Amateur Photographer - Advanced Photography Skills

RAISING YOUR PHOTOGRAPHY TO THE NEXT LEVEL NEW

SPRING 2013 £3.99

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

TECHNIQUES O Secrets for sharper images O Learn to blend exposures O Shoot in low light O Capture infrared scenes O Understand focus stacking O Use enlarger lenses on your camera

FILL-IN FLASH SENSORS TECHNIQUES EXPLAINED Beat shadows on bright sunny days

PERFECT LANDSCAPES

Skills, techniques and advice for creating stunning outdoor images

PRO PRINTING IN-CAMERA EFFECTS ADVICE

The science behind Produce high-quality Get creative without taking better photos prints at home using software

PLUS HOW TO CHOOSE A TRIPOD OGUIDE TO CONTINUOUS LIGHTING

Est. 1991

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An Ilford Witness, in maker’s case, sold for £13,200 Our last sale on 5 October 2012 realised over £143,000 in total, with bidding from around the world and high prices realised in all areas. Our next sale on 28 February 2013 includes fine Leica, other 35mm cameras, mahogany and brass cameras and movie cameras; we are now taking in consignments for our following sale on 16 May 2013. For further information on the largest regular sales of their type in the United Kingdom, or to get a valuation, please contact Hugo Marsh on: + (0)1635 580595 or [email protected] 81 Greenham Business Park, Newbury RG19 6HW www.specialauctionservices.com WorldMags.net

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INTRODUCTION

WELCOME Being in the right place at the right time is vital when taking landscape images. The time of day, the photographer’s position in relation to the sun, and the weather all make the difference between a good landscape image and a stunning one. While you may get lucky and stumble upon a magnificent scene that is beautifully lit, with a little planning and preperation you can increase your chances of capturing a great image before you have even stepped outside your front door. In this issue of Amateur Photographer magazine’s

Advanced Photography Skills, we tell you everything you need to know to take great landscapes photographs, from preparing for a day’s shooting to getting home and editing your images. We even look at how to capture otherworldly landscapes by shooting in infrared. Of course, this issue is crammed full of other useful information to help you take better images, and to understand how your camera and equipment works. From printing to fill-in flash, we want to take you beyond the basics and give you the skills and advice you need to raise your photography to the next level. Richard Sibley, Editor

THE TEAM EDITOR: Richard Sibley ART EDITOR: Simon Warren PRODUCTION EDITOR: Oliver Cotton ILLUSTRATIONS: Mark Jacobs CONTRIBUTORS: Damien Demolder, Mat Gallagher, Andrew Sydenham, Tim Coleman, Professor Robert Newman PUBLISHING DIRECTOR: Alex Robb SENIOR MARKETING MANAGER: Estelle Hicks-Bennett ONLINE MANAGER: Karen Sheard ADVERTISING: Julia Spencer, Simon Gerard

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Amateur Photographer™is a trademark of IPC Media Ltd © 2013 IPC Media Ltd ISSN No. 0002-6840

Advanced Photography Skills is a Focus Network title, published by IPC Inspire, part of IPC Media Ltd, Blue Fin Building, 110 Southwark Street, London SE1 0SU

ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 3

CONTENTS

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CONTENTS 7 TOP TIPS FOR SHARPER IMAGES Simple techniques for pin-sharp pictures

12 ADVANCED LANDSCAPES Preparation, planning and dramatic compositions

24 RETOUCHER’S GUIDE Create smooth, noise-free skies

26 CUSTOM WHITE BALANCE Render hues and tones with accuracy

32 MACRO WITH A COMPACT Ditch the DSLR

38 FOCUS STACKING Maintain sharpness in your macro images

42 COMPLETE GUIDE TO SHOOTING INFRARED IMAGES

53 NO SOFTWARE REQUIRED In-camera effects

60 BUILD A LCD LOUPE Solve your visibility issues in bright light

62 RETOUCHER’S GUIDE Blending multiple exposures

64 CAPTURING WATER DROPLETS AND SPLASHES Try your hand at a classic technical challenge

66 ENLARGER LENSES Macro images without the expense

70 FILL-IN FLASH FOR PORTRAITS Use flash outside

73 CONTINUOUS LIGHTING An alternative to flash

76 LOW LIGHT Capture detail for stunning results

78 SENSOR DESIGN Processes, principles and problems

82 TRIPODS All you need to know about this essential kit

86 PROFESSIONAL PRINTING Gallery-quality prints at home

91 FUTURE-PROOFING Safeguard your archive

94 CAMERA CARE Keep your kit in tip-top condition

Our comprehensive guide

48 CONVERT A DSLR FOR INFRARED

91 FUTURE-PROOFING

A step-by-step guide

4 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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12 ADVANCED

LANDSCAPES

Find out how to capture your best-ever landscape photos

7 TOP TIPS FOR SHARPER IMAGES

32 MACRO WITH A COMPACT

53 NO SOFTWARE REQUIRED

94 CAMERA CARE

64 CAPTURING WATER DROPLETS AND SPLASHES

86 PROFESSIONAL PRINTING WorldMags.net

ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 5

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It doesn’t take much effort to produce the sharpest possible images, nor is the most expensive equipment required – in fact, it’s all a matter of application. Here are our 18 top tips for pin-sharp pictures IF THERE is one thing all photographers appreciate, it is extremely sharp pictures. Whether it is a macro, landscape or architectural image, the sharper it is the more fine details will be revealed. Capturing pin-sharp images is neither difficult nor reliant on the use of lenses and cameras costing thousands of pounds. In fact, it largely comes down to the choices you make when setting up your camera prior to taking the shot. There is no one secret trick, but by using a combination of the following 18 tips you can be sure your images will be as sharp as possible.

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1 FIXED-FOCAL-LENGTH LENS IT IS well known that fixed-focal-length lenses generally produce sharper results than zoom optics. However, buying a range of such lenses is costly, so instead use image library software, such as the Organizer in Adobe Photoshop Elements, Lightroom, Adobe Bridge or Apple Aperture, to find out which focal lengths you use most. Using the search filters, find all images taken

using a particular zoom lens and then search by focal length. I found that out of 5,062 images I took with an 18-200mm superzoom lens, 2,450 were taken between 18mm and 24mm – a fixed 18mm or 20mm lens would therefore be ideal and certainly a lot sharper than the optic I used. Fixed-focal-length lenses do not have to be expensive. Both Canon and Nikon offer 50mm f/1.8 optics at less than £200, and older, used AF versions can be found for around £100. And don’t forget that old manualfocus lenses are also available for many camera systems. If your photography isn’t reliant on fast focusing speeds, these can be extremely sharp and good value for money. One of the sharpest lenses I own is a 55mm f/3.5 Micro Nikkor lens from 1963, which cost me just £45.

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 7

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2 CHOICE OF FOCAL LENGTH

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sharper than others. This doesn’t mean that you need to abandon all your optics and spend thousands of pounds on new ones, but it may help if you learn which of them are sharper than others, and at what settings. Take the kit zoom and superzoom lenses of the 18-200mm variety. These are never going to be the sharpest lenses you can buy, but there are ways to maximise their performance. For instance, a zoom lens will usually perform the worst at its extremes, so before you zoom all the way in, think about taking a few steps forward and using a focal length nearer to the middle of the zoom range. This slight adjustment can make a significant difference. It is similar story at the minimum focal length where a zoom will also show distortion. Here, you should zoom in slightly and take a few steps backwards. Finding the focal length at which a zoom lens is sharpest is straightforward. Use a tripod to keep the camera steady and then simply photograph the same subject at different focal lengths, keeping the subject the same size in each frame. Now see which focal length produces the sharpest result. Of course, the more you pay for a zoom lens, the better the image quality should be and, as lenses hold their value far better than cameras and can always be used when you upgrade, it is always worth buying the best you can afford.

24mm

IF YOUR camera is mounted on a tripod, take advantage of this by

THERE is no escaping the fact that some lenses are

4 APERTURE

APERTURE plays a vital role in the sharpness of an image. The rule of thumb is that a lens is at its sharpest when stopped down 2 stops from its widest aperture. Therefore, an f/2.8 lens should start to reach its sharpest at f/5.6. When used with an aperture set to its maximum, lenses are more prone to suffering from distortions, chromatic aberrations, flare and coma, all of which have an adverse effect on sharpness. Conversely, diffraction starts to occur as an aperture becomes smaller. When

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3 MANUAL FOCUS AND LIVE VIEW

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using live view to magnify the image on the rear of the camera. You can then manually focus the lens with real precision, making sure the desired area is precisely in focus – for example, the subject’s pupil rather than the end of their eyelashes.

50mm 22

135mm

200mm

22

22

F/2.8

F/4

F/5.6

F/8

F/11

F/16

the aperture is very small, the light tends to bend as it exits the hole. These divergent rays have to travel further to reach the focus plane, which means they end up being slightly out of phase, resulting in a slight blurring. So while the effects of diffraction are often only slight, they can cause noticeable loss of detail. To test which aperture is the sharpest on any given lens, aim the optic at a particularly detailed subject and lock the focus to this point. Now, in aperture priority mode, take the same image at every given aperture. By examining the results at 100%, you will see exactly which aperture settings produce the sharpest image – these

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are usually between f/5.6 and f/11, depending on the lens. It is worth considering this information when shooting landscapes, when generally you’ll want to get as much of the image in focus as possible. While a small aperture of f/22 will increase the depth of field, it will also increase diffraction, which will reduce the image sharpness. Instead, use hyperfocal focusing, where the aperture and point of focus are calculated, to maximise the depth of field and sharpness across as much of the image as possible.

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5 AF FINE-TUNE MANY DSLR cameras now

come with a feature that allows the autofocus to be fine-tuned, even allowing it to be adjusted for individual lenses. It can be the case that lenses display a slight front- or back-focus effect. Most of the time this will barely be noticeable, but for absolute precision it is worth checking your individual lenses. There are commercially available focus-checker devices that can help

you to check and adjust the AF of your camera. However, a quick search online will also present a variety of free charts that you can download and make yourself. The basic premise is to focus on the focusing chart and look at how sharp the point of focus is. If your lens is perfect, the focus should be on the exact point that you have focused on. However, if the lens is slightly out, the point of focus may be just in front, or

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just behind, the intended target. Using the camera’s AF fine-tune facility, it is possible to tweak the AF performance of the lens by a tiny fraction to accommodate any flaw in the focus of the lens. Most cameras then have the option to save this setting so that it is automatically applied whenever this lens is used. By going through and adjusting each of your lenses, you can make sure that you get the best performance from them every time.

Fine-tuning the autofocus can squeeze a tiny bit more detail out of a lens

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7 MIRROR LOCK-UP THERE are a few things that are

hard to avoid when you press a camera’s shutter button. One is that you will inevitably move the camera slightly. The other is that the movement of the camera’s mirror springing upwards will cause tiny vibrations. One of the ways to avoid these movements is to use mirror lock-up mode. When available, this moves the mirror up when the shutter is pressed, with the shutter being released after a short delay or when the shutter is next pressed. This delay allows any vibrations or movements to settle. In taking these slight movements out of the equation, the resulting image should be slightly sharper.

6 SHUTTER SPEED

THE CAMERA’S shutter is a tool for freezing motion, be it the movement of the photographer or the subject. If you are photographing a moving subject, remember to use a shutter speed that is fast enough to freeze its motion. While 1/125sec may be appropriate for someone walking leisurely, it won’t be fast enough to perfectly freeze the motion of someone sprinting or leaping over a hurdle. If the speed is too slow, the motion won’t be frozen and the subject will appear blurred. Similarly, any movement the photographer is making will also have an effect. If you are shooting handheld, the rule is that you should always use a shutter speed at least as fast as the 35mm focal length. Therefore, if you are using a 300mm lens on a full-frame DSLR, you should use a shutter speed of 1/300sec or faster. If you are using a 300mm lens on a camera with an APS-C-sized sensor, then you should be using a shutter speed of at least 1/450sec (which takes the crop factor into account). Although image stabilisation will obviously help to reduce the effects of camera shake, for best results try and adhere to this rule as much as possible.

This is an extreme example, but choosing the correct shutter speed can make a big difference to the sharpness of your images

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8 FOCUSING TECHNIQUE

ANOTHER habit of most photographers is to use the centre AF spot to focus and then, with the focus locked and shutter button half pressed, reframe the shot. This technique works if you have a large depth of field, but with a shallow depth of field the otherwise fractional shift in AF distance can slightly soften focus. It is far better to shift to a more appropriate AF point positioned over the subject. Another option is to use a single AF point and continuous tracking; it is then possible to use the centre spot focus and reframe technique as the focus tracking will adjust for the slight movement.

9 SHOOT RAW

ALTHOUGH the level of

sharpening and noise reduction can be set to varying levels in-camera, it is always best to shoot raw images. When an image is saved as a JPEG file, it is compressed to save space, but this can cause a loss of detail sharpness. Capturing images as raw files and then using raw-conversion software to process them offers far more control over how sharpening and noise reduction are applied.

10 SHARPENING

AS WITH luminance noise reduction, you should remove any default settings and start sharpening from scratch. In this way you will have complete control. I find that sharpening can usually be applied a little more strongly than the default settings allow, but it is dependent on the subject. Most sharpening tools use an Unsharp Mask technique, which increases edge contrast to make them appear sharper. To successfully sharpen an image to its full potential, it is important to understand what each of the changes you make does. Adobe Camera Raw has four different sliders for sharpening, each performing a different task. While they may have slightly different names in other software packages, the basic functions are the same. The Amount slider controls the strength of the sharpening, basically adjusting the low contrast of edges to increase or decrease the effect. The Radius slider determines the number of pixels from an edge that are affected by the sharpening. Using a small number will only affect the area around very distinct edges; a larger number will apply the sharpening effect to a greater distance away from the edge, causing

a stronger contrast effect. It can, however, create a halo effect around these edges, so it is best to keep the Radius fairly low, usually between around 0.5 and 2 pixels. Holding down the Alt key while moving the Radius slider shows a preview of which edges will be affected, highlighted in white. Grey areas remain unaffected. Look out for haloed edges and reduce the setting accordingly. The Detail slider is quite straightforward: it controls the degree to which details are sharpened. The higher the setting, the more fine edges are sharpened. When at a low setting, only the major outline edges will be affected, and not the smaller surface texture details. Again, holding the Alt key while moving the slider shows exactly which detailed edges will be affected. Perhaps the most useful of the sharpening tools is the Masking slider. This masks those areas of the image that you don’t want sharpened. When set to 0, no masking is applied, but when at 100 sharpening will only be applied to major edges. Where the masking slider is particularly useful is in actually making sure that any luminance noise in skies isn’t made worse by the sharpening process. Hold down Alt and use the Masking slider to ensure that you only sharpen those edges that need it.

Only sharpen areas that you need to so that noise is not exaggerated

COLOUR NOISE

COLOUR NR

NR JUST RIGHT

TOO MUCH NR

11 NOISE REDUCTION

MOST raw-conversion software will apply default sharpening and noise reduction based on the ISO sensitivity of the image. However, these aren’t always the best settings to use. When it comes to noise reduction, it is luminance noise reduction that is the most destructive. It works by blending neighbouring pixels together to remove the speckled luminance noise. In doing so, the process often blurs texture detail, creating images that look blurred or smudged, but with sharp edges.

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When applying luminance noise reduction, start with no reduction applied and then gradually increase the level until the edge has been taken off any speckling, but before any signs of smudging or loss of surface detail emerge. It is better to leave a hint of speckled luminance noise in the image than cause a loss of detail and sharpness from too much noise reduction. Colour (chroma) noise reduction usually has no effect on the sharpness of an image, so it is generally acceptable to apply as much as is necessary to reduce any coloured noise.

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12 ISO SENSITIVITY YOU MAY not think so, but ISO sensitivity has some effect on sharpness because as the sensitivity increases so does luminance and chroma noise. These reduce detail, but not as much as noise reduction, which blurs and smoothes image noise causing a loss of image sharpness in fine detailed areas. Wherever possible, try to shoot at your camera’s native ISO sensitivity, which is usually ISO 100 or 200. Doing so will mean the sensor and image processor will not have to amplify any analogue or digital signals – an action that can itself create image noise. Similarly, avoid ‘Lo’ ISO settings. These generally just use the camera’s native ISO sensitivity and then underexpose the image accordingly, before boosting the signal to produce a correct exposure. Generally, any image noise produced is very slight, but there can be less detail in highlight areas compared to using the camera’s native ISO sensitivity.

SKILLS

16 TRIPODS AND SUPPORTS A TRIPOD is perhaps the best tool for making sure that an image is pin-sharp. While it can sometimes be a pain to carry around, the benefits of using one are huge. With the camera mounted on a sturdy tripod and head, there should be no camera movement during the exposure and virtually no excuse for the image to not be sharp. However, it isn’t just tripods that can help steady your camera –

monopods also offer a great deal of support. Although they are not as stable as a tripod, monopods can make a significant difference to the sharpness of your images. Some professional portrait photographers even use monopods when shooting in a controlled and well-lit studio environment, as they offer support but with a degree of flexibility not found with a tripod.

WITH SUPPORT

13 IMAGE STABILISATION

WHETHER it is optical- or sensor-based image stabilisation, if you are shooting handheld you should always switch it on if available. Even if you are using a fast shutter speed, the extra stabilisation can make a difference. However, image stabilisation should not be considered a substitute for a proper camera support. Although it makes it possible to shoot images handheld at far slower shutter speeds than would normally be possible, for critical sharpness a fast shutter speed or an appropriate support should always be used.

WITHOUT SUPPORT

14 DEPTH OF FIELD

THE APERTURE of a lens is, of course, used to set the depth of field. It may seem obvious to say that the subject must fall within the given depth of field, but pay real attention to how the depth of field may affect sharpness. If you are shooting a portrait image at a very wide aperture of, say, f/2.8, and either you or the subject moves forward or back by just an inch or two when taking the picture, it may be enough to throw the subject slightly out of focus. The eyes, for example, may now be not as sharp as they should and the focus point may be nearer the front of the subject’s nose. Increasing the aperture by just 1 stop will increase the depth of field enough to help reduce the effects of this movement.

15 SELF-TIMER

IF YOUR camera doesn’t have a mirror lock-up function, the self-timer function can be just as useful. By setting the self-timer to fire a few seconds after you have pressed the shutter button, any force you may have applied to the camera when pressing the button will have subsided before the image is taken. A self-timer becomes even more useful when combined with mirror lock-up. This means that the mirror can spring up and then, when you press the camera’s shutter button a second time, it will be a further few seconds before the shutter automatically opens. Once again, this means that the camera should be perfectly still and free from even the slightest shake.

17 CORRECT AUTOFOCUS MODE SOMETHING that is often overlooked is the correct autofocus mode. On a basic level you have a choice between single and continuous AF. If you are shooting a still object, such as a still life or a landscape image, then single AF mode is the most sensible choice, while continuous AF is the obvious choice if your subject is moving. However, if you are handholding the camera and shooting something like a portrait image, where the depth of field may be shallow, it may be worth using continuous AF. As previously explained, if you or the subject lean forward or back slightly, continuous AF should help maintain sharp focus on the subject.

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18 REMOTE RELEASE FOR ABSOLUTE precision, a remote release is key. Using a remote release means that a camera’s shutter button doesn’t have to be pressed at all. As a result, the camera won’t be subject to any movements created when you press the button. Once again, when combined with a mirror lock-up and a tripod, a remote release should allow for pin-sharp pictures.

ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 11

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ADVANCED The first step to improving your landscape photography is to ensure you are prepared. We explain how to plan your shoot properly, what to take with you and how best to achieve dramatic compositions

The more preparation you put into taking a landscape image, the greater your chances of producing a fantastic photograph 12 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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SKILLS

LANDSCAPES LANDSCAPES are one of the most popular subjects in photography, and something that nearly all photographers turn their hand to at some point. Many photographers choose to take a landscape shot simply because they are in a nice

location with great lighting, so they set the camera’s aperture to f/16 and click away. However, to be more than just a one-hit wonder in the world of great landscapes images, careful planning and preparation are essential, along with compositional skill.

While most photographers are familiar with the basics of how to take a good landscape image, this guide will go beyond the fundamentals and explain how you can capture your best-ever landscape photographs.

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PLANNING AND PREPARATION The key to landscape photography is proper planning and preparation. Knowing exactly when and where to shoot dramatically increases your chances of success and saves a lot of time in the process

photographer’s lens completely, and looking at the images taken by other photographers will give you an idea of how to plan your own shoot. Look for features in the landscape, and see how the location changes at different times of the day or in different seasons. All these ideas will be useful when you come to make your final decision about what your photograph should look like.

TIME OF DAY

FINDING YOUR LOCATION Look through most photography magazines and you will see the same locations time and again. There are countless sites all over the UK that are notorious for photographers almost having to queue up to take photographs. Places such as Durdle Door in Dorset, or the wooden jetties on Derwent Water in the Lake District, are fantastic locations, but with so many images of them already existing, it is difficult to make your photograph stand out from the rest. While it isn’t necessarily a bad thing to have a great photograph that is similar to someone else’s, it is nicer to have your own unique image from your own location, or at least to see how you can photograph the more famous locations differently. Thanks to the internet, it is now possible to explore locations without having to leave your home, which makes the planning stage of a landscape shoot much easier. The first thing to do is to find out what locations have already been photographed many times before. If you are interested in a particular area, visit Flickr (www.flickr.com) and search for the name of the location. Very few places have escaped the 14 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

Timing is crucial for landscape photography. If you are planning to travel to a location for sunrise or sunset, make sure you know exactly how long your journey will take

One of the biggest decisions facing the landscape photographer is what time of day to shoot a particular location. Some of the most fantastic colours, as well as long dramatic shadows, are produced just before and after sunrise and sunset, and these make it the favourite time for most people. The sun will always rise roughly to the east and set in the west, but consider how this light will affect what is illuminated in the landscape. Will the side of a particular hill be lit up by the sun during sunrise or sunset? At what time of day will the sun be bright enough to cause a perfect reflection of that hill in the lake? While these are questions that can be fairly difficult to answer without first visiting the location at different times of the day, there are ways to work out when the light will hit certain features in the scene while you’re sitting at home. An Ordnance Survey map will give you a rough idea of where the sun will rise and set in relation to your location, but for a more comprehensive solution try the Photographer’s Ephemeris (photoephemeris.com). This is a simple piece of software for use on either a computer or an Apple iPhone/iPad

to calculate precisely where and at what time the sun will rise and set on a specific day at any point in the future. By using a slider you can see how the position of the sun will change over the course of the day, so if you do want to see the sunlight hit a particular feature in the landscape you can find out at exactly what time this will happen – which will allow you to work out just how far in advance you need to be at the location to set up for the shot. For example, if you want to photograph a mountain with a lake to its east, the Photographer’s Ephemeris will show a map of that location. Moving the slider will change the time of day and show the exact position of the sun throughout. You will then be able to see at exactly what time the sun will be illuminating the mountain from along the lake, allowing you to stand at the far end of the lake and capture the mountain nicely lit up by the early morning sunshine. You can work out the time to the exact minute, so you can arrive and set up your camera gear in plenty of time. Although it is always ideal to know your intended location first-hand, tools like the Photographer’s Ephemeris make it possible to know the right time to visit a location in order to catch sunrise or sunset. The information it provides even allows you to calculate where to stand to capture the perfect image. It can save a lot of time, and it means you don’t have to get up early and visit your location time and again in an effort to perfect your picture.

TRAVELLING If you are planning to visit your location at a very specific time, such

The Photographer’s Ephemeris can tell you the position of the sun at any given time, anywhere in the world

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THE WEATHER

AS UNPREDICTABLE as the British weather can be, most 24-hour forecasts are reasonably accurate and offer at least an idea of what you may be faced with before heading out. So make sure you check the weather beforehand and, if you are determined to head out even in the pouring rain, make sure you have packed your camera kit and clothing accordingly. It may seem like common sense, but when that 10% chance of a downpour materialises you’ll be thankful that you packed a waterproof jacket and your camera in its waterresistant case. Checking the weather will not only help you decide whether it is worth getting out of bed or to remind you to take a coat – it can also help to prevent a dangerous situation. Although some of the best-known landscape locations aren’t far from a main road, many more are well off the beaten track, out on the moors or in mountainous regions, so always take care and be prepared. If there is the likelihood of a thunderstorm, heavy rain or snow, think carefully about whether you will be safe going out. If you think the conditions are manageable, remember to dress and pack your equipment appropriately. If you plan to photograph seascapes, knowing the tide times is just as essential as knowing what weather to expect. There is no point turning up at a venue ready to take long-exposure images of a wooden pier heading out to sea if the tide is out and there is a mile of exposed sand when you arrive. Similarly, if you want to photograph the rugged rock pools off the coast of

Jersey, you’ll want to know when the tide will be low enough to do so. With safety in mind, it is important to know when the tide will be in. You don’t want to be stranded in a bay that can only be accessed at low tide when the water is coming in. To check the tide times around the UK coastline, visit www.bbc.co.uk/weather/ coast_and_sea/tide_tables.

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conditions where the batteries won’t perform to their full ability. Also, even if your camera has an incamera level facility, it is always worth carrying a separate hotshoemounted bubble level to help ensure your images are straight. Besides camera equipment, there are a number of other items you should pack. If you are heading off the beaten track in the Lake District, Brecon Beacons, Dartmoor or a similarly remote landscape, a map and compass should be high on your list. Despite mobile phones being able to access maps, many will require an internet connection that may not be available in a remote landscape. Similarly, mobile phone batteries can also die. With this in mind, make sure your mobile is fully charged and use an in-car charger to keep it topped up while travelling between locations. The most obvious advice of all is to take a bottle of water and some sweets, chocolate or a banana or two. If you don’t stay hydrated or are low on energy, you will tire more easily and won’t be able to stay out taking images for as long. Also, tiredness can lead to simple mistakes, such as forgetting to shoot in raw or forgetting to set the correct ISO sensitivity.

‘Some of the most fantastic colours are produced just before and after sunrise and sunset’ as sunrise or sunset, make sure you allow enough time to get there. If you are driving, take into account any traffic you may face, particularly in the evenings. Also include the time it will take to park and walk to your location, and allow yourself ten minutes to set up your camera and tripod and test your exposure settings.

ACCESS Make sure you are not trespassing on private land when taking photographs. There are many public rights of way in the UK, with footpaths and bridleways for walkers, horses and cyclists. There are also paths where the landowner allows people to use walkways across their land, but these are not officially public rights of way. Ordnance Survey maps of 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 scale show public paths. Certain areas in National Parks, Forestry Commission woodland and National Trust land offer open access. This means that the public has legal foot access to any open area. Some of these areas are clearly marked, but always be sure you are not trespassing on private land by checking local maps and guides.

