C hapte hapterr 1 INTRODUCTION
The banana is an edible fruit edible fruit – botanically a berry a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called plantains, called plantains, in contrast to dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, colour and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch in starch covered with a rind which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant. Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic edible parthenocarpic (seedless) bananas come from two wild species – The scientific Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of
most
cultivated
and Musa × paradisiaca for
the
bananas hybrid Musa
are Musa
acuminata, Musa
acuminata × M. balbisiana,
balbisiana,
depending
on
their genomic genomic constitution. The old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used. tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and Australia, and and are likely to have been Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya first domesticated in in Papua New Guinea.They Guinea.They are grown in 135 countries,primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, make fiber, banana banana wine and banana and banana beer and as ornamental as ornamental plants. Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and "plantains". Especially in the Americas and Europe, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish the Cavendish group, group, which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. By contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called "plantains". In other regions, such as as Southeast Asia, Asia, many more kinds of banana are grown and eaten, so the simple two-fold distinction is not useful and is not made in local languages. The term "banana" is also used as the common name for the plants which produce the fruit.This can extend to other members of the genus Musa like the scarlet banana ( Musa Musa ), pink banana ( Musa the Fe'i bananas. It bananas. It can also refer to members of the coccinea), pink Musa velutina ) and the Fe'i genus Ensete, like the snow banana ( Enseteglaucum important false Enseteglaucum) and the economically important false banana ( Enseteventricosum family, Musaceae. Enseteventricosum). Both genera are classified under the banana family, Musaceae. Fruit and vegetable peel are commonly generated from both households and food processing industries. industr ies. Although the amount of o f these organic wastes generated from households househo lds is negligible, that generated from food-processing industries is large, as they are a major by product in these industries. The FVP wastes often cause serious problems in municipal landfills due to their high biodegradability1. However, these wastes can be potentially used as a low-cost 1
biosorbent. In addition, using these wastes in various other potential applications will eliminate them from the environment and reduce solid-waste handling, which will add some value to these wastes2,3. Currently the world is facing numerous challenges to reduce the dependence for energy on fossil fuels and to shift the interest towards renewable energy resources. The main reason for this change in energy utilization is because of the depletion of the fossil fuels and concern for global warming that is caused by the release of greenhouse gases while burning the fossil fuels. Although there are numerous renewable energy resources that are available, biomass has gained increasing amounts of attention in recent years. Biomass is biological degradable material from living organism that can be used as a source of energy either directly or indirectly. Deriving and utilizing energy from biomass is not a new technology for mankind. Wood is a biomass that has been used as a source so urce of energy energ y for heating and for f or cooking purposes purpos es throughout the evolution of mankind. Biomass is considered as carbon neutral, because the living organisms intake CO2 to carry out their life cycle processes and when these organisms and biomass materials are burnt, they release CO2 equal in amount to what they absorbed originally. This invaluable property of the biomass controls CO2 emission and prevents global warming. As an energy source, biomass is readily available and sustainable. Biomass substances primarily consist of carbohydrate polymers with a small amount of inorganic and low molecular weight organic constituents. The amount of lignocelluloses materials (cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin) that are present in the biomass varies depending upon the type of biomass materials being considered. Biomass usually consists of 18-35wt% of lignin, 65-75wt% of cellulose and about 10 wt% of low molecular weight compounds and inorganic compounds (Mohan et al., 2006). Cellulose is a fibrous high molecular weight polymer. The micro fibrils that are present in the celluloses are connected together and form a carbohydrate matrix and this matrix providessupport to the plant structure. Cellulose is a rigid material and its degradation usually takes place at a temperature of about 240-350ºC (Mohan et al., 2006). Hemicelluloses are branched polymers that consist of smaller sugar units. In wood hemicelluloses account for about 25-35wt% and the degradation of hemicelluloses occurs at lower temperature range of about 130-260ºC. During their thermal degradation, hemicelluloses
2
biosorbent. In addition, using these wastes in various other potential applications will eliminate them from the environment and reduce solid-waste handling, which will add some value to these wastes2,3. Currently the world is facing numerous challenges to reduce the dependence for energy on fossil fuels and to shift the interest towards renewable energy resources. The main reason for this change in energy utilization is because of the depletion of the fossil fuels and concern for global warming that is caused by the release of greenhouse gases while burning the fossil fuels. Although there are numerous renewable energy resources that are available, biomass has gained increasing amounts of attention in recent years. Biomass is biological degradable material from living organism that can be used as a source of energy either directly or indirectly. Deriving and utilizing energy from biomass is not a new technology for mankind. Wood is a biomass that has been used as a source so urce of energy energ y for heating and for f or cooking purposes purpos es throughout the evolution of mankind. Biomass is considered as carbon neutral, because the living organisms intake CO2 to carry out their life cycle processes and when these organisms and biomass materials are burnt, they release CO2 equal in amount to what they absorbed originally. This invaluable property of the biomass controls CO2 emission and prevents global warming. As an energy source, biomass is readily available and sustainable. Biomass substances primarily consist of carbohydrate polymers with a small amount of inorganic and low molecular weight organic constituents. The amount of lignocelluloses materials (cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin) that are present in the biomass varies depending upon the type of biomass materials being considered. Biomass usually consists of 18-35wt% of lignin, 65-75wt% of cellulose and about 10 wt% of low molecular weight compounds and inorganic compounds (Mohan et al., 2006). Cellulose is a fibrous high molecular weight polymer. The micro fibrils that are present in the celluloses are connected together and form a carbohydrate matrix and this matrix providessupport to the plant structure. Cellulose is a rigid material and its degradation usually takes place at a temperature of about 240-350ºC (Mohan et al., 2006). Hemicelluloses are branched polymers that consist of smaller sugar units. In wood hemicelluloses account for about 25-35wt% and the degradation of hemicelluloses occurs at lower temperature range of about 130-260ºC. During their thermal degradation, hemicelluloses
2
are evolved as light volatile compounds and produce low tar compounds during their degradation (Demibras, 2009; Mohan et al., 2006). Lignin is highly branched polyphenolic component and it is present in the cell wall of plants and fills the space between the celluloses, hemicelluloses and pectin. Lignin degradation begins at around 280-500ºC and produces phenols during its degradation (Demibras, 2009; Mohan et al., 2006). Raw biomass cannot be used directly as a source of energy because of its inferior properties like high moisture mo isture content and low lo w bulk bul k density. dens ity. Due to these th ese characteristics c haracteristics biomass possesses low heating value and undergoes biological degradation on storage. Transportation of the raw biomass with these inferior properties may create problems and challenges. There are several pre-treatment methods that have been adapted worldwide to treat the raw biomass. Theses pre-treatment methods help the raw biomass to overcome inferior properties and thereby increase the fuel properties. During the pre-treatment of raw biomass the lignocelluloses undergoes degradation at different degrees, depending on the temperature, residence time and the type of biomass used. The products formed as a result of biomass pre-treatment process are char, liquids and gaseous energy products at different levels. 1.
Medicinal importance of Fruit Peels
The health benefits of peels include its ability to provide fast and instant energy, regulate and improve bowel movements, stabilize blood sugar blood sugar levels, and slow down the aging process, while also providing an essential source of vitamin vitamin B1 to the human body. Other benefits include its ability to boost skin boost skin health, increase the metabolism, the metabolism, aid in digestion, in digestion, reduce high blood pressure, help weight loss weight loss efforts, improve the immune system and provide protection against dysentery, cancer, dysentery, cancer, and heart and heart disease. Peels is a fundamental food fundamental food in many cultural cuisines around the world, and it is an important cereal crop that feeds more than half of the world’s population. The various benefits can be found in more than forty thousand varieties of this cereal that are available throughout the world. The two main categories categories are whole grain peels and white peels. Whole grain peels is not processed very much, so it is high in nutritional value, whereas white peels is processed so that the bran or outer covering is removed, leaving it with less nutritional value. People choose different styles of peels for particular flavors, depending on their culinary needs, the availability, and the potential for healthy benefits as well! [2] well! [2]
3
It can also be defined by the length of each grain. Indian or Chinese cuisines specialize in long grained peels, whereas western countries prefer short or medium length grains. Since peels are abundant in carbohydrates, it acts as fuel for the body and aids in the normal functioning of the brain. Carbohydrates are essential to be metabolized by the body and turned into functional, usable energy. The vitamins, minerals, and various organic components increase the functioning and metabolic activity of all your organ systems, which further increases energy levels. Eating peels is extremely beneficial for your health, simply because it does not contain harmful fats, cholesterol or sodium. It forms an integral part of balanced diet. Any food that can provide nutrients without having any negative impacts on health is a bonus! Low levels of fat, cholesterol, and sodium will also help reduce obesity and the health conditions associated with being overweight. It is one of the most widely used and eaten foods in the world because it can keep people healthy and alive, even in very small quantities. [3] Peels is low in sodium, so it is considered one of the best foods for those suffering f rom high blood pressure and hypertension. Sodium can cause veins and arteries to constrict, increasing the stress and strain on the cardiovascular system as the blood pressure increases. This is also associated with heart conditions like atherosclerosis, heart attacks, and strokes, so avoiding excess sodium is always a good idea. Whole grain peels like brown peels is rich in insoluble fiber that can protect against many types of cancer. Many scientists and researchers believe that such insoluble fibers are vital for protecting the body against the development and metastasis of cancerous cells. Fiber, specifically is beneficial in defending against colorectal and intestinal cancer. However, besides fiber, it also has natural antioxidants like vitamin C, vitamin-A, phenolic and flavonoid compounds, which also act as or stimulate antioxidants to scour the body for free radicals. Free radicals are by products of cellular metabolism that can do serious damage to your organ systems and cause the mutation of healthy cells into cancerous ones. Boosting your antioxidant levels is a great idea, and eating more peels is a wonderful way to do that. Medical experts say that powdered peels can be applied topically to cure certain skin ailments. On the Indian subcontinent, peels water is readily prescribed by ayurvedic practitioners as an effective ointment to cool off inflamed skin surfaces. The phenolic compounds that are found in it, particularly in brown or wild peels, have anti-inflammatory properties, so they are also good for soothing irritation and redness. Whether consumed or topically applied, substance derived from peels tend to relieve a number of skin conditions. The antioxidant capacity also helps delay the appearance of wrinkles and other premature signs of aging that can affect the 4
skin. Medical experts say that powdered peels can be applied topically to cure certain skin ailments. On the Indian subcontinent, peels water is readily prescribed by ayurvedic practitioners as an effective ointment to cool off inflamed skin surfaces. The phenolic compounds that are found in it, particularly in brown or wild peels, have anti-inflammatory properties, so they are also good for soothing irritation and redness. Whether consumed or topically applied, substance derived from peels tend to relieve a number of skin conditions. The antioxidant capacity also helps delay the appearance of wrinkles and other premature signs of aging that can affect the skin. [4] Brown peels is said to contain high levels of nutrients that stimulate the growth and activity of neurotransmitters, subsequently helping to prevent Alzheimer’s disease to a considerable
extent. Various species of wild peels have been shown to stimulate neuro protective enzymes in the brain, which inhibit the effects of free radicals and other dangerous toxins that can cause dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Peels bran oil is known to have antioxidant properties that promote cardiovascular strength by reducing cholesterol levels in the body. We have already spoken about the cardiovascular benefits of fiber, and low levels of fat and sodium. Wild and brown peels varieties are far better than white peels in this category, since the peels of the grain is where much of the nutrients are; the peels is removed in white peels preparation. Medicinal plants, medicinal herbs, or simply herbs have been identified and used from prehistoric
times. Plants make many chemical compounds for biological
including defence against insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals.
Over
functions,
12,000
active
compounds are known to science. These chemicals work on the human body in exactly the same way as pharmaceutical drugs, so herbal medicines can be beneficial and have harmful side effects just like conventional drugs. However, since a single plant may contain many substances, the effects of taking a plant as medicine can be complex. [5] The earliest historical records of herbs are found from the Sumerian civilisation, where hundreds
of
medicinal
plants
including opium are listed on clay tablets. The Ebers
Papyrus from ancient Egypt describes over 850 plant medicines, while Dioscorides documented over 1000 recipes for medicines using over 600 medicinal plants in De materia medica, forming the basis of pharmacopoeias for some 1500 years. Drug research makes use of ethnobotany to search for pharmacologically active substances in nature, and has in this way discovered hundreds of useful compounds. These include the common drugs aspirin, digoxin, quinine, and opium. The compounds found in plants are of many kinds, but most are in four major biochemical classes, the alkaloids, glycosides, polyphenols, and terpenes. 5
Medicinal plants are widely used to treat disease in non-industrialized societies, not least because they are far cheaper than modern medicines. The annual global export value of pharmaceutical plants in 2012 was over US$2.2 billion. Medicinal plants demand intensive management. Different species each require their own distinct conditions of cultivation. The World Health Organization recommends the use of rotation to minimise problems with pests and plant diseases. Cultivation may be traditional or may make use of conservation agriculture practices to maintain organic matter in the soil and to conserve water, for example with no-till farming systems. In many medicinal and aromatic plants, plant characteristics vary widely with soil type and cropping strategy, so care is required to obtain satisfactory yields. [6]
2.
Fruit peels as a source of Biomass
Plant sustenance is the investigation of the synthetic components and mixes fundamental for plant development, plant digestion and their outside supply. In 1972, Emanuel Epstein characterized two criteria for a component to be basic for plant development: In its nonattendance the plant can't finish a typical life cycle. Or that the component is a piece of some fundamental plant constituent or metabolite. This is as per Justus von Liebig's law of the base. The fundamental plant supplements incorporate carbon, oxygen and hydrogen which are assimilated from the air, though different supplements including nitrogen are regularly gotten from the dirt (special cases incorporate some parasitic or meat eating plants). The macronutrients are devoured in bigger amounts; hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon add to more than 95% of a plants' whole biomass on a dry issue weight premise. Micronutrients are available in plant tissue in amounts measured in parts per million, extending from 0.1 to 200 ppm, or under 0.02% dry weight. Most soil conditions over the world can give plants adjusted to that atmosphere and soil with adequate sustenance for a total life cycle, without the expansion of supplements as compost. Notwithstanding, if the dirt is edited it is important to falsely alter soil richness through the expansion of compost to advance incredible development and increment or support yield. This is done on the grounds that, even with sufficient water and light, supplement insufficiency can constrain development and product yield. [7]
Plants take up basic components from the dirt through their underlying foundations and from the air (for the most part comprising of nitrogen and oxygen) through their clears out.
6
Supplement take-up in the dirt is accomplished by cation trade, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen particles (H+) into the dirt through proton pumps. These hydrogen particles uproot cations joined to contrarily charged soil particles with the goal that the cations are accessible for take-up by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and remove oxygen. The carbon dioxide atoms are utilized as the carbon source in photosynthesis.
The root, particularly the root hair, is the basic organ for the take-up of supplements. The structure and engineering of the root can modify the rate of supplement take-up. Supplement particles are transported to the focal point of the root, the stele, all together for the supplements to achieve the leading tissues, xylem and phloem. The Casparian strip, a cell divider outside the stele however inside the root, anticipates detached stream of water and supplements, controlling the take-up of supplements and water. Xylem moves water and mineral particles inside the plant and phloemaccounts for natural atom transportation. Water potential assumes a key part in a plant's supplement take-up. On the off chance that the water potential is more negative inside the plant than the encompassing soils, the supplements will move from the district of higher solute fixation — in the dirt — to the territory of lower solute focus - in the plant. [8]
There are three crucial ways plants take-up supplements through the root: Simple dissemination happens when a nonpolar atom, for example, O2, CO2, and NH3 takes after a fixation angle, moving latently through the cell lipid Billayer layer without the utilization of transport proteins.
