Andrew Gordon - Postwar Japan as History - 1

CHAPTER ONE

Peace ad Democrc y in Two S stems stems Exl l  Il C John

W Dower

Ever since Japan's seclusion was ruptured by the Wesern naos n 1853, domesc and nternatona pocs ae been interwoen for te Japanese. So gans sed o obze succeen generations convey hs interconnecto Thus te orces that eetuay overrew te eda re in 1868 ralled arond e c "Reere te mperor an xpe the Bararans e Mei goere (1868-1912) sociazed cizens or Wesezaon industralizaton and epire bulng uer he sogan Ric Conr trog Miiar Mlant pansion iss o te 190s an eay 1940s eqaly concee t reovaton at hoe ad auarky abroa ared creaon o a doesc New tuctr w esalish ment o a "N Orer overseas y saw h solution o omestic s in te creatio o a broae prium n sia wic tey ossed w te rhetorc o Coestence an Corosperty  o apan ostensby purse a ow posture iomacally ae Wor War II the inimate reaonsip bewen ernatona and oestic potcs reained c. Aain cacpases cap tis eatey aer e war exasted Japaese were ralieand reqently nspredby a ideaistc agnda o Delitazao and Dmocratzaon Fro t ots s eals w og o  seaae: sron o e ae sae was essen tial to deocratze jaa ad ony the creato o a gney emocrac nao cod prevnt te dager o ure aanese iais Oce oral tarza tarza ton ad ee accopised t edrng goa bcame o create a ata Peace and Deocracy Een exortatons sc as the popuar postsrrender sogan onsruction o a Naton o Ctre (Buk K  Ksetu) were udrsood to be syoyos   pare eas o pa ad deocracy Fo exampe wen Prme nister Katayama Tetsu aressed te rst Det sesson ed unde te ew postwar onso n 194 7, e conced th an appea 3

4

JOHN

. DO\VER

o advance tow ''he cosucon of  mocc ao o pece, a on o cuie cuie (minshuk na eiwa ko, b kokka n nset). Ts ky ems - d  cra, pac, a l-w subjec o po  e yrs a ooe  ltr y a ag was ucoue fom e oe o. Tougot e os peo hov  ge oto o poa ocy a coon coue o e con ke a cackg eecc cent n e poemc poes o pea  d  cra Ths a o rhoc s eca o Ja u  assd a arcur vay hee Peace bece e mgnec po or boh gmzo and cs o x ocy; d  mcray seved  sm funco o hgy cosd omsc sss A pos coovss o mry  neoa pocy amos nvaby beame eaged h e srgges cocng poe pacpao ao roes and com peg vsos o ss eg  soca usc \Vee he ac suures o osw pow  cocrnd o o a uquy Japaese pases omma aeon Oe s e "San Fracsco Syem ch ees o h teao osure a ssume fomy ¥hen  sg  pece y h oygt aos  S csco  Smb 195 an smueousy ge tse w te codr pocy o h Ued Ses oug t bea Tea of Mua Cooeo an Secu o e e o  Sw eod hch eecvy sybozd he n o h osw ra fo a  coty coued o oere t  saec pamees o the Sn Fancsco Sysem oug s goba oe  uece cage cospcuousy e  emegd as a conoc or  e 970s T secon hs coe o sgte h aue o osc o aos s  955 Sysem Hee e eerece s o a cocao o poca an socoecoomc deveopmens  9 cung he esabsme o he Lba Dmor Pt (DP) whc goe a uu ov e sg dcds oe gery 955 Sysem sges  omesc poc strucre crce ze y  ney coeve bu oeheess hgeoc consatve esb shmen   e u soms nuet bea a �rxst oos o ke  fasoa oca phss S rncsco S y  S y sem sem n 955 Sysem oscu s uc s y e Both s cooato o US cor ocy d  u o e cosve es e eve ro h ae 4s e    ocy oad occe  uerw  socaed es cose  c epass as sed om mazo a o zo o cooc rcosrco mamet d gro o h S coms coa ocy The  geess of bo sysems s hs c a h  e ng o t ou abs od sugges oo h oesc as  s eo u  ch he pns oaed chgd 1

}n Hirno Kench5, "Sngo Nn gai n okeu bun' n \t Ao ed Seo }n  tai su (Toky: Y 198) 343-. 1.

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JOHN

. DO\VER

o advance tow ''he cosucon of  mocc ao o pece, a on o cuie cuie (minshuk na eiwa ko, b kokka n nset). Ts ky ems - d  cra, pac, a l-w subjec o po  e yrs a ooe  ltr y a ag was ucoue fom e oe o. Tougot e os peo hov  ge oto o poa ocy a coon coue o e con ke a cackg eecc cent n e poemc poes o pea  d  cra Ths a o rhoc s eca o Ja u  assd a arcur vay hee Peace bece e mgnec po or boh gmzo and cs o x ocy; d  mcray seved  sm funco o hgy cosd omsc sss A pos coovss o mry  neoa pocy amos nvaby beame eaged h e srgges cocng poe pacpao ao roes and com peg vsos o ss eg  soca usc \Vee he ac suures o osw pow  cocrnd o o a uquy Japaese pases omma aeon Oe s e "San Fracsco Syem ch ees o h teao osure a ssume fomy ¥hen  sg  pece y h oygt aos  S csco  Smb 195 an smueousy ge tse w te codr pocy o h Ued Ses oug t bea Tea of Mua Cooeo an Secu o e e o  Sw eod hch eecvy sybozd he n o h osw ra fo a  coty coued o oere t  saec pamees o the Sn Fancsco Sysem oug s goba oe  uece cage cospcuousy e  emegd as a conoc or  e 970s T secon hs coe o sgte h aue o osc o aos s  955 Sysem Hee e eerece s o a cocao o poca an socoecoomc deveopmens  9 cung he esabsme o he Lba Dmor Pt (DP) whc goe a uu ov e sg dcds oe gery 955 Sysem sges  omesc poc strucre crce ze y  ney coeve bu oeheess hgeoc consatve esb shmen   e u soms nuet bea a �rxst oos o ke  fasoa oca phss S rncsco S y  S y sem sem n 955 Sysem oscu s uc s y e Both s cooato o US cor ocy d  u o e cosve es e eve ro h ae 4s e    ocy oad occe  uerw  socaed es cose  c epass as sed om mazo a o zo o cooc rcosrco mamet d gro o h S coms coa ocy The  geess of bo sysems s hs c a h  e ng o t ou abs od sugges oo h oesc as  s eo u  ch he pns oaed chgd 1

}n Hirno Kench5, "Sngo Nn gai n okeu bun' n \t Ao ed Seo }n  tai su (Toky: Y 198) 343-. 1.

PEAE AND DEMOCRA IN TWO SYSTEMS

5

constnty urng he poswr peo, n ramcall so afe e ey 1970s. From his pespectve, t s ued, bo Sn Fncsc Syse n "55 Sste ve n anchonisic rin hen apple o he yes e the mid-19s o so n, nee ey do2 S, e o hses reman  sesve o none who shes to ecete osjn osjn s hso They eec  odvew oon boh od n nr, h s dene nd escie (nd ccze) by the Jpnese emseves , ke ll ou ses  srvive fo moe an  ssn moen, they cpueceny o Jnese nsts eh o coice n even conrco ssoctons They re code ods o te ecli c s conext, oveses nd a oe, n whch oswr Jn eveoed They re cosey ssoce wth the pessve nenonl n oesic ose Jpn ttne beeen te 5s n 198s A the se e, he evoe e ne schsm nd tension n even voence t ccopned pan's tnen o  elh  elh nd oe For nese, nese, Sn Sn Fncsco Sstem nd 1955 1955 Sysem  vvdy syboze te nense poc conics ove isses o ece nd democc t crcteze ns emeence s  c consme soce nd oe cis se Essen, hese concs te be nd en ctcs nst te om nn conseve ees  te pek o ther nence n he 50s n 16s hese ctcs constute n eecve no cpabe o cpn opu a non nd inencn he nonl en B he md190s, thouh, te Lf ered spent s n neectly comen ocl oce Pt, he oosi 2.  ave discused te "reverse course in ome detail  Empire and Afrmath: Yosha Ser and  Jaane xenc, 187-94 Cmbrdge Hr Coucl o East Ai Suie, 17) 3 6, n  "Occuea n the od War i , i icae] Laey, ed e Ta eey (Cmbdge Wooro Wio Iteratonl Ceter or Shors d mbdge ivers Press 18) 36640. or a ritiim of the revereourse rgumet by a ormer Ameian ariiat  te ocupaton see Justn Wiiams, Sr "Aeran Demortizon Poly or ccupied Japa: orreg te eost Verion, Pa Hcal Revw 5 o. 2 ay 188 1922 d reoders reoders by ohn W. Dower 202-9 ad Howrd Soberger 20-1 The 955 Sytem Sytem eignato apear to have hav e bee ntroduce to nteleua crces  a artce a rtce in apan_ pube y Masumiunosuke n theune 1964 ssue of Sis. See sum ta Plits inapan_ 1945-1955 anee esearc oogra 6 (Bereley nstitute of Et Asa Stue, Uner o lifor, 9 32-42; see ao Masumi he 15 System System in Ja ad ts Susequet Deveomet Aian Sure 28 no. 3 (ar. 198: 26-6. he rse ad l o the 15 Sytem ws he subec of te 197 anu pubicaon of te Jee o See sociton Nho Sejakka, e Gojoe se no ese o hka, egaku nenp 77 oo Nho Sejgak 197 For  brod, anoae oerew o apaee dem aayss of te t e 95 System, see ye Ihir aauch Yasusi Murmatu hio and Sind Eichi " 'ogonen taisei o seiritsu to teka, n Non e n za engo 40nen no aui (oyo ukaku 195, 83-116. Lke   oicl or socoecono so coeconomc mc system the 1 Sstem a dyam, a the socle socle  conseate hegeony from e outet w inteay coetve an rve th teios. For n analyss n ng o te unrave of e te, ee T. J Pepe Te Ununlg o n  Te Changg Dynamis oaaee oly Formatio in Kenne B. Pe ed e ade Crs Hw W aan eo? Seatte nerst of \asngto Socet for apanee Stuies 8 112.

