Ancient Egyptian Technology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The characteristics of ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented and used many basic machines, such as the ramp and the lever , to aid construction processes. They used rope trusses to stiffen the beam of ships, unknown again until modern engineering. Egyptian paper Egyptian paper , made from papyrus from papyrus,, and pottery and pottery was mass produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean Mediterranean basin. basin. The wheel wheel,, however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced the chariot in the sixteenth century B.C. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology including ships and lighthouses lighthouses.. Ancient Egyptian depiction of women engaged in mechanical rope mechanical rope making, the first graphic evidence of the craft, shown in the two lower rows of the illustration
Technology in Dynastic Egypt Significant advances in anc ancien ientt Egyp Egyptt during the dyna dynastic stic per period iod include astronomy astronomy,, mathematics mathematics,, and medicine medicine.. Their geometry Their geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile the Nile river . The 3,4,5 rig right ht tri triang angle le and other rules of thumb served to represent rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt also was a center of alchemy research for much of the western world. Paper and writing
A section of the Egyptian Egyptian Boo B ook k of th thee De Dead ad , which is written and drawn on papyrus
The word paper word paper comes comes from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writ writing ing mate materia riall called papyrus called papyrus,, which was formed from beaten strips of papyr pa pyrus us pla plants nts. Papyrus was produced as early as 3000 B.C. in Egypt, and sold to ancient Greece and Rome Rome.. The establishment of the Lib Libra rary ry of Ale Alexa xand ndri riaa limited the supply of papyrus for others. As a result, according to the Roman historian Pliny (Natural History records, xiii.21), parchment xiii.21), parchment was invented under the patronage of Eu of Eume mene ness II of Pe Perg rgam amon on to build his rival library at Pergamon Pergamon.. Egyptian hierog hieroglyphs lyphs,, a phonetic a phonetic writ writing ing sys system tem,, served as the basis for the Phoen Phoenician ician alphab alphabet et from which later alphabets were derived. With this ability, writing and record keeping, the Egyptians [1][2][ 2][3] 3] developed one of the—if not the —first dec decimal imal sys system tem..[1][ The city of Alexandria of Alexandria retained preeminence for its records and scrolls with its library library.. That ancient [4] library was damaged by fire when it fell under Roman rule, and was destroyed completely by 642 CE. [5][6] [5] [6] With it, a huge amount of antique literature, history, and knowledge was lost. Structures and construction
Buildings
Many temples from Ancient Egypt are still standing today. Some are in ruin from wear and tear, while others have been lost entirely. The Egyptian structures are among the largest constructions ever conceived and built by humans. They constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. Temples and tombs built by a pharaoh famous for her projects, Hatshepsut Hatshepsut,, were massive and included many colossal statues of her. Pharaoh Tutankamun's rock-cut tomb in the Valley of the Kings was full of jewellery and antiques. In some late myths, Ptah was identified as the primordial mound and had called creation into being, he was considered the deity of craftsmen, and in particular, of stone-based crafts. Imhotep Imhotep,, who was included in the Egy Egyptia ptiann pan panthe theon on,, was the first documented [7] engineer.
The The Light Li ghthous housee of Ale Alexand xandria riaon on the island of Pharos.
In Hell Hellenis enistic tic Egyp Egyptt, lighthouse technology was developed, the most famous example being the Lighthou Ligh thouse se of Ale Alexan xandri driaa. Alexandria was a port for the ships that traded the goods manufactured in Egypt or imported into Egypt. A giant cantilevered hoist lifted cargo to and from ships. The lighthouse itself was designed by So Sost stra ratus tus of Cn Cnid idus us and built in the third century B.C. (between 285 and 247 B.C.) on the island of Pharos in Ale Alexan xandri driaa, Egypt Egyp t, which has since become a peninsula. This lighthouse was renowned in its time and knowledge of it was never lost. A 2006 drawing of it created from the study of many references, is shown at the right. Monuments
The Nile valley has been the site of one of the most influential civilizations in the world with its architectural monuments, which include the the pyr p yram amids ids of Giz Gizaaand the Gre Great at Sph Sphinx inx —among the largest and most famous buildings in the world. Giza Plateau, Cairo. Khafre's pyramid in the background
The most famous pyramids famous pyramids are the Egyp Egyptian tian pyr pyramid amidss —huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the largest constructions by humans. Pyramids functioned as tombs for pharaohs.. In Ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as mer , pharaohs literally "place of ascendance." The Gr Grea eatt Py Pyra rami midd of Gi Giza za is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. The base is over thirteen acres in area. It is one of the Se Seve venn Wo Wond nder erss of th thee World,, and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. World The Anc Ancient ient Egyp Egyptian tianss capped the peaks of their pyramids with gold and covered their faces with polished white limestone, although many of the stones used for the finishing purpose have fallen or been removed for use on other structures over the millennia.