PACKING YOUR CAMERA BAG While it is best to pack your camera equipment to accommodate any photo opportunity that you come across, if you are planning to walk for any length of time try to reduce the weight you will be carrying. As you are going to be specifically taking landscapes, I would suggest taking a fixed wideangle lens and a mid-range zoom, such as a 2870mm or a 28-105mm lens. This will allow you to have a sharp prime lens for most landscapes and a zoom lens to pick out specific subjects in the landscape. If you are driving between different locations, then by all means carry more lenses with you but leave them securely in the boot of your car to keep what you are carrying to a minimum. One essential item for sharp images is a remote camera release. Combined with mirror lock-up, this will allow you to keep to a minimum any vibrations caused by touching the camera, mirror slap or firing the shutter. If you plan to be out for the whole day, it is worth taking a spare camera battery, particularly in colder

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 15

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ON LOCATION

Once you have reached your chosen location, there is still work to be done before you even start setting up your camera

COMPOSITION With your scene now in front of you, it is time to decide exactly how to compose your image. There are countless ways to do this, and it is up to the photographer to determine a suitable composition for the scene at that particular moment. There are few rules when it comes to composition, although the rule of thirds is always a good starting point, but by breaking this rule you

can sometimes produce some of the most striking images. Another similar method of composition is the Fibonacci curve. Like the rule of thirds, it places key compositional elements along certain points in the curve, and is meant to balance an image and draw in the viewer’s eye. Lone trees, a tractor or farm buildings can all be placed along the rule of thirds intersections to help balance an image and give the viewer

When positioning elements in the frame, use the rule of thirds as a starting point

Use a piece of acetate and divide it into nine equal areas. Then place it in a card frame to make a simple compositional aid 16 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

A Fibonacci, or Golden Ratio, curve can be used to help compose images

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a point on which to focus. Equally, placing an object in the centre of the frame can make it powerful and dominant, but it can also make it the complete focus of an image rather than the landscape itself. Control where the viewer will look through leading lines. Winding country roads that cut through a scene, or the ploughed lines in a field, can be used to guide the viewer through an image. Leading lines can provide a sense of scale, which is important if your landscape is otherwise just blue skies and green grass. The aspect ratio can make a huge difference to the look of an image. Again, there is no right or wrong format for a landscape photograph. Many of Ansel Adams’ images are of a 5:4 ratio, while 3:2 and 4:3 aspect ratios are probably the most common today. However, there is nothing stopping you crop to other, less traditional aspect ratios. Although you will probably want to crop the image to a suitable aspect ratio using image-editing software rather than in-camera at the scene, it can be useful to know roughly what you want your image to look like. To help visualise this, it is possible to change the image format in-camera and then return it to its native aspect ratio before taking the image. Other photographers may use masking tape or card to cover part of the screen to help see their composition. Another trick is to use a series of small card frames with apertures of different aspect ratios cut out of them. Holding these in front of your eye will allow you to see roughly how an image will look, without even having to get your camera out of your bag. With a camera bag carefully

WorldMags.net LOW ANGLE

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EYE-LEVEL

The height at which an image is taken can dramatically alter the look of the scene. Here, the shallow waves of the low-angle image draw the eye to the building

1:1

‘Shooting from above eye-level will often result in the camera being angled down slightly to capture the landscape. The result will be that more of the landscape, but less of the sky, is visible’ When cropping images, consider the scene’s key elements. Here, the 3:2 ratio strikes a nice balance between the clouds and sunlit foreground

3:2 5:4

16:9 4:3

packed and a tripod in tow, it can take a few minutes to set up your equipment once you are in position. For all a tripod’s good points, it can be restrictive when it comes to creatively exploring how to compose a scene. With this in mind, it is a good idea to work out the exact position from which to take an image before you set the tripod up. Once again, you can do this using small framing cards to compose the scene, or you can even use a small compact camera, but usually it is best to use your main camera and take some test images at different angles, heights and positions. Once you have found the height and angle you are most happy with, set up the tripod and lock the camera in position.

HEIGHTS AND ANGLES

16:7

With your scene in front of you, it is tempting just to pull out your tripod and take all your images at eye-level, but this isn’t always the best option. We are all used to seeing the world at this height, so by shooting from a lower or higher angle we can create

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something slightly more unusual, and often more eye-catching. Shooting from above eye-level will often result in the camera being angled down slightly to capture the landscape. The result will be that more of the landscape, but less of the sky, is visible. Similarly, shooting from a low angle will reduce how much landscape is shown in the middle distance and draw attention to any subjects in the foreground. Think about how your shooting angle will draw attention to different parts of a scene. Remember that, as well as focusing your attention on one particular part of the scene, you can also avoid certain areas. For example, when faced with an amazing cloud formation made all the more dramatic by early evening sunlight bursting through, tilt the camera up to include more of the sky and less of the land. Conversely, avoid a dull, flat, overcast sky by not including it at all in your image. Instead, place the camera up high and shoot with it angled downwards. ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 17

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The hook on the bottom of a centre column can be used to add ballast to weigh down a lightweight tripod

ND grads are one of the key filters for any landscape photographer

ACCESSORIES FILTERS

On page 21, we explain when to use filters and how to use them correctly, but first we will look at what kind of filters you should be considering.

CIRCULAR POLARISER An absolute must for a landscape photographer is a circular polariser. These filters polarise the light entering the lens and cut down glare and reflections. In doing so, blue skies can be made even bluer, and clear water can become even clearer, which is useful when shooting in exotic locations next to lakes or the sea.

NEUTRAL DENSITY Neutral density (ND) filters are semitransparent and neutrally coloured. They filter the amount of light entering the camera, leading to an increase in the required exposure. When shooting landscape images, ND filters are most commonly used to increase the exposure time when photographing lakes or the sea to create a soft, misty water effect.

GRADUATED NEUTRAL DENSITY Graduated neutral density filters (ND grads) help to even out the exposure between land and sky. The graduated, semi-opaque finish gradually darkens skies before the gradient fades into the landscape. Using the correct ND grad will darken a bright sky in a scene and balance it with the land. To a certain extent its effect can be replicated by blending different exposures or by darkening a sky in editing software, but it is far better to get it right in-camera.

ULTRAVIOLET Ultraviolet (UV) filters cut down the amount of UV light entering the lens, which helps to make distant features in a landscape look clearer. However, most modern lenses are coated to

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reduce UV light, as are the filters that sit in front of a digital camera’s sensor, so UV filters are largely used to protect a camera’s lens rather than actually reduce UV light.

TRIPODS There are few situations when a tripod won’t give you a better, sharper image than a photograph taken handheld, but for landscape pictures they are essential for getting the sharpest images, particularly when small apertures are used at dawn or dusk. If you are planning to hike to your location, then a small, light, foursection, carbon-fibre tripod may be the most convenient. However, in windy conditions, a heavier, sturdier tripod is a better option to prevent camera shake. Most enthusiast photographers don’t have the luxury of owning two tripods, so the best one is the one you already own. If you have one of the lighter tripods, there are ways that you can weigh it down. Many tripods have a hook at the bottom of the centre column. This can be used to attach a weight, to add ballast that will help to prevent small movements of the tripod and act as a shock absorber to reduce any vibrations. Purpose-made sandbags or beanbags filled with sand are available, fitted with clips to make them easy to attach to a tripod’s ballast hook. Other options could include hanging your camera bag from the hook, or even just a carrier bag filled with rocks or stones picked up at the scene. If your tripod doesn’t have a hook, then string can be wrapped above where the tripod legs meet the centre column. It can then be used to attach a sandbag or your camera bag. Alternatively, you can use a water bottle, and if you are near a water feature the bottle can be filled up on location. Another important

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‘ND filters are semi-transparent and neutrally coloured. They filter the amount of light entering the camera’ factor is making sure that any quickrelease clamps on your tripod legs are tight and will hold the legs firm when clamped down. Most tripods come with a key that will allow you to tighten the nuts that provide the resistance against the clamp springs. Before heading out, make sure that when clamped the legs won’t slip.

PREVENTING CAMERA MOVEMENT In strong winds it is not just the tripod that will need to be steady, as the wind will catch the camera and lens, and the tiny movements will cause a loss of a sharpness. To help prevent this, place a sandbag on top of the camera. The extra weight will help to reduce any vibrations.

In windy conditions, use a sandbag or beanbag filled with rice to weigh down the camera

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FOCUSING AND EXPOSURE With your image composed and your camera on a tripod, it’s time to choose your focus point and exposure settings Focus here When focusing on the subject, in this case a tree, the depth of field extends in front of the tree and behind it, but not far enough for the distant mountain to be in focus

Focus on subject Focus here

By focusing slightly further back, the tree is still in focus, but the depth of field has now extended to infinity, bringing the mountain in the background into focus

Focus just behind subject FOCUSING It may seem odd to discuss focusing before exposure, but when it comes to landscape photography the two are intrinsically linked. Before you select your aperture you should know how much depth of field you require. For most landscape images, the aim of the photographer is to get as much of the landscape in focus as possible, from the very front of the scene to distant hills and mountains. To do this, hyperfocal focusing is used, whereby the lens is focused to a distance that allows depth of field to extend from in front of the point of focus to infinity With most modern lenses not having depth-of-field scales, many photographers remember the simplified rule that the depth of field extends roughly one third of its total distance in front of the focus point. Knowing this allows them to focus behind the subject, extending the depth of field further back, hopefully to infinity, but still keeping the foreground subject in focus. Although this knowledge is extremely useful, it is by no means accurate or precise. If you are using this technique, try increasing your aperture by another stop to increase

the depth of field further, or try focus bracketing to increase your chances of hitting the hyperfocal distance. A far better idea than all that guesswork is to create a hyperfocal distance graph for any lenses you own using free software from DOF Master (www.dofmaster.com/charts.html). This will allow you to create your own hyperfocal distance charts of each of your lenses, or for particular focal lengths of a zoom lens. Print these charts and carry them in your camera bag so you can refer to them to find the exact hyperfocal distance for a given lens and aperture. Use the focus distance scale markings on your lens to focus to the correct hyperfocal distance. Generally, these markings won’t allow you to set the exact distance so err on the side of caution and focus slightly further away. This should ensure the depth of field extends to infinity, although a little foreground depth will be lost.

EXPOSURE AND METERING Dramatic natural light can give a scene a dynamic range that even the most high-tech digital and film cameras will struggle to replicate. Exposing for a sunset can leave the

‘Using exposure bracketing means almost certainly getting a correctly exposed image’ foreground looking very dark, while exposing for the foreground can leave the sky looking very bright, with little or no colour from the sunset coming through. Solutions to this problem could be to use an ND (neutral density) graduated filter, create an HDR (high dynamic range) image, or carefully edit and blend shots together. However, it is best to try to create an exposure in-camera that is as close as possible to your desired final image. Generally, a camera’s evaluative metering system will produce one of two results when metering a scene with a very bright sky. It will either try to expose the foreground correctly at the expense of the sky, or it will dim the bright sky causing the land to be very dark. Neither is right or

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SKILLS

APERTURE, SHUTTER SPEED AND SENSITIVITY OF ALL the exposure settings, it is the aperture that is the most important. The aperture of a lens defines the depth of field, which is crucial when trying to get an entire scene in focus. The ISO sensitivity should be set to a low setting, which means it is the shutter speed that should be used to increase or decrease the exposure. With a low ISO sensitivity and a small aperture, exposure times may be quite long so a tripod will be essential for sharp images. In fact, particularly long exposures can be used deliberately to achieve certain effects. See ND filters on page 21 for more details on this. For best image quality, set the camera to its native ISO sensitivity, which will usually be the lowest ISO sensitivity. On some cameras, this will be ISO 200, with ISO 100 functioning as an extended or ‘low’ setting. A camera’s image sensor cannot become ‘less sensitive’ than its native ISO setting. What happens in these low extended modes is that the image is exposed as if the sensor were at an ISO 100 setting, but it is actually at ISO 200. The information is then processed to reduce the signal by 1EV so the resulting image appears as correctly exposed. The result is often an improvement in measured dynamic range because the 1EV effective overexposure means there is detail and colour when you come to edit the dark areas. However, there is a downside. Extended low ISO sensitivities usually only offer a better dynamic range in the midtones and shadows, but the overexposure means that some highlight detail may be lost. If you are photographing landscapes and want to maximise detail in the sky, stick to the native ISO rather than the lowest sensitivity that is available .

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-1EV

+1EV

Right: Bracketing your images gives you options when it comes to editing. Not only will it give you the best chance of a suitable exposure, but it will also allow you to blend exposures or create an HDR image

0EV

Left: Carefully check your histogram for highlight and shadow detail. Ideally, avoid large highlight areas and patches of complete black wrong in this instance, as the camera doesn’t know where you want the emphasis to be, but after a while you should become familiar with how your camera will meter in certain situations and you can then use the exposure compensation accordingly. The aim should be to find a balance between land and sky. Having taken a test shot, use the histogram to check for blown-out highlights. If you are photographing a sky, you should aim to have the right side of the curve just touching the far right of the histogram range. If there is a peak on the far right of the graph, this means an area is completely blown out to 100% white and will have no detail. It is fine to have some details that are completely white, but a large area like a sky will look odd. Also, when you later edit the image, the sky may create a posterised effect, with the burnt-out area appearing as a solid block of white, or off-white, colour. 20 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

Make sure you also check the histogram for shadow detail. As with the whites, any black tones on the far left-hand side of the histogram will show as completely black. While you will obviously want black tones in your image, unless you are going for a silhouette effect you don’t want a large clump of the histogram curve to be on the far left. Use exposure compensation to brighten or darken the scene so that both the image on the rear screen and, more importantly, the histogram look good.

-1EV

0EV

also manually change the exposure settings to bracket images. However, being able to set the camera to automatically take a sequence of three or five differently exposed images is much faster, allowing you more time to recompose for another shot before the light changes. Even if you are happy with the image exposure shown on the camera’s rear screen and by the curve of the histogram, it is still a good idea to set bracketing to -0.3, 0 and +0.3EV. As good as the rear screens on modern cameras are, they cannot be relied upon for complete accuracy and these slight exposure deviations make a lot of difference to highlight and shadow detail. Bracketing exposures will take up more space on your memory card, but when lighting can change from minute to minute, it is better to return knowing that you have a number of exposures to choose from rather than relying on just one. Remember that the less editing that is required, the less chance there is of introducing artefacts and noise. Bracketed exposures can also be used for HDR images or blended images. Setting the camera to bracket +2 and -2EV from the most suitable exposure should also be enough to recover highlight and

EXPOSURE BRACKETING One of the most useful features of a modern DSLR is exposure bracketing, but how often do you actually use it? When shooting landscape images, exposure bracketing is a convenient way of making sure that you go home with a correctly exposed image, or at least one that can be effectively edited. Of course, you can

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+1EV shadow detail, and allow different exposures to be blended together to create an HDR image.

FIRING THE SHUTTER While image stabilisation can help keep a camera still, the low light just before and after sunrise and sunset, combined with small apertures, will mean that a long exposure and a tripod will almost certainly be necessary. Yet even tripods are prone to slight movements, caused either by the wind or because of vibrations generated by firing the camera’s shutter. This is why, on page 18, that we looked at how to stabilise a tripod and camera, reducing these small movements by adding additional ballast. To avoid any camera movement, it is best not to touch the camera at all when triggering the shutter. Using the self-timer will allow a few seconds to elapse from the time the shutter button is pressed to the time the image is taken, during which any small movements can subside. A remote release will allow you to avoid handling the camera altogether. However, minute vibrations can also be caused by the slap of the camera’s mirror flipping up. These vibrations can be reduced by combining a remote release with mirror lock-up. Nearly all highend enthusiast and pro DSLRs have this feature, which locks the mirror up when the shutter release is pressed. Once any vibrations have subsided, the release is pressed again to open the shutter and expose the sensor or film. The shutter then closes and the mirror returns.

When using long exposures, make sure your tripod is weighed down and use mirror lockup and a remote release to reduce vibrations

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WITHOUT POLARISER

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WITH POLARISER

A polariser can make skies bluer and reduce reflections on water POLARISERS Polarising filters are a great way of making sure that skies are a nice shade of blue. They reduce the amount of image editing required, which is beneficial because overediting can often lead to image artefacts and banding. However, polarisers are also one of the most notable culprits for affecting white balance, often giving images a slight yellow tint. Make sure, then, that

WITHOUT ND GRAD USING FILTERS Filters are par for the course when shooting landscapes, so it is essential that you know how to use them correctly. As a filter goes straight in front of the lens, it is crucial that it is of good quality. Cheap filters may cause flare, a loss of contrast or sharpness, and they often affect colour balance. Some filters will affect white balance slightly, so take a white balance reading with the filter in place, or set to the correct strength or position. Shooting raw will give you the flexibility to alter the white balance when the file is converted. Always keep your filters clean and seal them when not in use. With the small apertures used in landscape photography, any dust on a filter’s surface is much more likely to appear on the image, making for laborious, post-capture retouching work.

you take a custom white balance and adjust the raw file to warm or cool the image to reproduce the natural colour of the light in the scene. Remember, too, that a polariser isn’t just ‘on’ or ‘off’ – it can be set to different strengths. So see which setting is most appropriate to the scene rather than simply setting it to its maximum each time.

WITH ND GRAD An ND grad filter darkens skies and is a must for all landscape photographers ND GRAD FILTERS To use an ND grad, take an evaluative meter reading of the scene, then adjust the exposure until the land is correctly exposed. Make a note of these settings, then darken the exposure until the sky is correctly exposed. Again, make a note of the settings. Given that the same aperture will be used each time, look at the difference in shutter speed between the two exposures. Use this difference to work out which ND grad filter to use. For example, if the exposure for the land is 1/60sec and the exposure for the sky is 1/250sec, a 2EV filter will be necessary to darken the sky sufficiently.

‘Keep your filters clean. With small apertures, any dust on a filter’s surface is much more likely to appear on the image’

An ND filter can be used to create long-exposure images that show movement ND FILTERS We all know what a neutral density filter does, but most photographers seem to use one solely for achieving a longer exposure to blur moving water. However, the longer exposure means that any other moving object in a landscape image will also be blurred. In an exposure time of more than a few minutes, clouds will start to blur and form patterns as they move across the sky. This will show in contrast to static subjects such as trees or bales of hay, which will remain sharp. Similarly, the wind will blow the

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branches of trees back and forth, creating blurred patterns as they sway around the tree’s static trunk. Fields of crops also produce an interesting effect as they move – very often, the blurred effect will only be visible at the top of the crop, which blows back and forth, while nearer to the ground the crop’s lower centre of gravity leaves it more static, and sharper, in the image. So the next time you are taking landscape pictures, think about how an ND filter can be used to capture movement on the land and in the sky, and not just for blurring water. ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 21

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IMAGE EDITING With the raw files safely captured and loaded onto a computer hard drive, it is now time to begin editing the images to ensure the landscapes look perfect GENERAL EDITING With ongoing improvements to image sensor technology, more and more detail can be recovered from shadow areas without introducing too much image noise. But by far the best option is to get the image as close as possible to its final version in-camera, and to shoot and edit raw files. Many images can be adjusted using the basic colour and contrast editing tools in Adobe Camera Raw. First use the Exposure adjustment to lighten or darken the image as necessary. Check the histogram when lightening the image to see that it isn’t creating large burnt-out highlight areas. A computer screen cannot always replicate every highlight tone, so the histogram is a more accurate indicator. With the overall image exposure corrected, it is time to assess the individual tones. Often the Fill Light tool is the next feature to use. This lightens the lightest shadow areas and midtones to recover more detail and brighten the image. For landscape photographers, the Fill Light tool is one of the most useful as it can reveal detail in areas that would otherwise appear as silhouettes.

When working with a particularly dark image, it can be a good idea to shift the black point slightly. By default this is set to 5 in Adobe Camera Raw and Lightroom. Setting it to 2 or 3 will reduce the areas that register as 100% black, which will again reveal a little more detail in these areas. Be sure to check any areas that are affected by this adjustment, as sometimes changing the black point can create banding or a posterised effect in shadow areas. With these corrections made it is time to look at the image’s contrast. Use Levels or Curves to increase the contrast, but keep an eye on the histogram while doing so to check that it doesn’t clip any black or white areas. The final step for brightness and contrast is to use the Highlight Recovery tool. This darkens highlights to pull back any detail that may have been lost during editing. If there was no detail there originally, this will just darken the highlights slightly and create a grey patch that will look out of place. It is best used to recover any details that may have been lost when performing the final contrast adjustment.

BLUE/GREEN

AS SHOT

YELLOW/GREEN

COLOUR The reason that many photographers favour shooting at dusk and dawn is for the variety of colour that appears in the sky. Reds, pinks, oranges, purples and blues can all be visible within an hour of each other as the atmosphere refracts the light from the sun as it passes the horizon. When editing the colours in an image, do so sympathetically. Add saturation and brightness, but avoid creating a ‘comic22 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

Think about how you edit particular colours. Landscapes can look very different depending on how the green colours are rendered book’ landscape. The aim should be to enhance the natural colours rather than impose artificial ones. Sometimes a quick nudge of the Saturation and Vibrance sliders is all that’s required. The former increases the saturation of all colours, while the

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HIGH DYNAMIC RANGE

BRACKETED exposures can be blended together using software to create a high dynamic range (HDR) photograph, which displays increased colour and contrast information for each pixel. Some photographers may feel uneasy about producing HDR images because of the way they are often processed. A full range of tonal information is used to form an image with no shadows or highlights, and full of midtones – and it looks completely unnatural. This is often combined with local rather than global contrast, all of which gives hypertoned HDR images their distinctive look. It is a look that landscape photographers should avoid. There is nothing wrong with creating an HDR image, but the extended dynamic range should be used to pull out shadow detail, not turn that detail into a midtone. Be sure to keep some highlights in the sky and shadows on the ground, and avoid adding excessive local contrast if you want the image to look natural. latter is more subtle, and increases the saturation of colours in relation to each other. It also has less effect on skin tones. A slight move of +10 on the Vibrance slider is often sufficient. A far better option is to alter the colours individually. In Camera Raw there are Hue, Luminance and Saturation sliders for each colour that can be used to fine-tune particular areas. For example, I am often unhappy with how green grass looks in images taken in dim sunlight. But using the green slider, I can adjust the hue to give it a slight bluey-green colour, rather than yellowy-green. Then I can then use the Luminance slider to darken or lighten all the greens in the image. Often I will slightly darken the greens using the Luminance slider before increasing the Saturation to produce

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vivid, but realistic, dark greens. How you work with a particular colour will change depending on each image. On a bright summer’s day, dark-green grass under a bright-blue sky will look odd, so a brighter green will be more suitable. The same applies to skies. At dusk, the hue and saturation of a blue sky can be changed slightly to produce a cold, steely-blue colour. If you increase the saturation and brightness so that the sky is as blue as it would be at midday, it won’t look natural. So emphasise natural colours without overexaggerating them. Also try reducing the saturation of some colours, such as in the foreground of a landscape. This gives the perception of increased saturation in the sky without actually having to do so.

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SKILLS

MASKING AND ADDING A GRADIENT BEFORE

AFTER

IF YOU are editing a single image rather than multiple ones, some local adjustments will almost certainly be necessary. There are many ways in which to do this. For small changes, the Dodge and Burn tools set to a very low strength of 2-8%, and with a very soft-edged brush, can be used to lighten or darken areas. For larger areas, such as skies and landscapes, selection and masking tools can be used. Which ones you use will depend on your software and, more importantly, which you feel most comfortable with. In Photoshop, for example, the Quick Mask or Marquee selection tools are among the easiest to use. Most of the time you will want to concentrate on editing the sky, as this is easier to blend into the landscape. The reason for this is that during early mornings and evenings, the sky will be lighter towards the horizon. This makes it easy to select the sky and use a large feathered edge to fade the effect off before it reaches the horizon. From here the brightness, contrast and colour saturation of the sky can be adjusted to blend it into the landscape. If you haven’t used an ND grad filter, it is possible to go some way to replicating the effect in Photoshop and similar editing software. The trick is to add an adjustment layer to the image and then add a gradient to the layer mask. SPOT RETOUCHING Sensor dust is a particular problem for landscape photographers, as images are usually taken at a smaller aperture when dust becomes most visible. Once combined with an abundance of smooth sky, the small black and grey dots become obvious. The trick is to keep the camera’s sensor as clean as possible. Always change lenses quickly and in a clean environment. Try doing so with as much of your camera inside your camera bag as possible, to shield it from wind, which can blow dust into the camera. Despite the best of intentions, however, some dust is inevitable, but thankfully it is relatively simple to remove. Before finishing an image, view it at

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Copy the original image layer by selecting Layer>Duplicate Layer. Name this new layer ‘Dark Sky’. Alternatively, load a bracketed, darker version of the image onto a new layer.

In the Layers palette, create a new Layer Mask for the Dark Sky layer.

Use the Gradient Fill tool to add the black-to-white gradient to the Dark Sky layer mask. Drag the gradient from black at the bottom of the image, to white at the top. Hold down the Shift key while you drag to keep the gradient at 90°.

100% and meticulously scroll through the entire photograph to look for any dust spots. Most raw-conversion software will allow spot retouching to be applied to other images, saving time looking at each one at 100%. Photoshop Elements users can apply batch-processed spot adjustments by opening a selection of images, spot correcting one, and then selecting all the other images. By hitting the Sync Images button, the same corrections will be applied to all images. The Healing tool is also useful for retouching skies, as it works by blending the correction with the surrounding area. The Clone tool takes an exact sample but, as it doesn’t blend, it can make any retouching look obvious if not done with care.

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If you aren’t using a bracketed image, use the Levels tool to darken the new Dark Sky image layer until you are happy with the contrast in the sky.

Select the Gradient Fill tool from the tools palette and select a black-to-white gradient.

The dark side of the gradient creates a hole in the Dark Sky layer, which reveals the original, lighter layer. If the effect is too strong, adjust the opacity of the darker layer.

With small apertures used for landscape photography, dust can be a problem. Keep your sensor as clean as possible, and carefully check images for dust

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RETOUCHER S GUIDE Find out how to use Camera Raw’s Clarity and Sharpening tools to get smoother skies ONE OF the great things about

BEFORE 24 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

editing digital images is that there is no single correct way of doing things. As software developers come up with new features and tools, photographers discover new ways to edit and correct their digital images. While the most obvious way to reduce noise in an image is to use the luminance and colour-noise removal tools found in raw editing software,

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there are in fact other ways. One method to reduce the amount of noise in the sky of a landscape image is to apply a localised correction using Adobe Camera Raw or Lightroom. Rather than simply applying noise reduction, you can actually reduce the sharpness of the sky by using the Masking slider to make sure that only the edges with the strongest level of contrast are sharpened, meaning that any slight patches of noise aren’t sharpened and are less visible. Having done this, a rough selection of the sky is created. With the mask in place, the sharpness of the sky can be reduced further. However, the trick at this stage is to also reduce the amount of local contrast between pixels, by

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BEFORE Open the raw image in Adobe Camera Raw and perform all the basic colour and contrast adjustments. Zoom in to 200% and reduce all the noise reduction and sharpening settings to 0. This should allow you to see any colour and luminance noise.

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Now hold down the Alt key while using the Masking slider. Anything black will not be affected by the sharpening, so the aim is to get as much of the sky as possible to be black, while leaving some edge detail in the clouds.

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Select the Adjustment Brush and reset all the Adjustments to 0 except the Clarity slider, which should be set to -10. Click on Show Mask and paint to adjust the sky, avoiding any detailed edges.

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Turn Show Mask off and switch to a 100% view to see how the following changes will affect the image. Reduce the noise by lowering the Clarity slider. This affects the local contrast, so it should even out the brightness of neighbouring pixels. Also, reduce the sharpness to add a slight blur. Only the sky should be affected.

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Zoom to 100% and use the Amount, Radius and Detail sliders to sharpen the image. Don’t worry too much about the sky becoming noisier.

AFTER

BEFORE YOU START SOFTWARE Adobe Camera Raw and Photoshop

Find a part of the image that is affected by colour noise and use the colour noise slider to reduce the noise. You can be quite aggressive with this, particularly on newer raw conversion software. However, be careful as heavy use can slightly reduce the colour saturation.

Zoom in closer to any fine edges and select Auto Mask. Use a small brush to paint around any fine edges. There will usually be a slight halo, but for this effect it shouldn’t be too much of an issue.