6

JOHN W. DOER

i ily ad l me of i t funaena argmens: ropery at hme ndeine the crqe of caitasm, and ecooic speowe stats aoa scredied e argmnt f subrdiatio to te S. econoy Pary agai, hwever, te anieabiment rt ad wn soe of eir aruent or mre mny had een eir poios o ci and eoiica isues eecively c-oped y te coneVatives. Deie poleics o e o vtoic sor wa Jaan never ws li i cetely unbdeabe deic camps he pro Ameran coeaive nrsed any reeen agains the nte tate f exa, wie e libeal a efis "eaoali wee cepie t na inait aea Schis in boh ams, as we as accooaion wee e cap, were t perisent subex in he deae ve eae ad demay Ti ideca sones, a  wee, helps expain te raniin o te le oemi ca decades  te 1970s ad 98s A te deaes ove peae ad demcay receed their pace was ae y a isn tide of neoaionalis kng tat tresed Japanee uniqees an ueorty Ah this laeSwa cul f exceptinali a apanese cics, i tapped a lne of tut wt stro le-wi as wel as coneaive rots Cnein oe oal an oec polcies  nt dsapea n he ast ecades f Shwa Rathe, i took deren for Ahgh japa' emergce as an ecnomi suerwer resled  ndreaed-of inene, it o reated uaicpate tesionot ony wh e Uted Staes ad te Eropea co te ei eeljapas new apitai awned mni bu aso ithin apa new oneners r pwe and nuence wn e onerae estaismet Ad at the opa leve te almt catac xatio of e ruig groups o indral produc ad econoic natonais muaed iizen poes mvement a eschee cae ideoloie an foused  spec se uc as ai o lfe eromea potection, oty serces, an e like L weei in i ta e earler "peace ad deocracy sre, uch extrapariaenta aties epreete a new kn  rassoots emacy In hese varous was t an be aid that] apa entere a ew sage in e early 190s. Ye e ld miia and ecoic caon wt the Unted Sae sboized y the an Francic Syte reaine at the eart fjaas external poicy. Te coevave eeoyte ec o te 955 Sysem e to ueapan,gglig oe alls tha i he past cerng and bakbiti  whin is own raks t i o real daer of ben eoed fro ente stae. d the rea es of eae a ecac eve mted  ospeiy ad atonal pide eae us beeat t ae. Was e ew ersae real eratic ely a strucive fore fr peae? In he 190s and 90 as the old debates fade fr the scee hese etios wee aed fro new perec ives y te wd a lare Tee broad areas of cene Sa raisc Syste, he 9 Sysem, he oncs w em ad lages etwee te a te cetan wod tat Jaa sted io as a ecoomic aal ad clocal seoe benn n the 9sare addresed n the pae ha flow

PEACE D D  TWO SYTEM



THE SAN FRANCISCO SYSTEM

The intersection of "peace and democracy in postar Jaa begins t te Allid occupaion of  ad its evoluion into he San Fraciso Syse Uder te .S.-domiated ouaion, defeated] aa was initiay deliaized he Imeal Ay and Navy ises ere aolshed Forer litar ocers ere urged from bic life ostensily for al ime Uder te famos Aricle  of the  7 consto, jaa edged to forever renounce ar  a sovereg rig of te ation and the threa or se of force as a means o setling interna oa distes'' Wat s meat, it as expained at te time, was exactly ha i seemed o ea  Prme Minister Yosida Shigeru put it, tag a color etphor fro the days o te samrai, nder te ne eace cosituion e Jaaese were robied fro iig  eve o swords i te ame of sedeense. At this eary sage Yosida ad s olleages atciaed tha for te oresee ab ftre apan woud fare es as a armed aio dedcated o resorg  eace reations t e rest of te world, ludng Cia and te Soviet o Is seciy, e ealiest sceaos et, igt be guaranteed y the nite atios, or by a Great Power ageeet, or if eessar by a atera agreemet ith e nie States er hic the main isands of jaa ere proected by .S ores saioed eseere (possby incdig Okinawa)4 This as not to be e eace treay signed  S ranciso i  as in a geeros a oiive, luing no rovisos or fre teratioa ovesig o Jaa. der te Secury Trea  te United States, oever, jaan agreed o te reeo o S lta ases roghot the ot aer restorato of sover ein ad as understood to ave comted se to rearmament. e ite Staes retaed de fato contro of te Ryk slads incdig Okinaa, hic b te ad become ts maor cear base in Asa, hie residal sovereign as acknoedged o ie taa.  atted bese of the mir igme i e ed Saes w Japa greed to  order o regai its sovereigy, the Sovet o refsed o s e eace reay. either e Peoes Reuli o ia or te Kuota regme o aiwa ere ed to te  Friso oerece ut sse quey orar to its hoes ad execations te Yoshida goverment as  aed der severe U.S. resse o estais eos  e Kuotang ad oi i e oe  Ci I te terms o ose es te eae selee t Sa Fraiso was s  serae eae  e ears a oloed he 3

3. Kanpo gogai-shin, 7t h Die sess. 28 Jan 1950, 200; Ol Gazet Exa-Huse Rpreen tves 7h sess, 8 J a 9 . For a exeded reatmen ofosda's nerpreaio f re 9 see Dwe Empire d Afa 378- 397-99 4 Te basc nside source japaese iar and sraec pecs bewee sreder d esoao of soveeg s Nsra Kua San Furanshu hwjak  vl  ofNhn ga shz� ed Kaia Heiwa Kekyo (Tky: Kaa Keko 971). e Scialss, as epreseed   Kaayaa esu cabe of May 94  o March 1948 shared ese ves .

OHN vV DO\VER

8

forml resratn  sovereignt t Japa n Arl 1952, these cold-war arrage ets remae a centrl cus f ps by estc crtcs o the gve et a a srce o frct wtn te U.Sapa partnersp tsel5 A te time e Secty Treaty was negtate ad came nt eec   rojecos r a futre aanese mtar ocse  gr rces a were exceeg mos Te apanese were tl tey so creae a ay o 35000  00 e  1954-a gure arger tha te Impea r n the eve f te Mancr Inciet  1931 a arger tan eve acal was reace i e oswar er t was assume from te tset n . crcles tat Japanese remizai s a wold eta constal reso hs asspi emerge  secret  proecios  e ate 190s bere the Amercas acty began rearmg Jaa,  was rst ubcl ephasze  Vce Preset Rchar Nxo  Nvemer 195 For man reassncig t ny ear  ecomc socato a scia unrest  apa t as ear tat te zalts  Washgn wl g n to dema taapa se is oeced arm t ght  e Krea WarYsa resste tese  ressres ad esablise a mre est ater of ncremetl aaese rearmamet r vael e a is aies agreed wit te mercas tat csttna revisi   ave o ccpy an pid a argescae may ip a the ague that suc evs as tcall mpssle at e tme. er al oy ve yeas r s earer te Jaaese a see a waran cear weapsrgt ome t e is ee was a remae the crtca card: ecase of  opar sppt r e era 9 7 "peace cnstt, costoal revson remane ptcly psse  stwar apan 6 s cterpot to the ermssve greeets n remlitazaon reaced beee e S a Japaese gvermets  te e 190 Artcle 9 thus sve as a amgous but cca eemet wit te S Frcisc se t was reiterree avaery  he govemet t emt pecemea Japaese rearmaet t at te same ie t was eecive lze t resra te speed  sope of reltzato ucessve Swaera cabets repeately eked te cnsttn t esst U.S. pressre ot mere r arge trp ncreses bt aso or parcao n coective securt arrageents ad verseas msss As Prme Mster at Es stae  70 he rvss f te Csttt ake overseas serce mssbe "7 Becase resn  rce 9 wu pe e door t csetve resin f ter rts f the nata charter as we secay ccerg guaratees of dva gts a pssby as te re Nismur, San Furnhiuk wajaku; Dower  Empir ad Aa, 369-414; FedeckS. unn P-mk and th Seent w Jaa (Prneto: cetn Unvesty Pess 9) Mchae Yssu an and h Sa Facso Pac lm ew York Colub nvers ess 98 2  I e sumzed t ol TS record n se etl n "upiedpn . Jo Welfed A m n : an n  Pa Ama Al � Lono Ao Pess 88 250  i he most dele nd useful sure  Engsh n Jp withn te S sc Sye 5.

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PEACE AD EMOCRAY IN TWO YTE

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sbolic" saus of te emperor, debae over consiuiona revion ecae the most daaic singe example of he inerecton of poar concerns abo peace an deocrac y . The tex f he peace rea as  made publc u  as sged i eeber 195, ad deals of he U.S:ap ia eatonshp ee woed ou beee he o go veens y n he ohs ha neened eeen then an he ed o he ccpaon n Apr952. Nneheless he geera pcy of ncoporainJapan no S cod-war olcy a cear e befoe he o eak of the Kea War nJue 950, an oppos ihn japan oilzed accorng he po lica Le as acaed n s anass of hese deeop en b may f e bac rncple a o nerle citcism of he an Francco yte in he years o folo ere nodce by e le-n pares and iera and "pogesve " (kakushin) nelec beween 1949 and 95 In Deceer 949 he Scals Par ape "hree Prncpes o Peace fr Japan: a ovel eace setleen wih a former eneies , oosiion o bilaeral a pacs o oegn ia bases nJapa ad eu alt in e cod war. n 951 afe ar wag ig eeen he rgh and e ngs of he pa he Socalss adde as a fouh peace prncpe, ppsion ojapanese reaaen. By ar e mos inenial ielecta edorsemet o hese pncples cae o he Peace Proes Sposu (Hea Mnda anaka) a ose group i of hihly respeced acadecs wo rs cllabaed n Nveber 948 to se a enera saeen on ar eace an ocia jce sned b fy-ve schoa n he aual and ocial ciece. In a Saee on he Peace Pro e eeased n Jaa 950 and sge by hi-ve nelecals he o elaboraed on e three peace piciples aned a a epaate peace col conre o a ad ephasze he mportance of avodin epenency on he Uied Saes he hi Peace Proes Spos saeen aed lar ely b Maryama ao an Ukai Nobie a pushed as sua  he mnh y aazine ka, wa e n Decemer 5 aer he oreak of he Korean Wa an pe coencemen of apaese earae o gea as he re spnse ha Sei as sad o hae dule s cicuao The ong ir saee sged b y thry-oe inteeca n he Tokyo chape of he Peace Prole S mposi m ad enoe i he Kyoo chape delled o he ae viso of hse self -yed ''reass ho adhered o a rgdl bpoa odve ad ancpaed neabe coc eteen "ea democ acy" an com" he Ued ae a Soe n h cae ude ccsm he he cdar pese o e eeg ..Japan ma rea shphe arme a he Se i as cmmed  foseng d cois throug  mia eansas reec ed apan  a ae co l  es crie  peacefl coexisece  adpig a sc cuse f uare nnigmen de he Uned ais he na secn of he saee s deed expi c y o he easp eeen peace ad he doesic sucue ad aged ha apas coiin  a r ho a as e as s es