The Re Redd Py Pyra ramid mid of Egypt of Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyp of Egyptian tian pyr pyramid amidss. Me Menk nkau aure re 's Pyr Pyrami amidd, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone of limestone and granite blocks. The Gr Grea eatt Py Pyra rami midd of Gi Giza za (c. 2580 BC) BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite." The mostly ruined Blac Blackk Pyr Pyramid amid dating from the reign of Ame of Amenem nemhat hat III once had a polished granite pyramidion granite pyramidion or capstone, now on display in the main hall of the Egyp Egyptian tian Mus Museum eum in Cairo (see Dahshur ). ). Other uses in Anc Ancien ientt Egyp Egyptt,[8] include columns,, door lintels columns door lintels,, sills sills,, jambs jambs,, and wall and floor veneer. The ancient Egyptians had some of the first monumental stone building (such as in Sakkhara). How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Dr. Patrick Hunt[9] has postulated that the Egyptians used emery shown to have higher hardness higher hardness on the Moh Mohss sc scal alee. Regarding construction, of the various methods possibly used by builders, the lever lever moved moved and uplifted obelisks weighing more than 100 tons tons.. Obelisks and pillars
Obelisks were a prominent part of the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in pairs at the entrances of temples. In 1911, Encyclopedia Britannica wrote, "The earliest temple obelisk still in position is that of Senwosri I. of the XIIth Dynasty at Heliopolis (68 feet high)". The word "obelisk" is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, the great traveler, was the first writer to describe the objects. Twenty-seven ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus the unfinished obelisk being obelisk being built by Hatshepsut to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh. It broke while being carved out of the quarry and was abandoned when another one was begun to replace it. The broken one was found at Aswan and provides the only insight into the methods of how they were hewn. The obelisk symbolized the sun deity Ra and during the brief religious reformation of Akhenaten, was said to be a petrified ray of the Aten, the sun disk. It is hypothesized by by New N ew Yo York rk Uni Unive vers rsity ity Egyptologist Patricia Blackwell Gary and Astronomy and Astronomy senior editor Richard Talcott that the shapes of the ancient anc ient Egyp Egyptian tian pyramid pyramid and Obelisk were derived from natural phenomena associated with the sun (the sun-god Ra being the Egyptians' greatest deity). deity) .[10] It was also thought that the deity existed within the structure. The Egyptians also used pillars used pillars extensively. It is unknown whether the Ancient Egyptians had kites kites,, but a team lead by Mory Gharib raised a 6,900 pound, 15-foot (4.6 m) obelisk into vertical position with a kite, a system of pulleys, and a support frame.[11] Maureen Clemmons developed the idea that the ancient Egyptian used kites for work.[11] Ramps have been reported as being widely used in Ancient Egypt. A ramp is inclined plane, or a plane surface set at an angle (other than a right angle) against a horizontal surface. The inclined plane permits one to overcome a large resistance by applying a relatively small force through a longer distance than the load is to be raised. In civil engineering the slope (ratio of rise/run) is often referred to as a grade or gradient. An inclined plane is one of the commonly-recognized simple machines. Egyptian ship, 1250 B.C. Egyptian ship on the Red Sea, showing a rope truss being used to stiffen the beam of this ship
Navigation and ship building
The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge to some extent of sail of sail construction. This is governed by the science of aerodynamics of aerodynamics..[12] The earliest Egyptian sails were simply placed to catch the wind [13] and push a vessel. Later Egyptian sails dating to 2400 BCE were built with the recognition that ships [13][14] 14] could sail against the wind using the side wind.[13][ Queen Hatshepsut oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and with several sails. sails . Various others exist, also.