2.
Facilitated dissemination is the quick development of solutes or particles
following a fixation slope, encouraged by transport proteins.
3.
Active transport is the take-up by cells of particles or atoms against a focus slope;
this requires a vitality source, generally ATP, to control sub-atomic pumps that move the particles or atoms through the layer.
Supplements can be moved inside plants to where they are generally required. For instance, a plant will endeavor to supply a greater number of supplements to its more youthful leaves than to its more seasoned ones. At the point when supplements are versatile inside the plant, indications of any inadequacy wind up plainly evident first on the more established takes off. Be that as it may, not all supplements are similarly portable. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and 7
potassium are versatile supplements while the others have shifting degrees of portability. At the point when a less-portable supplement is insufficient, the more youthful leaves endure in light of the fact that the supplement does not climb to them but rather remains in the more established takes off. This marvel is useful in figuring out which supplements a plant might be deficient. [9]
In spite of the fact that nitrogen is abundant in the Earth's climate, generally few plants harbor nitrogen-settling microorganisms, so most plants depend on nitrogen mixes show in the dirt to help their development. These can be provided by mineralization of soil natural issue or included plant buildups, nitrogen settling microbes, creature squander, through the breaking of triple reinforced N2molecules by lightning strikes or through the utilization of manures.
No less than 17 components are known to be fundamental supplements for plants. In generally huge sums, the dirt supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur; these are regularly called the macronutrients. In moderately little sums, the dirt supplies press, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, and cobalt, the supposed micronutrients. Supplements must be accessible in adequate sums as well as in proper proportions. [10]
Plant nourishment is a troublesome subject to see totally, somewhat on account of the variety between various plants and even between various species or people of a given clone. Components show at low levels may cause insufficiency side effects, and danger is conceivable at levels that are too high. Moreover, inadequacy of one component may present as indications of poisonous quality from another component, and the other way around.
In spite of the fact that nitrogen is copious in the Earth's environment, generally few plants take part in nitrogen obsession (change of air nitrogen to an organically helpful shape). Most plants, thusly, require nitrogen mixes to be available in the dirt in which they develop.
Carbon and oxygen are ingested from the air while different supplements are assimilated from the dirt. Green plants acquire their starch supply from the carbon dioxide noticeable all around by the procedure of photosynthesis. Each of these supplements is utilized as a part of a better place for an alternate fundamental capacity. [11]
8
Nitrogen is a noteworthy constituent of a few of the most critical plant substances. For instance, nitrogen mixes contain 40% to half of the dry matter of cellular material, and it is a constituent of amino acids, the building squares of proteins. It is additionally a basic constituent of chlorophyll. Nitrogen insufficiency regularly brings about hindered development, moderate development, and chlorosis. Nitrogen inadequate plants will likewise display a purple appearance on the stems, petioles and underside of leaves from a gathering of anthocyanin shades. In numerous farming settings, nitrogen is the restricting supplement for quick development. Nitrogen is transported by means of the xylem from the roots to the leaf overhang as nitrate particles, or in a natural frame, for example, amino acids or amides. Nitrogen can likewise be transported in the phloem sap as amides, amino acids and ureides; it is in this manner versatile inside the plant, and the more seasoned leaves show chlorosis and putrefaction sooner than the more youthful takes off. [12]
There is a plenteous supply of nitrogen in the world's environment — N2 gas involves about 79% of air. Be that as it may, N2 is inaccessible for use by most living beings on the grounds that there is a triple bond between the two nitrogen particles in the atom, making it practically latent. With the goal for nitrogen to be utilized for development it must be "settled" (consolidated) as ammonium (NH4) or nitrate (NO3) particles. The weathering of rocks discharges these particles so gradually that it negligibly affects the accessibility of settled nitrogen. In this way, nitrogen is frequently the restricting component for development and biomass generation in all conditions where there is a reasonable atmosphere and accessibility of water to help life.
Nitrogen enters the plant generally through the roots. A "pool" of solvent nitrogen collects. Its structure inside an animal categories differs broadly relying upon a few elements, including day length, time of day, night temperatures, supplement inadequacies, and supplement lopsidedness. Short day length advances asparagine development, while glutamine is delivered under taxing day administrations. Obscurity favors protein breakdown joined by high asparagine collection. Night temperature adjusts the impacts because of night length, and solvent nitrogen has a tendency to collect attributable to hindered blend and breakdown of proteins. Low night temperature rations glutamine; high night temperature expands amassing of asparagine due to breakdown. Inadequacy of K emphasizes contrasts amongst long-and short-day plants. The pool of dissolvable nitrogen is considerably littler than in all around fed plants when N and P are lacking since take-up of nitrate and further decrease and change of N to natural structures is 9
confined more than is protein amalgamation. Inadequacies of Ca, K, and S influence the transformation of natural N to protein more than take-up and lessening. The span of the pool of dissolvable N is no guide in essence to development rate, however the measure of the pool in connection to add up to N may be a helpful proportion in such manner. Nitrogen accessibility in the establishing medium likewise influences the size and structure of tracheids shaped in the long horizontal underlying foundations of white spruce. [13]
Microorganisms have a focal part in all parts of nitrogen accessibility, and in this manner forever bolster on earth. A few microscopic organisms can change over N2 into smelling salts by the procedure named nitrogen obsession; these microbes are either free-living or shape cooperative relationship with plants or different living beings (e.g., termites, protozoa), while other microorganisms realize changes of alkali to nitrate, and of nitrate to N2 or other nitrogen gasses. Numerous microbes and parasites debase natural issue, discharging settled nitrogen for reuse by different life forms. Every one of these procedures add to the nitrogen cycle. Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth, plant metabolism and their external supply. In 1972, Emanuel Epstein defined two criteria for an element to be essential for plant growth: 1. In its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle. 2. Or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite. This is in accordance with Justus von Liebig's law of the minimum. The essential plant nutrients include carbon, oxygen and hydrogen which are absorbed from the air, whereas other nutrients including nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil (exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants). The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities; hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon contribute to over 95% of a plants' entire biomass on a dry matter weight basis. Micronutrients are present in plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million, ranging from 0.1 to 200 ppm, or less than 0.02% dry weight. Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants adapted to that climate and soil with sufficient nutrition for a complete life cycle, without the addition of nutrients as fertilizer. However, if the soil is cropped it is necessary to artificially modify soil fertility through the addition of fertilizer to promote vigorous growth and increase or sustain yield. This is done because, even with adequate water and light, nutrient deficiency can limit growth and crop yield. [7] 10
Plants take up essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air (mainly consisting of nitrogen and oxygen) through their leaves. Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H+) into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis. The root, especially the root hair, is the essential organ for the uptake of nutrients. The structure and architecture of the root can alter the rate of nutrient uptake. Nutrient ions are transported to the center of the root, the stele, in order for the nutrients to reach the conducting tissues, xylem and phloem. The Casparian strip, a cell wall outside the stele but within the root, prevents passive flow of water and nutrients, helping to regulate the uptake of nutrients and water. Xylem moves water and mineral ions within the plant and phloemaccounts for organic molecule transportation. Water potential plays a key role in a plant's nutrient uptake. If the water potential is more negative within the plant than the surrounding soils, the nutrients will move from the region of higher solute concentration — in the soil — to the area of lower solute concentration - in the plant. [8] There are three fundamental ways plants uptake nutrients through the root: 1. Simple diffusion occurs when a nonpolar molecule, such as O2, CO 2, and NH3 follows a concentration gradient, moving passively through the cell lipid Billayer membrane without the use of transport proteins. 2. Facilitated diffusion is the rapid movement of solutes or ions following a concentration gradient, facilitated by transport proteins. 3. Active transport is the uptake by cells of ions or molecules against a concentration gradient; this requires an energy source, usually ATP, to power molecular pumps that move the ions or molecules through the membrane. Nutrients can be moved within plants to where they are most needed. For example, a plant will try to supply more nutrients to its younger leaves than to its older ones. When nutrients are mobile within the plant, symptoms of any deficiency become apparent first on the older leaves. However, not all nutrients are equally mobile. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are mobile nutrients while the others have varying degrees of mobility. When a less-mobile nutrient is deficient, the younger leaves suffer because the nutrient does not move up to them but stays in 11
the older leaves. This phenomenon is helpful in determining which nutrients a plant may be lacking. [9] Though nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, relatively few plants harbour nitrogen-fixing bacteria, so most plants rely on nitrogen compounds present in the soil to support their growth. These can be supplied by mineralization of soil organic matter or added plant residues, nitrogen fixing bacteria, animal waste, through the breaking of triple bonded N2molecules by lightning strikes or through the application of fertilizers. At least 17 elements are known to be essential nutrients for plants. In relatively large amounts, the soil supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur; these are often called the macronutrients. In relatively small amounts, the soil supplies iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, and cobalt, the so-called micronutrients. Nutrients must be available not only in sufficient amounts but also in appropriate ratios. [10] Plant nutrition is a difficult subject to understand completely, partially because of the variation between different plants and even between different species or individuals of a given clone. Elements present at low levels may cause deficiency symptoms, and toxicity is possible at levels that are too high. Furthermore, deficiency of one element may present as symptoms of toxicity from another element, and vice versa. Although nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, relatively few plants engage in nitrogen fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a biologically useful form). Most plants, therefore, require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow. Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. Green plants obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of photosynthesis. Each of these nutrients is used in a different place for a different essential function. [11] Nitrogen is a major constituent of several of the most important plant substances. For example, nitrogen compounds comprise 40% to 50% of the dry matter of protoplasm, and it is a constituent of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. It is also an essential constituent of chlorophyll. Nitrogen deficiency most often results in stunted growth, slow growth, and chlorosis. Nitrogen deficient plants will also exhibit a purple appearance on the stems, petioles and underside of leaves from an accumulation of anthocyanin pigments. In many agricultural settings, nitrogen is the limiting nutrient for rapid growth. Nitrogen is transported via the xylem from the roots to the leaf canopy as nitrate ions, or in an organic form, such as amino acids or 12
amides. Nitrogen can also be transported in the phloem sap as amides, amino acids and ureides; it is therefore mobile within the plant, and the older leaves exhibit chlorosis and necrosis earlier than the younger leaves. [12] There is an abundant supply of nitrogen in the earth’s atmosphere — N2 gas comprises
nearly 79% of air. However, N2 is unavailable for use by most organisms because there is a triple bond between the two nitrogen atoms in the molecule, making it almost inert. In order for nitrogen to be used for growth it must be “fixed” (combined) in the form of ammonium ( NH4) or nitrate (NO3) ions. The weathering of rocks releases these ions so slowly that it has a negligible effect on the availability of fixed nitrogen. Therefore, nitrogen is often the limiting factor for growth and biomass production in all environments where there is a suitable climate and availability of water to support life. Nitrogen enters the plant largely through the roots. A “pool” of soluble nitrogen accumulates. Its composition within a species varies widely depending on several factors, including day length, time of day, night temperatures, nutrient deficiencies, and nutrient imbalance. Short day length promotes asparagine formation, whereas glutamine is produced under
long
day
regimes.
Darkness
favors
protein
breakdown
accompanied
by
high asparagine accumulation. Night temperature modifies the effects due to night length, and soluble nitrogen tends to accumulate owing to retarded synthesis and breakdown of proteins. Low night temperature conserves glutamine; high night temperature increases accumulation of asparagine because of breakdown. Deficiency of K accentuates differences between long- and short-day plants. The pool of soluble nitrogen is much smaller than in well-nourished plants when N and P are deficient since uptake of nitrate and further reduction and conversion of N to organic forms is restricted more than is protein synthesis. Deficiencies of Ca, K, and S affect the conversion of organic N to protein more than uptake and reduction. The size of the pool of soluble N is no guide per se to growth rate, but the size of the pool in relation to total N might be a useful ratio in this regard. Nitrogen availability in the rooting medium also affects the size and structure of tracheids formed in the long lateral roots of white spruce. [13] Microorganisms have a central role in almost all aspects of nitrogen availability, and therefore for life support on earth. Some bacteria can convert N2 into ammonia by the process termed nitrogen fixation; these bacteria are either free-living or form symbiotic associations with plants or other organisms (e.g., termites, protozoa), while other bacteria bring about transformations
of ammonia to nitrate, and of nitrate to N2 or other nitrogen
13
gases.