10

JOHN W. DOWER

pprtut  i em ndepedece culd be ost eevel uthere b prmtg saderati domstc refors tht were uided b nihr Sviet delog nor Aeranstle cold-ar objectivs. Te lanage was arded here reeig n general ad qite east tes to aess n te sag o weat a inome reaion f a ature level of deocrac, an suppemeig he pnpls f a free economy (ju k;a no g) t  niles of laning (k  .8 hese stateets suved ver te yeas as probabl e best-nw a estes  the aese eae vemet Nether n n  was h atte  ve t ndercrres th tem that seeme to rn contr to a trly nteraasc and nversalstc utlk. he amos d s,  xampl, . adpte terms fai y reminiscent  Japn 's  an-Asan rhetorc in Wod ar II b y  praising the neu tr alit esposed by Ii's Prime Minster Neru as represeg "th  ve ssenc of e sian eople's stor os an ssin t the sme tme the statemet nrodced a sbe appeal o sm i arng tat etralt re rese nte "the y t  oso o sel-rene ad deenee or aan M skig of  howeer, ws th mp of the eac Pbs Smpsum icuas o nrte antwa setent n pan by ap g det  te en exprincd by te Jaanse n he reent war. "I w o t  if experence ht or fatherlad neet dung the wr he h satement deared " s y  lear to us what t  ean to scce p ce "9 r e perspeve japas a vctims of urse su a aa  wold see shokg parochi rather an teato ist. In te Jaaese eu owever it aped an alost isictal stra of ct nsiosess ha i) that cut cross  piic spectu.  As te precise ture f the S Frcsco Sste nflde betwee 95 an 954 i beae aparet to cservatves s l  te p psiton thatapan ad  pad a cnsierale ice for soveren t w pssessed a mita  qestn able lega an a bateral sect treaty at was nestoably equtale "Prpostrousy unequal was e r ase sed by Frein inter Fuaa ic n 1958 ad when reay revsn came on te agea in 96 US  ci als agreed that e 9 Secur i Trea whjapan was he mst nequitable blarl m  U S tts   nto te t w  lso bcm ainll clear o th Japaese tat the ce o pc ws  divde cntryindee a obl vde con in te sense of oth tertral and 8. "Sego hewa n  e: He Mnd Dak  chusn , July 195 0- Tis speial isse cmatig  fi av r     Wrd ar   as  bas xs o  Hw Md a. A l translton f  b 1950 s s  Joual  cia ad Pota Is n ap , .  (Ar 63): 13-9 (see   h rq o e sv ias y th i, 2- 3) Fr a vv f inion   ri Sit Tr s G R Pkr I,   Tk 7  Trea C  1960 Princen: Pnct Uversy Prss 66 32 9 u  Sa d    p 1, .  (Ap 9 

PEACE AND DEMOCRCY IN TWO SYSTEMS

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spitual divsion The decmet of Okiw fom he est of Japa ed Oknawa scie a ecoom n a gesque ppedge  e .S ucler steg i Asa Ew Resce abssa  Japa i the ey 1960s aer chaacezed w as "the  'semi-cloial, te ceae  Asia sice he w d he esees geeed b is eita vis pesised il he eveso o Okw o Jp i 172  ee e e sua dvio of he cut ws anifesed  he poiicl d ideoloc olat case i consdeabe p b e Sa Fcisc Ssem isel s Ysida pt i wih anohe gpc milia meapo is e fom the Aied ivsio of Ke  he ed of Wold W II, e occupo a is codw seeme dew  hieg pae ough the vey ea f hepese pele 10 This was hd a u o aged compale o he pswa visis o Ke C Gem o Vie I sggess eeless te eoio ad poicall caged clie o he eas h folwedps ccomoda o Ameca codw polic Mos fude he  Fcisco sem sboded p o e Ued es i pschoogc s we s sucu ws ad e jese pde  ea e ea ke  swwokig acid I ci S cces it was ckowl eged k i codeniall h e ili elaiship h ap ws uleedged:  iegaed p in e anticomunis camp d smul eous ceed  ee scue f S conol ovepa Eve pssio ae niiet pcis like Yoshid did o egad the USR as  ec he op d eluc cceped e coiued pesece o  oops d bases as  unvodble pce fo obig soeeig og h ssaces of  peci The pia missio of S fces ad ases i apa cig Okiw ws eve  deendp dec bu ahe o pec S powe  Asi d o suppo o commies elsewhee as oe hgh  ocil late tesed To m sees te ague  his US pesece so ce as  eee o exel ea o p ws les pesusie  s couege h he eenl e ws egligbe i e bases ut cosiee h e I wa occued beee he ied aes  e Sovie i p el wu be  io i  he sae me e S l Fujiyama ad Resauer ae quote n Weed, Empire in lse, 147 224. he era coweme of the oss eutabe naue of e 195 ea emerge stong  ae onessioa eags oe revso; see US Seate Comiee on Fore Reaions Tea9 q Mutua Coean ad u w Jan, 86 on 2 sess  Jue 960 Yosha's omets appear  Yosha Seu Seka t Nh (okyo: Baco Sb 1962) 186-8 Japan lso was "dvided  Soe acquison of our sml ad vual upopuaed slas oh oHoao a emoona ssue ha remae unesove whe e wa peod ee  ateme by Asssta eetar ofStae  AexsJohnso U. SecuAeem an Commmts Abroa Jpan n Okna Hean  g  s 9s Con 2d sess p 5 2629 Ja 197 l l 66 ted in e Ka e Snane of he Sapa Seuri Sse o he nie Sates  apaee Perpee  Ge D oo ed spealapan ssue of Peae n Cge: A Jur feace Reeah 12 os 3-4 (98 2

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JOHN W. DO\'ER

mia presence hoghot ejapanese islans estabised an n-sie deerrent agast ose remilarzao by apan itse Subordnain of apanese miiay anng  S grand sateg was anoter an more sbe way o ensng long-erm US control oerJapan So aso was te hnlgcal negran f te U.S. andjapaese miiar forcesa process o insionie epenec tha acty eepene fe te md950s when proies shied rm grond fces o he creaton of a tehooay sopsate apanese a an ai fce Eary cs of te San Faciso Sysem caratezedjapans pace win i as e o suborae nepenence (juzoki dts), inclung ecoc as we as ilomac and itary depede toug the phase arose n te  poiia Lt  was ecoed trougout Japaese soceya a top eves n Wasio and Tokyo as wel Wen S panners  he Ay av and tate deparmen rs une serios aenion  icrporaingjaan ino co wa sraey in 14 7 o eame tey reeced  merey he premise a]apan od be nera b also tat t  eve regain an ''inependen ieni" In hs ercey ipoa wd vew, aan reaistcaly oul e expeed o uctin only as an erca or Soe satelie. In Nemer 1, wo mnths ae te eace coference Josep Dodge he ke Aeica avse  eoom pli towarjapan luntly t eesetaies of te Mis o Inteatona Tae and Inusr (MTI) ta apa a e nependent politica bt ependen ecoomicay." WheJapan was force to arcipate n he ecoic contai met  Ca a see alenatve aets elsewere especally n Suheast Asa ear hajapan was ooe  a exceedngy preaous economic ute was palpabe trugu he con A hs stage aost no oe aiciae a Japa a a serous ure  te aace arets o e West. Ts, as we learn fom To Seet" ecos o te US Naoal Secu oucil,  Septembe 14 Secea o Sae on Fste lles td Yosda ranly a apan shod o eet o nd a ig  aet becase te jaaese d mke e gs we wat apa mst n markets elsewhee or e goods te exot"2 Sh cmmes may e amusing  retrspec t tey remind s ajapans eergence as a gobal ecoic powe ae ae ad arupy a asised ast eee ee I ole a geat ea f skll a a wo  e sre u also a arge mease of goo foune  he og n S oldwa olces abee jaanese eomc grow a me and aroa n unanaed ways In eu  acqiesg  the aime icy f example apan ecee avoe acess o S paes a lienses a tenca exerse a wel as  atrnage in teatinal eomic rgazaons A e same me ese �>eca eo au ee a ad an en iteraoa eom 12. See Michael Scer, T Am Ocup J (New Yok: Oxfd Unves Pes 985) 04  "ndpendnt den; e De Emp  Af, 20 on dge e U epmen  e Fore Relatins q e Ud Sts 1952-54, vol 4 p 2 pp 74-5  e   ue c( ibd, p. 63  A 

PEACE AND DEMOCRACY  TWO SYSTEMS

13

orde, these remaned umae ideas rahe an immedate pacces. I he ealy poswa decades U.S. polcy acay sanconed po scons by e Wese Euopea ales as we as japan o facitate he ecovery fom he war, a ese ade baiers ere oeaed oge i apa's case a they were  Eope. Aso oerated, n he eary 1970s, was a undervaed yen exchage ae-a is, a oeae doa,_ wh beeed aaese expo nses. Japa, more h Euoe, aso was pered o reti igh rescons on oeg exchage a capia nvestment ha had been apoved as "emporar ea ses ug he occpatio. The cosedJapanese oesc ecoy, ch ew so apy n e ae 950s ad 960s ad became a sorce of ea fcton  etee Jpa and he ed States nd Euope by the d of he 960s eeced tese roecos poces sancoe y the ite States  te aive ays wenjapa wa eeve o have o seous utue in Weste makesn he, y S demad, apan aso was prohied from esabshg cose eco omic ties th Cia Aog  s oubu a he S cea umrea eve realy proected Japa fo a seous exena hea,  s nconoverie ha e .S. econoic bea was an mmense oon o apanese capaism.3 e apanese ecoomy aso oshed w e Sa Fancsco Sysem i wo additioa acpate ways Bo he Koean Wa and e Vea Wa bough eat pots an maet eaktrougs o Japan .S osoe pocue mens smaed by he Korea War and heeae rouinzed as new speca  ocremes (shin tokuJ) hed apa's baance of paymens i ie ough he cca year of he 90s e ea War oom, in  bog a esimaed $1 on a yea o Japaese ms eee 96 ad 9 he eod ow , deie as mag te opeg sage of economc ay fo apn ad he  egig of the end of Aerica's roe as hegemo of the goba capas sys e.4 A he sme time, he cosras o Japese eazaio that semed om he eay peiod of demiazao ad deocrazaton ad remaie ebode n e constio d moe ha meey ess  geer pocy of goso eamament hey aso hwate he emegec of  poweu defense  oy comparae o that i e ied Saes.  he asece of a oa de ns of defense, e Mist of nance remaed he mao aco n shapg he postwa mia dget ee was no apaese cotepar o the Pentago 13 C he concise summa "Econoc Relatons th te United Sates, 945 973 y Ga axnhouse n Kodansha Enped ]pan (Tok: Kansha 983) 8:66. 1 For te Korean War boom and specal procureens see kafsa Nakamura Te Posar Japnee onmy: I Delment  Stuce kyo Unvers o Too Press 98 -8; G  Alen apn' on Reove Londn Oxord ners Press, 922 33 69, 20 or he Venam a oo, see omas R H. Haens Fi Ao  e  Va W   p, 965-975 ncen Pnceton ners Press 987, 9 s s a useful sorce on ths peo  n genera Jaan's en no ecnoc "mat s comon daed ro  when te count as aorded ul eersh n the Ornzan for conomic ooperaon and Deeopmen OCD and advanced coun status n the Ineaona Monea un IM

