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A Latn
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Digitized
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A LATIN GRAMMAR BY
HARRY EDWIN BURTON,
Ph.D.
Professor of Latin in Dartmouth College
SILVER, BURDETT & BOSTON NEW YORK Digitized
by Microsoft®
COMPANY CHICAGO
U3S^ Copyright, igii, bv
SILVER,
BURDETT & COMPANY
Digitized
by Microsoft®
PREFACE This book has been written in the in order to
contain ners'
meet the needs
morethan
belief that
a Latin Grammar,
of pupils in secondary schools, should
the elementary facts of the language.
Begin-
books and grammatical appendices have to a certain extent
superseded the strictly elementary of the school course.
grammar
for the first
It seems, therefore, that a
two years
grammar, in
order to be useful throughout the school course, should contain
not only the ordinary and simple facts but also those which are
more unusual or more complicated.
The author
believes that
such a grammar best meets the demands of the secondary school, while at the
same time
it
retains its usefulness through the college
Familiarity with such a book acquired at school
course.
great value to those
In any case
it is
who
is
of very
continue the study of Latin in college.
undoubtedly true that the proper use of a
fairly
complete grammar gives not only a wider but also a more appreciative
and more permanent knowledge
of the language.
While seeking to include even the more uncommon forms and constructions,
the author has studiously excluded
all
material
which would be confusing to the beginner and would be negby the more advanced student. He has endeavored to
lected
present the essentials with the greatest possible simplicity for
the benefit of the younger pupil, and has clearly subordinated
statements regarding the more unusual constructions by print-
them in smaller type. At the same time he has had in mind the needs of the college undergraduate, which, as a matter
ing
of
fact,
except for the peculiarities of individual authors, are
about the same as those of the yoimger student who is reading Cicero or VergU. A b3pj^^wj^c]^.trea^adequately the grammar
PREFACE
IV of these
two authors
with slight additions,
is,
sufficient for the
reading of college authors.
Of the passages quoted as examples three-fourths have been that is, from may be called school authors,
—
taken from what
Caesar, Cicero, Vergil, Sallust, Nepos, and a very few from Ovid,
— though
not always from the works or parts of works which
The
are usually read in school. exception,
other examples, almost without
have been taken from works commonly read by college
undergraduates. It has been thought best to treat the formation of
words under
the various parts of speech, instead of treating the subject as
This has been done partly because this
a whole in one place.
arrangement seems more
younger student
may
sented in this way.
logical,
but especially in the hope that the
find the subject less forbidding
The
when
briefly but, it is hoped, sufficiently for the reading of Vergil
Ovid.
It has
pre-
subject of versification has been treated
and
been thought unnecessary to include the meters of
Horace and other
college authors.
Versification is not a part of
the subject of Latin grammar, and modern editions of Latin texts
almost invariably treat the meters used by their authors.
In the treatment of sounds and words the author has had the help of Professor R.
W. Husband, and
in the treatment of syntax
K. Lord, both of Dartmouth College, and wishes hereby to acknowledge his gratitude. He is indebted also that of Professor
J.
to Dr. William Gallagher, Principal of Braintree, Massachusetts,
who has
and has made many valuable
Thayer Academy at South
read the whole manuscript
Thanks are due
also to
Harriet P. Fuller of the English High School, Providence,
Rhode
Island,
and to
Fra,nklin A.
Pennsylvania, for Hanover,
many
criticisms.
Dakin
of Haverford School, Haverford,
useful suggestions.
New Hampshire. Digitized
by Microsoft®
CONTENTS FIRST
PART— SOUNDS PAGE
The Alphabet
I
Classification of Sounds
2
Pronunciation
3
Pronunciation of Vowels
Quantity
of
4
Vowels
4
Pronunciation of Diphtfiongs
.
.
.
^
.
6
.
Pronunciation of Consonants
Syllables Length
7
8 of Syllables
.
8
.
Accent
9 ID
Enclitics
Phonetic Changes Weakening in Unaccented Syllables Weakening of Vowels in Medial Syllables Weakening of Vowels in Final Syllables Weakening of Diphthongs Loss of Vowel ... Combination of Vowels ... Iambic Shortening Vowel Gradation Changes of Single Consonants Changes in Consonant Groups .
.
.
.
II
.
.
.
12 13 13 13
14 14
14 IS
SECOND PART — WORDS Formation of Words Roots Stems
.
.
.
.
Inflection
.
.
Gender
.
i6 i6
.
i6 17
.
.
17
.
General Rules of Gender
17
Number Case
19 DigUizect
by Microsoft®
V
19
CONTENTS
VI
PAGE
Nouns
19
Formation of Nouns Primary Suffixes
19 .
20
.
Agent
Means
20 or Instrument
21
Action
21
Abstracts
.
.
Secondary Suffixes Abstracts
.
22
.
22
.
22
.
Place
23
Diminutives
23
Patronymics
.
23
.
Compound Nouns Declension of Nouns
24 .
2S
.
General Rules of Declension
25
First Declension
26
.
Second Declension Third Declension
28 31
Consonant Stems
31
i-Stems
36
.
.
Nouns Greek Nouns
41
Gender
42
Irregular
4P
.
Fourth Declension
43
Fifth Declension
.
Nouns Variable Nouns Defective
Names
44 46
.
.
....
....
...
of Persons
Adjectives Formation of Adjectives Comparison of Adjectives .
Declension of Adjectives
.
.
48 5° S2
52
54
.
57
Adjectives of the First and Second Declensisns
57
Adjectives of the Third Declension
60
Adjectives of
One Ending
Adjectives of
Two
Endings
60 62
.
Adjectives of Three Endings
63
Possessive Adjectives
64
Adverbs
64
Derivation of Adverbs Classification of
64
Adverbs
.
.
Comparison tSf Adverbs Digitized
by Microsoft®
67
69
CONTENTS
Vll 7AGE
Numerals
70
Numeral Adjectives
70
Fractions
72
Roman
Notation Declension of Numeral Adjectives Adjectives derived from Numerals
72
Numeral Adverbs
74
.
73
74
Peonotjns
75
....
Personal Pronouns
7S
.....
Relative and Interrogative Pronouns
...
....
Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Indefinite
.
....
Verbs Formation of Verbs Primary Verbs Derivative Verbs
....
81
.
.
... .
.
...
81
.
81
.
82
.
Verbs formed by Composition
.
83
.
Verb-Stems Conjugation Voice
84 85
....
.
Deponent Verbs .... Mood and Tense Signs .
Indicative
.
...
.
.
.
87
...
.
92
.
92
Infinitives
Supine
.
93 93
.
Gerund
.
93
.
...
Tense-Groups
Number
.
95
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
Conjugation of sum
.
First Conjugation
.
Second Conjugation Third Conjugation
.
.
.
... .
...
.
.
,
97 98 100 103 105 107
109
no in
.
Periphrastic Conjugation Digitized
.
...
.
Verbs in -id of the Third Conjugation Fourth Conjugation
Deponent Verbs
95 95
.
Principal Parts
88 91
Verbal Nouns and Adjectives
Participles
87
.88
.
Mood Mood
.
.
.
.
.
.
Subjunctive
Person
76
-77 .78
by Microsoft®
CONTENTS
VUl Verbs
— Continued
Irregular Verbs
PAGE .
112
.
Conjugation of possum
112
Conjugation of
volo
113
Conjugation of fero Conjugation of eo
IIS
114
Conjugation of /w
117
Conjugation of edd
117
Conjugation of do
118
Defective Verbs
.
Impersonal Verbs List of Verbs
.
.
.
119
.
.
121
121
.
Prepositions
134
Conjunctions
.
.
134
.
Interjections
13s
THIRD PART — SYNTAX Introduction
136
.
Principal and Subordinate Clauses
.
136
.
Subject and Predicate
136
Phrase
137
.
Classification of Sentences
138
Interrogative Sentences
138
Answers Alternative Questions
.
.
.
Syntax of the Parts of Speech
141
Syntax of Nouns
141
...
....
Appositives Predicate
139 140
...
Nouns
Cases of Nouns ... Nominative and Vocative Cases Genitive Case Genitive with Substantives and Adjectives
141 143
.
.... •
•
•
.
.
.
14s 146
...
Possessive Genitive
.
I4S
.
.
146 146
.148
Genitive of Definition Genitive of the Whole
.
.
148
Genitive of Material
.
.
ISO
Genitive of Quality Objective Genitive
GenTtive of
^^^igf^ Microsoft®
.
.
....
150 151
152
CONTENTS Syntax op '^ovns
IX
— Continued
page
Genitive with Verbs
152
Genitive of Charge or Penalty
152
Genitive with refert and interest
153
Genitive with Verbs of Plenty or
Want
154
Genitive with Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, Genitive with Verbs of Mental Sensation
154 156
Genitive with potior
156
Genitive of Exclamation
156
Dative Gasp
.
.
156
...
Dative with Verbs
etc.
157
.
Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs
157
Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs
158
Compound Verbs
Indirect Object with
Dative of Reference
159 161
Dative
162
of Separation
Ethical Dative
.
162
.
Dative of Possession Dative of Agent Dative of Purpose or Tendency
Dative with Adjectives
.
163 163
164 164
.
Accusative Case Direct Object
165
...
.
Accusative of Exclamation ,
.
.165
....
Accusative of Kindred Meaning
Two
.
.
...
167
168
Accusatives
Accusative of Limit of Motion Accusative of Extent .
.170
.
.
171
.
172
Accusative of Specification Subject of Infinitive
Ablative Case
.
173 i73
.
Separative Uses
167
-173
.
.
Ablative of Separation with Verbs Ablative of Separation with Adjectives Ablative of Place
173
174 i74
Whence
i7S
Ablative of Source Ablative of Agent
.....
.
176
Ablative of Material
177 i77
Ablative of Comparison
Ablative of Cause Digitized
,
by Microsoft®
i79
X
CONTENTS
Syntax oe Nouns
— Continued
pace"
Instrumental Uses
i8o
....
Ablative of Accompaniment
Ablative of
Manner
.
i8o
.
Ablative of Attendant Circumstance
.
Ablative of Quality
.
...
Ablative Absolute
.
Ablative of
.
".
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
Means
.
i8o
.
182
->.
184
.
.
Ablative of Price
185
Road
Ablative of the
...
Ablative of Measure of Difference
.
..^
186
T
186
.
Ablative of Specification Ablative of Place Ablative of
188
...
Locative Uses
Time
.
.
Where .
.
.
.
.
';.
,
,
.
.
,
,
188
.
,
_•
190
.,1.
191
.i'Vi
'9^
.
.
The Roman Calendar Time
188
.
.
Ablative of Extent of
Locative Case
.
.
193
,';.
Syntax of Adjectives Classification
.
194 194
.
Participial Adjectives
.•
•
Possessive Adjectives
•
.
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
Agreement
•
.
.
':"?•».
.
.
Adjectives and Participles as Substantives Adjectives instead of Adverbs
.
'.
.
.
.,•
.
.
200
204 .
'.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
•
.
.
.
.
.
.
204 205 206
.
208
.
,
.
.
.
....
208 210 211
.
.
.
.
.
Pronouns and Adjectives Distributive Pronouns and Adjectives Relative Pronouns and Adjectives Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives Indefinite
Digitized
200
203
.
.
197
202
.
'.....
'.
Intensive Pronoun
alter
196
202
.
Reflexive Pronoun
and
.
.'
.
...
Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives
alius
-
.
Personal Pronouns
The The
195
199
.>'.)'.
.
'.
Syntax of Pronouns
?'
.
.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Syntax of Advekbs .... The Use of Certain Adverbs
'94
"•
.
.'
...
of Adjectives
Negative Adverbs
i8i
i8i
'.
214 .'
by Microsoft®
217
'
CONTENTS
xi PAGE
Syntax of Verbs
....
218
.
Voice
218
Agreement of the Verb with
Moods
a^id
Tenses
Indicative
its
...
Subject
.
....
.
219 220
.
Mood
The Use
220
of the Tenses of the Indicative
Epistolary Tenses
...
Mood Subjunctive Mood
in
Mood
221
22s
Subjunctive
226
Independent Sentences
226
Volitive Subjunctive
226
Subjunctive of Exhortation or
Command
226
Deliberative Subjunctive
227 228
Optative Subjunctive Potential Subjunctive Tenses of the Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses
229 230
.
.
Subordinate Clauses in the Indicative or Subjunctive
23s
Relative Clauses Relative Clauses of Fact
23s 235
...
.
...
Relative Clauses of Characteristic
Causal or Adversative Relative Clauses Relative Clauses of Purpose
.
.
... ...
236 238 239
Subordinate Clauses Introduced by Conjunctive Particles Clauses of Purpose
240
.
240
Clauses of Result
241
Substantive Clauses
242
Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Indicative
.
Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Subjunctive
.
242
.
243
Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive Sub-
...
junctive
243
Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative Subjunctive
...
,
.
Substantive Clauses developed from Clauses of Result Indirect Questions
Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses
....
.
.
.
246
.
247 248
.
251
.
with
cum
...
251
with antequam and priusquam
253
.
with postquam, ubi, etc
'.
255
with dum, donee, quoad, and qtiam diu
with quando
Causal Clauses Adversative and Concessive Clauses
...
.
Digitized
.
.
by Microsoft®
.
.
.
.
.
.
257 260
.
260
.
262
CONTENTS
XU
— Continued
Syntax of Verbs
paoe
Subjunctive of Repeated Action Subjunctive by Attraction
264 .
.
Independent Subjunctive Constructions in Subordinate Clauses Conditional Sentences
The Use Types
265
266
of the Conditional Particles
.
266
.
of Conditional Sentences
.
Conditions of Fact
.
.
.
.
267
.
267
268
Conditions of Possibility Conditions Contrary to Fact
Other Forms of Protasis
.
269 271
.
Conditional Relative Sentences
272
Conditional Clauses of Comparison
272
Clauses of Proviso
273
Imperative
Mood
Negative
The
265
274
Commands
274
Infinitive
275.
The Use of the Tenses of the The Uses of the Infinitive .
Infinitive
27s 277
.
Nominative Case as Accusative Case with Passive Verbs
Infinitive as
277
Infinitive
278
Infinitive
281
Infinitive with Adjectives
281
Infinitive of
Exclamation
282
Infinitive of
Purpose
282
282
Historical Infinitive
Indirect Discourse
282
Declarative Sentences in Indirect Discourse
283
Questions in Indirect Discourse
286
Commands
in Indirect Discourse
286
Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse
286
Conditions of Fact or Possibility* Conditions Contrary to Fact
Implied Indirect Discourse
....
Participles
The Use of the Tenses of The Uses of Participles
289 .
the Participle
Gerundive and Gerund Case-Constructions of Gerundive and Gerund
The Supine
.
287 288
.
Syntax OF Prepositions o^g,.f^gjy^^.^.^^3j,^
289 289 291
294 294 296 297
CONTENTS
XUl PAGE
Syntax of Conjunctions •
298
Cojirdinating Conjunctions
299
Copulative Conjunctions
299 301
Disjunctive Conjunctions
Adversative Conjunctions
302
Logical Conjunctions
303
Causal Conjunctions
303
Asyndeton
303
Arrangement of Words
305
Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric
309
Versification
312 316
Meter
The Oral Reading
of Verse
List of Authors and
317
Works Cited
318 321
Index
Digitized
by Microsoft®
Digitized
by Microsoft®
—
LATIN
GRAMMAR
FIRST PART
— SOUNDS
THE ALPHABET 1. The Latin alphabet was borrowed from the Chalcidian Greek colonies of southern Italy and adapted to the sounds of the, Latin language. Only capital letters were used; srhall letters did not come into use till the end of the eighth century A.D.
In Cicero's time the alphabet consisted of twenty-
2.
one
letters
letter
A
:
pronounced
letter
pronounced
letter
pronounced
— THE ALPHABET
2
(j-8
u were doubled; i was written ei or a taller letter was used; sometimes a mark (apex) was put over a long vowel; a late form of this mark is the one now used to indicate a long vowel.
The
C
g sound like the and was retained for that purpose in the abbreviations C. (Gaius) and Cn. (Gnaeus). It gradually came to represent a k sound, supplanting the letter K, which was used generally in the earlier period, but in the classical period only occasionally in Kaeso, Kalendae, Karthago, and a few abbreviations. When the letter C had thus assumed a new function (this Use was general by the beginning of the third century B.C.), a new letter was needed to represent the g sound; for this purpose G was formed from C and inserted in the alphabet in the place once held by Z, which had gone out of use. 5.
letter
originally represented a
third letter of the Greek alphabet,
and
V
regularly represented both the vowel sounds and the semivowel or consonant sounds (maior, vols). The consonant i sound was, however, represented sometimes by a taller letter, sometimes by doubling (TrSiia). The differentiation of U and V, for vowel and consonant respectively, was not made till the tenth century A.D. The letter J was introduced in the seventeenth century, to indicate the consonant i. In this book, according to the modern custom, i is used for both vowel and consonant, u for vowel u, and V for consonant u. 6.
I
(sim, bonus)
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS 7.
lows:
The vowels
— open, a;
—
a, e,
medial, e
o, u, and y and o; dose,
i,
— i,
are classified as folu,
and
y.