Many bacteria and fungi degrade organic matter, releasing fixed nitrogen for reuse by other organisms. All these processes contribute to the nitrogen cycle. Like nitrogen, phosphorus is involved with many vital plant processes. Within a plant, it is present mainly as a structural component of the nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), as well as a constituent of fatty phospholipids, that are important in membrane development and function. It is present in both organic and inorganic forms, both of which are readily translocated within the plant. All energy transfers in the cell are critically dependent on phosphorus. As with all living things, phosphorus is part of the Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is of immediate use in all processes that require energy with the cells. Phosphorus can also be used to modify the activity of various enzymes by phosphorylation, and is used for cell signaling. Phosphorus is concentrated at the most actively growing points of a plant and stored within seeds in anticipation of their germination. Phosphorus is most commonly found in the soil in the form of polyprotic phosphoric acid (H3PO4), but is taken up most readily in the form of H2PO− Phosphorus is available to plants in limited quantities in most soils because it is released very slowly from insoluble phosphates and is rapidly fixed once again. Under most environmental conditions it is the element that limits growth because of this constriction and due to its high demand by plants and microorganisms. Plants can increase phosphorus uptake by a mutualism with mycorrhiza. A Phosphorus deficiency in plants is characterized by an intense green coloration or reddening in leaves due to lack of chlorophyll. If the plant is experiencing high phosphorus deficiencies the leaves may become denatured and show signs of death. Occasionally the leaves may appear purple from an accumulation of anthocyanin. Because phosphorus is a mobile nutrient, older leaves will show the first signs of deficiency. [14] On some soils, the phosphorus nutrition of some conifers, including the spruces, depends on the ability of mycorrhizae to take up, and make soil phosphorus available to the tree, hitherto unobtainable to the non-mycorrhizal root. Seedling white spruce, greenhouse-grown in sand testing negative for phosphorus, were very small and purple for many months until spontaneous mycorrhizal inoculation, the effect of which was manifested by a greening of foliage and the development of vigorous shoot growth. Phosphorus deficiency can produce symptoms similar to those of nitrogen deficiency,[12] but as noted by Russel: “Phosphate deficiency differs from nitrogen deficiency in being extremely difficult to diagnose, and crops can be suffering from extreme starvation without there being any obvious signs that lack of phosphate is the cause”. Russell’s observation applies to at least 14
some coniferous seedlings, but Benzian found that although response to phosphorus in very acid forest tree nurseries in England was consistently high, no species (including Sitka spruce) showed any visible symptom of deficiency other than a slight lack of lustre. Phosphorus levels have to be exceedingly low before visible symptoms appear in such seedlings. In sand culture at 0 ppm phosphorus, white spruce seedlings were very small and tinted deep purple; at 0.62 ppm, only the smallest seedlings were deep purple; at 6.2 ppm, the seedlings were of good size and color. It is useful to apply a high phosphorus content fertilizer, such as bone meal, to perennials to help with successful root formation. [15] Calcium regulates transport of other nutrients into the plant and is also involved in the activation of certain plant enzymes. Calcium deficiency results in stunting. This nutrient is involved in photosynthesis and plant structure. Blossom end rot is also a result of inadequate calcium. Another common symptom of calcium deficiency in leaves is the curling of the leaf towards the veins or center of the leaf. Many times this can also have a blackened appearance Calcium has been found to have a positive effect in combating salinity in soils. It has been shown to ameliorate the negative effects that salinity has such as reduced water usage of plants.[25] Calcium in plants occurs chiefly in the leaves, with lower concentrations in seeds, fruits, and roots. A major function is as a constituent of cell walls. When coupled with certain acidic compounds of the jelly-like pectins of the middle lamella, calcium forms an insoluble salt. It is also intimately involved in meristems, and is particularly important in root development, with roles in cell division, cell elongation, and the detoxification of hydrogen ions. Other functions attributed to calcium are; the neutralization of organic acids; inhibition of some potassium-activated ions; and a role in nitrogen absorption. A notable feature of calciumdeficient plants is a defective root system. Roots are usually affected before above-ground parts. [16] Nutrient status (mineral nutrient and trace element composition, also called ionome and nutrient profile) of plants are commonly portrayed by tissue elementary analysis. Interpretation of the results of such studies, however, has been controversial. During the last decades the nearly two-century-old “law of minimum” or “Liebig's law” (that states that plant growth is contr olled not by the total amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource) has been replaced by several mathematical approaches that use different models in order to take the interactions between the individual nutrients into account. The latest developments in this field are based on the fact that the nutrient elements (and compounds) do not act independently from each other; Baxter, 2015, because there may be direct chemical interactions between them or they may 15
influence each other’s uptake, translocation, and biological action via a number of mechanisms
as exemplified for the case of ammonia. [17]
Nutritional composition of Fruit peels a. Proteins
The largest number of proteins are functionally associated with zinc (127), followed by copper (108), iron (106), manganese (12), and nickel (4). Metal-containing proteins of the photosynthetic machinery are particularly abundant in plants, with a predominance of iron, for example in the reaction centres of photosystems I and II, and the occurrence of manganese in the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II and copper in plastocyanin. Relative to the amounts accumulated by plants, transition metal ions are substantially less available for uptake by plant roots than other inorganic nutrient ions in most soils. Therefore, plants possess highly effective metal acquisition and uptake systems Metal uptake, metal partitioning to plant organs and cell types, and metal delivery to metal-requiring proteins in different sub-cellular localizations, as well as metal storage and re-mobilization all require the operation of transition metal transporters. The dynamic range of optimal internal concentrations, within which plants are unaffected by deficiency or toxicity, is particularly narrow for transition metals. Thus, metal transport and its regulation have to operate with high precision and specificity . Protein is found in most plant foods as well as animal foods. Your body will make its own complete protein if a variety of foods and enough calories are eaten during the day. Vegetarian sources of protein include: Legumes such as beans, peas and lentils, Whole grains, Soy products, Nuts and nut butters, Dairy products, Eggs. The protein of peels bran has a higher lysine content and a lower glutamic acid content than peels and wheat and it has a better balance of essential amino acids with an amino acid score of 80 per cent with respect to lysine, and 90 per cent with respect to threonine. It is reported to have a Protein Energy Ratio (PER) value of nearly 2.0. [18] b. Vitamins
Peels comes in three grain sizes -- long, medium and short. It is most commonly consumed in its refined white form, which is sold after the outer peels and layer of bran have been removed. Brown peels is similarly relieved of its outer peels, but the bran is left intact, giving it a brown color and chewy texture. Wild peels is not actually a peels, but an aquatic grass seed commonly grown in Canada. It has a smoky flavor and chewy texture.
16
All the known essential water-soluble vitamins, with the exception of vitamin C, are grouped under the category of “vitamin B complex,” although, as the University of Michigan Health
System (UMHS) notes, these vitamins do not bear any special relationship to each other and are only grouped together due to an early erroneous belief that they were all part of a single nutrient. [19] The B complex group plays various roles in the body’s ability to produce en ergy. Wild,
white and brown peels all contain varying amounts of vitamins B1 through B6. B12 is not found in peels, as it is only produced by animal food sources. Long grain brown peels contains higher amounts of B vitamins than does wild peels or white peels that has not been enriched. Vitamin E is found wild, white and brown peels. Wild peels, with its .39mg of vitamin E per cooked cup, contains more than six times the amount found in white or brown peels, according to the USDA National Nutrient Database. Vitamin E is an antioxidant, protecting the body from damage caused by the presence of unstable molecules or free radicals. Vitamin E is active in preventing destruction to the cell membranes and fat-soluble tissues of the body. B12 is found in all foods of animal origin, including eggs and dairy products. An adequate intake of vitamin B12 is generally not a concern for vegetarians who eat some dairy products or eggs. Vegans, however, need to supplement their diet by choosing foods fortified with vitamin B12 or by taking a vitamin B12 (cobalamin) supplement. Vegetarian sources of B12 include: Vitamin B12-fortified foods including nutritional yeast, soy milk, meat analogs and ready-to-eat cereals (be sure to check the label) Dairy products and Eggs. Few foods are naturally high in vitamin D, but many dairy products are fortified with vitamin D in the United States. People who choose not to eat dairy products and who do not receive exposure to sunlight on a regular basis should discuss the need to take a vitamin D supplement with their health care provider. Vegetarian sources of vitamin D include: Eggs and Vitamin D-fortified soy milk, cow's milk, orange juice and ready-to-eat cereals. Peels bran is also a rich source of B-complex vitamins (Table 1), particularly thiamine and nicotinic acid and some other minor B-vitamins. Riboflavin and vitamin Bs content however appear to be on a lower side. In Table 2, the nutrient content of peels bran is compared with RDA for a sedentary man (consumption unit) S and also with peels and wheat. A 100 g of edible grade peels bran can meet 20 to 27 per cent of the daily needs of nutrients of a sedentary man. [20] c. Fats
17
All plants contain oils (ex. olive oil) or fats (ex. cocoa butter) and mainly in their seeds. As an exception, tubers of Cyperus esculentus (sedge or tigernut tubers) contain up to 27% oil. Accumulation of triglycerides may also occur in certain yeasts and moulds. Thus, up to 86% lipid has been recorded in the mould, Mortierella isabellina. The analysis of the distribution of the fatty acyl groups in triglycerides from numerous yeasts and mould indicates that these microbial lipids are similar to their plant counterparts mainly in locating the unsaturated chains at the sn-2 position. In most plants storage lipids are in the form of triglycerides. There are a very few examples of alternative forms of storage lipid in higher plants. The most known of these is the desert shrub, jojoba, which stores its seed lipid as a liquid wax. Storage lipids may be accumulated in one or both of the main types of seed tissue, embryo or endosperm. In oilseeds such as sunflower, linseed or rapeseed, the cotyledons of the embryo are the major sites of lipid accumulation. In species such as castor bean, coriander or carrot, the endosperm is the main site of lipid accumulation. Finally, in tobacco, both embryo and endosperm tissues store lipids.Vegetal oils are frequently classified in two main groups, according to their source: pulp oil (palm, olive, and avocado) and seed oil (other sources). The amount of lipids in plant parts varies from as low as 0.1% in potatoes to about 70% in pecan nuts. Some vegetal products are fat poor (1% in lentils, 3% in mushrooms), some seeds have a middle range amount (about 10% in wheat germ, 20% in soybeans) while some are very oily (44% in peanuts, 55% in almonds, 65% in walnuts). Plants store their energy production first as carbohydrates, but during ripening they transform these oxygen containing compounds in carbon-rich triglycerides. Thus, a minimum of volume is required to stock a maximum of energy content. Conversely, the triglyceride stock is reconverted into carbohydrates during germination along with an incorporation of high amount of water. One gram of oil is converted into 2.7 g of carbohydrates. Global oilseed production had reached a record 319 million metric tons in 2001. [21] Part of the total production of each oilseed is used directly as food, but most is crushed to extract oil. In average, all the seeds crushed gave oil in about 26% yield (min. cottonseed 15%, max. coprah 62%). The global vegetable oil consumption has more than doubled between 1980 and 2000, reaching about 76 million tons. The following picture shows the gross fatty acid composition of the most important vegetal (seed) oils for human or animal consumption. It can be seen that cocoa butter (as coconut oil or hydrogenated palm oil) is rich in saturated fatty acids and poor in essential fatty acids (n-6 and n-3). A number of plant families have seed fats characterized by low amounts of palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids. These 18
acids have been replaced by lauric (12:0) and myristic (14:0) acids, as well as capric (10:0) and caprylic (8:0) acids. Among Lauracaea, Laurus nobilis fat contains about 58% lauric acid, while among Lythracaea, Cuphea salvadorensis contains about 65% myristic acid, C. calophylla 85% lauric acid, C. koehneana 92% capric acid, and C. pulcherrina 94% caprylic acid. Peanut, olive and rapeseed oils are the richest in monoene (n-9) fatty acids. The oil-seed camellia or tea oil camellia (Camellia oleifera) is particularly rich in oleic acid (78%) situated maily (87%) at sn-2 position, thus triolein accounts for 52.19 – 63.87%. Camellia oil is an edible oil mostly found in Asian countries (India, Sri Lanka, Java Island, and Japan). Rapeseed oil (or colza oil from Brassica sp) was originally available as a high-erucic oil (almost 50% of 22:1n-9) used mainly in the oleo chemical industry. Several studies in animal models have shown that erucic acid may have detrimental effects on cardiovascular physiology, therefore, a low erucic acid oil is now produced and can be used safely in the food industry. Soya, corn, sunflower and walnut oils are very rich in one diene (n-6) fatty acid, linoleic acid (18:2n-6) while rapeseed, walnut and soya oils are precious sources of one triene (n-3) fatty acid, linolenic acid (18:3n-3). The seed oils of watercress ( Nasturtium) and Honesty ( Lunaria annua) have relatively high proportions of C 22:1 (38-48%) and C24:1(22-25%) fatty acids in their triglyceride molecules, these peculiarities make them potentially suitable for production of high-temperature lubricants and engineering nylons. The seeds of Crambe abyssinica (Cruciferae), a cabbage-like annual herb cultivated in Northern Europe, contain an oil high in erucic acid (about 56%). The seed oil of meadowfoam( Limnanthes alba) contains triglycerides with over 98% fatty acids over 20 carbon atoms. Among them, are found 20:1 n-15 (about 60%), 22:1 n-17 (about 4%) and cis 5, 13 -22:2 (about 17%). Furthermore, this oil is liquid at room temperature even though it is of high molecular weight, it is one of the most stable lipids known, and it is highly resistant to oxidation. Meadow foam oil has many potential applications in cosmetics, lubricants, waxes, polymers, surfactants, water repellents, and in textile and leather manufacturing. [19] The melting points of triacylglycerols are one of the significant physical properties used to characterize oils (and fats) and which are taken into account to design mixtures or products in which oils (and fats) are included. The melting point of any triacylglycerol species depends on the fatty acid composition of that species. For the measurement of the melting of a certain molecular species, its sample in a high state of purity is indispensable. Though excessive and tedious procedures are needed for the preparation of highly purified tag samples, the melting points of many molecular species of tag have been measured. As a large number of the natural 19
molecular species remains uncharacterized, a mathematical technique for correlating the value of the melting point of a tag with the values of the melting points of the three fatty acids has been described. A similar method of correlating the values of melting points of diacylglycerols with the values of the melting points of the two fatty acids has been described ( Maruzeni S, Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 2010, 112, 259 ). One of the main chemical properties of vegetable oils is that they
have low saturated fatty acid content in the sn-2 position, even in oils with high saturated fatty acid content such as cocoa butter. In addition, the saturated fatty acid distribution at the sn-1 and sn-3 positions in most vegetable oils is not random, as originally proposed. For example, the oleic acid content is higher at the sn-1 than at the sn-3 position in cocoa butter triacylglycerols, but it is virtually the same in olive oil. Furthermore, stearic acid is predominantly found in the sn-3 position of sunflower and olive oil triacylglycerols. It was demonstrated that certain fatty acids can influence the distribution of other fatty acids within triacylglycerol molecules. It must be noticed that the sn-2 position where is most frequently located a polyunsaturated acid appears to be the more stable position with respect to lipid oxidation at least in the case of triacylglycerols in which one polyunsaturated fatty acid occurs in combination with two saturated fatty acids. The composition and structure of natural vegetal oils may be modified by chemical or enzymatic processes known as interesterification or hydrogenation. Some seed oils contain also hydroxy fatty acids and are known as hydroxy acid oils. Thus, castor bean ( Ricinus communis) produces seed oil which contains about 90% ricinoleic acid (hydroxy oleic acid) and
1-2% dihydroxystearic acid. Height different triacylglycerol species have been determined in castor oil, they have one, two or even three ricinoleic acid molecules in combination with hydroxystearic acid. Glycerides of Strophantus oils contain 6-15% 9-hydroxy-octadec-12-enoic acid. Coriaria seed oil contains 66-68% of a rare fatty acid, coriolic acid. [21] Seed oil of Cardamineimpatiens contains C18, C20, C22 and C24 dihydroxy acids in which one of the hydroxyl groups is acetylated, thus forming triglyceride molecules named estolidetriglycerides. In one of these molecules found in seed oil from Sebastiana commersoniana ( Euphorbiaceae) an hydroxy allenic acid was discovered.
Some seed oils
contain epoxy fatty acids and are known as epoxy acid oils. Thus, vernolic acid (cis-12,13epoxy-cis-9-octadecenoic
acid)
is
found
in Vernonia, Euphorbia and Cephalocroton.
Curiously, acetic acid was shown to be a component of natural triglycerides in some plant species. It is known that Celastraceae, Lardizabalaceae, Ranunculaceae and Rosaceae plants 20
contain monoaceto triglycerides. 2- or 3-Acetyl glycerides (liliosides) were isolated from Lilium longiflorum.