Stern-mounted steering oar of an Egyptian riverboat depicted in the Tomb of Menna Menna (c. 1422–1411 B.C.)
[15][16] 16][17] [17] Ancient Egyptians had experience with building a variety of ships. [15][ Some of them survive to this [18] [19][20] 20][21] [21] day as Kh Khuf ufuu So Sola larr sh ship ip . The ships were found in many areas of Egypt as the Abydous Ship[19][ [20][22] 22][23] [23] and remnants of other ships were found near many of the pyramids. pyramids.[20][ Sneferu's ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded to a ship being referred to by name.[24] Although quarter rudders were the norm in Nile navigation, the Egyptians were the first to use also stern-mounted rudders.
Irrigation and agriculture
Irrigation as the artificial application of water to the soil was used to some extent in Ancient Egypt, a hydraulic hydrau lic civiliza civilization tion (which entail hydrau hydraulic lic engin engineering eering). ).[25] In crop production it is mainly used to replace missing rainfall in periods of drought, as opposed to reliance on direct rainfall (referred to as dryland farming or as rainfed farming). There is evidence of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twel twelfth fth dyn dynast astyy (about 1800 BCE BCE)) using the natural lake of the Fayûm as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, as the lake swelled annually as caused by the annual flooding of the Nile the Nile..[26] Glassworking
Egyptian knowledge of glassmaking was advanced.[27] The earliest known glass beads from Egypt were made during the the New Ne w Kin Kingdo gdom maround 1500 BC and were produced in a variety of colors. They were made by winding molten glass around a metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity, especially blue beads, which were believed to have magical powers. The Egyptians made small jars and bottles using the core-formed method. Glass threads were wound around a bag of sand tied to a rod. The glass was continually reheated to fuse the threads together. The glass-covered sand bag was kept in motion until the required shape and thickness was achieved. The rod was allowed to cool, then finally the bag was punctured and the rod removed. The Egyptians also created the first colored glass rods which they used to create colorful beads and decorations. They also worked with cast glass, which was produced by pouring molten glass into a mold, much like iron and the more modern cru crucibl ciblee ste steel el..[28] Astronomy
The Egyptians were a practical people and this is reflected in their astronomy[29] in contrast to Babylonia where the first astronomical texts were written in astrological terms.[30] Even before Upper and Lower Egypt were unified in 3000 BCE, observations of the night sky had influenced the development of a religion in which many of its principal deities were heavenly bodies. In Lower Egypt, priests built circular mud-brick walls with which to make a false horizon where they could mark the position of the sun as it rose at dawn, and then with a plumb-bob note the northern or southern turning points (solstices). This allowed them to discover that the sun disc, personifed as Ra, took 365 days to travel from his birthplace at the winter solstice and back to it. Meanwhile in Upper Egypt a lunar calendar was being developed based on the behaviour of the moon and the reappearance of Sirius of Sirius in its hel heliaca iacall ris rising ing [31] after its annual absence of about 70 days. After unification, problems with trying to work with two calendars (both depending upon constant observation) led to a merged, simplified civil calendar with twelve 30 day months, three seasons of four months each, plus an extra five days, giving a 365 year day but with no way of accounting for the extra quarter day each year. Day and night were split into 24 units, each personified by a deity. A sundial found on Seti I's cenotaph with instructions for its use shows us that the daylight hours were at one time split into 10 units, with 12 hours for the night and an hour for the morning and evening twilights.[32] However, by Seti I's time day and night were normally divided into 12 hours each, the length of which would vary according to the time of year.
