NSS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF
Bachelor of Technolog !n
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING of
Un!"er#!$ of Cal!c%$ & ATHIRA ATHIRA S 'NSANEEE()(* 'NSANEEE()(*
NSS College of Eng!neer!ng De+ar$,en$ of Elec$r!cal an- Elec$ron!c# Eng!neer!ng Pala..a- / 012 ((2 March/3(41
NSS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PALA55AD 6 Affl!a$e- To To Cal!c%$ Un!"er#!$7
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE Th!# !# $o cer$!f $ha$ $h!# re+or$ !# a &onaf!-e recor- of $he 8INDUSTRIAL TRAIN/ ING9 %n-er$oo. & ATHIRA S !n +ar$!al f%lf!ll,en$ of $he re:%!re,en$# for $he a;ar- of Degre Degree e of Bache Bachelor lor of Technol echnolog og !n Elec$ Elec$r!c r!cal al anan- Elec$ Elec$ron ron!c# !c# Eng!ne Eng!neer! er!ng ng of Un!"er#!$ of Cal!c%$< -%r!ng $he aca-e,!c ear 3(40/3(41=
Hea- of De+ar$,en$
Gro%+ T%$or
Dr=An!$ha P Profe##or6HOD7 De+$= of EEE
De+$= of EEE
NSS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PALA55AD 6 Affl!a$e- To To Cal!c%$ Un!"er#!$7
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE Th!# !# $o cer$!f $ha$ $h!# re+or$ !# a &onaf!-e recor- of $he 8INDUSTRIAL TRAIN/ ING9 %n-er$oo. & ATHIRA S !n +ar$!al f%lf!ll,en$ of $he re:%!re,en$# for $he a;ar- of Degre Degree e of Bache Bachelor lor of Technol echnolog og !n Elec$ Elec$r!c r!cal al anan- Elec$ Elec$ron ron!c# !c# Eng!ne Eng!neer! er!ng ng of Un!"er#!$ of Cal!c%$< -%r!ng $he aca-e,!c ear 3(40/3(41=
Hea- of De+ar$,en$
Gro%+ T%$or
Dr=An!$ha P Profe##or6HOD7 De+$= of EEE
De+$= of EEE
AC5NOWLEDGEMENT I ;!#h $o e>+re## , !n-e&$e-ne## an- gra$!$%-e $o all $ho#e ;ho ha"e hel+e- ,e for a #%cce##f%l co,+le$!on of , !n-%#$r!al $ra!n!ng a$ a$ 5el$ron Co,+onen$ Co,+le> L!,!$e-< 65CCL7= F!r#$ an- fore,o#$< I $han. Go- Al,!gh$ for H!# +ro"!-ence an- for &e!ng $he g%!-!ng l!gh$ $hro%gho%$ $he co%r#e of $h!# !n-%#$r!al $ra!n!ng +rogra,= I?, I?, $han $han.f .f%l %l $o Dr=S Dr=S%%-ha ha T< Pr!n Pr!nc! c!+a +all anan- Dr=A Dr=An! n!$h $ha a P< HeaHea- of $he $he De+ar$,en$ for +ro"!-!ng nece##ar fac!l!$!e# an- g!"!ng ,e $he o++or$%n!$ $o carr o%$ $h!# !n-%#$r!al $ra!n!ng= I?, -ee+l !n-e&$e- $o $he $ra!n!ng !n#$r%c$or# for $he!r $!,el hel+ an,e$!c%lo%# g%!-ance for $he #%cce##f%l co,+le$!on of $he $ra!n!ng #e##!on#= F!nall< I ;o%l- l!.e $o e>$en- , #!ncere gra$!$%-e $o , +aren$# anfr!en-# ;ho ha"e al;a# &een enco%rag!ng an- hel+f%l $hro%gho%$ $he co%r#e of $h!# $ra!n!ng +rogra,=
ABSTRACT The !n-%#$r!al $ra!n!ng ;a# con-%c$e- a$ 5el$ron Co,+onen$ Co,+le> L!,!$e-< 65CCL7 ;h!ch !# a #%&#!-!ar co,+an of 5erala S$a$e Elec$ron!c# De"elo+,en$ Cor+ora$!on L!,!$e65SEDC7= I %n-er$oo. 4( -a# of $ra!n!ng a$ 5CCL fro, %ne 33n-< 3(40 $o %l 4#$< 3(40 $o ge$ an !n-%#$r!al e>+o#%re !n a +rac$!cal a#+ec$ of $echn!cal !,+le,en/$a$!on= D%r!ng $he co%r#e of $ra!n!ng< I ;a# a&le $o !n$erac$ freel ;!$h $he off!c!al# an- o$her e,+loee# !n $he +lan$ an- co%l- fe$ch ,a>!,%, rele"an$ !nfor,a$!on fro, $he,= I al#o go$ an o++or$%n!$ $o "!#!$ $he ;or. area an- ge$ a han-# on e>+er!ence on "ar!o%# !n-%#$r!al -e"!ce#= The $ra!n!ng hel+e- ,e $o ge$ an !-ea a&o%$ $he "ar!o%# ,an%fac$%r!ng +roce##e# for Elec$rol$!c ca+ac!$or#< AC ,o$or/#$ar$ ca+ac!$or# an- re#!#$or# an- "ar!o%# o$her elec$r!cal !n#$r%,en$# ;h!ch are %#e- !n $he +lan$=
De+ar$,en$ of Elec$r!cal @ Elec$ron!c# Engg=
!!