The seed oil of Impatiens roylei and Euonymus verrucosus contain as major
triglyceride species the sn-glycerol-1,2-diacyl-3-acetins. Monoacetyldiglycerides were also isolated from an animal tissue, bovine udder. 1,2-Diacyl 3-acetin, distearoacetin, stearo-oleaoacetin and stearo-linoleo-acetin have been isolated from lipids of the insect Icerya purchasi. In some rare vegetals, phenolic triacylglycerols have been described. Thus, phenolic acid triglycerides were isolated in the bud excretion of Populus lasiocarpa, a tree native in China. These lipids were identified as 1,3-di- p-coumaryl-2-acetyl-
glycerol (see fig below). A similar compound with methylated coumaryl groups was also identified. Several other phenolic triglycerides have been isolated from lipophilic excretion of winter buds of many species of Populus : 1- p-coumaryl-3-caffeyl-2-acetyl glycerol, 1,3-dicaffeyl-2-acetyl glycerol. [24]
Several other phenolic triglycerides have been detected in
propolis, a bee glue that honeybees collect from living plants, which is used, mixed with wax, in the construction of bee hive. Whereas the composition of propolis depends on the vegetal sources, specific structures have been determined in Russian and European propolis. Thus, dicoumaroyl acetyl glycerol, diferuloyl acetyl glycerol and feruloyl coumaroyl acetyl glycerol have been isolated in bud exudates of various Populus species. A phenolic triglyceride displaying
a
cytotoxic
activity,
1,3-dibehenyl-2-ferulyl
glyceride,
has
been
isolated
from Aquilaria malaccensis, a plant (Thymelaeaceae) distributed in India, Thailand and Philippines. Ferulyl dioleine, which is a useful sunscreen ingredient, has been produced by lipase-catalyzed transesterification of ethyl ferulate with trioleine. Jojoba fruit (Simmondsia chinensis) contain an oily product which is not triglycerides but contain about 80% wax made up
of long-chain alcohols (C20 to 24) and long-chain fatty acids (C18 to C22), each complex chain having one double bond. A translation table of seed oils (6 languages) including the botanical sources may be found in a page of the AOCS Analytical Divisions. An important database for seed oil fatty acids established by the Institute for Chemistry and Physics of Lipids in Mûnster is now electronically searchable: the Database SOFA. This internet database allows to search for plant species, genera and families, for individual fatty acids (start by adding an asterisk after each entry) and combinations of fatty acids in their seed oils, and for their percentage contents. It contains literature references and numerous unpublished data. Moreover, fatty acid partial
21
structures or functional groups can also be searched for, using the "delta-notation" system of chemists as described above. The use of the database is mostly straightforward and self-explanatory but several examples for search operations have been published to help anybody interested in seed oils and their fatty acid composition. The fatty acid profiles of 80 vegetable oils with regard to their nutritional potential have been reported. Triacylglycerols profiling of 26 plant oils important in food industry, dietetics and cosmetics has been done, reporting the distribution of 264 triacylglycerol species consisting of 28 fatty acids. [27] Since about 1990, genetically modified oils have been developed using either mutation/selection breeding or the tools of biotechnology and represent some of the most significant new products developed for the oils and fats industry. Many of these new oils possess fatty acid contents that are unique to the plant in which they have been developed. Thus, they convey different functional and/or nutritional characteristics compared to the classic or natural types. Genetically modified oils fall into two main categories. The first group has been designed to give products with enhanced oxidative stability. These oils are targeted mainly to salad dressing or frying applications and are best represented by the high oleate and low linolenate types. The second general group is characterized by oils with altered levels of saturated fatty acids. In the future, it may be expected that oils will be genetically created possessing novel fatty acyl substitutions, such as hydroxyl or epoxy groups, as well as alkyne or conjugated double bonds. These types represent potential alternatives to industrial oils derived currently from undomesticated species. An extensive review of genetically modified oils and the utilization of analytical procedures for characterizing these oils may be consulted with interest. [26] According to OIL WORLD, ten oilseeds can be divided into three groups based on their levels of production. Soybean dominates representing over 30% of the ten seeds. This is followed by four seeds (rapeseed/canola, cottonseed, sunflower and groundnut, each in the range 3-13% of the total) making up a further 40% and five others (corn, palm kernel, coprah, sesame, linseed, and castor), each in the range 0.5-2% of the total. The relative values of world seed oil production for ten major sources are given below: The world oilseed production is expected to be about 435 million tons for 2009-2010 and jumped by an average 13 million tons per year during the last 10 years. The world supply of vegetable oils from the ten major sources in 2009-2010 is about 139 million tons. [28] 22
d. Moisture
Among the proven combustion technologies (grate-fired, suspension-fired and fluidized bed systems), the fluidized bed technology is reported to be the most efficient and suitable for converting agricultural and wood residues into energy[1,3]. Extensive experimental investigation has been carried out to date on the feasibility and performance of the fluidized bed combustion of different alternative fuels. The low moisture contents help us to achieve high yields of energy upon combustion. But a drawback comes in the form as CO and NOx (generally, as NO) are also introduced as harmful pollutants emitted from biomass combustion in fluidized bed systems [4]. For a selected fuel, CO emission (strongly affecting the combustion efficiency) is a function of operating variables, such as excess of combustion air as well as combustor load, and can be effectively controlled by the air supply [29]. e. Ash
Table shows the chemical composition of peels peels ash. The total percentage composition of iron oxide (Fe2O3= 0.95%), Silicon dioxide (SiO2= 67.30%) and Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3= 4.90%) was found to be 73.15%. This value is within the required va lu e o f 7 0% mi ni mu m f or po zz ol an as [9 ]. Th is va lu e i s higher than the value obtained for acha peels ash (48.36%) and as such the peels peels ash is more pozzolanic. Also this value is less than the 87.55% obtained in [8]. The slight difference in percentage composition might have resulted from the method of preparation of the ash and the species of the peels used.The loss on ignition obtained was 17.78%. This value is slightly more than 12% maximum asrequired for pozzolanas. It means that the RHA contains little unburnt carbon and this reduces the pozzolanic activity of the ash. The unburnt carbon it-self is not pozzolanic and its presence serves as filler to the mixture. The value obtained is higher than 3.30% obtained as such the pozzolanais less effe ctiv e comp ared to tha t obt ain ed in [29 ]. The loss on ignition obtained is less than the value obtained for acha peels ash (43.57%). This indicates that Acha peels produces greater unburnt carbon compound compared to peels peels. Therefore peels peels is a better material for making pozzolanacompared to acha peels. The magnesium oxide content was 1.81%. This satisfies the required value of 4 percent maximum. f.
Minerals
Peels peels is berlignoselulosa like other biomass materials but siliceous high. Chemical content of peels peels consists of 50% cellulose, 25-30% lignin, and 15-20% silica [17]. Peels peels has now been developed as a raw material to produce ash that is known in the world as the 23
RHA (peels peels ask). Peels peels ash produced from burning peels peelss at a temperature of 400o - 500o C will become amorphous silica and at temperatures greater than 1.0 C will become crystalline silica. The resulting amorphous silica from peels peels ash is suspected as an important source to produce pure silicon, silicon carbide, and silicon nitrid flour [22]. The burning of peels peels using conventional methods such as fluidised bed combustors produce CO emission between 200 - 2000 mg / Nm3 and NOx emissions between 200-300 mg / Nm3 [23]. Peels peels combustion method developed by Cogen-AIT is able to reduce the potential for CO2 emissions by 14 762 tonnes, 74 tonnes of CH4 and NO2 of 0.16 tons per year from burning peels peelss of 34 919 tonnes per year [24]. Peels has a density of type (bulk Densil) 1125 kg / m3, with a calorific value of 1 kg of peels peels of 3300 k. calories, and has a bulk density of 0.100 g / ml, calorific value between 3300 -3600 kkalori / kg chaff with thermal conductivity of 0.271 BTU. [34] Chaff is categorized as a biomass that can be used for a variety of needs such as industrial raw materials, feed and energy or fuel or as adsorption on heavy metals. Chaff is composed of a network of cellulose fibers which contains a lot of silica in the form of fibers that are very hard. In normal circumstances, an important role to protect the seed peelss of peels from damage caused by a fungus can prevent rancidity reactions because it can protect the oil-rich thin layer against mechanical damage during harvesting, milling and transport [56]. Peels cellulose content high enough to provide a uniform and stable combustion, to facilitate the diversification of its use, the chaff advance through the process of making peels peels and then compacted, molded and dried, called Peels Peels Briquette.
g. Carbohydrates
The carbohydrate of bran is a mixture of complex carbohydrates and starch. Although starch is absent in true bran commercial bran obtained on peels milling contains starch derived from the peels kernel, the content of which may range from 10 to 25 per cent depending on the extent of polishing. Peels bran with low levels of available carbohydrate (25 per cent) and high level of fat (20 per cent) can be considered as a good source of energy when used as a supplementary food for diabetics. Peels bran with 15 to 20 per cent oil can serve as a good source of energy and Essential Fatty Acids (EFA). It IS also a commercial source of edible oil. 3. Agro-waste
Use of agricultural waste products as a possible biosorbent of dyes is being extensively investigated. A range of agricultural biosorbent have been checked like waste of Sago , cassava waste , skins of peanut , banana pith , waste of sugarcane , chaff, apple pomace , straw of wheat, 24
peels peels, waste of yellow passion fruit, coconut peels carbon, carbon of coir pith [62] just to talk about a few. The chemical changing of sorbent through using an acid, base, is done for improving biosorption [31]. It is also important to be noted, however, that the usage of the adsorption process is largely relying on the availability of inexpensive adsorbents and so recent activities in adsorption process have pointed reaching economically accessible adsorbents. Other adsorbents tested for this idea contain the following: volatile ash, dust of saw, turf, sludge of chromium, zeolite, active sludge, clay, sugar beet in mashed form, olive derivatives after being processed , fruit wastes, seed of palm, bamboo, prune pit, chitosan, calcite alunite and wastes which are cellulose based [32]. The biological waste materials like peanut peels, dust of sugarcane, saw dust, corn corb, peels of barley and peels peels have been considered as alternatives for activated carbon in removing of dyes in wastewater from textile [69, 70]. Mostly materials checked are efficient in fastening either basic or reactive dyes but not in binding both. As these usually exist jointly in wastewater it is of great attention to have a matter that can remove both types of dyes by the same time. Peels peels is one of the most widely available agricultural wastes in many peels producing countries around the world. Globally, approximately 600 million tons of peels paddy is produced each year. On average 20% of the peels paddy is peels, giving an annual total production of 120 million tones [1]. In majority of peels producing countries much of the peels produced from processing of peels is either burnt or dumped as waste [2]. Burning of RH in ambient atmosphere leaves a residue, called peels peels ash. For every 1000 kgs of paddy milled, about 220 kgs (22 %) of peels is produced, and when this peels is burnt in the boilers, about 55 kgs (25 %) of RHA is generated [3]. Peels peels removal during peels refining, creates disposal problem due to less commercial interest. Also, handling and transportation of RH is problematic due to its low density. RHA is a great environment threat causing damage to land and surrounding area where it is dumped. Therefore, commercial use of peels peels and its ash is the alternative solution to disposal problem. In this paper we have discussed a preliminary analysis of the numerous reported properties and uses of peels peels and its ash. Attempt has been made to collect data and information from various research work related to RH and RHA. Peels peels contains 75-90 % organic matter such as cellulose, lignin etc. and rest mineral components such as silica, alkalis and trace elements [4]. The content of each of them depends on peels variety, soil chemistry, climatic conditions, and even the geographic localization of the culture [5]. Peels peels is unusually high in ash compared to other biomass fuels in the range 10-20%. The ash is 87-97% silica [7], highly porous and light weight, with a very high external surface area. 25
Presence of high amount of silica makes it a valuable material for use in industrial application. Other constituents of RHA, such as K 2O, Al2O3., CaO, MgO, Na 2O, Fe2O3 are available in less than 1 %ref. Various factors which influence ash properties are incinerating conditions (temperature and duration), rate of heating, burning technique, crop variety and fertilizer used. [8] The silica in the ash undergoes structural transformations depending on the conditions of combustion such as time and temperature. Physical activation of peels peels produces activated carbon that exhibits very low specific area. Activated carbons are effective adsorbents due to their micro porous structure. The population pressure in areas of high agricultural potential in India has greatly limited grazing land available for Livestock production. It is therefore, becoming more important to find alternative and cheaper ways of feeding without competing directly with crop production. Though many non-conventional feed ingredients are now being used routinely yet the search for newer feed resources is not over. Efforts are continuously being made to search newer feed resources and their potential as feed ingredient. Punj (1995) listed the availability of several non-conventional feeds to the extent of 11.02 million tones. Among the several agro-industrial by-products available pulse peelss or chunies form major resources in terms of availability. Large quantities of pulse peelss are available as by-product while processing the pulses in the mills. Pulse peels/chunies are available to the extent of 3 million tones in India per annum (Ravi et al., 1999). Black gram ( Vigna mungo ) peels is one such agroindustrial by-products available in substantial quantity as this pulse is grown as cash crop in vast areas of Tamil Nadu. However, very little information is available in the literature about it. Hence a study was carried out focusing on proximate principles, fibre fraction and Mineral content of Black gram peels. Suitability of RH to be used for different applications depends upon the physical and chemical properties of the peels such as ash content, silica content etc. Direct use of peels peels as fuel has been seen in power plants. Apart from its use as fuel, RH finds its use as source raw material for synthesis and development of new phases and compounds. A detailed description related to application of peels peels in industrial sectors as well as other fields has been given below. Peels peels is mostly used as fuel in boilers for processing paddy and generation of process steam. Heat energy is produced through direct combustion and/or by gasification. Small sector process industries use fixed low capacity boilers, which are manually fired using peels peels as a fuel. Partial and uneven fuel combustion leads to smoke emission and decrease the fuel efficiency. As peelss are available virtually for free, the boiler efficiency and the degree of combustion were the issues of receiving the latest attention. Plants with capacity 210 MW range can become commercially viable and this biomass resource can be utilized to a much greater extent than at present. It has been seen that to produce 1MWh, approximately 1 26
tonne of peels peels is required. So, the technical and economic factors decide the effective use of peels huck as fuel for power generation. Also, peels peels has been used as an useful and alternative fuel for household energy. [10] RH is also used as fuel in brick kilns, in furnaces etc [33]. Due to presence of large amount of hydrocarbon such as cellulose and lignin content, peels peels can be used as a raw material to prepare activated carbons which are complex porous structures. They are obtained by two dif ferent processes: the ―physical‖ or ―thermal‖ activation and the ―chemical‖ activation. In the former carbonization is followed by char activation; in the
second one, carbonization and activation are performed in a single step, using a chemical agent. Physical activation of peels peels produces activated carbon that exhibits very low specific area. Activated carbons are effective adsorbents due to their microporous structure. Apart from organic component, presence of up to 20% silica makes peels peels a promising raw material source for a number of silicon compounds such as silicon carbide, silicon nitride, silicon tetrachloride, zeolite, silica, and pure silicon. The applications of such materials derived from peels peelss are very comprehensive. The above compounds prepared in powder form are characterized by high purity and fine dispersity [15]. During heat treatment of RH in inert atmosphere, organic compounds decompose and partly change to H2O, CO, CO2, and volatile compounds, remaining carbon and SiO2[34]. The porous SiO2/C composites with a high surface area have been fabricated by heating the pellets in inert atmosphere. Porous SiO2/C composite was able to be fabricated through a simple one-step firing process. The pore characteristics of the products could be controlled by changing the molding pressure, raw RH particle size, and heat treatment temperature. Heating at 1000º C displayed the optimal properties such as 87% porosity and 450 m2/ g specific surface area. Larger RH particles resulted in products with higher strength. [35]. Bricks made using peels peels develop plenty of pores during heat treatment due to burning out of organic material. The more the percentage of peels peels in a brick, the more porous would be the brick and better thermal insulation. Presences of entrapped air in pores have thermal insulating characteristics and thus make the porous fire brick structure suitable for back up insulation. RH is used as a raw material for production of xylitol, furfural, ethanol, acetic acid, lingo sulphonic acids. It is used as cleaning or polishing agent in metal and machine industry, in manufacturing of building materials etc [19]. RH has been used as an industrial raw material e.g , as an insulating board material, fillers in plastics, filling material, building materials, for making panel board, activated carbon etc[20]. Little effort has been made to manufacture composite products based on two surface structure of peels peels [36].