There
however, variation within these classes; long e and o, example, are closer than the corresponding short vowels. 8.
The diphthongs
a very few wojds. early Latin;
are ae, au, oe,
and eu; eu occurs
is,
for
in only
Besides these, the following are found in
ai, el^stJ^euiijd/MMiosoft®
lo)
P>
PRONUNCIATION
The combination some regard 9.
(a)
this as
ui occurs in huic, cui,
classified as follows:
Sonant: b, d, g, consonant c, f,
h, k, p, q, s,
t,
i, 1,
m,
n,
x.
Sonants are voiced, surds are not. (6)
and the
interjection hui;
a diphthong, others beheve that the u
Consonants are
Surd:
3
—
r, v, z.
is
a consonant.
PRONUNCIATION
4
{il-I4
PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS Long
11.
a as
y
is like
Short
a as
In father
in along
e
u
they
e
<<
net
i
It
machine
i
n
pin
6
u
no
o
<(
oJey
u
((
rule
u
u
^<
German
ii
(as in BrUder) or
French
u.
These EngUsh equivalents are only approximate; all long vowel in English except that of a as in father end in a vanishing sound which makes them somewhat diphthongal. sounds
QUANTITY OF VOWELS The sound
12.
of the long
long as that' of the short.
many
cases
from
its
line of the Aeneid,
vowel
We know
value in poetry;
we may
is
theoretically twice as
the length of a vowel in
as, for
example, in the
first
recognize from their position in the
verse the value of the long and short vowels, as indicated:
arma virumque cano Troiae is
long
if its
vowel
is
qui primus ab oris.
But a
syllable
followed by two consonants, irrespective
of the length of the vowel.
In such cases the value of the vowel
may sometimes
be learned from (a) grammarians; (b) inscriptions, in which long vowels are sometimes marked; (c) etymology; (d) compotinds, in which long vowels are treated differently from short (cf adactus from actus, affectus from factus) (e) transliteration into Greek; (f) treatment of the vowel in languages derived (called hidden quantity)
statements of
.
Roman
;
from Latin.
A
vowel which represents a diphthong or is the result is long: as, concido from caedo; nil from nihil. vowel is long before nf or ns, and probably before net and
13.
of contraction
A ax:
as, infelix,
insanus, defiinctus, coniunx.
14. A vowel^s short before another vowel or h. the following exC^pti(M9ii^«^ by Microsoft®
There are
^5-^S)
QUANTITY OF VOWELS
(a)
Numerous words
(b)
In "classical Latin: 1.
in early Latin: as, pius,
a in the old genitive ending of the
and 6
first
5
ffli.
declension, -ai.
and vocative singular and nominative, dative, and ablative plural of nouns (usually proper names) ending in -aius, -eius, or -oius as, Gai, Pompei, Boi, plebeis. 3. e in the ending of the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, always when e is preceded by i, rarely, in early Latin, when 2.
a, e,
in the genitive
:
—
another letter precedes: 4.
i
regularly have 5.
i
as, diel, but,
with a few exceptions,
in the pronominal genitives unius, totius, etc. later, the
i;
fidel.
The dramatists
vowel was commonly shortened.
in all forms of fio, except
when
followed
it is
by
er: as, fiebam;
but fierem. in
dms
6.
I
7.
Many
15.
A
(for divus).
Greek words:
vowel, unless
as,
Aeneas, aer, Diana (more often Diana).
it is
the result of contraction,
nd as, amant, amandus but vendo from venumdo. before nt or
A
16.
;
:
vowel
is
as, fissus, fossus,
unless there
is
st in verbal endings,
contraction: as, fuisti; but amasti.
Exceptions: some monosyllables ending in the other adverbs of place, is
short
short before ss, except in contracted perfects:
but amasse; also before
17. A vowel is short in monosyllables and ending in any consonant except s.
vowel
is
contio from coventio,
sol,
c,
non, cur; before
n,
1,
r
and
final
syllables
and r: as, hie and t, an original long
retained in early Latin and sometimes in poetry of the classical
period: as, pater, ferar, videt.
Before
18. 1.
final s
The vowel
the quantity of the vowel varies:
—
long in final as, es, and os.
is
Exceptions: anas, duck; as, copper; es in the nominative singular of
some dental stems which have a es (from esse) 2.
;
penes
The vowel
Exceptions:
is
is
;
short vowel in the other cases: as, miles;
os, bone;
compos impos. ;
short in final is
and
us.
in plural case-endings; in the second person singular
of the perfect subjunctive active (rarely -is. as,
^
Digitized
by Micitsom
on the other hand, '
-is
;
PRONUNCIATION
6
occurs rarely in the future perfect)
;
{iQ,
in the second person singular of the
present indicative active of the fourth conjugation and of verbs: as,
is, fis, ifis;
20
some
irregular
in the second person singular of the present sub-
some irregular verbs: as, sis, velis; and in -vis, force, and sometimes sanguis and pulvis. us in the gem'tive singular and the nominative and accusative plural of the fourth declension; in the nominative singular of third declension nouns having u in junctive active of Quiris, Samnis,
the other cases,
e.g. virtus, tellus.
In monosyllables and
19. (a)
final
Exceptions: (b)
final
nisi, quasi, sicuti,
o
final syllables
ending in a vowel:
long;
is
i
is
and, usually, mihi,
tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi.
long;
Exceptions: cedo (imperative), cito, duo, ego, modo, and, rarely, the
first
person singular of verbs.
becomes increasingly common
Beginning with Ovid, the short vowel
in the
nominative singular of the third
declension (as in virgo), in verb-forms, ergo, ilico,
immo,
octo,
u
is
long;
(d) final a
is
short;
(c)
final
and
in
some other words:
as,
quando.
Exceptions: the ablative singular of the tive of the first conjugation;
first
declension; the impera-
and most uninflected words:
as.
frustra,
triginta.
(e)
final
e
Exceptions:
is
^hort
all
monosyllables except enclitics; the ablative singular
of the fifth declension; the second person singular of the present imper-
ative active of the second conjugation; adverbs derived from adjectives of the first
and second declensions:
as. longe, recte
(but short in bene,
male, inferne, superne).
PRONUNCIATION OF DIPHTHONGS 20.
In diphthongs both vowels are pronounced in quick
succession
is
by one
effort.
ae had the sound of short a followed by that of short e. It the commou practice, however, to pronounce ae and the
earlier ai in the
same otget^fiiBsxIviiarcmfmsle,
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS
2l)
7
oe had the sound of short o followed by that of short e, but both oe and the earlier oi are. pronounced like oi in toil. au is like ou in our. eu is short e followed by short u. The early diphthongs ei and ou were originally pronounced respectively like ay in hay and o in no, where there is a vanishing sound of u. But by the middle of the second century B.C. ei had come to be pronounced like i in machine, ou like u in rvle.
is
Diphthongs are always long; except that prae in composition sometimes shortened before a vowel: as, praeeunte, Aen. 5,
186.
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS 21. Consonants are pronounced in general as in English, but the following points should be noted: b before s or t has the s6und of p, as in ixrbs, obtineo. c always has the sound of English k. g always has the sound of g in get. h was originally the same as in English, but was often omitted
—
in pronunciation. i
as a consonant
m
is
like
y
in yes.
when final was pronounced French nasalized n. n is usually like the English n. But before c, g, q, and x it has a guttural sound like ng in sing. Before f, consonant i, s, and V, except in the prefixes con- and in-, it is silent, the preceding vowel being lengthened, if short, and nasalized: as, c6(n)sul, me(n)sis. As a final consonant it is weak, except in monobefore another consonant and
without closing the
lips like the
syllables. r is trilled as in French.
In s is always unvoiced, like s in soft, never like s in his. early Latin final s after a short vowel and before a consonant
was only slightly sounded or disappeared entirely. V is like w V^^ctAsii^^SbjPfMcr^i8?k= "W®*"-
8
PRONUNCIATION
The Greek like
t,
p,
(22,
23
4*) and X, were always pronounced Before 145 B.C. they were represented by after that, by th, ph, and ch, but the pronunciation
and
aspirates, 0, k.
and c remained the same. Doubled consonants were not pronounced as in English like single consonants, but with a prolongation of the sound of the single consonant. In writing, consonants were not doubled
t,
p,
till
;
after 200 B.C.
SYLLABLES 22.
A
word has
as
many
syllables as
it
has vowels
or diphthongs.
The is
syllable before the last
is
the penult; the one before that
the antepenult.
A
vowel or diphthong
syllable ending in a
is
called open;
others are called closed.
In the division of words into syllables a single consonant between two vowels goes with the following vowel: pa-ter, fe-ro.
In a group of two or more consonants the division after the first, except that a
lowing vowel: dic-tus,
mute and a
fal-lo,
is
made
liquid go with the fol-
mon-stnim,
In the case
a-cris.
mute and a liquid, however, if in poetry a long syllable needed, the mute may be sounded with the preceding vowel. of a
In the treatment of the double consonant
x,
practice varies;
write di-xit, others dix-it; the actual pronunciation
The combination qu
is
some
die-sit.
treated as a single consonant: a-qua.
Prepositional compounds parts: as,
was
is
are separated into their
component
ad-est, ab-rump6, con-cipio.
LENGTH OF SYLLABLES 23.
A
thong, or
syllable is long if its
mute and a
vowel
is
if it
contains a long vowel or a diph-
by two consonants (except a by the double consonant x, or by z
followed
liquid, see 24),
(wljich is treated, accoUdinfc/tta'tlheoSfiigfek custom, as a double
ACCENT
24-27)
9
consonant).
In the latter case the syllable
hy position.
One
said to be long be at the beginning of the next word, h does not count as a consonant; qu has the value of only one consonant: thus, in adhibeo and equus the first syllables are short. In early Latin final S on account of its faint sound does not always make a syllable long
by
two consonants
of the
is
may
position.
24.
A
1
mute
containing a short vowel before a
syllable
followed by
or r
regularly short; in verse, however,
is
it is
sometimes treated as long. In compounds, when the prefix ends in a mute and the second part begins with 1 or r, the prefix is always long. 25.
A
followed
syllable
is
long
by consonant
i
:
if it
as,
contains the vowel a, e, 0, or
u
In these
maior, eius, Troia, cuius.
words the first syllable is really a diphthong formed by the vowel and a transitional sound (vowel i), so that the actual ^ound would be represented by maiior, etc. 26. In compounds of iacio (spelled adicio, of.
inicio, etc.) the
consonant i
the simple verb was probably pronounced, though not written.
fore the first syllable,
In reicio the
if it
ends with a consonant,
first syllable- is
is
long
by
Thereposition.
long for the same reason as in maior, etc.
ACCENT While the nature of Latin accent is disputed, it The like the English, a stress accent. probably was and unaccented difference in stress between accented syllables was, however, not so great as in English. 27.
In the earliest period all Latin words had recessive accent, were accented on the first syllable. As late as the time of Plautus words of four syllables of which the first three were short were still accented on the first syllable: as, facilius,
i.e.
This recessive accent was the cause of numerous phonetic changes, being responsible for the loss or weakening of unaccented syllables: as, posse from potesse.
mulierem.
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ACCENT
lO
(sS-^O
In classical Latin, in words of two syllables, the
28.
accent
on the
is
first.
But when a final syllable following a long penult has appeared or has been contracted, the accent is on the syllable
—
:
compounds of die and due: as, addue for addQee. words compounded with the abbreviated enclitics, -ce
(a) in (b) in
and -ne
as, illic for illiee,
:
tanton for tjintone, viden for videsne.
nominatives of adjectives ending in -as and
(c) in
and
-atis
-itis: as,
-is,
for
nostras, primas, Quirfs, Sanuus. *
(d) in perfects like audit, for audivit.
In words of more than two syllables the accent
29. is
dis-
last
.
regularly on the penult,
if
the penult
is
long; otherwise,
on the antepenult. According to the
now
Roman grammarians
(their
statement
is
questioned), in the contracted genitive and vocative of
nouns in -ius and -ium, the penult
is
accented even
if
it is
short: as, Vergili, eonsili, imperi.
When
faeid is
compounded with another
verb, the accent of
facio remains unchanged: as, calefacit, patefacis.
Nominatives of proper nouns and adjectives ending in -as have the accent on the last syllable: as, Maecenas,
for -atis
Arpinas.
In words of four or more syllables there is a secondary on the second syllable before the chief accent, if that
accent, is
—
long or
is
the
first syllable of
the word; otherwise, on the
third: as, areessiverunt, habuerunt,
habuerSmus.
ENCLITICS 30.
joined in
word.
words which have no accent, being pronunciation and writing with the preceding
Enclitics are
They
are
(a)
-ce, -n^, -que,- -ve.
(b)
-dem, -dum,
-ityiepd-fl^ieJ/prodaaBi,
-per,
-pte,
-quidem,
PHONETIC CHANGES
JI, J2)
II
ibidem (ibidem in early Latin), agedum delnde, egomet, iibinam (ubinam rarely), parfimper, suQt)te, siquidem, ' etiimtum.
-turn: as in
,
verb-forms:
and scilicet; quamvis; forms of esse in compound tenses. After a vowel or m, the vowel of es and est was not pronounced and is often omitted in writing: as, audita es, pronounced auditas; auditum est, pronounced auditumst. The verb was combined with a noun or an adjective in the same way: as, epistulast, iudiciumst, bonast. (c)
libet in
qt^bet;
In the early writers,
by a vowel
licet in videlicet, ilicet,
e.g.
t^s in
if
es or est follows a word ending in s preceded
(usually short), not only
is
e of the verb lost, but also s of the
previous word: as, tu servos, for tu servos es; bonust, for bonus est; similist, for similis est.
(d) the indefinite (e)
pronouns quis and qui:
cum
the preposition
Besides these, other words,
as, siquis.
following its case: as, nobiscum. if
unemphatic, are sometimes
enclitics; e.g.
personal and demonstrative pronouns and possessive adjectives (as dicmihi, pronounced dicmihi) even nouns
(cf.
;
31.
As an
enclitic
was a part
qu6modo, quare,
of the
postridie).
word to which
it
was
attached, the combination was regularly acceiited as one word.
The Roman grammarians
however, that the syllable
assert,
before -ce, -ne, -que, and -ve was ac_cented even
magn^que, pericul^que; and though questioned, the evidence against This principle -que has lost
its
it
does not apply to most
this
seems
if
short: as,
statement has been insufiicifint.
of those combinations in
which
proper meaning, and; thus, denique, findique, utique,
ftaque, (therefore); but, utrique
and plerique, probably on account of
the influence of their other cases.
PHONETIC CHANGES 32.
The form
of
many words
certain changes of sound based ciples.
period,
in classical Latin is
upon
due to
well-established prin-
Some of these changes occurred in when all wor(isgW^*/3ji
n the
the
pre-literary
first syllable.
;;
PHONETIC CHANGES
12
(jJ-JP
WEAKENING IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES The vowel of an unaccented syllable, either medial or was often weakened, especially in syllables immediately preceded by the chief accent. 33.
final,
Weakening
of
Vowels in Medial Syllables
34. Medial a before a single consonant, except p or
becomes
first
a and, later,
i: as,
r,
and before ng
cado, accedo (in Ennius), accido; facio,
conficio; datus, redditus; tango, attingo.
Medial a before p becomes o or u
as, capio,
:
u,
when
the preceding syllable contains
occupo.
Medial a before two consonants and before acceptus; dare, reddere. it
1,
becomes u:
But
before
1
r becomes e as, capio, and any other consonant except :
as, salio, insultus; calco, inculco.
35. Medial e before any single consonant except r becomes i; otherwise, it usually remains unchanged: as, lego, coUigo; fero, confero; Before a labial the weakened sound varies between
sedeo, obsessus. i
and u:
as,
monimentum
or
monumentum.
36. Medial o before a single consonant except 1 sometimes becomes i (or e, if preceded by i) : as, ilico (from in loco) bonitas (from bono-) ;
societas (from socio-); stage,
maximus (from maxomos), with an
intervening
mazumus.
Medial o before two consonants, and, unless preceded by a vowel, 1, becomes u: as, dicuntur (for dicontiir); poculum (forpocolum) The same change occurs in initial syllables when filiolus (from fflio-). before
o
followed
is
multa (cf
(for
by
1
molta);
and another consonant, or by nc, ngu, or mb: as hunc (for hone); unguis (cf. ov«|); umbilicus
6)i<|>a\6s).
37. Medial u before a single consonant usually becomes tibus
(f
rom f ructu-) butacubus (from ;
acu-).
an
So, in
i: as,
fruc-
initial syllable,
lubet becomes libet.
38. Medial av and ov become u:
Weakening 39. Final
i
of
and o become
as, lavo, eluo;
novus, denuo.
Vowels in Final Syllables e
:
as,
mare (from mari) ante (from ;
anti)
iste (fromisto).
a in ,,
,
final clSsed syllables becomes e: as. auceps V Digitized by Microsoft®
(froni fac-).
