Other Other books books by Adrian Adrian Bejan: Bejan: Entropy Generation Through Heat and Fluid Flow, Wiley, 1982. Convection Convection Heat Transfer, Transfer, Wiley, 1984. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics,
Wiley, 1988. 1988.
Nield, Springer Springer-Ver -Verlag, lag, 1992. 1992. Convection Convection in Porous Porous Media, Media, with D. A. Nield, Heat Transfer, Wiley, 1993.
Edition, Wiley, Wiley, 1995. Convection Convection Heat Transfer, Transfer, Second Edition, Therma Thermall Design Design and Optimi Optimizat zation ion,, Wiley, 1996. Entropy Generation Minimization,
with with G. Tsatsa Tsatsaron ronis is and and M. Moran, Moran, CRC Press, Press, 1996.
To
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Bejan, Bejan, Adrian, Adrian, 1948Advanced Advanced engineering engineering thermodynamic thermodynamicss / Adrian Bejan. - 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes Includes bibliograph bibliographical ical references references and index. ISBN 0-4710-471-14880 14880-6 -6 (cloth: (cloth: alk. paper) 1. Thermody Thermodynamics namics.. I. Title. Title. TJ265.B42 TJ265.B425 5 1997 621 402'1 {) 21 97 5543
my
Cristina Cristina and Teresa Teresa
It is a real privilege privilege to be asked to prepare prepare this second second edition edition and to have anoth another er oppo opportu rtunit nity y to cast cast a bird' bird's-e s-eye ye view view over over the field field of therm thermoodynamic dynamics, s, in both both enginee engineering ring and physics. physics. For this I am deeply grateful grateful to the many professors professors and students who have used the first edition edition worldwide. worldwide. I am also indebte indebted d to my friends friends at John Wiley Wiley & Sons, who have "adopted" me and my work, work, beginn beginning ing with my first year as a profess professor. or. In the first first edition edition I urged the student student not to regard regard thermod thermodyna ynamic micss as finishe finished, d, but to invest invest his or her creativity creativity in the future growth growth of the field. That That was was a call call to action action-a -a mani manifes festo, to, reallyreally-to to replac replace e presen present-d t-day ay thermo thermodyn dynami amics cs with with something something better and more useful. useful. I was repeating repeating a call made made in my first book book (1982), (1982), where where I noted noted that that we already already possess possess deterministic deterministic means with which to attack realistic (irreversible) processes and systems. systems. By sketching Fig. Fig. 1, I predicted a merger of thermodynamics thermodynamics with trans transpo port rt phen phenom omen ena a (e.g., (e.g., heat heat trans transfer fer), ), to produ produce ce a more more powe powerfu rfull thermodynamic thermodynamicss of irreversible irreversible devices by the the year 2000.
n i l
rKbt' rKbt' i \ Lh
As I look look back back at Fig. 1 and and the activi activity ty publi publish shed ed since since the first editio edition n (1988 (1988), ), I think think it is time time to claim claim a small small victor victory y and to accept accept a new and greate greaterr challe challeng nge. e. The The victor victory y is that that the the combin combined ed metho method d of thermothermodyna dynami mics cs and and heat heat tran transf sfer er has has sold sold itse itself lf over over the the wide wide spec spectr trum um of engi engine neer erin ing g and and phys physic ics. s. Toda Today y the the meth method od is best best know known n as entr entrop opy y generatio generation n minimizat minimization ion (EGM), (EGM), thermody thermodynami namicc optimizat optimization, ion, or finite finite-time -time thermody thermodynamic namics. s. This method method brings brings systemati systematically cally into thermodyn thermodynamics amics both modeling and optimization. The systems systems and processes processes that are analyzed analyzed are realistic: Their Their irreversi irreversibili bilities ties are due to transpor transportt processes processes,, which which are described described in terms terms of practi practical cal (concrete (concrete)) notions notions such as materials, materials, shapes, shapes, relative relative position positions, s, and size and time constraint constraints. s. The simplest simplest models models and the most most basic basic trade-o trade-offs ffs (opti (optima) ma) reveal revealed ed by EGM have enriched enriched the discipli discipline ne of thermody thermodynami namics. cs. These These trade-offs trade-offs are Since they rule the operation operation of the simplest simplest model that is still still fundamental: fundamental: Since realistic, realistic, they are certainly certainly present present in the most complex complex (industr (industrial ial R & D) models models,, where where they they deserv deservee to be identi identifie fied d and exploite exploited. d. The newer and greater greater challeng challengee is to extend extend our determini deterministic stic powers powers to the class of naturally systems, living living and not living. Such systems systems naturally organized systems, are all around around us and inside inside oursel ourselves ves.. Their Their organi organizat zatio ion n is in space space and in time. time. The The networ networks ks visib visible le in trees, trees, roots roots,, leaves leaves,, lungs lungs,, vascul vasculari arized zed tissues, tissues, dendrites dendrites in rapid rapid solidifi solidificatio cation, n, axonal axonal arbors, arbors, river