NSSCE< PALA55AD
Con$en$#
AC5NOWLEDGEMENT
!
ABSTRACT
!!
LIST OF FIGURES
!"
INTRODUCTION
4
4=4 5ELTRON Co,+onen$ Co,+le> L$- = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
4
4
4=4=4 HISTOR = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
4
4=3 Re#earch @ De"elo+,en$ Cen$re = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
3
4=) Pro-%c$# = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
3
3
CAPACITORS
)
CAPACITOR TPES
0
)=4 Al%,!n%, elec$rol$!c ca+ac!$or = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
0
)=3 Po;er Fac$or Correc$!on Ca+ac!$or# = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
1
)=) AC Mo$or S$ar$ Ca+ac!$or# = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
2
C
PRODUCTION PROCESS =4 E$ch!ng = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =3 Ano-!a$!on6For,a$!on of D!elec$r!c Laer7 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
4( 44 44
C=)
Sl!$$!ng Proce## = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
44
C=C
S$!$ch!ng an- W!n-!ng = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
43
= I,+regna$!on A##e,&l!ng = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
43
=0 Enca+#%la$!on = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
43
=1 Slee"e = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
43
De+ar$,en$ of Elec$r!cal @ Elec$ron!c# Engg=
!!!
NSSCE, PALAKKAD
=2 Ag!ng 6Refor,!ng7 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
43
= Proce## In#+ec$!on @ Pac.ag!ng = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
4)
RESISTORS
4
=4 Car&on F!l, Re#!#$or = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
4
0
RESISTOR COLOR CODE
41
1
CONCLUSION
4
2
REFERENCES
3(
L!#$ of F!g%re# 3=4
Prallel/Pla$e Ca+ac!$or = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
)=4 Al%,!n!%,
Elec$rol$!c Ca+ac!$or = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
0
)=3
De#!gn of AEC = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
1
)=)
Po;er Fac$or Correc$!on Ca+ac!$or = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
1
)=C AC C=4
Mo$or S$ar$ Ca+ac!$or# = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Proce## S$e+# = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
=4 S$a$or +ha#e ;!n-!ng# = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =3 Car&on f!l, re#!#$or ;!$h e>+o#e- car&on #+!ral = = = = = = = = = = = =
2 4( 4 4
=) Car&on f!l, re#!#$or = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
40
0=4 A $+!cal a>!al/lea- re#!#$or = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
41
0=3 Re#!#$or Color Co-e = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
42
De+ar$,en$ of Elec$r!cal @ Elec$ron!c# Engg=
"
NSSCE< PALA55AD
Cha+$er 4 INTRODUCTION
5erala
S$a$e
Elec$ron!c#
De"elo+,en$
Cor+ora$!on<
+o+%larl
.no;n
a#
5ELTRON