4

JOHN W DOWER

nd despi  hndful of  la rg e miiary conracors suc as Misubis Hea Idustes , he e eme g e no civian eene ecto  motey co mpar ab o t itr-n dust cmx in  Und Sas. Thus, nt to he situaion  c,  s scntss and ninrs in pswar Jpa ud  heir tnts o he p oduon  cmtie  the cvia  mkeple, ae hn we ons o ar  h was ci ica  to the con mc ta k e of Japan xpe i ced beni g n  a 1950s ad he count's exto compvnss  sung dcads. An a his ao us b rckd an inte   the S Fancsc Ssm HE 95 SYSE

Lik h Sa rncsco ys h csa egem ony r now as te 19 S ste ad s g en sis in te ouptn-id evese cous we S lice  ega n o jtiso ay  e e rdca emocc deas n rors A geer sik pad or 1 eua 1947 was ban y Gnra Doug MAr. Pol esaton ws waerd ow beg  nng  98 T mms pwer of t he burcrac-augmnd b  ead and a h o oiiz ion r 'oa wr� was vr curtaid by the Occupain rorrs (bynd ablio f he pe me Mnis) and  naci srucur rmad a gy noche epte iniil pr opsa  o emotze  Fair as pas t p omt coic ocrazaon rugh ndusril o cntraon wr ad y 9 Iidus purge  o ubc e " r a  i e  ee  her wr acs r aans b gn   dur n   y the  o e upo o  f r rss remain u er the i purg deigat . t th e tme between te 99 and e d o 90 US auhites ad the Jans grn coaborad in a "Re urg e  n the pubic scor and n h  r ae et tha eventay   he ring  som wnwo ousad didas  mos wng u tt In Ju 1    m of t onpcuos urn to e igh the at  an ben15  S Fr an s s us k p n a g    hn o o e y   "z n  de oc aizaon ee nr att ack b  nevve eite n  nw rca parnes.  , rn  the e pe it be and     lr laws te spara ac ad rsurrcon o  ld cooic and oiic s wr par o  s g e eee cors a was ilnouy  rn n doc n t r cao . Jap e pan    w See Dowr, Emp  Aa, d Ma u m P  i J,  for gnal cl eveopments in the t oswr ecde. Te eoluion of U.S cy s osey um b Hwa Snbge  A W:    R q] -2 (Kent: K Stat nivsiy P 1989) I hav  a ln w  xv een   eaces t h poswa e  sciy  "Th Usful Wr, Ddu_ Summ 1990 49-70. 15.

PECE ND DEMOCRCY IN TWO SYSTEMS

15

requied the resrretion of he lan old gad, an he od guard eired the od war to enlist U.S suppot agais domest opponens Wt the exepton o te bref Ktaya nerue (May 1947 to M 98), onseative eades eade eve Jpnese abinet of the ostwa peod even befoe e everse ourse ws initited Howeve,  was not nt he thd Yoshda abnet omed in Janay 949 t te oseve eadesp en  joyed a m oiy n the De For Yosda peonay hs poved o e a ehemera peak of ower and sabiyTe gene eetions o Ooe 195 2 aw te retu o naonal pos of ndeds of fomey pgd oiins and by 954 onseatve anks wee seveey faionazed When osid an his berl Party sporters were nereoniosy ose fom owe in ecembe 954 t was not antionseaives who di them n bu rather  val onsevave oaton he eort Pary haed by atoyama hi aoyama, wh seeed Yosida as pme inste, ws a omer ugee it a eord o sppo no ony for aaese agresso  e een wa ut ao for the sesso of ssen  he 90s and 930s Aso i e ani-Yosid mp a this e ws anoer fte pme ministe Ks Nobske a in eno a wo had been a leag eono planner n e ppe sae ofManhk n e 93s,  vie nste of nions e rme Miiste Tj ieki in 944, an n nte of Sugmo rson rom e 945 to 198, aused o ass A w mes b never brough o iaThe onseatves were unqueston aby  the sadde, bu so grea was hir inte ghing ha they seemed aable of owng e oe o o t Ths urmol se he sage or onsodaion o e onseave paties  yea  laer In ovebe 955 aoyaa's Deoats and Yoshias Libeas eged to fo he Lberl Deora Partyw, ke is edeessors was neite  libe o demorati ad ts woeuly msnaed Over the ensung deades he LDP eaine nneed ool of he govenmen,  s earabe sabiliy naraly eae  enral axs of the soaed 955 Syse Te apa  fo longer :anning  beame so dsve a feaue of he postwa  pol eonom was mde ossibe n onsiderae p by tis onnuity of snglepaty doto owever, 955 was a signal year n oher ways as wel, nd  was his ge onon o poti an eonomi eveoents  seee to onse e systeazon an arion of powe and nene in osa aust one eade as i happee, aer Japns srender Tese eae eveens ook ae  bo e aonseave an onsea ve as I as n fa e Soss a e-wg uos wo move s  any 955 ye Genea Con oTe ions w was osy ae  w e ewng ossme soe egt nre tosan woke n he st emonsaon o wa sseeny was stonle as he shunto "spg wage oesve Fo s yea on, e hn beame he bas vie fo organzg enterpse nons n emaning nsrywe base  wage

16

JOHN V. DOWER

icreases on a r eglar - a most ralzed-ass. Th same onh the e wng d rgtw fatos of he Soals Party, whh ad formally s p li t i 1951 o ver heher o sppor he Sa Franso seeen areed o r euni e. Reu caon was azed in Otober ,  u we efore then i te eera eectons o erar 1955, he two fatos oeter wo sg ht ore th onerd of te sats (56 of 453) in the cria House of epresnta ves. Signa y  this  par  iament ar representato gave he sent oed streth to bk siuial eisio, whi r equir ed a totrds oe of appro v n the Det he P meger i No ber was  sderabe pa a esponse to hs specer of a rened ad prposef f  o pposion . A he same tie, i also con situe he pe weg of  busiess wh Japan's r ig h of eter  polii cians Corporae Japan (te z) ot ony played a eisie roe n promo g e 955 os eav erer bu so moblized e business couni a h tm as te major oon source o one for the LDP he ehe for a ssung igh onrol of s pol ita fng also as se up i tose bsy ear y os of 95 n he for of a Eonoc Re ostr uton C ounl (Kezai S aik en Kondna) estashed in Jauay and s u ppore  y al f our maor big-busiess or ganizations : te apa Fedeaton of mployers Assoiaons (Nkere)  Fed eraon o Eonom Org a zaons  Kedanr e n  a pan ottee for onom D ve open Keizai Dykai) ad Jaa Chamber of Comerce Nss Aoh some g bsness fds ere de vae to o ca is ts he vas buk of ontrbuions fnneed hroh te Ecoo eonstrcto Coun 96 percent in 960 wen o he LDP eor ganzed as the K ok ui K ai n 196 hs osor  proie or 9 er cen of LD unin hrouh th 196 and 197s. T cosodaio ad aiaizaio o the r elationshi p tw h z and cos Vae politicans conud wo eg  of h aue "rpod o whh oseaie pwer resed vr the nsuing decades. The rd  eg was he bureauay wh drafted most of h e le slaion nrodced n he iet and ao roded a steay exodus o e forer ocs o e P ro  broadr ocoeconoic perspecv 95 alo a ppeared to be f not a war s he  at east a sbolic poin at wch ies o fre deveopen ecae clare Econocaly h orea Vr had wod down ad a a conequnce h r evou year had b dal orJaan a coneyd in h cahphr as 195 r eceio " (Juo.apns mons o Wasigo  th wag year of Yoshida 's preer s p prvay xprssed dep d g enun esiis abou th ftr propecs o Jaa' "halow conom y.  Corar o he g oo  progocaos  howeer 19 proed o b a rnng on or e owar ecoomy and h opular phr ae of thi e ar ca prd  urabou as w: owar g h  k was one be ar o he owar com y   kiza aro  tsh) -

16. Chitosh Yanaga, B Business n Japne Poitc (New Have: ale Unvsi t P, 968) 3-7; Harur Fuku "Lberal Dmoca Paty" Kdanha Eyl ]aan 435

