AMERICAN MILITARY UNIVERSITY
AMERICAN DIPLOMACY AND FRENCH ASSISTANCE IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1776 - 1778
Anthony Siciliano 99310
MILH411 Diplomacy and War I Professor Fliegelman 26 August 2009
After declaring independence in 1776, the colonists in America suffered a series of military setbacks at the hands hands of both British British forces and Indian tribes. George Washington was defeated at Long Island (August 1776), Benedict Arnold was defeated at Lake Champlain (October 1776), the Hessians captured Fort Washington and Cornwallis captured Fort Lee (November 1776). American forces were able to earn some military military victories, but the momentum clearly belonged to the British. The Continental Congress understood understoo d that the new Republic required outside assistance in order to defeat defeat England. As the Congress looked looked at the political landscape of the Old World, they decided that France was the best hope for assistance. Due to the extraordinary efforts of American envoys and sympathetic French officials, the French government was convinced to provide military and financial aid to the American colonies during the Revolutionary War. The First American Diplomats
In late 1775, John Adams lent his support to a motion to send envoys to France; however, 1
that motion died. Within months, the Congress would reconsider this issue, and assign three men to represent the United States in France: Silas Deane, Benjamin Franklin, and Arthur Lee. Like all of the Diplomatic Corps assigned by Congress during this period, “their pay was uncertain, their duties ill defined, and most of them were ill fitted for any duties they had to perform.”2 In the spring of 1776, Congress sent its first envoy to France – Silas – Silas Deane. Deane was, for all intents intents and purposes, wholly unqualified for the position. Deane could not speak French French and had no experience in diplomatic protocol; however, he had money and lived a lifestyle that the Congress (falsely) assumed would ingratiate him to the court of Louis XVI.
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Congress
instructed Deane to present himself to the French government to ask for “clothes, arms,
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provisions, money and any other assistance that a rich monarchy might extend to a needy 4
republic.” republic. ” Despite his lack of qualifications qua lifications (or official position as „ambassador‟), Deane was able to establish a foundational foundational relationship relations hip the French government. This foundation would set the stage for Benjamin Franklin to take o n the role of America‟s official envoy. Benjamin Franklin was famous famous in France prior to his his arrival in December 1776. French aristocrats aristocrats and intellectuals labeled Franklin “the personification of New World Enlightenment”. Enlightenment”.5 It is not an exaggeration to state that Franklin was the only man in the colonies who could successfully lead the diplomatic team and gain official French support for the Revolution. Franklin was uniquely suited to curry favor favor with the French people. He was a scientist, a philosopher, a sage, a shrewd speaker and simple dresser – all – all of which placed him in a position “held by few Frenchmen and by no foreigner.”6 John Adams wrote of Franklin: …was more universal than that of Leibnitz or Newton, Frederick or Voltaire; and his character more beloved and esteemed than a ny or all of them… His name was familiar to government and people, to kings, courtiers, nobility, clergy, and philosophers, as well as plebeians, to such a degree that there was scarcely a peasant or a citizen, a valet-de-chambre, coachman or footman, a lady's chambermaid or a scullion in a kitchen, who was not familiar with it, and who did not consider him as a friend to 7 human kind… The famous Académie des Sciences elected Franklin as a member, where he regularly attended meetings.
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It was at the Academy where he met and embraced the famous French philosopher
9 Voltaire – Voltaire – which which permanently etched Franklin onto the French heart.
Arthur Lee joined Deane and Franklin in Paris after years of service in London as a lawyer and agent of Massachusetts. Lee arrived under the impression that he was the proper representative of the United States. The French government did not share this view, and and found Lee to be arrogant and distrustful.
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Lee also sent numerous complaints to Congress regarding
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Franklin‟s and Deane‟s (alleged) dishonesty. Lee was convinced convinced that the mission in France was so important, and only he could accomplish it.
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Failures punctuated much of Lee‟s time in the immature Diplomatic Diplomatic Corps. In October 1776, Lee decided to travel to Madrid in order to gain Spain‟s support for for the revolution. revolution. Based on his relationship with the Spanish ambassador to France, Lee was under the impression that the Spanish government was open and eager to lend lend aid to the American cause. Upon arriving in Spain, Lee discovered that he was not welcome in the court of King Carlos III. The government forbade Lee from entering Madrid, and forced him to stay in the town of Vittoria in northern Spain.
