospasmolytic activity, (W)

26, 173 carotenoids, triterpenes and steroids, (W)

124

alcohol, carotenoids, fatty acids, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenes, (W)

76, 124, 173

443 Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

Planotortaix excessana (leafroller moth found on Avicennia Avicennia resinifera)

bait to catch moths

sex pheromone

long chain fatty acid esters

57, 173

Pluchea indica∗∗

cure for rheumatism, scabies, bies, sinusi sinusitis tis,, used used as a antipyretic, diaphoretic in fevers, as an astringent, to treat ulcers, (L, R, B, S)

neutralisation of snake venom (neuropharmacological action), hepatoprotective, locomotory activity, activity, anti-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, abortifacient and enimenagogue, and anti-implantation, anti-implantation, uterine relaxation activity, inhibitor of gastric damage, (L, R)

sesq sesqu uite iterpen rpenes es,, (L) (L)

10, 10, 36, 36, 143, 143, 173, 173, 179, 206

Pongamia pinnata∗∗

in febrile febrile and inflammatinflammatory diseases, diseases, treatment treatment of  tumours, tumours, piles, piles, skin diseases, eases, wound wounds, s, ulcers ulcers,, fever fever,, piles, piles, rheumatis rheumatism, m, scabie scabies, s, sinus, sinus, stomac stomach h pain pain and intest intestina inall disdisorders, causes clinical lesions of skin and genitalia, genitalia, (B, L, S, W)

antibacterial, antiinflammatory, inflammatory, antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus, fungitoxicity, (L, S, Sd)

amino acids, chalcones and chromones, fatty acids; flavones and flavone glycosides, indole-3-acetic acid, lipids, monoglycerides, phenyl propanoids, proteins, proteins, sugars, sugars, tannins, tannins, (B, R)

8, 16, 54, 99, 100, 168, 173, 187, 192

Porteresia coarctata∗

animal food, (L)

fatty acids, hydrocarbons, ster steroi oids ds and and ster sterol ol esester, triacylglycerols, triterpenes, waxes, (B, W)

173

Preussia aurantiaca (fungus)

antibacterial

Raphia sp∗∗

Beverage (Fr)

alcohol, sugar and vitamin contents, (Fr)

alcohol, fatty acids, lipids, polysaccharides, sterols, sugars, vitamins, (Fr)

39, 173

Rhizophora apiculata∗∗∗

astringent for diarrhoea, treatment of nausea, vomiting, typhoid, hepatitis, an antiseptic, insecticide, (B, Fl, Fr, L).

antiviral, antiviral, larvicidal, antifungal, antifeedant, antimicrobial activity, activity, antiviral properties agains againstt human human immunimmunodeficiency, (B, Fr, Fl, L, S, R, W)

aliphatic alcohols aldehydes, and carboxylic acids, carotenoids, condensed and hydrolysable tannins, benzoquinones, lipids, n-alkanes, minerals, phenolic compounds, polysaccharides, steroids, triterpenes, (B, L, R, S)

16, 95, 104, 164, 164, 173, 184, 204, 205

Rhizophora conjugata∗∗∗

Anthocyanins and, procyanidins, steroids, tannins, triterpenes, (B)

122, 181

Rhizophora gymnorrhiza∗∗∗

anthocyan anthocyanins ins and anthoanthocyanidins, procyanidins, steroids, tannins, triterpenes, (B)

122

Rhizophora lamarckii∗∗∗

hepa hepati titi tis, s, (Fl, (Fl, L). L).