EACE AND MOCRAY IN TWO YTE

17

anoher. As i turned ot, n 1955 te gross naional proct (GNP) srpassed e  rewar pea fr the rst me markng he smboc end of posdeea recove. Indee te ocil Econom Wit Pape Keizai Haksho) lshed the nex ear erade s accopisen as snan e en o e osar pero (ha "sego e wa nai  . This p coincde oreover h he esaismen of one o e ost oran ojaan's long-range insti plnning organaons he  Japan Proci Cener ion Sesanse Hon. Creaed on he ass of a US.-Japan areeen  iniia nng fro oh goernens as we s apanese siness an nnca circes, e center rew supor from e rans o or s wel as aneen and becae he or oswar sponsor o tecnc ssons sen abroa o s e os up-oae ehods o increasn insa  rocton. Te for wherewa or exporing te procs manactured by ese cinee ecnqes aso ws otne n 9 whenjaan was aed o e eneral reeen on Trs and Trde ATT).  was aso in 9 ta cenrzed pannin ws sigcan advance o creaion of te Economic Panning Aenc in and he issance n Deceer of a FiveYear Pan for conoic ndepenence 1 7 B an reconins e aven of mass consmer cre also daes fro essenia s same moment in te id-90s.  was n 9, for exampe, a MT annonce e naraon o  "ciens car proec; ereoore he  ece ns  concenrae on procn rucs esecial for .S. se in e orean War n buses n axs ncing man for expor o Soheas As W MTs pan as a spngoar e ae o e ciiens cr (kku jsh nidi coence  e apperance of e Dasn Blerd or ears laer The ae o he eecre oseo t na n jdi) is sai o e maeialze n 9 wen osewves reae of owng the ree ivne apiances n n eecic wasg acnes, reerors and eevi sionn aanes spoe o e seen scening sges of oseo eecr cio: 7 eec lits, 6 rio an iron, 5 toaser an eectrc heter 4 xer, an, n eeone (3 wshin achne, 2 reieraor, and  1) eesion n c ceer For weer one a e o e ac oza e his e n oeber 9 n s sepped no or on e popr consciosness in 955  as aso a is ime a oo pisers ean o caer ore expc o ms ses ce en e aent o a ne e o ass cre, anoher opar soan of 9 ws e e o neross nr id  ,  rase spare  sevral e -pbiczd suicids n midyer. s  ar ee   ci 1. For cathphases, f. Takahashi Nobu Showa

o go jin Tko Onsha 1986),

4-4 4-49. e "shallow eomy s sssed  Dowe Empre an Ath 9-63  te ogns o e famous he pape phras see akan Yoso Moaya 'seg e a a ' Bue unf Fe 956 ptd  Bge suj e. "ui su n miru a sh (Tkyo : ngei shuj  2:395; f Ko asuk  Sg  owai i Waana Sngo Nzhn n  sesku   th ve-year pla, e asum Ptwar Pot n Jan 2 7- 9

JOHN \V. DER

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ng n was ri had w bm a "assy " (hy us th Eglsh  ) f mer peple. Tat h sla  sv w  wi f ll recve r th war an  s  riazd ass r ma y hlp xpan  st ower    ns hgmon y . Ts urbiy s o im t aarn, vr   ca a a  that oo tnss  srs of tes rnas r asi ssus  a n  emray . The aa s  ptc claa  wt th 955 Syst   suma z as pt g  s   t rsg h si an  rtcting e U.S-Japan Scur Tre aaist a rressie khin) opos t  t oi js h o os : nng h sn ad s g te Secu Trety19 his suy s coise a cleve, ug it ve smplfs ositis   ss. h al  atfrm of t h LP  a  a rs n   t rs ss th n arty took as t stas  Costitut Ivesiat C ommitte (Km Chsaka) to rr th rd r rs t  sm tm  Hatyam a hs sus rs th pary aso uero o connue g "excesses  he ary ocrac   ossrrder    si t uiw of t onstti  - s as resio o e ect a sysm    s rs impo  rstais  tia ctit y tas, rtio  "m a arc duan an trghni  h poic.  mtrzt  Hat m s more zeaous ha s pressr Yo h e n sg rra ude  eui te a t s rass or oi s r by  as gsy pro-mea Rt aya a hs sporter srd rat rrmame   mor ato ous srt t  t  r od sa's sa from the Amrca embra Jus as he Seu  ws a oubl-ee swr r he A a rs-sausy stg]apa as a o wa a y a nsiu US ts     Jp o so as aocac  t rarmmt g  h r ardt apas aaliss O t srface hs  i accrde h US emas r rapjapase rearame ad he cosa ies were ee deologally ecepve to gg w  a  r atcmus sa At h sam m o  vr  atasts  he Hto ym a Kis  aso rse aera remiara  rduce a sr ao t r Pacc par s quc as ssibl Hre  a cas, thr srats wr rusr or ouar surt   b rs  sp 18

1 Konosuke Oda, Kiu n  n Fuiko Adch Te ub Indust n]ap: A S qAil Fi vlpm (y Kky Cm  xfr Uvy Pr 988) 46 02-5; Takas, 4 9  Sabr Sj w (Tyo: A B 98 24 On tl cf Ud Y Gdai no shupp: K mk ar tuj e oo R upp 9 .  �f  L ' 'Gj- i'  831 8 ng mhi on h drn e

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PEACE AD DEMOCRACY IN TWO SYSEMS

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o sc a poic e eera pbic poe n o accep sow eamamen i te mode esase by Ysda t e cnce ao e sopses o onson renepreao a ts pogam reqire of e govemen's eal expers� A Haama leae hwever, jus as ther onseave leaers eaed ae hm  e ve e of e Swa eod e blic was no recepte t ether rap rearament or ona atak on he cosuion In atakn te cnseatves e ppstn essenaly apprpa e sgan peace an emoracy as is on, b exay wat s ase man was en cntested amog ese tis temseves. A e neecas assoaed t he inuena Pae lems Symposium deveoped ter "pae tesis (hwrn n he ae 1940s an eay 9s t was arged ha mozton fr peae ms roceed rg ree ee: fo te "man nge  eve ough the system so), a nly n s basis  engagemen in a "neainl kai eae issues. n e aaese oe is epass meant mersion n the "uman sen o Wor ar II (an, n aca pracie a poing o witngs focsng on J  p sen n e battee abra an ne the ar rads an am bmbs a hme) The Jaaese sysem f overing mprance was  e n n he ntercng ac vaues ensd n e e onstutn namey peoples ghts emocracy an pacsm Faly rooed in arecati of ese man an syste vles he apaese peae moveent od move n t purse as goa ncive t he creain an nenane  inerntional eace By e e the 5 ystem as ceated hese as say were eprese as narme netr ake y guarantees o spport frm te Unite Nans In adiio nsre y two reae evens n 954e in Incident n wch apanese shemen sere raaon poisonng rm e aot o a U.S yrogen bmb test n te Pac and a pectacla ass roos pe rive gans nuear eing tha wa ntate y Japanese hose wives and clecte an asnsng we io saesy 955 the Jaanese eae movement aso ad come t fous espeay eenly on the gobal aiton  nclear weapns Mantann he nsiuon was  curse te e tat ke deense f  peace an past ieas t deense  emocray, b he laer ase etende beon onsttuonl sses per se hrased softly te pposton als was cmme  proten e lehd etu yg f he wrn ass, wh undeay was n sqeee n e ncete qes fr ra ndusta goh n more nare es, the ert arist ppitn wished to esy mnply apsm an n ab a sost revun n apan. The laer aena pretaly was enrse y y a rion of the annseaive oposiin; an redctaly aan, t cased the Let to splnter in seeste ways at  n appen n e Rht where atonism was ess ielga and 20

20. Tashi Shin ad Naur Kychi, "ego h n ewr k 391 (Jn 78): 0-5 sp -

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JOHN W. DER

more personaly oieed. Thus, wile e 1955 System beg w a Socalst merer a te cpato by some at  tme a eey two-part syse mg evolve  Ja  cty e Lf fed o od toeter or grow As eay s 98 e potca scest O Yoske read  cracerized e ew poltca stctre s a "one nd oealf pary system Two years aer  orton of te Socs Pr erenly ve o o or e ess ocrnre Democrc Socias ry By e ed of e 960s fer e qs-reos Cle Govermen Par (Kmei) aso ad eerged on te scene t as como o spe of e oc syse s cosstng of one srog for e ( yo shiaku)  pocl artes2 eore e oposion congeaed as a peranen ot oever t suc ceeded n moling olr sppot   sees o massve roest ovemens te te erler srle gas e occaoerod reverse corse drted e reaons beee iteaiona d domestc poitcs Te st an mos specacr o these oests edded opposo to resion ad renew of e Sc Trea scedue for 960 o Ksi's ssmpion o e preme s n 9 7. T Ksi Tjs omer ce inister of unios cod assue e gest oce n e cou jst teve yers aer e war edednd becoe slneosl e syb a o e USpa may reato sgpcy exemped ow fr d fast pa d moved wy from he erly deals o demiarizato d democrzation In e end e opposton drew mlos of eonsrors no te srees nd bo os ad on s proes: te Secuty Tre as ree a revised bt Ksi s forced to resg I te process  vrey of coceed cies ere bazed  e eo d  pracce o exraarlme democratc expressio Ts mlous camg gais e codwr trey nd oldwar poticn ovelppe oreover wt e as ret abor sre  odenese so ch ptte ores a e Mie coa mne gas n arcetcl odgard epoyer te Misui Ming omy Te Mie srgge bega  e sp o 99 d u 960 red o  locot d ste a lsted 8 days and evetuay involve ureds of osds of eope A Mie e rac ng of organe lbr confroned a brod ned ront of bi bsness  te goverme wc corecy perceve e srge s  decsve es or e ure o stateled dusa ronaon nd a Mke br los Te defe of e mers  ae 960 smoted e h for he eralded come oubng polc of e ne ed Ho cbe c ssmed poer e s s orce to resg ue Te ney of omesc and ernaioa potcs resurce drmaicy  te te 960s e mssve roess astns copcy  te Vem Wr tersected t  de re of doesc reces Ieed  is sre 21. Miyake et a, " 'Gojg-n ase/ "83- 4, 890, 7 The fur wea paes ere h Comms Scalss Da Sa and Km

PEACE AND DMORAY IN TWO SSTEMS

21

the linkag of pac and dmocracy was rcast in stunnngy nw ways. Undr t innc o h New L h anti-Vetna Wa moveen irodced a ore radcal antimprast crtque to th dscourse on peace and deocracy Esse tally, the lat1960s radcas arged that nder te coldwar aance Japan not ony roe maeay rom he se of other Asans b aso coned o th support of corrupt and authoriarian regmes ousd Jpan Peac and pros  rty for apan in short wre eng prcasd at the cost o war and h rpression of democracy sew. Vietnam and Kora wer te gra exaples of s rressi proern fo th rotsors of h mi an ate 960s esp cly atr Jaan normaizd raions wih the thotaran Sout Koran ornmn n 65 nr stron US. proddingthrby conruing meas aby o t ali of h Sol rgme o sn oops to Vnam in sort of S orces ther The rdcsm o ths crie lay in s ap to n of doc racy as wel as peace n truly ntrnatona and nonparochal ers we sitating the auntd "ncoedoing polcies of he 960s n the specc conext o he bricaton o apanse ouros captis and .S. mperias In h Nw Le critie ac and deocracy as the Old Le and ras an ruin gos al imaned  was sfcentrd, sefsein ntesseiay bogos A h sa tie h ani-nam War movnt inescd w hiy chagd domestc protests aans he soca an nironmenal coss of rowt e graspng hand of he stat and  auocrac goernanc of the unvesites The attr as the crics fred  wer turning ino me sc oranzaons or e ureaucracy and g usinss Anipoltion oments cnterng on  rcosond cony o Mnamata and ohr agc examls o nv ronental dstcon eae n te erod etwen 967 and the eary 0s With tm cam a renew pprecaton o grassroots democracy xpd n an ipressi variety of "ctens' movnts (shimn  resdents moe ns j ) ad icms moments ga al eacies each in s own way o t 959-60 stet demonstraions and comiy protss against the Scur Trat an Kish an in suport o th e workers Te Sanriza strle oosing orce sale o arand to bil he new N ata nternationa airort was niiaed y the farrs msves in 968. Ad he suden strugs which gan wt a vemonh strke at asda nrsity n 96-66 raced a crscendo in 96-69. At the pa o the student dmonstra tos or than 40  rcent o th natons 377 nvess wre aecte by stries, ad most o these capuses wre under occuaon thouh any f te grvances ocd y stdent protesters we drctd at unrs aars te sdent radicalsli any othr ctens in the late 960s n apan and  Erope an Amerca as welimesd thesels n t road gat o omestc an ineratoa isss nd a thr ronc bst they ceery catred  nteock of ntrna and ernal dvopments. One of  sloans o sudnt radcals at the nrs of Tokyo or xamp was Dsman  Tokyo perasc nversnay meshng the noon o a rvval of prwar