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After failing in Spain, Lee attempted to win the favor of Frederick II of Prussia.
Unfortunately, Frederick II was completely uninterested in getting involved with the revolutionary cause of America. America. Lee eventually left Prussia and returned to Paris to “employ himself in sending home lies about Franklin .”
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The French Personalities
– she hated England as Not only was France a wealthy and powerful European nation – she well. France was walking a fine line since the American Revolut Revolution ion began – they – they allowed American privateers access to their ports to sell their plunder, but never admitted it openly. England protested the practice, but France deflected their protests. France was eager to avenge – 1763), as well as restore Europe‟s balance of the humiliation of the Seven Years War (1754 – 1763), power in their favor.
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Additionally, there was a strong sense of revolutionary change growing
within France. The social and political ideals that represented the American Revolution Revolution resonated with the French people – people – something something that would not have happened in the previous fifty years.
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At no other time had there been such free thought and open discussions among the
nobility, scholars and philosophers; everything was open for debate and nothing was taboo.
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Two Frenchmen – Frenchmen – Charles Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes and Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais – Beaumarchais – personified personified this excitement. On July 17, Deane and Vergennes met for the first first time for two hours. Vergennes told Deane that he could not openly support the rebellion, and he would try to convince the King to assist as much as possible.
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Vergennes was a proponent for immediate and active support for
the American colonies. The rest of the French government was not not as eager, so Vergennes 18
approached the issue from a philosophical point of view . Vergennes understood understoo d that England England would declare war once France France openly supported the Americans. In his opinion, the situation in Europe was perfect for France France to enter into into the conflict. Vergennes cited three major major points: no other nation in Europe was willing to enter into a maritime war; the three other major powers (Russia, Austria and Prussia) were focusing on Poland; and Russia had too many domestic issues to deal with.
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Vergennes summed his position up by stating, “It “It is certain that if his Majesty
seizes this unique opportunity, which perhaps the ages will never again present, we can deal England a blow that would abate her pride and place her power within just bounds . . . and he would have the glory, so dear to his heart, of being the benefactor not only of his own people but of all nations.” nations. ”
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France could not openly support the Americans, and Vergennes required a plan that would satisfy his revolutionary desires as well as the King‟s desire to remain discreet. Vergennes eventually found the answer with the (in)famous Frenchman named Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais. Beaumarchais became the most ardent advocate in France for aiding the Americans by a circuitous route. He was a brilliant brilliant watchmaker, a playwright (The Barber Barber of Seville), the secretary to the King, and and an amateur amateur covert operative. Like most most French p atriots in the 1770‟s,
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he was eager to avenge France‟s treatment after the Seven Years War and caught up in the radical fervor of the Enlightenment. The politics, politics, secrecy and intrigue that surrounded French involvement in the American American colonies called to Beaumarchais. In 1775, the French government dispatched him to London to investigate England‟s mood regarding the colonies, and the American‟s strengths. 21 Throughout this period, Beaumarchais sent numerous letters and had meetings with Vergennes – Vergennes – always always advocating immediate support for the Americans. He understood that the French government was willing to assist – but – but only in the most discreet way possible. Beaumarchais was impatient, and devised a plan that would eventually change the course of the American Revolution. In late February 1776, Beaumarchais sent a proposal to Vergennes outlining his plan. Beaumarchais would establish a front company that would deliver arms and supplies to the Americans on behalf of the French government. Vergennes was willing to work with Beaumarchais; the alternative was to work with a man named Dr. Jacques Barbeu-Dubourg. Vergennes did not trust Dubourg because he “courted a publicity which was distasteful to [the government]”, and he “proved a most indiscreet agent, so pleased with his activity that he wished 22
all the world to know what he was doing.”
The fictional Portuguese company of Roderiguez
Hortalez and Company would receive whatever arms and money the French government was willing to give, and transport them to the Americans.
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By August 1776, Beaumarchais received two million livres (one million each from France and Spain), which he used to purchase clothing and rifles for twenty-five thousand men and two hundred brass cannon for the Americans.