(from cap-); artifex ^
COMBINATION OF VOWELS
40-42)
e in final closed syllables before s or
t
becomes
i
13 :
as, dicis, dicit (for
dices, dicet); virtutis (for virtutes).
o in final closed syllables, unless preceded filium (for lilios, filiom);
as, filius,
donum
by u or
(foi:
v, becomes u: donom); genus (for
genos); dicunt (for dicont); but, equos, relinquont, extinguont, servos.
In the time of Augustus words ending with -quo- and -guo- underwent a change; equos, relinquont, and extinguont became ecus, relincunt,
and extingunt. Later the forms equus, relinquunt, and extinguunt came into use; and also such forms as- servus. The conjunction cum (from earlier quom) remained unchanged; the form quum did not come into use
till
the sixth century A.D.
Weakening 40. In (for aides)
poena
ei
becomes 1
(for poina);
unchanged,
:
as,
Diphthongs
becomes ae:
initial syllables ai .
of
as,
died (for deico)
as,
duco
(for caido);
aedes
becomes oe or u or i as, (for voidit). au remains
punio (for poinio); vidit
eu and ou become u:
caedo oi
.
(for
:
deuco); iussi (for
iusi,
earUer iousi).
In medial and
final syllables ai, ei,
and
oi
become i: as, concido (for au and eu become
concaido); indico (for indeico); servi (for servoi). u: as, concludo (from claudo);
Examples
of
eu occur
jections (as, eu, heu) or
conduco (from deuco). but they are either
in classical Latin,
new formations
(as,
inter-
neuter).
Loss of Vowel 41. A short vowel in an unaccented syllable is sometimes lost. If the vowel is medial, the loss is called syncope; if final, it is called apocope. Examples of syncope: aetas (aevitas), pergo (perrego), prudens (providens), rettuli (retetuli), valde (valide). If,
1 or r would stand between two conand preceded by a consonant, it becomes being represented by ul, r by er: difficulter (from difficilter,
through the
loss of
sonants or would be syllabic,
I
difficlter),
a vowel,
final
ager (from agros, agrs, agers).
Examples
of apocope: ab- (dirb), quin (quine), die (dice),
nee (neque),
ac (atque), animal (animale).
COMBINATION OF VOWELS 42. loss of
in the formation of words by composition or through the an intervening consonant, two vowels come together, they are If,
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— PHONETIC CHANGES
14
(43-45
sometimes allowed to remain (hiatus), but more often are contracted into one: coegi, deeram; nemo (ne-hemo), praetor (prai-itor), cogo (co-ago),
promo (pro-emo), dego
(de-ago),
amo (ama-6),ames
Rarely they are combined into a diphthong or one
is
(ama-es).
dropped: coetus
(co-itus), nullus (ne-ullus).
IAMBIC SHORTENING 43.
the
In iambic words (^ -) the fact that the accent was on tended to weaken the second, and many long
first syllable
vowels thus became short.
So' the final
a of the
first
declen-
and of neuter plurals of the second declension became a in iambic words and from these the usage was extended to all. The short final o of verb-forms arose in the same way. Other examples are homo, bene, male, cite, modo. sion
VOWEL GRADATION 44.
The Indo-European language from which Latin
derived had a system of vowel variation in related words,
is
—
changes of quantity, or of vowel due to the position of the accent.
This system
is
called Ablaut.
In Latin such variation
and complete system cannot be recognized. The lack of such a system is due to the wide and levelling influence of analogy, to the fact that many diphthongs became long vowels, and to the development of sonant liquids and nasals; for example, 1 sometimes became ol and later, usually, and n sometimes became em and en. The following ul; occurs, but a regular
m
examples
will illustrate
Ablaut in Latin:
dare,
donum;
tegula,
tego, toga; fido, foedus (forfoidus), fides; sedes, sedeo, sodalis,
sido (for si-sd-6).
CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS 45. Final d after a long vowel disappears. This change affects all lirst and second declensions and of consonant stems of the third declension, and some adverbs and prepositions: as, ablatives singular of the
pugna (for pugnad) servo med, ted, sed) aiso retro ;
;
me, te, se
(for served)
;
aere (for aerid)
(for retrod)
;
supra (for suprad) ; also future
imperatives: as, esto (for^tftSa^^&itd tioMfitod).
;
(for
:
CHANGES IN CONSONANT GROUPS
46-51)
46. s between vowels becomes ero (stem, es-), gero
portasom).
If s
(cf.
the process
r;
gessi, gestus),
Lares
is
15
called rhotacism
(for Lases),
portarum
appears between vowels in classical Latin,
sents usually an earlier ss: misi (for missi), causa (for caussa).
are a few exceptions to the general rule; s
was retained perhaps
e.g.
(for
repre-
it
There
miser, caesaries, in which
to avoid repetition of the r sound.
Most
of the
In nominatives like honor (for due to imitation of the other cases, where the principle of
other exceptions are foreign words.
honos)
r is
rhotacism was properly applied.
47. V often disappears between vowels: iunior
(for iuvenior), contio
(for coventid), nolo (ior nevolo), ditior (for dlvitior),
amasse
(for
ama-
visse).
CHANGES
The pronunciation
48.
by
IN
CONSONANT GROUPS of
consonant groups was made easier
(a) assimilation, (b) loss of one consonant, (c) development of
a vowel between 49.
the consonants.
Assimilation
(a)
may be
complete or partial,
i.e.
one consonant
may
be made the same as the other (the first is usually assimilated to the second), or one may be so altered as to employ the same vocal organs as the other.
Examples
of
complete assimilation:
— occurro
(adcurro), sella (sed-la), siccus (sit-cus),
immortalis
(dis-fero),
differs
(concut-si),
summus
(acersi-mus).
(obcurro),
accurro
(sup-mus), concuss!
(in-mortalis),
acerrimus
—
rectus (reg-tus; the first mute Examples of _partial assimilation: the -prepositions ob, ab, sub, (scrfb-si); scripsi unvoiced), becomes originally op, ap, sup, owe their form to the fact that they were often
used before voiced consonants; imbellis (in-bellis), imperitus peritus), tantus (from tarn), somnus (for sop-nus). 50.
(b)
A
consonant
may
(in-
disappear at the beginning, in the middle,
from toUo), lupiter (Diupiter), nosco (gnosco), natus (gnatus), locus (stlocus); suscipio (subscipio),
or at the end of a word:
ostendo
as, latus (tlatus
(sexcenG),
(obstendo),
sescenti
cognosco
(congnosco),
(spargsl),
(ispse); es (ess), ter (terr),
quintus
(quinctus),
sparsl
idem (isdem), ultus (ulctus), ipse hoc (hocc). No word ends in a doubled con-
sonant.
51.
daUy
(c)
A vowel
is
those containing
sometimes developed in consonant groups, espe-
aj^d^go^^i^^^clum), mina
(mna).
.
SECOND PART— WORDS
FORMATION OF WORDS 52. A Root is that part of a word which contains the fundamental meaning. With few exceptions this element is not and never was an actual word and exists only as a device for the convenience of grammatical statement. A root is usually
common
many words
in Latin and often to words Greek or the Germanic languages. On account of phonetic changes the Latin form of the root often differs somewhat from the form which was originally
to several or
in other languages, especially
common
to the various languages of the group.
all roots are of such a nature that their meaning may be expressed in the form of a noun or a verb; A very few appear only in the form of pronouns. A root ending in a vowel is called a vowel root; one ending in a consonant is called a consonant root. A root soriietimes appears in different forms: Roots are someas, fid-, fid-, feed-, in fidus, fides, foedus.
Nearly
times indicated by the sign \/ 53. The Stem of a word is the part which contains the fundamental meaning of that word as a part of speech. The stem More often it is formed is sometimes the same as the root. from a root by the addition of ,a suffix. The root vowel is often reg; toga, toga, \/ teg. lengthened or changed: as, rex, king, Stems formed directly from a root or from a verb-stem are Stems formed from noun-stems or adjectivecalled Primary. stems are called Secondary or Denominative. Thus victor, \/vic, is a Primary Derivative; victoria, formed from victor,
V
is
a Secondary Derivative. In the combination of the stem and the suffix the usual phonetic changes i.e. a final vowel oP'S'^SSSfrfMisappeafl before a suffix beginning
occur;
i6
INFLECTION
54~57) with a vowel; a
final short
l^
vowel of a stem is weakened before a suffix final consonant of a stem is liable to
beginning with a consonant; a
change or
loss before
a
suffix
beginning with a consonant.
INFLECTION 54. Latin is an inflected language; i.e. a word may appear in various forms, which have various meanings or grammatical relations. This variety is secured usually by terminations attached to the stem, sometimes by changes of the stem itself.
Pronouns (except personal pronouns) and adjectives (including participles) are inflected to denote Gender, Number, and
Case; nouns and personal pronouns are inflected to denote
Number and
Case. This is called Declension. Verbs are inflected to denote Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. This is called Conjugation. The comparisoii of adjectives is another form of inflection. 55.
The
following are not inflected: adverbs, prepositions,
Adverbs, however, are combe properly regarded as a form of
conjunctions, and interjections.
pared, and comparison
may
These parts of speech are called Particles. The term Particle is, however, sometimes restricted to a somewhat inflection.
indefinite
list
of monosyllables, like an, -ne, ne, non,
num,
and sL
GENDER
—
Masculine, Feminine, There are three genders, the gender is determined and Neuter. In many nouns 56.
by
sex, in others it is purely
grammatical.
GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 57.
Names
of males
tains are masculine:
and
of rivers, winds, months,
as, pater, father; Tiberis,
April; Apetminus, Apennines. south wind;' Aprilis, *^ Denized by Microsoft®
and moun-
Tiber; auster,
8
GENDER
1
But names
of rivers ending in a are feminine: as, Allia, Albula; also
Some names
the Greek names Lethe and Styx. feminine: as, Alpes; also Greek
dope; a few are neuter:
The names line
(58-63
of
names ending
mountains are Rho-
of
in a or e: as, Aetna,
as, Soracte.
months are
really adjectives, agreeing
with the mascu-
noun, mensis.
58. plants,
Names
of females
and most
and
abstract
of countries, cities, islands, trees,
qualities
are feminine:
Roma, Rome; Deles,
mother; Italia, Italy;
as,
mater,
Delos; ulmus, elm;
rosa, rose; virtus, manliness.
But some names
and towns are masculine: as, Pontus, -i; some are neuter: as, Latium, Tarentiun, Leuctra. Some names of trees and plants are masculine: as, oleaster, wild olive; iuncus, rush; boletus, mushroom; some are of countries
Sulmo, Gabii, and other plurals in
neuter: as, acer, maple; apiimi, parsley; papaver, poppy.
59.
Letters of the alphabet, indeclinable nouns, infinitives
used substantively, and quoted words, phrases, and clauses are neuter: as, O Graecum, Greek 0; fas, right; totum hoc philosophari, all this philosophizing; istuc taceo, your "I'll say
nothing."
But
letters of the
alphabet sometimes have a femi-
nine adjective, agreeing with littera understood. 60.
Some words
are of
common
gender, being masculine
or feminine according to the sex referred to: as, parens, parent; infans, hahy; bos, ox or cow. 61.
Some words
are of different gender in the
as, locus, place, plural loca;
62.
Some names
two numbers:
rastrum, rake, plural rastri.
of animals
have one grart^matical gender,
though applicable to either sex
:
as,
anser, goose or gander,
masculine; aquila, eagle, feminine; vulpes,/oa;, feminine.
These
are called epicenes. 63.
Collective nouns referring to persons have the gender
regularly indicated culine;
by
their endings: as, exercitus, army,
cohprs, cohort, and
army, and concilium,
copiae, troops, feminine;
si^^ihymMf^bm
mas-
agmen,
NUMBER AND CASE
^4-<^9)
19
NUMBER There are two numbers, the singular and the
64.
plural.
CASE
—
There are five cases Nominative: the case of the
65.
:
subject.
Genitive: possessive, or objective with
of.
Dative: objective with to or for. Accusative: objective with verb or preposition. Ablative: objective with, from, with, by, or in. These
The
The
definitions are not all-inclusive.
in detail under the
head
cases are treated
of Syntax.
Genitive, Dative, Accusative,
and Ablative are
called
Oblique Cases. 66. Another case, the Vocative, the case of address, is in form not a distinct case except for masculine stems in -0 and a few Greek nouns with other endings. Of all other nouns the nominative is used as the case of address.
67. Some names of towns and a few common nouns have another case, denoting the place where, called the Locative: as,
Romae,
at Rome; ruri, in home and in the field.
the
country;
domi mQitiaeque,
at
NOUNS FORMATION 68.
stem. 69.
Most nouns
is, they contain only one Simple noun-stems are either Primary or Secondary.
are simple; that
Primary Stems are
of
two
sorts
:
—
—
Roots, with or without change of vowel: Nominative Root Noun-Stem (a)
due-
due-
dux
reg-
reg-
rex
These are found more commonly at the end of compounds: armiger, armor-bearer, \/[S§Xt^cM^imiio^dmpeter, s/ can-.
as,
— FORMATION OF NOUNS
20
i70-72
Roots, with or without change of vowel, or verb-
(b)
A
stems, with an added sufBx.
stems are of this sort:
—
great majority of primary
Noun-Stem
Root or Verb-Stem
Nominative
fuga
fug-
fuga-
od-
odio-
odium
reg-
rector-
rector
saluta-
salutation-
salutatio
Secondary Stems are formed by the addition of a to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem 70.
:
First
71.
Stem
—
Secondary Stem
Nominatfve'
civi-
civitat-
civitas
aer-
aerario-
aerarium
audac-
audacia-
aiidacia
Some
suffixes
a meaning more or
have no
definite
suffix
meaning.
less definitely established.
'
Others have
They
are dassed
as Primary or Secondary, according as they are U'sed -in the
formation of Primary or Secondary Derivatives.
For conven-
ience the form of the suffix which appears in the nominative singxilar is given,
rather than that which appears
in.
the stem.'
Primary Suffixes Agent 72. The suffix -tor (fern, -trix), added to verb-stems, forms'nouns denoting the agent or doer of the action indicated by the verb. The verb-stem which appears in these words participle,
and the
suffix -tor
as the participial ending -tus
;
may that
is
that of the perfect passive
undergo the same phonetic change
is,
as -tus becomes -sus, -tor becomes
-sor:
vena-tor, hunter (venari)
lec-tor, reader (legere)
vena-trJx, huntress
pas-tor, i/jej^Wi (pascere)
ton-sor, harher (tondere) tons-trix,
female barber
scrip-tor, loriter (scrlbere) peti-tor, candidate
^etere)
Masculines in -sor have no corresponding feminine, except tonsor
and expulsor (expultrix), expeller. sometimes added. to iwunrstema^ thus ibecoming a secondary as, gladiator, gladiatar, from gladius, jttt0»2 (this form-, of -the
(tonstrix)
-tor is suffix:
PRIMARY SUFFIXES
73i74) suffix, -ator,
of the senator,
being due to the frequency of agent formations from verbs conjugation)
first
21
from the stem
from ianua, door; senator, from via, road.
ianitor, doorkeeper,
;
sen-, old age; viator, traveller,
The sufSx -6 is sometimes used to denote the agent: as, err-6, derer (errare); praec-6, herald (for praevoco, from praevocare).
The suffix -ter,
originally denoting the agent, forms
names
warh
of kindred:
as, pa-ter, father; ma-ter, mother; fra-ter, brother.
Means
or Instrument
73. The suffixes -ulum, -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum, and
-mentum, added to roots or verb-stems, form neuters, and the suffixes -ula, -bula, and -bra, added to roots or verb-stems, form feminines, denoting means or instrument :
—
vinc-ulum, chain (vincire)
ara-trum, plow (arare)
pa-bulum, fodder (pascere)
ali-mentum, nourishment (alere)
vehi-culum, wagon (vehere)
reg-ula, rule (regere)
delu-brum, shrine (deluere)
fa-bula, tale (far!)
sepul-crum, tomb (sepelire)
late-bra, hiding-place (latere)
Nouns formed with than means:
as,
bare); stabulum,
these suffixes sometimes denote place rather
delubrum, sepulcnun, latebra; cubiculum, chamber (custall
(stare);
sometimes
especially with -mencaementum, cut stone (cae-
result,
turn: as, tiagmentam., fragment (frangere);
dere); simulacrum, likeness (simulare).
-culum suffix; so,
(earlier,
-clum) and -crum are different forms of the same
abo, -bulum. and -brum.
In candelabrum,
candlestick,
from
casdela, candle,
the suffix
is
secondary.
Action
-men, -mdnia, and -monium, added to roots or verbaction or, sometimes, the residt of action : denoting nouns stems, form
74. The
suffixes
—
flu-men, river (fluere)
certa-men,
conflict (certare)
queri-monia, complaint (queri)
ali-monium, nourishment (alere)
-mentum is an extension of -men, and some words are formed with either suffix: as, fragmen, fragmentum, fragment; tegumen, tegumentum covering.