2

JOHN \V DO\VER

autora (wen  elie nversi of Tokyo ad een am Tok Im peia Uners) wt te age tt igr edaton i poswar jaa once agan was seg  pia  o s es of a expansiont state.22 It i esmte hat betee 1967 nd 90 lone me h eee mlon Jaese ook  the sreets  proes th r in Viea d ea th erso o Oaa o ja . Uote o w invov in te versty st es ad itizens' eets as e ravaes o th gowth-onte st te   sewere " pe pe ' s power" etere te a pse lexon at tis tie  a eate an  ssia aterne o bougo  piaeta potcs; and as eewhere e  n rci f peopes we rged ro e u roes  wanto ioece. B e ds te naiowde  peo ple s moveen w oid u i e as lgaces e o d xpernce o grasso oliatn a d b okd n mre pcsc auses hr. OFLT  OMO   RY 0

A the mos cosi le the or contoerses ocerg itar a nteratoa lcy i osar Japa noe le ctcsm o h oe me acqiec  e S Facsc System ost al  te otens isse   ears we enode i e pee setee saate eace, h Sy T ad U.S it ases n ap mmte  ane reaamen eace d semioliton of awa entaeet  S cea poy  a coso  US sort o iht -win  cen rees i te ied oes  Aa Chi Koea ad Vna Inel, ic of sc oen  pic e ws isearale fom critcs o e ite aes Tre o he earl visin of e Peae Probe  S ympoiu , the ooiton itio gnaly es poued   ssey oled nraonl o fo Jaan tugh ro-Svit nd  pro-ese aeaes als were onsios o e Le At crica oets n the  pos eaes opn os icaed ht a  nmb ojpan  s ppord e o ptio o r y  Fi eret o esonents   se n 5 eosed ts opti,  exame a a e he  e ec ee a ee lter as m as 6 pcnt ofjaas qeo n e  pol ae eraiy 23  is si, hoeer,  see e oseaie n  posiion psions o   as mpy nh eca  Bo sde wr cossd wth sisms.  See Packard, ost in To,  th

Sea   ai-Vim W o i Japa. T sss os a d  Mag A K Envrml  n z P  Jpan (Berkey a Ls Agels: U  Cfa Pes, 198 )  O h us ub s  D.  I "Usi Uphavl  6- 1'   cped f]n 8: I as  w  n s y bs    N L  �fuo Ich 3 S   k, P a Cg 7   5 NHK su. Welfd E  p 17 i a 6 h A l sw   c spp r netrim; a Aa un p  199 showe 5 pece spo 1960

 u l   Havn

Fi A th

PEACE AND DEMORAY IN TWO SYSTMS

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 At the same tie, on many crical issus h tw sides sared if not com gd, t ast cprabl skeptcism ccing th som o U.S pocis By te sual fcionaism ic to t L,  iy o th opposition was nderct by al t fmiliar pstwar traas of th intrntio commist ad scialist vmets-th repressi· in Hng ad critiq of Stalin i 1956, te SiSet split tat flld so ar the Clral Revlution i hia ad So inasio of zchslvakia te cmmist cncrs th "Trotsks detis tht accmpnied t ris  te Nw Lft i th 1960s, and  acrimnis ebates er capiist and imperialist nclar wps s pposed  socialist ad defsive es (whic cam o a a ijpa in 963 h he  spit  ethr  sppr h Par Nclear stBan Trty) T cnservts, to althg relatiely chesiv i their nicmmnism ete ss biurcatd int sc Asiaist ad proAmcn cmps his spi as pny siged in Decemer 94 and Jauar 1965 wen LDP mmbrs coaesc ro iter t stachy prAerc Aian Pbems Sdy s ciati Aia Modi Knkkai or he m Asiarientd AroAian rbems Sy Associati Aiarik Mndai Kekai2 Evn th s bsis spprtrs f th prerica positin w eersc as S isaku w succded Ikeda in 94 and ed t premier ship nil 97-nvr planted ot fet ntirely i the Amrican cap Fro t eaiest moets of t Sn Fracisc System a falt lin  disagrment ad mistrst ran tee Toy and Wasinto i th cseatie egem disard interly n a vriety  crtical plicy isss beyod te apprprt spe ad scope  remilitarzan-incdi  policy t adp tard hia Krea, Vitnam, ad a ucearize Okiafrm the tim of th Ysida cabits thr was gra conseraiv agreemn tat th S vision f a bipoar wrld s ixbe nd bsssily militarisc As a csc i tctica if t ndamntal ways thr e occrr a cnergnc i t psitis f te pitic Le an ht vsvis te nited Stats On f t or asi ery xapls o this cerece occrred in t ver midst of he creati f th Sn Francisc Systm whn shidate ret Redbait ad b ir  th fscry ecurad t Sociaiss t riz atrearmaet demstratis ie o Fsr lles as in Toky F Ysida nd his cseati sccessors s , e spcr  ppular ppsii t S plicies was a cti, a id desire, bargaiig chip  As a nera reapnse  eer pica rssn sr rer au  and r ni seriy fr hir ct hy ir n wh 24. Weled points ou cseave dsagreemens o inernaional polcy hrughou Empire n is; see es 10-4 O era LDP debaes n Cia p cy  see Haruir Fukui, Pa  Pow: Te Jap Libl Dmcat ad y-ak g (Berkele and Lo Angeles: Uiversy f Califrnia P re s s 1970), 76. 5. Takehi Igarash, "Peace-mang ad Par Poltcs: The Formato f  he omec rein Pl Sysem i Pstwar Japan" Jul ]apee Sd ll, n  985) 35 ,



JOHN \V. DOWER

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this gol ws bettr ted wthin he Secuty Teay or outsde t; nd hus i gr onfotations suh s h 195-60 crss oe wet to rese the mutl seuiy pa, here ws eed o ommo go whee poliy ws oed. Bot sides fe humilto at the unqal tre of he oiial et \Vhes he cose nstre focused o te reovl o eqt howeer e opposo gu th  ore utble trt spl m tha Jap ws omittig itsel to  lager ml ole Nlss the tioli seims shed b ptpts o bot sdes of ths suggle hep explan e steatio o he opposton oer e esg ears Nonlsm ws a bdg on wch less oul sooer o lte co o jo e LDP or e te xtree ghig adoas o a depede paese mlita capbi he wlown i Shimizu Ikutar ho oed om being one of the mos promnet elecuals  e eace Pobles Smposum  190 potess o eg  doce of  ulearrmed oomos pse stte  dede ler ws bu th most cospcous example of ts exodus o fomer dics to te conseat cap E ee dissets of e 950s and 10s dd o cross oer to e other sde moreoer n ler ers m ud tei focs o opposto further wrd to coetrte o esseall omes coers 2 O  wd rage of other coesed ssues e pral conegece  ieot o e osete laders and ther ctcs s more srightorw Depte hr ommus or exmple man oseaes sred lose ltos wth he two comus ants or a least wih Ca ml the lrge umbr o  roops and mt ses t emne  p e th ocupo d aer e Korea armis in 53 aggred lmost eeoe On a relted isse though the cosevaes and ther crtcs were  ndametal dsgree me oer whther Japa sould rearm oseae politas bucts and busissmen s a whole (�th he xption o e goous des ust lobbes) gae relatel lo�' pror to dese spdig to he 1980s As  preg of th ot gera ccous budget ltry spendig peed  54 As  peentage of the gross aonl pou dse spedg as co monly luled was lss t 1 pent or  ull dede beore Pme ster  eo grad pocmed  "Oe erct o GN gdelie  1976 uc pois o p oergece   ooo of te cosetes d opposto e easl extendd here ws o undaetl dsgeeme on e esbil of he vrsin o Ow o u pee ot or xe a eeul le dsgreee o a e sc ssue of conteto: at Oaw should e rerd cler ee ethe h goemn o oppso eco US er weapns onjapnee sol ad pat rom  e coe. does o  llsstle cr frce de apey there s ger g 26. for n extndd criiqu of h  nc eptu a shotcmnig  e psiin as rcd i th 1960 sr ugl  Takbk T, "'Rj-nn n n en   N ajit Tetu. �1d A, d KJ d Sengo ]ho  shi hi (y: Iw Shtn 8) 7 0- 91 2. le, Empr n l, 34-68 1; o p' ltay indutris e 3 ·4 ,