river basins, deltas, deltas, ligh lightn tnin ing, g, stre street ets, s, and and othe otherr path pathss of teleco telecomm mmun unic icat atio ion n are are spat spatia iall lly y organi organized zed.. Figur Figuree 2, for examp example, le, makes makes us see see all these these pheno phenomen menaa and, and, above above all, all, beauty beauty.. Tempo Temporal ral organi organizat zatio ion n is evide evident nt in the finely finely tuned tuned frequenc frequencies ies of respir respiratio ation, n, circulatio circulation, n, and pulsat pulsating ing and meanderi meandering ng flows flows (e.g., (e.g., rivers rivers,, and many other other turbu turbulen lentt flows) flows).. My first first steps steps in this this new direct directio ion n were were purel purely y by accide accident, nt, as I now reco recoun untt in secti section on 13.6 13.6.. I saw saw this this dire direct ctio ion n as a chal challe leng ngee to me (a provocation) provocation) only after I did did the the work work:: It was then then that that I disc discov over ered ed the the volumino voluminous us material material that physicists physicists and biologi biologists sts had published published on "selforganiza organization tion," ," a huge huge and diverse diverse ensemble ensemble of macros macroscopi copicc phenomen phenomenaa that they they cons consid ider er to be nonde nondete term rmin inis isti ticc-th that at is, is, the the resu result lt of chanc chance. e. The The challe challeng ngee was to con constr struct uct a theo theoryry-aa determ determini inisti sticc approa approachch-to to predi predict, ct, explain, explain, and in this this way unify the the naturally naturally organized organized phenomen phenomena. a. There There had to be a reason reason for for all all the geom geomet etri ricc form form and and simi simila lari rity ty that that we see in Nature. In Chapt Chapter er 13, 13, I show show that that the the tree tree-s -sha hape ped d netw networ orks ks can can in fact fact be predicted in an amazingly simple and direct way, by geometrically optimizing the access access betwee between n one one point point and a finite finite volume volume (an infinite numbe numberr of points). The theoretical network has a definite time direction: It must be proceed eeding ing from from small small to larg large-h e-henc encee the name name constructal constructed by proc for the the relate related d theor theory. y. The The existe existence nce of at least least two access access routes routes (flow (flow regimes) regimes) is essential essential:: a slow regime regime without without shape shape (diffusi (diffusion, on, disorgan disorganizati ization) on)
x
PREFACE
&ssembliesof &ssembliesof large large sizes. Through Through this geometric geometric construction and the other results results assembled assembled in Chapter Chapter 13, life, life, purpos purpose, e, and time time are made a part of our thermodynamics thermodynamics.. To attempt attempt a determinis deterministic tic theory theory of organiza organization tion in Nature is to reach reach for things things sacred: a better better underst understand anding ing of how we fit in this world world and how the world holds together. t Organ Organizati ization on and the beauty beauty that it sets free are at the center center of every religion. religion. In science science and philosop philosophy, hy, the organiza organization tion of Nature Nature captivat captivated ed man's man's imagina imagination tion and served served as centerpi centerpiece ece in the dispute between randomness and determinism. The subject has experienced a resu resurg rgen ence ce in phys physic icss duri during ng the the past past two two deca decade des. s. It has has beco become me fashion fashionable able to publish publish volume volumess of empirical empirical ("Look! ("Look! See?")§ See?")§ material material such as photographs, photographs, computer-generated computer-generated images, and essays on the observation that natural phenomena phenomena display geometric similarity. similarity. What had been missing were the hard facts: deterministic, deterministic, predictive, predictive, black-on-white black-on-white methods-that methods-that is, answers answers to question questionss such as "Why "Why do flows flows possess possess geometr geometric ic form?" form?" and "Why is complexity increasing in time?" Instead, as Horgan Horgant has noted, the authors hid their lack of determinism determinism behind metaphors metaphors such as "fractal," "fractal," next next to which I would would list the word word "disturb "disturbance ance." ." This This state state of affairs is is the reason reason why I placed placed the photogr photographs aphs of natural natural phenom phenomena ena near the end in Chapte Chapterr 13-they 13-they are known known to all of us anyway! anyway! I placed in front of the chapter the nakedly simple simple analyses analyses that allow allow the reader reader to anticipate anticipate the shapes shapes and organiz organizatio ation n that will spring spring out of the photogr photograph aphs. s. Constru Constructal ctal theory theory is accessibl accessible e at the high-sc high-schoo hooll level. I wrote wrote it intentio intentiona nally lly for the pencil pencil and paper, paper, in a langu languag age e that that Eucli Euclid d and Pythagoras Pythagoras would have liked: straight lines, circles,:j:and integers. It is time to put Fig. 1 and and Fig. Fig. 2 together together and to close close this preface preface with a renewed manifesto