27
Despite so many well established uses, little portion of peels peels produced is utilized in a meaningful way, remaining part is allowed to burn in open piles or dumped as a solid waste. Peels Peels ash finds large number of industrial applications which are described below. Apart from organic component, presence of up to 20% silica makes peels peels a promising raw material source for a number of silicon compounds such as silicon carbide, silicon nitride, silicon tetrachloride, zeolite, silica, and pure silicon. The applications of such materials derived from peels peelss are very comprehensive. The above compounds prepared in powder form are characterized by high purity and fine dispersity [37]. Peels peels ash has been widely used in various industrial applications such as processing of steel, cement, refractory industry etc. [19]. Suitability of RHA mainly depends on the chemical composition of ash, predominantly silica content in it. RHA is found to be superior to other supplementary materials like slag, silica fume and fly ash [38]. RHA is used during the production of high quality flat steel. The ash also finds application as an excellent insulator, having fine insulating properties including low thermal conductivity, a high melting point, low bulk density and high porosity. It is used as "tundish powder" to insulate the tundish container, prevent rapid cooling of steel and ensure uniform solidification in casting process. RHA is also used as a coating over the molten metal in the tundish and in ladle which acts as a very good insulator and does not allow quick cooling of metal. Peels peels ash is used in the manufacture of refractory bricks because of its insulating properties. It has been used in the manufacture of low-cost, lightweight insulating boards. RHA has been used as silica source for cordierite production. Replacement of kaolinite with peels peels silica in the mixture composition, yields higher cordierites with a lower crystallize temperature and decrease in activation energy of crystallization. Due to presence of large silica content in ash, extraction of silica is economical. Silica is also precipitated in customized forms to meet the requirements of various uses. Some of the uses of silica are in rubber industry as reinforcing agent, in cosmetics, in toothpastes as a cleansing agent and in the food industry as an anti-caking agent [39]. There is a growing demand for fine amorphous silica in the production of high performance cement and concrete, use in bridges, marine environments, nuclear power plants etc. Silica aerogels prepared from RHA finds application in super thermal insulators, catalyst supports and dielectric materials [40]. RHA can be an economically viable raw material for the production of silicates and silica. The increasing need for stronger and durable building materials has been to some extent fulfilled by a new concept i.e, blended cement. Blending of reactive peels peels ash in cement has become a common recommendation almost in all the international building codes. Extensive research has been carried out on application of RHA as mineral additive to improve performance of concrete. Reports indicated RHA as a highly 28
reactive pozzolan [41] RHA is mainly used a replacement of silica fume or as an admixture in manufacturing of low cost concrete block. Bricks made using peels peels develop plenty of pores during heat treatment due to burning out of organic material. The more the percentage of peels peels in a brick, the more porous would be the brick and better thermal insulation. Presences of entrapped air in pores have thermal insulating characteristics and thus make the porous fire brick structure suitable for back up insulation. RH is used as a raw material for production of xylitol, furfural, ethanol, acetic acid, lingo sulphonic acids. It is used as cleaning or polishing agent in metal and machine industry, in manufacturing of building materials etc [42]. RH has been used as an industrial raw material e.g , as an insulating board material, fillers in plastics, filling material, building materials, for making panel board, activated carbon etc[43]. Little effort has been made to manufacture composite products based on two surface structure of peels peels [44]. Despite so many well established uses, little portion of peels peels produced is utilized in a meaningful way, remaining part is allowed to burn in open piles or dumped as a solid waste. Peels peels ash has been widely used in various industrial applications such as processing of steel, cement, refractory industry etc. [45]. Suitability of RHA mainly depends on the chemical composition of ash, predominantly silica content in it. RHA is found to be superior to other supplementary materials like slag, silica fume and fly ash [46]. RHA is used during the production of high quality flat steel. The ash also finds application as an excellent insulator, having fine insulating properties including low thermal conductivity, a high melting point, low bulk density and high porosity. It is used as "tundish powder" to insulate the tundish container, prevent rapid cooling of steel and ensure uniform solidification in casting process. RHA is also used as a coating over the molten metal in the tundish and in ladle which acts as a very good insulator and does not allow quick cooling of metal. Peels peels ash is used in the manufacture of refractory bricks because of its insulating properties. It has been used in the manufacture of low-cost, lightweight insulating boards. RHA has been used as silica source for cordierite production. Replacement of kaolinite with peels peels silica in the mixture composition, yields higher cordierites with a lower crystallize temperature and decrease in activation energy of crystallization. Due to presence of large silica content in ash, extraction of silica is economical. Silica is also precipitated in customized forms to meet the requirements of various uses. Some of the uses of silica are in rubber industry as reinforcing agent, in cosmetics, in toothpastes as a cleansing agent and in the food industry as an anti-caking agent [46]. There is a growing demand for fine amorphous silica in the production of high performance cement and concrete, use in bridges, marine environments, 29
nuclear power plants etc. Silica aerogels prepared from RHA finds application in super thermal insulators, catalyst supports and dielectric materials [47]. RHA can be an economically viable raw material for the production of silicates and silica. The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant. All the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a "corm".Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are often mistaken for trees, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a "false stem" or pseudostem. Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of banana plants are composed of a "stalk" (petiole) and a blade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart. Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around 3 m (10 ft) to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more.Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look. When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and begins to form a flower spike or inflorescence. A stem develops which grows up inside the pseudostem, carrying the immature inflorescence until eventually it emerges at the top. Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the "banana heart". (More are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.) After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots will normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole is perennial. In the plantation system of cultivation, only one of the offshoots will be allowed to develop in order to maintain spacing. The inflorescence contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly referred to as petals) between rows of flowers. The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of the ovary. The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called "hands"), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3 – 20 tiers, or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh 30 – 50 kilograms (66 – 110 lb). Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or "finger") average 125 grams
30
(0.276 lb), of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter (nutrient table, lower right). The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry". There is a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin and the edible inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety can be split lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three carpels by manually deforming the unopened fruit.In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit. Bananas are naturally slightly radioactive, more so than most other fruits, because of their potassium content and the small amounts of the isotope potassium-40 found in naturally occurring potassium. The banana equivalent dose of radiation is sometimes used in nuclear communication to compare radiation levels and exposures. Bananas belonging to the family Musaceae are one of the most important tropical fruits in the world market. Global production of bananas is estimated to be around 48.9 MT. India is the largest producer of banana with a production figure of 39 thousand tons [1] The states of Maharashtra and Gujarat in Western India, Karnataka in Southern India and Assam in the northeast are large banana growers. Bananas are used fresh or processed into many products such as chips, puree/pulp, powder, jams, juice, bar, biscuits, wine etc. Significant quantities of banana or plantain peels, equivalent to 40% of the total weight of fresh banana, are generated as a waste product in industries producing banana based products[2]. At present, these peels are not being used for any other purposes and are mostly dumped as solid waste at large expense. It is thus significant and even essential to find applications for these peels as they can contribute to real environmental problems [53]. The manipulation of food processing wastes is now becoming a very serious environmental issue. Peels are the major by-products obtained during the processing of various fruit and some studies show that these are good sources of polyphenols, carotenoids and other bioactive compounds which possess various beneficial effects on human health [26,38,52]. Potential applications for banana peel depend on its chemical composition. Banana peel is rich in dietary fibre, proteins, essential amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids and potassium [15]. Banana and tomato peels have been reported to be a good source of carotenoids [8]. Reports are also available on medicinal benefits of banana extract which include relief from pain, swelling, itching, bruising, wrinkles and sunburn (Edwards, 1991). However, there is limited information about the nutritional composition and antioxidant activities of banana peel 31
[1,15,16,20,40]. The Musa sapientum grows up to a height of about 2-8m with leaves of about 3.5m in length. The stem which is also called pseudostem produces a single bunch of banana before dying and replaced by new pseudostem. The fruit grows in hanging cluster, with twenty fruits to a tier and 3-20 tiers to a bunch. The fruit is protected by its peel which is discarded as waste after the inner fleshy portion is eaten. Musa sapientum fruits have been reported to prevent anaemia by stimulating the production of haemoglobin in the blood. Its role to regulate blood pressure has been associated with the high content of potassium [3].. Banana helps in solving the problem of constipation without necessary resorting to laxatives. Wath and BrayerBrand in 1962 reported that Banana can cure heart burns stress, strokes, ulcers and many other ailments. The peels have been reported to be useful in making banana charcoal, an alternative source of cooking fuel in Kampala. Banana peels in conjunction with other substances create a liniment for reducing the acuteness of the arthritis aches and pains [25].Hence in this study, nutritional composition and antioxidant activities of banana peels were determined. Oil spill is now considered one of the most important concerns of the world, because it causes a great risk for the environmental and marine life. Spills have many sources, such as oil transport, energy sources, waste disposal, accidents and the production of oil. These sources are linked to human activities. More than 5 million tons of crude oil are transported annually around the world by the sea, putting the ecosystem in danger. Subsequently, the environmental and marine lives are affected by spills, particularly birds, shorelines, shell fishes, mosses and sea creatures. On the other hand, a chemical dispersant is one of the most common techniques used to remove oil spill. However, these methods may be harmful and a reason for killing fishes [1,2]. Crude oil consists of a wide range of hydrocarbons from very light oil to heavy oil, where hydrocarbons proportions range from 50 to 98%. When oil is spilled into the sea, it leads to several processes which are known as weathering processes that include evaporation, dissolution, oxidation, emulsification, sedimentation, spreading, dispersion and finally biodegradation. The evaporation process changes the physical characteristics of oil and leads to an alteration of its density and pour point due to the loss of volatile components. In addition, emulsification affects oil composition and cause a decrease in oil density and an increase in pour point. Spreading occurs at varying rates according to the oil properties as light oil spreads faster than heavy oil. Among all factors affecting spreading, water temperature and wind speed have an intense effect on pollutants. In the case of a motionless surface, oil spreading may occur, but in the case of rivers, spills are moved along the stream. Tidal currents have an intense impact on pollutants in
32
the sea, especially in open seas and in parts. All these processes help in the choice of an appropriate way for oil spill treatment [3]. Environmental scientists face a serious challenge in oil spill treatment from produced water [4]. With regards to the processing of the oil spill removal, there are different methods that can be used separately or with each other. These technologies are classified into three groups: first, chemical methods, such as solidifiers, dispersion and in-situ burning, second, biological methods, finally, mechanical methods, such as booms, skimmers and adsorbent [5]. Mechanical and chemical treatment commonly used to remove oil spill, the main limitation of these methods are their high cost and inefficient trace level adsorption. Mechanical treatment can’t be applied
under rough sea waves and high wind velocity but it suitable for completely oil removal. As for the chemical treatment such as dispersion to be effective must be applied soon after a spill and can affect marine organism due to high toxicity [6]. Adsorption is considered the most preferred technique for oil spill clean-up, because it is an easy method, environmentally-friendly and of low cost. In recent years, the interest of many researchers is drawn to using agriculture wastes or by-products materials. It offers many advantages, including being a low cost alternative material and the ability to biodegrade [7,8]. It is important to note that cleaning-up with a sorbent is one of the most effective technologies among all oil removal methods that give good results in oil removal from contaminated water [9]. Despite the fact that polymer products (polypropylene, polyethylene and polyurethane) are the most widely used, one of their main disadvantage is their non-biodegradability [12]. Nowadays, there is a growing interest in sorbent production from natural organic sorbents for oil spills removal, such as barley straw, peels straw, peels peels, pith bagasse, banana trunk, garlic and onion peel. The direction of interest in developing alternative materials, such as agriculture wastes, is the result of the restrictions of other types of sorbent products [13,14].Sorbents can remove oil from produced water by using a suitable method without oil draining out because it can collect and transform liquids to the semi-solid or solid phase. With regards to the advantages of the sorbent material produced from agriculture wastes, besides being biodegradable and of low cost, it is a high oil sorption, with low water pickup, high buoyancy and good reusability [15,16]. Sorbents are most commonly used for final stage to remove oil from marine environment. Sorbents may be applied to an oil spill manually or chemically by using blowers and fans. The selection of sorbents application method various according to location and size of the spill. Also sorbents can be used in different forms such as loose, roll, sheet, pad, allow and booms, these forms various with their composition. The disposal options available for oiled sorbent materials are disposal by certain routes for example, 33
incineration by burning contaminated sorbent, disposal of oiled sorbents as landfill and biodegradation [17].
34
Chapter 2 Review of Literature
Emaga, et al. 2007 studied the composition of banana peel varieties and indicated that the increase of dry matter content in different varieties increases crude fat from 4.6 to 5.9% for French Clair and from 6.3% to 10.9% for Grande Naine and crude protein from 8.3 to 9.1% for French Clair and 6.3 to 8.1% for Yankambi Km5. They also reported ash content of fruit peels, which ranged from 6.4% to 12.8% and were in close agreement with this study. Essien, et al . 2005 studied sweet ripened banana, without specifying its variety and obtained a value of 7.8% for crude protein. Kanazawa, et al. 2000 found that the ascorbic acid content of banana was constant at around 10 mg/100 g in both peel and pulp, regardless of the stage of ripening. Emaga, et al. 2007 studied the effects of stage of maturation on chemical composition of banana and plantain peels and found that the stage of maturation did not affect TDF, IDF and SDF of varieties in a consistent manner. Someya, et al. 2002 reported that the total phenolics were found to be more abundant in peel (907 mg/100 g dry weight) than in pulp (232 mg/100 g dry weight). Pulp of Cavendish subgroup cultivars had a phenolic compound content of around 30-60 mg/100 g fresh matter (Verde Mendez et al., 200) and these were present in greater quantity in skin than in pulp.Gallocatechin was more abundant in peel (158 mg/100 g dry weight) than in pulp (29.6 mg/100 g dry weight) and the better antioxidant content was attributed to a higher content of gallocatechin in peel [40]. As reported in the literature, the strong antioxidative properties of banana extracts could be due to different antioxidant components present in them. Dopamine was found in a large amount in both peel and pulp of banana [24]. Peel contained 10 mg of dopamine along with two more antioxidative phytochemicals, namely flavanone glycoside- naringin and flavonol glycoside-rutin at 10 mg/100 g at all ripening stages. The banana peel extract, with more gallocatechin than the pulp, showed stronger antioxidant activity than the pulp extract. In addition, banana peel was also reported to have flavonoids and catecholamines. Similar findings have also been reported by Sojo, et al. 2000 who stated that the peel contained antioxidative arginine, flavonoids and
35
catecholamines, and probably others, with a large amount of dopamine in both peel and pulp. The amount of dopamine is said to decrease with ripening and remained between 80-560 mg/100 g of peel and between 2.510 mg/100 g of pulp. Dopamine is known to play important roles as neurotransmitter and precursor of norepinephrine and epinephrine. In another study by Kanazawa, et al. 2000 antioxidative potency of several fruit were examined and they found that tropical fruit had strong activity, for example, banana water-extract suppressed the autoxidation of linoleic acid by 65-70% after 5-day incubation in an emulsion system, as determined from the peroxide value and thiobarbituric acid reactivity. Akinyoye et al 2009 reported that the banana fruit has high concentration of potassium, along with the concentration of potassium to be highest (78.10mg/g).