PEACE AD EMORACY IN TWO SSTES

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ment that] pa tsef should reman ucear free. I Deceer 196 7, i esponse o a qsin  e De, Prim Ministr Sato lad this postion as the famo "Tee Nonucear Prncpes," whch ed that Jap wold ot maufacure cler wepos possess hem, o permit them to enter the couty  lso, al thog U.S  pocy a te tme of he eae setteet secey ha anticpte  Jn emergng as a major super of war-reted matra o he antcoms camp weapons producton was not emphasze n sbseqe yer Elie i 196 7, when pubc crtcsm arose coceg mta-reated expors to Vetnam, he Sat govere responde wt te ee Pciples of Arms Expo ts " prohng weaons saes o comuis couties, cotres nde ams embarg y the Unted aons, nd ountres  or on the ege of red conct. Under e Mk c abne t (97476) he ban was eended to n c de al contres and cover ats use  ilry eupmen28 lthou gh L ef t nd Rght eme  unameta isagreement on he Secu ry Treay n geeal, t the e of te Swa pero uccessie consete govee took cre o reterate that jpaese sedeense orces ere cosi onlly pr ohbte  from engaging  oerses missios o r enteg io coective secr y  pcts. The latter  position ws explcty meant to scotc y prosect of a AOpe ohest Asia rey orgnzaion couplngapan w e Rep c of Korea  Rebi of Chna  adiio, altogh LDP  polic y consistetly clle or constitutoal evson in actuliy the conseave tst  ths irec on ende to witer way benning  the m  1960s, aer the Constitton nvetigatio Committee that ha been creae aer te LDP was formed failed to come up wth cer ecommenations to reise he to chater. houg a majory of commttee members i or resion, t a become cer y 964 we te grop isued its reot, tht the pulc oposed ths . 29 These pons o acicl convergence hel clrfy te owposre exera  polices folowe  b y coservtve cbinets eve sine Yosd's te, s we s the sources of f riction tha ways chcerized reatos  between te Japaese n  Americ manages of the Sn Francsco System. At he sme time, tey also hel e  plin how, oer e cose of e 1950s and 1960s, he rung grops scceede n takng awy uch of the re of the oppositon  By e egnnng of the 1970s many o the mos conteos issues of exer polcy hd been deused y  cobaon of polcy cnge n te eectie se o symboc rheoic ta 8 Kenneth B. Pyle, 'japan te World ad te Twe-Firs Ceur" n Takahi Inoguch an Dane . Okmoto es 1e Politca Ecnmy ]apan)  vo. 2,  Changng Interana Cnx (Stanford: Stanfor Unver Pres 1988) 4-6 9 The cottee wa esabed n 96 e rom 9 7 to 1964 an soed i 6 s  report mae cear ta a maor favored revson bt o recoendaton wa made an te cabet  o foard te reort o the Det The nad o te moeet to rese te otuto s comoy dated fr ths te Ts tuatio changed dratc aer the Guf War of 991 en U. an Europea crtcm oJapan actated he conseaves n spatch an overseas Peace  keen Force" une nte Nato aupice a heeb voated te ovee to reise h constuon

JOHN \V. DO\ER

26

assciaed e onetves t rerai  ues of remiiaizaion Come mey accommodaios ook pce o the dec fo The msve pe  e lae 6s agais e envromenta detrucio cased by goaallcos economc plice, r example, were  ccessf tha he 1 Die became wn as he Poion iet" beause of te arge nmer of eron meal pecin las  assed More geeay ee develope coicded japan's emegence  a mare bogei sciey creasigy preoccuie  w conumes wtn an greaoer saus abroad The key omes at whc hero amm eace isue began  b deached fr he ageda of pbic debae are fay easy o ideiy. The aggaaig ree o US bases and roo injapa s dramaicay diinised beee 1955 d 190 wen te socle New Lok or Radod oce) o US stregc anes dicaed a reiance o uclea eaps made many overseas baes obsolee. Beeen 15 d 19 S fores ijapan r reuced from 20 o 770 men a by 160 e number ad dp t 48000. iuaeosly, te Unied ates ereaed from i exraodiny ro  oals to create a uge Jaaese a imediaey ad began tead  die mia aid o cratin  less cnspcos but moe tecnoogicaly pisca aanese nava ad ar orces 30 Were te mu ecrty rea self a coceed te fae  he as proess of 1996 o ck tea reew esenay arke e ed  s as a meaningul sue Aemps  remblize proests against te nex on  tety renea n 0 were ineecie e 10 e Secur reay reained a conveent aget o reoc b a practca fai accm Te ainuclear moemet inaan began n n 45 bu in 5 ti th lae ar of t cctio reorage and ublic reembrance  Hirshma ad agsa ere oridde I was he irradaon ofjapaese seen by an era uler t in he ni den f  , an te eth  oe f th ce, t recipiated the oswar moemen gins ucer eaponnd o he Le agans nea energ Ee hie retig comfrtaby de he U ucear umbrela, th onseae gernmet did o hestate o associate te  tn o Tu th  n Agat At a og ombs (Geky foued n 5 nty was suppoed b   LP as we a a ad rgazaion n e et an e ue mmnt ar cotr on  t 960s  19 th L P agned ite  a w nnucear edeo, e nato Coui o eace d Again cear Veaos (Kak Kagi nd  Deeb 97  ister t Tree onucear rci s" were eecvey itrdue to gge ta e ernment sred e d o the opr atincear move. og wth rice 9 te poibiion on r exor rt aoced n 97 ad te Oe Percet  GNP ceiing  deene epedtur cl  97, e The oear Pcie e 30.

fd Empire n cls

9- 1

PEAC AND DMORAY   SSMS

27

came populy idenied as one o te o "symboic constraints on apanese emiaain e governments liy  paa co-ot te atinucear ovement ws frher enanced by n insr strain in the moveent itsel. T mny Japnese Hsha an Naasak ecae eblematic  Wor War I and tus symboic of te iqe suerig of the Jpanese i at coct e  becae that is  way o reebeg Japnese sen whie gettng te serin that e apanese case oters Such cm coscousnessaea note in the earliest statements of the peac movementmesed well \it te emeging neonatonals of e ln rops . Onaw an C, two o the ost btnt smos o subodiate inepen dene ee ehed  te peace age between 969 d 1972. By te end  the 1960s te Unie Stes had become pesae a eversion of the Rks to jpan ws oh easle and wse he deveopment of intercontien tl isses redced knwas impoance as a foard ncear ase. Pressure for reversio itin Onawa n t l apan ws becoming irresistie. Peraps most terestg, the screpac in livng sandars etween Jpa proper an semicoonied knawa was ecoming so conspcous as t pose a potenl serios erassme  he nited State. 31 Ts in he Satio communq ofoveer 969 te Unted Sttes deused this sse by greein  etu kiawa to l janese sovereigny by 1972 Whee Cn ws concerned, Wsingons unexpected appchement th the Pepe' s Rep n 19 embarrassed te apanese ovemet, ih ha ong aere relctty to te connment oic neteess it pae e a or n's  estorton  eans wth eiing theeby removing ne of e os gln eatres o te San Frncisco Sste. Cina obsessed y its ensions wth te et Union, accopnied its embrce of e nited States and japan  by renouncing its preious expessins o conce ab Japanese erment and the U.Sap miitay aliance This Chinese te-ace ws aso a seere ow t th apanese peace movemet hh hiterto hd rued tatpaese eiitarization uder e Secury Teaty was  destaiiin factor in As. Moreover the agony and mdess  hinas Cltura Revolutio wich becae aparent t te ord a fw ars er, b indrectin fher discedte the Lef By 1972 te Le tus  ost hold of many  ts mst evoctive pece ssues:  bses in Jan te Secuity Trea, ncear weapons, arms podcto Oknawa nd hina A yer ter, wth the rmstce in Vie am the last get case a had proe a mocum o common urose among he opposon w removed he verage citizen ured ward to as in pans ew intern tional inence as n econoic power and becoe conse by ateral pr suits, eemple n such ass-eia sogas as "y Homeis an " Cars Concerned czens redrected ther ciens moveens or res dents' movements toward prtcular gevances The olen wing o te e w 31. Kon i Wate &o Non n tai su, 19

28

OHN \V. DOWER

Lft tned its fu as wel as its tactics o ared confotato (te so-caed gba, fom garu, the] apanese renderng o the Germa ord Gwal, force) inard to egage n theoretica disputes and sefdestuctive factioal vioence (uchieba). Beheiren the broad-based and chaisatic Peopes Ogaization or Peace in Vietam ich ad eectiel recocied ay of the Maxst and onaxst otest gos betee 196 and 197, dsanded ijanay 174. No copara ble coaition·eectc popst both haitaia ad adica novioet enuiney iternatioalstic and ndivdalistic in olooever took ts pace TH UNCAIN SUPT

I etrospect t s apparent that the early 1970s ared a aor trning pont in Japas poston thi the iernationa otical conmy.  s ro tis ont that we can date Japa's emergece as a tr obal powrad the corola ad rersible dcin o US. heemo At he time, howeer ths trasora tion o power as by no eans cear On te contra the 970s wee a taumatc dcade or Japans etes maed b a sucesson o crises Ten ears o savish aderece to te S cotaiment oc were rdey rewaded by the Nio shock ojl  wen te meican president nepecel nnnced US raprceent it China Oe th late the  s as echaged ith the dolar shock, as wo decades o owpostre apanese neoecatlis seemed thro to eopary b he niatera  decson to reeaate the edlar exchage ate. Aread in te at 960s the nited Staes ad ben to witdaw the economic mrela that shelteed Japaese protectioism a oe and economic expaso abroad he 7 dola shoc acceleated this rocess and in 97 3 the en was aowed to oat. his oat exchae rate coicided ith he o hoc" of tober 197 hch oght a ed to pa's rearable perod o high growth rates and dopped the cot into ts most proged postw recesson Prdction leves dd not retrn t the 1973 eve ut 978ust in tie to be confonted with the second oil shoc" oaa 979. Te scae f the 97 ock was egstered in a 2 blon sht n apa baace o amets ro a $16 bio ulus n 1978 to an $86 bllo dcit  979 Wherea the ana roth rate ad bee a extraoinay 1 t 11 ecet beteen 955 and 97  the 197s t dopped o soewhat less ha  ercen. Cocret th al these tramas he counts quiet peetratio o S ad Eroean marets sdde craced no nvsy lie a stig  ecracers tat stetched trog the 7s and 1980s as we: over exties  9697; stee sn sets n ns egning arod 9; atoo bies ro the tu o the decade secoductor chips and omputers from e id-98s cse of S propers ro t ate 90s. Desite the stroner oa e wic ade apaese anacures or 32

3 For a generl ctempy view

of he J pnese my n

the

1970s, ee Danie

Okmot, ed. Japn's Econ: Cpi wth e n  Intnl Evrmt (Buler: Wse\v Pess 1982) especy the tbuto  G Sxohu 3-4 d Hugh Pk (49-6)

