Amsco Book Ch 1-Student

PERIOD I: Technological and Environmental Transformations, toc.600B.C.E. Chapter 1 From Hunter-Foragers to Settled Societies Chapter 2 The First Civilizations

Period Overvie From their origins in East Africa, nomadic humans slowly migrated across the earth, hunting and foraging for food. The development of farming and herding herding around around 8000 8000 B.C. B.C.E. E. !0.00 !0.000 0 years years ago" ago" was revolu revolutio tionar nary y. #ith ith a more more dependa$le food supply, villages grew into cities, people speciali%ed in &o$s,  powerful  powerful states emerged, emerged, and people people developed developed the first writing systems. systems. Trade Trade e'panded, spreading new goods and ideas more rapidly than $efore. By (00 B.C.E., )esopotamia, *ndia, Egypt, China, )esoamerica. and the Andes had impressive civili%ations that would provide the core of later civili%ations in their  regions.

!e" Conce#ts !.! Big +eogr +eograph aphy y and the eopl eopling ing of the the Earth *. Archeologica- evidence indicates that during the aleolithic era. huntingforaging  $ands  $ands of humans gradually gradually migrated from their origin origin in East Africa Africa to Eurasia. Eurasia. Australia, Australia, and the Americas, adapting their technology and cultures to new climate regions. !./ !./ The eolithic eolithic 1evolut 1evolution ion and Early Agricultur Agricultural al 2ocieties 2ocieties *. Beginning a$out !0.000 years ago. the eolithic 1evolution led to the development of new and more comple' economic and social systems. **. Agriculture and pastoralism $egan to transform human societies. !.3 !.3 The 4evelopmen 4evelopmentt and *nteractions *nteractions of Early Agricu Agricultural. ltural. astoral, astoral, and 5r$an 2ocieties 2ocieties *. Core and foundatio foundational nal civili%ati civili%ations ons developed developed in a variety variety of geograp geographical hical and environmental settings where agriculture flourished, including )esopotamia in the Tigris and Euprates 1iver 6alleys. Egypt in the ile 1iver 6alley. )ohen&o 4aro and 7arappa in the *ndus 1iver 6alley. 2hang in the ellow 1iver or 7uang 7e 6alley, 9lmecs in )esoamerica, and Chavfn in Andean 2outh America. **. The first states emerged within core civili%ations civili%ati ons in )esopotamia and the ile 6alley. 6alley. ***. Culture played a significant role in unifying states through laws, language, literature, religion, myths, and monumental art. : Source: AP

World World History Curriculum Framework. 2016-2017 

$rom %&nter'$oragers to (ettled (ocieties "Civilizations take ages to be born, to settle, and to grow. —Fernand Braudel,  A Histor o! Civilizations

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achieving an understanding of early human history is difficult. But even though prehistoric peoples did not have a written language, they left evidence of how they lived in their $ones and in their artifacts, o$&ects made  $y people in the past. For e'ample, the si%e and composition of s;eletons can suggest how well nourished people were. Chipped stones indicate they made tools with sharp edges. The remains of $urnt logs show they used fire. And since prehistoric people often $uried their dead with &ewelry and religious to;ens, they left clues a$out what they considered valua$le. By studying these physical remains, people today can trace the movements of the earliest humans across the glo$e, understand how they traded with each other, and learn a$out the new technologies they developed.

*igrating )cross the +loe )odern humans, the group  Homo saie!s saie!s, first appeared in East Africa $etween /00,000 and !00,000 years ago. They survived $y hunting animals and foraging for seeds, nuts, fruits, and edi$le roots, so they are la$eled as "u!ter-fora#ers or huntergatherers. Always on the search for  food, they migrated from place to place, gradually e'panding the region of  human settlement. *f the population $ecame too dense in one area or if the climate shifted, they might $e pushed to move. 9ther times, they might $e  pulled to a new region $y new sources of food or fresh water. As people encountered new climates and environments, they developed new cultural  patterns and new forms of technology. 9ne force pushing migration was climate change. As the climate warmed and cooled, animal and plant ha$itats shifted. eople ad&usted $y following the animals and plants. Each time the climate cooled
WORLD HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT E!AM

4uring one cooler period, so much water fro%e into ice that the ocean levels fell as much as >00 feet $elow today?s level. The level was low enough that land connected northeastern Asia and what is now Alas;a. This land, now su$merged under the Bering 2trait, provided a $ridge $etween Asia and the Americas. omadic hunters followed herds of animals that wandered across this land. #hen temperatures increased and ocean levels rose, these  people, the first Americans, were cut off from their Asian ancestors. 9ver  time, they slowly moved farther south along the coast. By !0,000 B.C.E., possi$ly far earlier, humans lived on every continent e'cept Antarctica. *n each region, people developed distinctive cultures.