The concentration
(mg/100g) of calcium, sodium, iron, and manganese were 19.20, 24.30, 0.61 and 76.20 respectively. The appreciable high content of potassium signifies that if the peel is taken, it will help in the regulation of body fluids and maintained normal blood pressure. It will also help in controlling kidney failure, heart oddities and respiratory flaw. Iron concentration was lowest, although, much lower values had been reported for the fruit. Iron carries oxygen to the cells and is necessary for the production of energy, synthesis of collagen and the proper functioning of the immune system. Its low concentration implies that banana peel will be an idyllic source of iron since its excess is implicated in abnormal functioning of the immune system, cell growth and the heart. Manganese known to aid formation of skeletal and cartilage was also found to be high (76.20mg/100g). Manganese dearth is scarce but could affect glucose tolerance, normal reproductive, skeletal and cartilage formation. The concentrations of the non-essential minerals bromine, rubidium, strontium, zirconium and niobium were found to range between 0.21 – 0.02 mg/100g. The result implies that banana peel contained very low concentrations of the nonessential minerals. According to Mirconi et al, 1997 moisture content of the peel to be 6.7%. The value is relatively low, and may perhaps be due to the time of harvest. The low value also designate that the peel can be amass for a long time without growing moldy. The ash content was found to 8.50%. This value is analogous to other staples measured as good source of minerals. The organic matter content was found to be 91.50%.Organic matter measures the nutritional value (lipids, proteins and carbohydrate) of a plant material. The high value indicates that banana peels are good sources of nutrients. The content of protein, lipid, carbohydrates and crud fibre was found to be 0.9%, 1.7% 59% and 31.70% respectively. The values indicate that the peel could be
36
a good source of carbohydrates and fibre. The high fibre content also indicates that the peels could help treat constipation and improve general health and wellbeing. The value obtained compared favourably with the recommended amount (18 – 32g) per day for an average man. The result of anti-nutrients indicate the concentrations of hydrogen cyanide to be 1.33mg/g. Hydrogen cyanide is an extremely poisonous substance formed by the action of acids on metal cyanides. Gettle et al 1999 reported large dose of hydrogen cyanide can cause death within few minutes. While smaller dosages may result to stiffness of the throat, chest, palpitation and muscle weakness. The result obtained falls within the threshold value (0.5 – 3.5mg/g) reported as safety limit. The oxalate content of the peel was found to be 0.51mg/g. Oxalate consumption had been associated with kidney diseases which may result to death. It decreases the availability of essential minerals like calcium. Phytate content was found to be 0.28mg/g. this result is low compared to the 146 – 353, 206 – 208mg/g reported for maize and sorghum respectively. Saponin content was 24%. Eric et al in 1978 observed that saponin consumption can result to paralysis of the sensory system. It is found to inhibit growth in swine and poultry; though it increases the excretion of cholesterol in the body. The value obtained is relatively high compared to the 3.00% as the minimum safe value for animal especially Cattle. The study of the anti-nutrient content of the peel indicates generally low values except saponins. This means that if the peels are properly processed could be good source of feed for livestock. Ekop et al in 2007 revealed that the Na concentration was found the highest (10000 ± 6 ppm) as compared to all the other minerals content, followed by K (1100 ± 4 ppm) in the analyzed peel powder. Sodium is present in most food and its deficiency is rare. Distorted enzymatic activity and poor electrolyte balance
of
the blood fluid are related to
inadequate Na, K, Mg and Zn; as they are the most required elements of living cells. Topian, et al in 2007 and Latham et al in 2003 reported that the sodium is an extracellular cation involved in the regulation of plasma volume, acid-base balance, and nerve and muscle contraction. High dietary sodium has been associated with essential hypertension. The Fe content of peels was 60.5 ± 2, which was highest after Na and K value. Iron is an important trace element in the human body. It plays crucial roles in haemopoiesis, control of infection and cell mediated immunity. The deficiency of iron has been described as the most prevalent nutritional 37
deficiency
and
iron deficiency
anemia
is estimated to affect more
than
one
billion
people worldwide. Brown et al in 2004 and Black et al in 2007 studied that the Mn and Zn content were calculated 4.5 ± 0.8 ppm and 4 ± 0.65 ppm respectively. Zinc is an essential micronutrient human
for
growth and immune functions. An estimated 20% of the world population is reported
to be at risk of inadequate zinc intake. Manganese (Mn) plays an important role in a number of physiological processes as a constituent of some enzymes and an activator of other enzymes. Tatora et al in 2009 results showed that the enterococcus fecalis and Proteus mirabilis are responsible for the infections of surgical wounds and the urinary tract staphylococcus aureus zone of inhibition (mm) were19,14 and 10 at 50µg/50µL, 40µg/50µL and 30µg/50µL concentration respectively. The alcohol extracts of fruits showed antibacterial activity against S. aureus but were not active against E. coli, Shigellaparatyphi and Shigella dysentery. But according to E. colihave also showed the susceptibility against aquas extract. S. aureus are responsible for the production many toxin which contributes to the bacterium’s pathogenicity by
increasing its ability to invade the body or damage tissue. Abdualrahman 2013 recorded that the data obtained for seed and peel mass are comparatively higher than the 10.53 % to 10.70 % and 7.0 % to 7.9% while the percentage pulp composition recorded in the present study (62.01 to 66.23 %) are lower than the same varieties of mangoes fruits in Southern Drafur, Sudan [54]. Nwofia, et al., 2012 reported that the high moisture content of 77.85% to 82.22 % observed in the fruits pulp implies that the fruits pulps have a short shelf life. From the results obtained in this study, the fruits would need to be stored in a cool condition if they are to be kept for a long period or would be needed to be processed as quickly as possible to avoid microbial spoilage [75]. The moisture content of the pulp of mango fruit varieties was found to be at par with
those
reported
by
(Mohammed
&Yakubu,
2013;
Abdualrahman,
2013;
Arumugan&Manikandan, 2011; Gopalanet al., &Rathore, 2009) for mango fruits in Kaduna, Northern Nigeria, Drafur in Sudan, Ethiopia and India but lower than the upper limits of (86.1 and 84.12) % earlier reported by [77] for mango fruit varieties in Tanzania and Hawaii. The crude protein content in the pulps of the mango fruits reported in this study were above the EU/WHO (2000) recommended limits of 1 g/100g for fruit groups but are within the same range of (1.97 to 2.16) earlier reported by Mohammed &Yakubu (2013) in mango fruit
38
varieties in Kaduna, Nigeria but higher than values obtained from similar studies on mango fruits in Sudan, India and Hawaii (Abdualrahman, 2013; Gopalanet al., Wenkam& Miller, 1965). However, the values reported in this study are far below the 7.96 % protein reported by Arumugan & Manikandan, et al ( ( 2011) for mango fruits varieties in Ethiopia. The difference in nutritional content of these studies could have arisen from environmental factors and cultural practices (Ishu, 2013). Earlier reports by Ene-Bong (1992) indicate that diet is nutritionally satisfactory, if it contains high calorific value and a sufficient amount of protein. It has been shown that any plant foods that provide about 12% of their calorific value from protein are considered good sources of protein (Ali, 2010; Effionget al., 2009) an observation which is similar to the recommendations of the National Agency for Food and drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), 2010 in Nigeria. However, the values of crude fat reported in this study are relatively lower than the values reported by Mohammed &Yakubu, 2013 and Arumugan & Manikandan, 2011 but HM had crude fat in amounts higher than the values reported by Othman &Mbago, 2009; Wenkam& Miller, (1965) for mango fruits in Tanzania and Hawaii. Nwofiaet al., (2012) have earlier reported that low lipid concentration in fruits indicates that the lipids are mobilized and stored in the seeds thereby making the fruits a good food for people suffering from obesity. Thus the mango fruit varieties can be recommended for people suffering from this ailment. The carbohydrate content in the pulps of the studied mango fruit varietiesis higher than 15 g/100g minimum requirement for fruit groups recommended by EU/WHO and is also in favourable agreement with values reported for similar studies on mango fruits in Kaduna in Nigeria, other parts of Africa, Hawaii and India (Mohammed &Yakubu, 2013; Abdualrahman, 2013; Arumugan&Manikandan, 2011; Othman &Mbago; Wenkam& Miller, 1965; Rathore, 2009). The Vitamin C values in the pulps of our mango fruit varieties imply that they are good sources of the vitamin with JM being of the highest source. The fruit pulps meet the minimum Vitamin C requirement of (15 mg/100g and 80 mg/100g) recommended by EU/WHO and NAFDAC for fruit groups. However, the ascorbic asc orbic acid content conten t of the mango fruit varieties in this study are lower than the amounts reported by Mohammed &Yakubu (2013) in Kaduna and other authors (Rathore, 2009; Wenkam& Miller, 1965) in India and Hawaii but at par with similar studies on mango fruits varieties in Tanzania (Othman &Mbago, 2009). Vitamin C plays an active role in human health and welfare mostly as an antioxidant (Nwofiaet al., 2012). It is also generally used for protein metabolism and collagen synthesis (Vunchiet al., 2011). The proportion of ash in any food is a reflection of its mineral content (Vunchiet al., 2011.,Omotosho, 2005 &Nnamani, et al., 2009). Thus this study suggests that JM fruits have 39
higher deposits of mineral elements than HM and LM fruits. Mohammed &Yakubu (2013) found higher ash content in JM fruit variety in Kaduna compared to ‘Peter’ Variety but lower in the
iety. Our results for ash content are in agreement with 0.42 to 0.37 % and 0.55 to ‘Durshea var iety. 0.57 % recorded for mango fruit varieties in Hawaii and Tanzania (Wenkam& Miller, 1965; Othman &Mbago, 2009). However, the ash content values of our fruits are lower than those reported by in Kaduna, Sudan
and
Ethiopia
(Mohammed
&Yakubu
(2013);
Abdualrahman,
2013;
Arumugan&Manikandan, 2011).Crude fibre content of the mango fruits pulp is relatively low in comparison to NAFDAC minimum requirement of 3 g/100g for source of fibre and the EU/WHO recommended limit of 2.5 g/100g for fruit groups. The crude fibre content of fruit pulps in the present study st udy are also lower than those recorded in studies elsewhere. else where. Arumugan & Manikanda (2011) have reported total dietary fibre content as high as 23.07 % in mango fruit pulp in Ethiopia. Crude fibre content in the range of 0.85 to 0.87 g/100g reported by Othman &Mbago (2009) are in agreement with the present study but the values reported elsewhere (WHO/EU (2000) &Effionget al., 2009] are lower. Dietary fibre helps to maintain the health of gastrointestinal track but, in excess, may bind trace elements, leading to deficiencies of some of these micro nutrients in the body (Siddhurajuet al., 1996). Table 2 also shows that HM recorded the highest amounts of reducing sugars in its pulp while the least amount was found in LM. The amount of reducing sugars in these samples is slightly above the NAFDAC recommended limit of 5 g/100g for low sugar foods. The total soluble solids of the HM is above the 20 % minimum requirement for mango beverage recommended by NAFDAC (2013) while JM and HM had their TSS values slightly below the local regulatory standard. TSS content of the mango fruits pulps are higher than the lower limit of 14.5 earlier reported by [19] in mango fruit varieties in Tanzania but lower than the range of 66.8 to 67.00 oBrix reported by Abdualrahman (2013). TSS in fruit is an index used to determine the maturity of fruits and it is a strong indication of the harvesting time. Differences in the TSS content of fruits could result from the differences in varieties and climatic conditions (Rahman, et al., 2010).
Van Soest& Wine (1967) has reported that nitrogen free extract content of food represents the highly digestible carbohydrates. Not much work have been done to determine nitrogen free extract of mango fruits pulp but the result from this study shows an appreciable level of highly digestible carbohydrates in the mango fruit which is a good index in diets.
40
Aleksandra et et al., 2016 evaluated that the re-utilization of various agro-industrial wastes is of growing importance from many aspects. Considering the variety and complexity of such materials, compositional data and compliant methodology is still undergoing many updates and improvements.Present study evaluated sugar beet pulp (SBP), walnut shell (WS), cocoa bean peels (CBH), onion peel (OP) and pea pods (PP) as potentially valuable materials for carbohydrate recovery. Macrocomponent analyses revealed carbohydrate fraction as the most abundant, dominating in dietary fibres. Upon complete acid hydrolysis of sample alcohol insoluble residues, developed procedures of high performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with 3-methyl-1 phenyl-2-pyrazolin-5-one phenyl-2-pyrazoli n-5-one pre-column derivatization (PMP-derivatization) were used for carbohydrate monomeric composition determination. HPTLC exhibited good qualitative features useful for multi-sample rapid analysis, while HPLC superior separation and quantification characteristics. Distinctive monomeric patterns were obtained among samples. OP, SBP and CBH, due to the high galacturonic acid content (20.81%, 13.96% and 6.90% dry matter basis, respectively), may be regarded as pectin sources, while WS and PP as materials abundant in xylan-rich hemicellulose (total xylan content 15.53%, 9.63% dry matter basis, respectively). Present study provides new and valuable compositional data for different plant residual materials and a reference for the application of established methodology. Anabel Fernandez et al 2016 reported that the pyrolysis characteristics and kinetic study of six regional lignocellulosic wastes (sawdust, marcs, and stalks, peach plum and olive pits) at different heating rates was investigated using thermogravimetric analysis. The pyrolysis could be divided into three stages, drying, active and passive pyrolysis. The specific location where the thermal degradation reaction are occurring is called active pyrolysis zone. The samples have the highest residual weight equal to 35 – 40% 40% at 603 K, approximately during this stage.To describe the active pyrolysis behavior, the Coats Redfern and Sharp methods were used. The contraction geometry’s model describe this phenomenon, indicating that the degradation rate is controlled by
the resulting reaction interface progress toward the center of the solid. The activation energy values for the active pyrolysis stage are between 38.96 and 68.99 kJ/mol for all studied agroindustrial wastes. This parameter increases with the heating rate. This variation can be due to the kinetic rate of active pyrolysis is controlled by the occurrence of physical transformation the temperature-dependent which is not mass dependent. The calculated values of pre-exponential factor were about 2.01 ∗ 107and 2.51 ∗ 1010 s−1. These parameters indicate that the pyrolysis of
41
the studied wastes similar to other lignocellulosic materials, proving the feasibility of their valorisation by pyrolysis.
42
Chapter 3 Materials and Methods 3.1 Chemicals
Chemicals used for the study were as follows: L-Ascorbic acid, β-carotene, 2,2-Diphenyl1picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), were from Sigma (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) chemical Co. All other chemicals were of analytical grade obtained from global scientific solutions (GSS) company. Distilled water was used for all analyses. All analyses were run in triplicate and averaged. 3.2 Sample Preparation
Banana were purchased from a local market and processed. Peels of banana after processing were selected. Peels were washed with distilled water and dried in oven at 50 ± 1°C and powdered using a lab grinder and stored in air-tight jars maintained at 4°C till use. A record of the yield of peel from fruit and after converting to powder was maintained. 3.3 Colour
Colour is generally the first attribute which influences acceptability. Colour of fresh peel and dried powders was determined by visual observation using the methods described by Macbeth, 2000. Estimation of bulk density Bulk densities of the samples were determined by the method of Wang and Kinsella, 1976. 3.0 g of the finely powdered sample was placed in a 25 ml graduated cylinder and packed gently by tapping the cylinder on a rubber sheet until a constant volume was obtained. The bulk density was expressed as g of sample/100 ml. Water absorption capacity (WAC) WAC of the sample was determined by the centrifuge technique described by Janicki and Walczak, 1954. A 1.0 g sample was weighed into a centrifuge tube. 5.0 ml of glass double distilled water was added gently down the side and mixed with a thin glass rod. The slurry was weighed, kept aside for 30 min with gentle stirring with a glass rod every 5 min and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 25 min at 27°C. The amount of water retained was calculated by measurement of the difference in the weight of the sample before and after equilibration with water. The water absorption capacity was expressed as the amount of water absorbed (ml/100 g sample). 3.4 Estimation of moisture, fat, protein, dietary fibre and total ash
Dried peel samples were analysed for proximate composition. Percentages of moisture by vacuum oven (method 926.12, 41.1.02), total ether extractives by Soxhlet apparatus using 43
petroleum ether (method 948.22, 40.1.05), protein by Kjeldahl nitrogen (method 960.52, 12.1.07) and ash by direct analysis (method 942.05, 4.1.10), were determined according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 1954 and dietary fibre consisting of insoluble and soluble fractions were estimated by enzymatic gravimetric method (Asp et al., 1983). Total carbohydrates were calculated by difference from the other components from 100.