4=4 5ELTRON Co,+onen$ Co,+le> L$4=4=4 HISTOR 5el$ron en$ere- $he elec$ron!c co,+onen$# !n-%#$r & #e$$!ng %+ In-!a?# large#$ Al%/ ,!n!%, Elec$rol$!c Ca+ac!$or +lan$ !n $echn!cal colla&ora$!on ;!$h S+arg%e Elec$ro/,ag< Belg!%,< !n 410 a$ 5ann%r< 5erala= 5ELTRON COMPONENT COMPLE LTD 65CCL7 ;en$ !n$o co,,erc!al +ro-%c$!on on 4$h A%g%#$ 412= S!nce $hen 5CCL ha# gro;n anno; !# $he &!gge#$ ,an%fac$%rer of Al%,!n!%, Elec$rol$!c Ca+ac!$or# !n In/-!a= Pre#en$l $he !n#$alle- ann%al ca+ac!$ !# 3( ,!ll!on Pc#< ;h!ch can go %+$o 31 ,!ll!on Pc# !n )/ #h!f$#= I$ al#o +ro-%ce# o$her +a##!"e elec$ron!c co,+onen$# !ncl%-!ng Re#!#$or# anCr#$al#= Co,+an?# +ro-%c$!on ca+ac!$!e# ;ere enhance- -%r!ng 42/( $o enhance $he ca+ac!$ $o 4( ,!ll!on Ca+ac!$or# +er ann%,= D%r!ng $he ear 3((/4(< $he $hree #!#$er concern# of 5ELTRON< "!= 5el$ron Cr#$al# L$-< 5el$ron Re#!#$or# L$-
De+ar$,en$ of Elec$r!cal @ Elec$ron!c# Engg=
4
NSSCE< PALA55AD
an- 5el$ron Magne$!c# L$- ;ere ,erge- !n$o 5CCL an- !# ;or.!ng a# a #!ngle en$!$ ,an%fac$%r!ng Al%,!n!%, Elec$rol$!c Ca+ac!$or#< Me$al!e- Pol+ro+lene Ca+ac!$or#< Car&on @ Me$al F!l, Re#!#$or# an- P!eo/elec$r!c Q%ar$ Cr#$al#= 5CCL ha# #$a$e of $he ar$ ,an%fac$%r!ng fac!l!$ ;!$h ,ore $han 4(( a%$o,a$!c an- #e,!/a%$o,a$!c ,ach!ne#< !,+or$e- fro, a+an+er!ence= O"er $he ear#< 5el$ron ha# a--e- on #e"eral o$her $+e# of co,+onen$# enlarg!ng !$# range $o ca$er $o $he nee-# of $he In-!an ,ar.e$= To-a< 5el/ $ron enJo# a #!a&le ,ar.e$ #hare< an- !# !-en$!f!e- a# a re+%$e- #%++l!er of elec$ron!c co,+onen$# for +rofe##!onal< !n-%#$r!al an- con#%,er elec$ron!c# a++l!ca$!on#=
4=3 Re#earch @ De"elo+,en$ Cen$re 5CCL?# R @ D na,e- KElec$ron!c# Re#earch @ De"elo+,en$ Cen$re 'ERDC*? !# a DSIR recogn!e- R @ D la& ;!$h ,an !nno"a$!"e an- recogn!e- ach!e"e,en$#= The R @ D ;on KELCINA A;ar- 4)? for e>cellence !n Re#earch @ De"elo+,en$ for $he ;or. -one !n $he f!el- of for,!ng $echnolog= 5CCL !# ISO ((4 cer$!f!e6no; ISO ((43((27= The +ro-%c$# are a++ro"e- & DGQA< M!n!#$r of Defence< Go"$=of In-!a ;!$h MS< DPP Gra-e 4= I$ al#o ha# +ro-%c$ A++ro"al# fro, C/DOT< CACT< LCSO an- Defence De+$=< UL e$c= I$ ha# ,an a;ar-# an- recogn!$!on# !n han- !ncl%-!ng KNa/$!onal Pro-%c$!"!$ A;ar- 422/2? %n-er large/#cale elec$ron!c co,+onen$# %n!$# fro, Na$!onal Pro-%c$!"!$ Co%nc!l< Go"$= of In-!a=
4=) Pro-%c$# 5ELTRON !# In-!a?# lea-!ng ca+ac!$or ,an%fac$%r!ng co,+an= The c%r/ ren$ range of co,+onen$# ,an%fac$%re- & 5el$ron !ncl%-e# 4= Al%,!n!%, DC Elec$rol$!c Ca+ac!$or# 3= Mo$or S$ar$ Ca+ac!$or# )= Mo$or R%n 6SH7 Ca+ac!$or# = MPP Ca+ac!$or# = 5R Po;er Ca+ac!$or#
0= Car&on Me$al F!l, Re#!#$or# 1= P!eoelec$r!c Cr#$al# 2= H!gh C large can Ca+ac!$or# 5ELTRON Ca+ac!$or# are ;!-el acce+$e- & ,aJor e:%!+,en$ ,an%fac$%rer# anCon/#%,er Elec$ron!c In-%#$r!e# !ncl%-!ng BEL< ITI< Cro,+$on Grea"e#< /G%ar-< Ta$a Mo/$or#< L @ T< EIDE< On!-a< Ra!l;a#< Wa$er A%$hor!$< Elec$r!c!$ Boar- e$c= 5el$ron al#o offer# a range of Re#!#$or#< an- ,a!n$a!n# a #$rong eng!neer!ng $ea, e>+er!ence- !n $he -e#!gn an- ,an%fac$%re of :%ar$ cr#$al= 5el$ron ,ar.e$!ng -!"!#!on# are #+rea- o"er $he co%n$r !ncl%-!ng Delh!< M%,/ &a!< 5ol.a$a< Chenna!< Ah,e-a&a-< H-era&a-< Bangalore< Tr!"an-r%, e$c=