The Paleolithic Period The early years of human history are part of the  Paleolit"ic Period, which  $egan /.@ million years ago and ended a$out !0,000 years ago 8000 B.C.E.". Because humans used stone tools and weapons in this period, it is often called the 2tone Age. *n addition to stone, people made tools from wood, animal  $ones, and antlers. )any of their tools included a sharp point or $lade. For  e'ample, they had digging stic;s for uncovering roots they could eat, and they had spears, harpoons, and arrows for ;illing animals. Adapting to the Environment As people migrated in search of animals and edi$le plants, they found certain tools to $e particularly useful in the new environment they encountered. For e'ample, as they moved into cooler  climates as far north as the tundra, they needed scrapers for cleaning the flesh off of animals? s;ins they wore for warmth. *n the warmer regions such as the tropics, nets for catching fish were particularly valua$le. As they reached the coasts of the )editerranean 2ea and the acific 9cean, they $uilt strong rafts to venture out onto the water. *n forested areas, they used a'es to cut down trees to ma;e shelters. eople adapted technology to new conditions. )*+1AT*9 95T 9F AF1*CA

FROM H"NTER#FORAGERS TO SETTLED SOCIETIES

Control of Fire 9ne of the greatest accomplishments of people in the aleolithic eriod was to learn to control fire. *t changed their lives $y providing

 light to allow them to see $etter after the sun went down  heat so they could live in colder climates than $efore  protection against wild animals  smo;e to pacify $ees, which made o$taining honey easier   help in hunting $y scaring animals to race to their death over a cliff  ossi$ly the most influential use of fire was to prepare food. Coo;ing made proteinrich and starchy foods $oth hunted and foraged" easier to digest and, hence, more nutritious. Hunter-Forager Society As early humans developed new technology, they also esta$lished more comple' social structures. At the center of society was the nuclear family, which then e'panded outward to include ties $etween related families. 2everal related families that moved together in search of food were called a ki!s"i #rou. A typical group might include /0 to >0 people. 2maller groups might have difficulty finding enough food. arger groups would use up the food supply of an area more =uic;ly, which would re=uire more fre=uent moving. inship groups were often nearly selfsufficient. They could ma;e most or all of what they needed to survive. Though ;inship groups traveled on their own and were close to self sufficient, they were not isolated. They were often part of a larger group of  relatives called a cla!. And sometimes multiple clans com$ined into still larger  units called a tri$e. An individual did not have to $e related to other mem$ers to $e considered part of a tri$e. The tri$es were formed for purposes of group hunting or mutual defense from enemies and were usually led $y chiefs and  priests. Between groups at each level of organi%ation<;inship group, clan, and tri$e
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The oldest ;nown paintings were created a$out >0.000 years ago..

 prepared food and loo;ed after the children. Anthropologists $elieve that the women $reastfed their children for as long as five years, a practice that pro vided high nutrition for the children as well as a very rudimentary form of  family planning. Test repD #rite a paragraph connecting early hunterforager  groups with such groups in 1ussia. 1ead a$out the 2lavic peoples on page !3" Religion and Art aleolithic people developed a system of religious  $eliefs centered around the worship of gods they associated with the forces of  nature. The $elief that animals, rivers, and other elements of nature em$ody spirits is called a!imism. The first religious leaders were pro$a$ly s"ama!s,  people $elieved to have special a$ilities to cure the sic; and influence the future. 1itual sacrifices to these gods and evidence of $urial practices suggest a $elief in the afterlife that dates $ac; !00,000 years. Evidence of artistic e'pression has $een found in the form of cave paintings, which date $ac; to 3/,000 years ago, and musical instruments, such as flutes, dating to 30,000 years ago. aleolithic art may have $een connected to religious ceremonies.