-mdnia and -monium (derived from -mon, a form more commonly as secondary suffixes: as, sanctimonia,
matrimonium, marriage
{SiSiMif-d
by Microsoft®
of
-men) are used
sanctity (sanctus);
— FORMATION OF NOUNS
22
{75,
76
Abstracts
75. The
suffixes -io, -ium, -or, -tio, -tura,
and
-tus,
added to roots or
verb-stems, form abstract nouns denoting action or condition, or concrete
nouns denoting the
with
If the suffix begins
result of action.
t
the
same
consonant changes occur as in the perfect passive participle ; hence, -tura,
and -tus may become
and -sus
respectively -sio, -sura,
:
-tio
:
leg-id, legion (legere)
scrip-tura, writing (scribere)
od-ium, hate (odisse)
ton-sura, shearing (tondere)
am-or, love (amare)
can-tus, singing (canere)
ac-tio, action (agere)
vi-sus, sight (videre)
mis-sio, dismissal (mittere)
These tions:
suffixes, especially
-ium, are sometimes used in secondary forma-
mention
mentio,
as,
(mens);
hospitium,
hospitality
(hospes);
litteratura, literature (littera).
The action:
suffixes
—
-do and -go form noims denoting action or the result 0}
cupi-do, desire (cupere)
ori-go, beginning (oriri)
torpe-do, numbness (torpere)
vora-go, whirlpool (vorare)
These are used also in secondary formations: (dulcis); lumbago, lumbago (lumbus).
as, dulcedo, sweetness
Secondary Suflixes Abstracts
76. The
suffixes -ia, -tas, -tia, -ties, -tudo,
adjective-stems,
and the
suffix
abstract nouns denoting quality, condition, or
freedom
(liber)
tristi-tia,
sadness
(tristis)
-tus,
added usually to
office:
—
magni-tiido, greatness (magnus)
audac-ia, boldness (audax) liber-tas,
and
-ium, added usually to noun-stems, form
senectus, old age (senex)
sacerdot-ium, priesthood (sacerdos)
segni-ties, laziness (segnis)
A
stem- vowel disappears before -ia and -ium:
perbo-) ; collegium, college (collega-) ginning' with t:
(bono-);
as,
following
;
it is
as,
changed to
superbia, pride (sui
before a suffix be-
magnitudo, greatness (magno-); bonitas, goodness i is
^,^|§^0;g/befoj^t:
societas, alliance (socio-).
as, pietas, deniotion (pio-);
•
SECONDARY SUFFIXES
77-^0)
23
Place
77. The suffixes -arium, -etum (or -turn), and -ile form neuters usually denoting place; -elum denotes usually a place occupied by trees; -Ue, a place for animals:
—
aer-arium, treasury(Aes)
virgul-tum, thicket (virgula)
oliv-etum, olive-grove (oliva)
ov-ile, sheepfold (ovis)
Diminutives
78. The suffixes -lus (-la, -lum), -ulus (-ula, -ulum), -cuius (-cula, -culum), added to noun-stems, iona diminutives. These usually have the gender of the nouns from which they are derived. Diminutives are often used to express affection, admiration, pity, or contempt, the exact meaning
—
being determined by the context: son
filio-lus, little filio-la, little
oppid-ulum, small town (oppidum)
(filius)
daughter
homun-culus, dwarf (homo)
(filia)
munus-culum,
reg-ulus, chieftain (rex)
Stems
79.
in -eo-, -io-, or -vo- take .-lus (-lum); stems in -ea-, -ia-,
or -va- take -la preceded
by
o,
which displaces the stem-vowel.
stems in -o- and -a- and stems ending in a mute take -ulus
Stems in
-i-,
(munus)
little gift
-e-, -u-, -1-, -n-, -r-,
and
Other
(-ula, -ulum).
-s- usually take -cuius (-cula,
-culum).
The diminutive ending little little
field (agar)
;
-ellus is
due to phonetic changes:
fabella, short story (fabula)
;
as, agellus,
so, also, -ullus in
homullus,
man (homo).
Other diminutive endings appear in avunculus, uncle (avus); homuncio,
little
codicilli, writing-tablets
(codex);
man (homo).
Patron3rmics
80.
The masculine
suffixes -eis, -ias,
or ancestor.
poetry:
—
and
They
suffixes -ades, -iades,
-is,
and -ides and the feminine
form patronymics, denoting descent from a father
are nearly
all
Greek names and are used
chiefly in
Aene-ades, descendant of Aeneas Scipi-ades, a Scipio
Ner-eis, daughter of Nereus
Atlant-iades, descendant of Atlas
Tyndar-is, daughter of Tyndareus
Tyndar-ides, son of
Thest-ias, daughter of Thestius
Ty^eu^ ^^ ^.^H^e^^r-ides
(plu.),
of Hesperus
daughters
FORMATION OF NOUNS
24 The
occasional ending -ides
is
{81-84
due to the union of -ides with a preceding
vowel: as, Tydides, son of Tydeus.
Other patronymic endings are -ine and -one:
Nerine, daughter oj
as,
Nereus; Acrisione, daughter of Acrisius.
Other Secondary Suffixes 81.
-alius, denoting usually a person
employed
some business or
in
(argentum); statuarius, sculptor
craft: as, argentarius, hanker
(statua). -cus, -icus or -icus (-ca, vilicus,
overseer
-cum)
:
(^la);
as, biibulcus,
^/owma» (bubulus);
amicus, friend
(amare); fabrica,
workshop (faber); canticmn, song (cantus). a primary or secondary
-ina,
suffix: as, rapina, robbery (rapere);
regina, queen (rex); medicina, medicine (medicus); tonstrina, barber' s-shop (tonsor).
Compound Nouns 82. In compound nouns the second member is usually the fundamental one, its meaning being more or less affected by the first. The second member is sometimes a root used as a stem, but more often either a root with a formative suffix or a nounstem: as, armiger, armor-hearer, Vger-; iudex, judge, Vdic-;
iaterregnum, interregnum.
The
first
part of a
compound may be
83. (a) the stem of a noun or adjective. In compounds of this sort a vowel at the end of the first member usually disappears before a vowel at the beginning of the second: as, magnanimus, great-souled (magno-); sometimes even before a consonant: as, manceps, contractor (manu-).
But a
final
vowel regularly appears as
i
before a consonant: as, tubicen,
trumpeter (tuba-); cormcen,6Mg/«"(comu-); latifundiimi,/ayge estate (lato-).
By
analogy a
final
consonant generally assumes an
as, fratricida, fratricide (fratr-). as, veneficus, poisoner (veneno-).
drop the !
84.
suffix,
substituting
i: as,
A
i
before a consonant:
whole syllable sometimes disappears:
Stems opifex,
in -er-, -or-,
workman
(b),a preposition or an adverb:
as,
and
-or- usually
(oper-).
adventus, arrival; coniunx,
spouse; perfuga, deserter. D^jfg^flgjiy&/fe)^rase pro consule forced into
the form and inflection of a noun.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
8s-8^ 86.
(c) the genitive of
a noun:
sulttun, decree of the senate;
unchanged,
.while the
Compounds
pounds.
member
Names
is
In paterfamilias, father
declined.
the genitive, and only the
first is
de-
sometimes called Syntactic Com-
lupiter; Maxspitet, father
ajre
republic ihoth parts declined);
86.
is
of this sort are
Similar to these
aquaeductus, aqueduct; senatuscon-
aquae and senatus are genitives and remain
second member
oj a family, the second clined.
as,
25
Mars; res
publica,
ius iurandtim, oath (both parts declined).
compounds according
are sometimes given to
to their meaning.
Determinatives are those in which the second
element
by the
is
qualified
and- those in which the to. -the
second:
first,
first
as
by an adjective
member has a
agricola, farmer;
as,
or an adverb;
logical case-relation
armiger, armor-bearer;
comicen, bugler. The former are sometimes called Descriptive Compounds, the latter Objective or Dependent Compounds.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS Caseis consist of the stem alone, sometimes with a final 87. vowel shortened or lengthened or with the loss of a final consonant, or they consist of the stem with an added sufi&x. A final stem-vowel disappears before a vowel suffix or combines with The term case-ending, as used in the paradigms of this book, it. is
applied to the characteristic endings of the cases in the several
declensions; these are in others" a suffix,
and a
and
some
in others a
cases the final stem- vowel, in combination of the stem- vowel
suffix.
General Rtiles of Declension
and feminine nominatives except stems in -a-, -1-, -n-, -r-, and -s- are formed by adding s to the stem. In all neuters the nominative and accusative are alike, in both singular and plural. The plural always ends in a. The accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends All masculine
88.
in
m
with
.the
stem- vowel shortened,
plural in s preceded
long; the accusative
is the stem with its that in stems in -i- the lengtheneSiaii^^ii^tf'im^ vowel
The final
by
if
a long vowel.
ablative singular of vowel stems
:
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
26
The
ablative often has -e instead of -L
{8g,
go
ablative singular of
consonant-stems adds e to the stem. is formed by adding rum to stems in and -e- (the o of o-stems being lengthened); um to stems in -i-, -u-, and consonant-stems. The dative and ablative plural are always alike; stems in -a- and -o- take is, which combines with the stem-vowel, becoming is; others take bus, before which consonant-stems add i.
The
genitive plural
-a-, -0-,
There are
89.
by the
five declensions of nouns, distinguisiied
final letter of
the stem.
It
ever, to indicate the declension
is
the custom, how-
by the ending
of the
genitive singular. Declension
Gen. Sing, ending
Stem-ending
-ae
I
-a-
II
-o-
III
-i-
IV
-u-
-as
V
-e-
-ei
First 90.
-i
or a consonant
Declension
-is
— a-Stems
Example Singular Case-endings
Nom. Dat.
mensa mensae mensae
to
Ace,
mensam
a table
-am
Abl.
mensa
from, with, by, or on a table
-a
Nom.
mensae
tables,
Gen.
mensarum
tables',
Dat.
mensis
to
Ace.
mensas
Abl.
mensis
Gen.
a
(or the) table
a
table's,
of a table
or for a table
-a -ae -ae
Plural
or the tables of tables
or for tables
Oi^ffMS^by Microsoft®
from, with, by, or on tables
-ae
-arum -is
"^S -is
FIRST DECLENSION
91-94)
27
The nominative singular is the stem with final vowel The stem-vowel is shortened also in the accusative singular. The case-endings are in general a combination of stem-vowel and suffix. The translations are intended only to 91.
shortened.
common uses. Town names and a few common nouns have
suggest the most -ae: as,
Romae,
at
Rome;
a locative in
militiae, in service.
Gender
Most nouns
92.
names
of males
sailor;
poeta,
of the first declension are feminine.
masculine:
are
Belgae, the
poet;
Adriatic, and, rarely,
damma,
But
agricola, farmer; nauta,
as,
Belgians; also, Hadria, the
deer,
and
talpa, mole.
Case-Forms
An
93.
old genitive singular ending
is
preserved in familias, of the
family, often found in combination with pater, father, and mater, mother,
and
rarely with
-ai is
filhis, son,
found in poetry:
and
filia,
An old
daughter.
genitive singular in
as, aulai, of the hall.
A genitive plural in -vim, instead of -arum, is sometimes found
(usually
compounds of -cola, inhabiting, and -gena, born, in Greek patronjmiics, and in names of peoples: as, agricolum, of the farmers; Graiugenum, of Greek-born men; Aeneadum, of the descendants of Aeneas; Lapithum, of the Lapithae; also in amphora, a liquid measure, and drachma, a Greek in poetry) in
coin.
In words in
-ia, -iis
sometimes becomes
gratis, /iw nothing; this occurs regularly in
The
-is:
nouns in
as, taenis,
with
fillets;
-aia: as Bals, at Baiae.
dative and ablative plural sometimes ends in -abus; especially,
deabus, goddesses, and fUiabus, daughters; duae, two, and ambae,
also,
duabus and ambabus from
both.
Greek Nouns 94.
Greek
throughout:
common nouns as,
poeta, poet.
regularly have Latin forms Masculines sometimes have a
nominative singular in -es, accusative in -en: reader, ace. anagnosten. Greek proper nouns are declined as follows: Digitized
by Microsoft®
as,
—
anagnostes,
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
28
Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl.
Voc.
Aeneas Aeneae Aeneae Aenean (-am) Aenea Aenea
(95
Anchises Anchisae
Circe
Anchlsae Anchlsen (-am) Anchise (-a) Anchise (-a, -a)
Circae Circen (-am>
Some feminine nominatives end
Circes (-ae) -
Circe (-a)
Circe (-a)
in -a: as, Phaedra.
Greek forms are not found in the plural.
Second Declension 95.
Stems
Examples:
in -o-
— o-Stems
with the nominative in -us or -um:
—
SECOND DECLENSION
96-98) 96.
!
29
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
30
(PP-^OJ
Gender
Most nouns ending
99.
um
ending in
Exceptions:
us and
in
r are masculine; those
are neuter.
—
Nouns having meanings enumerated
in 58 are feminine: as, Aegyptus,
Egypt; Corinthus, Corinth; Rhodus, Rhodes; ulmus, elm-tree; some Greek noims: as, methodus, method; Arctos, the constellation of the Bear; and the following: taff;
—
alvus, ielly; carbasus, linen (pi. carbasa, sails); colus, dis-
humus, ground; vamius, winnowing-fan.
The
following are neuter:
The
crowd.
— pelagus,
accusative of these nouns
except that an accusative pelagum
is
sea; virus, poison; vulgus, the is
the same as the nominative,
sometimes found.
in the plural, except that pelagus, which
is
They do not occur
a Greek word, sometimes has
These are really Heteroclites, the nominaand accusative being third-declension forms.
the accusative plural pelage. tive
Case-Forms
Nouns
100.
tive singular in
in -ius or -ium, until the -i,
not
-ii: as, filius,
Augustan period, have the
son, gen.
fill;
geni-
Vergilius, gen. Vergili;
For the accent of these words see 29. began to be common in the Augustan period. -i was retained longer for proper names, and gentile names almost always have the single -i. Locatives always have -ii.
ingenium, nature, gen. ingeni.
The custom The ending
The
I
of writing
-ii
vocative of proper names in -ius ends in
i:
as, Vergili,
Mercuri;
also the vocative of filius, son; genius, good angel; volturius, vulture.
Proper names in -eius have
-ei,
or -ei pronounced as one syllable:
as,
Pompeius, voc. Pompei or Pompei.
The nominative
ended originally in oi, the dative and became ei and eis, which are found -rarely the Ciceronian period; then i and is.
101.
plural
ablative plural in ois; these in
Proper names in -aius,
102.
plural in -ai, -ei,
and
-ois: as, Gai, Gais;
The
103. earlier
first
and -oius have the nominative and ablative plural in -ais, -eis, and
-eius,"
-6i; the dative
Pompei, Pompeis; Boi, Bois.
genitive plural sometimes ends in
cm) instead
of drum.
This
is
a mere imitation of the genitive plural of the
form
is
um
(after
an earlier form, the first
u or v, in the -orum being
later
declension.
used regularly infYmias'dsRcmngmiMsy or measure:
The
earlier
as, sestertius,
1
THIRD DECLENSION
104-106)
nummus,
3
and is often found in cardinal and and in some other words: as, trecenti, three hundred; two each; deus and divus, god; faber, mechanic; Uberi, children;
sesterce;
coin; iugerum, acre;
distributive numerals bini,
socius, ally.
Deus,
104.
nom. del dat. and deos; dil and diis
god, is thus declined in the plural:
(rare before Ovid), dii or dl; gen.
deorum
abl. deis (rare before Ovid), diis or dis;
were pronounced
like di
and
or
ace.
deum;
For the genitive
dis.
plural,
divum or divom (from the adjective divus) are often used. The singular is regular; the vocative singular is not used; in late Latin the
nominative
is
used as a vocative.
Greek Kouns
Greek nouns
105.
of the second declension
the Latin terminations.
But masculines and
have regularly
feminines, espe-
proper names in poetry, often have -os in the nominaand -on in the accusative singular: as. Deles, Delon. Neuters often have -on in the nominative and accusative
cially
tive
singular: as, Ilion.
Names
in -6s, like Afhos, ABdrogeos,
have the genitive
in -6 or
-i,
the
accusative in -on, -um, or -6.
For names in -eus,
A
genitive in -u
like
is
Orpheus, see 125.
found rarely:
as,
Menandru.
Panthus has the
vocative Panthu.
The plural of Greek nouns of the second declension is usually regular, but The genitive
the nominative plural sometimes ends in oe: as, Adelphoe.
plural sometimes ends in on: as, Georgicon, of the Georgics.
Third Declension
Consonant Stems and i-Stems A.
CONSONANT STEMS I.
106.
Mute Stems
Examples:
miles, M., soldier
stem, milit-
rex, m., king D/g/siejiMyBBgrosoft®
princeps, m., chief
stem, princip-
32
DECLENSION OF NOUNS Singular
{.107
;
THIRD DECLENSION
io8, log)
A
33
combines with s to form x:
palatal, (c, g)
as,
rex; pax
(stem, pac-), peace.
In words of more than one
an original a or e appearweakened to i in the other cases: as, miles; pnnceps; iudex (gen. iudicis), judge. There are, however, exceptions to this rule: as, seges (gen.
ing as e in the nominative
syllable,
is
regularly
segetis), crop.
a change of u to i in caput; and of e to e in pes (gen. pedis), compounds; abies,/r; aries, ram; and paries, wall. In auceps, bird-catcher, the genitive aucupis shows the true stem, the nominative being formed on the analogy of piinceps, etc. I
There
foot,
and
is
its
Supellex, furniture, has the genitive supellectilis, etc.