addressed mainly to engineers. engineers. These two figures-th figures-the e small small victory victory and and the new challeng challenge-be e-belon long g together together because because they they both refer to (i) the irreve irreversi rsible ble opera operatio tion n of macro macrosco scopi pic c syste systems ms and (ii) (ii) the thermod thermodyna ynamic mic optimiza optimization tion of the operatio operation n of such systems systems.. They They both refer to "engine "engineered ered" " systems systems.. Here Here is why why engineer engineerss are the ones ones who should be paying attenti attention on to the thermod thermodyna ynamics mics of naturally naturally organiz organized ed systems. systems. The history history reviewe reviewed d in Chapter Chapterss 1 and 2 shows shows that the thermod thermodynam ynamics ics pioneer pioneerss were were enginee engineers, rs, military military men, doctors, doctors, and amateurs. amateurs. The physicist physicistss contribu contributed ted later. later. The reason reason is that that the definin defining g problem problem of thermodyn thermodynami amics-th cs-the e heat engineenginewas a macroscopic system with with purpose. From From its very beginni beginning, ng, thermothermotJ. Horgan, Horgan, The twilight of science, science, Technology Technology Review, July 1996, pp. 50-61. §"It is necessary necessary to be careful careful with the information information presented presented by an experimen experimentalist talist who lacks theoretical theoretical principles ... [he] gathers gathers at random random several several facts and and presents presents them as proofs proofs ... scientific knowledge without reasoning [theory] does not exist" (J. Ie R. d'Alembert, Nouvelles
PREFACE
xi
dynamics dynamics was formulated formulated and aimed at irreversible processes processes and systems and at ways of optimizing (i.e., improvi improving) ng) operatio operation. n. The tools needed needed for this optimizing (i.e., work have have been developed developed and used by engineers for the past 200years. They have have been used used with with enormo enormous us success success as separate separate discipli disciplines, nes, but they are now comi coming ng together together (Fig. (Fig. 1). Our standard standard of living living today today is a measure measure of this success success (e.g., Fig. Fig. 8.1). 8.1). Now, Now, if we examine examine closely closely the problem problemss solved solved in Chapter Chapter 13, we will see that to predict predict natural natural organiz organizatio ation n we did not need thermodyna thermodynamics mics.. To minimize minimize the resistanc resistance e to heat or fluid fluid flow was possib possible le in the early early 1800s. 1800s. To minimize minimize the time time of travel travel between between a finite area and one point point was a problem problem for the time time of Galilei Galilei and even earlier. earlier. This This delay to roughly roughly 150 150 year yearss after after the the birth birth of therma thermall scienc science e (Fou (Fourie rier, r, Carno Carnot) t) is due to a coincide coincidence nce on which which I focus focus next. The development of principles of engineering engineering science (including (including thermal science) science) began with with the establis establishme hment nt of the modern modern engineer engineering ing schools schools (Paris, (Paris, 1795;Prague 1795;Prague,, 1806;Vienna 1806;Vienna,, 1815;Karlsr 1815;Karlsruhe uhe,, 1825). 1825). The coinciden coincidence ce is that this was also the era in which differen differential tial calculu calculuss was beginnin beginning g to spread spread as the language language of science science and enginee engineering ring.. Even Even though though Carnot Carnot and the other other pioneer pioneerss were were stating stating their their thermod thermodynam ynamics ics views views with reference reference to macrosystems macrosystems of arbitrary size and unmentioned unmentioned internal complexity, the second generation generation of thermodynamici thermodynamicists sts sought to make its own contribution contribution by using using the newly newly learned learned language language of infinite infinitesima simall calculus. calculus. The infinitesimal and microscopic microscopic facets of thermodynamics thermodynamics were almost exclusiv exclusively ely the contrib contributio ution n of nonengi nonengineer neerss (physic (physicists ists,, chemists chemists,, mathemathematic matician ians), s), at a time time when when engin engineer eerss contin continue ued d on the the geom geometr etric ic and and macrosc macroscopic opic (finite-size (finite-size system) system) path. The emphasis emphasis on the frontier frontier shifted shifted to the differen differential tial geometr geometry y of surfaces surfaces that relate relate the properties properties of simple simple or nearly simple systems systems at equilibrium. equilibrium. Equilibrium Equilibrium (classical, Gibbsian, Gibbsian, or analytical) analytical) thermodynamics thermodynamics is one lasting result of this emphasis (Chapters 4-7). The steps made in this century century away from equilibrium equilibrium thermodynamics thermodynamics,, in what has become known known as Irreversibl Irreversible e Thermo Thermodyn dynami amics cs or Nonequi Nonequi-librium librium Thermo Thermodyn dynamic amicss (Chapte (Chapterr 12), 12), were also wedded wedded to the infinitesim infinitesimal, al, zero-siz zero-size e approac approach. h. Unwittin Unwittingly gly,, these these steps steps were a