173

anti antivi vira rall acti activi vity ty (B, (B, Fr, Fr, Fl, Fl, L, S, R, W)

122, 173

444 Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Rhizophora mangle mangle (ascidian, (ascidian, Ecteinascidia turbinata)

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

activity against variety of  cancer cancer cells cells (carcinima (carcinimas, s, melanomas, melanomas, and lymphomas), (B)

Sulphur Sulphur containing containing nitronitrogenous compounds, (B)

219

Rhizophora mangle∗∗∗

treatment of diabetes, angina, boils, minor bruises, and fungal infections, diarrhoea, dysentery, dysentery, elephantiasis, fever, fever, malaria, leprosy, plaster for fractured bones, tuberculosis, antiseptic, (B, L)

anti-hyperglycemic effects, (W)

Rhizophora mucronata∗∗∗

treatment of elephantiasis, haematoma, hepatitis, ulcers, and a febrifuge, ((B, Fl, Fr, L, R)

Antiviral, anti-HIV activity, growth hormone tests on plants, biotoxicit biotoxicity y on fingerlings of fish, (B, Fr, L, S, Fl, W, R)

Rhizophora racemosa∗∗∗

to stop bleeding, (Fl, L).

11, 173, 216

alkaloids, anthocyanidins, anthocyanidins, carbohydrates, carotenoids, chlorophyll a, b, a & b, condensed and hydrolysable tannins, gibberellins, flavonoids, inositols, lipids, minerals, polysaccharides, polyphenols, procyanidins, proteins, saponins, steroid, triterpenes, (B, L, R, S)

16, 16, 20, 20, 58, 58, 61, 61, 82, 119, 151, 172, 173, 176, 181, 184

151, 173

Rhizophora sp∗∗∗

aminoacids, carbohydrates, polysaccharides, polyphenols, sugars, tannins, triterpenes, waxes (gum, L)

160, 161

Rhizophora stylosa∗∗∗

aliphatic carboxylic acids, fatty acids, flavoglycans, hydrocarbons hydrocarbons,, inorganic inorganic salts, inositols, steroids, (L,R, Sd)

73, 146, 171, 172

Salicornia brachiata∗∗∗

treat hepatitis, (L, S).

Salvadora persica∗∗

antiviral activity, (B, L)

151, 173

toxicity toxicity against against mosquito mosquito larvae, (L)

51

Sapium indicum∗

as a piscicidal agent toxic, irritant, (B)

poisonous constituents, (B)

diterpenes, nitrogen containing phorbol esters, phorbol, (B, Fr, L)

127, 127, 134, 134, 199, 200

Sapium sebiferum∗

reli relieeve stre stresss, (B). (B).

skin kin irrit rritaant and and tumou umourr promoting activity, (B)

diterpenes, nitrogen containing phorbol esters, phorbol, (Sd)

75, 173, 178

Scaev Scaevola ola seric sericea ea (plumieri)∗

Treat coughs, diabetes, eye infections, gastrointestinal disorders, headache, stings and bites, antiseptic, (B, L)

antiinflammatory, inflammatory, activity, (B, L)

Scyphiphora hydrophylacea∗∗

173, 188

cyclitol, cyclitol, polyol, polyol, sucrose, sucrose, glucose, fructose, (L)

160

173, 173,

445 Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

Serjania lethalis ∗

fish poison, (L)

ichthyocid activity, (L)

Sesuvium portulacastrum∗

trea treatt hepa hepati titi tis, s, (L). (L).

anti antivi vira rall acti activi vity ty,, (B, (B, Fl, Fl, Fr, L, S, R, W)

alkaloids, aminoacids, minerals, saponins, steroids, triterpenes, (L, Fl, S, W)

32, 85, 151, 162, 162, 173

Sonneratia acida∗∗∗

as poultice in swellings and sprains, to arrest haemorrhage, treat asthma, febrifuge, ulcers, (B,L)

plant-growth regulators, (B,L)

anthraquinones, carbohydrates, carboxylic acids and lactones, gibberellins, lipids and waxes, waxes, phenols, phenols, proteins, proteins, steroids, steroids, triterpene triterpenes, s, (B, L, S)

15, 25, 173

Sonneratia alba∗∗∗

poultice poultice in swellings swellings and sprains, (Fr)

cyclitol, polyol, sucrose, glucose, fructose, condensed and hydrolysable tannins, tannins, minerals, minerals, nuclenucleotides otides (B, L, R, S)