Estimation
of vitamin C and carotenoids Ascorbic acid was estimated by 2, 6-dichlorophenol indophenol visual titration method, which is based on reduction of the dye colour from blue to pale pink by ascorbic acid (Ranganna, 1986).
For estimation of carotenoids, the peels were extracted in
acetone and transferred to petroleum ether phase. Total carotene was read calorimetrically using petroleum ether for baseline correction. β-carotene was separated by column chromatography
and read calorimetrically(Ranganna, 1986). Estimation of phosphorus, iron and calcium Phosphorus analysis was carried out by measuring the blue colour, which is formed when the ash solution was treated with ammonium molybdate.
The
phosphor
molybdite
thus
formed
was
reduced
and
read
calorimetrically(Taussky&Shorr, 1953). Iron was determined calorimetrically making use of the fact that ferric iron gives a blood red colour with potassium thiocyanate (Raghuramulu et al., 2003). For calcium estimation, it was precipitated as calcium oxalate, the precipitate dissolved in hot dilute H2SO4 and titrated against standard potassium permanganate (Oser, 1965). Percentage moisture content
The percentage moisture content (PMC) was found by weighing 2g of the briquette sample (E) and oven drying it at 105°C until the mass of the sample was constant. The change in weight (D) after 60min was then used to determine the sample's PMC using the Equation below: PMC= × 100 Percentage fixed carbon
The percentage fixed carbon (PFC) was computed by subtracting the sum of PVM and PAC from 100 as shown in the Equation below: Fixed Carbon= 100% −
( + ) Furthermore, the heating value of the briquettes produced was examined and the procedure was in accordance with the ASTM E 711-87 (2004). The apparatus used was the Parr isoperibol bomb calorimeter. [94] Determination of Lipid Content: 44
The lipid content was determined by extracting the fat from 10g of the samples using petroleum ether in a soxhlet apparatus. The weight of the lipid obtained after evaporating off the petroleum ether from the extract gave the weight of the crude fat in the sample. [96] Determination of Carbohydrate content:
The carbohydrate content of the samples were determined as the difference obtained after subtracting the values of organic protein, lipid, ash and fibre from the total dry matter. Determination of Protein content:
The protein nitrogen in 1g of the dried samples was converted to ammonium sulphate by digestion with concentrated H2SO4 and in the presence of CuSO4 and Na2SO4. These were heated and the ammonia evolved was steam distilled into boric acid solution. The nitrogen from ammonia was deduced from the titration of the trapped ammonia with 0.1M HCl with Tashirus indicator (double indicator) until a purplish pink color was obtained. Crude protein was calculated by multiplying the valve of the deduced nitrogen by the factor 6.25mg. [97] Analysis of nutrients
Oxalates were extracted with hydrochloric acid, precipitated as calcium oxalate from the deproteinased extract and estimated by subsequent titration with potassium permanganate (Baker, 1952). Phytic acid was extracted and determined according to the supernatant difference method (Thompson& Erdman, 1982). Preparation of sample extracts in solvents
For estimation of polyphenol, flavonoids and antioxidant activity, samples were extracted with ethanol, methanol and aqueous medium. 1.0 g of sample was suspended with 100 ml solvent, allowed to extract for 3 hr with agitation, centrifuged with 3000 rpm and filtered. All analysis was carried out in freshly collected extracts. Analysis of total polyphenol content
Samples were analyzed for total polyphenol content according to the Folin-Ciocalteu method. To 0.5 ml aliquot of the extract solution, 0.2 ml of Folin-Ciocalteau reagent, and a saturated solution of Na2CO3 (0.5 ml) was added. This was increased to 10 ml with distilled water and 45
incubated at 27°C for 30 min. Optical density was measured at 765 nm using a spectrophotometer. The concentration was calculated using tannic acid as a standard and the results were expressed as tannic acid equivalents/100 g of sample. Analysis of total flavonoid content
The total flavonoid content was determined using the Dowd method. 5.0 ml of 2% aluminium trichloride (AlCl3) in methanol was mixed with the same volume of the extract solution. Absorption readings at 415 nm after 10 min against a blank sample consisting of 5 ml extract solution with 5 ml methanol without AlCl3 were taken. The total flavonoid content was determined using a standard curve with quercetin as the standard. Total flavonoid content was expressed as mg of quercetin equivalents/100 g of sample. Analysis of tannin content
Tannins were estimated by colorimetric method based on the measurement of blue colour formed by the reduction of phosphor tungstomolybdic acid by tannin like compounds in alkaline solution (Prieto et al., 1999). Total antioxidant activity by phosphor molybdenum method
This assay is based on the reduction of Mo (VI) to Mo(V) by the sample analyte and the subsequent formation of green phosphate/Mo(V) complex at acidic pH (Prieto et al., 1999). An aliquot of 0.1 ml sample was combined with 1.0 ml of reagent solution (0.6 M sulphuric acid, 28 mM sodium phosphate and 4 mM ammonium molybdate). The tubes were capped and incubated at 95ºC for 90 min. After the samples had cooled to room temperature, the absorbance was measured at 695 nm against a blank. A typical blank contained 1.0 ml of reagent solution and the appropriate volume of the same solvent used for the sample and was incubated under the same conditions as the rest of the samples. For samples of unknown composition, antioxidant capacities were expressed as equivalents of ascorbic acid (µmol/ g of sample). Free radical scavenging activity using DPPH
DPPH, a commercial oxidizing radical is reduced by antioxidants. The disappearance of the DPPH radical absorption at a characteristic wavelength is monitored by a decrease in optical density (Oktayet al., 2003). Different concentrations of extract were taken in different test tubes. The volume was adjusted to 1000 µL by adding MeOH. Four millilitres of a 0.1 mM methanol solution of DPPH was added to these test tubes and shaken vigorously. The tubes were then
46
incubated in the dark at room temperature for 20 min. A control sample was prepared as above without extract, and methanol was used for the baseline correction. Changes in the absorbance of the samples were measured at 517 nm. Radical scavenging activity was expressed as the inhibition percentage and was calculated using the following formula: Radical scavenging activity (%) = (Control OD – Sample OD/Control OD) × 100. Reducing power
In this assay, Fe3+/ferricyanide complex is reduced to the ferrous form by antioxidants. The Fe2+ formed is monitored by measuring the formation of Perl’s Prussian blue at 700 nm
(Oyaizu, 1986). Different amounts of sample in 1.0 ml of distilled water were mixed with phosphate buffer (2.5 ml, 0.2M, pH 6.6) and potassium ferricyanide (K 3Fe(CN)6) (2.5 ml, 1%). The mixture was incubated at 50°C for 20 min. A portion (2.5 ml) of trichloroacetic acid (10%) was added to the mixture, which was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min. The upper layer of the solution (2.5 ml) and FeCl3 (0.5 ml, 0.1%) were mixed and the absorbance was measured at 700 nm. Increased absorbance of the reaction mixture indicated increased reducing power. The data was analysed for mean and standard deviation. ANOVA was used to determine significant differences in polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins and antioxidant activity in banana peels. Correlation coefficient test was applied to test the association between the antioxidant components and the antioxidant activity of the peels using a statistical package SPSS 10.0. Probability level was fixed to P< 0.05.
47
Chapter 4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Physical characteristics of the banana peels
The physical characteristics of peels are given in Table 1. Fresh banana peels were yellow in colour, but a significant darkening was observed on drying. This was different with shades varying from olive to olive brown. The yield of dry powder ranged from 11-17%. Water absorption capacity was high ranging from 600 to 690 ml. This could be due to high fibre content of peels which consist of a large number of hydrophilic groups that absorb water. The bulk density of the peels ranged from 62 to 66 g/100 ml showing that the samples were light in weight.
Proximate composition Table 2 summarizes the proximate composition of banana
peels. Moisture content of peel was high i.e. 82 - 88%. Moisture content of oven dried and powdered samples varied from 1.45 - 1.71%. Protein content was in the range of 4.6 - 7.7% on dry weight basis (DW). Ether extractives of peels (11.26%) were in close agreement with the results observed for Yankambi Km5 (11.60%) variety. The ash content ranged from 8.9-12.96%. The elemental composition shows that calcium content was high in comparison to phosphorus. The iron content ranged from 3.33 to 10 mg/100 g. Emaga, et al. 2007studied the composition of banana peel varieties and indicated that the increase of dry matter content in different varieties increases crude fat from 4.6 to 5.9% for French Clair and from 6.3% to 10.9% for Grande Naine and crude protein from 8.3 to 9.1% for French Clair and 6.3 to 8.1% for Yankambi Km5. They also reported ash content of fruit peels, which ranged from 6.4% to 12.8% and were in close agreement with this study. Essien, et al. 2005 studied sweet ripened banana, without specifying its variety and obtained a value of 7.8% for crude protein. 4.2 Antioxidant components and antinutrients
Table 3 presents the antinutrient and antioxidantcomponents of the samples. Total carotenes ranged from 1-3 mg/100 g for the samples. Β-carotene content was 1.86 mg. Vitamin C content was17.83 mg/100 g.Kanazawa, et al. 2000 found that the ascorbic acid content of banana was constant at around 10 mg/100 g in both peel and pulp, regardless of the stage of ripening.Tannins were 1075mg/100 g in peel samples. The total and water soluble oxalates in the samples were recorded 2.83 mg/100 g of total oxalate and 1.86 mg/100 g of water soluble oxalates respectively.Thephytic acid content of the samples ranged between 49-90 mg /100 g. Dietary fibre, i.e insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), ranged from 35-50% and soluble dietary fibre (SDF) contents ranged from 2.23% to 6.83%. In all varieties IDF was the dominant fibre 48
fraction. A similar result was observed by Emaga, et al.2007 when they studied the effects of stage of maturation on chemical composition of banana and plantain peels and found that the stage of maturation did not affect TDF, IDF and SDF of varieties in a consistent manner. 4.3 Total polyphenols, flavonoids and total antioxidant activity
Banana peels were extracted with methanol, ethyl alcohol and aqueous media separately and the phenolic contents in the extracts were determined. The results are presented in Table 4. Polyphenol contents in methanol extracts varied from 520 to 850 mg equivalents tannic acid/100 g. Compared to methanol extract, ethanol and aqueous extracts showed less total polyphenols which ranged from 200 to 750 mg equivalents tannic acid/100 g. Total phenolics were reported by Someya, et al. 2002 and were found to be more abundant in peel (907 mg/100 g dry weight) than in pulp (232 mg/100 g dry weight). Pulp of Cavendish subgroup cultivars had a phenolic compound content of around 30-60 mg/100 g fresh matter (Verde Mendez et al., 200) and these were present in greater quantity in skin than in pulp.Gallocatechin was more abundant in peel (158 mg/100 g dry weight) than in pulp (29.6 mg/100 g dry weight) and the better antioxidant content was attributed to a higher content of gallocatechin in peel (Someya et al., 2002). Total flavonoids were high in both the solvent and aqueous extract of samples (714 - 1035 mg equivalents to quercetin/100 g). The total antioxidant activity was high in samples in water extract (74080 – 94803 µmoles) followed by methanol (48577- 66727 µmoles) and ethanol (44558 – 47670 µmoles) extracts. When the data were subjected to ANOVA, it was found that there were no significant differences in total polyphenol contents of extracts of peel or in total antioxidant activity. However, total flavonoid content differed marginally in extracts (P value – 0.01247). 4.4 Free radical scavenging activity
DPPH has been used extensively as a free radical to evaluate reducing substances and is a useful reagent for investigating the free radical scavenging activities of compounds. Peel extract showed antioxidant activity at higher concentration of 5-20 mg (Figure 1). Methanol extract of peel showed higher activity (61%) compared to ethanol and aqueous extracts (49% and 31%) respectively. In aqueous extract there was no activity at low concentrations of 5 mg. A similar trend was observed where methanol extract had activity of 92% compared to ethanol and aqueous extracts (59 and 34%) respectively.
As reported in the literature, the strong
antioxidative properties of banana extracts could be due to different antioxidant components 49
present in them. Dopamine was found in a large amount in both peel and pulp of banana (Kanazawa &Sakakibara, 2000). Peel contained 10 mg of dopamine along with two more antioxidative phytochemicals, namely flavanone glycoside- naringin and flavonol glycoside-rutin at 10 mg/100 g at all ripening stages. The banana peel extract, with more gallocatechin than the pulp, showed stronger antioxidant activity than the pulp extract. In addition, banana peel was also reported to have flavonoids and catecholamines. Similar findings have also been reported by Sojo, et al. 2000 who stated that the peel contained antioxidative arginine, flavonoids and catecholamines, and probably others, with a large amount of dopamine in both peel and pulp. The amount of dopamine is said to decrease with ripening and remained between 80-560 mg/100 g of peel and between 2.510 mg/100 g of pulp. Dopamine is known to play important roles as neurotransmitter and precursor of norepinephrine and epinephrine. In another study by Kanazawa, et al. 2000 antioxidative potency of several fruit were examined and they found that tropical fruit had strong activity, for example, banana water-extract suppressed the autoxidation of linoleic acid by 65-70% after 5-day incubation in an emulsion system, as determined from the peroxide value and thiobarbituric acid reactivity. 4.5 Reducing Power
Concentration dependency of antioxidant activity was investigated as a function of reducing power as this gives a general view of reductones present in the sample (Figure 1). It was observed that at any concentration between 2- 8 mg, methanol and ethanol extracts of peel had higher reducing power.
50
Summary
The nutritional proximate compositional analysis of banana peels indicated that there are high protein and ether extractives. The peels were a good source of calcium and iron, if used as a supplement; the peel can provide natural iron and calcium. Samples showed high antioxidant activity. It can be concluded that banana peel had good antioxidant potential, though varietal differences might be possible. The antioxidant activity of peels could be correlated positively with polyphenols, flavonoids and tannins. Hence banana peel can be exploited for their nutritional and antioxidant components.
51
References
1.
Adisa, V.A. and Okey, E.N. (1987). Carbohydrate and protein composition of
banana pulp and peel as influenced by ripening and mold contamination. Food Chemistry, 25, 85-91. 2.
Agricultural Statistics at a glance. (2009). 4th advance estimates, Horticulture
division,
Govt.
of
India.
Retrieved
March
1,
from:
http://dacnet.nic.in/eands/Book_Setup_4.pdf. 3.
Akinyosoye, V.O. Tropical Agriculture, Macmillan Publishers Limited, Ibadan p.
65 – 68. 1991. 4.
AOAC. (2005). Determination of moisture, ash, protein and fat. Official Methods
of Analysis, 18th ed. AOAC International. 5.
Arvouet-Grand, A., Vennat, B., Pourrat, A. and Legret, P. (1994). Standardisation
d’un extrait de propoliset identification des principauxconstituants. Journal de Pharmacie
de Belgique, 49, 462- 468. 29. AOAC. (1970). Estimation of tannins. Official Methods of Analysis, 11thed. Washington, D.C., USA. 6.
Asp, N.G., Johansson, C.G., Hallmer, H. and Siljestrom, M. (1983). Rapid
enzymatic assay of insoluble and soluble dietary fiber. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 31(3), 476-482. 7.
Baker, C.J.L. (1952). The determination of oxalates in fresh plant material.
Analyst, 77, 340-344. 8.
Baysal, T., Ersus, S. and Starmans, D.A.J. (2000). Super critical CO2 extraction
of βcarotene and lycopene from tomato paste waste. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 48, 5507-5511. 9.