The only
mute are and Greek words like poema. In these the nominative singular is the stem without the final consonant. In Greek neuters a dative and ablative plural in -is is often found, and sometimes a genitive plural in -orum as, poematis poematdrmn. 108.
neuters with stems ending in a
cor; caput; lac, milk;
:
n. 109.
Liquid Stems
Examples:
consul, M., consul
stem, consul-
flower
victor, m., victor
flos, m.,
stem, victor-
stem, flor-
pater, M., father
stem, patr-
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
34 genus,
(no
THIRD DECLENSION
Ill, 112)
sometimes in the nominative singular: tree;
honor
(g.en.
as,
35 arbor (gen. arboris),
honoris), honor; but the earlier forms, arbos
and honos, are sometimes found. Vas, vessel, retains s even between two vowels. Most neuter stems in -er- and -or- (originally -es- and -os-) have the nominative in -us: as, genus, corpus. But some neuter stems in -or- have the nominative in -ur thigh; iecur,
liver;
robur,
:
as,
ebur, ivory; femur,
oak; femur has also the genitive
feminis from an n-stem, and iecur (iocur in the Augustan period) has also the genitive iocineris.
Neuter stems in -11-, -rr-, simplify U, rr, to 1, r, in the nomimel (gen. mellis), honey; far (gen. farris), spelt.
native: as,
Iter (gen. itineris)
,
journey, has the nominative formed on a different
stem from that of the other
cases.
,
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
36
(113
Stems in -din- and -gin- have the nominative in -6, with the vowel of the stem lengthened: as, virgo; prdo^ rank. In this class are included, also Apollo (gen. Apollinis);. homo, man; nemo, nobody; turbo, whirlwind. Three nouns of this class have 6 in all cases: harpago (gen. -onis), grappUngoriginal short
—
hook; ligo, mattock; praedo, robber.
;-;•
Stems in -in-: (not -din- or -gin-), including many neuters andi a few masculines, have the nominative in- -en: as,- flumen;^^ flamen, u., priest; pecten, m., comb; tibicen, m., flute- player.. There
is
only one stem in -m,
— hiems
(gen. hiemis)
Peculiar formations are card (gen. camis), flesh, sanguinis),, blood; also canis (gen. canis)
,
dog,
young person, with the nominative formed as
,
winter.
and sanguis (gen.
and iuvenis (gen. iuvenis) from an i-stem.
if
II4-II6)
THIRD DECLENSION
mare, N.,5ea sedQe,
n., 5ea2
stem,
animal,
n.,
awwai
37 cslcax,^., spur
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
38
The
following have
accusative singular in -im or -em:
puppis, stern
clavis, liey
febris,
thfe
jemr
messis, crop
{liy-Iig
sementis, planting
restis, rope
strigilis,
securis, ax
turris, tower
scraper
navis, hoat.
Nouns having the accusative
117.
ablative singular exclusively in securis, ax.
The
ablative in
-i;
singular in -im have the
and
also canalis, conduit,
invariable also in neuters,
-i is
net, and names of and Soracte. The ablative ends in i or e in nouns which have the accusative in -im or -em, except messis (-e), restis (-e), and securis (-i);
except baccar, a plant, iubar, radiance, rete,
places like Praeneste
also in the following
:
—
end
aimiis, river
finis,
avis, bird
fiistis,
bilis.
Hie
ignis,
orbis, circle ovis, sheep
club
pelvis, hasin
_/ire
imber, shower
civis, citizen
unguis, nail
classis, jleet
A nominative plural in -is,
118. plural, is
The
found
formed
in imitation of the accusative
rarely.
following nouns have the genitive plural in -um, not
-ium: ambages,
circuit; senex, old
man;
volucris, hird.
Both
endings occur in apis, hee; caedes, bloodshed; clades, disaster;
mensis, month; sedes, seat; strues, heap; suboles, offspring; vates, prophet.
The
accusative plural in Cicero's time ends in either is or
es; after the middle of the
first
century A.D. es became the
regular ending. 119.
The nominative and accusative
originally the stem; but the final
i
was
singular of neuters in classical
was
Latin either
changed to e or, if preceded by al or ar, dropped, the preceding a being shortened. There are some exceptions to the latter rule: as, collare, collarf'uivSte, "Soc%yard.
THIRD DECLENSION
I20, 121)
39
Mixed i-Stems.
n.
Examples:
120.
virbs, F., city
nox,
stem, urb(i)-
stem, noct(i)-
f.,
night
aetas,
cliens, m., client
f.,
age
stem, client(i)- stem, aetat(i)-
Singular
Nom. urbs
nox
cliens
Gen. Dat.
ixrbis
noctis
clientis
aetatis
urbi
nocti
client!
aetali
Ace.
urbem
noctem
clientem
aetatem
Abl.
urbe
nocte
cliente
aetate
aetas
Plural
Nom. urbes
noctes
clientes
aetates
Gen. Dat.
urbium
noctium
clientium
aetatum
urbibus
noctibus
clientibus
aetatibus
Ace.
urbis (-es) noctis (-es) clientis (-es) aetatis (-es)
Abl.
urbibus
noctibus
clientibus
aetatibus
These are consonant-stems which have assumed the plural.
They
(or -ium)
i
forms
in
are declined, therefore, like consonant-stems
in the singular, like i-stems in the plural.
Nouns of this class more syllable than
are imparisyllahic, having in the genitive one in the nominative.
This class includes: Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, (a) ars, skill; arx, citadel; falx, sickle; opes (no nom. sing.; gen. 121.
-um), means; pons, bridge; stirps, stock. (b)The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a
plu. in
vowel:
—
dormouse
nix,
snow
as, as
glis,
dos, dowry
Us, stri]e
nox, night
mas, male mus, mouse
vis, force
fauces
(plu.)
fraus, fraud
,
throat
Digitized
by Microsoft®
strix, screech-owl
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
40
The nominative genitive plural of
singular of fauces is not found in classical Latin.
some
of these
{l22
The
words varies between -ium and -um.
(c) Polysyllables in -ns or -rs: as. cohors, cohort; cliens, client;
parens, parent; cliens and parens have the genitive plural in
-ium or -um. (d) Nouns in -as or -is: as, civitas (-itmi or -um), state; optimates (-ium or -\xm), aristocrats; penates, household gods; Quirltes, Roman citizens; Samiutes, Samnites.
122.
:
THIRD DECLENSION
I23-I2J) 123. different
The following nouns are peculiar, having a nominative stem from that of the other cases: caro (gen. caxais), flesh; iter (gen.
—
itinetis) jjouxn^
nivis),
41
;
iecur (gen. iecoris, iecinoris, iocinoris), liver; nix (gen.
snow; senex (gen.
senis), old
man;
supellex tgen. supellectilis),
furniture.
The
,
124.-
Town names and
stems have a
Locative Case
a few
locative in -i:
the country.
'
as,
common nouns
with consonant
Carthagini, at Carthage; ruri, in
'
Greek Npxms 125. /Greek nouns of the third declension often have Greek forms in the nominative and accusative, singular and plural; sometimes in the genitive singular. The Greek endings are
,..,
usually
these:
— genitive
singular,
-os;
accusative
singular,
-a or -n; nominative plural, -es; accusative plural, -as; the
sometimes used as a vocative singular. Names in -eus usually have the forms of the second declension.
stem
is
Examples herds, m., hero
—
-
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
42
(isd
Proper Names
Nom. Capys
Orpheus
Gen.
Orphei (-os)
Socratis
Orpheo
Socrati
Dido Capyos Didonls (Didus) Capja Didoni (Dido)
Dat.
Didonem
Capjm Capye Capy
Ace. Abl.
Voc.
(-i)
Orpheum
(Dido)
Didone (Dido) Dido
Socrates
(-a)
Orpheo Orpheu
(-1)
Socratem
(-en)
Socrate*
Socrates (-e)
Paris has the accusative forms Paridem, Parim, and Parin.
Gender
— —
tions are as follows (a)
Masculine
Nouns in
:
Feminine:
-ex (gen. -icis) -o (gen. -onis) -or, and -6s. ,
,
— miter, mulier; merges, seges, teges; compes, merces,
linter,
quies, requies; abstract
Neuter:
and the principal excep-
classes
:
-er, -es, -es,
Exceptions:
cadaver,
iter,
and
collective
nouns
marmor;
in -io; sorer, uxor; cos, dos.
and names
tuber, fiber, ver,
in -er; ador, aequor, cor,
(b)
in the Third Declension
The most important
126.
of trees
and plants
6s.
—
Feminine:
Nouns in -as (parisyllabic), -is, by a consonant), -lis, and -x.
-6 (gen. -inis) , -io, -s (preceded
Exceptions:
Masculine:
nouns
in
-nis,
and anguis,
(plu.), caulis, cinis, coUis, corbis, cuctmiis,
lapis,
axis,
callis,
ensis,
mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, sanguis, sentes unguis,
torris,
vectis,
vepris,
vermis,
vomis;
canalis,
fascis,
foUis,
casses fustis,
(plu.), torquis,
Apollo, cardo,
cupido
(sometimes masc), homo, margo (masc. and fem.), nemo, ordo, turbo; some nouns in -ns; mus, Greek nouns in -pus; calix, coniunx (masc.
and fem.), dux (masc. and
fem.), fornix, grex, rex,
(gen. -icis).
Neuter: (c)
crus, ius, pus, rus, tus.
Neuter^
Nouns
—
in -c, -e,
-1,
-np^/z^
and most nouns
in -ex
FOURTH DECLENSION
i2y, 128) Exceptions:
Masculine:
—
sal
(sometimes neuter in
sing.), sol; cornicen,
oscen, pecten, tibicen; furfur, turtur, vultur; lepus.
Feminine: pecus (gen. -udis).
Fourth Declension
Examples:
127. i
43
— u-Stems
flamen,
lien,
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
44 tribe;
a few
names
of plants
and
{l2gf-IJI
trees; rarely
penus,
and
store,
•...,'.
specus, cave.
The only neuters in common use are comu; genu, Some cases are found of peca, flock; also artua
veru, spit.
knee; (nofiii-
plu.), limbs.
Case-Forms
An
129.
old genitive singular in -uis or -uos is sometimes found: as,
senatuis, senatuos, of the senate.
Nouns
in -tus
sometimes have a second-
declension ending in the genitive singular: as, adventi, of the arrival.
The
dative singular in -Q, which
is
the regular neuter ending,
is
often
found in masculines and feminines.
The
genitive plural has sometimes a shorter form in
-um:
as,
cumiin,
of chariots; passum, of paces.
The
dative and ablative plural end in ubus, in acus,
haw; tribus,
tribe; in
piti, needle;
arcus,
ibus or ubus, in axtas, joint; genu, knee; lacus, lake;
partus, birth; portus, harbor; specus, cave; tonitrus, thunder; veru, spit.
Names in
some
of trees
and a few other nouns have second-declension forms
cases, fourth-declension
forms in others;
gen. sing, lauri or laurus, abl. lauro or lauru,
lauros or laurus; colus,
130.
and
is
Domus,
F.,
distaj',
e.g. laurus, bay-tree,
has
plu. lauri or laurus, ace.
has similar variation.
house, has
declined as follows:
nom.
—
two stems, dome-
arid
domu-,
^32-134)
FIFTH DECLENSION Singular
45
;
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
46
Some nouns have forms (ace.
-em,
and the fifth declensions: as common people; coUuvio (-onis)
of both the third
plebs or plebes (gen. plebis, plebei, plebi) or colluvies
136
{13^,
abl.
-e),
,
fames, hunger,
scourings;
famis or fami, abl. always fame; requies
(-etis), rest,
has
gen.
has sometimes
gen. requie, ace. requiem, abl. requie; satias (-atis), sufficiency, has some-
times nom. saties, ace. satiem, abl. satie; tabes
(-is),
wasting, has abl.
tabe.
Defective
Nouns used only
Nouns in the Singular
135. The meaning of some words is such commonly only in the singular. These are: 1.
Proper
names.
But the
plural
is
that they are used
sometimes used to
designate two or more persons or places of the same name: as,
Caesares, the Caesars; Galliae, Cis- and Transalpine Gaul;
or,
Pompeios evertit? what overthrew men like Crassus and Pompey? Juv. 10, 108. 2. Names of material: as, aer, air; ferrum, iron. But the to express character: as, quid Grasses, quid
plural
is
objects
sometimes used to designate parts
made
of
it: as,
nlves, snowflakes, snowstorms; 3.
Abstract nouns:
of the material or
aera, bronzes, wages; cerae, wax-tablets;
\mA, wines.
as, fides, faith;
iuventus, youth.
But
sometimes used to designate various instances of the quality, occurring in different persons, on different occasions, the plural
is
or in different places: as, odia, hatreds; otia, vacations; calores, frigora,
times of heat and cold; propter swamps were dry everywhere.
siccitates
paludiun,
because the
Nouns used only
in the Plural
—
The following nouns are used only in the plural: Some names of towns: as, Athenae; Falerii. Most names of festivals: as, Bacchanalia; Saturnalia. Some names of classes: as, liberi, children (used rarely
136. 1. 2.
3.
the
singular);
maiores,
ancestors;
manes,
ghosts;
in
posteri,
descendants; optimates^a;^^||gc^^jjj^^^ij|^ rarely in the singular)
penates, household gods.
;
.
^37' 4.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS
^3^
Many
others,
some
of
which are clearly plural in meaning,
while others are represented in English
most important angustiae,
are:
47
—
defile, difficulty
by the
indutiae, truce
arma, arms
insidiae,
cibaria, provisions
Kalendae, Calends minae, threats
divitiae, riches
epulae, banquet
ambush
exuviae, spoils
moenia, walls munia, duties Ndnae, Nones
facetiae, wit
nundinae, market-day
exsequiae, funeral
The
singular.
fauces, throat, pass
niiptiae,
grates, thanks
reliquiae, remainder, remains
hibema, winter-quarters idiis,
scalae, stairs
Ides
tenebrae, darkness
Facetiae, fauces,
The
137.
wedding
and scalae are used
plural
is
rarely in the singular.
sometimes used instead of the singular
to generalize the statement, or, in poetry, for metrical reasons:
eius ipsius liberos a praedonibus esse sublatos, that his
as,
children were carried off by robbers (he
Manil.
T,y,
had only one
own
child)
monumenta
regis templaque Vestae, the memorials and the temples of Vesta (monumenta and templa to one building); Hor. C. i, 2, 15.
of the king
each refer
Nouns Defective
in Cases
Several neuters are used only in the nominative and accusative
138. singular:
—
fas, right; nefas,
opus, need; secus, sex.
The
wrong;
instar, likeness ; nihil, nil, nothing;
genitive nihili
and the ablative
nihilum, nothing) are sometimes used.
^The
following nouns lack the nominative singular:
also gen. plu.)
and
gen. plu.)
;
;
Fors, chance,
—
(from
nihilo
dapis, feast (lar
frugis, fruit; opis, help; vicis, change (lacks also dat.
precl (dat.) is
,
prayer (lacks also gen. sing.)
f
xYi&t
used only in the nominative and ablative singu^r and
Nemo, no one, is not used in the genitive and supplied by nullius and iuul^4i.'c«ia"iiaUb£-'®
ablative, these c%sion or
.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
48 Infitiae, denial, is
Some
{139,
used only in the accusative and only with
ire, to go.
nouns, especially u-steras, are used only in the ablative singular:
as, iussu, by order; iniussu, without order; natu, fry hirth;
(with a numeral often to be translated pounds, the omitted)
I40
pondo, by weight
word
libra being
rogatu, by request; sponte, voluntarily.
;
Most nouns
of the fifth declension (see 131)
and many monosyllabic
neuters of the third are seldom or never used in the genitive, dative, and ablative plural: as, acies, Une-of-battle; species, appearance;
fel,
poison;
rus, country.
Many
monosyllables of the third declension lack the genitive plural:
mouth;
as, cor, heart; fax, torch; 6s,
Many
os; bone
(ossium
other nouns, especially of the fourth and
But
apparently lacking in one or more cases.
it is
is
used in late Latin)
fifth declensions, are
often
mere chance that
certain cases are not found.
Variable
Nouns Variable 139.
Nouns in Declension
Nouns which have forms
of
two
different declensions
are called Heteroclites.
For nouns varying between the
and the fifth declensions see and the fourth declensions, see and the fifth declensions, see 134. For the declension of pelagus,
first
134; for nouns varying between the second
129 for nouns varying between the For the declension of domus, see virus, and vulgus, see 99. ;
140.
Other Heteroclites are:
Names
third 130.
—
and Saturnalia, regularly of the which sometimes have the genitive in -onun. So, also,
of festivals, like Bacchanalia
third declension,
ancile, shield (gen. plu. ancilium or ancilionim).
balneum, bath;
plural,
balnea (N.) or balneae (F.), the latter meaning
usually public baths. delicia (F.) or delicium (N.)
,
pleasure; plural, deliciae (F.)
,
pleasures,
'ivorite.