FROM H"NTER#FORAGERS TO SETTLED SOCIETIES

eolithic Revol&tion Around !0,000 years ago 8000 B.C.E.", as the climate was warming up from an *ce Age, a collection of social and political developments coalesced into what is called the %eolit"ic &e'olutio!, a set of dramatic changes in how  people lived $ased on the development of agriculture. These changes are sometimes called the Agricultural 1evolution. This revolution did not happen instantaneously, nor did it occur everywhere at the same time, nor did it affect everyone directly. For e'ample, the eolithic 1evolution in China dates to @000 B.C.E., whereas in the )iddle East, it can $e dated to around 8000 B.C.E. *t can $e characteri%ed $y several ma&or developmentsD !. agriculture /. pastoralism 3. speciali%ation of la$or  >. towns and cities @. governments (. religions . technological innovations Agriculture Ta;ing advantage of a warmer glo$al climate following the end of the last *ce Age, some hunterforager cultures learned to grow crops $y  putting seeds of wild plants into the ground. They gave up their nomadic way of life to stay in one place and ta;e up a#riculture, the practice of raising crops or livestoc; on a continual and controlled $asis. As they learned to plant, tend, and harvest crops, people found they often had a  surlus, or more than they needed for themselves. The development of agriculture occurred first in lands  &ust east of the )editerranean 2ea. *t also occurred independently at several other places and from these places spread throughout the world. These early farmers domesticated the crops that were already growing wild in their regionD wheat and $arley in 2outhwest Asia, millet in orthern China, rice in 2outheast Asia, and mai%e corn" in )esoamerica. As cultivation of these crops spread, the natural diversity of plants in a region decreased. #ith that change came reductions in the diversity of insects and animals that depended on the other crops. The availa$ility of these farmed crops also made the diets of people less diversified. 5sually people in an area would grow &ust one or two crops, and they would eat foods prepared with those crops at every meal. eople continued to hunt animals and to gather wild fruits and nuts when seasona$ly availa$le,  $ut overall the farmers? diets lac;ed the variety of fulltime hunterforagers. By cultivating &ust one or two plants, they eliminated other plants that had $een  part of people?s diets. Pastoralism Even $efore people settled down as farmers, people in Africa, Europe, and Asia had $egun to tame wild animals so they could $e $rought up to live with humans, a process called domesticatio!. The first animal that 6

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 people domesticated was the dog. *nitially, humans employed dogs to assist with hunting and to provide warnings a$out the approach of dangerous animals. +oats were domesticated ne't. They provided $oth meat and mil;. 9ther animals were domesticated soon after
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i;e farmers, pastoralists made the shift away from huntingforaging hoping to create a more dependa$le food supply for themselves. And li;e farmers, pastoralists affected the environment dramatically. At times,  pastoralists would allow their animals to gra%e an area so heavily that the animals would destroy the grass. #hen rains came, without grass to hold the soil in place, the soil would wash away and the land $ecame infertile. 7owever, pastoralists were unli;e farmers in one important wayD #hile farmers settled in one place, pastoralists moved regularly. 7ence, while farmers accumulated $elongings, pastoralists usually owned very little. And while farmers had only a little contact with people in other communities,  pastoralists were in contact with new items and new ideas. 9ver the past