Cha+$er 3 CAPACITORS
F!g%re 3=4 Prallel/Pla$e Ca+ac!$or A Ca+ac!$or !# !-en$!f!e- & $he $+e of -!elec$r!c or +la$e ,a$er!al %#e- on !$= So,e of $he ,o#$ co,,on ca+ac!$or# ;h!ch f!n- ;!-e#+rea- a++l!ca$!on !n elec$ron!c# a# ;ell a# elec$r!cal !n-%#$r!e# are +a+er< +la#$!c f!l, 6#%ch a# Pol#$rene< Pol+ro+/lene< Polcar&ona$e< e$c=7< Cera,!c< M!ca< Al%,!n!%, Elec$rol$!c< Tan$al%,< an- o$h/er#= F!g 3=3 #ho;# a +arallel +la$e ca+ac!$or= A ca+ac!$or !# e>+re##e- !n $er,# of !$# ca+ac!$ance< !n ,!croF 6,!cro/fara-#7 an- !$# ;or.!ng "ol$age !n ol$# 67= O$her +a/ra,e$er# ;h!ch #+ec!f !$# :%al!$ are Lea.age C%rren$< D!##!+a$!on Fac$or 6al#o referre-
$o a# Lo## Fac$or7= Al%,!n!%, Elec$rol$!c Ca+ac!$or# are &e!ng %#e- e>$en#!"el for con#%,er elec$ron!c goo-# all o"er $he ;orl-= L!.e an o$her $+e of ca+ac!$or $he Al%/,!n!%, Elec$rol$!c Ca+ac!$or# 6AEC#7 $oo ha"e $;o +la$e# #e+ara$e- ;!$h a -!elec$r!c= Wh!le ,o#$ o$her $+e# of ca+ac!$or# are &!/+olar !n na$%re 6an +olar!$ "ol$age can &e connec$e- $o e!$her of $he +la$e#7 a goo- ,aJor!$ of AEC# are +olar= Prac$!cal ca+ac!$or# are a"a!la&le co,,erc!all !n ,an -!fferen$ for,#= The $+e of !n$ernal -!elec$r!c< $he #$r%c$%re of $he +la$e# an- $he -e"!ce +ac./ ag!ng all #$rongl affec$ $he charac$er!#$!c# of $he ca+ac!$or< an- !$# a++l!ca$!on#= A&o"e a++ro>!,a$el 4 ,!cro Fara- elec$rol$!c ca+ac!$or# are %#%all %#e- &eca%#e of $he!r #,all #!e an- lo; co#$ co,+are- ;!$h o$her $+e#=
Cha+$er ) CAPACITOR TPES
)=4 Al%,!n%, elec$rol$!c ca+ac!$or
F!g%re )=4 Al%,!n!%, Elec$rol$!c Ca+ac!$or
An al%,!n%, elec$rol$!c ca+ac!$or< %#%all #!,+l calle- an elec$rol$!c ca+ac/!$or 6e/ca+7< !# a ca+ac!$or ;ho#e ano-e 67 con#!#$# of +%re al%,!n%, fo!l ;!$h an e$che#%rface< co"ere- ;!$h a %n!for,l "er $h!n &arr!er laer of !n#%la$!ng al%,!n!%, o>!-e< ;h!ch o+era$e# a# a -!elec$r!c= The elec$rol$e< ;h!ch co"er# $he ro%gh #%rface of $he o>!-e laer< o+era$e# a# $he #econ- elec$ro-e< $he ca$ho-e 6/7= E/ca+# ha"e $he large#$ ca/ +ac!$ance "al%e# +er %n!$ "ol%,e co,+are- $o $he $;o o$her ,a!n con"en$!onal ca+ac!$or
fa,!l!e#< cera,!c an- +la#$!c f!l, ca+ac!$or#< &%$ ,%ch #,aller ca+ac!$ance $han #!,!lar #!e- #%+er ca+ac!$or#=
F!g%re )=3 De#!gn of AEC
)=3 Po;er Fac$or Correc$!on Ca+ac!$or#
F!g%re )=) Po;er Fac$or Correc$!on Ca+ac!$or Po;er fac$or correc$!on !# $he +roce## of co,+en#a$!ng for $he lagg!ng c%rren$ & cre/ a$!ng a lea-!ng c%rren$ & connec$!ng ca+ac!$or# $o $he #%++l= A #%ff!c!en$ ca+ac!$ance !#