KEY TOOLS

Adjustment Brush, Sharpening, Clarity Slider Skill required Time to complete

20-30mins

using the Clarity slider tool. This makes any noise in the sky far less obtrusive and gives the overall impression of a smoother sky. With this editing now done, only a very, very slight luminance noise reduction is necessary across the entire image, and best of all, it can all be done from within Camera Raw or Lightroom.

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Exit the Adjustment Brush tool and perform a luminance noise reduction of around 5-15 across the entire image. Now open the image in Photoshop (or similar) and use the Dodge tool, set to Highlights and 2% strength, to brighten highlights in the clouds. Then set the Burn tool to Shadows and 2%, and darken the shadows in the clouds. Finish with a final tweak in Levels.

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CUSTOM WHITE BALANCE The way that colour is rendered is an important factor in creating an image, and the best way to achieve an accurate rendition of hues and tones is to set a custom white balance. We explain how

HOW COLOUR is used in an image is crucial to its mood or ‘feel’, and it determines the viewer’s emotional response to a picture. For instance, warm light from a sunset establishes the mood beautifully, while the vibrant colours of autumn leaves display the season in all its wonder.

26 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS I

These colours are best shown by enhancing them, not muting them. A portrait, however, can be ruined by an overly vivid and unflattering colour cast, which may give an incorrect skin tone. This can be disastrous for, say, fashion photographers, who need colours to be rendered accurately

when they are attempting to capture the glories of the latest haute couture. For all that, there is no single defining rule for ‘accurate’ colour when taking photographs. This is partly because human perception of colour is often inaccurate, as our brain makes adjustments for what we see. It is only when an extreme colour is detected that we notice something looks out of place. This makes the accurate viewing of images on a camera difficult, especially given the various light sources that compete for our attention when we are looking at a camera screen.

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Neither is a camera’s white balance system (the means by which a digital camera makes the necessary adjustments to record colour) infallible. When set to auto, it too can be tricked, so even the very latest models cannot be relied on to get it right every time. The best option for ensuring accurate control over colour is to set a custom white balance. In this article, we are going to explore white balance itself, investigate the methods of using custom white balance both on location and on the computer, and learn how to make creative use of colour.

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WorldMags.net CUSTOM WHITE BALANCE

1,000K 1,000-2,000K tungsten bulb

2,000K 2,500-3,500K tungsten bulb

3,000K 3,000-4,000K sunrise/sunset

AUTO WHITE BALANCE

4,000K 4,000-5,000K fluorescent 5,000-5,500K flash

USE OF CREATIVE COLOUR

5,000K 5,000-6,500K daylight (clear sky)

6,000K

7,000K 6,500-8,000K overcast

8,000K

WHITE BALANCE White balance systems in digital cameras are designed to ensure that the white tones in a scene are rendered accurately by removing colour casts created by the light source. Most cameras have several settings from which to choose, and these usually include auto white balance (AWB), around six presets, such as cloudy, flash and tungsten, a manual (Kelvin) setting and a custom setting. The AWB setting and presets cover a whole variety of light sources and provide a quick means of adjusting colour. They are fairly accurate, too. 28 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

AWB, PRESETS OR CUSTOM I suspect most enthusiasts usually leave the camera set to AWB or rely on the presets – and why not? On the whole, these settings do a great job, whether on a compact camera or a DSLR. They are also the best options for high-pressure shoots when there is no time to fiddle with the settings. The presets in a white balance system are set to a particular colour temperature. This makes each preset a great option when it matches a scene because it will not be swayed in ways that AWB can, which

Top: The yellow leaves have tricked the auto white balance system, which has given the scene a cool colour cast to compensate Above: The cool colour cast in this early morning scene is important to the ‘feel’ of the image Right: The Kelvin scale shows the colour temperature in different situations, along with the camera presets

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9,000K 9,000-10,000K shade/very overcast

10,000K

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CUSTOM WHITE BALANCE ON LOCATION CAMERAS usually record a custom white balance reading in one of two ways: from an existing file, or by taking a reading from a new exposure. Check the manual to find out how your camera records a custom white balance. The Nikon D300, which we used for most of the pictures in this article, uses an existing file. Both methods require a neutral reference in the scene to record an accurate colour temperature. In the first method, simply select custom white balance in-camera and then choose the file with the neutral reference to take the reading from – the colour temperature will be set for the next capture. For the second option, select the custom setting and take an exposure. The best neutral reference for exposure and colour is middle 18% grey, angled towards the light source. The final temperature will be affected if the grey is any lighter or darker than this. If the correction method is via an incamera custom white balance, the grey should ideally fill the

continually makes adjustments according to the light. Furthermore, a preset can be quickly selected in a high-pressure situation. Where custom white balance has an advantage over AWB is that it allows us to choose a neutralcoloured object in the frame to act as a reference when creating an accurate colour rendition, according to the temperature of light. An AWB system does this job automatically, interpreting the scene as it sees fit.

CREATIVE COLOUR AWB is typically neutral, so it removes colour casts to produce a neutral white. While custom white balance does the same, it enhances the colours in a scene rather than neutralising them. In both cases, though, the colours are corrected. There may, however, be times when having the ‘wrong’ white balance gives a pleasant effect, and there are no hard-and-fast rules about this. Whatever looks good to the photographer in the way they want to convey the scene is best. Adding a warm cast is likely to make a pub on a winter’s day seem invitingly cosy, while a cool cast provides a threatening atmosphere that isn’t really possible with a neutral colour balance.

AWB

CUSTOM WB

A grey card (left) is ideal for adjustments post-capture, while filling the frame with a grey card is ideal for in-camera changes greater part of the frame. If the method is via post-capture adjustments, however, then the reference only needs to be placed in the most important part of the frame. In the case of a portrait, this will be next to the subject’s face. For a mixed light source, it is worth using multiple grey cards

WHERE THE AUTO SETTINGS GO WRONG Auto white balance systems in compact cameras and DSLRs usually work well, although there are several situations in which the system can be thrown. For instance, when a particular colour is dominant in the frame – such as a bunch of red flowers, a green field or a plethora of yellow autumn leaves – the system may think this dominant colour is actually a colour cast, so AWB will adjust accordingly. For example, a scene dominated by green can typically have a magenta cast, which is at the opposite end of the colour spectrum. A mixed light source can also present problems, such as light from inside a building mixed with the cool cast of outdoor evening light. With AWB, the user has no control over which light source is being balanced. Problems can also arise when taking the same image and adjusting the focal length or the position, by switching to a panorama, for instance. This alters the content in the frame, which can cause the white balance to vary between images in a sequence. As far as presets are concerned, they are great if they match the specific scene but even then there

in different parts of the frame, and then calculating a median temperature post-capture (see page 30). Failing a grey card, a white card is a good backup. Once the information is gathered, the processing varies because each camera uses a different algorithm. This occurs even within the same

brand, so there is no set way the camera produces the final result. Both grey and white card options are good for correcting the balance of neutral colours. A full GretagMacbeth colour chart goes one step further by offering a full spectrum of 24 colours, covering a number of natural objects.

‘Raw allows the white balance to be set post-capture using any one of the presets, AWB and even manual adjustment’ are variables. Using a tungsten setting under tungsten lighting is better than sticking with AWB, but the sheer variety of tungsten bulbs and the temperature each emits, depending on how long they have been on, means that one setting does not cover all types. In these situations, other options must be considered and employed. The manual setting will allow the user to select the temperature (measured on the Kelvin scale), but this requires the user to have an accurate perception of the scene, and the eye is not always the most accurate of tools. Time permitting, the best precapture option for any of these situations – and, in fact, in most circumstances – is to make a custom setting. Colour rendition is the most accurate because the custom setting works according to the exact temperature of light. Often the differences between custom and AWB are minimal and can be hard to perceive, but

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making the smallest change can mean the difference between getting the final result just right or not. It is not just a case of the right colour cast, but also the vibrancy.

SHOOT RAW It is best to shoot in raw format for a variety of reasons, not least of which is the level of control it offers. Raw allows the white balance to be set post-capture using any one of the presets, AWB and even manual adjustment. Colour in a scene is also affected by the exposure, and raw gives greater control postcapture to adjust the exposure correctly. That said, relying on the raw data and post-capture changes alone can mean time-consuming alterations, so it is better to get the balance right in the first place, and there are several ways to achieve this in-camera. Doing so even frees up the possibility of shooting JPEG only, provided the exposure is correct. ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 29

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CUSTOM WHITE BALANCE POST-CAPTURE IF AN image has not been shot using a custom white balance, it is possible to correct it post-capture. Shooting raw will be particularly helpful for this, although all is not lost even with a JPEG file. Creating a custom white balance post-capture is more timeconsuming, although once a profile has been set up on one image, it can be applied to the remainder of the images that were shot under the same lighting conditions. All raw correction software has the option to select the white balance setting from any one of the presets and AWB, as well as a manual Kelvin adjustment. This is achieved by the click of a button. However, while the temperature

A grey reference point is essential for accurate white balance corrections is changed, correcting the colour cast needs another step. The colour

cast can be removed by adjusting the green/magenta shift on the

slider, although this takes some time to produce accurate results. In Adobe Camera Raw, a quicker option is to click on the White Balance picker tool (top left in the toolbar, see left) and find a neutral reference in the frame – either an 18% grey card or a mid-grey object. After clicking on the neutral area, the white balance changes, with the colour of the grey itself affecting the final result. The information about colour temperature and ‘tint’ (green/ magenta) is indicated. When using multiple grey areas, make a note of each temperature and tint, and work out a median result. These results can then be applied to other raw files recorded under the same lighting conditions.

RESCUING JPEGS

Like raw files, JPEGs can be opened in Adobe Camera Raw and adjusted using the White Balance picker tool. However, Photoshop and Photoshop Elements have tools to bring back the colour in a JPEG file, too

1 TECHNIQUE ONE Select Layer>New Adjustment Layer>Levels, set Mode to Normal and click OK. In Levels, click on the grey point

1 TECHNIQUE TWO Make a layer via a copy (Layer>New>Layer via Copy). Click on this layer and set the blending mode to Overlay.

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2 dropper and then click on the area that is supposed to be a mid-grey. If this doesn’t look right, click on another grey area in the frame. For any minor tweaks, select

2 With this layer still highlighted, click on Filter>Blur> Average and then Image>Adjustments>Invert. The colour will change and look a little muted. Select

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3 Image>Adjustments>Color Balance and tweak the sliders. This technique is unlikely to look right on every image. If the image still requires work, try technique two.

3 Image>Adjustments>Hue/Saturation and add or remove saturation to taste. Then tweak the Hue slider for any final adjustments.

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AP EVERYWHERE GET IT ON THE MOVE Download it onto your iPad or via Kindle Fire, Barnes and Noble Nook HD, Zinio, Lekiosk or Pixel Mags Reader!

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SKILLS

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MACRO WITH A COMPACT Macro photography doesn’t require expensive, specialised equipment – in fact, all you need is a compact camera. We explain how to get great macro images

WHILE AN expensive lens, bellows

or a set of extension tubes will help you to take stunning macro images, one of the simplest methods is to use a compact camera. The optical design of compact-camera lenses means that the minimum focusing distance can be as little as 1cm from the front end, making it easy to get very close to a subject. Technically, this isn’t actually close enough to be considered a true macro image, which is defined as 1:1 magnification or greater. However,

because of the small minimum-focus distance and subject size in relation to the image frame, photographs tend to show enough detail to be regarded as such. Better still, a compact camera can be carried easily in your pocket. This gives you plenty of oppurtunities to get started in macro photography, without going to huge expense. Over the next few pages we’ll show you how the get the best out of your compact camera and shoot fantastic macro images.

A compact camera and a basic tripod are all you need to start experimenting with macro photography 32 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 33

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OPTICAL MAGNIFICATION OPTICAL magnification is a

your camera, see Testing a compact camera’s magnification below. Imagine that a compact camera could also frame this same area of the ruler. Although this is a 1:1 life-size magnification when photographed using the DSLR, a compact camera has a much smaller sensor, usually less than 10mm in width. So, despite both cameras producing exactly the same image, and potentially also having the same resolution, one (the DSLR) is considered macro, while the other (the compact) isn’t. Of course, the end result is virtually the same.

measurement of the difference in size between the subject and the image on the sensor. For example, in a true 1:1 macro photograph, the image of the subject projected onto the sensor is exactly the same size as the subject in real life. So, if you were to use a DSLR with a 23.6mm-wide APSC-sized sensor to take an image of a ruler, and could get in close enough to photograph the area of the ruler from 0-23.6mm, this would be a true 1:1 macro image. To find out how to calculate the optical magnification of

TESTING A COMPACT CAMERA’S MAGNIFICATION

1

To test the magnification of a compact camera, place a ruler on a flat surface and align the camera so that the length of the image frame is parallel with the length of the ruler. Now focus the camera as close to the ruler as possible and note the length of the ruler that has been captured in the image.

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Next, find out the size of the image sensor in the camera. This can usually be found in the camera’s manual, or check the specification online. Most advanced compacts will use 1/1.8in, 1/1.7in or 1/1.6in sensors. Use the table below to find out the approximate width of the image sensor.

3

To calculate the magnification, divide the sensor width by the photographed length. For example, a 1/1.7in sensor has a width of 7.6mm and the camera can capture a length of around 31mm. So the magnification of the lens is 7.6mm÷31mm=0.24x, or roughly 1:4.

SENSOR SIZES SENSOR 1/2.7 1/2.5 1/2.3 1/2.0

WIDTH HEIGHT 5.37 x 4.04mm 5.76 x 4.29mm 6.16 x 4.62mm 6.40 x 4.80mm

SENSOR 1/1.8 1/1.7 1/1.6 2/3

WIDTH HEIGHT 7.18 x 5.32mm 7.60 x 5.70mm 8.08 x 6.01mm 8.80 x 6.60mm

SENSOR Micro 4/3 APS-C Full frame

WIDTH HEIGHT 17.30 x 13mm 23.6 x 15.6mm 36 x 23.9mm

Despite having the same resulting image, only one of these is true 1:1 macro. Shown here are the relative sizes of a 1/1.7in sensor (top) and an APS-C-sized sensor (above). When the APS-C-sized sensor captures a length of 23.6mm, it is providing 1:1 magnification, whereas for a 1/1.7in-sensor compact this is 0.32x (7.60 ÷ 23.6mm) or roughly 1:3

SUPPLEMENTARY LENSES JUST as dioptre lenses can be added to the filter thread of interchangeable lenses, supplementary lenses can also be added to most advanced enthusiast compact cameras. Rather than screwing them to the end of the lens, a tube accessory is screwed to the camera around the base of the lens barrel. This tube allows the zoom lens to continue to work back and forth, and takes the weight of the supplementary lenses, which are often heavier than the lens itself. However, although some manufacturers produce teleconverter and wideangle

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supplementary lenses, not all produce macro lenses. There are a number of thirdparty solutions available, some of which use a tube that attaches to the camera, which then provides a filter thread to attach other lenses. Others are simple clipon devices that work just like a clip-on lens cap. Raynox is a well-known manufacturer of these products (UK distributor: www.digitaltoyshop.com). As these third-party products aren’t endorsed by the proprietary manufacturers, finding information about exactly which is the best

solution can be a difficult, as there is often more than one option. A quick internet search – on Flickr (www. flickr.com), for example – should

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find photographers who are using a suitable combination for your camera, which will help you make the correct decision.

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SKILLS

EXPOSURE WHEN taking macro images with a compact camera, exposure considerations are reasonably straightforward. When using any compact, it is best to shoot at as low an ISO sensitivity as possible. This will keep noise levels to an absolute minimum, which is important for capturing the finest detail. The choice of aperture will affect the depth of field, which should usually be large enough to cover the entire subject being photographed. However, as compact cameras have an extensive depth of field, this is not generally a problem. Alternatively, you can use the maximum aperture to create a shallow depth of field and blur distracting backgrounds, such as brick walls or fence.

LARGE APERTURE Also, remember that by stopping the aperture down slightly, image sharpness can be improved. Again, this is particularly important when trying to capture fine macro details. With aperture and sensitivity decided, all that is left is shutter speed, for which the fastest speed possible should be used. Flowers,

SMALL APERTURE Using a compact camera at its largest aperture will provide a shallow depth of field, while stopping down provides a large focal range for example, will sway slightly in a breeze, and this will not only cause image blur but it can also move the subject out of focus. Similarly, insects move quickly and need to be photographed before they fly off,

USING AN LCD SCREEN TO YOUR ADVANTAGE

SHOOTING macro images on a

compact camera as opposed to a DSLR has some advantages. One of these is the portability of the camera itself. If the light is bright, it is possible to hold a compact camera

at arm’s length and really stretch to take an image at an awkward angle. Whether it is holding the camera low to take a shot at ground level, or reaching high into a bush to photograph an insect, the size and

weight of a compact camera can make this possible. A further advantage when shooting in this way is the ability to see the image using live view. When the size and weight are combined

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without any hint of movement. For any type of macro image, it is important to use a tripod. This will avoid camera shake, which can both blur the image and cause the subject to shift out of focus.

with live view, it is easy to explore interesting and unique angles. Even better is a compact camera with an articulated screen, such as the Canon PowerShot G12. These screens make it easy to shoot at ground level, or perhaps even underneath the leaves of plants, without having to crawl around the floor. ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 35

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MINIMUM FOCUS DISTANCE WHILE most compact cameras have minimum focus distances of 1-5cm, many switch off their closefocusing ability to make focusing faster for general use. Switching to the macro or super macro mode will enable this close focusing, so do this before taking any close-up images. The one issue with such a closefocusing mode, however, is that insects tend to be easily scared off when you attempt to photograph them. This is why 105mm, 150mm and 200mm macro lenses are popular with DSLR users, as they allow a good working distance between the end of the lens and the subject. This not only makes it

WITHOUT RING LIGHT

WITH RING LIGHT

LIGHTING WITH such a close distance between the compact camera’s lens and the macro subject, lighting the subject can be difficult. In bright sunlight the camera may cast a shadow when shooting away from the sun, so try to shoot into the sun instead. As the camera will usually be pointing slightly down onto plants and flowers, it will be easier to position the camera to avoid shadows. Where there is no choice but to shoot with the sun behind you, try to make sure that the entire subject is in shade to avoid strong, hard and distracting shadows falling across the image. Shooting on a bright but slightly overcast day can be an advantage. The light and shadows will be softer. The lower-contrast light will reduce the dynamic range between highlight 36 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

easier to photograph insects, but it also means that any macro subject is less likely to be cast in the shadow caused by the camera and its lens. Most compacts will only shoot macro images when the lens is at its minimum focal length. In fact, some cameras will lock the zoom to its widest position, switching the function off completely. Double-check to see whether the zoom function can be used, and if so, find out which focal length and focusing distance offers the best magnification. Remember, sometimes it is better to have slightly less magnification if it makes it easier to photograph certain subjects, such as insects.

Hama’s ‘Compact’ LED Macro Light can be attached to the tripod mount or hotshoe and costs around £90

and shadow areas in the image, which will in turn make it easier for the more restricted dynamic range of compactcamera sensors to record. Don’t forget that contrast can be added when processing and editing images in software. Another way to ensure softer shadows and reduce contrast is to use a diffuser, such as Lastolite’s 5:1 Bottletop diffuser (from around £35). Place the diffuser in the path of the sun in front of the subject to soften the light. With the camera on a tripod, it is easy to hold the diffuser in one hand while firing the camera’s shutter, or use a remote release or self-timer. A purpose-built diffuser isn’t essential as there are plenty of materials around the home that can be used for the same task. A sheet of white paper, or even a few sheets of tracing paper, can provide exactly the same effect.

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Using artificial light can be difficult when you are photographing a subject that is just a centimetre or so from the front of the lens. A compact camera’s built-in flash will be of no use as the lens will cause at least some of the subject to be in shadow. When using off-camera flash it can be difficult to place the flash in a suitable position to light the subject, although it is possible if the flash is carefully positioned above the subject and angled down. Also, some high-end compacts, such as the Nikon Coolpix P7200, Olympus XZ-2 and Canon PowerShot G15, have the ability to use compatible wireless flashguns. Another solution for lighting macro images is to use a ring light. Thirdparty ring lights, such as the Hama ‘Compact’ LED Macro Light, attach to a camera either via the tripod mount or hotshoe, and allow an LED ring light to be placed around the front of the lens to light the subject, in much the same was as a ring flash works when using a DSLR.

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A camera phone’s short focusing ability means it is possible to get closer to your subject and take stunning images

MACRO WITH A CAMERA PHONE ONE OF the reasons compact cameras are so good for macro photography is that their small sensors require short focal lengths, which in turn let the front element of the lens get very close to the subject. Camera phones have even smaller sensors and thus make equally good macro devices – so long as the general picture quality is up to standard. As camera phone lenses are tiny, it is easy to supplement their close-focusing abilities using a normal magnifying lens over the front element. For these shots I used a photographic magnifying loupe, but an old lens element or any good-quality magnifying glass will do the job. Larger-diameter magnifiers allow you to use a smaller proportion of the lens area and provide a smaller degree of curvature. This helps to prevent the chromatic aberrations and coma smearing that can occur with smaller or lower-quality glasses. You don’t need to create a special rig – just hold the magnifier over

the lens, trying to align the centre of the cameraphone lens with the centre of the magnifier as much as possible. This careful alignment will deliver the best quality, while off-centre alignment will blur corner detail and generally reduce optical quality. If you don’t want to hold the magnifier, and it’s not too big, fix it to the phone with BluTack.

Placing a magnifying glass over the lens of a camera phone is a quick and easy way to achieve macro results

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FRONT FOCUS

STACKED IMAGE

FOCUS STACKING Maintaining sharpness with a shallow depth of field is a problem that all macro photographers must face. However, there is a solution: focus stacking. This is how it works… ONE OF the major complications in macro photography is trying to overcome the extremely shallow depth of field that can affect such images. With many macro photographs having a depth of field of just a few millimetres, it can be very difficult to get all the subject in focus. The photographer’s natural instinct would be to reduce the size of the 38 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

aperture, but when shooting an extreme macro image, such as an insect, even an aperture of f/64 may not produce a large enough depth of field. Compounding this problem is the fact that the smallest apertures won’t produce the sharpest images due to the effect of diffraction. Luckily, digital imaging has provided a solution. Using the techniques on

the following pages, you can learn how to use focus stacking to increase depth of field.

THE BASICS Focus stacking works by capturing a series of images of a subject, each taken at a different point of focus. With image-editing software, a composite image can then be created that uses the in-focus section of each photograph. The resulting image should have a depth of field greater than that produced by a single shot. The increased depth of field isn’t the only advantage. Focus stacking allows photographers to use a lens at its sharpest aperture, as any concern

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about this setting not producing a deep-enough depth of field becomes redundant. Although focus stacking is primarily used for macro photography, it can also be applied to still-life images – and, in fact, any other image where the subject doesn’t move. Even landscape photographers can use this technique to ensure that everything from the foreground to infinity is in focus, while using a lens at its sharpest aperture – so long as it isn’t windy, of course.

Above: Focus stacking allows the sharpest aperture of a lens to be used without a shallow depth of field being a concern

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FOCUS MAP

Software is used to combine the focus-stacked images into a single composite REFOCUSING There are two ways that a focus stack can be created. The most obvious is to lock the camera to a tripod and then photograph the same scene many times, changing the focus point incrementally. The second is to use a micro-adjustment head, and rack the camera back and forth to change the focus point of the photograph. Both techniques work, but there are occasions when it may be easier to use one method rather than the other. When a lens is refocused, its focal length changes. By default, the focal length of a lens is measured at the point at which it focuses to infinity. At its minimum focus this will be different. So when a focus stack is created by focusing the lens, the focal length can change between images. Most focusstacking software should be able to accommodate these changes, but it is possible that a few more anomalies and artefacts will be created. Using a micro-adjustment head (see right) to move the lens will mean that the focal length will not change from image to image, but the perspective will. Again, this shouldn’t be an issue for most software, but it can sometimes create artefacts and haloes. As a rule, I would recommend using a micro-adjustment head for extreme macro photography, and try adjusting the focus ring for larger still-life images. The very fine micro adjustments shouldn’t be too much of a concern for tiny subjects, and it is a far easier method than precisely adjusting the focus of a lens.

Stacking software detects the area of each image that is in focus and then creates a map of where to blend the images

TOP TIP Make sure the entire subject is in the composition when at the closest and furthest point of focus

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If in doubt, leave some space around the subject Be patient and meticulous when taking images

It is better to take too many images than too few. Excess images can always be removed from the stack Use the same exposure for each image in the focus stack

MICRO-ADJUSTMENT HEADS ONE PIECE of equipment that can really aid the shooting of focus-stacked images is a micro-adjustment head. This is a tripod head with a geared plate to which the camera is fixed. A knob controls a long threaded rod and each turn moves the plate/camera combination forwards or backwards, and sometimes from side to side, along the length of the rod. Because even a full turn of the knob may move the camera only a millimetre forwards, it is easy to position, then reposition, the camera in very small increments. Being able to set the point of focus so precisely means the focus area of each image can overlap the previous one, which will help to ensure that the entire final focus-stacked image is in focus.

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STEP-BY-STEP CAPTURE Mount the camera and a microadjustment head securely on a tripod. Rack the positioning plate so that it is focused on the furthest point you want in focus. Make sure everything you wish to include in the image is positioned in the image frame. It is advisable to leave a little extra space around the subject to aid the software and give room to crop the image later.

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Set the lens to its sharpest aperture. Usually this will be around 2-3 stops down from the largest setting. If in doubt, set the aperture to f/8 or f/11. In manual exposure mode, calculate the correct exposure by taking a few test images and using the histogram. Once the exposure is set, keep it at these settings throughout the focus-stack series. Make sure the camera is in manual-focus mode so the focus and focal distance do not change.

With the exposure set and the lens focused on the furthest part of the subject, fire the shutter to take an image. It is better to use a remote release or the camera’s self-timer to avoid camera shake. Any small movements can greatly affect the composition and make it more difficult for the software to ‘stack’ the images successfully.

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Once the first image has been taken, review it using the camera’s LCD screen. Look how far the depth of field extends and make a note of where it starts to become out of focus. Then move the micro-adjustment head backwards in order to bring the point of focus closer. Move the focus to where it begins to diminish on the previous image. The key is to make sure the focus overlaps with that of the previous image. When satisfied with the focus position, take the next shot.

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The final image will be the one in which the closest part of the object is in focus. It is always advisable to take one or two shots more than are necessary. These may not be used in the final focus stack, but it is better to take too many images rather than have to reshoot because there are not enough.

Repeat steps 3 and 4 until enough images have been taken to cover the entire subject. This may be three images or 50, depending on the lens, magnification and subject. For precise micro adjustments, work out how large the depth of field is and then move the camera using the same measurement on the positioning plate.

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FOCUS-STACKING SOFTWARE THERE are a number of software packages that can create a focusstacked image, but the two most popular are Helicon Focus (www. heliconsoft.com) and Combine ZM (hadleyweb.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ CZM/News.htm). Combine ZM is free

to use, but Helicon Focus is the more user-friendly of the two. It is available in both PC and Mac formats and there is a fully functional 30-day trial version available. The Lite version costs $30 (£19) per year, or $115 (£73) for life, and will be suitable for most users.

Helicon Focus Pro has many advanced features, such as the ability to retouch individual frames in the stack from within the software. It also offers Helicon Remote, which, with the right equipment, such as the Stack Shot by Cognisys Inc (www.

cognisys-inc.com), can help automate focus bracketing by using a motorised micro-adjustment head and firing the camera’s shutter. All the images in this step-bystep guide have been created using Helicon Focus Pro.