Black, R.E., 2003. Zinc deficiency, infectious disease and mortality in the
developing world. J. Nutr., 133: S1485-S1489. 10.
Brown, K.H. and S.E. Wuehler, 2000. Zinc and human health: results of recent
trial and implications for programme interventions and research. Micronutrient Initiative. Ottawa. Canada International Research Centre. 11.
Campos, D., Noratto, G., Chirinos, R., Arbizu, C., Roca, W. and Cisneros-
Zevallos, L. (2006). Antioxidant capacity and secondary metanbolites in four species of Andean tuber crops: native potato (Solanum sp.), mashua (Tropaeolumtuberosum Ruiz and Pavon), Oca (Oxalis tuberose Molina) and Ulluco (Ullucustuberosus Caldas). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 86 (10), 1481-1488. 52
12.
Cirico, T.L. and Omaye, S.T. (2006). Additive or synergetic effects of phenolic
compounds on human low-density lipoprotein oxidation. Food Chemistry and Toxicology, 44, 510-516. 13.
Edwards, B. (1999). Banana peel extract composition and method for extraction,
Patent No. WO 99/38479. 14.
Ekop, A.S., 2007. Determination of Chemical Composition of Gnetumafricanum
(AFANG) Seeds Pakistan 15.
Journal
of
Nutrition,
6(1):
40-43 ISSN 1680-5194.
Emaga, T.H., Andrianaivo, R.H., Wathelet, B., Tchango, J.T. and Paquot, M.
(2007). Effects of the stage of maturation and varieties on the chemical composition of banana and plantain peels. Food Chemistry, 103, 590-600. 16.
Emaga, T.H., Robert, C., Ronkart, S.N., Wathelet, B. and Paquot, M., (2008).
Dietary fibre components and pectin chemical features of peels during ripening in banana and plantain varieties. Bioresource Technology, 99, 4346-4354. 17.
Eric, A. The study of phytochemical and comparative analysis of saponins
Longman press, London pp.22 – 28 .1978. 18.
Essien, J.P., Akpan, E.J. and Essien, E.P. (2005). Studies on mold growth and
biomass production using waste banana peel. Bioresource Technology, 96, 1451-1456. 19.
Gettle, A. O. and Baine, J.O. The toxicology of cyanide, Am. J. Med. Sci.
195:182 – 198; 1938. 20.
Gonzalez-Montelongo, R., Gloria Lobo, M. and Gonzalez, M. (2010).
Antioxidant activity in banana peel extracts: Testing extraction conditions and related bioactive compounds. Food Chemistry, 119, 1030-1039. 21.
Gu, L., House, S.E., Wu, X., Ou, B. and Prior, R. (2006). Procyanidin and
catechin contents and antioxidant capacity of cocoa and chocolate products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54, 4057-4061. 22.
Heo, H.J., Kim, Y.J., Chung, D. and Kim, D.O. (2007). Antioxidant capacities of
individual and combined phenolics in a model system. Food Chemistry, 104, 87-92. 23.
Janicki, N.A. and Walczak, J. (1954). Wateriness in meat and methods for its
determination, in Hamm, R. Biochemistry of meat hydration. Advances in Food Research, 10, 355-394. 24.
Kanazawa, K. and Sakakibara, H. (2000). High content of dopamine, a strong
antioxidant, in Cavendish banana. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48, 844848.
53
25.
Kudan M. J. Encyclopedia of fruits, vegetables, nuts and seeds for healthful
living, Parker Publishers Inc. Hattiesburg Maryland. 1962. 26.
Larrauri, J.A., Ruperez, P. and Saura-calixto, F. (1999). New approaches in the
preparation of high dietary fibre from fruit by-products. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 29, 729-733. 27.
Latham, M.C., 1997. Human Nutrition in the Developing World. FAO Foods and
Nutrition Ser. NO. 29, Rome. 28.
Macbeth, G. (2000). Munsell color charts, New Windsor, New York.
29.
Matthaus, B. (2002). Antioxidant activity of extracts obtained from residues of
different oilseeds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 3444 – 3452. 30.
Mirconi, E., Ruggeri, S., Carnovale,E. Chemical Evaluation of Wild under-
exploited Viginaspp seed, Food Chemistry 59: 203 – 212. 1997. 31.
Oktay, M., Culcin, I. and Kufrevioglu, O. I. (2003). Determination of in vitro
antioxidant
activity
of
fennel
(Foeniculumvulgare)
seed
extracts.
Lebensmittel-
WissenschaftundTechnologie, 36, 263 – 271. 32.
Oser, B.L. (1965). Hawks Physiological Chemistry, 14th Ed.; Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, India, pp. 1263-1265. 33.
Oyaizu, M. (1986). Studies on product of browning reaction prepared from
glucose amine. Japanese Journal of Nutrition, 44, 307 – 315. 34.
Prieto, P., Pineda, M. and Aguilar, M. (1999). Spectrophotometric quantitation of
antioxidant capacity through the formation of a phosphomolybdenum complex: specific application to the determination of Vitamin E. Analytical Biochemistry, 269, 337-341. 35.
Prior, R.L., Wu, X. and Schaich, K. (2005). Standardized methods for the
determination of antioxidant capacity and phenolics in foods and dietary supplements. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 4290-4302. 36.
Raghuramulu, N., Nair, M.K. and Kalyansundaram, S. (2003). A manual of
laboratory techniques, National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR, Jamai-Osmania, Hyderabad, India. 37.
Ranganna, S. (1986). Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruit and
vegetable products. (2nd Ed.) Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, India. 38.
Rodriguez de Sotillo, D., Hadley, M. and Holm, E.T. (1994a). Potato peel waste
stability and antioxidant activity of freeze dried extract. Journal of Food Science, 59, 10311033.
54
39. (2000).
Sojo, M.M, Nunez-Delicado, E., Sanchez-Ferrer, A. and Garcia-Carmona, F. Oxidation of salsolinol by banana pulp polyphenol oxidase and its kinetic
synergism with dopamine. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48, 5543-5547. 40.
Someya, S., Yoshiki, Y. and Okubo, K. (2002). Antioxidant compounds from
bananas (Musa Cavendish). Food Chemistry, 79, 351-354. 41.
Subaigo, A., Morita, N. and Sawada, S. (1996). Carotenoids and their fatty acid
esters in banana peel. Journal of Nutriscience and Vitaminology, 42, 553-566. 42.
Tartora, G.J., B.R. Funke and C.L. case, 2009. Microbiology
an
Introduction.
9 edition. Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd. India, pp: 321-333. 43.
Tartora, G.J., B.R. Funke and C.L. case, 2009Microbiology
an
Introduction. 9
edition. Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd. India, pp: 321-333. 44.
Taussky, H.H. and Shorr, E. (1953). A micro colorimetry method for
determination of inorganic phosphorus. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 202, 675-685. 45.
Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H. and Vigil, S. (1993). Integrated solid waste
management: Engineering principles and management issues. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 3-22. 46.
Teow, C.C., Truong, V.D., McFeeters, R.F., Thompson, R.L., Pecota, K.V. and
Yencho, G.C. (2007). Antioxidant activities, phenolic and β– carotene contents of sweet
potato genotypes with varying flesh colours. Food Chemistry, 103, 829-838. 47.
Thompson, D.B. and Erdman, Jr J.W. (1982). Phytic acid determination in
soybeans. Journal of Food Science, 47, 513-517. 48.
Topian, L., 1979. The Relationship of salt to hypertension. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 32:
2739-2741. 49.
Verde Mendez, C.M., Forster, M.P., Rodriguez-Delgado, M.A., Rodriguez-
Rodriguez, E.M. and Diaz Romero, C. (2003). Content of free phenolic compounds in bananas from Tenerife (Canary Islands) and Ecuador. European Food Research and Technology, 217(4), 287- 290. 50.
Wang, J. and Kinsella, J.E. (1976). Functional properties of novel proteins; alfalfa
leaf proteins. Journal of Food Science, 41, 18-23. 51.
Wath, J.N. and M.G. Brayer-Brand WijkThe Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of
South and Easthern Africa (2nd Edition), E and S. Livingstone Ltd. Edinburgh and London. 1962. 52.
Wolfe, K., Xianzhong, W.U. and Liu, R.H. (2003). Antioxidant activity of apple
peels. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 609-614. 55
53.
Zhang, P., Whistler, R.L., BeMiller, J.N. and Hamaker, B.R. (2005). Banana
starch: production, physicochemical properties, and digestibility – a review. Carbohydrate Polymers, 59 (4), 443-458. 54.
Abdualrahman, MAY. 2013. Physico-chemical characteristics of different types
of mango ( Mangiferaindica L.) fruits in Drafur region and its use in jam processing. Science International 1(5), 144-147. 55.
Abulude, FO, Eluyode OS, Adesanya WO, Elemide, OA, Koumah T. 2006.
Proximate
and
selected
mineral
composition
of Mangiferaindicaand Persia
americanaseeds found in Nigeria. Agricultural Journal 1, 72-76.
56.
Ajila CM, Naidu SG, Bhat SG, PrasadaRao UJA. 2007. Bioactive compounds and
anti-oxidant potential of mango peel extract. Food chemistry 105(3), 982 988. 57.
Ali A. 2010. A comparative study of nutrients and mineral molar ratios of some
plant foods with recommended dietary allowances. Journal of Food Science and Technology 2, 104-108. 58.
AOAC. 2000. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official methods of
analysis, (Vol.II, 17th edition) of AOAC international, Washington DC, USA. 59.
Arumugan R, Manikandan M. 2011. Fermentation of pretreated hydrolyzates of
banana and mango fruit wastes for ethanol production. Asian J. Exp. Biol. Sci., 2(2):246256. 60.
Bally, ISE. 2006. Mangiferaindica(Mango) Ver, 3.1. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed).
‘Species profiles for pacific Island Agroforestry’. Permanent Agricultural Research (PAR).
Holualoa, Hawaii. Retrieved from http//www.traditionaltree.org. 61.
Criqui, MH, Ringel, BL. 1994. Does diet or alcohol explain the French Paradox?
Lancet 344, 1719 – 1723. 62.
Effiong GS, Ibia, TO, Udofia, US 2009. Nutritive and energy values of some wild
fruit spices in South Eastern Nigeria. Electron. Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry 8, 917-923. 63.
Ene-Bong HN. 1992. Nutritional evaluation, composition pattern and processing
of underutilized traditional foods with particular reference to the African yam beans (Sphenostylissternocarpa). Ph.D Thesis, University of Nigeria Nsukka. 64.
FAO. 2004. FAO Products Year report. Food and Agricultural Organization,
Rome. 65.
Gopalan C, Ramasastri BV, Balasubramanian SC. 2010. Proximate principles:
Common foods. In. B.S. Narasinga Rao, K.C. Pant, and Y.G. Deosthale (Eds.), Nutritive 56
value of Indian foods (Revised and updated edition). (pp53-55). Hyderabad, India: National institute of Nutition, ICMR. 66.
Hertog, MGL, Feskens, EJM, Hallman PGH, Katan MB, Kromhout D. 1993.
Dietary antioxidant flavonoids and risk of coronary heart disease:TheZutphen elderly study. Lancet: 1007 – 1014. 67.
Ishu MO. 2013. Comparative proximate composition of the fruits juice of three
varieties of MangiferaindicaL. (mango). M.Sc Dissertation, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria. 68.
Iwe, MO. 2002. Handbook of sensory methods and analysis. 1st ed. Rejoint
communication services Ltd., Enugu, Nigeria. 69.
Mohammed SSM, Yakubu A. 2013. Comparative analysis of nutritional and anti-
nutritional contents of some varieties of mango ( Mangiferaindica) in Kaduna metropolis Nigeria. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology 5(4), 387391. 70.
MONGABAY. 2013. Population of Yandev, Nigeria. Retrieved from www.
Population.mong abay.com/population/Nigeria/2318374/yandev, 12/12/2013. 71.
Morton, JF. 1987. ‘Fruits of warm climate’ (mango) 221 -239. Miami Webster.
72.
NAFDAC (National Agency for Food & Drug Administration & Control). 2013.
Minimum Requirement for Analysis of Finished Product. Summary of Current Food standards as of 04 april, 2013. 73.
NAFDAC (National Agency for Food & Drug Administration & Control). 2010.
Nutrition, Health and other Claims on Food Regulations 2010. 74.
Nnamani CV, Oselebe HO, Agbaufu A. 2009. Assessment of nutritional values of
three underutilized indigenous leafy vegetables of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology 8, 2321-2324. 75.
Nwofia GE, Nwogwu N, Nwofia KB. 2012. Nutritional variations in fruits and
seeds of pumpkins (CucurbitaSpp); Accessions from Nigeria. Pakistanian Journal of Nutrition 11(10), 848-858. 76.
Omotosho OT. 2005. Nutritive quality, functional properties and anti-nutritive
composition of the Larva of Cirindaforda(westwood) ( Lepidoptera saturniidae) 7, 51-55. 77.
Othman OC, Mbago GP. 2009. Physico-chemical characteristics of storage
ripened mango ( MangiferaindicaL.) fruits varieties of Eastern Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Science 35, 57-66.
57
78.
Rahman MM, Fakir MSA, Rahman MM. 2010. Fruit growth of china cherry
( Muntingacalabura). Bot. Res. Intl., 3(2), 56-60. 79.
Rathore M. 2009. Nutrient content of important fruit trees from arid zone of
Rajasthan. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry 1(7), 103-108. 80.
Seifu Z. 2010. ‘Production and quality evaluation of spray dried fruit products’. A
Master of Science thesis Presented to the School of Postgraduate Studies, University of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 81.
Siddhuraju P, Vijayakumari K, Janardhanan K. 1996. Chemical composition and
nutritional evaluation of an under exploited legume, Acacia nilotica(L.) Del. Food Chemistry 57(3), 385-391. 82.
Van Soest PJ, Wine RH. 1967. Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds.
IV. Determination of plant cell-wall constituents. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists 50, 50-55. 83.
Vunchi MA, Umar AN, King MA, Liman, AA, Jeremiah G, Aigbe, CO. 2011.
Proximate, vitamins and mineral composition of Vitexdoniana(black plum) fruit pulp. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 19(1), 97-101. J. Zhejiang univ. Sci. 84.
Wenkam, NS, Miller CD. 1965. Composition of Hawaii fruits. University of
Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture, Hawaii Agricultural experiment station Honolulu, Bulletin No. 135. 85.
World Health Organization/Europe. 2000. CINDI dietary guide. WHO Regional
Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark. 86.
Munich
Yusuf, SA, Salau AS. 2007. Forcasting Mango and Citrus Production in Nigeria. Personal
RePEc
Archive.
Retrieved
from
http//mpra.ub.
Unimuenchem.de/2691/MPRA paper No. 2691.
58
Chapter 5
Table 1: Proximate Analysis of Banana Peels Carbon Content
36.83 %
Hydrogen Content
5.19 %
Oxygen Content
43.58 %
Nitrogen Content
0.93 %
Sulphur Content
0.19 %
45.00% 40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% Series1
20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% Carbon Content
Hydrogen Content
Oxygen Content
Nitrogen Content
Sulphur Content
59
Table 2. Proximate composition of Banana Peels Moisture
Volatile
Ash
Fixed Carbon
Matter 8.56
1.93
24.12
68.98
8.47
2.10
25.71
64.86
70 60 50 40
Series1
30
Series2
20 10 0 Moisture
Volatile Matter
Ash
Fixed Carbon
60