Key to much of this was the motion of the sun god Ra and his annual movement along the horizon at sunrise. Out of Egyptian myths such as those around Ra and the sky goddess Nut came the development of the Egy Egyptia ptiann cale calenda ndar r , time keeping, and even concepts of royalty. An astronomical ceiling in the burial chamber of Rame of Ramesse ssess VI shows the sun being born from Nut in the morning, traveling along her body during the day and being swallowed at night. During the Fift Fifthh Dyn Dynast astyy six kings built sun temples in honour of Ra. The temple complexes built by Niuserre at Abu Gurab and Userkaf Userkaf at at Abusir Abusir have have been excavated and have astronomical alignments, and the roofs of some of the buildings could have been used by observers to view the stars, calculate the hours at night and predict the sunrise for religious festivals.[33]
The The Dendera Dender a Zodiac was on the ceiling of the Greco-Roman temple of Hathor at Dendera
Claims have been made that that pre p rece cess ssion ion of th thee eq equin uinox oxes eswas was known in Anc Ancien ientt Egyp Egyptt prior to the time [citation needed ] of Hipparchus of Hipparchus.. Some buildings in the Karnak Karnak temple temple complex, for instance, were oriented toward the point on the horizon where certain stars rose or set at key times of the year. Because of the precession, the stars in one "constellation" or section of the sky would be seen to be first in the nightly display each night until the precession moved along to the next section being first, with the previouslyfirst constellation below the horizon until the arch was completed. A few centuries later, when precession made the orientations of the buildings obsolete, the temples were rebuilt. Note however that the observation that a stellar alignment has grown wrong does not necessarily mean that the Egyptians understood or even cared what was going on. For instance, from the Middle Kingdom on they used a table with entries for each month to tell the time of night from the passing of constellations: these went in error after a few centuries because of their calendar and precession, but were copied (with scribal errors) for long after they lost their practical usefulness or possibly the understanding of them. Medicine
The Ed Edwi winn Sm Smith ith pa papyr pyrus us is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document which attempts to describe and analyze the brain: given this, it might be seen as the very beginnings of neuroscience of neuroscience.. However, medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology was largely ineffective. [34] According to a paper published by Michael D. Parkins, 72% of 260 medical prescriptions in the Hearst Papyrus had no curative elements.[35] According to Michael D. Parkins, sewage pharmacology first began in ancient Egypt and was continued through the Middle Ages,[34] and while the use of animal dung can have curative properties,[36] it is not without its risk. Practices such as applying cow dung to wounds, ear piercing, tattooing, and chronic ear infections were important factors in developing tetanus.[37] Frank J. Snoek wrote that Egyptian medicine used fly specks, lizard blood, swine teeth, and other such remedies which he believes could have been harmful. harmful.[38]
Mummification of the dead was not always practised in Egypt. Once the practice began, an individual was placed at a final resting place through a set of rituals and protocol. The Egyptian funeral was a complex ceremony including various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in honor of the deceased. The poor, who could not afford expensive tombs, were buried in shallow graves in the sand, and because of the arid environment they were often naturally mummified. Other developments
The Egyptians developed a variety of furniture of furniture.. There in the lands of ancient Egypt is the first evidence for stools for stools,, beds beds,, and tables (such as from the tombs similar to Tutenkhamen's). Recovered Ancient Egyptian furniture includes a third millennium B.C. bed discovered in the Tarkhan Tomb, a c.2550 B.C. gilded set from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres Hetepheres,, and a c. 1550 B.C. stool from Thebes. Recent scholarship suggests that the wat water er whe wheel el originates from ancient Egypt, where it appeared by [39][40] [39][ 40] the 3rd century BC. This is seen as an evolution of the paddle-driven water-lifting wheels that had been known in Egypt a century earlier.