STEP-BY-STEP EDITING

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If you have captured your images as raw files, edit the first one in the sequence until you are happy with the way it looks. Once the raw file has been edited, apply the same settings to all the other images in the stack and export them as JPEG files.

Now load the focus-stack sequence into the software. To import images, select Add images in the top left of the software. Provided all your images are in the same folder, it is easy to add them all in one go.

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Creating the stack should now be as simple as selecting Render in the top right of the software. Usually the default Focus Parameter values for the Render Method, Radius and Smoothing will provide a good focus-stacked image straight away.

It can be helpful to rename the images so they match the time they were captured to form a sequence. This can be done once the images have been converted. In Adobe Bridge, select all the images, right-click and choose Batch Rename. Then select Date and Time, and then Date Created.

Check the image list on the right-hand side and make sure that all the pictures are in the right order and all are needed in the stack. To remove any unwanted images, select the image and press the ‘-’ button. Conversely, if a photograph is missing, press the ‘+’ button and select the missing image from your computer.

If there are image artefacts, adjust the Radius and Smoothing values. Increasing the Smoothing can remove visible joins between focus areas, but it causes a loss of detail. Some areas may need to be individually retouched. Helicon Focus Pro has tools to do this. Often it is easier to reshoot the stack or spend some time adjusting the settings until the final image requires minimal retouching. Some haloes are caused by perspective obscuring part of the image. The only thing that can be done about these is retouch them by cloning from an area nearby.

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COMPLETE GUIDE TO SHOOTING INFRARED IMAGES You may not be able to see infrared light, but a camera can. We explain everything you need to know about infrared photography

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THERE are many different ways in which infrared images can be captured. Some cameras, including compacts, DSLRs and compact system cameras, will be sensitive to infrared light to some degree straight out of the box, while others will require modification. The majority of digital cameras are fitted with an infrared blocking filter, also known as a hot mirror, that stops infrared light reaching the sensor. Depending on the strength of this filter, a little infrared light may creep through, but for the most part it is this filter that prevents true infrared images from being captured on digital cameras. It is a simple matter to establish a camera’s suitability for shooting infrared images. All you need to do is use an infrared remote control,

BLACK & WHITE

such as that used for televisions, and point it at the camera while taking an image. If you can see the light from the remote control’s LED, then your camera is sensitive to infrared light. If a camera shows some response to infrared light after testing it using an infrared remote control, then an infrared filter can be bought to block out most or all of the visible light spectrum and allow only infrared light through. Which filter to use depends on the exact effect required. For more information on this, see our round-up of infrared filters on page 50. If you already own an infrared filter, you can test your camera’s response just by using the filter on a bright sunny day and seeing how much, if any, infrared light is captured.

AWB

‘An infrared filter blocks visible light, so focusing and composition must be set before the filter is fitted’

Landscapes look particularly pleasing, as blue skies go very dark while foliage is very bright

CUSTOM WB

CHOICE OF CAMERA There are some DSLRs available that are ideally suited to infrared use, particularly the Sigma SD range, which have hot-mirror filters designed for easy removal without having to take the camera apart. With the filter removed the camera is sensitive to infrared light, so an infrared filter can be fitted over the lens to block out visible light and allow only infrared light through. Also suitable is the Fujifilm FinePix IS Pro, which has no hot-mirror filter but is sadly no longer in production. If you can find one for sale, either new or second-hand, it commands a price of around £1,000. The problem with using an infrared filter with a DSLR is exactly the same as when shooting on film. The filter blocks visible light, which means that focusing and composition

CHANNEL SWAP (SEE PAGE 47)

WHITE BALANCE AS OUR eyes don’t see infrared light, there isn’t a right or wrong way of adjusting the colour of infrared images. However, we have become accustomed to seeing these images in a particular style due to the way in which they are printed from infrared film. The starting point when adjusting the colour of an infrared image is to set the correct white

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balance in-camera. Using the AWB setting is useless if the images are to be kept in colour because they will appear as a bright salmon pink, although this is fine if they are ultimately intended to be black & white. For colour images, it is best to set a custom white balance. This can be done by taking a reading from a piece of white paper or grey card,

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although many infrared photographers simply use a patch of green grass. The result will be foliage that is a light grey or white, and skies that are brown or dark amber. Sometimes it can be difficult to take an white balance reading successfully, which can often be due to the length of exposure. If so, simply increase or decrease the exposure time.

WorldMags.net must both be set before the filter is fitted. Thankfully, DSLRs can overcome this with the use of live view, which accounts for the lack of light and brightens the image on the rear screen. Converting a camera for infrared use, such as we have done with a Nikon D70S on pages 48-50, is a more convenient solution. After removing the hot mirror, an infrared filter is put in its place. As the filter no longer lies in the optical path between the lens and the viewfinder, focusing and composition are possible without having to constantly take the filter on and off each time. For those serious about infrared photography, converting a DSLR for infrared use is definitely the best solution, although it will mean that the camera can only ever be used for shooting infrared.

INFRARED LIGHT While there are many man-made sources of infrared light, by far the best source is the sun. Infrared light will be at its strongest on very bright sunny days, at around noon when the sun is at its peak. Usually, landscape and portrait photographers avoid shooting at this time of day because of the very high contrast that bright sunlight creates, but for those shooting infrared this time of day is perfect. One of the reasons that infrared photography is immediately associated with landscapes is due to the particular way that infrared light affects foliage and the sky. Clouds reflect infrared light, so the denser the cloud the brighter it will appear in the image. Blue skies, on the other hand, absorb infrared light and

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become very dark. This contrast can turn even a fairly ordinary-looking bright sky into something much more dramatic. Foliage also reflects a lot of infrared light, and this causes grass and leaves to turn a very bright white. Again, this effect is most visible in the middle of the day, but it is even more pronounced in late spring when plants are flourishing. However, just because the middle of the day is seen as the optimum time for shooting infrared images, it doesn’t mean that interesting effects cannot be captured at other times. Just before sunset and just after sunrise are equally interesting times. The sun is low in the sky, which causes very long shadows, and where there are shadows there is usually very little infrared light. So while

LENSES AND FILTERS

USING FILTERS ONE THING that is often

Lens flare is much more of an issue when shooting infrared images, as lens coatings are designed to work with visible light IN THEORY, any lens can be used to shoot infrared images, although there may be a few limitations and some will be better than others. Issues occur with the coatings that are used with lenses. Optical coatings are designed to work with visible light, and may or may not work with the infrared spectrum. As a result, some lenses may display a lot of lens flare, sometimes even when not shooting directly into the sun. For this reason, it is advisable to use a lens hood, and remember that any slight lens flare visible through the viewfinder may be hugely exaggerated in the final image. Another issue is hotspots, which show as large circular flares directly in the centre of the image frame. They are caused by the internal reflections of the infrared light within the lens, and are again due to the coatings of some internal lens elements that are designed only to reduce the reflection of visible light. The best way to find out whether a particular lens is suitable for infrared use is to test it at different apertures and focal lengths. Just as when shooting

conventional images, it may be the case that some lenses perform better at particular settings. Alternatively, search online. There are lists available on the internet from people who have reported back on the performance of a particular lens when used for infrared. One such list, compiled by Jim Kramer, can be found at www.jim-kramer.com/IR-Lenses. htm. While not comprehensive, there are a number of popular lenses listed, although there are some conflicting reports of the performance of some of them. If you are buying a lens for infrared use, make sure you do some research and, if possible, try the lens before purchase. Another tip to remember is that just because a lens has infrared markings doesn’t mean it will necessarily work on an infrared digital camera. While ideal for film, some lenses, due to the sensitivity of the sensor and the anti-reflective coatings used on the lens not being specifically designed for digital cameras, may not perform as well on a digital model.

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overlooked when shooting infrared images is the use of filters in front of the lens. Photographic filters are designed to block visible light, not infrared light, and as such some of the most popular filters simply won’t work. For example, an ND filter will have no effect, as although some visible light is blocked, infrared light is not. The camera will perform as if the filter isn’t there. To increase the length of the exposure, a hot-mirror filter must be used. This will block out most of the infrared light, although exposure times could be very long, even in bright sunlight. Graduated ND filters won’t work, either. The infrared light will pass straight through the darker gradient. Thankfully, this is less of an issue as the sky in an infrared image will usually be high contrast and won’t require an ND grad filter to darken it. A filter that can affect infrared photography is the UV filter. Although in theory this shouldn’t have any effect, the filter coating can cause images to look soft, even when the lens has been correctly focused. Again, the only way to find out if the filter is having an adverse effect is to compare images captured with the UV filter on and off.

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an image exposed as normal may pick up some visible light in shadow, an infrared image will show these shadows as being far darker. Look to photograph scenes with interesting shadows, such as shooting through tall trees first thing in the morning. Also, pay attention to items that are in the shade, as they will be darker than they would be in a normal exposure.

METERING AND EXPOSURE Most digital camera sensors are more sensitive to infrared light than is the case with infrared film. When using the converted Nikon D70S with a 720nm IR filter fitted over the sensor, I found that I could quite happily use the evaluative metering system, which is obviously completely unaware that there is now an infrared filter positioned in front of the sensor. Generally, the results when using evaluative metering were exactly as would be expected, requiring

Timing is important, as a delay of just a few seconds, when clouds block sunlight, can change the look of an infrared image dramatically

BRIGHT LIGHT

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‘Focusing has always been an issue with infrared images. Lenses are designed to focus visible light, not infrared light, and so the AF system of a camera cannot be relied upon’ only a slight adjustment to get the desired exposure. In very strong sunlight, exposures didn’t need any adjustment, but I generally found that simply setting the exposure compensation to +3EV allowed me to happily point and shoot. The exact exposure adjustment required will depend on the sensor of the camera and the filter in use. An 890nm filter blocks the passage of all visible light, as well as some of the infrared spectrum so that only an extremely narrow frequency of infrared light can pass through. When using this filter, exposure times can increase slightly, but again it should still be fine to handhold the camera. Long exposures occur when a camera with a weak hot-mirror filter is used for infrared photography. In these instances, the hot-mirror filter will block some, but not all the infrared light, so a longer exposure of a few seconds may be necessary

to allow enough infrared light to pass through to the sensor.

AUTOFOCUS Focusing has always been an issue with infrared images. Lenses are designed to focus visible light, not infrared light, and as a result the autofocus system of a camera cannot be relied upon. Infrared light comes into focus just in front of visible light. It can be compared to chromatic aberration, where different colour wavelengths focus at slightly different points, and if a lens cannot bring the different colours to focus at the same point, chromatic aberration is the result. Many older manual-focus lenses have an infrared focus marker, which can be used to adjust the focus for infrared light. However, even these can’t be completely relied upon as many are inaccurate, and if using a zoom lens the infrared focus point

DULL LIGHT

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can actually change throughout the zoom range. For most landscape images, autofocus can be used in conjunction with an aperture of f/8 or f/11, and the depth of field should be sufficient to ensure that the image is in focus. However, remember to pay attention to any subjects in the foreground and make sure they are sharp before leaving the scene. For images where a shallow depth of field is required, manually focus slightly in front of the subject and then review the image on the rear screen to see whether it is in focus. Although the autofocus of a converted camera can be adjusted for infrared use, it can still vary from lens to lens. If you are having a camera converted and know there is a lens you will use more than any other on the camera, then supply the lens with the camera and ask that the AF be adjusted for this lens.

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AFTER

BEFORE

SWAPPING CHANNELS

ONE POPULAR technique when shooting digital infrared images is to swap the red and blue channels around. Having taken a custom white balance reading, the resulting image should have a red/amber sky. To turn this into a bright blue sky while leaving foliage looking white, simply swap the red and blue channels of the image.

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In image-editing software, select the Channel Mixer. In Photoshop, this is found under Image>Adjustments> Channel Mixer.

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Now switch to the Blue channel and boost Red from 0 to +100 and reduce Blue from +100 to 0.

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With the Red channel selected, move the Red slider from +100 to 0, and the Blue slider from 0 to +100.

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With the Red and Blue channels swapped, all that is left to do is adjust the image Levels.

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CONVERT A DSLR FOR INFRARED Converting a DSLR for infrared photography is an intricate task that requires care, but the results can be rewarding. Here’s what to expect from the process INFRARED photography has been around for a long time and there are a number of ways to achieve the look, from film to filters and in-camera effects to post-production editing software. Many DSLRs offer infrared (IR) modes among their many effects, but a DSLR conversion is by far the best option for those who are really serious about infrared photography. The reason for this is that DSLR sensors are able to ‘see’ near-infrared light, but this light is blocked out by a hot-mirror filter situated in front of the sensor that allows only visible light to get through. To convert a DSLR for infrared use, this hot-mirror filter must be removed and replaced with another filter that allows IR light to pass. Possible options for replacement filters are listed on page 50.

WHAT’S INVOLVED Sitting directly in front of the imaging sensor, the hot-mirror filter is in many cameras bonded with the anti-aliasing filters. To remove the filter, you must first access it, which means dismantling the DSLR. Do not undertake this

procedure unless you are absolutely confident in what you are doing. Exactly how much disassembly is required depends on the make of camera. Some models, such as the Nikon D70, are notoriously easy, while others, such as those made by Canon, are more difficult. Once the camera has been taken apart and the sensor unit removed, the hot-mirror filter can be taken off. More often than not, the filters are lightly glued into position around the edge of the sensor. Using tweezers to apply a little pressure around the filter’s edge may be enough to carefully pry the glass filter off the sensor. However, the glue may need to be dissolved using alcohol or acetone. Be warned: these chemicals can melt and damage plastic, so this technique cannot be used on sensors that contain plastic surrounds, or that are held in place with a plastic cage. Whichever method is employed, patience is key. Once the hot-mirror filter has been removed, the replacement filter should be fitted into position and the camera reassembled. However, the

conversion doesn’t end there. The focus position to which the camera is set is based upon visible light, not infrared light. As such, infrared images focused to the same point as a visible-light image will often display front focus. To fully convert a camera, therefore, the autofocus (AF) must also be adjusted. There are many ways to do this, such as making tiny adjustments to the sensor position, the AF mirror or the AF system itself. Most technicians who perform such conversions keep their cards very close to their chests regarding which method they use, and some use more than one. The problem, however, is that lenses are designed differently. Most are not designed with infrared use in mind, and different lenses will focus infrared light to different points. When converting a camera, if there is one particular lens that is likely to be used most of the time, then ask if the AF adjustment can be set for use with this lens to give you the best results.

WHAT CAMERA SHOULD I CONVERT? For most photographers, infrared imagery is of supplementary interest – a fun and creative foray into a different photographic world. Clearly, then, it would be unwise to convert

a main camera, but with many photographers now on their second or third DSLR, an older model could be converted instead. And if this camera has only been lying around unused, then an infrared conversion could give it a new lease of life. If you don’t have a older, spare DSLR, they can be bought secondhand for a fairly modest sum. One of the most popular models for conversion is the Nikon D70S, which we have used here. As a 6.1-millionpixel camera, the resolution is fine for an infrared hobbyist. In fact, with the anti-aliasing filter also removed as part of the conversion, images are sharper than before. If you hunt around, you may find a 6- or 8-million-pixel DSLR for around £200, although the cost of the infrared conversion can add up to another £250 to the cost. Early Nikon DSLRs tend to be cheaper to convert than their Canon counterparts because it is easier to remove the hot-mirror filter. Of course, there is the option to undertake the conversion yourself, and there are many websites that feature step-by-step guides. Remember, though, that the procedure is more complicated than it looks, and there is always the risk that you may damage the camera.

Using a converted DSLR is the best way to shoot infrared images, but the conversion is best left to the experts

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STEP-BY-STEP CONVERSION GUIDE

Here is our brief guide to the steps involved in converting a camera for infrared use. The camera in question is a Nikon D70S, on which many of the images in this section were taken

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DO NOT ATTEMPT TO CONVERT A CAMERA YOURSELF UNLESS YOU ARE CONFIDENT IN DOING SO AND HAVE THE NECESSARY TOOLS AND KNOWLEDGE

We need to be able to access the image sensor unit to replace the hot-mirror filter with the infrared filter. To do this, the first step is to remove the base of the camera.

With the base of the camera removed, the back of the camera can now also be unscrewed and taken off. Most cameras, as with the D70S here, will have a ribbon cable that runs from the camera’s main circuit board to the LCD screen on the back of the body. This cable simply unplugs from the socket and can be carefully prised apart using a pair of tweezers.

The next step is to remove the sensor unit itself from the camera. Again, you can simply unscrew the unit, but take care not to damage the data ribbon cable. Prise the sensor unit out of its socket and lift it completely free of the camera.

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Usually, the hot-mirror filter is held in a surround that will need to be unscrewed. In some cameras, such as the Nikon D70S, the filter can be carefully lifted from the sensor. In others, however, strong glues are used so extra care and attention will be required. One slip and you could damage the sensor, which is why the procedure is best left to those familiar with the process and the challenges that particular cameras present.

With the hot-mirror filter removed, the replacement infrared filter can be inserted. Obviously, at no point should you touch the surface of the filter, as any marks will affect image quality. Also, be sure to perform the conversion in as clean an environment as possible. You don’t want to get any dust between the sensor and the filter glass, as it will require the camera to be completely taken apart again to clean it.

With the filter securely in place, it is time to put the camera back together, following these steps in reverse. Make sure that all parts are correctly reassembled, and that great care is taken not to introduce any dust or debris into the camera body.

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WHICH FILTER?

Removing the hot-mirror filter is only part of the process, as another filter must be fitted in its place. We list some of the most popular filters available, and explain what they do and the effects they have ALL IMAGES THIS PAGE © PROTECH CAMERA REPAIRS

HOT-MIRROR FILTER

This filter is used in a digital camera to block out most infrared and ultraviolet light while allowing visible light to pass through. It is positioned in front of a camera’s sensor and must be removed to allow infrared use.

CLEAR FILTER

This clear-glass filter has a number of advantages. It allows infrared light to pass through, but it also does not contain an anti-aliasing/low-pass filter so images should be sharper. However, it allows visible light to pass through as well as infrared, so for infrared shooting an IR filter must be placed over the lens. To revert to the normal visible spectrum, place a hot-mirror filter over the lens, although as third-party hot-mirror filters won’t be designed for a specific camera, colours may vary slightly from the original. Alternatively, shooting raw images will allow more precise control over the individual colours.

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590NM

Without a hot-mirror filter, the camera’s sensor is sensitive to the entire colour spectrum, including infrared. Placing a 590nm filter in front of the sensor blocks the colour spectrum below 590nm and allows the wavelengths of light above this through. Dark yellow/amber, orange and red light can reach the sensor, as well as infrared light, with the result that the blue spectrum is rendered a lot darker as this region in particular is blocked. Greens should also appear dark, but foliage reflects a lot of infrared light, so grass, trees and plants will appear very bright when photographed in bright sunlight.

665NM

This filter is a step above the 590nm filter and blocks all light below 665nm, which lets only very dark orange/red colours pass through. All other colours, including yellow, blues and greens, will be blocked and show up as darker areas in an image.

720NM

The 720nm filter is the most popular choice for infrared photography. It blocks out the entire visible colour spectrum, so only infrared light can pass through. As a result, only surfaces from which infrared light is reflected will be visible in the image, so a blue sky will turn very dark, but any clouds reflecting infrared light from the sun will be very bright. Plants reflect a lot of infrared light, particularly in the spring, so grassy landscapes can look as though they are cloaked in snow and trees covered in white blossom. On a practical note, the 720nm filter can require around a 1EV exposure adjustment, so handheld shooting is possible.

830NM

The most difficult filter to use is the 830nm filter because it blocks out not only all the visible spectrum, but also some of the infrared spectrum. This filter allows only really deep infrared wavelengths to get through and results in very highcontrast infrared images. Exposure times may be slightly longer than when using a 720nm filter.

Many thanks to Kelvin and Jo at Protech Camera Repairs (www.protechrepairs.co.uk) for converting our Nikon D70S and for advice on converting a DSLR for infrared use 50 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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NO SOFTWARE REQUIRED

PROJECTS

With an exposure time of 4secs, it was possible to move the zoom lens a total of five times and hold each position for a fraction of a second. This creates the stepped zoom burst pictured here

Image-editing software can be immensely creative, but a good number of effects can also be achieved in-camera. Learn how to create eye-catching images without a computer MANIPULATING images is nothing new. Photographers have always played tricks in the darkroom to remove unsightly objects, add new skies, adjust contrast, or even merge and distort whole images. While digital imaging and editing software has made these effects easy and commonplace, many of them can still be achieved in-camera. Some of the techniques seem to have been forgotten about in the digital age, so perhaps now is a good time to revisit them. Why not set yourself the challenge to see just what you can create using nothing but light, technique and some imagination?

ZOOM BURST ZOOM bursts are an easy technique to learn and the image that results can be very striking. All that is required is a zoom lens and careful timing. You will need to set an exposure of longer than 1/30sec, during which the zoom lens must be shifted from one focal length to another. As a consequence, the subject in the very centre of the frame will appear to have been stretched out to the edges, giving the image a sense of movement and action. For best results a tripod should be used, as it is difficult to twist the barrel of the zoom lens and keep the camera steady. Set the zoom to either one of its extremities – you will get slightly different results depending on which end of the zoom you start with. I always start at the

widest setting. When the shutter is fired, the zoom should be turned simultaneously during the exposure, in one fluid movement. The longer the exposure, the more time there is to zoom further. It is virtually impossible to time the turn so that it lasts for the exact duration of the shot, so for this reason remember that the start and end positions of the zoom will often receive a fractionally longer exposure. If the subject isn’t bright enough, increase the exposure slightly but keep the zoom movement at the same speed. This will keep the final composition exposed for longer. Alternatively, use an exposure time of a few seconds and zoom the lens in stages, to acheive an effect similar to the one pictured.

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PROJECTS

WorldMags.net On the left, rear-curtain flash has been used. On the right, frontcurtain flash was chosen

SLOW-SYNC FLASH THE MOST common task for slowsync flash is to illuminate the subject with a burst of flash, while using a slow shutter speed to record some of the ambient light in the scene and capture a sense of the surroundings. When taking a portrait at night, for example, a short exposure with a flash will create a very dark background with just the person illuminated. Using slow-sync flash, on the other hand, will leave the shutter open after the flash to allow in ambient light, which will ensure the background is illuminated as well as the subject. Slow-sync flash can also be used creatively to freeze motion. During such an exposure, any subject movement is recorded as the ambient light exposes the sensor or film. When the flash is fired, that precise moment is then frozen in the scene, though blur will still be visible in the image. Those photographing live music concerts will often use a relatively slow shutter speed to

capture the blurred movement of a subject, but combine this with a burst of flash. This will expose the subject correctly and freeze its movement to create a clear image, while retaining the energy of any movement. Generally, setting a camera’s flash to its slow-sync mode should be enough to produce good results. However, the shutter speed can sometimes be too slow and let in too much light, thereby overexposing the background. If this is the case, make a note of the exposure and flash power settings and switch to manual mode. Keep the aperture and flash power the same, but reduce the shutter speed. Doing this will keep the flash exposure the same, but reduce the brightness of the ambient light. Another consideration is whether to use front- or rear-curtain flash. By default, cameras are set for front-curtain flash, which means the flash fires when the sensor or film is first exposed. With rear-curtain flash, it is fired just before the shutter closes.

‘Generally, setting a camera’s flash to its slow-sync mode should be enough to produce good results’ Imagine you are photographing a stunt motorcyclist performing a jump using front-curtain, slow-sync flash. The flash will fire at the start of the exposure, which will show blurred movement in front of the bike as it continues to travel during the exposure. Rear-curtain flash fires at the very last moment instead, and any blur will be captured behind the motorbike, giving the sense that the subject is moving forwards, not backwards.

A FLASH is usually fired just once to

STROBED FLASH

54 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

illuminate an entire scene. However, when using a longer exposure, the flash can be fired numerous times to light the scene at different points in time. If you are in a dark environment, with someone running through the scene, you can use a 2sec exposure and fire the flash four times to capture the movement of the person running through the frame. The resulting image should have the person captured in four different positions in a single exposure. The environment in which the image is taken is critical. As when taking a multiple exposure, a black background is needed to create perfectly exposed movements. For example, if the same runner was photographed against a brightly lit brick wall, the subject would appear to be semitransparent – unless the subject’s clothing is very bright itself, some of the exposure of the brick wall would be visible through it. Against a black background, however, there will be nothing bright behind the subject that will be better exposed than it is when the flash is fired, so the background will

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MIRRORS AND REFLECTIONS THERE are countless ways that a reflective surface such as a mirror can be used creatively to add interest to an image. One of the most obvious is to have the subject look into the camera, but via a reflection in a mirror rather than directly. This allows alternative angles to be explored, such as shooting over the subject’s shoulder, or even taking images around corners. It isn’t only mirrors, of course: metallic, glass, plastic and other reflective surfaces can also be used to create interesting images. Look out for curved surfaces that produce distorted reflections, such as the convex mirrors commonly used to see

Look for reflective objects that can produce interesting distortions

around corners in foot tunnels or for cars pulling out of concealed drives. These mirrors offer an almost 180° field of view, both vertically and horizontally, making them interesting for self-portraits and distorted portraits around corners. Puddles are a favourite source of reflections for street photographers. They can provide a good point of interest, revealing a different perspective of a scene, or reflect blue skies and fluffy clouds, which can make a puddle look almost like a portal to another world. And rather than being just part of a scene, water reflections can also be used to fill the entire frame and create interesting images. Try taking a portrait using a reflection from a bowl of water. Dripping water into the bowl will create ripples that will distort the reflected image, often with surreal results. Similarly, the shards from a smashed mirror will also create distortions.

show as being completely solid. The duration of the exposure is the key setting in a such a shot. It should be long enough for the subject to move significantly and for the flash to be fired the correct number of times. To capture the image, place the camera on a tripod and set an aperture that is small enough to give an appropriately long exposure, and which will not capture too much ambient light. Setting a suitable flash power is dependent on a number of things, including whether your subject will be moving across the frame or stay on the same spot, and whether you wish to light the whole scene or just the subject. If the subject remains in the same spot – say, someone playing the drums – work out the flash exposure as you usually would to light the subject. Then divide this by the number of times you wish the flash to fire. So if the correct standard flash power is 1/1 and you wish to fire the flash four times, set the flash power to 1/4. Firing the flash four times will then give the same exposure. In this example, the stationary body of the drummer, and

the drum kit, will be correctly exposed, but each arm will be captured four times by the four different flashes, although they will be underexposed (see left). If you are photographing a subject running across the frame, you can snoot the flash and point it at the subject as it moves. Keep the power the same as if you are photographing the subject normally, because each time the subject moves it will appear in a different position in the frame and, if you time it correctly, you shouldn’t overexpose any other part of the image. Many flashguns have the ability to set a flash strobe frequency, which means you can decide in advance how many times and how quickly the flash will fire during the course of an exposure. Of course, you can still try the technique even if your flash doesn’t have a strobe facility, but a longer exposure will be required as the flash will have to be triggered numerous times manually using its Test/Dump button. Ideally, a second person should be on hand to help fire either the camera or the flash.

SIMPLE LENSES

A SIMPLE lens is a single glass lens element, such as a magnifying glass or an individual glass element removed from a photographic lens or telescope. These can be used creatively in images to exaggerate or enlarge certain features. Perhaps the classic, and now rather clichéd, use is to hold a magnifying glass in front of a subject’s eye. This enlarges the eye, creating a slightly surreal image. Remember that you will be focusing on the image in the glass, which will have a different focal plane to the actual magnifying glass, and as such you will need a small aperture to get as much of the image in focus as possible, including any hands that may be holding the glass. Also remember that when focusing on distant objects, the image in the glass will be upside down. Most importantly, think about how you can use this simple effect to take more than just the clichéd shots mentioned above. For instance, try using a magnifying glass to take a landscape photograph (see page 57).