connec$e- #o $ha$ $he +o;er fac$or !# a-J%#$e- $o &e a# clo#e $o %n!$ a# +o##!&le=Th!# !# nor,all ach!e"e- & $he a--!$!on of ca+ac!$or# $o $he elec$r!cal ne$;or. ;h!ch co,+en/ #a$e for $he reac$!"e +o;er -e,an- of $he !n-%c$!"e loa- an- $h%# re-%ce $he &%r-en on $he #%++l= There #ho%l- &e no effec$ on $he o+era$!on of $he e:%!+,en$= To re-%ce lo##e# !n $he -!#$r!&%$!on ##$e,< an- $o re-%ce $he elec$r!c!$ &!ll< +o;er fac$or correc$!on< %#%all !n $he for, of ca+ac!$or#< !# a--e- $o ne%$ral!e a# ,%ch of $he ,agne$!!ng c%rren$ a# +o##!&le= Ca+ac!$or# con$a!ne- !n ,o#$ +o;er fac$or correc$!on e:%!+,en$ -ra; c%rren$ $ha$ lea-# $he "ol$age< $h%# +ro-%c!ng a lea-!ng +o;er fac$or= If ca+ac!$or# are connec$e$o a c!rc%!$ $ha$ o+era$e# a$ a no,!nall lagg!ng +o;er fac$or< $he e>$en$ $ha$ $he c!rc%!$ lag# !# re-%ce- +ro+or$!ona$el= T+!call $he correc$e- +o;er fac$or ;!ll &e (=3 $o (==
)=) AC Mo$or S$ar$ Ca+ac!$or#
F!g%re )= AC Mo$or S$ar$ Ca+ac!$or#
Mo$or #$ar$ an- r%n ca+ac!$or# are %#e- !n #!ngle/+ha#e AC !n-%c$!on ,o$or#= S%ch ,o$or# are %#e- ;hene"er a #!ngle/+ha#e +o;er #%++l !# ,ore +rac$!cal $han a $hree/ +ha#e +o;er #%++l< #%ch a# !n -o,e#$!c a++l!ance#= Mo$or #$ar$ ca+ac!$or# are %#e-%r!ng $he ,o$or #$ar$%+ +ha#e an- are -!#/ connec$e- fro, $he c!rc%!$ once $he ro$or reache# a +re-e$er,!ne- #+ee-< ;h!ch !# %#%all a&o%$ 1 of $he ,a>!,%, #+ee- for $ha$ ,o$or $+e= The#e ca+ac!$or# %#%all ha"e ca+ac!$ance "al%e# of o"er 1( F= The co,e !n "ar!o%# "ol$age ra$!ng#< -e+en-!ng on $he a++l!ca$!on $he ;ere !n$en-e- for= So,e #!ngle +ha#e AC ,o$or -e#!gn# %#e ,o$or r%n ca+ac!$or#< ;h!ch are lef$ connec$e-
$o $he a%>!l!ar co!l e"en af$er $he #$ar$ ca+ac!$or !# -!#connec$e- & $he cen$r!f%gal #;!$ch= The#e -e#!gn# o+era$e & crea$!ng a ro$a$!ng ,agne$!c f!el-= Mo$or r%n ca+ac!$or# are -e/ #!gne- for con$!n%o%# -%$< an- re,a!n +o;ere- ;hene"er $he ,o$or !# +o;ere-< ;h!ch !# ;h elec$rol$!c ca+ac!$or# are a"o!-e-< an- lo;/lo## +ol,er ca+ac!$or# are %#e- !n/#$ea-= The ca+ac!$ance "al%e of r%n ca+ac!$or# !# %#%all lo;er $han $he ca+ac!$ance of #$ar$ ca+ac!$or#< an- !# of$en !n $he range of 4= F $o 4(( F=
Cha+$er PRODUCTION PROCESS
F!g%re =4 Proce## S$e+# The +ro-%c$!on +roce## #$ar$ ;!$h ,o$her roll#= F!r#$< $he e$che-< ro%ghene- an+re/for,e- ano-e fo!l on $he ,o$her roll a# ;ell a# $he #+acer +a+er an- $he ca$ho-e fo!l are c%$ $o $he re:%!re- ;!-$h= The fo!l# are fe- $o an a%$o,a$!c ;!n-er< ;h!ch ,a.e# a ;o%n- #ec$!on !n a con#ec%$!"e o+era$!on !n"ol"!ng $hree #e:%en$!al #$e+# $er,!nal
;el-!ng< ;!n-!ng< an- leng$h c%$$!ng= In $he ne>$ +ro-%c$!on #$e+ $he ;o%n- #ec$!on f!>e- a$ $he lea- o%$ $er,!nal# !# #oa.e- ;!$h elec$rol$e %n-er "ac%%, !,+regna$!on= The !,+regna$e- ;!n-!ng !# $hen &%!l$ !n$o an al%,!n%, ca#e< +ro"!-e- ;!$h a r%&&er #eal!ng -!#c< an- ,echan!call $!gh$l #eale- & c%rl!ng= Thereaf$er< $he ca+ac!$or !# +ro"!-e- ;!$h an !n#%la$!ng #hr!n. #lee"e f!l,= Th!# o+$!call rea- ca+ac!$or !# $hen con$ac$e- a$ ra$e- "ol$age !n a h!gh $e,+era$%re +o#$/for,!ng -e"!ce for heal!ng all $he -!elec$r!c -efec$# re#%l$!ng fro, $he c%$$!ng an- ;!n-!ng +roce-%re= Af$er +o#$/for,!ng< a 4(( f!nal ,ea#%re,en$ of ca+ac!$ance< lea.age c%rren$< an- !,+e-ance $a.e# +lace= Ta+!ng clo#e# $he ,an%fac$%r!ng +roce## $he ca+ac!$or# are rea- for -el!"er=