[39] According to John Peter Oleson, both the compartmented wheel and the hydraulic Noria may have been invented in Egypt by the 4th century BC, with the Sakia being invented there a century later. This is supported by archeological finds at Faiyum Faiyum,, Egypt Egypt,, where the oldest archeological evidence of a water-wheel has been found, in the form of a Sakia dating back to the 3rd century BC. A papyrus A papyrus dating to the 2nd century BC also found in Faiyum mentions a water wheel used for irrigation, a 2nd-century BC fresco found at Alexandria depicts a compartmented Sakia, and the writings of Ca of Calli llixe xenu nuss of Rh Rhod odes es mention the use of a Sakia in Pto Ptolema lemaic ic Egyp Egyptt during the reign [40] of Pt of Ptole olemy my IV in the late 3rd century BC. Some have suggested that the Egyptians had some form of understanding electric electric phenomena phenomena from observing lightning and interacting with ele electr ctric ic fish (such as the Malapte Malapterurus rurus electr electricus icus)) or other [41] animals (such as elec electri tricc eels eels). ). The comment about lightning appears to come from a misunderstanding of a text referring to "high poles covered with copper plates" to argue this[42] but Dr. Bolko Stern has written in detail explaining why the copper covered tops of poles (which were lower than the associated pylons) do not relate to electricity or lightning, pointing out that no evidence of anything used to manipulate electricity had been found in Egypt and that this was a magical and not a technical installation. installation.[43] The single representation of the image, called the "Dendera light" by some alternative suggestions, exists on the left wall of the right wing in one of the crypts of the Hathor temple
Those exploring frin fringe ge the theori ories es of ancien of ancientt techno technology logy have suggested that there were el elec ectr tric ic liligh ghts ts us used ed in An Anci cien entt Eg Egyp yptt. Engineers have constructed a working model based on their interpretation of a relief found in the Hathor Hathor temple temple at the Dendera [44] Temple complex. Authors (such as Peter Krassa and Reinhard Habeck) have produced a basic theory of the device's operation. operation.[44] The standard explanation, however, for the the Dende De ndera ra ligh light ,t which comprises three stone reliefs (one single and a double representation) is that the depicted image represents a lotus leaf and flower from which a sacred snake is spawned in accordance with Egyptian mythological beliefs. This sacred snake sometimes is identified as the Milky Way (the snake) in the night sky (the leaf, lotus, or "bulb") that became identified with Hathor because of her similar association in creation.
Later technology in Egypt Greco-Roman Egypt
Main articles: articles: Ancien An cientt Gree Greekk tec techno hnolog logyyand Roman Ro man tec techno hnolog logyy
Under Hel Under Hellen lenisti isticc rul rulee, Egypt was one of the most prosperous regions of the Helleni Hellenistic stic civiliza civilization tion.. The ancient Egyptian city of Rhakotis of Rhakotis was renovated as Alexandria Alexandria,, which became the largest city around the Mediter Mediterranea raneann Basin Basin.. Under Ro Under Roma mann ru rule le,, Egypt was one of the most prosperous regions of the Roman Rom an Emp Empire ire,, with Alexandria being second only to anc ancient ient Rom Romee in size. Ancient Anc ient Gre Greek ek tec techno hnolog logyy was often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war. Ancient Anc ient Rom Roman an tec techno hnolog logyy is a set of artifacts and customs which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years. Arabic-Islamic Egypt
Main articles: articles: Inv I nven entio tions ns in me medie dieva vall Isl Islam am , Mus Muslim lim Agr Agricu icultur ltural al Rev Revolu olution tion , , and Ti and Time melin linee of sci scien ence ce andd en an engi gine neer erin ingg in th thee Is Isla lami micc wo worl rld d Under Ar Under Arab ab ru rule le,, Egypt once again became one of the most prosperous regions around the Mediterranean. The Egyptian city of Cairo of Cairo was founded by the Fati Fatimid mid Cali Calipha phate te and served as its capital city. At the time, Cairo was second only to Baghdad Baghdad,, capital of the rival Abb Abbasi asidd Cali Calipha phate te.. After the fall of Baghdad, however, Cairo overtook it as the largest city in the Mediterranean region until the earl ea rlyy mo mode dern rn pe peri riod od.. Inve In vent ntion ionss in med medie ieva vall Is Islam lam covers the inventions developed in the med mediev ieval al Isl Islamic amic wor world ld,, a region that extended from Al - Andalus and Africa in the west to the Indian subc subcontinen ontinentt and Cen Centra trall Asia in the east. The tim timel eline ine of Is Islam lamic ic sc scien ience ce an andd en engi gine neer erin ingg covers the general development of science and technology in the Islamic world.