^epvihim., feast ; plural, epulae, feast (not in plural sense). -
the ,
igerum,
acre,
with singular of the second declension and plural usually
si*'^^'^'^'
iitas (-utis)
aescenau ,
peaates,
and iuventa Digitized
.
-
(-ae), youth; senectus (-utis)
by Microsoft®
and senecta
VARIABLE NOUNS
141, J42)
49
margarita and margaritum, pearl.
Mulciber (gen.
-eri
and
-eris), Vulcan, of the
second and third declen-
sions.
and 'ostreum,
ostrea
oyster.
pecus (gen. pecoiis), flbck, has also nom. and
nom. and penus,
ace. plu. pecua, gen.
pehum
(gen. peni, penoris, penus), provisions, with forms of the
and fourth
second, third,
abl. sing, pecu, dat. pecui,
pecuum.
sequester (gen.
declensions.
-tfi, -tris)
trustee,
,
with forms of the second and third
declensions.
vas (gen.
Tasonun,
vasis)',
etc.)
;
vessel,
vasum
with plural of the second declension (vasa,
in the singular occurs rarely in early Latin; a dative
plural vasibus also occurs.
The name
Heteroclite
is
applied also to those nouns which, though of
only one declension, have more than one stem:
femims), thigh; iecur (gen.
as,
femur
(gen. femoris or
iecinoris, iocinoris, iecoris), /wer.
Nouns Variable
in
Gender
These are called Heterogeneous. Besides those given under the "head of Heteroclites there are also some nouns of the second declension which have masculine and neuter forms in both numbers: as, balteus, belt; caelum, heaven (caelus is rare) clipeus, shield; pileus, cap. In some nouns 141.
;
of the second declension the singular
whUe
the singular
is
of such nouns has sometimes a
These
—
are:
and
plural are of different genders; or,
of only one gender, the plural is of two.
meaning
different
carbasus (F.), saU
carbasa (N.), sails
frenum (N.)
freni (M.) or frena (N.)
,
hit
The
plural
from that of the singular.
,
bridle
(M.) or ioca (N.), jokes
iocus (M.), joke
ioci
locus (M.), place
Ioca (N.), places; loci (M.), usually
rastnun (N.), rake
rastri
topics or passages in boohs
Nouns 142. of' the'
In
many nouns
(M.) or rastra (N.), rakes
Variable in
Meaning
the meaning of the plural
singular; or' the plural has both the
another.
Sbme
gender.
Others
is
meaning
different
from that
of these
and have been given as Variable also in declension or
are:—
Digitized
by Microsoft®
of the singular
.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
5° aedes
(sing.)
,
aedes
temple
{14^-143
(plu.), hoiise
auzilium, help
auxilia, auxiliaries
castrum, fort
castra,
comitium, meeting-place
comitia, assembly
copia, plenty
copiae, troops
finis,
end
camp
fines, borders, territory
fortuna, fortune
fortiinae, possessions
gratia, favor, gratUiide
gratiae, thanks
impedimentum, hindrance littera, letter (of
impedimenta, baggage
the alphabet)
litterae, epistle, literature
natales, descent, family
natalis, birthday
workmen
opera, work
operae,
pars, portion
partes, role, party
rostnun, heak
rostra, speaker's platform
sal, salt,
vigilia,
sales, witticisms
wit
watchfulness
vigiliae, pickets
NAMES OF PERSONS 143. During the classical period Romans had regularly three names, praenomen, nomen, and cognomen:
—
as,
Gaius {praenomen) lulius {nomen) Caesar {cognomen).
144.
The praenomen was
the personal name, indicating the
common
iirst names it was chosen and individual gentes regularly restricted their choice to a few names in this list. The praenomina, with their abbreviations, are:
individual.
Like our more
from a somewhat limited
list,
A. Aulus
L. Lucius
Q. Quintus
App. Appius
M. Marcus
Ser. Servius
C. Gaius
M'. Manius
Sex. Sextus
Cn. Gnaeus
Mam. Mamercus
Sp. Spurius
D. Decimus K. Kaeso
N. Numerius
T. Titus
P. Publius
Ti. (Tib.)
145.
The nomen was
always in ius and
is
the
name
of the gens.
It
Tiberius
ends almost
properly an adjective; thus, Tullius means
and is derived from the name of Tullus, the supposed founder of thgti^iit^ Microsoft® of the Tulliin gens,
NAMES OF PERSONS
146-149) 146.
The cognomen was
of the gens.
Many
had
name
of the family, a subdivision
cognomina were originally derived from
personal peculiarities: these
the
51
as,
Balbus, lisping; Scaevola, left-handed;
in the course of time entirely lost their proper
mean-
Further subdivision of the gens sometimes produced a second cognomen: as, P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica. ing.
I
Am! additional name was sometimes given to commemorate an achievement; thus, the elder Scipio received the name Africanus;/his grandson by adoption, the younger Scipio, inherited the
name
Numantinus.
Africanus, and acquired the additional name,
In the
classical period there
was no name
for
such additions; in the fourth century they began to be called agndmina. 147. An adopted son took the complete name who adopted him, adding his own original nomen
of the
man
in the
form
an adjective in -Snus; thus, C. Octavius Caepias, being adopted by C. liilius Caesar, became C. lulius Caesar Octavianus. But this custom became confused before the end of the republic, and under the empire there appears to have been' no of
definite system.
148. In the classical period a woman regularly had only one name, the nomen of her father in its feminine form: as, Cornelia, Terentia. Other daughters might be distinguished as Secunda, Or, the older daughter would be Maior or Maxima, Tertia, etc. the younger Minor. A woman's name is often accompanied by the nomen of the father or the husband in the genitive case.
Slaves had one name, often of foreign 149. which indicated the place from which they came: Afer.
If freed,
origin, or as,
one
Phamaces;
they took regularly in the classical period the
praenomen and nomen of the master, retaining the slave name as a,, cognomen: as, P. Terentius Afer.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
ADJECTIVES
$2
{150-156
ADJECTIVES FORMATION 150.
Some
adjectives are primitive words: as, bonus, malus,
Others are formed by the addition of a suffix to a root or to the stem of a verb, noun, adjective, or adverb.
brevis.
151.
The suffixes -ax, -ulus, and -uus form adjectives usually of active
meaning, denoting character or condition:
—
aud-az, bold (audeo)
cred-ulus, credulous (credo)
pugn-ax, pugnacious (pugno)
vac-uus, empty (vaco)
bib-ulus, thirsty (bibo)
assid-uus, assiduous (assideo)
152.
The
suffixes -lis
usually passive:
—
and
-bilis
form adjectives denoting ama-bilis, lovable (amo)
fragi-Iis, fragile (frango) uti-lis,
useful (utor)
missi-lis, to be
153
.
qualities
no-bilis,
thrown (missus)
famous (notus)
visi-bilis, visible (visus)
The suffixes -bundus and -cundus form adjectives having usually
the force of a present participle, though adjectives formed with -cundus
denote regularly a more permanent characteristic:
mori-bundus, dying (morior)
—
fa-cundus, eloquent
treme-bundus, trembling (tremo) ira-cundus,
154.
The
suffixes -eus, -aceus, and,
adjectives denoting material:
—
(fari)
irascible (iratus)
sometimes, -nus and -neus form
aur-eus, golden (aurum)
acer-nus, of maple (acer)
herb-aceus, of grass (herba)
ebur-neus, of ivory (ebur)
155.
The
suffixes -lentus (rarely -lens)
denoting supply or fullness:
—
and -osus form adjectives
opu-lentus, rich (ops)
anim-osus, spirited (animus)
vino-lentus, intoxicated (vinum)
mor-osus, fretful (mos)
pesti-lens, pestilential (pestis)
fructu-osus, fruitful (fructus)
156.
The
suffix -tus
forms adjectives meaning provided with;
it is
often added to an imaginary verb-stem, assuming the forms -atus, -itus, or -utus:
—
Digitized
by Microsoft®
FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES
157-160) .
S3
funes-tus, deadly (funus)
barb-atus, bearded (barba)
hones-tus, honorable (honor)
turr-itus, turreted (turris)
ius-tas, just (ius)
cora-utus, horned (cornu)
The suffixes -anus,
157.
-ius, -icus,
and
-iacus,
-enus, -inus,
added to names
denoting place of origin:
—
-s, -as, -is, -ens, -ensis, -iensis,
of places,
form proper adjectives
Rom-anus, Roman
Vei-ens, 0} Veil
Cyzic-enus, of Cyzicus
Cann-ensis, of Cannae Carthagin-iensis, Carthaginian
Lat-inus, Latin
Tibur-s, of Tibur
Corintli-ius, Corinthian
Arpinum
Aipin-as, of
Ital-icus, Italian
Samn-is, Samnite
Corinth-iacus, Corinthian
These are often used substantively, especially
in the plural, as
names
of peoples.
The
suffix
-anus (sometimes -ianus)
names of persons
Some
:
as,
is
used to form adjectives from
Sullanus, belonging to Sulla; Ciceronianus, Ciceronian.
of these suffixes are used also to
various meanings:
—
form common adjectives
camp
veter-anus, veteran (vetus)
castr-ensis, of the
terr-enus, earthly (terra)
patr-ius, paternal (pater)
div-inus, divine (divus)
bell-icus, warlike (bellujn)
158.
The
suffixes
of
{c&stca)
-emus, -ternus, -urnus, -turnus, and -tinus form
adjectives denoting time, mostly from adverbs:
—
hodi-emus, of to-day (hodie)
diu-turnus, long-continued (diu)
hes-ternus, of yesterday (heri)
cras-tinus, of to-morrow (eras)
di-umus, daily (dies) 159.
Diminutive adjectives are formed
with a similar variety of meaning (see 78)
:
—
like
diminutive nouns, and
ebrio-lus, tipsy (ebrius)
pulch-ellus, pretty
long-ulus, rather long (longus)
pauper-culus, rather poor (pauper)
vet-ulus,
160.
little
The
little
(pulcher)
old (vetus)
suffix -idus
forms adjectives denoting a quality:
nit-idus, shining (nited) herb-idus, grassy (herfii^feec/ by MiBSrttfl®, wasting (tabes)
cup-idus, eager (cupio)
—
ADJECTIVES
54 161.
Other adjective
-aris, -arius,
suffixes of various
{161-163 meanings are -alis,
by a vowel), -ticus, -estris), and -timus:
-cus (sometimes preceded
-tivus, -nus, -ter (or -tris), -ester (or
-elis, -flis,
-icius, -ivus,
—
summer
mort-alis, mortal (mors)
aest-ivus, of
fid-elis, faithful (fides)
recid-ivus, restored (recido)
vir-Jlls,
manly
(aestus)
tempes-tivus, timely (tempus)
(vir)
popul-aris, of the people (populus)
ver-nus, of spring (ver)
ordin-arius, regular (ordo)
palus-ter,
civi-cus, of
a
citizen (civis)
med-icus, healing (medeor)
swampy
(palus)
semes-tris, lasting six months
(sex menses)
(campus)
am-icus, loving (amo)
camp-ester,
cad-ucus, falling (cado)
silv-estris,
domes-ticus, domestic (domus)
mari-timus, maritime (mare)
level
woody
(silva)
patr-icius, patrician (pater)
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
—
There are three degrees of comparison, PosiThe Comparative tive, Comparative, and Superlative. is regularly formed by adding, ior, the Superlative by adding issimus (in early Latin issumus), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel if it has one. Participles used as adjectives are compared in the same manner. 162.
Positive
Comparative
Stem altus,
high
fortis,
hrave
(forti-)
happy
(felic-)
feUx,
(alto-)
amans, loving (amant-) apertus, open (aperto-)
Many adjectives are compared by using magis, more, 163. and maxime, most, with the positive: as, mirus, wonderful, magis mirus, maxime mirus. But this usage is in prose reguon account of their meaning, would not nfftai^4!3*'A4fvepejfl®parative and superlative
larly confined to those adjectives which,
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
164-166)
common
forms in
and superlative, e.g.
if
use,
and
55
to those of which the comparative
would not be euphonious; by a vowel: as, dubius, doubtful,
regularly formed,
adjectives in -us preceded
magis dubius, maxime dubius. 164. Adjectives in -er have a regular comparative, but form the superlative by adding -rimus to the stem, with the loss of the final vowel of the stem:
—
asper, rough (aspero-)
aspeiior
celer, swift (celeri-)
celerior
celerrimus
acer, sharp (acri-)
acrior
acerrimus
Dexter,
right,
Maturus,
asperrimus
has the rare superlative dextimus.
ripe, besides its regular superlative
maturissimus, has also
the form maturrimus.
Vetus,
old,
has the early comparative veterior
(later, vetustior)
,
super-
lative veterrimus.
165.
Six adjectives in -lis form the superlative
-limus to the stem of the positive without facilis,
easy
its final
by adding vowel:
—
ADJECTIVES
56 form of the positive
is
not found:
{i6y-iyo
as, honorificus, honorable, honorificentior,
honorificentissiinus.
The
167.
following adjectives have irregular comparison due
to the use of different stems or different forms of the
stem:
—
bonus, good
melior, better
optimus,
malus, bad
peior, worse
pessimus, worst
magnus,
maior, greater
maximus, minimus,
great
parvus, small
minor, smaller
multus, much
pliis,
more
same
best
greatest
smallest
pliirimus, most
Parvus has rarely the superlative parvissimus. 168.
The
indeclinable adjectives
are compared as follows:
169.
worthy,
friigi,
—
and nequam,
frugJ
frugalior
frugalissimus
nequam
nequior
nequissimus
worthless,
and senex, old, have the irregular comparatives and senior; for these, minor natii and maior natii
luvenis, young,
iunior (iuvenior
is late)
are sometimes used (natii being often omitted).
The
superlatives are
minimus and maximus, with or without natu. Defective Comparison
Of the following adjectives derived from prepositions the positive is rare, being used only in a few special phrases or senses, and usually as a substantive \ extremus exterior, outer exterus, outside outermost \ extimus 170.
:
—
i
\
in&nus ^imus {
inferus, below
inferior, lower
posterns, following
posterior, later
postremus,
}
postvmius, late-born
superior.
,
'
The
positive
is
used,
for
lowest
{
{
superus, above
i
example,
supremus
summus in
I
last
highest
exteri, foreigners;
nationes escterae, foreign peoples; inferi, the gods of the lower world; superi, the heav9M'^^§^(if;'^&§6S^ posterity; omnia supera,
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
lyi, 172)
and below; postero
infera, all things above
day; ia postenim, for
The
on
on
die,
the future.
following adjectives lack the positive: citerior,
57 the following
—
citimus, nearest
this side
ulterior, farther
ultimus, farthest
deterior, worse
deterrimus, worst
interior, inner
intimus, inmost
primus,
former
prior,
first
propior, nearer
proximus, nearest, next
ocior, swifter
ocissimus, swiftest
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES There are two declensions of adjectives, one 171. being a combination of the first and second declensions of nouns, the other having the terminations of the third declension of nouns. Adjectives of the first and second declensions have three distinct se'ries of terminations for the masculine, feminine, and neuter, corresponding respectively
to masculine o-stems
and neuter o-stems of consonant stems
(95).
The
a-stems
(95),
(90),
third declension consists
and i-stems;
it
usually has only two
complete series of terminations, since masculine and feminine in the third declension are not distinguished
by
different endings.
Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions 172.
Example: bonus, good; stems, bono-, bonaPlural
Singular
M.
r.
Nom. bonus bona
N.
bonum
bonae boni bonae bofio
Gen.
boni
Dat.
bono
Ace.
bonum bonam bonum
Abl.
bono
bona
M.
boni
F.
bonae
N.
bona
bonorum bonarum bonorum bonis
bonis
bonis
bonos
bonas
bona
Di^9 by Micrii^m
bonis
bonis
ADJECTIVES
S8
There
is
{173-175
a special form in -e (bone) for the vocative singular
masculine.
Adjectives in -ius have uncontracted forms in the
173.
and vocative
genitive
singular,
and neuter:
masculine
The
as,
(See 100.)
regius, royal; gen. sing, regii, voc. sing, regie.
possessive adjective meus, my, has no vocative singular
masculine; in
its place,
mi, a dative of ego,
is
used.
have the nominative singular in -cus (or -quos), -qua, -cum (or -quom), the accusative singular in -cum (or -quom), -quam, -cum (or -quom): as, aecus (or aequos), aequa, aecum (or aequom).
Stems
in -quo-, in order to avoid -quu-,
Stems in -ro- preceded by a long vowel are declined bonus: as, severus, stern; sincerus, sincere; also, ferns, wild; merus, pure; morigerus, obliging; praeposterus, reversed; 174.
like
properus, quick; prosperus (rarely, prosper), lucky; triquetrus, triangular; inferus, below;
and superus, above
(rarely, in early
Latin, infer and super).
Other adjective stems in -ro- are declined as follows: if the stem-ending is -ero-; otherwise, like niger; the declensions of puer and ager, 96)
175.
like liber, (cf.
:
liber, free
niger, black
stems, libero-, libera-
stems, nigro-, nigra-
M.
N.
—
liber
Singular N.
libera
liberum
M. niger
F.
F.