yearning yearning for a return to the realistic realistic processes processes and systems systems targeted targeted by the pioneer pioneers. s. The ISO-yeard ISO-yeardelay elay to which which I referred referred is the result of a common common behavior behavioral al trend trend in science. science. It takes takes only only one or two truly truly creative creative pioneers pioneers (e.g., (e.g., Gibbs) Gibbs) for an entire crowd crowd to form and mimic these these pioneers pioneers and to start believin believing g in its own material. material. Next, Next, the even larger larger group group that comes to be educate educated d by the crowd crowd knows knows nothing nothing-app -applaud laudss nothingnothing-oth other er than the material material regurgit regurgitated ated by Gibbs' Gibbs' epigone epigones. s. This This is why today we read the claim that what what we inherited inherited from Carnot Carnot and his period is strictly strictly a thermod thermodyna ynamics mics of reversib reversible le processe processes. s. We also read read that the engineer engineers' s' interests interests and abilities abilities
xii
PREFACE
tor's objecti objective ve is to improve improve thermo thermodyn dynami amic c perform performanc ance. e. The giant steps steps (ideas) (ideas) illustra illustrated ted in Figs. Figs. 2.1, 8.1, and 10.29, 10.29, howev however, er, did not occur occur "by chan chance" ce" to men men who who had had neith neither er inter interest est in, in, nor nor an unde underst rstan andi ding ng of, of, irreversi irreversibili bility. ty. On the contrary. contrary. From From Lazare Lazare Carnot Carnot,, through through to our own century century (e.g., (e.g., Stodol Stodola, a, Claude Claude,, Keenan Keenan), ), irreversi irreversibili bility ty minimi minimizati zation on has been been the main main issue. issue. That That issue issue is even better better known known as efficien efficiency cy increase, increase, perform performanc ance e improv improveme ement, nt, or, simply simply,, good good engine engineerin ering. g. It is time that we engineers engineers reclaim our own field-thermodynam field-thermodynamics-so ics-so that that we may expand expand its determin deterministi istic c powers powers in the directio direction n of natural naturally ly organi organized, zed, living living and not living living system systems. s. We are the ones ones to do this work work because because Nature Nature is enginee engineered. red. ADRIAN
BEJAN
Durham Durham,, North North Carolina Carolina July 1996
I have assemble assembled d in this book book the notes prepared prepared for my advance advanced d class class in engi engine neeri ering ng therm thermod odyn ynam amic ics, s, which which is open open to stude students nts who who have have had had previou previouss contact contact with with the subject subject.. I decided decided to present present this course course in book book form form for for the the same same reason reasonss that that I orga organi nized zed my own own notes notes for for use use in the classro classroom. om. Among Among them them is my impressio impression n that that the teachin teaching g of engine engineerin ering g therm thermod odyn ynam amics ics is domi domina nated ted by an abun abunda danc nce e of good good introd introduc ucto tory ry treatm treatmen ents ts diffe differin ring g only only in writi writing ng style style and and quali quality ty of grap graphi hics. cs. For For generat generation ion after after generat generation ion,, engine engineerin ering g thermo thermodyn dynami amics cs has flowed flowed from one textbook textbook into the next, next, essentia essentially lly unchange unchanged. d. Today Today the textboo textbooks ks describe a seemingly seemingly "classical" engineering engineering discipline, discipline, that is, a subject void of controvers controversy y and referenc references, es, one in which which the step-by step-by-ste -step p innova innovation tionss in substan substance ce and teachin teaching g method method have have been been long long forgotte forgotten. n. Travelin Traveling g back back in time to redisco rediscover ver the history history of the discip discipline line and looki looking ng into into the the futur future e for for new new front frontier ierss and and chall challen enge gess are activ activiti ities es abando abandoned ned by all but a curiou curiouss few. few. This This situation situation present presentss a tremend tremendous ous pedago pedagogica gicall opportu opportunit nity y at the graduate graduate level, level, where where the student's student's determin determinaation to enter the research research world world comes in conflic conflictt with the undergr undergradu aduate ate view that that thermodyn thermodynami amics cs is boring boring and dead as a research research arena. arena. The few textbooks textbooks that qualify for use at the graduate level have done little to alleviate this this confl conflict ict.. On the the theo theoret retica icall side, side, the the appr approa oach ch prefe preferre rred d by thes these e textboo textbooks ks has been to emphas emphasize ize the abstrac abstractt reformu reformulati lation on of classical classical thermodynam thermodynamics ics into a sequence sequence of axioms and and corollaries. The pedagogical pedagogical drawback drawback of overemphasizi overemphasizing ng the axiomatic axiomatic approach in engineering engineering is that that engineers engineers do not live by axioms axioms alone, alone, and that the axiomatic reformulation reformulation seems seems to change change from one revision revisionist ist author author to the next. next. Of course, course, there there is merit merit in the simplif simplified ied phrasin phrasing g and rephrasing rephrasing of any theory: theory: this is why a comparative comparative presentation presentation of various various axiomatic axiomatic formulations formulations is a component component