=4 E$ch!ng To o&$a!n h!gher ca+ac!$ance< #%rface area of al%,!n%, fo!l for elec$rol$!c ca+ac!$or !ncrea#e# $hro%gh e$ch!ng +roce##= In e$ch!ng +roce##< al%,!n%, fo!l !# a++l!e- ;!$h DC or AC c%rren$ !n a chlor!-e #ol%$!on $o +referen$!all -!##ol"e $he #%rface= S%rface area !# !ncrea#e- & 0(/4( $!,e# for lo; " ol$age fo!l# an- 4(/)( $!,e# for h!gh "ol$age fo!l#=
=3 Ano-!a$!on6For,a$!on of D!elec$r!c Laer7 Al%,!n%, fo!l for elec$rol$!c ca+ac!$or !# f%r$her for,e- ;!$h ano-!c o>!-e f!l, 6Al3O)7 on $he #%rface a# -!elec$r!c laer= E$che- al%,!n%, fo!l !# !,,er#e- !n$o a #ol%$!on !ncl%-!ng a,,on!%, #al$ of &or!c ac!- or +ho#+hor!c ac!- an- a++l!e- ;!$h DC "ol$age #o $ha$ $he fo!l &eco,e# +o#!$!"e an- $he #ol%$!on &eco,e# nega$!"e= Then al%,!n%, o>!-e f!l, !# for,e- on $he #%rface !n +ro+or$!on $o $he a++l!e"ol$age= The ano-!c o>!-e f!l,< ha"!ng $he $h!c.ne## of 4)/4 ang#$ro, 64=)/4= n,7< !# e>$re,el $h!n< co,+ac$ an- h!ghl !n#%la$!ng=
=) Sl!$$!ng Proce## E$ch!ng an- For,!ng are +roce##e- ;!$h ;!-e roll of ,a#$er fo!l= Then $he ,a#$er roll !# #l!$$e- !n$o !n-!"!-%al roll# ;!$h #+ec!f!e- ;!-$h a# +er $he #+ec!f!ca$!on=
= S$!$ch!ng an- W!n-!ng Sl!$ ano-e an- ca$ho-e fo!l# af$er #l!$$!ng +roce## are #$!$che- ;!$h lea- $a&# an- ;o%n- !n$o cl!n-r!cal ele,en$ $oge$her ;!$h #+acer +a+er= S+acer +a+er !# $o con$a!n l!:%!- elec$rol$e $ha$ ;or.# a# real ca$ho-e an- re#$ore# -a,age-!elec$r!c f!l,< a# ;ell a# ,a!n$a!n!ng $he -!#$ance &e$;een ano-e an- ca$ho-e fo!l# con#$an$ $o +re"en$ #hor$ c!r/c%!$=
= I,+regna$!on A##e,&l!ng Wo%n- ele,en$ !# !,,er#e- !n$o elec$rol$e &a$h %n-er e!$her lo; a!r +re#/ #%re con-!$!on or nor,al +re##%re $o !,+regna$e= Elec$rol$e con$a!n# one or ,ore +olh-r!c alcohol# #%ch a# e$hlene glcol a# $he ,aJor #ol"en$# an- one or ,ore a,,on!%, #al$# a# #ol%$e# $o re#$ore $he -a,age- o>!-e f!l, 6-!elec$r!c7 an#!gn!f!can$l !,+ro"e $he +erfor,ance an- l!fe of $he ca+ac!$or= R%&&er #eal< r%&&er/ l!ne- $er,!nal +la$e or ,ol-e- $er,!nal +la$e !# a$$ache- $o !,+regna$e- ele,en$=
=0 Enca+#%la$!on Ca+ac!$or ele,en$ !# +%$ !n$o al%,!n%, ca#e an- #eale- $oge$her ;!$h r%&&er #eal or $er,!nal +la$e= Ma$er!al# $o #eal %+ ca+ac!$or are EPT or IIR< ;h!ch !# #elec$e- -e+en-!ng on $he ca+ac!$or #er!e#=
=1 Slee"e Seale- ca+ac!$or !# co"ere- ;!$h #lee"e ,a-e of hea$ #hr!n.a&le PC or PET= The +%r+o#e of #lee"e !# $o !n-!ca$e !nfor,a$!on of $he ca+ac!$or= When elec$r!c !n#%la$!on of !nner ele,en$ or al%,!n%, ca#e !# re:%!re-< +ro+er ,a$er!al# #hall &e #elec$e-=
=2 Ag!ng 6Refor,!ng7 The o>!-e f!l, a# $he -!elec$r!c !# for,e- !n Ano-!a$!on 6For,!ng7 Proce##< &%$ al%/ ,!n%, #%&#$ra$e !# e>+o#e- -%r!ng #l!$$!ng +roce## an- #$!$ch!ng +roce##= O>!-e f!l,
laer !# +o##!&l -a,age- or crac.e- -%r!ng ;!n-!ng= Re#$or!ng o>!-e f!l, !# nece##ar for ca+ac!$or $o f%ll f%nc$!on= In $h!# +roce##< ca+ac!$or# are a++l!e;!$h DC "ol$age !n h!gh $e,+era$%re a$,o#+here $o re+a!r -a,age- o>!-e f!l,= Ag!ng ,a.e# lea.age c%rren$ of ca+ac!$or #$a&le an- al#o -e&%g# !n!$!al fa!l%re=