N.
nigra
nignun nigri
G. liberi
liberae
liberi
nlgri
nigrae
D. libero A. liberum
liberae
libero
nigro
nigrae
nigro
liberam
liberum
nigrum
nigram
nigrum
A. libero
libera
libero
nigro
nigra
nigro
N.
liberae
libera
nigri
nigrae
nigra
Plural
liberi
G. liberorum liberarum liberSrum nigrorum nigrarum nigrdrum
D. liberis
liberis
liberis
A.
liberos *
liberas
A.
liberis
liberis
„.
libera
libens
...
nigris
nigris
nigris
nigjps
nigras
nigra
mgns
nigris
nigris
lyd, 177)
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
Like liber are declined asper, rough; gibber, hump-hacked;
59 lacer,
tmn;
miser, wretched; semifer, halj-beast; tener, tender; compoxmds of -fer and -ger, hearing: as, mortifer, jatal, right;
and one adjective
and
aliger,
winged; sometimes, dexter,
in -ur, satur, full.
Nine adjectives in -us or -er have pronominal endand dative singular of all genders, ius in the genitive, -i in the dative. Alius has aliud in the nominative and accusative singular neuter. 176.
ings in the genitive
'<
alius, other
nullus, no
alter, the other
ullus,
neuter, neither
unus, one
The
solus, ofily
any
totus, whole
uter, which {of two)
singular of these adjectives
genitive of alius being contracted
is
from
declined as follows, the alilus
:
—
:
ADJECTIVES
6o uterque.
Alterutei , one of two, is usually treated as a single
the second part
and
Alls
{178-180
is
word and only
declined.
alid are early
rarely contracted to
forms for alius and aliud;
alii
in the dative
is
ali.
Adjectives of the Third Declension 178.
Adjectives of this declension are classified accordnumber of endings in the nominative singular
ing to the
as Adjectives of One,
Two, or Three Endings.
Adjectives of
;
all consonant stems except comparahave assumed the characteristics of i-stems
This class includes
179. tives
One Ending
but nearly
all
in the following cases
Ablative singular,
:
—
-i
(but often -e);
Nominative and accusative plural neuter,
-ia;
Genitive plural, -ium;
Accusative plural masculine and feminine,
This class includes also
all
the nominative by adding s to the stem.
rules for
180.
audax,
nouns
t
(but often -es).
Present Participles.
All adjectives of this class except stems in
with stems in -nt- drop
-is
before
s.
-1-, -r-,
or -s- form
Present Participles
For other changes see the
of the third declension (107).
Examples bold;
stem, audac-
amans, Singtilar
loving; stem,
amant-
i8i)
DECLENSION OF ABJECTIVES
6i
Plural
Norn.
audaces
audacia
amantes
amantia
Gen. Dat.
audacium
audacium
amantium
amantium
Ace. Abl.
audacibus audacibus audacis (-es) audacia audacibus audacibus par, equal; stem, par-
amantibus amantibus amantis (-es) amantia amantibus amantibus vetus, old; stem, veter-
Singular
M. &F.
62
ADJECTIVES 182.
Pubes
(gen. puberis)
-a (not -ia) in the nominative
183.
The
,
{1S2-186
grcnmi up, and uheT, fertile, and accusative pl6ral.
following adjectives regularly have
—-those which have -e in the
-um
like vetus,
have
(not -ium) in the
compounds of nouns which have -lun in the genitive plural:; as, inops, helpless; qasLdiupes, four-footed; also, memor, mindful; uber, fertile.; vetus, old; and genitive plural:
vigil,
abl. sing, (see I8I);
watchful.
Present Participles spmetinjes have the genitive plural in
184.
Adjectives which have
-es in the accusative plural
;
-um in
others regularly
Adjectives of
-um
in poetry.
the genitive plural regularly have -is.
Two Endings
These include all i-stems, except some of those in -ri-, comparatives except plus; the latter were originally s-stems, the s being preserved only in the nominative and accu185.
and
all
sative singularneuter.
(Cf. 110.)
Examples: levis, light; stem, levi-
Singular
Plural
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
i87.-i8g)
The ablative singular of comparatives has rarely -i fof -e;
63 the accusative
plural has rarely -is for -es.
187.
Plus, more,
is
declined as follows, being used in the
singular only as a neuter noun: Singular
M.
&
F.
Plural
N.
Nom.
plus
Gen. Dat.
pluris
Ace.
plus
Abl.
—
ADVERBS
64
(igo-ip4
Celer, swift, has the nominative singular celer, celeris, celere, the second
e being a part of the stem; the genitive plural, which occurs only as a substantive,
is
celerum.
Volucer, winged, has usually the genitive plural
adjectives
have forms of both declensions:
volucrum.
Some
190.
as, gracilis
gracilus, slender; hilaris or hilarus, gay; inermis or inermus,
or
unarmed;
bicolor or bicolorus, hvo-colored.
A
191.
few adjectives are indeclinable:
as, frugi,
worthy; necesse,
nequam, worthless; and most of the cardinal numerals. Potis, commonly used as an indeclinable adjective, but has the neuter
necessary; able, is
form pote.
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
The
192.
Possessive Adjectives are:
my
meus,
tuus,
noster, our Voster
is
an
your (singular)
— suus, his, her,
your (plural)
vester,
its,
their
form of vester.
earlier
Another possessive adjective
is
cuius, whose, usually interrogative,
rarely relative.
These are declined as adjectives of the first and second For the vocative of meus, see 173.
declensions; see 172, 175. 193.
The
ablative singular
tion of the enclitic -pte less often,
-met:
as,
other cases
:
as,
may
is
often emphasized
suopte.
The
by the
addi-
ablative singular and,
be emphasized by the addition
of
suomet, meamet.
ADVERBS DERIVATION OF ADVERBS Adverbs may be divided into three classes on the basis form or derivation: be identified as original case-forms 1. Those which can
194. of
—
(ablative, accusative, or locative) of adjectives (including participles), notins, or 2.
pronouns.
Those formed
^M"^^iM?°i^xes.
DERIVATION OF ADVERBS
195-201)
6$
3. Those which are a combination of two or usually a preposition and a case-form.
195.
more words,
Adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and e, which is the remnant of
(i)
second declensions usually end in
ed, an early ablative ending of o-stems:
(from probus); Woeth, freely
as,
probe, honestly
(liber); aegre, reluctantly (aeger);
docte, learnedly (doctus). This e
is
shortened in bene,
well,
and male,
hadly, according to the
principle of iambic shortening (see 43).
The ablative ending 6 appears in some adverbs of this pnmd, at first; tuto, safely. This 6 is sometimes shortened, as in cite, quickly. Some adverbs have two endings, 196.
class:
as,
e and 5:
as, certe
and
certo, certainly; consulte
and consults,
purposely. 197. From adjectives of the first and second declensions adverbs are formed also with the ending of the feminine ablative,
&: as, alia, otherwise; recta, straightway; una, together. 198.
Some adverbs
are derived from adjectives which have gone out
of use: as, fefe, ferme, nearly; saepe, often.
199.
Adverbs ending
as, eo, thither;
Of nouns
in
6 or a are derived also from pronouns:
quo, whither; ea, that way; eadem, the same way.
sometimes serves as an adverb:
also the ablative
as,
volgo, commonly; forls, out of doors; forte, by chance; sponte, voluntarily.
200.
The neuter
used as an adverb
:
accusative singular of adjectives
as, facile, easily;
very often; recens, lately.
second time;
This
non (ne-oinom,
is
is
often
multum, much; plerumque,
the origin also of iterum, a
later unxxm), not.
Feminine accusative endings, singular and plural (am appear in certain adverbs of which some are evidently derived from nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, and others are of un201.
and
as),
known origin
:
as,
quam, how; tam,
clam, secretly ;$z\dixa., openly ;^ev^eraia., wrongly; so; idagiSieatb^tkim(tim& ; foras, out of doors.
ADVERBS
66
The ending
202.
singular of stems in
nouns and
(202-205
tim, originally the ending of the accusative -ti-, is
participles:
used generally to form adverbs from fiirtim,
as,
partim, partly; This ending appears
secretly;
separatim, separately; statim, on the spot. as sim,
the participle ends in sus:
if
cursini, quickly; passim, here
and
as,
the use of tim with participles of the
developed the adverbial ending atim:
caesim, by cutting;
From
(from pando).
there
conjugation was
first
as,
gradatim, gradually;
singulatim, singly.
A
203.
locative ending
from pronominal stems:
and
appears in adverbs of place formed hie
(for
hi-ce),
here;
Locative in form and sense are also
there.
illi-ce),
i
as,
(for
illic
ibi, there,
ubi, where.
204.
some
The
(2)
which
of
following are examples of adverbial suffixes,
may have been
-dam, as in quondam,
originally case-endings:
—
once.
-de, as in inde, thence; unde, whence.
-dem, as in tandem, at last. -im (-inc = im-ce), as in illim,
illinc,
thence; hinc, hence;
interim, meanwhile. -per, as in nuper, lately; semper, always; tantisper, so long.
-tus or,
more
often, -itus,
funditus, from the bottom.
forms within,
many
suffix,
from
the
which denotes
gods;
soiirce,
adverbs from nouns and adjectives; in intus,
and subtus,
below,
it is
added to prepositions.
Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the third declenter or iter to the stem a final t of the stem is
205. sion
as in diAOnitus,
This
by adding
dropped:
;
as, acriter, eagerly; fortiter, bravely;
audacter, boldly;
sapienter, wisely; feliciter, happily.
Adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions sometimes hava>this ending as well as the usual e: as, dure and duriter, harshly;
humane and hvSi&tiP^p:hMm9^^
— 206-20g)
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS
67
206. (3) The following adverbs are examples of the combination of two or more words welded into a single word: admodum, fully; antea, before; interea, meanwhile; postea, afterward;
comminus (con-manus), hand-to-hand; eminus (ex-manus), long range;
at
denuo (de novo), anew; extemplo (ex tempulo),
immediately; forsan (fors an), perhaps; forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps; ilico (in loco) on the spot; nihilominus, nevertheless;
nimirum, undoubtedly; postmodo, presently; prorsus (pro vorsus)
,
absolutely; rursus (re-vorsus), again; quotannis, yearly; ilicet (i,
imperative, and
you may
licet,
go),
straightway;
scilicet
(sci-licet), certainly; videlicet (vide-licet), clearly.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS 207. Adverbs may be classified according to their meaning in five groups Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Time; Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause; Negative Adverbs; Numeral Adverbs. :
208.
(i)
—
;
Most Adverbs
of pronouns; they
may
of Place were originally case-forms be subdivided into four groups, denoting
respectively place where, place
way by which; the following
to
which, place
are the most
from which, and
common:
—
way way
hie, here
hue, hither
hinc, hence
hac, this
ibi, there
eo, thither
inde, thence
ea, that
way way qua, what way ubi, where quo, whither unde, whence alicunde,/rom aliq\m, some way alicubi, 5owe- aliquo, (/o) illic,
there
istic, there
where
illiic,
thither
istiic, thither
somewhere
illinc,
thence
istinc, thence
ilia (iliac), that
ista, that
somewhere
—
209. A fifth group contains compounds of vorsum, turned: deorsum, downward; sursum, upward; introrsum, inward; prorsum, forward (prorsus, absolutely) seorsum, apart; quorsum, to what end; retrorsum, backward; rursum (rursus usually in ;
classical Latin), agaitQigiti^ed by Microsoft®
ADVERBS
68 210.
(210-213
Other adverbs of place are
citro.
beyond (often best translated actually,
to
i.e.
this side; ultro,
beyond what
is
expected or required); intro, within; porro, further on; retro, backward; uspiata, usquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; usque, as far as, continuously; ubique, everywhere; and some derived from nouns or adjectives: as, dextra, on the right;
from
foris, out of doors; funditus,
the bottom; recta, straightway.
—
Examples of Adverbs of Time are: iam, (2) mox, postmodo, presently ^ nuper, recently; nunc, now; turn (time), then; quondam, formerly; antea, before; pnmo, at 211.
already;
first;
primima,
first;
tandem, postremo, at other times;
umquam,
delude, next; postea, afterward; denique, at last;
postremum, for
the last time; alias,
allquando, at some time: extemplo, immediately;
ever;
numquam,
never; semper, always; totlens, 50
often; aliquotlens, several times; hodle, to-day; pridle, the before; postridle, the
day
day
day; heri, yesterday;
after; cottidle, every
eras, to-morrow; iterum, a second time; rursus, again; crebro,
repeatedly; saepe, often; plerumque, very often; tantlsper, so
long; Interim, Interea, meantime.
212.
(3)
Most adverbs derived from adjectives or nouns Manner: as, tuto, safely; brevlter, briefly; grada-
are Adverbs of
Others are ita, sic, so; ut (uti), how; utut, utcumque, however. Adverbs of Degree are magls, more; paene, almost; quam, how; quamvis, quamlibet, however much; tam, so; valde, very, very much; vix, hardly. Adverbs of Cause are eo, ideo, idclrco, propterea, on this tlm, by degrees.
account.
213. not at
and
all,
(4)
The Negative Adverbs
;
nemo, nesclo, / know not) ne
also in composition: as,
/ say not;
much (s)
are non, not; haud, minlme,
by no means (in stronger negation) ne (in prohibitions;
less.
.
;
„. .^. Digitized
The Numeral Adverbs
,
,
...
for .
.
ne-homo, no one; nego,
quldem, not even; nedum, ,^
by Microsoft® are treated under the head of Numerals.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
214, 215)
69
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS With few exceptions the only adverbs which are compared are those which are derived from adjectives 214.
or participles.
The Comparative'
of
an Adverb
is
the neuter accusa-
from which the adverb is derived (see 201). The Superlative of an Adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective by changing the stem-vowel to e (see 195). If the adjective is compared with magis and maxime, the adverb is compared in the same way tive singular of the comparative of the adjective
:
alte,
on high
altius
—
altissime
docte, learnedly
doctius
doctissime
misere, wretchedly
miserius
acriter, sharply
acrius
miserrime acerrime
fortiter, bravely
fortius
fortissime
facile, easily
facilius
facillime
egregie, excellently
magis egregie
maxime
bene, well
melius
male, badly
peius
optime pessime
parum,
minus
minime
propius
proxime
little
prope, near
egregie
—
magis following adverbs have no positive: maxime, most; potius, more; sometimes mage), (in poetry rather; potissimum, especially; prius, before; primum, first. A few adverbs have superlatives in -6 or -um: as, meritissimo, most deservedly; prime, at first; postremo, at last; primum, first; postremum, for the last time; plurimum, most. A few adverbs, not derived from adjectives, are compared 215.
The
as follows
:
—
diu, a long time; diutius; diutissime. nuper, recently; nuperrime, most recently. saepe, often; saepius, saepissime. satis,
enough;
SaidlSSgitb^Sfy Microsoft®
— NUMERALS
7°
(216
NUMERALS Under
this
head are included Numeral Adjectives and Nu-
meral Adverbs.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES Of Numeral Adjectives there are three principal
216.
classes
at
:
How many?
1.
Cardinals, answering the question,
2.
Ordinals, answering the question,
3.
Distributives, answering the question.
Which in order?
How many
a time? Cardinals
Ordinals
unus, one
primus,
first
Distributives
singuli, one each
duo
secundus
bini
tres
tertius
term, trini
quattuor
quartus
quatemi
quinque
quintus
quini
sex
sextus
seni
septem
Septimus
septem
8.
octo
octavus
octoni
9.
no vera
10.
decern
noveni deni
11. 12.
undecim duodecim
13.
tredecim
14.
quattuordecim quindecim
17.
sedecim septendecim
nonus decimus undecimus duodecimus tertius decimus quartus decimus quintus decimus sextus decimus Septimus decimus
18.
duodeviginti
duodewesimus
19.
unde^ginti
undevicesimus
undeviceni
20.
viginti
vicesimus
viceni
vicesimus primus
viceni singuli
unus
singuli et
15. 16.
t\n[ginti
unus
/unus efWginti 26.
duodetriginta
et THcesimus
''^^''^cgsimuf
undeni duodeni temi deni quatemi deni quiiu deni
seni deni
septeni
dem
duodeviceni
Aicem
duodetriceni
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
2iy, 218) Cardinals
Distributives
29.
undetriginta
undetricesimus
undetriceni
30.
triginta
tricesimus
triceni
40.
quadraginta
50.
60. 70.
80. 90.
100.
200.
quadragesimus quinquaginta quinquagesimus sexaginta sexagesimus septuaginta septuagesimus octoginta octogesimus nonagiiita nonagesimus centum centesimus (centum unus centesimus primus (centum et imus ducenii ducentesimus
quadrageni quinquageni sexageni septuageni octogeni
nonageni centeni
centeni sineuli
duceni
300.
trecenfi
trecentesimus
400.
quadringenti
500.
quingenti
quadringentesimus quadringeni quingentesimus qixingeni
treceni
600.
sescenfi
sescentesimus
sesceni
700.
septingenti
septingentesimus
septingeni
800.
octingenti
octingentesimus
octingeni
900.
nongenti
nongentesimus
nongeni
millesimus
singula millia
centies millesimus
centena millia
1000. mille 100,000.
centum
If there are
et
Ordinals
71
is
millia
more than two numbers
in a
<
compound numeral,
rarely used: as, ducenti quinquaginta tres, 253.