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Beaumarchais‟ Beaumarchais‟ abilities abilities were equal equa l to, if not
greater than, his enthusiasm. In addition to the cannon and rifles, he was able to procure two *
The livre was the French unit of currency until 1795, and was equal to approximately one pound of silver.
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– mostly from hundred thousand pounds of powder, and approximately thirty brass mortars – mostly French arsenals.
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After many stops and starts, the ships procured by Beaumarchais set sail for
America in early 1777. Throughout 1777, the government allowed more of Beaumarchais‟ ships to sail from France. France. These shipments provided the Americans with five million livres livres worth of – October 1777. 26 27 equipment that directly influenced the Battle of Saratoga in September – October Negotiations
The arrival of Franklin in Paris gave the negotiations a sense of importance that Deane could not muster as the lone American representative.
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Although Franklin‟s Fra nklin‟s diplomatic conduct
was always courteous (he did everything he could to preserve the dignity of his post), he was resolute in his desire that the United States was treated with the respect any other nation was offered. 29 Vergennes treated the Americans courteously during their initial (private) meetings, which please the delegation. The Americans began their official negotiations by requesting a treaty of commerce. Commerce was America‟s key bargaining tool; trade with the co lonies was England‟s principle principle source of income. Franklin argued that England could not support a war for for more than six months after losing income from the colonies.
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The Americans purposely did not ask for an
alliance or for money. Vergennes appreciated the moderat moderation ion with with which the Americans approached the negotiati negot iations ons stating, “Whether it is modesty or fear… such sentiments are very praise worthy.”
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Franklin soon pressed for a public reception and thirty thousand guns. Vergennes hesitated, fearing the English English response to this overt assistance. In exchange, Franklin Franklin offered American support to secure the West Indies for France should England declare war.
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This
constituted America‟s first first informal attempt at forging a military military alliance. In March 1777,
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Franklin again raised the ante ante by requesting a formal formal alliance. He offered France assistance in the conquest of Canada, Newfoundland and the West Indies; and pledged not to interfere in European affairs or with European possession in America.
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Vergennes found himself in in a difficult situation. situat ion. France would have probably entered into an alliance with America during the summer of 1777, if not for America‟s military military failures during that year. The French population was livid, placing the blame for for American losses in 1777 on the French government.
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Elements of the government wanted to assist, but had to
weigh this against a new war with England. Also, America‟s poor military military performance concerned the French government, who started to believe that the Revolution was a lost cause. Another point to consider was that the defeated colonies might try to gain goodwill from England by assisting them in attacking French possessions. 35 This led Vergennes to ask, “Have 36
they the force, the unity, the leadership, to resist this storm ?”
Battle of Saratoga’s Influence on Negotiations
The British had the momentum in the early part of the American Revolution. Before Befor e foreign powers (i.e., France) could interfere, General John Burgoyne devised a plan to invade New York from their base in Canada in order to separate New England from the rest of the colonies. colonies . Burgoyne‟s plans began to unravel from from the beginning. beginning. Rebel forces forces overran a column of one thousand troops British troops en route to Vermont, his Indian allies left, a second British column was stopped at Fort Stanwix, and the main body of the British Army was not in New 37
York.
Burgoyne refused to change his plans. American General Horatio Gates established defensive positions at Bemis Heights, a
position that dominated the Hudson River valley. valley. These positions would force Burgoyne to try to out flank the Americans on October 7, 1777. Rain and bad roads forced forced the British to retreat;
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they moved only eight miles in two days to the town of Saratoga.
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Gates‟ army – outfitted – outfitted with
French equipment supplied by Beaumarchais – followed – followed and surrounded Saratoga, forcing Burgoyne to surrender on October 17, 1777. Over one hundred years later in The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World: from Marathon to Waterloo, Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy
declared that no other military military event “exercised more important influence on t he future fortunes 39
of mankind, than the complete co mplete defeat of Burgoyne‟s expedition in 1777.”