= Proce## In#+ec$!on @ Pac.ag!ng Ca+ac!$or# f!n!#he- ;!$h ag!ng are +ac.age- $hro%gh elec$r!cal #creen!ng ana++earance !n#+ec$!on=
Cha+$er RESISTORS
F!g%re =4 S$a$or +ha#e ;!n-!ng# A re#!#$or !# a +a##!"e $;o/$er,!nal elec$r!cal co,+onen$ $ha$ !,+le,en$# elec$r!cal re#!#$ance a# a c!rc%!$ ele,en$= In elec$ron!c c!rc%!$#< re#!#$or# are %#e- $o re-%ce c%rren$ o;< a-J%#$ #!gnal le"el#< $o -!"!-e "ol$age#< &!a# ac$!"e ele,en$#< an- $er,!na$e $ran#/ ,!##!on l!ne#< a,ong o$her %#e#= H!gh/ +o;er re#!#$or# $ha$ can -!##!+a$e ,an ;a$$# of elec$r!cal +o;er a# hea$ ,a &e %#e- a# +ar$ of ,o$or con$rol#< !n +o;er -!#$r!&%$!on ##$e,#< or a# $e#$ loa-# for genera$or#= F!>e- re#!#$or# ha"e re#!#$ance# $ha$ onl change #l!gh$l ;!$h $e,+era$%re< $!,e or o+era$!ng "ol$age= ar!a&le re#!#$or# can &e %#e- $o a-/ J%#$ c!rc%!$ ele,en$# 6#%ch a# a "ol%,e con$rol or a la,+ -!,,er7< or a# #en#!ng -e"!ce# for hea$< l!gh$< h%,!-!$< force< or che,!cal ac$!"!$= 5el$ron offer# a range of Re#!#$or# for -!"er#e a++l!ca$!on# !n $he con#%,er< !n-%#$r!al< +rofe##!onal elec$ron!c e:%!+,en$ an,an o$her a++l!ca$!on#= O%r ,o-ern< f%ll a%$o,a$e- +lan$ ;!$h #$r!c$ a-herence
$o %#age of #%+er!or ra; ,a$er!al# an- :%al!$ con$rol ,ea#%re# en#%re +ro-%c$!on of Re#!#$or# ;!$h long $er, #$a&!l!$ o"er $he en$!re o+era$!ng $e,+era$%re range=
=4 Car&on F!l, Re#!#$or
F!g%re =3 Car&on f!l, re#!#$or ;!$h e>+o#e- car&on #+!ral
Car&on f!l, re#!#$or# are a f!>e- for, $+e re#!#$or= The are con/ #$r%c$%re- o%$ of a cera,!c carr!er ;!$h a $h!n +%re car&on f!l, aro%n- !$< $ha$ f%nc$!on# a# re#!#$!"e ,a$e/r!al= Car&on f!l, re#!#$or# are ,a-e ;!$h a -e+o#!$!on +roce##= A$ h!gh $e,+era$%re an- %n-er a h!gh +re##%re< a cera,!c carr!er !# hel- !n h-rocar&on ga#= The ga# 6,e$hane or &enene7 !# crac.e- a$ a $e,+era$%re of 4((( -egree celc!%#= The cr#$all!ne car&on !# +rol$!call -e+o#!$e- on $he cera,!c #%&#$ra$e= Beca%#e of $he +rec!#e -!#$r!&%$!on of $he +%re gra+h!$e ;!$ho%$ &!n-!ng< $he#e car&on re#!#$or# ha"e a lo; no!#e= The -e#!rere#!#$ance "al%e can &e o&$a!ne- & choo#!ng $he r!gh$ laer $h!c.ne##< an- & c%$$!ng a #+!ral #ha+e !n $he car&on laer= The hel!cal c%$ !n $he f!l, !ncrea#e# $he leng$h of $he c%r/ ren$ +a$h= B -ecrea#!ng $he +!$ch of $he hel!>< $he leng$h of $he re#!#$!"e +a$h !ncrea#e#< an- $here;!$h $he re#!#$ance "al%e !ncrea#e#= F%r$her,ore< & f!ne $%n!ng $he c%$$!ng of $he #+!ral $he re#!#$or can ha"e a h!gher acc%rac of re#!#$ance "al%e= T+!cal $olerance "al%e# for car&on f!l, re#!#$or# are 3< < 4( an- 3(
Beca%#e of $he %#e of +%re car&on< $he car&on f!l, re#!#$or ha# a h!gher nega$!"e $e,+era$%re coeff!c!en$ $han car&on co,+o#!$!on= The re#!#$!"e $e,+era$%re coeff!c!en$ l!e# &e$;een 3=>4( / oh,-egree celc!%# an- /2>4( / oh,-egree celc!%#= Al#o $h!# $+e of re#!#$or !# +ro$ec$e- aga!n#$ che,!cal !nfl%ence# ;!$h a #!l!cone coa$!ng= Th!# $+e of re#!#$or !# ;!-el %#e- !n elec$ron!c#= Therefore !$ !# !,+or$an$ $o no$e $ha$ $he #,all re#!#$or# ha"e a ca+ac!$ of a++ro>!,a$el (= +F= Self !n-%c$!on !# aro%n- (=(4