xiv
PREFACE PREFACE TO THE FIRST FIRST EDITION EDITION
of the present present treatme treatment. nt. Howev However, er, I see additio additional nal merit merit in proceed proceeding ing to show show how the theo theory ry can can guid guide e us throug through h the the evere everexp xpan andi ding ng maze maze of contemporary contemporary problems. problems. Instead of emphasizing emphasizing the discussion discussion of equilibrium equilibrium states and relations among among their properties, properties, I see more value in highlightin highlighting g irrevers irreversible ible proces processes, ses, especia especially lly the kind kind found found in practic practical al engine engineerin ering g systems. With With regard to the presen presentati tation on of enginee engineering ring thermod thermodyna ynamic micss at the graduat graduate e level, level, I note note a certain certain tenden tendency cy to emphasize emphasize physics physics resear research ch develo developme pments nts and to deemp deemphas hasize ize enginee engineering ring applica application tions. s. I am sure that that the engineering engineering student-his student-his t sense sense of self esteem-h esteem-has as not been been well well served served by the implica implicatio tion n that that the importa important nt and interes interestin ting g applica applicatio tions ns are to be found found only outside outside the domain domain chosen chosen by him for graduate graduate study. study. If he, like Laza Lazare re and and Sadi Sadi Carn Carnot ot two two centu centurie riess earlie earlier, r, soug sought ht to impr improv ove e his his underst understand anding ing of what limits the "efficie "efficiency ncy" " of machines machines,, then then he finishe finished d the course shakin shaking g his head wonderi wondering ng about about the mechan mechanical ical engine engineerin ering g relevance relevance of, say, negative absolute temperatures. temperatures. These observations observations served to define my objective in designing the present treatme treatment. nt. My main main objective objective is to demonstra demonstrate te that that engine engineerin ering g thermo thermo-dyna dynami mics cs is an active active and and often often cont controv rovers ersial ial field field of resear research ch,, and and to encour encourage age the studen studentt to invest invest his creativity creativity in the future future growth growth of the field. The The other other consid considerat eration ionss that that have have contrib contribute uted d to defining defining the objecti objective ve of the presen presentt treatm treatmen entt are hinted hinted at by the title title Advan Advanced ced Engineeri Engineering ng The focu focuss is being being placed placed on "engi "engine neeri ering ng" " therm thermooThermodynamics. The dynami dynamics, cs, that is, on that that segmen segmentt of thermody thermodynam namics ics that that address addresses es the produc productio tion n of mechanica mechanicall power power and refriger refrigeratio ation n in the field field of enginee engineering ring practice practice.. I use the word word "therm "thermody odynam namics" ics" in spite spite of the campaig campaign n fought fought on behalf of "thermostatics "thermostatics" " as the the better name for the theory whose subjects subjects are either either in equilib equilibrium rium or, at least, in local local equilibr equilibrium ium (more (more on this later, pp. 68-71) 68-71).. I must must confess confess that that I feel quite quite comfort comfortabl able e using using the word word "the "therm rmod odyn ynam amic ics" s" in the the broad broad sens sense e inten intende ded d by its creato creator, r, William illiam Thomso Thomson n (Lord (Lord Kelvin Kelvin): ): this particula particularr combin combinatio ation n of the Greek Greek words words (heat) and dynamis (power) is a most most appropriate name:!:for for the field therme (heat) dynamis (power) that that united united the "heat" "heat" and "work" "work" lines lines of activi activity ty that that precede preceded d it (Table (Table 1.2, pp. 30-32). 30-32). Fina Finally lly,, I view view this as an "adva "advanc nced ed" " cour course se in engi engine neeri ering ng therm thermoodynami dynamics cs because because it is the natural natural outcom outcome e of my own interact interaction ion with with the research research arena arena and with students students who who were were previou previously sly acquai acquainted nted with with the
tMasculi tMasculine ne pronouns pronouns are used througho throughout ut this treatment treatment only for succinctnes succinctness. s. They They are
PREFACE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
xv