FROM H"NTER#FORAGERS TO SETTLED SOCIETIES

!0,000 years, pastoralists have played an important role in spreading ideas and trading goods among people. Test repD Create a chart comparing Paleolithic  pastoralists with later pastoralists such as the )ongols. See page />!." Specialiation of !a"or The growth of agriculture and pastoralism reduced plant and animal diversity, $ut the surpluses of food they produced led to dramatic changes. For the first time in history, some wor;ers were free to focus on tas;s other than producing food. 2ome people $ecame artisa!s,  people who made o$&ects people needed, such as woven clothe or pottery. 9thers $ecame merc"a!ts, people who $uy and sell goods for a living. 2till others $ecame soldiers, religious leaders, or politicians. This process of  allowing people to focus on limited tas;s is called the  seciali(atio! of la$or. The impact of speciali%ation of la$or was farreaching. Freed from wor;  on the farms, artisans made weapons, tools, and &ewelry. A merchant class, engaged with trading these o$&ects, emerged. The surplus of food and goods, com$ined with the needs of religious ceremonies and a rudimentary system of ta'ation, led to the invention of writing, which was first used to ;eep records a$out trades and ta' payments. eople later $egan to use writing to communicate with one another, to record descriptions of events, and to write down religious stories. The development of writing mar;ed the transition from  prehistory to history. #ro$th of %illages& To$ns& and Cities The food surplus encouraged  $oth a growth in population and an opportunity to do wor; not related to  producing food. ermanent dwellings and villages and towns multiplied as tri$es a$andoned their nomadic lifestyles and, eventually, some cities emerged. #ith the change in food production came  social stratificatio!. This means that some people accumulated wealth in the form of &ewelry and other coveted items and $y $uilding larger and $etter decorated houses. The idea of private  property $ecame increasingly important. eople with more wealth or more  power to control the surplus formed an elite. *n general, the elites were men. 9ne of human;ind?s first cities was )eric"o, which was $uilt on the west  $an; of the Gordan 1iver. The oldest evidence of human settlement there dates from a$out H000 B.C.E. Another ancient city, Catal Huyuk, in presentday Tur;ey, was founded in @00 B.C.E. along a river that has since dried up. The city e'isted for a$out /,000 years, $ut its wellpreserved remains have helped modern people understand life long ago. Although $oth cities were significant  population centers, and while Gericho has tremendous significance in the Gudeo Christian tradition, neither city $ecame a ma&or site of an emerging civili%ation. #overnments The surplus of food also led to the creation of governmental institutions. eople had to wor; together to clear land and, in many places,  provide irrigation to water the crops. To coordinate these efforts re=uired a government. And if the community produced a surplus, powerful leaders were re=uired to supervise how it was used, and soldiers were needed to protect it from other groups. riests were needed, not only to supervise religious ceremonies, $ut also to e'plain how the $ehavior and rulings of leaders were  $ased on religious doctrine. 5

-ORD %I(TOR/: PREP)RI+ $OR T%E )D1)CED P)CE*ET2 E3)*

The leaders of farming communities and towns developed the earliest forms of government. Those who owned the most land or livestoc; Became the wealthiest and thus the most powerful. They $ecame the leaders of local governments. Religions +iven the unpredicta$le nature of weather and longerterm climate changes, eolithic farmers e'perienced temporary interruptions and  pro$lems, &ust as farmers do today. )oreover, agricultural land could lose its fertility through o'erfarmi!# unless it was left fallow or it was fertili%ed, usually  $y the spreading of animal manure. astures could erode due to o'er#ra(i!#, or  the continual eating of grasses or their roots, without allowing them to regrow. As people tried to persuade the spirits of nature to help with their crops and herds, religious ceremonies $ecame more ela$orate. These ceremonies $ecame so important and ela$orate, a special class of riests and riestesses developed to conduct them.

*n some regions, new religious $eliefs $ecame highly organi%ed $efore (00 B.C.E. For e'ample, along the eastern coast of the )editerranean 2ea, the 7e$rews emerged under the leadership of A$raham. They were among the first religious groups to worship only one deity, a practice called mo!ot"eism. *n 2outh Asia, the 6edic religion included a variety of deities and a heavy emphasis on rituals. *n what is now *ran, a teacher named Ioroaster inspired the religion of Ioroastrianism, which focused on the eternal $attle $etween two forces, one good and one evil. Technological 'nnovations 2ocieties advanced as people adopted new tools and s;ills. *n some cases, these advances were pro$a$ly made in one  place. *n other cases, they were made in several places independently. Either  way, most people learned a$out new technology through trade, war, or other  forms of contact with other societiesD  To store food and carry water, they invented waterproof clay pots. eople shaped pots out of wet clay and then hardened them in fire. 2ometimes  people decorated the pots $efore firing $y etching designs on them. 2ince these pots are one of the artifacts that has lasted thousands of years, they provide insight into how people lived and what they thought was important.  eople improved on the drilling stic;, creating a plow. The plow could  $e pulled $y o'en or other animals, which made cultivating crops much easier. *n addition, turning over the soil disrupted the growth of weeds, which ena$led crops to grow $etter and increased their yield.  The development of the wheel with an a'le revolutioni%ed transportation and trade. A wheeled cart could transport a load with a$out 3 percent of the effort needed to drag it. eople could transport everything more easily, from grain for overseas trade to stones for $uilding monumental architecture. Adding wheels to a plow made planting crops easier.