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 55

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MULTIPLE EXPOSURE STITCHING images together in editing software is relatively simple thanks to all the various tools and automated processes. However, it wasn’t so long ago that performing such a task would require the careful splicing or sandwiching of negatives, or the creation of a multipleexposed negative. Most DSLRs have a multiple-exposure mode and, while the technique may not be as popular as it once was, it is in fact easier in the digital age. These days, rear screens allow us to check exposure and carefully align parts of the image so that all the elements come together successfully. Once upon a time, we’d have to wait with

56 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

fingers crossed – after having spent money on film, development and printing – to see if we had done the job properly. Whether capturing a scene on a digital sensor or on film, the principle behind a multiple-exposed image is the same. Two or more exposures are made to the film or sensor, which allows different scenes to be merged into a single image, or a subject within the scene to move and be captured in different positions. With the film being exposed more than once, you must remember to adjust the exposure settings accordingly. For example, if you are exposing a scene twice, you must halve each exposure time – so rather than

Lit with a single softbox, this portrait was taken three separate times. The subject changed position each time, overlapping as little as possible Each image: 1/250sec at f/11

a 1/60sec exposure, use two 1/125sec exposure. Likewise, if you are exposing the image four times, use four 1/250sec exposures. There are exceptions to this rule – for example, if you are photographing a subject against a completely solid black background and the image of the subject

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ALTERNATIVE ANGLE

MOST people are used to seeing scenes from head height, and we generally take photographs from between waist height and eye-level. However, you can create dynamic images by exploring different angles and heights. Shooting from the ground, with the camera pointing up, provides a whole new perspective. Combine these angles with wideangle or fisheye lenses and the perspective will be distorted, allowing certain features to be exaggerated. This can be used to make body parts appear enlarged or elongated, which is not usually very flattering but, if done deliberately, can be used as a interesting effect. Often it is the simplest of tricks that are the most effective – you can use perspective to your advantage by altering the sense of scale. Even the clever positioning of a subject or furniture, then turning the final image on its side, can be enough to fool and disorientate the viewer, or produce an effective optical illusion.

This image has been created by shooting one picture of a black lamp against a white background, and another of a wicker blind. Bright white areas remain white, while unexposed dark areas show the second image Lamp: 1/250sec at f/20; Blind: 1/250sec at f/13

doesn’t overlap, then you can fully expose the image twice. Each time the subject will appear correctly exposed, and the background will still be black. If you were to do this against a background that isn’t black, and two full multiple exposures are used, the background will be 1EV overexposed. If the exposures are halved, the background will be correctly exposed, but the moving subject won’t, creating a semi-transparent, ‘ghost’ image. One way around this is to expose the image in different parts. Masking filters are available, such as the Cokin Double Mask, which has a hinged mask that allows half the scene to be masked at a time. Simply mask half the scene and take a picture, then repeat the action covering the other half. You can, of course, make your own mask by covering half of your

lens with black card. Use the camera’s live view screen with grid guides to help you correctly align the mask each time. Another use for multiple exposure is when shooting cityscapes at dusk. Set your camera up on a tripod and take the first half of the exposure with a bright vivid sky, before the sun goes down. Leaving your camera and tripod completely still, take the second multiple exposure setting after the sun has gone down and all the office buildings have the lights on. Because the sky will be very dark compared to the bright office lights, the bright and dramatic sky from the first exposure should be completely unaffected by the second. Remember, anything black won’t show. no matter how many times it is exposed, while anything that is bright white will show through each exposure.

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 57

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PROJECTS

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BUILD A LCD LOUPE When bright light hinders the use of a camera’s LCD screen, an LCD loupe is an ideal solution. Follow our step-by-step instructions and build your own

NOT ALL cameras come equipped with a viewfinder, which leaves the LCD screen as the only way to view and compose images. However, visibility can be seriously affected by bright light. Even for cameras that do have a viewfinder, the ability to view the information from a distance away from the camera body is very useful, especially for macro photography and video. An ideal solution to this problem is a hood with a loupe to protect the screen from bright light and provide clear viewing. As those available to buy can be expensive, follow our steps for a cost-effective DIY version.

ESSENTIAL MATERIALS

Start by measuring the dimensions of the LCD screen, but be sure to also measure a border around the edge. The 3in screen of the camera here measures 47x62mm, and I have added an extra 3mm to the height and width for the border. The total dimensions are therefore 53x68mm.

1

● Ruler ● Pencil ● Stanley knife ● Scissors ● Electrical tape or duct tape £1 ● Black plastic £1 ● 12mm general-purpose braided elastic £1.50 ● Magnifying glass £1 ● Total cost £4.50 OPTIONAL ● Velcro £1.75 ● Reading glasses £1 ● 13mm snap fasteners £1.50 TIME TAKEN: 1 hour The reading glasses and magnifying glass can be bought from a pound shop. For the tape, elastic, fasteners and Velcro, try a hardware store

60 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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WorldMags.net For the loupe unit I am using a value black plastic clipboard, but any thick plastic or Correx corrugated plastic is fine. Draw the inner 47x62mm measurements on the plastic sheet, and then the outer 53x68mm dimensions. Then from each side draw out a flap, at roughly 75mm in length (see 2A), with a slight angle inwards, because the viewing end will be smaller than the screen itself, although it needs to remain large enough to fit the magnifying glass. Check this by placing the glass up against the end of one of the flaps (2B).

2A

Fold the flaps in to create the loupe (4A). Use the duct or electrical tape to fix the sides together, making sure the fix is secure (4B). To prevent light spill, ensure there are no gaps in between the sides. The loupe should now resemble a slanted box with two empty ends.

4A

2

4

Using the scissors, cut the lines for each flap (3A) and then, with a ruler as a guide, take the Stanley knife to cut out the LCD screen hole along the inner dimensions. Score the pencil line of the outer dimension so the flaps fold more easily (3B), but make sure not to cut all the way through. Fold the flaps to ensure that they close up together. Check that it is the correct size by placing it over the LCD screen.

3A

Fix the electrical tape onto one side of the magnifying glass (5A) and slide it through to around 15mm from the glass end of the loupe. Once the tape is fixed to the internal sides, tape the other side to secure the glass inside the loupe unit (5B). The LCD loupe itself is now complete, but it needs to be attached to the LCD screen.

5A

3

2B

6A (VELCRO)

6B (ELASTIC)

While holding the loupe up to the LCD screen is fine for use over short periods, attaching it properly to the screen is better. There are a couple of options here. One is to attach a Velcro strip to the rim on the LCD end of the loupe (6A). You will then need to cut a 3mm border of Velcro to go around the LCD on the camera itself. But while this is a very quick way of attaching the loupe, it does mean the Velcro is permanently fixed to the camera body. If selling on the camera is of interest, this may not the best option. Another simple, effective solution is to use elastic.

On both the top and underside flap of the LCD loupe nearest the camera body end, cut a small hole on the left and one on the right side (6B). Feed the elastic through this on one side. To ensure a tight fit, place the loupe up against the LCD screen, stretch the elastic around the camera body and feed it through the hole on the other side of the loupe, fixing it in place (6C). Now repeat this process for the opposite side. To be doubly secure, using a snap fastener on each hole for the elastic is ideal. This method does not mark the camera itself, and is quick to attach when needed.

6

3B

5

4B

PROJECTS

5B

6C

FINAL PRODUCT

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 61

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RETOUCHER S GUIDE

AFTER

BEFORE

Dodging and burning is useful for small areas, but when dealing with a whole image, blending different exposures produces far better results. We show you how…

WHEN it comes to selectively lightening and darkening specific areas in a colour image, even the Dodge and Burn tools in a program as sophisticated (and expensive) as Photoshop can ruin a picture, replacing white highlights and black shadows with contrast-reducing greys, and altering colours beyond recognition. However, if you shoot raw files, there’s a way round this: process the image multiple times for different areas of the image (effectively producing different exposures), and then blend these by hand in your editing program. This may sound somewhat similar to creating an HDR image, in that multiple exposures are combined to (hopefully) produce a more detailed end result, and to a certain extent that is what we’re doing here. There is one significant difference, though – whereas HDR is an incredibly opaque process, manually blending images is easier to understand and far more transparent in its application. Basically, SOFTWARE what you see is what Adobe Photoshop CS5 you get. Sure, it will take much longer, but the KEY TOOLS outcome is an image Layers that can perhaps be Layer masks described as ‘handcrafted’, rather than the by-product of Skill required complex mathematical Time to complete 30mins+ algorithms.

BEFORE YOU START

0 STOP

-1 STOP

+3⁄4 STOP

+11⁄2 STOP

The first step is to prepare your source images, which means opening your raw-format original and processing it a number of times. Start with your ‘base’ exposure and adjust any of the other parameters you want to, such as the white balance and saturation, but leave the exposure untouched. When you’re happy with the way it looks, save it as a TIFF file, giving it a meaningful name (such as 0.TIF, so you know the exposure hasn’t been adjusted). Then, adjust the exposure of your raw file to lighten or darken it, and save your adjusted version, too. Don’t adjust any other settings, as this may make the final image look a little peculiar. You can create as many alternative exposures as you want, but remember that each should be exposed for a specific part of the image. Here, I ended with four exposures: the unadjusted base exposure (0); an exposure 1 stop darker (for the tower); an exposure ¾ of a stop lighter (for the sky); and a final exposure 1½ stops lighter for the foreground.

1

62 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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Open all your converted images in Photoshop and choose File>Automate>Photomerge from the top menu. In the Photomerge dialogue choose Auto from the Layout Options, and click Add Open Files. Ensure the Blend Images Together option is checked at the bottom of the window and click OK.

2

PROJECTS

WorldMags.net Photoshop will combine and open your images as a single file, with each exposure on its own layer with an accompanying layer mask; one image will have a white mask and the others will have a black mask, shown by the white (or black) rectangle next to the image thumbnail in the Layers palette. What this means is that one layer is fully revealed (the white mask), while the others are concealed (by a black mask). In effect, all you’re seeing on screen at this stage is a single layer – in this case, the image that was overexposed by 1½ stops.

3

A

B

The lowest layer should be the ‘0’ exposure and its mask should be white. The rest of the layers should have a black mask so we can selectively add them to the base exposure. To move your layers into order, drag them up and down the list in the Layers palette, making sure ‘0’ is at the bottom. To change the colour of the masks, click on the mask icon and choose Image> Adjustments>Invert to switch from black to white, or vice versa. Do this for each layer that needs changing, so you end up with a white mask for your base (0) layer and black masks for the rest.

4

We’re now ready to start working on the image, and this largely comes down to selectively editing the layer masks. Start by setting the foreground and background colours to black and white (by pressing D) and then choose the Brush tool. Select a layer to work on and click its accompanying black mask icon so that you’re working on the mask, rather than the image. With white as your foreground colour, you can ‘paint’ over the mask to reveal an area on the layer – I’ve started work on the sky in this image.

As you work on the layer mask you can change the size of your brush to deal with larger or smaller areas, as well as the hardness of the brush and its opacity. If you make a mistake, switch to black as your foreground colour and paint the mask back in. The rule here is that white will reveal parts of the layer, while black will conceal it, and anything in between will reveal the layer to a greater or lesser degree. However, it’s easier to alter the opacity of the brush than start confusing yourself with shades of grey. My lighter sky is now fully revealed.

Now to reveal the optimum bits of each layer for the best overall balance using a mix of brushes and opacity settings. Using large, softedged brushes at a low opacity and making several passes with the brush will help you avoid obvious ‘edges’ appearing in your image. Take your time, and be careful when you switch between layers that you’re selecting the mask rather than the image on the layer.

As well as manipulating the masks, your layers can also be adjusted using more familiar tools such as Levels, Curves and Opacity. Here, for example, I’ve reduced the Opacity of the dark (-1) layer to 75% so the effect isn’t quite as strong, and then applied a contrastboosting curve to the sky (+0.75) layer to enhance its colour. A Curves adjustment layer was also added to boost the contrast and saturation of the image as a whole, with a final saturation boost finishing the job.

5

C

D

6

8 7

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 63

PROJECTS

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CAPTURING WATER DROPLETS AND SPLASHES Why not try your hand at a classic technical challenge? Follow us to the water’s edge BEAUTIFUL, timeless images of drops splashing onto the surface of a liquid to form myriad shapes and patterns are often considered to be achievable only by well-equipped studio photographers with an array of strobe lighting and sophisticated electronic triggers. However, with a little time and patience, anyone can capture the perfect water-droplet-inmotion picture using just a camera, a flashgun and some everyday items. The joy of this project is that spectacular results can be achieved almost straightaway, but if you enjoy the process and the mood takes you, it can lead you on a voyage of discovery as you fine-tune your technique and venture into the world of macro and scientific photography. Diffusing the light is worth a try, and using backlighting through tracing paper combined with coloured gels lifts any picture to even higher levels. If you have a glass-sided aquarium or fish tank, try shooting through the glass with your lens set to manual focus, dropping coins and other small objects into the water and freezing the very different splash patterns that they create.

ESSENTIAL MATERIALS ● DSLR ● Flashgun ● Tripod ● Large glass mixing bowl ● Plastic sandwich/freezer bag or lid of a CD stack ● Coloured paper for experimentation ● Food-dye colouring ● Fishing line ● Pins and needles ● Craft knife 64 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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‘With a little time and patience, anyone can capture the perfect water-droplet-inmotion picture using just a camera, a flashgun and some everyday items’

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First, you need to find a bowl or dish to drip water into – 20-30cm in diameter is perfect as it enables you to avoid including the edges in your picture, and allows the maximum surface area of clear liquid for ripples and splashes.

1

Thread the fishing line through four equally spaced pinholes pushed through either a resealable freezer bag or CD stack lid and tie to create two loops. This is to hang the drip source symmetrically above your receiving bowl.

Suspend the drip reservoir above the bowl and pierce a hole in the bottom. Start with a small pin and progress to a larger diameter to achieve a rate of around one drip per second.

Set your flashgun to manual and to the lowest power (1/16 in this case), as this will be the shortest flash duration.

Take some test shots to find the best exposure, then set the shutter speed to the fastest that will synchronise with the flash. If you have an extension flash lead or remote triggering device, try positioning the flash off-camera for a different effect.

2

Position your camera in front of the bowl and set it to manual focus. Hold the blades of a pair of scissors at the point where the drops will hit the surface of the water, and focus on them to ensure the water splash will be in sharp focus.

4

5

Coloured paper or card under the water bowl will provide impact and contrast, while adding a dye or food colouring to the reservoir will also create an interesting effect.

Capturing the perfect splash does take time and a certain amount of luck, but watching the rate of drops falling and predicting the best point should, with practice, yield results – a 10% success rate is about right.

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 65

PROJECTS

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ENLARGER LENSES Fascinated by macro photography but lacking the right kit? Enlarger lenses are among the cheapest good-quality optics available, so they are great for using on your camera to create unique images. We explain how ENLARGER lenses are among the simplest of optics. With no internal focusing mechanism, their design is very straightforward – some have only four aperture blades. This simplicity, and the lack of demand for them, means they are currently extremely cheap to buy. A quick search online shows that you can get hold of one for as little as £5, but generally they range in price from £20-£40. However, enlarger lenses were never intended for use in capturing an image, so there are some issues that must be overcome if you are to do so. WHY USE AN ENLARGER LENS? Designed as they are to project a flat piece of film onto the flat surface of photographic paper, enlarger lenses

show virtually no curvilinear distortion. This is why they are generally standard lenses: 50mm for 35mm film, or 80mm for medium-format film. Edge-to-edge sharpness is also important when printing and, again, enlarger lenses must perform well in this regard. Vignetting is also a consideration at the edges of images, as the whole print must receive as close to an even exposure as possible. Therefore, enlarger lenses will have a minimum aperture of only f/4, or even f/5.6, which helps to avoid vignetting. Like any other optics, there are certain enlarger lenses that perform well in all of the above, while others aren’t quite up to scratch. However, by learning the qualities of a specific lens, you can exploit it to take some stunning images.

THE BASICS The vast majority of enlarger lenses have a 39mm screw thread. This thread is nearly identical to the M39 screw thread used by Leica and other manufacturers for their early rangefinder cameras. As such, it is possible to mount enlarger lenses onto M39 thread-mount cameras, and this means it is also possible to mount them to modern compact system cameras via a M39 adapter. The problem is that the lenses have no means of focus. When used on an enlarger, they have the ability to focus back and forth by using a bellows. When on a camera, to focus an enlarger lens at different distances requires some back and forth movement.

HELICOID FOCUSING ADAPTERS A HELICOID is a circular spiral mechanism that extends backwards and forwards when turned. The most obvious example of this is the movement of a lens barrel back and forth when a focus or zoom ring is turned. Like any other lens adapter, these have a camera mount on one side and a lens mount on the other. Twisting the helicoid mechanism will move the lens

back and forth, and thus change the position of the focus. Most of the time, helicoid adapters are used for macro focusing. In effect, the helicoids become an adjustable macro extension tube, moving the lens back and forth to give the required level of magnification. When used with an M39 screw thread, a helicoid can be used with an enlarger lens, and the lens used like a

normal optic. Simply set the required aperture and use the helicoid’s adapter to focus the lens back and forth. Depending on the size of the helicoid and the exact lens being used, it should be possible to focus to infinity. The drawback here is the availability of these adapters. You won’t often find them on the shelves of photographic retailers, so the internet and eBay are the best sources.

The helicoid adapter moves the enlarger lens back and forth to enable it to focus. This will only work on a compact system camera as the flange depth is short enough for it to focus. On a DSLR system, it will act more like an adjustable extension tube for macro images 66 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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Taken using the enlarger lens and bellows pictured right, these macro shots are of a dragonfly larva’s shedded exoskeleton

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PROJECTS

USING A BELLOWS THE MOST logical way to get an enlarger lens to focus when using it on a camera is to replicate the bellows of an enlarger using a set of macro bellows. Mount one end of these bellows to the camera, and the other to an M39 mount to allow enlarger lenses to be used. Some bellows, such as the old, but very popular, BPM Universal bellows, or the Novoflex Universal BALPRO 1 (www.novoflex. com/en/products/macro-accessories/ bellows-systems/universal-bellows) allow various combinations of lenses. For example, an M39 mount can be connected to the front of the bellows and a Nikon F mount to the rear, to allow enlarger lenses to be used on a Nikon camera. At the very short extensions of the

bellows, an enlarger lens may just about be able to focus on infinity using a compact system camera, but the larger flange depth means that infinity won’t be available on a DSLR. Instead, the enlarger lens will only be able to focus at very close distances on a DSLR. Also, by extending the bellows on a DSLR or a compact system camera, the enlarger lens will make an excellent macro optic.

Like any other type of photographic lens, enlarger lenses can vary tremendously in price. Cheap lenses may have square aperture blades, which can create interesting effects

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 67

PROJECTS

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HANDHOLDING THE SIMPLEST, but least exact, method of using an enlarger lens is to shoot handheld. With no lens mounted on the camera, wrap the enlarger lens in your hand and press it up against the camera mount. Moving your hand back and forth, it should be possible to roughly focus the lens. It is extremely hard to hold the lens in the correct position to focus, so

Above: Holding the lens slightly tilted has created a very selective depth of field Left: The square aperture blades of the enlarger lens have created a strange crosshatched bokeh effect in this handheld image

68 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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images will tend to be soft. Similarly, it is difficult to match the horizontal plane of the film and sensor, so there will usually also be a slight tilt-and-shift effect, often with a narrow focal plane. Despite the obvious flaws in shooting handheld, this method can produce some striking images – unique, too, given that it is so difficult to take exactly the same image twice.

Many thanks to SRB-Griturn (www. srb-griturn.com) for the M39 to Nikon F T-mount adapter used to mount the enlarging lens to the bellows

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FILL-IN FLASH FOR PORTRAITS We explain how to use flash outside to create bright and dramatic images

70 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

T

HE benefits of using flash outside in daylight to brighten up portraits are numerous. For example, it can add an attractive catchlight to a subject’s eyes, help to smooth skin by lighting it evenly and, most importantly, reduce shadows on the subject’s face. However, this can be taken a step further. Rather than merely using a flash to complement light from the sun, you can use a flash to actually beat the sunlight, making the flash the dominant light in the scene. To do this, you need a camera

with a fairly fast flash-sync speed. Thankfully, most digital SLRs can sync at a speed of 1/250sec, and some are even faster than this. The aim is to underexpose the scene, causing the subject to be in almost complete shadow, but then to use a flash to illuminate the subject to create studio-style lighting outside. You may think you need a powerful studio flash to illuminate subjects outside, and while this is certainly an advantage, it should be noted that all the shots on these two pages were taken using Nikon SB-600 Speedlights.

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Setting the scene

The location in which you choose to take your images is important. While you can use the technique anywhere, finding a shady location with a bright background works well. This allows for your subject to be in shadow, meaning that little ambient light will fall on them during the exposure. As the technique has the effect of darkening backgrounds, it can work well on overcast days to make dramatic, cloudy skies. Equally, on a bright sunny day, it can make the sky a very deep blue. Overall, it creates

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FINAL 1/250SEC

With the aperture set to around f/16 and the sensitivity to ISO 100, altering the shutter speed mainly affects the brightness of the background

‘A wireless flash is perfect for dramatic fill-in flash, but a long sync lead works just as well‘ an effect very reminiscent of HDR, as parts of the image normally in shadow are made bright and punchy.

Technique Having found an appropriate location, place your subject in the scene and ask them to pose. While you can use a flashgun placed on a camera’s hotshoe, results are better when the flash is mounted offcamera. A wireless flashgun is perfect for this, but equally a long sync lead allows you to use a conventional flashgun with the same results. Using a slave cell may be a good idea if

you are shooting a shadow area, but generally they don’t work well, if at all, in bright conditions. Choose an appropriate angle to light your subject. Generally, you want this to be around 45° to their left or right. The precise position depends largely on where the ambient light is coming from. Most flashguns come with a small stand that allows the flashgun to be mounted on to a tripod or lighting stand. Alternatively, ask someone to simply hold the flash in the required position. In manual exposure mode, set the camera’s ISO sensitivity to ISO

MULTIPLE FLASHGUNS Just as when you use a flash in the studio, you may find that your single flashlight creates a harsh shadow. To soften it, simply use another flashgun set to half or even a quarter of the power of the main flash. For example, if the main flash, or key flash, is on 1⁄1 power, set the second flash to 1⁄2 or 1⁄4 power. If the key flash is set to 1⁄2 power, set the secondary fill flash to 1⁄4 or 1⁄8 power. This will fill in any shadows. In this image, I have used a second flash to help illuminate the trailing leg and the log.

100 and the shutter to the fastest possible flash-sync speed, which in most cases is around 1/250sec. Take an exposure reading without firing the flash and adjust the aperture size so that it creates a nice dark sky. In bright light, f/16 is a good starting point. Having taken your test image of the background, set your flash to full power and take another shot. You should find that the flash lights the subject. If the light is too bright, you can turn the power of the flash down or move it away from the subject until you are happy with the result.

USING THE SUN NO FLASH

ONE FLASH

TWO FLASHES

However far you stop the aperture down, you will find it difficult to darken the sun completely. Instead, use it to your advantage. When taking portraits in the studio, a light may be positioned behind and above the subject’s head, to act as a ‘hairlight’. This adds highlights to their hair, making it stand out. When shooting outside, place the subject directly in front of the sun and use it like a hairlight, as I have done in the image on the opposite page.

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TOP TIPS O Shooting a subject placed in shade allows ambient light to affect the image less, making the flash more prominent OMake sure that the background is exposed a little darker than you would normally OSet the shutter speed to the fastest possible speed at which the flash will synchronise OJust as you would in a studio, use light modifiers, such as diffusers and grids, where appropriate OTo help soften shadows, or simply to provide extra light for a full-length portrait, try using multiple flashguns OUse the sun to your advantage by using it as a backlight OTry increasing the saturation of the image in editing software for a punchy, vibrant effect ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 71

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KNOWLEDGE

such as a dancer leaping into the air. Performing the same task with continuous lights would require extremely bright lights, or a high ISO sensitivity, to allow a fast shutter speed to be used. The former can be very expensive and generate a lot of heat, while the latter can introduce noise into the image.

COLOUR TEMPERATURE Traditionally, shooting with tungsten lights requires photographers to compensate for the fact that tungsten light is far ‘warmer’ than daylight. This can be achieved by using a blue filter gel over the light, or by using the appropriate blue lens filter. Tungstenbalanced film is also available, which is specifically designed for use when shooting under tungsten lighting. When shooting digital images, white balance is less of an issue provided you aren’t mixing two sources of light. Also, many modern lights are daylight-balanced, which allows them to be mixed with daylight from a window, or sunlight outside, without having to worry too much about mixing light sources of different colour temperatures.

CONTINUOUS LIGHTING

TYPES OF LIGHTING Where once photographers only had the option of tungsten lighting, continuous lighting now comes in various forms. Each particular lighting technology has its own advantages and disadvantages, and these may have a particular effect depending on the type of photography you wish to use them for.

Often overlooked in favour of flash lighting, continuous lights have many advantages. We take a look at the different lights that are available WHETHER to opt for continuous or flash lighting is a decision that anybody investing in studio lights will have to make. Years ago, the decision was easier due to the fact that continuous studio lighting largely relied on using high-powered incandescent bulbs that generate a huge amount of heat. However, there have been a number of advances in continuous lighting. The highpowered, electricity-guzzling tungsten bulbs now have competition in the form of more energy-efficient, light, cool sources.

FLASH VS CONTINUOUS LIGHT The obvious advantage of using continuous lighting, instead of flash,

is the fact that the light source is the same one that is used to illuminate the image. While most studio flash heads have modelling lights, these only give you an idea of what the final image will look like. The lower-powered modelling lights do not replicate exactly how a split-second bright burst of flash will look. Continuous lights, on the other hand, show exactly how the image will look and take the guesswork out of adjusting the lights for best results – what you see in front of you is what will appear in the final image. Another advantage of continuous lights is that they don’t need to be triggered, so they will work with any camera and without any cables or wireless trigger devices.