subject subject of classical classical thermo thermodyn dynami amics. cs. There There are at least least two ways ways in which which every every subje subject ct can be adva advanc nced ed by a seco second nd cour course se such such as this this.. One One is a "hor "horizo izont ntal" al" expa expans nsio ion n into into the the more more remot remote e field fieldss inter intersec sected ted by the the subj subject ect;; the the othe otherr is a "vert "vertica ical" l" expa expans nsio ion, n, that that is, is, a deepen deepenin ing g of our underst understand anding ing of the most basic basic concepts concepts that define the subject subject.. In the present present treatme treatment, nt, I have have follow followed ed the second second approa approach ch becaus because e I see it as a more more effec effectiv tive e mean meanss of conv convey eyin ing g a bird bird's's-ey eye e view view of engi engine neeri ering ng thermod thermodyna ynamic mics. s. An exhaus exhaustive tive coverage coverage of the horizo horizonta ntall type type already already exists in the" the" handbooks handbooks"; "; and justice justice to each peripheral peripheral domain domain can be done done only in specialized specialized courses courses such as compressible compressible fluid dynamics, dynamics, combustion, combustion, turbomachine turbomachinery, ry, refrigeration refrigeration and air conditionin conditioning, g, cryogenics, cryogenics, etc. I have followed followed the vertical vertical approach in order to make a statement statement of what what I consider consider effective effective as a pedagogical pedagogical tool. Although Although it has become fashionable fashionable to associate completeness completeness and volume with "goodness "goodness," ," in this course I have made made a consciou consciouss effort effort to focus on the structu structure re of the field. field. I invite the research student to make make his own contribu contributions tions to this structure. structure. For this last reason, reason, the more applied applied segment segmentss of the present present treatme treatment nt are dominat dominated ed by the topics topics that have have attracte attracted d my own own interest interest as a research researcher. er. To summariz summarize, e, the combin combined ed research research and pedago pedagogic gical al missio mission n of this effort effort is to take a second second look look at the field and to make make this this view accessib accessible le in a one-sem one-semeste esterr course course taken taken by individua individuals ls whose whose initial initial underst understand anding ing of the subject subject is by no means means homoge homogeneo neous. us. Depth Depth is provided provided through through a comparative comparative discussion discussion of the various various ways in which the fundamentals fundamentals have been been stated stated over over the years, years, and by reestab reestablish lishing ing the connec connection tion between between funda fundame ment ntals als and and cont contem empo porar rary y resea research rch trend trendss such such as the the "exe "exerg rgy" y" methodology. *
*
*
The precedin preceding g words words are the true preface preface becaus because e I wrote wrote them them in 1984, as I was was startin starting g the the resear research ch for for this book. book. I was then then in the midd middle le of a sabbat sabbatical ical leave leave at the Unive Universit rsity y of Wester Western n Austra Australia, lia, which which happen happened ed to be my first first official official assignmen assignmentt as a profess professor or at Duke. Duke. Upon Upon my arrival arrival at Duke, Duke, I decided decided to use my enhanc enhanced ed freedom freedom for the purpose purpose of bettering bettering my research research and my life in general. general. Thinki Thinking ng in depth depth about about enginee engineering ring thermodynam thermodynamics ics was one result of that decision. decision. The fact that large numbers numbers of thermal thermal engineers engineers continued continued to regard the field as mature mature is precisely precisely why why I picked engineering engineering thermodynamics thermodynamics as a treatise treatise topic: I not only saw merit in ques questio tioni ning ng the the estab establis lishe hed d poin pointt of view, view, but but I also also knew knew that that a true true research research frontier frontier is, quite often, the territo territory ry overloo overlooked ked by the crowd. crowd. As I look look back back at the past past 3 to 4 years, years, I see a most most gratifying gratifying project project,,
xvi
PREFACE PREFACE TO THE FIRST FIRST EDITION
PREFACE PREFACE TO THE FIRST FIRST EDITION EDITION
and enrich enrich my resear research, ch, which which is why during during this period period I was able personally personally to take steps in new directions directions,, such as the axiomat axiomatic ic formulation formulation of classical classical therm thermod odyna ynami mics cs (cha (chapte pterr 2), the graphi graphic c conde condensa nsatio tion n of the relat relation ionss between between thermod thermodyna ynamic mic propert properties ies (chapte (chapters rs 4 and 6), the design design of power plants plants for maxim maximum um power power (chapte (chapterr 8), the theory theory of the ideal ideal convers conversion ion of solar solar radia radiatio tion n (cha (chapte pterr 9), 9), and and the design design of refrig refrigera eratio tion n plants plants for maximu maximum m refrigeratio refrigeration n effect effect per unit time (chapter (chapter 10). And, And, relative relative to enginee engineering ring thermod thermodyna ynamic micss as a whole, whole, this book gave gave me the opportun opportunity ity to asse assem mble ble in the the sam same plac place e many any of the the moder odern n as well well as the the long-for long-forgotte gotten n referenc references. es. I also used every opportun opportunity ity to do