F!g%re =) Car&on f!l, re#!#$or
H for %nc%$ re#!#$or# an- %+ $o #e"eral Henr for #+!ral c%$ re#!#$or#= The#e re#!#$or# are a"a!la&le !n "al%e# &e$;een 4 $o 4(((( M an- ha"e a +o;er ra$!ng of 440 < 42 < 4 < 43 < 4 or 3 ;a$$#= Car&on f!l, re#!#$or# are a #!gn!f!can$ !,+ro"e,en$ on car&on co,+o#!$!on= Ho;e"er< !n co,+ar!#on $o ,e$al f!l, an- ,e$al o>!-e f!l,< $he co,,erc!all a"a!la&le range #$ea-!l -ecrea#e#= Me$al an- o>!-e f!l, are no$ ,ore e>+en#!"e $o +ro-%ce< anha"e o"erall &e$$er +ro+er$!e#= The range !ncl%-e# Car&on F!l, Re#!#$or# for general +%r+o#e a++l!ca$!on# ;here -e,an-# on #$a&!l!$ an- $olerance are ,o-era$e/ Me$al F!l, Re#!#$or# for a++l!ca$!on# ;here -e,an-# on $he +ara,e$er# are h!ghl #$r!ngen$= 5el$ron ha# #+ec!al!e- !n $he ,an%fac$%re of Profe##!onal Gra-e Re#!#$or#=D!fferen$ T+e# Of Re#!#$or# ,an%fac$%re- & 5CCL are g!"en !n A++en-!> B=
Cha+$er 0 RESISTOR COLOR CODE
F!g%re 0=4 A $+!cal a>!al/lea- re#!#$or Re#!#$or "al%e# are of$en !n-!ca$e- ;!$h color co-e#= Prac$!call all lea-e- re#!#$or# ;!$h a +o;er ra$!ng %+ $o one ;a$$ are ,ar.e- ;!$h color &an-#= The co-!ng !# -ef!ne- !n $he !n$erna$!onal #$an-ar- IEC 0((03= Th!# #$an-ar- -e#cr!&e# $he ,ar.!ng co-e# for re#!#$or# an- ca+ac!$or#= I$ !ncl%-e# al#o n%,er!cal co-e#= The color co-e !# g!"en & #e"eral &an-#= Toge$her $he #+ec!f $he re#!#$ance "al%e< $he $olerance an- #o,e$!,e# $he rel!a&!l!$ or fa!l%re ra$e= The n%,&er of &an-# "ar!e# fro, $hree $!ll #!>= A# a ,!n!,%,< $;o &an-# !n-!ca$e $he re#!#$ance "al%e an- one &an- #er"e# a# ,%l$!+l!er= The re#!#$ance "al%e# are #$an-ar-!e-< $he#e "al%e# are calle- +referre- "al%e= The char$ &elo; #ho;# ho; $o -e$er,!ne $he re#!#$ance an- $olerance for re#!#$or#=The $a&le can al#o &e %#e- $o #+ec!f $he color of $he &an-# ;hen $he "al%e# are .no;n=
F!g%re 0=3 Re#!#$or Color Co-e
De+ar$,en$ of Elec$r!cal @ Elec$ron!c# Engg= 42
NSSCE< PALA55AD
Cha+$er 1 CONCLUSION 5el$ron ha# !n!$!a$e- #$e+# $o crea$e .no;le-ge an- !nno"a$!on# !n $he elec$ron!c f!el-= I$ !# one of $he lea-!ng ca+ac!$or ,an%fac$%r!ng co,+an!e# !n 5erala= I$ ha# al;a# &een a&le $o +ro"!-e h!gh :%al!$ +ro-%c$#= 5el$ron ha# al#o an Elec$ron!c De#!gn Re#earch #ec$!on $ha$ hel+ !n +ro"!-!ng ca+ac!$or# accor-!ng $o $he nee- of $he c%#$o,er#= F%r/$her,ore< $he ha"e a ;ell e>+er!ence- $echn!cal e>+er$# an- #%++or$!ng #$aff# for $he acco,+l!#h,en$ of $he goal# of $he co,+an= The organ!a$!on #$%- !n 5el$ron hel+e- ,e $o %n-er#$an- $he "ar!o%# f%nc$!on# !n an organ!a$!on an- ho; !$ !# connec$e- ;!$h $he ,anage,en$ $heor!e#= I ga$here- a goo- !-ea a&o%$ $he h!#$or an- +rof!le of K5EL/TRON? $o enlarge , !-ea !n $he &%#!ne## ;orl-=
Cha+$er 2 REFERENCES 4= h$$+;;;=.el$ronco,+=org!n-e>=+h+ 3= h$$+.el$ron=orgelec$ron!c co,+onen$#=+h+ )= h$$+#en=;!.!+e-!a=org;!.! = ;;;=google=co=!n