With these plus points in mind, you start to wonder why flash is still preferred by many photographers. In the past, this was partly down to the heat generated by high-powered, continuous tungsten lights, which can make it uncomfortable and difficult for both the subject and photographer to be at their best. Smaller, cooler and more energyefficient lights have solved this problem to some extent, but the bright lights can still cause the subject to squint their eyes and their pupils to become smaller. This doesn’t occur with a sudden burst of flash as the subject’s eyes don’t have time to react to the bright light, so pupils remain large and flattering. Flash can also freeze motion,

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FLASH LIGHTING

CONTINUOUS LIGHTING Continuous lights can cause the subject to squint and make the pupils smaller. Flash doesn’t produce these effects ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 73

KNOWLEDGE

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FLUORESCENT LIGHTS

LED LIGHTS LED lights have an extremely long life, but can be expensive compared to the brightness of the light produced

Fluorescent lights are ideal for shooting portrait, still-life and macro photographs, although standard accessory fittings aren’t common MENTION fluorescent lights and most people immediately think of the long tubes that are used to illuminate office buildings, but smaller fluorescent lamps and bulbs are now common. These lights work by using electricity to excite mercury vapour, which then emits ultraviolet (UV) light. This UV light then causes a phosphor in the tube or bulb to fluoresce, or glow, which produces visible light. Fluorescent lights are much more efficient than traditional household tungsten bulbs, and most ‘energysaving light bulbs’ are, in fact, fluorescent. In the past few years, more and more photographic studio lights that use these types of bulbs have come onto the market, and they have very distinct characteristics. Perhaps the biggest selling point of fluorescent lights is that far less energy is lost as heat. This has led to fluorescent continuous lights often being referred to as ‘cool lights’. The fact that they run cooler than incandescent lights means they are far more practical for shooting portrait, still-life and macro photographs. The lack of heat also means it is possible to use accessories such as softboxes. However, standard accessory fittings aren’t common with these lights, so check what accessories, if any, are available before making a purchase. Often the bulbs used in photographic cool lights are the same as those used for domestic lighting, except that they use multiple bulbs to achieve a light that is bright enough for photography. For example, the Interfit Super Cool-lite 6 uses six bulbs, which gives the equivalent brightness of a 770W tungsten light. Using so many bulbs also gives some control over the brightness, with the ability to turn each bulb on and off individually. The colour temperature of fluorescent bulbs can vary greatly depending on the phosphors used. For household applications, bulbs can now be produced with a warm hue, but generally for photographic purposes you will need a cool white or daylightbalanced light. Cool white bulbs have a colour temperature of around 4,100K, 74 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

‘Colour temperature from incandescent lights can vary greatly and depends on the brightness of the bulb’

ALTHOUGH light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are not new technology, it is only recently that they have found a use in photographic lighting. They use very little power, which is why we are used to seeing individual LEDs used as small lights to indicate whether an electronic item is on or off. In fact, LEDs are about the

but daylight-balanced lights rate from 5,000-5,500K and are more useful for photographers. It can also take a few minutes for the bulbs to reach their maximum colour temperature, so it is best to leave them switched on for around 15 minutes prior to shooting. Fluorescent bulbs last far longer than incandescent bulbs, but as they start to die they may begin to flicker and develop a pink hue.

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most efficient form of lighting when power consumed is compared to light generated. They also have an extremely long life that is far in excess of other types of lighting, meaning that an LED will probably last a lifetime of use. It is for these reasons that LED lights are now used for traffic lights and many external car lights. However, there are some considerations when LEDs are grouped together and used for photography. The first of these is the expense compared to the brightness of the light produced. A cheap LED light that outputs the equivalent of a

WorldMags.net traditional 50W tungsten light bulb may cost anywhere between £50 and £300, depending on the technology used. Larger, brighter panels are even more expensive, with a Litepanels 1x1 Standard LED panel costing £1,440 for the equivalent of a 500W tungsten bulb. Another issue can be the colour temperature of the light output by the LEDs. Premium panels, such as those produced by Litepanels and the relatively inexpensive Manfrotto lights, have a high level of quality control and will use LEDs from a good supplier, so the companies can guarantee the colour accuracy of their lights. The lights produced by these two companies have a colour temperature of 5,600-6,000K, so they are daylight-balanced. Filter gels are even supplied with some lights so they can be mixed with tungsten lights for indoor use. However, the colour temperature of cheaper LED lights can vary greatly, even from unit to unit. Some of the better lights will also have adjustable

power, and again, like other forms of light, the colour temperature can vary throughout the power range – an effect that is minimised on better LED lights. Those planning to use LED lights for shooting video should also take note that some cheaper LED lights can produce a high-frequency flicker that can sometimes be seen in video footage. So while cheaper LEDs have their uses, for best results it is worth spending a few pounds extra. Of course, this is not to say that there aren’t advantages to using LED lights. The low power consumption means that nearly all panels are battery-powered, which allows them to be recharged. Without the need for mains power, their small size makes them very versatile and they are suitable for mounting on a hotshoe as a portrait fill light or for shooting video. Smaller LED lights are great for macro imagery and also for flower and food photography. They are so efficient that little energy is lost as heat, meaning that flowers will not wilt and frozen food and ice won’t melt quickly.

KNOWLEDGE

INCANDESCENT LIGHTING For entry-level photographers, incandescent lights are the most affordable way to start using continuous lighting INCANDESCENT lights work by passing an electric current through a metal, usually tungsten, filament, which is contained within a bulb that is typically filled with either an inert or a halogen gas. Those filled with inert gas are similar to traditional light bulbs used around the home. Halogen lamps have many uses, from household lights and desk lamps to car headlights, outdoor floodlights and work lights. Incandescent lights are cheap to manufacture and their mass-market use means they are produced in great numbers. However, compared to more modern types of bulb, they are extremely inefficient. Much of the energy that goes into the bulb is released as heat and the brighter the light, the more heat is produced. This waste of energy is one of the reasons why many places, including countries within the EU, are gradually phasing out the household use of some older types of traditional filament bulb. Although in the past most studio photography lights used photoflood tungsten filament bulbs, most lights are now halogen capsules or strip tubes. While they are relatively inexpensive, the amount of energy wasted as heat is the major problem with this type of lighting. Using a couple of 500W lights in a room

Left-right: Interfit Super Cool Lite 9 (around £350 for two-head kit), Litepanels MicroPro Hybrid (£350) and Calumet Bravo 300W (£119.99)

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over a long period can generate a lot of heat, which can become uncomfortable for both the photographer and the subject. Having a hot, bright light pointing at their face can also make the subject sweat, which is far from flattering when taking portraits. The heat also causes a problem when it comes to light-modifying accessories. For some types of light, only barn doors and metal snoots are available. Items made of plastic, particularly softboxes, can cause the lights to overheat as there is nowhere for the heat to escape and, at worst, the lights can catch fire. This means that other ways of softening and diffusing the light are needed, such as bouncing the light off a wall or placing a sheet of suitable diffusion material a few feet in front of the light. Many incandescent lights have little in terms of power adjustment. Some use more than one bulb, for example a 650W and a 350W. This gives three different power settings of 1,000W, 650W and 350W. If the brightness of a light cannot be adjusted, it means that it has to be moved further away from the subject to make it appear dimmer. This in turn has an effect on the ‘look’ of the light, as shadows become stronger and more defined. Colour temperature from incandescent lights can vary greatly and depends on the brightness of the bulb, but generally the light will be around 2,500-3,000K. An important consideration is that the colour temperature can change as the bulb warms up and it can also vary over the lifetime of the bulb. This isn’t too much of a concern if you are shooting with a digital camera and the incandescent light is the sole light source, but it can be problematic if you plan to mix different light sources. If you are trying to match the incandescent light with daylight, then an appropriate colourcorrection (blue) lighting gel should be used. It is important to use a specially designed gel rather than just coloured plastic; gels are designed to withstand the heat produced by the lights and won’t catch fire, although they can become brittle and crack over time. The main advantage of using incandescent lights is the cost compared to the power output, making them an ideal choice for a first set of continuous lights. However, technological advances mean there are better options available if you are prepared to spend a little more. ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 75

KNOWLEDGE

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LOW LIGHT Capturing detail in low light is one of the biggest challenges for any camera, but it is possible to overcome this difficulty and achieve stunning results

ISO 200

RECENT advances in digital imaging have seen manufacturers improve how cameras perform in poor lighting conditions. However, even when using the best cameras currently available, it is still vital to correctly expose the image to minimise noise and ensure maximum image detail. When shooting in low light, getting the correct exposure for the subject is key to crisp, saturated and dynamic images. The ‘best’ exposure settings are highly camera specific. Unfortunately, many of us switch to autopilot when shooting in low light – simply increasing the ISO rating without giving much thought to noise or shadow detail. However, some basic techniques can help to improve images taken in low-light conditions, particularly at high ISO settings. In this article, we will explore how to avoid the impact of noise in low light using a series of tests. Different cameras have been studied, and by understanding and implementing the results of the simple test on the opposite page, you can discover the ideal exposure settings to produce the best results in low light. But before we do this, here are a few things that will help you to understand your camera and its sensor.

ISO The trouble with understanding ISO ratings in digital photography is that the term ‘ISO sensitivity’ originally comes from film photography, and there are differences between film and digital capture methods. The chemical make-up of a film base affects its sensitivity to light, with a higher ISO rating being more sensitive. A digital imaging sensor does not have an ISO rating. In fact, the sensor’s ‘sensitivity’ to light is 76 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

ISO 1600 The correctly exposed image taken at ISO 1600 has less noise than the underexposed picture shot at ISO 200 Nikon D300, 0.8secs at f/5.6

constant and is in no way affected by the ISO setting. The quoted ISO sensitivities found on cameras are, in fact, ‘equivalent’ settings. Rather than the sensor actually becoming more sensitive to light, all that happens is the development process (raw sensor output to final digital image) adjusts the brightness and contrast to produce an image with a correct tonal range. A simple analogy is that a digital sensor is like shooting on ISO 200 film and then changing the camera settings as if using ISO 3200 film. The sensitivity of the film doesn’t change – it is still ISO 200, despite what the camera’s exposure settings say. To be able to use the now underexposed film, it must be pushprocessed and printed appropriately to get usable images. A silicon digital camera sensor yields

an output directly proportional to the level of light that it receives. So, to increase a digital sensor’s exposure to light, one must either increase the strength of the light source, the length of the shutter speed or the size of the aperture. How much light is collected and used by the sensor depends on its quantum efficiency (see right).

EXPOSURE As the sensor doesn’t become more sensitive as the ISO setting increases, it is advisable to give it a brighter exposure than the nominal one that the camera recommends. The lower the sensor’s exposure to light, the greater the level of noise will be. Therefore, by giving the sensor more light, the level of noise can be reduced and the tonal range can be improved. One way to give the sensor more

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light is to expose the scene so that the brightest point is exposed as much as it can be without clipping. In many cases this will cause the overall image to look overexposed. However, by increasing the exposure from the nominal setting (which was suggested by the camera), the sensor receives more light and therefore produces less noise and more detail in shadow areas. The image can then be adjusted in editing software to reduce its brightness, with the added advantage that any noise that does still exist in the image will also be darkened, making it less visible. So, regardless of the ISO setting, overexposing an image up to the point of highlight clipping, and then reducing the brightness in software, should help reduce noise and improve detail in shadow areas. In summary, the ‘best’ exposure is the brightest before highlight detail is unrecoverable.

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KNOWLEDGE

WHAT IS ISO? PROFESSOR BOB NEWMAN EXPLAINS When photographers talk about ‘ISO’ they are talking about the ‘Exposure Index’ as defined by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO). The Exposure Index defines the tonality of an image made with the nominal exposure for that ISO setting. A misconception

is that ISO dictates how that tonality will be achieved – it does not. In essence, in digital photography, ISO is about processing – by selecting an ISO you are selecting the processing, on the assumption that you will be using the nominal exposure. The camera’s user interface is designed around this, and when you select an ISO setting the camera’s metering will be adjusted

to achieve the nominal exposure for that ISO speed. However, that doesn’t mean you have to use it, and in some cases better results can be achieved by not doing so. If you use in-camera processing (JPEG), the internal workflow assumes you are using the nominal exposure, and some of this processing can be hard to undo.

READ NOISE AND SWEET SPOT TEST READ NOISE CURVE Read noise (RN) is the electronic noise added by the camera to the image captured by the sensor (which already has ‘built-in’ photonshot noise). It provides a constant noise background, so tends to be the noise that can be seen in the shadows. When the light is low (low number of photons), and is then processed by the camera to achieve a full tonal range, the digitiser read noise signal is brightened, resulting in more noise in shadows. A way around this is that the ISO control boosts (gain) the sensor signal. At the top ISO end, though, the digitisation system cannot deal with as high a light level and the dynamic range drops. To an extent, RN can be tackled simply by darkening the shadows, although this just results in featureless black blobs on the image. It is up to the photographer to decide whether featureless or noisy shadows are more objectionable. To estimate the read

noise difference between two cameras, take equal-area crops and compare them for the deep shadow noise, rather than bright and midtone noise. A similar technique can be used to find the ISO sweet spot for your own camera. This is the point at which the camera stops adding ‘gain’ (boosting the signal) as the ISO is raised. Manually set the exposure to nominal for the highest ISO setting on your camera. Then take a series of images of the same subject (with the same lighting), reducing the ISO by 1 stop each time without changing the exposure. Process the captured images to the same brightness range and then compare the sequence. As the ISO setting lowers, there will often be a point at which the shadow noise starts to rise. The last ISO setting before that rise is your ‘sweet spot’ for low-light exposures (see read noise curve, right).

(QE) of a sensor is one of the most important factors in a camera’s performance in low light. QE is the percentage of available light (photons) that the camera sensor collects (‘sees’) and releases into photoelectrons. The photoelectrons produce an electronic charge that is detected by the sensor circuit and is then converted from an analogue to digital signal, from which the image is produced. Of two same-size sensors for the same exposure, the one with a higher QE returns lower noise. A ‘perfect’ camera would have a QE of 100%. The diagram on the right shows some of the ways in which collected light is ‘lost’. The Nikon D3S has one of the highest QE percentages at 57% (5.7 of every 10 photons get counted), while the Hasselblad H3DII’s QE is 15% (1.5 in every 10). The quantum efficiency of the Hasselblad camera is roughly a

Read noise for Panasonic Lumix DMC-G3 101

Sweet spot

Read noise for Nikon D7000 101

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The percentage of photons not ‘seen’ by the camera sensor are for reasons such as being dissipated as heat or released as electrons

QUANTUM EFFICIENCY THE QUANTUM efficiency

The ISO sweet spot of a camera can be seen on the read noise curve graph as the point where the ‘curve’ levels out. The Panasonic Lumix DMC-G3’s noise curve levels out at ISO 1600, while the Nikon D7000 is almost a straight line across the entire ISO range, making the base ISO its sweet spot. By using this sweet-spot ISO setting and overexposing just before the point of clipping, noise can be kept to a minimum and the tonal range of a low-light image maximised. Overexpose as much as possible before highlight clipping for the lowest levels of noise.

quarter that of the Nikon D3S. However, the sensor of the Hasselblad is twice the size of that of the Nikon camera and therefore has double the number of photons striking it for the same exposure. But of these striking photons, the D3S converts four times the amount, which results in twice as many photons being used by the D3S, despite the physically larger sensor of the Hasselblad H3DII. With more light being used by the sensor, the Nikon D3S will perform the better of the two in the same low-light conditions. So, when we say low-light performance has been enhanced in today’s cameras, it is largely down to improvements in a camera’s QE. For example, the original Canon EOS 5D has a QE of 25%, while the EOS 5D Mark II has a QE of 33%. Compare two cameras and the one with less noise in the bright and midtones has a higher QE.

1

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On-chip lens Colour filter Metal wiring

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1 Misses the photo detector 2 Released electrons

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3 Dissipated as heat 4 Received light

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KNOWLEDGE

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SENSOR DESIGN P-type pinning

We explain the processes behind sensor design, and examine the operational principles behind it BUYING a digital camera entails purchasing the ‘film’ with which it will be loaded, for the rest of its useful life. Not surprisingly, potential purchasers pay a considerable amount of attention to the qualities of that sensor. While many words have been expended on the parameters that are the outcome of the sensor design process, less has been spent on the process of design itself. This will attempt to redress that. To prepare for a discussion of the design process, we start with the operational principles of a sensor.

THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT To operate, sensors depend on the photoelectric effect. This is the generation of electric current by light incident on materials called ‘semiconductors’. These are not normally conductive to electricity, but can be induced to have surplus (or deficit) of electrons in their crystal structure. This is done by ‘doping’ the silicon with small amounts of other materials, such as arsenic or boron. Silicon has four active, or valence,

TG

Fig 2

electrons per atom. By including elements which have three (such as boron, aluminium or indium) or five (such as phosphorus, arsenic or antimony), the required surplus or deficit can be arranged. In those circumstances, the surplus (or deficit) may be made to move through the body of the material, resulting in a current flow. The most used semiconductor material is silicon, because it is abundant and cheap. The photoelectric effect occurs when a photon strikes an atom of silicon in the silicon crystal. The energy of the photon is transferred to the atom, and as a result provides an electron with enough energy to break free of the atom. As a consequence, there is a free electron in the system as well as an atom with one fewer than it should have – a ‘hole’ – the quality that makes a material a semiconductor is that its atoms can operate with an extra electron or a lack of one with a small energy disadvantage. However, there is still some energy disadvantage to this state, so the natural propensity would be for the electro-hole pair

N-type anode

P-type bulk

A slice through a four-transistor CMOS pixel. In this case, the performance of the photodiode is improved with an additional p-type ‘pinning’ implant. The transfer gate (TG) selectively isolates the photodiode from the readout circuit

‘The photoelectric effect occurs when a photon strikes an atom of silicon in the silicon crystal’

Fig 1

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Left: N-type silicon is implanted with an element such as phosphorus, providing additional electrons that are mobile, making the region conductive. Right: P-type silicon is implanted with an element such as boron, leading to a deficit of electrons, or ‘holes’, which also render the region conductive

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to recombine. It doesn’t because there is an electric field applied across the silicon. This draws the negatively charged electron one way and the positively charged hole the other. Figure 1 shows silicon doped with phosphorus (n-type), boron (p-type) and an equal mix of the two as would happen at the border between a p- and n-type implant.

MAINTAINING THE FIELD As has just been discussed, an applied electric field is necessary for a photodetector to work. This can be achieved in two ways. One is by the application of an electric potential difference, or voltage, across the detector. The other is by building that potential difference into the silicon itself. If the silicon consists of a layer of electrondeficient silicon, called p-type and a layer of silicon with an electron surplus, called n-type then this will create the conditions that drive the freed electrons toward the p-type semiconductor. This layered structure forms a diode, so the photodetecting structure in a sensor is often referred to as a photodiode. If a photodiode structure is constructed and subjected to light, electric charge in the form of electrons will accumulate on the anode (positive terminal) of the diode.

WorldMags.net READING OUT THE CHARGE Collecting charge is only half the job; to deliver a photo, the charge has to be measured. This entails using a field-effect transistor (FET). A control electrode, called the gate, is laid over a channel of semiconductors. If a charge is applied to this gate, the electric field that it generates will change the conductivity of the channel, thus the charge may be made to control an electric current. By connecting the anode of the photodiode to the gate of a FET, the charge accumulated due to the incident light can control a current large enough to be read by an analogue-to-digital conversion system. Figure 2 shows diagrammatically a slice through a photodiode, connected to a source follower transistor via a transfer transistor. The FET is connected in a configuration known as a ‘source follower’, which provides no voltage amplification but significant current amplification. In fact, since the gate is insulated, no current flows from the photodiode; it is truly the charge that is measured. All sensors, whether CCD or CMOS (the dominant technology in still photography), use a similar technique, the difference being that in a CCD there is a single read transistor, and the charge is moved from pixel to pixel to reach the transistor, whereas

Column bus

Fig 3

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Pinned photodiode

KNOWLEDGE

‘Collecting charge is only half the job; the charge has to be measured. This entails a fieldeffect transistor’

Row Select

The circuitry of a four-transistor CMOS pixel in a CMOS pixel there is a separate read transistor in each pixel.

A CMOS PIXEL A section through a CMOS pixel is shown in Figure 3. Current pixel design uses four metal-oxide FET transistors. The cell works as follows. At the beginning of a capture cycle, the reset transistor (RST) is opened along with the transfer transistor (TX), which charges the photodiode and the read node to a high voltage. The transfer transistor is then closed,

Fig 4

isolating the photodiode. As the exposure continues, photoelectrons are collected on its anode, causing the voltage to fall (electrons are negatively charged), resulting in a voltage difference from the reset voltage, which is proportional to the total amount of light incident on the pixel over the exposure. The source follower transistor’s (SF) output follows the voltage on its gate, and the select transistor allows that output signal onto the column line, which connects via an amplifier to the ADC system. In a normal exposure cycle, two reads are made. First, a read is made with the transfer transistor closed, so that the voltage read is the reset voltage. Secondly, the transfer transistor is opened, letting the charge accumulated in the photodiode flow onto the gate of the source follower. The output signal for the pixel is taken as the difference between these two reads, which allows the removal of any noise, fed into the pixel via the reset signal. This process is known as ‘correlated double sampling’ and makes a considerable difference to the noise floor of the sensor. A plan view of a possible arrangement of these components on the chip is shown in Figure 4.

PERIPHERAL CIRCUITRY

Plan view of a possible layout for a four-transistor pixel. The output column line runs right to left at the bottom of the pixel. The reset and source follower drain (SFD) line run vertically

The sensor is read a row at a time. The select gates are connected row-wise, so that all the pixels in a row are switched onto the column lines together. These are generally terminated by a voltage amplifier (sometimes with variable gain), which boosts the output voltage to a level robust enough for

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transmission to the next stage of circuitry. This is usually a ‘multiplexer’, which serialises the column outputs, allowing the signals to be fed through a single wire channel to an analogue-to-digital conversion circuit. There might be between two and 24 channels. A radical alternative is that seen in the Sony Exmor sensors, where each column line feeds into an individual analogue-to-digital converter, whose outputs feed onto a digital bus. The advantage of this is twofold. First, the signal from the pixel has a minimal distance run in its delicate analogue state, and is converted to a more robust digital form before additional noise sources can add in. Second, as there are so many ADCs they can run very slowly, which means they add very little unnecessary conversion noise. Whatever the output circuitry, the other essential part of the sensor is a circuit that generates the pixel control signals in the right order to ensure a properly sequenced readout. This subsystem is called a ‘controller’ or ‘sequencer’. In many sensor designs it is programmable, allowing the camera designer to produce a particular control sequence that suits the design – one reason why the same sensor can perform differently in different cameras. Finally, there are the optical parts of the sensor applied as two overlays: the colour filter array, which is a photographic film product often sourced from Fujifilm; and a microlens array to concentrate the incoming light on the pixel, thus improving efficiency.

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KNOWLEDGE

WorldMags.net CONTROLLING QUANTUM EFFICIENCY

TROUBLESHOOTING The problems that sensor designers face... THE PREVIOUS pages concerned the essential operating principles of a CMOS imaging sensor. Armed with that knowledge, we will now look at the design trade-offs that sensor designers face and how these affect the cameras we buy. The first matter to be examined is the metrics that sensor designers work with to decide whether a sensor is ‘good’ or not. Quantum efficiency (QE): Despite the grand name, this is a very simple concept. If a sensor is subjected to, say, 100 photons of light, how many will be counted? Being ‘counted’ requires that the photon strikes a silicon atom and releases a photoelectron, and that the photoelectron so released finds its way to the gate of the read transistor. The QE is thus the percentage of incident photons that do this. The QE is important because it is a measure of how much light available is being wasted by the sensor, and since the main component of image noise, the photon-shot noise, depends directly on the number of photons counted (the signal-to-noise ratio in an area is actually the square root of the number of photons counted), this affects directly the low-light performance of a camera. Current cameras have a QE of 40-60%, which represents something like a doubling of efficiency over the past ten years. Read noise: Nothing’s perfect, and even if all the incident photons were to make their way to the read transistor, it is not guaranteed that the number will be counted with perfect accuracy. In practice there is an error, which varies randomly between read operations (and therefore from pixel to pixel). The error is constant (at a given ISO setting), which means it is usually of small significance when there are a lot of photons (the highlights), but is of more importance when there a few (the shadows).

would be perfectly identical and would respond to light in precisely the same way. Not only is this not the case, but the difference in pixel response can be influenced by which row or column the pixel is in, resulting in distracting ‘tartan’ patterns in the noise. Sometimes, in sensors with a multi-channel readout, differences in the channels can cause regular repeating patterns of noise. Dark current noise: As well as photons, thermal energy can release electrons from the structure of the silicon. Once released, these electrons are indistinguishable from the ones due to light. At normal exposures, there are not enough thermal electrons to significantly affect the image, but for longer exposures this may not be the case. The use of live view and video modes will tend to result in the sensor becoming warmer, and increase the problems of thermal noise.

‘The photodiode has to be deep enough so that the incident light does not pass straight through it’

Fig 1

On-chip lens Incident light

Colour filter

Lightreceiving surface Metal wiring

Photodiode

Pixel response non-uniformity (PRNU): In a perfect world, all pixels and their associated readout circuitry

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There are several factors that affect quantum efficiency. We will deal first with those that affect the silicon part of the sensor. The photodiode has to be deep enough so that the incident light does not pass straight through it. Red light penetrates up to 6 microns into the surface of silicon. If the photodiode is not at least that deep, some of the incident light will be wasted and quantum efficiency reduced. Next, it must be ensured that the released electrons are counted. The electrons are shepherded towards the read transistor by an electrical field, which is maintained by implanting ‘doping’ elements into the silicon. The profile of this field impacts its effectiveness, and must be carefully controlled. Although it is often said that an advantage of CMOS imaging sensors is that they can be produced on standard memory and processor fabrication lines, these two factors alone ensure sensor processes are these days very specialised. If the silicon is as efficient as possible, then the overall efficiency depends on the number of photons that actually reach it. Thus there

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A section of a pixel showing the microlens separated from the photodetector by layers of wiring. The more light that fails to make it to the detector, the lower the quantum efficiency

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‘The microlens must form an image of the exit pupil that fits completely on the photodiode’

Incident light

Fig 2

KNOWLEDGE

On-chip lens

Colour filter

Photodetector are two layers over the silicon: the colour-filter array, and microlens layer. The function of the colour-filter array is to stop two thirds of the light (the primary colours other than the one that the filter is intended to record). The filters can be made to be a little less discriminating, and the quantum efficiency will increase, but at the cost of a little ‘colour blindness’, which manifests itself as increased chroma noise. The role of the microlens is to ensure that all the light heading in the direction of a pixel from the exit pupil of the lens strikes the sensitive part of the pixel. Essentially, the microlens must form an image of the exit pupil that fits completely on the photodiode. This can be achieved either by making the photodiode large, or by making the focal length of the microlens short so that it acts as a ‘wideangle’. The limit to this is the layer of wiring over the sensor chip. To ensure good quantum efficiency, this must be as shallow as possible. Alternatively, light guides can be built in to convey the image from a short focal-length microlens to the surface of the silicon, or ‘back-side illumination’ can be adopted, in which the chip is thinned to expose the rear surface of the photodiodes, and the microlens and colour-filter array are situated on that side, opposite the wiring layer. Another way to shorten the focal length is by adding an ‘inner lens’ to produce a two-element arrangement. All these processes add significantly to the cost of the sensor.

CONTROLLING READ NOISE The measure of read noise that is important is how it looks relative to the light reaching the sensor. It is therefore normally measured in ‘electrons’, its effect in comparison

Inner microlenses shorten the focal length of the microlens, which results in more concentration of the light from the exit pupil of the taking lens, thus increasing the likelihood that it will hit the photodetector

Inner micro lens with the photoelectrons making up the image. For a given amount of electronic noise in the system, its visible effect is determined by the ‘conversion gain’ – the number of photoelectrons that represents a volt of sensor output. The higher the gain, the fewer electrons correspond to a given voltage and the less read noise is visible. Thus, the conversion gain needs to be made as large as possible to minimise read noise. Unfortunately, the total amount of light the sensor can measure is generally determined by the maximum possible output voltage, so a high conversion gain results in a sensor that cannot accept many photons – in other words, it has a high ‘base ISO’.