what what I like best-pro best-produc duce e original original graphics graphics.. Workin Working g on this book has been recreationa recreational. l. I did most of my thinkin thinking g while while walking walking through through the Duke Forest Forest between between my West West Campus Campus office office and our our hous house e in the the Fore Forest st Hills Hills secti section on of Durha Durham. m. I spen spentt many many hour hourss consulting consulting the truly exceptiona exceptionall collectio collection n of books of the libraries libraries of Duke Universi University. ty. Ours Ours is one university university that from its early early days in the 1800sinve 1800sinvested sted in the important important things. things. I made made also many many trips to the Library Library of Congres Congresss in Washington, Washington, DC, where, while reading reading the original writings, writings, I had a chance to use the French, French, German German,, Latin, Latin, and Russian Russian I learned learned in school. school. The main contribu contributor tor to the rewardi rewarding ng atmosph atmosphere ere of this project project was Mary. Mary. I have benefite benefited d from her wisdom, wisdom, sense of strategy strategy and intellect intellectual ual honest honesty y durin during g all my projec projects, ts, big and small small.. This This time, time, howe howeve ver, r, her participa participation tion transcen transcended ded a number number of much much mor more e importa important nt projects projects:: the birth of child, child, the move move from Colorad Colorado o to North North Carolina Carolina (via Wester Western n Austr Australi alia!) a!),, and and the trium triumpha phant nt comp complet letion ion of her PhD PhD in business business administra ministration tion at the Universit University y of California California,, Berkele Berkeley. y. What What I owe her is best condens condensed ed in the dedication dedication that opens my Convection Convection Heat Transfer. Transfer. I also benefite benefited d from my yearyear-long long association association with Dr. Peter Jany of the Technic Technical al Universi University ty of Munich, Munich, who generously generously contribu contributed ted a most most up-toup-todate section on critical-point critical-point phenomena phenomena in chapter chapter 6. I will always remember remember the many conversations conversations in which we we compared compared notes on American American engineerengineering versus versus the Germ German an versio version, n, which which had so much much influe influenc nce e in Centr Central al Europe Europe and Russia. Russia. I recog recogniz nize e also also the contrib contributi ution on made made by Linda Linda Haye Hayes, s, who who not not only only typed typed the manuscri manuscript, pt, but also voluntee volunteered red her rare talent talent of organizat organization ion and sense of symmetry symmetry to the raw materia materiall that I have produced produced.. Her work can can be viewe viewed d direc directly tly in the Solutions Manual, which which is avail availab able le as a separate book. This manual can be obtained by writing to Wiley-Intersc Wiley-Interscience ience (605 Third Third Avenue Avenue,, New York, York, NY 10158-0 10158-0012)or 012)or directly directly to me. At various various stages, I was helpe helped d by old friends, friends, colleag colleagues ues in academ academia, ia, and new students students.. Ren Anderson Anderson,, Shigeo Shigeo Kimura, Kimura, Dimos Dimos Poulikakos Poulikakos,, and Osvai Osvairr V. Trevisa Trevisan n kept kept me in touch touch with with their their respe respecti ctive ve corne corners rs of the
xvii
While While using using those those early early draft draftss in the classr classroo oom, m, I colle collecte cted d many many useful useful suggestio suggestions ns from the students, students, among among whom I must mention mention:: J. Gottwal Gottwald, d, J. L. Lage, Lage, P. A. Litse Litsek, k, A. Maha Mahajan jan,, D. F. Mend Mendivi ivil, l, M. Wang Wang,, Z. Xia, Xia, and Z. Zhang. Zhang. Looking Looking ahead, I will appreci appreciate ate it very much much if users users of this book will write write to call my attention attention to the imperfe imperfectio ctions ns that may may have slipped into the final final version. version. ADRIAN ADRIAN BEJAN BEJAN
Durham, North Carolina October 1987
LIST OF SYMBOLS SYMBOLS
1 THE
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNA THERMODYNAMICS MICS
xxix
1
Elements of Thermody Thermodynam namics ics Terminolo Terminology, gy, 1 1.1 Elements The First Law for Close Closed d Systems, Syste ms, 5 1.2 Transfer, r, 8 1.3 Work Transfe Heat Transfer, Transfer, 13 1.4 Heat Energy Change, Change, 20 1.5 Energy The First Law for Open Systems, Systems, 23 23 1.6 Historical Backgroun Background, d, 29 1.7 Historical Structured Presentation Presentation of the First Law, Law, 38 1.8 The Structured Poincare's 's Scheme, Scheme, 38 1.8.1 Poincare Caratheodory's ory's Scheme Scheme,, 40 1.8.2 Caratheod Keenan Keen an and Shapiro's Shapi ro's Second Second Scheme, Scheme, 40 1.8.3 Referenc References, es, 41 Problem Problems, s, 44
2
THE SECOND SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC THERMODYNAMICS S 2.1
The Second Law for Closed Closed Systems, Systems, 49 Cycle in Contact Contact with One Heat Reservoir, Reservoir, 50 2.1.1 Cycle 2.1.2
Cycle Cycle in Contact Contact with Two Heat Heat Reservoir Reservoirs, s, 52
2.1.3
Cycle Cycle in Contact Contact with Any Number Number of Heat Heat
49
~ ~ ..