See also ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Li st of Eg List Egyp yptt-rel elat ated ed topi topics cs Egyptiann chron Egyptia chronology ology Hist Hi stor oryy of an ancie cient nt Eg Egyp yptt Hist Hi stor oryy of tec techn hnolo ology gy Egyptiann mathema Egyptia mathematics tics Hist Hi stor oryy of sc scie ienc ncee in ea earl rlyy cu cultltur ures es Astrol Ast rology ogy and ast astron ronomy omy Archaeoastronomy Imhotep Hero He ro of Al Alex exan andr dria ia
Notes 1. ^ Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers. Page 162 (cf., " As As we have seen, Sumer used a
sexagesimal base; whereas the system of Ancient Egypt was strictly decimal.") decimal.") 2. ^ Robert E Krebs, Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, inventions, and discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Page 127. ISBN 0313 03133243 324336 36 3. ^ Thomas Little Heath, Manual of Greek Mathematics. Page 11. 4. ^ Plutarch Plutarch,, Life of Caesar 49.3. Caesar 49.3. 5. ^ Abd - el - latif (1203): latif (1203): "the library which 'Amr ibn al-'As burnt with the permission of ' of 'Umar ." ." 6. ^ Europe: A History, History, p 139. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-1 0-19-82 9-8201710171-00 What at is Civi Ci vill Engin Eng inee eeri ring ng : Imhot Imh otep ep ". htt httpp:// wha whatitisci scivil vilen engin ginee eeri ring ng.c .csce sce .c .caa/hi /hist story ory _ en engin ginee eeri ring ng.h .htm tm.. 7. ^ "Wh 8. ^ ee eeesc escien ience ce uto utole ledo do.e .edu du : Cai Cairo ro Roc Rocks ks 9. ^ Ar Arce ce /Nc Archiv Arc hives es Egypt," Astronomy,, June 2006, pp. 10. ^ Patricia Blackwell Gary and Richard Talcott, "Stargazing in Ancient Egypt," Astronomy 62-67. 11. ^ a b Cal Caltec techh res resear earche chers rs su succ ccess essfu fully lly ra rais isee obe obelis liskk wit withh kit kitee to te test st the theor oryy ab about out an ancie cient nt pyr pyrami amids ds
12. ^ A primary feature of a properly designed sail is an amount of "draft", caused by curvature of the surface
of the sail. When the sail is oriented into the wind, this curvature induces lift, much like the wing of an airplane. 13. ^ a b Encyclopedia Of International Sports Studies. Page 31 14. ^ Technological Choices: Transformation Transformation in Material Cultures. Page 410. 15. ^ Ships and boats in Egypt 16. ^ Anc Ancien ientt Egy Egypti ptian an boa boatt bui buildi lding ng 17. ^ Shi Shipbu pbuild ilding ing in Anc Ancien ientt Egy Egypt pt Solar ar shi ships ps 18. ^ Sol 19. ^ Th Thee Ab Abyd ydos os Sh Ship ip 20. ^ a b Sa Sakk kkar araa an andd Ab Abyd ydou ouss Sh Ship ip Gr Grav aves es 21. ^ "Aby bydo doss Boa Bo at". Archived from the ori origina ginall on 2009-10-25. http :// www .webcitation .org /5 kn 6 qJhuJ. qJhuJ. 22. ^ Anc Ancien ientt Egy Egypt pt Shi Ships ps 23. ^ Shi Shipp Min Minima imatur tures es at Egy Egypti ptian an mus museum eum 24. ^ Anzovin, item # 5393, page 385 Reference 385 Reference to a ship with a name appears in an inscription of 2613 BCE that recounts the shipbuilding achievements of the fourth-dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Sneferu. He was recorded as the builder of a cedarwood vessel called "Praise of the Two Lands." 