$RO* %TER'$OR)+ER( TO (ETTED (OCIETIE(

 The production of te*tiles, items made of cloth, included several steps. #eavers, who were usually women, learned to spin hair from animals or fi$ers from plants into threads and then weave the threads into cloth. #or;ers would often decorate the te'tiles $y dying the threads and ma; ing patterns. All of this wor; was usually done in the home.  eople gradually learned metallur#y, the science of the study of metals. They replaced their stone tools and weapons with ones made from metal, a process made easier as they learned to heat metals with fire. They first used coer, which they found in a pure state in the ground. Through e'perimentation, they learned that melting tin and copper together made a stronger metal, $ro!(e. This metal mar;ed such an advance that it gave the period a new nameD the +ro!(e A#e, which $egan at different loca tions at different times $ut generally $etween 3300 and /300 B.C.E.

The $irst Civili;ations The seven developments of the eolithic 1evolution that $egan around 8000 B.C.E. created the foundation for a new form of human society to emerge over  several thousand years. This new form is ci'ili(atio!, a large society with cities and powerful states. *n early civili%ations, many people continued to hunt and forage, often mi'ing those activities with farming or herding. Trends that $egan to emerge in the eolithic 1evolution $ecame even stronger in the early civili%ations. For e'ample, society $ecame more stratified into clearly different socioeconomic classes, human impact on the environment $ecame more intense, government and religious and military institutions $ecame larger and more comple', and trade increased. Elites grew more powerful as they $ecame increasingly wealthy. The gap $etween the rich and the poor grew wider, and the relative power of men and women in society diverged more noticea$ly. )ost societies $ecame  atriarc"ies, ones ruled $y men. Test repD #rite a paragraph comparing the eolithic 1evolution with the *ndustrial 1evolution. 2ee pages >/!>33." The first four civili%ations that grew out of the eolithic 1evolution developed independently in river valleys scattered around the earth. The first one was in 2outhwest Asia, in the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates, a region called )esopotamia. The ne't three were in the ile 1iver valley in Egypt, the 7uang 7e ellow" 1iver valley in China, and the *ndus 1iver  valley in *ndia. Two other early civili%ations, in )esoamerica and the Andes )ountains, were not tied closely to a ma&or river valley. All si' of these civili%ations developed ways of life, such as language, religious $eliefs, and economic practices, that would heavily influence successor civili%ations in their regions. Because of their influence, they are e'amples of core a!d fou!datio!al civili%ations.

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%I(TORIC)PER(PECTI1E(: WAS FARMING A MISTA3E4

2cholars who study the development of agriculture disagree a$out its impact of. )any see it as advance, $ut others note its high cost. Criticism of Farming Evolutionary $iologist Gared 4iamond called the development of agriculture the worst mista;e in the history of  the human race. 7e argued that reducing the variety of food in people?s diets increased malnourishment. 1elying on fewer food sources made  people more suscepti$le to famine. iving in concentrated settlements increased everyone?s ris; for disease. Together, 4iamond concluded, these changes reduced the average life span. Reducing %iolence *n contrast, evolutionary psychologist 2teven in;er argued that agriculture and pastoralism reduced violence. 7e cited studies that suggest that hunterforager societies had high murder  rates and fre=uent warfare. These societies were dangerous $ecause they lac;ed governments strong enough to maintain peace. Costs and (enefits Evolutionary anthropologist Gay 2toc; saw  $oth negatives and positives in the eolithic 1evolution. From a study of H,000 s;eletons from ancient Egypt, he found that hunterforagers who lived $efore the agricultural revolution averaged @ feet, 8 inches tall. 7owever, those who lived in the first several thousand years after  the development of farming averaged > inches shorter. 2till, he noted the longterm $enefits of agricultureD #ithout the surplus of food you get through farming, we couldn?t have the runaway technological innovation we see today.

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