16, 160, 161, 173, 184

Sonneratia apetala∗∗∗

trea treatt hepa hepati titi tis, s, (L) (L)

plan plantt gro growth wth regu regula lato tors rs,, growth growth hormone tests tests on plants, plants, antiviral antiviral activity activity,, (B, Fl, Fr, L, S, R, W)

anthroquinoids, triterpenes and steroids, gibberellins, carboxylic acids and lactones, polyphenols, (B, L, S)

58, 162, 173, 199

Sonneratia caseolaris∗∗∗

stop bleeding, check  hemorrhages, treatment of piles, sprain poultices, (Fr)

toxicity toxicity against against mosquito mosquito larvae, (Fr)

fatty acids, hydrocarbons, steroids, (L)

51, 73, 173

Sonneratia ovata∗∗∗

checks hemorrhages, (juice)

24, 173

Spinifex longifolius∗

reduce internal pains, as an antiseptic, (W)

173

Sueda fruticosa∗ Sueda maritima∗

173, 201

hypercholesterolaemic activity cure cure hepa hepati titi tis, s, (L) (L)

anti antivi vira rall acti activi vity ty,, (B, (B, Fl, Fl, Fr, L, S, R, W)

Tamarix Tamarix gallica∗∗

22 Steroi Steroid, d, triter triterpen penes, es, (L)

61, 151, 151, 162, 162, 173, 173, 192

condensed condensed and hydrolyshydrolysable tannins, (B, L, R)

16

Terminalia catappa∗

treatment of hepatitis and prevent hepatoma, food, (Fr)

antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity, genotoxicity, genotoxicity, activity against inflammation, anti-sickling potential, (L)

lipids, lipids, sterols, sterols, tannins tannins tocopherols, fats and fatty acids, proteins, (Fr)

37, 115, 117, 130, 173, 188

Terminalia oblongata∗

poisonous to cattle, (L)

toxicity to mice

condensed tannins

188

Thespesia populnea (populneoides)∗∗∗

antifertility agent, causes dermatitis, (B, S)

antibacterial, antisteroidogenic, cytotoxic, antifertility activity, (B, Fl, S, W)

amino acids, carbohydrates, glycerides and glycosides, gossypol, fatty acids, mansonones, phenolic sesquiterpenes, phytolectins, organic acids, triterpenes, quinones, sterols, (B, S)

16, 47, 60, 64, 67, 70, 135, 145, 173, 182

antidiab antidiabetic etic activity activity,, (W)

cycloarta cycloartane ne derivat derivativ ives, es, (W)

30

Tillandsia usneoides∗

446 Table 1. Continued.

Bota Botani nica call name name

Trad Tradit itio iona nall uses/Properties

Tested for

Chemical constituents

References

Xylocarpus granatum∗∗∗

treat fevers, malaria, cholera, (B)

antifungal activity, activity, insect antifeedant activity activity

alkaloids, amino acids; carbohydrates; carotenoids, chlorophyll a,b, a & b, fatty fatty acids, acids, flavonoid flavonoids, s, hydrocarbons; limonoids, minerals, organic acids; polyphenols, proteins, tannins, triterpenes, saponins, steroids, sugars, (B, Fr, L, R, S, W)

13, 13, 20, 20, 40, 40, 43, 43, 73, 109, 122, 160, 161, 161, 173, 173, 176, 176, 184, 200

Xylocarpus moluccensis∗∗∗

treat treat fevers, malaria, as a naphrodisiac, (B, Fr).

antife antifeeda edant nt activ activity ity and inhibition inhibition of respirator respiratory y reactions, (B)

limonoids and limonoid esters, monoterpenoids; xyloccensins, limonoids, (Fr, S, St)

43, 109, 173, 192, 200

∗∗∗

mangroves; ∗∗ mangrove minors; ∗ mangrove associates. B = bark; L = leaves; Fr = fruits; R = roots; St = stems; Fl = flower; Sd = seed; W = whole plant; Lt = latex.

References

12.

13. 13. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 9.

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 Note: Due to space limitation, only a slected number  of references are cited. A complete list of references is available from the author on request.