25. ^ Blake L. White, An Anci cien entt Eg Egyp yptt Pr Prov ovid ides es an Ea Earl rlyy Ex Exam ampl plee of Ho How w A So Soci ciet etyy's Wo Worl rldv dvie iew w Dr Driv ives es Engine Eng ineer ering ing and the Dev Develo elopme pment nt of Sci Scienc encee. Strategic Technology Institute. Page 2. Amen enem emhe hett III II I". Britannica Concise. ht http tp :/:///co conc ncis isee.b .bri rita tann nnic icaa.c .com om/e /ebc bc /a /art rtic icle le -9 -900 0060 6076 76//Am Amen enem emhe hett26. ^ "Am III.. Retrieved 2007-01-10. III 27. ^ Anci Ancient ent Egyp Egyptian tian Glas Glassmak smaking ing Recr Recreate eatedd. Lockergnome, December 17, 2007 28. ^ Susan Hampton. "Gl Glas assm smak akin ingg in Antiq Ant iqui uity ty ". The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. http ht tp :/:///ww www w.u .unc nc .ed eduu/c /cou ours rses es /r /rom omet etec echh publi /pu blicc/c /cont ontent ent /ar /arts ts _ _ and _cr craf afts ts/Su /Susan san _ _Ha Hampt mpton on/Ro /Roma mann _ Gl Glas asss.h .htm tmll # Origin %20 Myth. Myth. Retrieved 2007-03-21. 29. ^ Ronald A Wells, "Archaeoastronomy in Egypt", in Walker, Christopher, Ed Astronomy Ed Astronomy before the telescope, telescope, British Museum Press, 1996 p.28 30. ^ John Britton and Christopher Walker, Astrology and Astronomy in Mesopotamia, in Walker, Christopher, Ed Astronomy Ed Astronomy before the telescope, telescope, British Museum Press, 1996 p. 42 31. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce, Pyramids: The Real Story Behind Egypt's Ancient Monuments, Monuments, Viking, 2003, p. 74 32. ^ Ne Neugeb ugebauer auer , Otto (1969) [1957]. Th Thee Ex Exac actt Sc Scie ienc nces es in An Antitiqu quitityy (2 ed.). Dove Doverr Publi Publicati cations ons.. ISBN 978-048622332-2. http :// books .google .com /books ? id = JVhTtVA 2 zr 8 C. C . , p.86 33. ^ ht http tp :/:///ho home me .co comc mcas astt.n .net et /~ he hebs bsed ed /w /wel ells ls .h .htm tm Report of a talk by Dr. Ronald Wells on The Origins of Egyptian Calendars and Their Modern Legacy 34. ^ a b Mic Micro rosof softt Wor Wordd – Pro Proce ceedi edings ngs -20 -2001. 01.doc doc 35. ^ 10 th An Annu nual al Pr Proc ocee eedi ding ngss of th thee Hi Hist stor oryy of Me Medi dici cine ne Da Days ys 36. ^ ht http tp :/:///ww www w.f .fin inda dart rtic icle less.c .com om p /p /a /art rtic icle less/m /mi _ i_ m 0838/ is _ _ n 65/ ai _12694466 _12694466 comp mpar arat ativ ivee st stud udyy of ur urba bann an andd ru rura rall te teta tanu nuss in .....[ .[ In Intt J Ep Epid idem emio ioll. 19 1978 78]] - Pu PubM bMed ed Re Resu sultlt 37. ^ A co 38. ^ The Mind Ma Matte tters rs - Sno Snoek ek 14 (3) (3):: 116 - Dia Diabet betes es Spe Spectr ctrum um a b 39. ^ Orjan Wikander (2008), "Chapter 6: Sources of Energy and a nd Exploitation of Power", in John Peter Oleson, The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World , Oxfo Oxford rd Univ Univers ersity ity Press,, pp. 141-2, ISBN 0195187318 Press 40. ^ a b Adriana de Miranda (2007), Water architecture in the lands of Syria: the water-wheels, water-wheels, L'Erma di Bretschneider, pp. 38-9, ISBN 8882654338 Hist stor oryy of Eg Egyp yptt Un Unde derr th thee Ph Phar arao aohs hs". ". J. 41. ^ Heinrich Karl Brugsch-Bey and Henry Danby Seymour, " A Hi Murray, 1881. Page 422. (cf., [... the symbol of a] 'serpent' is rather a fish, which still serves, in the Coptic language, to designate the electric fish [...]) 42. ^ Bruno Kolbe, Francis ed Legge, Joseph Skellon, tr., " An In Intro trodu ducti ction on to Ele Elect ctric ricity ity". Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1908. 429 pages. Page 391. (cf., "[...] high poles covered with copper plates and with gilded tops were erected 'to break the stones coming from on high'. J. Dümichen, Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels, Strassburg, 1877") 43. ^ Stern, Bolko (1896 reprinted 1998). Ägyptische 1998). Ägyptische Kulturgeschichte Kulturgeschichte.. Reprint-Verlag-Leipzig. pp. 106– 108. ISBN 978-3826219085.