PEACE AND EMORAY I TWO SYSEMS

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exensive aboa), japans eetato of foegn makes coinued inexoaby A espite the end of abnaly ig anal gowt aes, the owmassie econy sil ew enously eac year de the oe nma ates. Sti it was y in 1979 tat te exaggeated hrase 'aa as Nbe Oe" aeare on te scee, scig aaese and no:aanese ake, abet n e dieen waysJaan was n ber ne It was til a distat secon to e Unte States n ea econoic caacity bt ee cnenona ne ndcate te ga was cosin ady By te mi-980s te te Saes ad bece te wos arest eb cot ajaan te ws geat cetr t wa w a anca, t ust ecnic suewe In te csing eas of te Swa e the son mlita aicas fjaans aance cvan tecnoges mae t cear tat een wtt a lta- inusa ce Jaans technogcal ac cisens had ae t a t enay sgicant mitar actr wwde 3 Nete sctuay  syccy were teJaaese  ayone ese  e w uy eare o coe t sc ai undaena and ast enrey unre c te canes n tis le cic er iteatia sses was drasicay transed heeas conroesy h te 1960s ad focse rimaly on ita and  eace issues ecc cettin nw inated the scene ad nati-state tesins becae far re enssig than estic cnfroans eier in the 90s n i the 80s, weer di te rise jaan ro n  ecnc streg f Euoe dsegao o Se wer, ad eatve ecne f a stumbin bt sl werl Aeica est in a cear ee new oba e Wa ested, n the cnta was cser t ob seran  thi situati te st itense cnicts  ace wtin e cke o Sa Fracisco Sste The ar sues ccrre tat i, an he caitast wers a esecay beweenJaan an te Unite States WinJaan se ocreae cnct becae inceasiny etace fr the ublic aena a re cceated amng te cseative eies, wee exani inteaiona iolveme was accmanie by a iferatn  cetn eess i bt te cate a brecrc sectrs 34 As tea coc se t a eane an tese  ested nerests it becae ess sibe Te  tecnca nae f nteratina trae an nancean nee , f any new ta eve lpents as we als ibte weann bc ebate Seciaists a nsides nw cne te tems  bic discse sod ndvdus and grous nnd drn tis e t t to e aterate ss ben unbred caitalit mpetitin and (a ew ter fr the 980s tecnainas e emasze suc ba isses as te ot 33. John  ower, ':apans e Milita Ede" Nan, 3uly 18; teven K. Voe, Japanes Hh Tecnolg Pit ad wer eseac ape o 2 Bekee dable o he atonal Em Mr  fo  ss of his ersio mog e 34. See Pe Uni of :n nc, u ees s s eneral see as arkn e e f he 1955 Sse hs se eme erees ma o e arles n Ple rae C. H

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JOHN

W. DO\ER

soth prol of rng ipa etwen c ad havent ans the scal exptat and dstrios cause b munatal crprats in lss deelpe cories te eple f global resces  ecnmc poweruses sc as Japan an th thr aanced dstrazed cntries an the cntnig ntenscat o te clear ars ace Were Japan sel was cced he  pnted ot hat emlitarzaton as accleatng amdst all he bb at ecnomcs, wc  entrel tre Dring the ast decade o wa the e mented syl rstans n apanse tazan al were vate  e a o anter Prie Minser Sat's faus Tree Nnuclear Pincples fr eap wer ladg fro te sat Cntray to wat thy prclaie nclar eapns aparety wr broght in and ot f Jaan  th .S mlta as a matter  oti Furthere te LP copld the ree Nnnulea Pcples it a lesspblcze "Fr Nuclea Prinples hc cld de  pedence o e U ulea "rella ad promoon of uclear energ r eacefl use Te ctcs aso oie ot at th eaded Oe Percnt of GP estra o defens spndng was ecepe In he st place,  ATOsyle calcation ich nclude lia reiremen enets and te le apanese ltar spdg gea eede one percet of NP. or impoant  a,   percet  a uge ad cnstan expag ecom as iself hge an costanty expa ng hs o ost o te stwar ped te rate of anal increase n apans  lta expedres was e hgst i he wrl35 Mever  1987 Pie ister Naasoe Yashio a asute plae t sols eiberatel breached t one pere gulie Fur eas eair at the rg f  U goeret Nakase also ha teated aoher of te ante syml staits o Japese remltarizao  jetsong e ebaro o expo of eapns a itarelated maufactu The Unted ates esied to ga access to advancdapaese tecol n deelopg its "Star ars (Statc Deese ntatve) ras ad akasons cpace opened th o o a asltel uceri fute or apase actii n aanced eaps sstems rtcs o uc evelopets by te eant of e ppst, owee ade scarcel a pple i popla cnscousess 6 35. In 6 th yar  "1 prn of GNP cilng wa rs sngld u a a rma n, Japan's milay pndn akd svn in  d-ar  tw suprpw Chna, Ws an Fran n ra Brain s ma bu a  an p a  S Kra far ra an   an  the \Vsa Pc p nd a ar an a  nu pwer u  na Sw e n,  n Szrl and . pan ' 1976  bug  ams 14 s  o 54 For an vr  sa p  nra was 2  r ran rgl 5 s and or Wes an  lt e  7 ie. \Veed Ep in Ep 66 nus usu a   xnu  Pushn ouss u as ana wi nus  mny  mn s pcas nnu  d  u   r mnn o he earler perod an cl ar u   Yskazu ran  o pac rrc n  ra n  a Shinpan: Gunk no sek (To: Iwanam Shnh, 88) For cica ua!   cour o

PEACE AND DEMORACY IN TWO SYSTEMS

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The declie of itese public eae o suh isses reete an erosion of emorai das and pracies at a time we Japa was, n ac, eig ced o iernatioay to oer a ew vsio of ationa oas ad resposibies commensurae h is new poer. Idee here aost apeared o e a correa o beteen the rise to oa eminee ad decine of poia ideaism Japan ha beome a rosperos supersae by moizig ts popaio ad resores resoely ehid prodv ad eonomic aions, ad is acopish ets drew nerstanae adraon an envy from hougho he world Te le ewee obization and eimetaion is a ne one, however an h apaese sae o h 1970s ad 8s also appeared to may obseers, especiy abroad, to ave sepped over h line I part, this peepion reeted he para suess of he conservave hegemoy n eeuain he opao-perod "reverse ourse and sey undermni wha ere alled he "exesses o ealy postwar poiial idealism Once "demoatzatio as repaced y eo nomic deveopme as the overdn ojeve, most apanese had ie choi u to eoe soialzed to corporae and aioal oals As ime passed, sch eeao as sweeeed by the teria rewards of pospety ad harened y atioasc appeas e emergee of a mass cosumer socety reated a ehos o "middlcass omogene d orie imeasraby to epoit zatio (or preoupao w persoa ad oa maers) Goba emiee, i  rure no ony eimate feeis o aioa prde bu aso more oi ous audes of exeptionals a raca and cura suero  theo oh apan's eerece as a gobal poer a e rai ow  cosumersm ad decass deooes should have stimlate a ncreasnly cosmopolia oulook a all levels of society In may respets, a roder spraa iona aude id maerialize: "eratoaizaion (kokusai) was perhaps e mos overorked athord o he 9s he opposie oever occred as  el Isar, atioaisic ios beame stroge side y side ih he ie siaio of nernaoa onas. Ts apparet paao s o clt o aon for for e prde hat apaese fe at ei ale "umer oe was opoune y fer a aner at he neave response of other cotes o Japas sudey awesome compeve powe A foren riism o Japans ecoom expaso mouedeme  asatos ha e paese prac tie "aversaria trae or eoercanilsm or "earyneibor ap tre of markes, for eampe or at domest "oabarers ad "srutra emes mae e Jaaese make ufa ul f ses o ee raea efensveess orerg on sege meaity eveoped  may rcles. Misrust ad eso a ad bee latent i e ol Sa Faso Ssem democracy in postwar Japan, e Roku Hiaka Te Pce '4uen: Dlmma !Conpora Jaan (Syny: Pnn B Aala, 1985; Gavan McCac an Yhi gmot d. Doray in Contpoa apa Sn Hae an rmngr 1986) an akes Ia an   Ka,  orac in apan Pttbugh Unvrt of trg re 18).

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JOHN \V. DWER

eupted penly. Stans of "vcm conscsnss tht had alwas xse across h pical spc wr raw to th sufac W agr bcae ash a  a ss, a ow  th ps-cod-wa ctex o ecoc ar ag he captast pws espcal th Un tats a J 37 I ths ccmsacs pd-nspg and fa-spg a ce ay Jaa ese ega t u war a ag that th dcs  the Japa a th aons races ad culues wre grat h h smlas a hat Japan's cempa accplshens eved arl fr these unq chaactscsor so hat s tha f moe genral acts sch as ua tcate scl oppes Qk wa m), goal ccumstances (sc as he dcl of he td ttes  so fundametal hag le to o th Japa) exa patonag oal te  cmc n may uel tasaa akt mcas anl rer hn ctra lc tctus ad cons ad ded h csolda  powe  he hans f a comp ve a dvs ut stl emakabl clos-k hgny f sness ades ucas ad cosave pcas Evuall s sla ad usual acssstc ocpa h s-cald aa vas  o a l o  ow n th ass meamay  th away gen f gs  scssns dvtd o t uuss o g pas Njr-b r t outs sch tovs was oe s a cact dg  the coav ead sp   1968 f xape th LP sh ts hd c  hs gd w t atemte to  cetna cats of he M Rsatn nto a ccao r puag th os bra da o  arl swa pd  hav ot th ht f o  Jaas ppl th a at  a a sten a  rec hs oss t was desal to em h gat vus f t M ra an g ao t evato of acal sp ad oa (minzoku sehn to dgi no ).39 Te csavs neve st sght f ts goa a th csg cades o h  postwa ea saw  avace ta twa t Thy pov thvs as  solc poltcs n st o t crovsa oaoast vopms of lt wa ected hs doogcl xat o catng a ratoastc aca p tha wod cotealnc h uptdl couptn ucs of xces sv tonzao  os was t gvt ass an as gl acv rol  oatcn t aotc ad c-sr ar of 3 . Knnth l has sumazed t rang of opinion onjapan' wor rol n two sfu ars: e ' ap ,  t ol" and In Put of  Gan Dn Nakan Bet e a an rsnt,  n Pl, Trad Cr, 5- 38. Fo xtndd ccal aayse   th Niho1'n ene ee os E. Mour an Yoh Sgoo Ims f]pe : A Stu   Stutu qScl R (Lono I 196) an tr N al  My o]pe Unique ( or t Marin 16 3 The  tt appears n Ai s, 17 Jan. 16  T LD alo ded te nerent o  japa ppl" (Vi kumn  zn n sat) as nn huma lv an pb  ove of h orlad and aa sp fese nscouns et (n  ki u t z eishn be shi o).