2.2 2.2
''. •.. ! . " . . J • . . L ! ~ . J . . : >
The The Seco Second nd
Law Law for Open Open Syst System ems, s,
2.3 The Loca Locall Thermo Thermody dyna namic mic 2.4
The The Entr Entrop opy y
2.5 2.5
Cara Carath theo eodo dory ry's 's 2.5.1
Maxi Maximu mum m
Rever Reversi sibl blee
and and Ener Energy gy
A Heat Heat Tran Transf sfer er
2.7 2.7
Hist Histor oric ical al
Refe Refere rence nces, s, Prob Problem lems, s,
68 Prin Princi cipl ples es,,
Surf Surfac aces es,,
79
Temp Temper erat atur ure, e,
Man' Man'ss
87 Law, Law, 88
Two Two Axio Axioms ms,,
Back Backgr grou ound nd,,
Legendr ndree 4.4 Lege Rel R elati ation onss 4.5
Lost Lost Avai Availa labl blee
Work Work,,
THE THE DEST DESTRU RUCT CTIO ION N 10 8
109 109
3.2.2
Refr Refrig iger erat atio ion n
3.2. 3.2.3 3
Heat Heat-P -Pum ump p
Cycl Cycles es,,
176 176 Duri During ng
Prop Proper erti ties es,, Speci Special al
Proc Proces esse ses, s,
203 203
4.9
Real Real Gas Gas Mixtu Mixture res, s,
207 207
Proc Proces esse ses, s,
3.5 3.5
Mech Mechan anis isms ms
of Entr Entrop opy y
Gene Genera rati tion on
Heat Heat Tran Transf sfer er
3.5.2
Flow Flow with with Fricti Friction, on,
Mixing, 3.5.3 Mixing,
EXERGY Y 5 EXERG
126
3.5. 3.5.1 1
or Exe Exerg rgy y
Dest Destru ruct ctio ion, n,
Acro Across ss a Fini Finite te Temp Temper erat atur uree
Diff Differ eren ence ce,,
133 133
Mini Minimi mizat zatio ion, n,
Rela Relati tion ons, s,
193 193
3.6. 3.6.2 2
An Int Intro rodu duct ctio ion: n: The The Geome Geometr tric ic Opti Optimi miza zati tion on a Bran Branchi ching ng Flui Fluid d Netwo Network rk,, 142
5.2
Flow Flow System Systems, s,
134 134
141 141
Numb Number er,,
21 7
ANALYSI ANALYSIS S
Nonft Nonftow ow
141 141
The The Metho Method, d,
Gene Genera rati tion on
188 188
213 213
Syst System ems, s,
217 217
221
Generali lize zed d Exer Exergy gy Analy Analysi sis, s, 5.3 Genera Air A ir-C -Con ondi diti tion onin ing g Appli App licat cation ions, s, 5.4
136
3.6.1
Entr Entrop opy y
178 178
211 211
5.1
138
Gener Generat atio ion n
Proc Proces esse ses, s,
118 118 121 121
123 123
Stead Steadyy-Fl Flow ow
175 175
117 117
Cycl Cycles es,, Cycl Cycles es,,
3.4 3.4
Prob Problem lems, s,
Relat Relatio ions ns,, Meas Measur ured ed
Ideal Ideal Gas Mix Mixtu ture res, s,
Prob Problem lems, s,
Heat Heat-E -Eng ngin inee
Refe Refere renc nces es,,
162 162
Ther Thermo modyn dynam amic ic
4.8
Refe Refere renc nces es,,
160 160
166 166
Geometr etric ic Repr Repres esen enta tati tions ons of Ther Thermo modyn dynam amic ic 4.6 Geom Partiall Molal Molal Prope Propert rtie ies, s, 199 4.7 Partia
116
3.2. 3.2.1 1
Entro ropy py 3.6 Ent
Betw Between een
Prop Proper erti ties es,,
161 161 Rela Relati tion on,,
Bridgman an's 's Tabl Table, e, 187 187 4.5.3 Bridgm Jacobi Jaco bian ans s in Ther Th ermod modyn ynam amics ics,, 4.5.4
97
Nonftow w 3.3 Nonfto
Equa Equati tion on,,
Tran Transf sfor orms ms,,
Maxwell's 's 4.5.1 Maxwell Rela Relati tion onss 4.5.2
89
94
99
Cycles, 3.2 Cycles,
The The Euler Euler
4.3.4
Gibbss-Du Duhe hem m 4.3.5 The Gibb
LAWS LAWS COMB COMBIN INED ED:: OF EXERGY EXERGY
3.6. 3.6.3 3
Entro ropy py Repr Repres esen enta tati tion on,, 159 159 4.3.2 Ent Extens Exte nsiv ive e Prop Pr oper erti ties es Vers Ve rsus us Inten Intensi sive ve 4.3.3
71
77
and and Adiaba Adiabati ticc
TWO 3 THE TWO
3.1 3.1
Mini Minimu mum m
The The Two Two Parts Parts of the the Secon Second d
2.6 2.6
Mode Model, l,
84
2.5.3 The Therm rmod odyna ynami micc 2.5. 2.5.4 4
The Funda Fundame ment ntal al Rela Relati tion, on, 157 157 4.3 The Ener En ergy gy Repr Re pres esent entat atio ion, n, 158 158 4.3.1
66
Equi Equili libr briu ium m
Two Two Axio Axioms ms,,
Entropy py,, 2.5.2 Entro
of 5.5
5.4.1
Mixt Mixtur ures es
225 225
of Air Air and Wate Waterr
Vapo Vapor, r,
227 227
5.4.2
Flow Flow Exerg Exergy y
of Hum Humid id
Air, Air, 229 229
5.4.3
Total Total Flow Flow Exergy Exergy
of Liq Liqui uid d
Wate Water, r,
5.4.4 Other Other
Aspe Aspects cts
Prob Problem lems, s,
147
224
Tota Totall
Refe Refere rence nces, s,
145 145
Evap Evapor orat ativ ivee
Cool Coolin ing g
of Exer Exergy gy
Proc Proces ess, s,
Anal Analys ysis is,,
231 231
233 234 234
235 235 235 235
148 148 6
4
xxi
CONTENTS
SINGLE SINGLE-PH -PHASE ASE
SYSTEM SYSTEMS S
MULTIP MULTIPHASE HASE
23 9
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
15 1
Energy y 6.1 The Energ
Mini Minimu mum m
Prin Princi cipl plee
in U, H, F, an an d G