44. ^ a b Krassa, P., and R. Habeck, " Das Licht der Pharaonen.". Pharaonen. ". ISBN 3-54 3-548-3 8-35657 5657-5 -5 (Tr. The Light of the
Pharaohs) Pharaohs)
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Leslie C. Kaplan, "Technology "Technology of Ancient Egypt . 2004, 24 pages. ISB ISBN N 082 082396 396785 78599 Denys Allen Stocks " Experiments in Egyptian Archaeology: Stoneworking Technology in Ancient Egypt ". ". Routledge, 2003. 336 pages. ISB ISBN N 041 041530 530664 66477 Katheryn A. Bard" Encyclopedia Bard" Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt By Katheryn A. Bard ". ". Routledge, 1999. 968 pages. ISB ISBN N 041 041518 518589 58900 R. J. Forbes, "Studies "Studies in Ancient Technology". Technology". 1966. Örjan Wikander, " Handbook of Ancient Water Technology". Technology". 2000. Patricia Blackwell Gary and Richard Talcott, "Stargazing in Ancient Egypt," Astronomy, June 2006, pp. 62–67. Evans, James. The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Astronomy . New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Pannekoek, A. A A. A History of Astronomy. Astronomy. New York: Dover, 1961. Parker, Richard A. "Egyptian Astronomy, Astrology, and Calendrical Reckoning." Dictionary Reckoning." Dictionary of Scientific Biography 15:706-727. Tomkin Tom kinss, Peter Pe ter . Secrets of the Great Pyramid . With an appendix by Livio Catullo Stecchini. New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1971. Budge, E. A. Wallis. Egyptian Religion. Kessinger Publishing, 1900. Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians Volume 1 of 2. New York: Dover Publications, 1969 (original in 1904).
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Anzovin, Steven et al., Famous al., Famous First Facts (International Edition), Edition) , H. W. Wilson Company, 2000, ISBN 0-824 0-8242-095 2-0958-3 8-3 David, Rosalie A., H.G.M. Edwards and D.W. Farwell. Raman Spectroscopic Analysis of Ancient Egyptian Pigments. Archaeometry 43, 4 (2001) 461-473 Earl, Bryan. Tin Smelting at the Oriental Institute. The Oriental Institute News and Notes No. 146. Summer 1995. Gourdin, W.H. and W.D. Kingery. 1975. the Beginnings of Pyrotechnology: Neolithic and Egyptian Lime Plaster. Journal of Field Archaeology. Lucas, Alfred. 1962. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th Edition. London: Edward Arnold Publishers. Meyer, Carol. Bir Umm Fawakhir: Insights into Ancient Egyptian Mining. JOM 49 (3) (1997) 64-68. Nicholson, Paul T. and Ian Shaw, eds. 2000. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. University Press, Cambridge. Pulak, C. A: The Uluburun Shipwreck: An Overview. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27 (1998) 188-224. Scheel, Bernd. 1989. Egyptian Metalworking and Tools. Haverfordwest, Great Britain: Shire Publications Ltd. Shaw, Ian. Editor. 2000. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shortland, A.J. Evaporites of the Wadi Natrun: Seasonal and Annual Variation and its Implication for Ancient Exploitation. Archaeometry 46, 4 (2004) 497-516. Davis, Virginia. "Mines and Quarries of Ancient Egypt, an Introduction" Onli Online ne art article icle Institutt for Arkeologi, Kunsthistorie og Konservering website, in English at [1]
External links ● ●
Hi stor Hist oryy of the Eg Egyp yptia tiann ob obeli elisk skss, egipto.com Ancien Anc ientt Egyp Egyptian tian Ind Indust ustrie riess