News of Burgoyne‟s defeat reached Paris in November 1777. The American representatives representat ives seized the opportunity and immediately immediately renewed their requests. This was the news Vergennes needed to convince his government to support the Americans openly. After a several days of meetings with his advisors, Louis XVI decided to formally recognize America‟s independence and create a treaty of commerce and friendship. 40 The treaty negotiations moved quickly, and both nations signed the treaties on February 6, 1778. The first was a treaty of commerce, in which each nation extended „most favored natio n‟ status to the other. The second treaty was for for mutual defense and alliance. This was the most important treaty, and with it it came certain conditions. The Americans could not not make peace with with England until its independence was recognized, and that neither nation could enter into a treaty without consulting with the other.
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France inserted this condition to ensure that England could
not make peace before France could firmly befriend the America. The Results
The French were able to provide assistance in time for the siege of Yorktown in 1781. The French Fleet arrived in the Americas in the summer of 1778, and fought battles against the British Fleet until the fall of 1779. It was eighteen months months after the signing of the treaties that the first French troops landed in America. On July 11, 1780, Jean-Baptiste Jean-Baptist e Donatien de Vimeur,
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Vicomte de Rochambeau arrived off the coast of Rhode Island with five thousand, five hundred troops.
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The French expedition wintered over in Newport and prepared for combat operations
in 1781. The French Fleet returned to America and defeated the British British Fleet in the Battle of the Chesapeake in 1781, which allowed American and French ground forces to concentrate on the siege of Yorktown. Sir Edward Creasy made a very bold statement when he said that the Battle of Saratoga was the most important battle in the history of mankind. mankind. The legitimacy of this claim is debatable; however, it is clear that Saratoga was the most important battle in American history – and directly affected European history. history. Saratoga turned the tide of the American Revolution, leading to direct direct French involvement. This military military assistance not only provided tangible results, but it also strengthened the confidence of the American army. army. American independence and the spirit of the Enlightenment influenced French revolutionaries prior to the French Revolution, which influenced European history for the next one hundred and and fifty years. If not for the extraordinary efforts of men like Franklin, Vergennes, Beaumarchais, et al, the French government would not have lent assistance to America, and none of these events would have been set into motion.
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Endnotes
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James B. Perkins, France in the American Revolution (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), 61-62. Ibid., 221. 3 Ibid., 62. 4 Ibid. 5 Timeline of Diplomatic History, “1776 -1783: Diplomacy of the American Revolution,” Department of State, http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/time1.html. 6 Perkins, 132-133. 7 Ibid., 140. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid., 143. 10 Ibid., 223. 11 Ibid., 222. 12 Ibid., 224. 13 Ibid., 226. 14 Timeline. 15 Perkins, 204. 16 Ibid., 206. 17 Ibid., 64. 18 Ibid., 122. 19 Frank W. Brecher, Securing American Independence: John Jay and the French Alliance (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003), 6970. 20 Perkins, 124. 21 Ibid., 82. 22 Ibid., 68. 23 Ibid., 84-85. 24 Ibid., 85, 88. 25 Ibid., 91-92. 26 Ibid., 96 27 Brecher, 63. 28 Perkins, 219. 29 Ibid., 147. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid., 146. 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid., 148, 227. 34 Ibid., 230. 35 Ibid., 149. 36 Ibid., 229. 37 The Battle of Saratoga. “The Battle of Saratoga.”, http://battle1777.saratoga.org/. 38 Ibid. 39 Sir Edward S. Creasey, The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World: from Marathon to Waterloo (London: Richard Bentley and Son, 1879), 292. 40 Perkins, 238. 41 Treaty of Alliance between the United States and France, art. 1 and 8, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fr1788-2.asp 42 Perkins, 306. 2
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Bibliography Brecher, Frank W. Securing American Independence: John Jay and the French Alliance. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107032616. Creasey, Edward S. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World: from Marathon to Waterloo. 29th ed. London: Richard Bentley and Son, 1879. “1776-1783: Diplomacy of the American Revolution.” Department of State. “1776http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/time1.html (10 August 2009). Perkins, James B. France in the American Revolution. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=97431821. Saratoga County Chamber of Commerce. "The Battle of Saratoga." http://battle1777.saratoga.org. Treaty of Alliance between the United States and France, art. 1 and 8, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fr1788-2.asp
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