CONTROLLING PRNU AND THERMAL NOISE To an extent, both PRNU and thermal noise can be controlled by processing after capture. If the pattern of the noise is known (since it is not strictly random noise), then it can be subtracted from the captured image. In the case of PRNU, this is done by building the sensor with a black border that is shielded from the light. It is assumed that the pixels in the border will share the same characteristics as those in the same row or column, so by measuring these black pixels, the PRNU can be estimated and subtracted away. This is usually done before the raw file is written (raw files aren’t always so raw). In the case of thermal noise, a ‘black frame’ with the same exposure time as the image can be taken and subtracted from it.

design must in all cases be a compromise between conflicting requirements. Once a fabrication process has been optimised with deep and carefully profiled implants, then the designer has limited options. Quantum efficiency can be raised by improving or changing the colour filtration or by improving the microlenses. The latter might involve moving to a new process with thinner wiring (maybe using copper instead of aluminium), by adding inner lenses or by designing a cell configuration with less wiring – as, for instance, is done in the Panasonic sensors. However, this might have the downside of adding to the electronic noise generated. So far as read noise is concerned, one part of the equation is to minimise the electronic noise. This can be done by using careful design and superior components, or by placing as much circuitry as

The Canon EOS 5D Mark III’s red colour filters allow more green light through than the EOS-1Ds Mark III’s red colour filters, thus increasing the amount of light reaching the sensor, but reducing colour sensitivity

1

possible on the sensor so that signal runs are short. However, this also has a downside, because the on-chip circuitry increases the heat dissipated, thus increasing thermal noise. The second part of controlling read noise is to raise the conversion gain, which is done by minimising the capacitance of the pixel. As stated above, the trade-off is that the amount of light that the pixels can collect is reduced. The way to maintain the overall light-collecting ability of the sensor is to then reduce pixel size, resulting in higher pixel counts – with the knock-on effect of slower read-out times. The options offered to a sensor designer are relatively limited, and progress depends on the availability of smaller geometries, leading to higher efficiencies with smaller pixels. That is the essential technological driver behind the ‘megapixel race’.

Canon EOS 5D Mark III Canon EOS-1Ds Mark III

Fig 3

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

THE TRADE-OFFS If it were possible, every sensor would be designed to be perfect. Since this is not possible, the

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R sRGB

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TRIPODS A tripod is an essential photographic accessory. We explain everything you need to know about them

IN SPITE of improved resolution for low-light shooting and image stabilisation in many cameras today, the tripod remains an essential accessory. Accurate framing, stability with telephoto lenses, low light without flash, slow shutter speeds and small apertures, bracketing,

multiple exposures and time-lapse sequences, videos, 360° panoramas, self-portraits, awkward shooting positions – all are possible with a tripod and all are compelling reasons to own one. It is important to get a support system that will enable you to get the

WEIGHT

SPIRIT BUBBLE

THE FOLLOWING table indicates the difference that size and material make in real terms. Each weight indicated excludes a tripod head. These weigh another 150-400g for compact models, and 400-800g for more heavy-duty versions.

Size and type Mini (A/CF) Standard (CF) Standard (A) Eye-level (CF) Eye-level (A) Overhead (A) Heavyweight studio A: aluminium

most out of your camera kit, and which equips you for the type of photography you like to do. A tripod’s reach, load capacity and versatility for shooting at different angles are all factors that should be considered. Furthermore, its size and weight must be taken into account, as it will directly determine whether or not you take it out with you. After all, carrying a heavy tripod is not an enticing prospect for a full day’s walking. Like any key photographic item, there are a number of options from which to choose, so over the next four pages we will lead you through the various options for tripod legs. There are no hard-and-fast rules when choosing legs; just consider all the features and decide which are most important to your photography.

Weight (g) 300-600, up to 1,000 800-1,400 1,200-1,800 1,200-1,500 2,000-2,500 >3,000 >3,000 CF: carbon fibre

Carry comfort All day At least half a day Half a day Half a day 1-3 hours A few minutes A few minutes

We are starting to see the introduction of cameras with electronic levels built in, for accurate and level shooting. However, there are many that still do not. A spirit bubble is commonly found on tripod heads, but is also present on some legs – typically in the upper casting. This particularly useful if the legs come without a head.

LEG LOCKS

Most tripods have a number of leg sections to extend their height. Leg locks are a factor in the strength of the tripod’s legs. There are generally two types of leg lock – a lever lock or a twist lock – with benefits to each. A lever lock grips the legs by pinching, so to speak; it is slightly bulkier but can be quicker to operate. The twist lock usually grips the circumference of the tube and is less likely to break than a lever, but it is susceptible to dust, grit and freezing temperatures. There is no rule as to which type is strongest because this will vary between manufacturers.

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is

WorldMags.net CASTING The upper casting is made from either a lighter magnesium alloy or a heavier and stronger aluminium. There are some unique examples of materials used, like Gitzo’s Soulid 238°, which is even lighter. It is not unusual to find more than one type of aluminium casting in the same set of legs – one for the leg locks and one for the upper casting – as well as another type for the tubing. Die-casting is the most common production method for aluminium and magnesium-alloy casting, with injection moulding for plastic (polymer) casting. While this method is achieved using force, Gitzo employs gravity casting, which lets gravity do the work. Much less air is captured inside the casting, which makes it even stronger.

TUBING Carbon, aluminium and plastic: just what is the difference? WHILE wooden tripods are still available, most tripods are manufactured from three main material types: carbon fibre, aluminium and plastic. Each type has its own benefits, be it value, strength or weight. There are some unique examples of alternative materials being used by certain manufacturers for leg tubing, such as basalt and titanium. These fit somewhere between carbon fibre and aluminium in terms of cost, strength and weight. The exterior of the tubing can be grooved, smooth or shiny. A grooved finish, as found on Benro tripods and some other models, prevents the legs from spinning around when they are unlocked. Some feature a soft grip on the legs, made from rubber (typically nitrile butadiene), which makes for easy and comfortable carrying in hot and cold weather. CARBON FIBRE Tripods made from carbon fibre are the most expensive type. They are chosen by professionals because it is the lightest and strongest tube material, and tripods constructed from it offer the best weightto-stability ratio. What this means, though, is that the cost increases significantly. This is demonstrated

Multi-directional carbon fibres increase the strength of the tubing. Here there are six layers

FEET The material of the feet will affect how well the tripod grips the surface, and also whether they will cause any damage. Rubber feet are good for indoor use as they are less likely to cause damage, while spikes will grip certain outdoor surfaces very well but may damage indoor floors. Some tripods have metal spikes built into the rubber feet, which can be unscrewed so that the spikes protrude. Others offer spikes as extras. Furthermore, some feet have a wider surface area so they will not sink in wet ground, and still others have an adjustable angle to suit legs that can spread very wide.

KNOWLEDGE

clearly by manufacturers that sell both carbon-fibre and aluminium tripods, with the cost of carbon-fibre tripods often increasing threefold over those made from aluminium. Which version to buy is not quite so clear-cut, however, as it is about more than crunching numbers. The strength and weight of carbon-fibre tubing is affected by several factors: the production process, the number of layers, the purity of carbon fibre, and the density and direction of the fibres. As such, the level of quality differs between manufacturers. Epoxy is used in the production of carbon fibre, and so traces can be present in the fibres, usually between the layers. Manfrotto and Vanguard are two manufacturers that claim their tubing to be 100% carbon fibre, with no epoxy between the layers. Gitzo tubing features both crossed and longitudinal-direction fibre

layers for increased strength, and the fibres are the densest at 1,200 strands per fibre. Carbon fibre with a density of 400 or 600 strands per fibre is cheaper to manufacture, as is non-pure carbon fibre. This is why carbon-fibre tripods vary in price. The number of layers in tubing is one of the most publicised pieces of information from manufacturers, and is certainly a factor that affects its strength. Manfrotto states three layers, whereas Gitzo, Giottos and Vanguard say six layers and Benro eight. However, this number of layers is not necessarily defined in the same way across manufacturers, and so it is not always the most helpful information for gauging strength. The maximum weight load gives a clearer indication. Gitzo’s six-layer carbon tubing is made up of alternate longitudinal and crossed-fibre layers for added rigidity, while Vanguard’s tubing has multi-directional fibres. In theory, the more layers and more densely packed the fibres, the heavier the leg should be, but this is not always the case.

‘Aluminium is a popular choice because it is more affordable than carbon fibre, yet many of these tripods can appear virtually identical to their carbonfibre counterparts and offer the same features’ ALUMINIUM Aluminium is a popular choice because it is more affordable than carbon fibre, yet many of these tripods can appear virtually identical to their carbon-fibre counterparts and offer the same features. The main difference, however, is that aluminium is much heavier, although advances in aluminium tubing have seen the weight of the material reduced, primarily thanks to a lesser tube thickness. Another factor, as with carbon fibre, is the purity of the composition. The purity of aluminium tubing ranges from 100% in high-quality models, down to 40% or even lower. Virgin aluminium is stronger than recycled and is generally the type used for tubing, with the lower-quality aluminium used by some for casting.

PLASTIC For those on a tight budget, plastic is a great choice, but is not recommended for DSLR users because it will not support heavy bodies. These tripods are typically for compact cameras and are much less durable. Spending a little extra on a tripod that will last can, in the long run, be the cheaper option.

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KNOWLEDGE

WorldMags.net REACH

TRIPOD HEIGHT Tripods come in a variety of sizes depending on their purpose. Make sure you get the correct height for your needs OVERHEAD STANDARD

EYE-LEVEL

Tripod legs are typically grouped into four levels of reach: compact (mini), standard, eye-level and overhead. Each size up has larger legs than the size below it, or more leg sections to achieve a higher maximum reach. Three- or four-leg sections are standard, although the more sections there are, the thinner the tubing gets and the greater the number of leg locks, which will in turn affect the strength of the tripod. Clearly, the size of the legs affects the weight of the tripod itself. Mini tripods offer a compact platform, but will not support heavy cameras or reach eye-level, making them more awkward to use. There are positives and negatives to each size, but lightweight traveller tripods are a good

option because they fold away small but often still reach eye-level. Equally, reach is considered in terms of how low the legs can go (minimum reach). This is affected by how wide the legs can spread and whether or not the central column can be reversed. Cheaper tripods will typically have a fixed angle to which the legs can be pulled out, whereas more expensive models often offer three angles and the option to adjust each leg independently. These angles tend to be roughly 25°, 55° and 80°, which is ideal for shooting awkward surfaces and low angles.

COMPACT

CENTRAL COLUMN

MONOPOD A monopod is a single-leg support that is ideal for use with large and heavy telephoto lenses. It is common to see press and sports photographers using them. Recently, we have seen a monopod built into a tripod in the form of 3 Legged Thing’s ‘Brian’ carbon-fibre tripod. 84 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

A tripod’s versatility is hugely affected by whether it has a central column, and its level of functionality. Many older types have a geared lever to crank up the height of the column, which gives sturdy but slow operation; other columns are simply unlocked manually by a twist lock, pulled into place and locked again. The central column further extends the maximum height, although this affects the tripod’s stability. In some cases it can be removed and flipped upside down for low-level shooting (great for macro), or even set horizontally for

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positioning a camera at overhanging or difficult angles, such as over a stream and for wheelchair users. The speed at which the column can be operated is a key consideration. Manfrotto’s version has a quickadjust central column for horizontal positioning; Vanguard has a similar column that can be positioned at any angle between 0° and 180°; Giottos allows horizontal positioning but is slow to adjust. Vanguard’s Nivelo mini tripod can swing its column upside down without it being removed, which is a much quicker form of operation.

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TOP TIPS

FOLDED HEIGHT

HOOKS

TRAVEL TRIPODS

On many models a hook can be found at the bottom of the central column, or in some cases added as an extra. This is useful for hanging a weight to increase the tripod’s stability.

3 LEGGED THING BRIAN Materials Min height cm Max height Weight (kg) Max load (kg)

Carbon fibre 12.5 204 1.715 8

Brian offers an expansive range of shooting heights, with no compromise on stability, making it a great all-rounder. It might be slightly heavy, but the monopod leg is a nice touch, and 3 Legged Thing’s Brian sits quite rightly near the head of this pack. It costs around £360.

extra tripod plates, one for each camera you own – 1Buy it saves time over removing

A tripod’s height when folded is an important factor for storage and travel. An extra leg section will give greater height, but could well fold away as small as those without. Legs fold away in different ways, and this affects the fold size. Traveller tripods fold the legs up 180° and into the central column, which is around 20% more compact than the standard fold-in legs. One of the most compact tripod design we have seen is the Benro Traveller series. Its design positions the legs in a line rather than around a central point, which means they fold away flat. This does, however, limit the functionality of the legs. If a tripod is likely to accompany you on your travels, then weight and size must be a consideration. It can be worth buying two tripods: one for regular use and a more compact model for travelling. Do check with your airline for weight allowance and permitted hand-luggage dimensions – typically 560x450x250mm – and then check your tripod. It could be the difference between checking it in or attaching it to the side of your camera bag and taking it through as hand luggage. Unfortunately, there is no definitive answer to whether a tripod can be taken as hand luggage, with people having mixed experiences, but frequently they are being allowed to take it through. If you check it in, wrap the tripod up in clothes and place it in the centre of a bag.

BENRO TRAVEL ANGEL 2 Aluminium 40 156.5 1.73 8

The Travel Angel 2 (around £170) is the heaviest tripod here, but it’s also one of the most stable and is capable of holding a solid load. Overall, it’s a good choice for long-lens wildlife shots, but not quite so ideal for long treks through the countryside.

KNOWLEDGE

and refixing a single plate if you use multiple cameras on the same day’s shooting. about transporting 2Think your tripod. If a case with a strap is not included, then factor in the cost of buying one. Other options include a separate shoulder strap or, if possible, attaching the tripod to your camera bag. the legs down is a 3Pushing good test of the strength of leg locks, but twisting the legs tests stability. the head drift by 4Check mounting a longer lens on your camera. Gitzo claims a 0.03% tolerance, but other tripods may be significantly higher, which is frustrating when trying to frame precisely. other types of 5Consider camera support. Options include a beanbag, a piece of string (SteadePod), a monopod, bendy tripods (Joby) and pocket tripods for smaller cameras.

GIOTTOS GITZO VITRUVIAN VGRN8255 TRAVELLER GT1542T Carbon fibre 27 165 1.38 6

Carbon fibre 22 (without head) 149 (without head) 1 (without head) 7

It folds down to a small size, weighs little, holds a lot and can take a camera from ground level to over 1.6m. In short, the VGRN8255 offers everything that could be wanted in a travel tripod, with no obvious downside. The £270 price and five-year warranty are a bonus.

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Light, versatile and capable of supporting a serious load, the Gitzo Traveller GT1542T ticks all the right boxes, but the financial outlay limits it to those who consider £500 to be ‘pocket change’. For the rest of us, an extra lens might be a better investment.

ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 85

KNOWLEDGE

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PROFESSIONAL PRINTING Professional-quality prints can be difficult to achieve. Here are the key factors for translating what you see on screen onto paper

YOUR image has been retouched and is ready to print, but how can you ensure that you achieve a print you would be happy to display? There are many factors that contribute to a professional-looking print from a correctly exposed digital image. Along with advice from printing professionals, I will take you through how to prepare your image and your inkjet printer for the best possible results. WORK SPACE

86 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

A neutral environment with consistent light helps your eyes when checking for colour accuracy

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© THE PRINTSPACE

David May, production manager at The Printspace in East London, stresses the importance of a good working area. ‘Making minor adjustments to image detail and colour rendition will be tricky with glare from bright sunlight

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GETTING THE IMAGE READY

CANVAS SIZE

KNOWLEDGE

LEVELS

RESOLUTION

STEP TWO IMAGE SIZE

STEP ONE RESOLUTION An inkjet printer uses nozzles to spray ink onto the paper, typically at a resolution of 360dpi. As a general rule, therefore, 360ppi is the ideal resolution for image files because the quality cannot be improved with a higher output. Straight out of the camera, the resolution of digital files is usually 72ppi, so this needs to be altered before printing. Although 360dpi is the ideal resolution for image files, you can use 240ppi or 180ppi for cameras with lower resolutions. When altering the ppi resolution, uncheck the Resample Image box first, alter the ppi resolution and then recheck it. The document size will change, but the pixel dimensions will remain the same. Do not increase the pixel dimensions drastically as you cannot create data from nothing, while if you make huge reductions in the pixel dimensions the quality will be reduced.

IMAGE SIZE

Most DSLRs shoot in a 3:2 format, which may not match the format you wish to print. Use the Crop tool to adjust the format by typing in the correct ratio or dimensions in the Crop tool’s settings. Borders are best added to the file rather than centring the print through output. This can be achieved in Photoshop by increasing the size of the canvas to the desired dimensions. It is good practice to print the digital file at 100%. A 240ppi file is 150% larger than 360ppi. If you want to print larger, then compromising resolution is fine because it is difficult to spot any difference between 240ppi and 360ppi. This maintains the pixel dimensions to the output of the camera sensor, which in a 12.1-million-pixel camera in 4:3 format has an output of 4000x3000 pixels. For larger changes, resampling the image can be a better option. To do this, check the Resample Image box, and use Bicubic Sharper for reducing the size and Bicubic Smoother for enlarging.

STEP THREE COLOUR CHECK Poor colour rendition is most obvious in shadow areas. Look at the blacks in the image to check for a colour cast and at the highlights as these are also good indicators. If you are unsure about the colour balance, look for known colours in the scene, such as the colour of a wall, and then use that as a guide. If this becomes tricky, then balance the colour for the most important aspect of the image. In a portrait, for example, this would typically be the skin tone.

STEP FOUR LEVELS Images with blown-out highlights, which are seen as areas of white, can cause a problem when printing. Because there is no data in this part of the image, the printer will not output any ink on this area, essentially leaving patches on the paper with no ink at all. Adjusting the Levels helps to avoid this problem. If you adjust the highlight to 252 on the output slider, this should add enough data for the printer to distribute ink in these areas without affecting the image quality too much. Alternatively, dull down the area by pulling down the highlights via Curves. Both of these options will mean that the image has a little less contrast, but the print will have total ink coverage.

STEP FIVE THE FINAL EDIT For a crisp and sharp print, add a bit of sharpening as a final touch. Set the view size somewhere between 33% and 50% (at 100% you risk sharpening too much) and increase the

sharpening until you are happy with the print. Go to View>Print Size as a final check. Because a monitor is effectively a lightbox, it is an ideal way to view and edit an image. However, what appears on screen is brighter than what will be produced on inkjet paper. To adjust for this, lighten the image by 10% before printing. A calibrated monitor has a more accurate output. Otherwise, you can darken the monitor by10% and make final image adjustments. Once you are ready to print, view a soft proof to see how the image will look in accordance with the printer and paper being used. Go to View>Proof Setup>Custom... Device to Simulate to see how the print will look. Under this heading you will see a list of ICC profiles already loaded into Photoshop (see ICC profiles on page 89). Choose your desired paper. There is a discernible difference between papers, particularly in bright blue and red areas of an image. C-type paper is less vivid, but the tonal range is good. Select the correct rendering intent (see Output on page 88) and then click OK. Finally, make your final colour and Levels adjustments.

STEP SIX FILE FORMAT Before printing, make sure that all the file’s adjustment layers are flattened. Using the TIFF format from a raw file is ideal for image editing, and Photoshop users will be equally pleased with PSD files. JPEG files compress information and are not ideal for editing, but once the final edit is complete, it is difficult to see the difference between any of those formats.

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ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 87

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TOP TIPS ● Calibrate your monitor

● Use a consistent light source in your work environment, and surround yourself with neutral colours ● Work from Adobe raw and steer away from JPEG format

shining on your monitor,’ he says. ‘Try to work in an environment away from strong light and with a consistent level of light.’ A monitor hood shields your screen from strong light and allows the monitor brightness to be turned down, which is energy efficient. Try the Colour Confidence PCh00D Monitor Hood Pro, which costs £71.44 from www.colourconfidence.com. Use a neutral colour, such as grey, for your desktop background and restrict bright, distracting colours within your vision. It is important to view prints in daylight conditions. Bright light is not helpful when viewing image detail, but neutral overcast light is. There are plenty of options for daylight-balanced light sources, and some are very reasonable. For example, the Daylight Company sells portable lamps from £54.99 (www.daylightcompany.com). Calibrating your monitor is a key part of your preparation. There are software options to calibrate your monitor that rely on the human eye, but for best accuracy hardware calibration devices ensure the colour rendition and levels are correct. The X-Rite i1 Display Pro is a popular choice for professionals (available for £199 from www. colourconfidence.com). Monitors should be calibrated every six months or so, but if you do a lot of printing this should be every two months. Some photo labs, including The Printspace (www.theprintspace.co.uk), offer a monitor-calibration service for free if you can take it to the store, which is useful for laptop users.

Colour space comprises all possible colours created from red, green and blue (RGB). The limit of these colours 88 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

OUTPUT Once the image has been edited, the settings for output must be set correctly. As a default, most printers

are set to use high-speed mode. This in turn affects image quality, so make sure this option is not selected. Also, uncheck the box for colour management, because this is being carried out manually, and make sure the image is the correct size for the print you require. Rendering intent tells you how to deal with the colours you cannot reproduce – those out of the colour gamut. As a default, this is set to Relative Colormetric, in which the white of the source colour space and that of the destination space (printer) are compared. Out-of-gamut colours are shifted to the closest match, which means accurate colours are maintained. The tone is then flattened, so it is less able to render shadow detail and is therefore best for use for brighter images.

A viewing booth is useful to check prints under controlled daylightbalanced lighting

© THE PRINTSPACE

COLOUR SPACE

is defined by the colour gamut. It is always best to use the same colour space in-camera and when you come to edit the image. For example, always use the Adobe RGB colour space in-camera and on a computer. For top-quality prints, Adobe RGB is better than sRGB because it has a larger colour gamut. This is particularly noticeable in the green, blue and cyan areas, all of which are particularly important to landscape photographers. sRGB was designed for web use, so is ideal for online images. You can find out the current editing colour space by selecting Edit>Color Setting in Photoshop.

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● Use a compatible print resolution to the size of your camera sensor ● Check that you are using the correct rendering intent ● A custom ICC profile ensures the correct colour values and ink output ● Run a test print to avoid wasting paper and inks Perceptual is the alternative option, which shrinks the whole colour gamut down to fit within the smaller gamut of the printer. The relationship between colours is maintained, but this often means there will be a shift in colour values. This option holds shadow detail, making it best for images with dark areas and shadow detail. Check the correct option when viewing a soft proof to ensure accurate colour management.

MANY THANKS TO DAVID MAY FROM THE PRINTSPACE, VIJ SOLANKI FROM PERMAJET, DOMINIC FOWLER FROM EPSON AND ESTELLE SEXTON FROM CANON FOR THEIR HELP WITH THIS ARTICLE

Even with instant dry paper, leave prints to dry completely and handle with gloves

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KNOWLEDGE

GETTING THE PRINTER READY ICC PROFILES I spoke to Vij Solanki from Permajet to get his thoughts on the importance of ICC profiles. He said: ‘An ICC profile holds information about the range of colours that a printer or monitor can utilise. To obtain accurate colour rendition, particularly in shadow areas, it is vital to use the correct ICC profile. The default information will be correct if you use, for example, an Epson printer, Epson ink and Epson paper. However, if any one of these variables is changed, then the default is incorrect. Your operating system is also a variable.’ It is fairly straightforward to download the correct generic ICC profile to match your printer, ink and paper combination through the website of the paper brand you are using. This will improve the accuracy of print, but it is a profile that has been created on another printer. Every printer is unique and performs slightly differently. The same profile and output may be fine on one printer, but could show a slight cyan tinge on another and even a variable such as humidity can influence the outcome of the print. So for the most accurate colour rendition it is worth investing in your own unique ICC profile that is specific to your printer. Software to do this is available, such as Canon’s Colour Management Tool Pro 2. Alternatively, Permajet gives free advice for using its own paper, or charges for other papers. This process includes downloading two generic colour patches, printing them off with no colour management or manipulation, and sending them off to the company. For more details, visit www.permajet.com. There is online

Using manufacturers’ own inks ensures the bestpossible-quality prints

‘remote’ ICC profiling, but for the best accuracy it is best to send off the colour patches.

PRINTER MAINTENANCE It is possible to get all the output and printer profiling correct, but still have an unsatisfactory print. If you are not happy with the print you have produced, begin by running a nozzle check. This can be found through the printer set-up and will indicate if there is any issue with the mechanics of the printer, such as head alignment, and if the heads are clean and clear. It takes just a paper-feeding issue to misalign the print heads. If it has been a while since the printer was last in use, the print heads may need cleaning. In the UK, long-term storage is less likely to be an issue in terms of clogged printer heads, whereas a hot, dry climate is more problematic. Give pigment ink cartridges a shake before use in this instance. Cleaning a print head uses up ink, but it is cheaper than wasting a sheet of expensive photo paper. Complete a nozzle check first to avoid the unnecessary wasting of ink.

The different fibre base of these papers affects the warmth of tone

INK CHOICE For professional-quality prints, using the printer manufacturer’s own or top-quality third-party inks is important. Cheaper, poor-quality third-party inks have several downsides. For example, an ICC profile may not exist for the ink, and the longevity of it is much lower, leading to faded prints. The general density and saturation of the inks will produce poorer results, too. Permajet’s continuous-flow system is one example of goodquality third-party inks. A complete Eco-Flo system costs between £159 and £249, with each bottle of ink holding 125ml. The company claims this produces an 80% saving on ink and that the ink quality is even more saturated and equal in longevity to the print manufacturer’s own ink. Refillable inks cost £27.95. Manufacturers’ inks are expensive. A complete set of proprietary inks for a printer such as the Epson Stylus Photo R2880 will cost just under £100. Each ink cartridge holds 11ml of ink, although this can produce less than 10ml of usable ink.

PAPER CHOICE Depending on your image and the way you wish to present it, your choice of paper is key. Typically, gloss paper is a popular choice because the high-contrast, bright and saturated colours make for bold prints. Paper with a baryta layer has many of these advantages, but with a greater choice of finishes and thicknesses. Matt and textured paper can give a nice arty feel, but often this results in more muted colour reproduction, limited contrast

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and loss of detail. Also, the base colour of the paper affects the warmth of a print. Each paper has a different level of texture, so setting the correct paper type is important for an accurate level of ink output.

FEEDING Sheets of paper that are dense and thick may not feed through the printer correctly. Typically, sheets over 300gsm will need to go through individually, or in some cases through another feeder on the printer, but read the manual of your printer to make sure. If the printer is stacked with several sheets, it may feed more than one through at a time and throw the printer head out of alignment, which will consequently need fixing.

HANDLING Although most inkjet papers produce prints that are dry straight from the printer, it is worth handling them as little as possible to make sure they are thoroughly dry. When handling prints, particularly with a gloss finish, fingermarks can spoil the surface, so wear gloves to avoid any damage.

TEST PRINTS To save money on ink and paper, run a test strip, much like in darkroom printing. It is advisable to do this for both sharpening and colour balance, set at incremental levels. Use the same section of the image with key points of interest. When you print, uncheck the centre image box and move the strip along the page set-up from left to right so the strips do not overlap.

ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 89

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ԴՀՁԻՀՁՋՏՀՑԳՁՋՁԺՄԽጓՍՋՌԺՊՁՆԿՑՇՍՌՀԽጐՊԻՌՁԻ጑ՍՌՌԽՊԾՄՑጨՍՈԽՊ጑ՊՁԿՀՌ ԹՆԼՌՀԽ/ጦՍԹՋԹՊ0ጨԽՆՋՇՊጨԻՇՈԽՐጘՆՆՇՎԹՌՁՎԽՈՊՇԼՍԻՌՋՌՀԹՌՅԹՃԽՌՀԽ ԼԽՄՁԻԹՌԽՌԹՋՃՇԾԻՄԽԹՆՁՆԿՑՇՍՊՋԽՆՋՇՊԹՋԽԹՋՑԹՆԼԹՋՋԹԾԽԹՋՈՇՋՋՁԺՄԽ

ԱՀԽ ጣጔԴ ጦՍԹՋԹՊն ጨԽՆՋՇՊጡՇՍՈԽն Ե ՍՌՁՄՁՒԽՋ ԹԼՎԹՆԻԽԼ ՈԹՌԽՆՌԽԼ ԾԽԹՌՍՊԽՋ ՋՍԻՀ ԹՋ ጑ՊՁՌԽԳՍԽ Եጡգ ՌԽԻՀՆՇՄՇԿՑ ՏՁՌՀ ՀՁԿՀ ՉՍԹՄՁՌՑ ԽՐՌՊԹ ՄՇՏ ԼՁՋՈԽՊՋՇՆ ጠ ՇՈՌՁԻԹՄ ԿՄԹՋՋ ՏԽՄՄ ՃՆՇՏՆ ԾՇՊ ՁՌՋ ՀՁԿՀ ՊԽՋՇՄՍՌՁՇՆ ԹՆԼ ԻՄԹՊՁՌՑ ጘՆ ԹԼԼՁՌՁՇՆ ՌՀԽ ጣጔԴ ጦՍԹՋԹՊգጨԽՆՋՇՊጡՇՍՈԽնԵՀԹՋՋՁՐ ՋՍՈԽՊ ԺՊՁԿՀՌ ጡጔጓՋ ՏՁՌՀ ՎԹՊՁԹՆԿՄԽԼ ՇՊՁԽՆՌԹՌՁՇՆ ՌՇ ՀԽՄՈ ԻՊԽԹՌԽ Թ ጓ ՁՅԹԿԽ ՇԾ ԼՍՋՌ ՈԹՊՌՁԻՄԽՋ ՋՁՅՁՄԹՊ ՌՇ ՀՇՏ ՋԹՌԽՄՄՁՌԽՋ ԻԹՈՌՍՊԽ ՋՌԽՊԽՇՋԻՇՈՁԻ ՁՅԹԿԽՋ

ጣጔԴ

ԱՀԽՅՁՆՁጦՍԹՋԹՊնጨԽՆՋՇՊጡՇՍՈԽնՁՋՌՀԽՆԽՏԽՋՌՁՆՋՈԽԻՌՁՇՆ ԼԽՎՁԻԽ ԾՊՇՅ ԳՁՋՁԺՄԽԼՍՋՌ ጢՁՆՁ ጦՍԹՋԹՊն ՁՋ ԺԹՋԽԼ ՇՆ ԹՏԹՊԼ ՏՁՆՆՁՆԿ ጨԽՆՋՇՊ ጡՇՍՈԽն ՌԽԻՀՆՇՄՇԿՑ ԹՆԼ ՇԾԾԽՊՋ ՌՀՁՋ ՌԽԻՀՆՇՄՇԿՑՁՆԹՈՇԻՃԽՌԹԺՄԽԾՇՊՅԹՌԹՆԼԾՄԹՌՋՀԹՈԽԱՀԽጢՁՆՁ ጦՍԹՋԹՊնՍՋԽՋՌՀԽՀՁԿՀԽՋՌՉՍԹՄՁՌՑՇԾՇՈՌՁԻԹՄԿՄԹՋՋՏՁՌՀԾՄՍՇՊՁՆԽ ԻՇԹՌԽԼՋՍՊԾԹԻԽԾՇՊՌՀԽՋՀԹՊՈԽՋՌՁՅԹԿԽՈՇՋՋՁԺՄԽ

ጘጣԱጧጤጓԲጒጘጣ጖ՌՀԽԳՁՋՁԺՄԽጓՍՋՌጓՍՋՌጨՆԹՈՈԽՊ

ጢՇՋՌ ԻԹՅԽՊԹ ԺՇԼՁԽՋ ՇՊ ՄԽՆՋԽՋ ԹՊԽ ՅԹԼԽ ՇԾ ԻՇՅՈՇՋՁՌԽ ՅԹՌԽՊՁԹՄՋ ՏՀՁԻՀ ԹՊԽ ՈՊՇՆԽ ՌՇ ԼՍՋՌ ԹՆԼՈԹՊՌՁԻՄԽՋԹՌՌՊԹԻՌՁՇՆՏՀԽՆՈՄԹԻԽԼՇՆՇՊԼՁՆԹՊՑՋՍՊԾԹԻԽՋጤՆԻԽԹԻՄԽԹՆጓՍՋՌጨՆԹՈՈԽՊՀԹՋ ԺԽԽՆՈՄԹԻԽԼՍՆԼԽՊՌՀԽԻԹՅԽՊԹԺՇԼՑՇՊՄԽՆՋՁՌԻՊԽԹՌԽՋԹԻՄԽԹՆԽՆՎՁՊՇՆՅԽՆՌԹՌՌՀԽՋԹՅԽ ՌՁՅԽՍՋՁՆԿՁՌՋԼՍԹՄՁՇՆՁԻԹՆԼՅԹԿՆԽՌՁԻԹԻՌՁՇՆՌՇՊԽՅՇՎԽՀԹՊՅԾՍՄԻՇՆՌԹՅՁՆԹՆՌՋԹՏԹՑԾՊՇՅ ՌՀԽՄԽՆՋՇՊԺՇԼՑՇԾՌՀԽԻԹՅԽՊԹ

ጕՇՊՅՇՊԽՋՌՍԺԺՇՊՆԻՄԽԹՆՁՆԿՂՇԺՋ ՏԽՀԹՎԽԹՊԹՆԿԽՇԾՋՇՄՍՌՁՇՆՋ ՋՏԹԺՋጣጔԴՋՏԹԺՋՋՈԽԻՁԹՄՄՑ ՋՁՒԽԼԾՇՊጡԽՁԻԹጨԹՆԼጥԽՆՌԹՐ ጓՆՇՏԹՎԹՁՄԹԺՄԽԹՆԼ ԹԻԻԽՋՋՇՊՁԽՋՌՀԹՌԹՊԽԼԽՋՁԿՆԽԼ ՌՇԺԽՋԹԾԽՌՇՍՋԽԺՍՌՋՌՁՄՄ ԻԹՈԹԺՄԽՇԾՃԽԽՈՁՆԿՑՇՍՊՋԽՆՋՇՊ ԻՇՅՈՄԽՌԽՄՑԻՄԽԹՆԶՇՍՇՏԽՁՌՌՇՑՇՍՊ ՁՅԹԿԽՋՌՇԿԽՌՅՇՊԽԼԽՌԹՁՄՋ

ጕՇՊՅՇՊԽՁՆԾՇՊՅԹՌՁՇՆԹՆԼՆԽԹՊԽՋՌՋՌՇԻՃՁՋՌ ԱԽՄ ጔՅԹՁՄՁՆԾՇ"ԹՄՈՀԹԼՁԿՁՌԹՄՋԽՊՎՁԻԽՋԻՇՍՃ WorldMags.net ԴԽԺՋՁՌԽՏՏՏՎՁՋՁԺՄԽԼՍՋՌԻՇՅ

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KNOWLEDGE

FUTURE-PROOFING How long will your digital images last and what’s the best way to make sure they can be viewed in the future? We look at how to safeguard your archive WITH film photography, there is an automatic backup to your prints in the form of negatives or slides, and by keeping all these safe you can ensure that a record of your work will be maintained for many years to come. However, when some photographers switched to digital imaging they forgot about archiving and put their faith, often misguidedly, in their computer’s hard drive. Yet all you need is a single error on the disk drive and suddenly your precious photographs have vanished. This may not have happened to many of us, but the point is, it could. So when it comes to backing up your work, it is important to have a secondary location for storing images, either in the form of prints, an additional disk drive or a version stored online. In this feature we will look at the

options available, their pros and cons, and their respective prices. We will also delve a little deeper into online and networked storage options and the benefits they bring.

BACKING UP AND ARCHIVING Downloading images onto a computer is essentially a process of storing the files, but as we’ve already mentioned, putting all your faith in one computer hard drive is risky. By placing files in two locations, any risk of loss is significantly reduced, and should something happen to one, you still have access to another copy. Storing files in three locations reduces the risk even further, and those with sentimentally or professionally valuable images should consider this level of backup.

The archiving method you use is down to personal choice, but it is best to find something that suits the way you work and then stick to it. If using editing software to manage the downloading of images from a card or camera to a computer, it will inevitably provide backup options within the controls. Many programs allow the selection of a second location to which images can be saved. This should be a completely different physical device to the primary storage space. This ensures that a copy of your original file is safely stored straight away, although any adjustments made to the files will not be. For this reason, it is best to back up edited work separately, copy the files manually once they have been edited, or use a separate program to back up working files. If you shoot using raw format, the

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options for storing files are greater but more complex. JPEG files are unlikely to become obsolete any time soon, but there is a chance that future editing programs may not support every type of raw file that has been produced. The safest option is to save older raw files into the universal DNG format, created by Adobe. Adobe software allows an automatic conversion of raw files when downloading or the ability to manually convert them in the software. There is also a free converter that can be downloaded from www.adobe.com, which is handy for accessing raw files that are otherwise not supported by current software. Pentax and Ricoh cameras have the option to shoot in DNG format, so no conversion is needed. Files can also be converted into TIFF formats for storage. This is ideal for finished edits of your images, as they can be saved as 16-bit files, although they don’t contain the same amount of data that a raw file holds.

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PHYSICAL STORAGE A SOMETIMES overlooked method of backing up images is storing physical prints. Prints from professional and high-street labs are made using photographic paper and have the same archival qualities as prints from slides or negatives, which is normally stated as being around 65 years for Fujicolor Crystal Archive paper. Prints made on inkjet photo paper, especially with pigment inks and using matt or art papers, often have even greater life, with some rated up to 200 years if stored correctly. With such an extended life, backup prints should be considered for those prize photos. However, with more photographs usually taken with digital, it would be time-consuming and expensive to print all your files.

LOCAL STORAGE SOLUTIONS LOCAL storage includes the various methods that can be used to back up files in the home. The most popular are the CD-ROM and DVD-R discs. These can now be bought for a few pence per disc if purchased in bulk and they are easily catalogued. CD-ROMs soon gave way to DVDs as camera resolutions increased, but a DVD-R with a 4.7GB (or even 8.5GB for double-layer discs) can barely contain the images from a single memory card, as photographers opt for 8GB or 16GB cards. The longevity of CD and DVD-R has also been questioned, both due to new formats superseding them and to an estimated life of just ten years for some discs. While Blu-ray discs with their 25GB or 50GB storage potential

ONLINE STORAGE

ONLINE storage is a relatively new option for

the amateur user, as data speeds and hosting costs have previously been prohibitive to transferring and storing large files on a server. Now, though, fast home broadband and healthy competition mean that it is relatively easy to upload large files and store them for very little cost. As with all online transactions, it is best to stick with 92 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

may seem like the natural progression, the value and ease offered by external hard drives has made these a more flexible option. External hard drives are now available in 500GB and 1TB capacities for less than £100, which is enough to store the equivalent of hundreds of DVD discs, and they make transferring and editing data quicker and easier. Larger-capacity hard drives usually require a separate power source and feature a moving optical drive, much like the one inside your computer. For this reason, they are designed for desktop use and must be treated with care, as a bang or knock while the disc is spinning could lead to data loss. Smaller-capacity drives (powered by the computer they are plugged into) are available in

sturdy cases for those on the move. These devices often use a form of flash memory, similar to that used by memory cards. They have no moving parts, but cost more as a result. It is worth placing files on two identical external drives in case the original file doesn’t remain on the computer. Alternatively, use an external drive in addition to another form of backup.

a trustworthy and known brand. If a company is to be entrusted with your images, it is important to know they cannot be accessed by others, the server won’t fail, or the company go bust. Popular image-sharing sites such as Flickr are an easy way to save versions of your favourite images, and these sites allow full-sized JPEGs to be saved for no fee. Adobe’s Photoshop. com offers users free storage of their images up to 2GB, and even provides online editing facilities. For more general backup services, including raw files and other documents, it is best to look at a

specialist hosting company such as Carbonite (www. carbonite.co.uk), Livedrive (www.livedrive.com) or Mozy (www.mozy.co.uk). These may provide a basic storage package for free and then additional storage for a nominal fee or just a flat rate per month. If you are paying for storage, it is best to limit the files that you upload to just your valuable images. This is because even with a fast home internet connection, upload speeds tend to be much slower than download speeds, which means it can take many hours to upload even a small number of files.

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KNOWLEDGE

BACKUP MANAGEMENT THE PROCESS of backing up files takes time and can seem a bit of a hassle for an event that might never happen. However, there are software applications, such as Clickfree (www.clickfree.com), that are designed to take the effort out of the process. Apart from a little time spent setting them up, they work completely automatically and ensure that you never forget to back up your files. The software will require the folders and files for backup to be selected, which can be a regular image folder or your

entire My Documents file. A location will also be needed to save the backup to, which can be an external hard drive or even an online storage location. Instructions regarding the frequency of the backup will also be required, which can be anything from every hour to once a month, while some systems may allow you to back up new files. Systems such as the Time Machine backup (which is integrated into Apple Mac operating systems) will archive versions of your files on an external hard drive or Apple’s Time Capsule, and remembers how your system looked on any given day so you can

revisit your Mac as it appeared in the past. The number of versions is limited by the storage space you have available, but as only the altered files are resaved each time, the amount of storage isn’t as vast as you may think.

THE CLOUD THE TERM ‘cloud computing’ refers to the idea of programs or services being hosted from an online server that requires just an internet connection to access and use them. The idea is that files stored online can then be viewed and edited from wherever you are in the world, rather than being tied to a specific computer or hard drive. Storage is typically charged by the amount needed rather than a set fee, although there are free services available, such as Dropbox (www.dropbox.com). Apple has made a show of its cloud facility, which allows you to mirror what you see on your computer, phone or tablet, including your images. Adobe also has a solution known as carousel (www.adobe.com/products/carousel. html), which allows you to upload your images to its server, and view and edit them as you would in Lightroom on either a tablet or smart phone.

PRICE COMPARISONS SO WHICH of the backup solutions is best? Each has pros and cons and there are variations on price, ease of use and time taken. Here is a rundown of the prices and details for some of the main solutions, based on the storage of 300GB of images. Remember, the best option is to have at least two backups.

PRINTS PROS CONS DVD PROS CONS EXTERNAL DRIVE PROS CONS ONLINE STORAGE PROS CONS

300x 10x8in prints (£1.09 bulk price from www.photobox.co.uk) £327 Long-lasting, easy to view Time taken to print 100 discs (470GB) £20 Cheap solution, good as an extra backup Time to burn discs, lots of disc swapping to view, limited life 500GB model £65 Large capacity, easy access Electronic storage and risk of failure £41.95 per year or £101.95 for three years (www.carbonite.co.uk) Safe and accessible storage, unlimited for the contents of your computer Fast connection to internet needed, work could be lost if server fails or company goes bust

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CAMERA CARE As a photographer, it is vital that you take proper care of your camera kit. We explain how to avoid damage and maintain your equipment to keep it in tip-top condition

MOST modern cameras are very well made and durable enough to stand up to plenty of rigorous use. However, just because they are durable does not mean they are bulletproof. If you want faultless images and kit that holds its value, you need to maintain it well. As soon as factors such as dust, dirt, moisture and shock come into play, the camera is at risk of damage. For film photography, having kit

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that is free of dirt and moisture is essential as any marks present on the lens during exposure will consequently appear on the film – and these are permanent. In digital photography these errors can be rectified post-capture using software, but keeping things clean means less time chained to the computer. Avoiding damage to kit not only ensures that it holds its value, but

it also prolongs its life and reduces the risk of costly repair work. If your kit does get dirty, then the problem is more easily rectified if you see to it quickly. For example, moisture on a lens can develop into fungus, and although the first stages of infestation are simple to deal with, leave things too late and you’ll be making a visit to the repair shop. Just as you would with your car, making regular checks is good

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practice. There may be nothing wrong, but then there may be an issue that is not immediately obvious without such checks. Over the following pages I will be looking at the best ways to avoid damage in the first instance, and then how to maintain the camera body and lens should they become dirty, marked or damaged.

AVOIDING DAMAGE Obviously, it is easier to avoid damage than it is to repair it. Unfortunately, some of the most spectacular places to photograph, such as beaches, rivers, streams and mountains, are

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areas where dust, dirt and water are most prominent. So if you are going to these ‘danger zones’, remember to protect your kit as you scramble over rocks or crouch down on the sand for that amazing photograph. Also, make sure you protect your gear when shooting in adverse weather conditions, such as in extreme cold or rain. Both the camera body and lens are equally important, so take care of each.

PROTECTING THE CAMERA Dust and moisture get everywhere, so ensure these do not enter the camera by keeping any holes and joins closed.

The rubber seals for ports should always be closed when not in use, and check for dust and dirt before connecting any cables. It seems obvious, but don’t force in a card that is resisting. This can damage the pins in the camera and fixing them can cost around £120. Look out for damage to the holes in a CompactFlash (CF) card, which can in turn damage the pins. Loosely carrying cards in a pocket is not a good idea; SD cards can split in half, while fluff can find its way into the holes of a CF card. Instead, store them in the supplied case or in a bag.

Now we come to that heartstopping moment – dropping the camera. This is likely to happen at some point if you are not careful, so keep the camera on a shoulder strap, hip holster or in a bag when not in use. Although it may not feel all that comfortable, reducing the length of the strap means the camera is less likely to swing away from your body and hit a fence you are climbing over, or worse, smack your subject on the head as you reach over to fix his or her hair. A holster is an even better option because the camera does not swing at all.

A few general practices may seem obvious, but are always good to remember. For instance, check periodically that the camera straps are secure, as the fastening can become loose over time. When using a tripod, always test that the tripod screw and plate are securely fixed, and that the lock on the head is tight before letting go of the camera. When putting camera kit away in a bag, always make sure the pockets are zipped up before lugging it onto your shoulders, otherwise you are likely to hear the thud of expensive kit hitting the ground.

Be extra careful in ‘danger zones’, such as on a sandy beach

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BEATING THE WEATHER Waterproof covers (also known as camera sleeves) protect the camera and lens barrel from dust and water, so are ideal for rainy weather. Disposable versions are cheapest (from £7.95 for a pack of two), but more expensive and durable versions are available from £17.95. Of course, you can easily make your own using a carrier bag. Pierce a hole in the bottom of the bag through which you can place the front of the lens, and then fix it to the lens barrel using a rubber band. A clear plastic bag will ensure that the camera’s controls remain visible.

This plastic LCD cover is an affordable option and uses an adhesive for a secure fix

LCD PROTECTION Scratches and dirt will affect the clarity and quality of an LCD screen. This is a problem when focusing and viewing exposures, especially in bright daylight. If your camera comes with a plastic LCD cover, make sure you use it. Alternatively, glass protectors are available from £12.50, and often include a

Keeping the length of the strap short reduces the risk of the camera swinging around and hitting hard surfaces

TOP TIPS ● Check your household and holiday insurance to find out what items are covered and where they are covered. Consider separate specialist insurance for camera kit that is not included ● A sensor clean is a skilled job and should be completed with extra care ● To stop moisture building up, avoid a rapid change between hot and cold environments. Do not pack kit away before it is dry 96 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

Plastic covers keep out both water and dust viewfinder cover, while a cheaper option is a protective film (£5.95 for two).

HOW TO AVOID DUST ON THE SENSOR When changing a lens, the inside of the camera – and the sensor in particular – can pick up dirt. The sensor in a compact system camera is particularly exposed. The best way to avoid trouble is to make this change as quickly as possible while protecting the camera from the elements. Face the body downwards when mounting the new optic so that dust does not settle in the cavity behind the lens. The charge in a camera creates static that attracts dust, so turn the camera off during a lens change. Many interchangeable-lens cameras offer a sensor-cleaning function. This works by vibrating

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the sensor to dislodge any settled dust and dirt, and can be activated manually via the camera menu, or in some models on start-up and/or shut-down. Barry Edmonds of Fixation (www.fixationuk.com) says that a dirty sensor is the most common reason for a camera to be taken to the repair shop. If you clean the sensor yourself, it is unwise to do so when out in the field, so do it before you embark on your photo shoot. First check for dust and dirt on the sensor – it will be most noticeable by photographing a solid background like a piece of white paper, or if you are out and about, the sky. Using a wider aperture will soften the edges of the dirt and make it less obvious. However, if you intend to shoot landscapes with a more narrow aperture of, say, f/11 or smaller, then it is doubly important to check the sensor prior to setting out.

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CLEANING THE SENSOR MOST of us have at some point looked over a digital image on the computer and noticed out-of-focus blobs and squiggles that are constant even once the lens has been cleaned. These marks are most obvious in the sky of a landscape and are caused by dust and dirt on the camera sensor’s filter/cover. This surface of the sensor is fragile and susceptible to damage, even more than the glass of a lens. To clean the sensor, first make sure the battery is charged or plug the camera into a mains supply. Set the camera to its mirror-up (sensor-cleaning) mode (step 1) – see your camera’s manual for instructions on how to do this. There are two types of cleaning: dry and wet. A dry clean is for loose items, and a squeeze blower should be sufficient (step 2). Air canisters are too powerful for use on the sensor and the liquid propellant can leave gunk behind. Peter Brogden of Camera Clean recommends the Silicon Jumbo Blower (£6.95 – see below right). Peter says he has seen sensors scratched by the hard end of a blower, but this version has a soft silicone end. When not in use, store the blower in a clear bag, otherwise it may suck up dust and consequently blow this out when used. If the dirt is hanging on doggedly, it will require a wet clean. For this you need the correct cleaning solution. Eclipse lens and sensor cleaner (£12.95) is a pure and refined methanol that evaporates quickly, leaving no residue. Apply a couple of drops of the solution (step 3) onto a sensor swab (from £20.95 for a pack of four), and gently but firmly stroke it in a single motion over the sensor (step 4). After completing this process, mount a lens and set its aperture to around f/11. Now fill the frame with a white card and overexpose by 2EV to get a bright white result. Examine the image at 100% on a computer screen, keeping an eye out for the blobs and squiggles that indicate dust and dirt. Do this before a clean too, to see exactly where the dust is located.

STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

STEP 4

STARTER KIT Silicone Jumbo Blower £6.95

Eclipse CCD cleaner (59ml bottle) £12.95 Sensor swabs from £20.95

PecPad 10x10cm (100 pack) £11.95 Microfibre lens cloth (170x250mm) £2.70

PROTECTING THE LENS

THE FRONT ELEMENT

Lenses are perhaps at their most vulnerable to damage when they are being taken off or mounted on a camera body. For instance, when swapping lenses, there is always the possibility that one could be dropped and broken. Dirt and dust ingress is also more likely, so to guard against this make sure the lens body cap and lens cap are close to hand so they can be fixed in place quickly. Avoid touching the lens element directly as skin contact will leave oily fingermarks on the glass. Attaching the lens cap when the camera is not in use is obviously good practice, so be sure to keep it to hand. There are devices available that fix the cap to the lens itself (from £1.99), while some shoulder straps offer handy compartments in which to store one.

A lens hood will reduce the amount of dust and water landing on the front element, but only a protective filter will completely stop this from happening. The lens quality should be matched by the quality of filter, so it is worth buying a premium filter if the lens is good. Alternatively, to ensure the best image quality, remove the filter when the camera is ready for an exposure and replace it again between shots. Most importantly, a filter will take the brunt of any impact should the camera be dropped, and it is much cheaper to replace than a lens. Another option is a rubber lens guard (from £21.95), which slots over the outside of the lens and absorbs the knocks. Add plastic bags to your camera bag in case any kit needs storing away from

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Lens brush (lipstick-style) £4.25

A UV filter is the most common type of protective filter ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS 97

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LENS CARE

WHEN carrying out a minor clean, it is tempting to be lazy and take short cuts, be it using your mouth to blow dirt away, or the sleeve of a jumper or a tissue to wipe dirt off. Take the time to use the right tools. Removing dust from a lens, for example, should always be done using a blower, soft brush or microfibre cloth. For such a clean, be careful when removing dirt or sand as this can scratch the lens surface when rubbed. Microfibre lifts dirt from the surface much more effectively than a regular cloth and a gentle flick should remove any debris. For dust that takes more persuasion, a circular motion is ideal. For more stubborn dirt, a cleaning solution may be necessary, together with the correct type of wipe. Solutions start from £1.82 for a 6ml dropper bottle.

DUST IN LENSES If dust does get inside the lens, don’t be too concerned. Dust particles get everywhere and trombone or extending zoom lenses are particularly susceptible because they suck in air and dust during the zoom motion. The best way to check for dust is by removing the lens from the camera, opening the aperture and shining a torch up through the rear element. A large amount of dust can reduce image contrast and introduce flare. Extremely large bits that are millimetres in size, such as loose particles that have broken off due to an impact or from general wear and tear, will show up in an image. In this case, it is best to take the lens to a repair shop.

STORAGE

SHUTTER ACTUATIONS

KNOWING how many shutter actuations a camera has clocked up is good information to have, especially if you are selling or buying a second-hand model. If the shutter is near the end of its life, it is a costly replacement to make. Professional models offer 100,000+ shutter actuations, while more budget models usually offer fewer than 100,000. You can use Adobe Bridge to display this shutter actuation information by highlighting the file of the latest image and selecting File>File Info. Scroll the tab to Advanced and click on the Schema folder labelled ‘exif/ aux’. Alternatively, visit www.myshuttercount.com and upload the most recent image taken with the camera. The shutter actuation and Exif data will be displayed immediately.

A key part of kit care is storing it correctly, but even when it is tucked safely away, camera equipment can be at risk from dust, dirt and moisture. Always use a good camera bag and lens pouches. Most have individual compartments to provide a snug fit and padding to prevent any damage from impact and knocks. However, over time the bag itself will pick up dirt, so periodically give it a good clean. First, remove the inserts and check the corners and crevices for any lost small accessories, then use a vacuum cleaner to remove dirt, followed by tape to pry away any stubborn bits of fluff. Virtually all bags come with at least one silica gel pack. These are designed to soak up any moisture and keep the inside dry. A silica gel pack can only absorb so much moisture, though, so look out for types that change colour to indicate whether they are wet or dry. Packs can easily be dried on a radiator. For extras, try www.7dayshop.com, where a pack of 10 costs from £4.99. The best way to stop moisture forming in the camera and lenses is to keep them at a constant temperature. Avoid sudden changes between hot and cold environments, and prolonged exposure

A sealed Ziploctype bag with silica gel packets inside is a great way to remove moisture build-up

All prices listed in this article are from www.cameraclean.co.uk (tel: 01793 855 663) unless otherwise stated. Thanks to Peter Brogden from Camera Clean and Barry Edmonds of Fixation (www.fixationuk.com/tel: 0207 582 3294) for their help on this article 98 ADVANCED PHOTOGRAPHY SKILLS

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Vacuum your camera bag regularly to remove dirt and dust to light or cold. When returning from a cold winter’s shoot, stagger the change of temperature. For instance, initially keep your camera in a colder room in the house before sitting by a cosy fire looking over the day’s images. When the camera is not in use, place it in a bag or container, but make sure your kit is dry before storing it away. A common issue for film SLRs is that the foam in the joins and back door can deteriorate over time, leading to light spills. If it has been a while since the camera has been used, a visual inspection is sufficient to see if a replacement is needed.

MOISTURE AND FUNGUS There are times when it is not possible to keep camera gear free of moisture, and certain types of damage can be dealt with yourself. In extreme cases, though, where the moisture has led to the growth of mould or fungus (or where obstructive particles are inside the lens), it may be necessary to take the camera apart to clean the affected area. However, this is a highly skilled job that most of us should leave to a professional – in unskilled hands it is more than likely that the lens will end up in a worse state than before. A basic lens service costs from £80, but can be considerably more depending on the damage, so think about whether the value of the lens makes a repair cost-effective.

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