217.
Above
numeral adverb
and ordinals are formed byand centies millesimus the proper
100,000, cardinals
prefixing to centena millia :
as, cardinal,
centies centena millia, 10,000,000;
ordinal, centies centies nullesimus ; the distributive
is
the
same
as the cardinal.
The higher
cardinals are used chiefly for reckoning money,
millia is regularly omitted:
as,
quinquies sestertixun, 500,000
and centena sesterces.
Besides their ordinary use, distributives are regularly 218. used in place of cardinals with nouns plural in form but usually With such singular in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps.
nouns, however, uni, Sidk^MWi^irkoM^^' ^"^^ t^'"' not terai.
NUMERALS
72
{2ig~22I
Distributives are used also in multiplication: as bis bina, twice
two; and sometimes, in poetry, in place of cardinals. Alternative
219.
Alter
Compound
Forms
often used for secundus.
is
forms, with or without
et,
are sometimes used for
the numbers 13-19: as decern tres; decern et octo.
In the
corresponding ordinals the larger number sometimes comes
with or without
first,
et.
Instead of duodeviginti and undeviginti, octodecim and novendecim are sometimes used. There are similar alternative
forms for
38, 39; etc.
28, 29;
The corresponding
sometimes octavus decimus, nonus decimus, distributives:
The
as,
ordinals are
So also the
etc.
octoni deni.
ordinals vicesimus, tricesimus, etc., are spelled in early Latin
vicensimus, tricensimus, etc.
MQlia
is
spelled with one
in the imperial period.
1
FRACTIONS Fractions are expressed, as in English, by a cardinal
220. for the is
numerator and an ordinal
for the
denominator the ;
in the feminine gender, agreeing with pars,
understood:
as, tres
latter
expressed or
One-half
is
dimidium
omitted and pars
is
expressed:
quintae, three-fifths.
or dimidia pars.
When the numerator is
one, it is
as, tertia pars, one-third.
When
the denominator
the denominator
is
is
only one larger than the numerator,
omitted and pars
is
expressed: as, tres partes,
three-fourths.
ROMAN NOTATION I
I
222-225) 7
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
73
NUMERALS
74
{226-228
sedile (113), and takes a dependent genitive; e.g., tria mlllia hominum, three thousand men. The singular also is sometimes used as a noun in the nominative or accusative with a dependent genitive: as, mflle
hominum misit,
he sent a thousand men; rarely
in other cases, unless connected with the
cum foot
same case
of
mQlia
:
as,
octo millibus peditum, mille equitum, with eight thousand
and a thousand
horse.
Ordinals and distributives are declined like bonus,
226.
the latter, with few exceptions, only in the plural. tives often
have -um
-orum
for
ADJECTIVES DERIVED Multiplicatives:
227.
decemplex,
as,
Distribu-
in the genitive plural.
FROM NUMERALS
simplex,
duplex,
single;
double;
tenfold.
Proportionals: as, duplus, twice as great; triplus, three times as great.
Partitives: as, binarius, having two parts;
temarius, having
three parts.
These are declined
like other adjectives of the
same endings.
NUMERAL ADVERBS Numeral Adverbs answer the question.
228.
How many
times ?
^cies semel semel et vicies
1.
semel, once
12
duodecies
2.
bis, twice
13
terdecies
3.
ter
14.
quater decies
30.
tricies
4.
quater
IS'
quindecies
40.
quadragies
5.
quinquies
16.
sedecies
SO-
quinquagies
6.
sexies
17'
septies decies
60.
sexagies
7.
septies
(
octies decies
70.
septuagies
8.
octies
(
duodevicies
80.
octogies
9.
novies
{
novies decies
90.
nonagies
10.
decies
\
undevicies
11.
undeeies
The
early ending -ieiftaifppyp* WteJsqSaater Latin.
(
21.
19.
20
vicies
\
100.
centies
mQlies
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
22g-2Jl)
75
The accusative singular neuter of the ordinals is sometimes used as a numeral adverb: as, primum, for the first time (also the ablative, primo, at first) consul tertium, consul for the third ;
time.
PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS 229.
The
Personal Pronouns of the
persons are declined as follows Singular
:
first
—
Plural
Singular
and second Plural
Nom.
ego, /
nos, we
tu,
nostrum, nostri nobis
tui
vestrum, vestri
tibi
vobis
nos
te
vos
nobis
te
vobis
Gen.
mei
Dat.
mihi, rai
Ace.
me me
Abl.
you
vos, you
There is no personal pronoun of the third person. There is, however, a Reflexive Pronoun of the third person, which is declined as follows 230.
:
Gen.
sui,
Dat.
sM,to
Ace.
se,
Abl.
se,
of himself, herself, "
itself,
—
themselves
"
by
Case-Forms 231.
Tute'and tutemet (or tutimet) are emphatic forms of
The forms
tu.
and plural were originally genitives mei, tui, sm, nostri, and vestri, the genitive
of the genitive singular
of the possessive adjectives;
singular neuter; nostrum
—
•
and vestrum, the genitive plural masculine or
neuter.
Old forms of the genitive singular are mis and tis. The old forms mihr and tibi with final i occur often in poetry. Med, ted, and sed occur for both accusative and ablative singular. This is an original form of the ablative; as an accusative, it came to be used on the analogy of the ablative. Reduplicated forms are common in meme, tetg/f/sedSjy Alll4«j4efl®id septe are found rarely. the same cases:
—
/
PRONOUNS
76 Vostnun and
vostri for
vestrum and
vestri occur in early
All forms except the genitive plural
adding -met:
as,
{232-234
may
and
late Latin.
be made more emphatic by
egomet.
RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 232.
The Relative Pronoun
Interrogative
Pronoun
clined as follows
:
—
quis,
qui,
who?
who, which, and the quid,
what? are de-
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
^35-237) Quoius and quoi
and dative
for the genitive
77
singular are found even as
late as Cicero's time.
Qui often occurs as an ablative of either number and of any gender, and is used commonly as an adverb meaning haw. Ques is an early and rare form of the nominative plural. Quis for quibus (dative and ablative plural)
is
foimd even in
classical Latin.
Quis and qui (the interrogative adjective) are sometimes emphasized
by
the addition of -nam,
— quisnam, quinam.
—
Other Relative and Interrogative Pronouns are: which of two; used both as relative and interrogative; for
235. liter,
the declension see 176.
utercumque, whichever of two; an indefinite
relative.
quicumque and quisquis, ^whoever; indefinite relatives. The two parts of quicumque (qui -|- cumque) are sometimes separated by an intervening word. Both parts of quisquis are declined, but only quisquis, quidquid (or quicquid), and quoquo are in common use. ecquis (adjective, ecqui), any one; an interrogative. 236. There are also the following Pronominal Adjectives, quot, how many (indeused as Relatives and Interrogatives: With quantus, how large; and quails, of what sort. clinable) tot, so many (indethese are correlative the Demonstratives:
—
—
;
tantus, so large;
clinable);
and
talis, such.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 237.
The
principal Indefinite
one (substantive), and These are declined
qui,
any
Pronouns are
like the interrogative
commonly have qua
quis,
any
(adjective).
and
relative pro-
quae except in the nominaQuis is regularly used as the nominative tive plural feminine. singular of the substantive for both masculine and feminine nouns, but
for
genders.
The and
Indefinites
have the same early and occasional forms as the
interrogative; see 2Z^igitized by Microsoft®
relative
— PRONOUNS
78
The compounds
238.
{2j8,
of the Indefinites quis
the nominative singular masculine
follows;
is
2jg
and qui are as the same for
substantive and adjective, and quid appears in the neuter singular substantive,
quod
in the adjective, except
where
it is
other-
wise stated:
quispiam, some one; neuter singular (substantive), quippiam or
quidpiam. quisquam, any one; neuter singular (substantive and adjective), quicquam. There are no feminine forms; quisquam and quemquam are used rarely in early Latin as feminines."
There this
is
no
plural.
word as an
UUus commonly
takes the place of
adjective.
quisque, each one.
unusquisque, each one individually.
Both parts are
declined.
some one; aliqui is sometimes used as the nominative singular masculine of the substantive and usually as the nominative singular masculine of the adjective. The nominative singular feminine nearly always, and the nominative
aliquis,
and accusative neuter plural always, is aliqua. m is changed to n before d: as, quendam, quorundam. quilibet and quivis, any one. For the Indefinite Relatives see 235. quidam, a certain one;
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS Demonstrative Pronouns are used either alone substantives, or with nouns as adjectives.
239. as
ille, that
hie, this
Singular
M.
Nom.
hie
Gen. huius Dat. huic
F.
N.
haec huius
hoc huius
huic
huic
Ace.
hunc-
banc
Abl.
hoc
hac
^
M.
r.
ille
ilia
illud
illius
ilUus
illius
illi
illi
illi
illam
illud
iUg,
jUd
ilium hoc Dl}^^d by Microsofl^Q
N.
.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
240-245)
79
Plural
Nom.
hi
Gen.
horum harum horum
illorum illarum illorum
Dat.
his
his
his
illis
illis
illis
Ace.
hos
has
haec
illos
illas
ilia
Abl.
his
his
his
ilUs
illis
illis
hae
haec
illae
ill!
ilia
The stems
of hie are ho- and ha-, to which in some added the demonstrative enclitic -ce, which usually loses its vowel. The enclitic is sometimes attached to forms which are usedregularly without it as, huiusce haec (nominative plural feminine); horunc (in early Latin). It is found also (with e weakened to i) in combination with the interrogative
240.
forms
is
;
:
enclitic
241.
-ne :
as,
hocine.
The nominative and
(though the vowel
is
two consonants (hoc
The
accusative neuter singular
for hocc,
early forms hoius
is
a long syllable
vowel was originally followed by
short) because the
from hod-ce)
and hoic were used even
in Cicero's time.
A
nominative plural masculine hisce occurs in early Latin.
242. ille,
Forms
of
an early pronoun
olle,
having the same meaning as
are sometimes found.
243.
Iste, that, is declined like ille.
The
initial i is
some-
times omitted. 244.
The
enclitic -ce is
often attached
chiefly in the following forms:
—
to
ille
and
iste,
Singular
M.
F.
N.
Nom.
illic
Ace.
illunc illanc illuc (illoc)
Abl.
illoc
illaec illuc (illoc)
iliac
illoc
M. istic
F.
N.
istaec istuc (istoc)
istunc istanc istuc (istoc) istoc
istac
istoc
Also in the nominative and accusative neuter plural,
illaec
and
istaec.
245.
The Intensive Pronoun
ipse, self, is declined like ille,
has ipsum in the nominative and accusative singular neuter. Ips?,4|^dS9^fe^J^fe'^ °^ *^^ demonstrative
-except that
it
PRONOUNS
8o
(246-248
and the suffix -pse. The first part was originally declined; eapse, eumpse, and other similar forms occur in Plautus. In
is
Plautus also are found forms with both parts declined: eapsa, eampsam.
The nominative
singular masculine
is
as,
some-
times ipsus. 246.
IS,
this or that
Plural
Singular
M. ii (i)
eorum iis (is)
eis
iis (is)
There are three stems,
—
ea
earum
eorum
lis (is) eis
lis (is) eis
ea
eas
eos
247.
N.
F.
eae
ei
eis
iis (is)
i- for is
and
eis id,
iis (is)
eis
eo- and ea-
for the other forms.
Dative singular forms of early poetry are
ei
and monosyllabic
ei;
also eae.
The usual forms
of the
nominative plural masculine and the ii and iis, but these were pro-
dative and ablative plural are
nounced (and sometimes written) as monosyllables, i and is. The forms ei and eis were usually pronounced as monosyllables.
— FORMATION OF VERBS
249-252) Rare forms and eidem.
81
of the nominative singular masculine are eisdem, isdem,
The nominative plural,
plural masculine and the dative and ablative though sometimes written ildem and iisdem, were always
dissyllabic in pronunciation.
VERBS FORMATION OF VERBS Verbs are either Primary or Derivative. Priinherited from the parent language. Derivative Verbs were formed from Latin words after Latin had become a distinct language. 249.
mary Verbs were
Primary Verbs
Of Primary Verbs there are the two following 250.
Root Verbs.
Only a few forms
irregular verbs belong to this class.
of
classes
:
certain so-called
In these forms personal
as, from the root es, from the root i, to go, i-s, i-mus; from the da-t, da-nt; from the root fer, to hear, fer-s,
endings are attached directly to the root: to he, es-t, es-te;
root da,
to give,
fer-t.
251. Thematic Verbs. In these verbs a vowel, called the Thematic Vowel, is attached to the root. To this combination are added the personal endings of the present system. The thematic vowel was originally e or 0, but usually appears in Latin as i or u: as, from the root ag-, to drive, ag-i-t, ag-i-mus, ag-u-nt.
The
root
may
appear in a modified form:
as, gero,
To
this class
from the root ges- ; frango, from the root frag-.
belong most verbs of the third conjugation. There are, however, many derivative verbs of the third conjugation, and these also
have the thematic vowel. 262.
Most verbs
of the
first,
second, and fourth conjugations
are derivative, but a few are primary.
In either case the per-
sonal endings of the indicative present are attached to a final Digitized
by Microsoft®
— 82
VERBS
,
{253-255
vowel which belongs to the present stem. The present stem may be identical with the root, as in dare, to give (root and stem da-), flere, to weep (root and stem fle-); or it may be the root with an added vowel, as in videre, venire,
to see
(root vid-, stem vide-),
come (root ven-, stem veni-).
to
Derivative Verbs
Of Derivative Verbs there are the two following classes
:
Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives. but there are many the fourth, some of the second, and a few of the third. In
253.
Most of
of these are of the first conjugation,
general the a-declension produces verbs of the
first
conjugation,
the 0-decIension verbs of the secoftd conjugation, the u-declension verbs of the third conjugation with the infinitive in -uere,
and the i-declension verbs
many
are
exceptions:
—
of the fourth conjugation;
but there
from fuga, flight. from albus, white. metuere, to fear, from metus, fear. finire, to end, from finis, end. fugare,
to
put
to flight,
albere, to he white,
Verbs derived from other verbs.
254.
five classes
255.
:
—
Of these there are
(i) Ileratives or Intensives, of the first conjugation, regularly
derived from the stem of the perfect passive participle (therefore denominative in origin),
and ending
derived from verbs of the
in the indicative present in -to or -so.
first
Those
conjugation, however, always end in
-ito,
There sometimes appears to be no iterative or intensive force, the meaning of the derivative being apparently the same as that of the
not
-ato.
simple verb
:
—
dicto, say often or emphatically,
from
prenso, grasp, from prendo, take hold rogito, keep asking,
The move
from rogo,
iteralfve ending is
violently,
from ago;
dico, say. of.
ask.
sometimes added to the present stem:
fi&steOjf
tec8^«^igo^gbm nosed.
as, agito,
—
— FORMATION OF VERBS
236-260)
A
second iterative
is
sometimes formed:
,83
as, dictito,
from
dicto; cursito,
from cuTso. 256.
(2)
/wfeMijW, of the third conjugation, ending in -esso or
The perfect and participial systems are usually of capesso,
seize,
from
-iss6.
the fourth conjugation:
capio, take.
petesso or petisso, seek eagerly, from peto, seek. lacesso, provoke,
from
lacio, eniice.
incipisso, begin eagerly,
257.
from
incipio, begin.
Inceptives, of the third conjugation,
(3)
formed by adding the
ending -sco to roots or to the present stem of verbs. original verb,
if
was one, has gone out
there
of use.
In some cases the
The name Inceptive
sometimes indicates only the form, not the meaning, as
many
of these
verbs, especially those formed from roots or obsolete verbs, do not denote
an action or condition; e.g. pasco, feed; quiescd, rest; Examples with real inceptive meaning are: calesco, grow warm, from caleo, be warm. seised, inquire, from seio, know. horresco, begin to shitdder, from horreo, sh-udder. The endings -aseo and -esco, of which the first vowels are really stemvowels, came to be regarded as suffixes and were attached to noun and the beginning of
—
posco, demand.
adjective stems: as, vesperaseit,
it
becomes evening; vesper, evening.
mitesco, grow mild; mitis, mild.
Inceptives have only the present system of tenses, but the perfect and participial systems are often supplied
Inceptive
258.
is
by the simple verb from which the
derived.
(4)
i?jm»Miw«j, of the
first
conjugation, ending in
-1116.
These
are rare: cantillo, chirp,
from eanto, sing. from consciibo,
eonscribillo, scribble,
259. -surio.
(5)
write.
Desideratives, of the fourth conjugation, ending in -turio or
Only two are
in
parturio, be in labor,
esurio, Be hungry,
common
from
use:
—
pario, bring forth.
from edo,
eat.
Verbs formed by Composition
Verbs are formed also by Composition; that is, the combinatioiP/sB&eaiib'advepMal prefix with a verb.
260.
by
VERBS
84
Some
(261,
'
262
of these prefixes are used separately as adverbs
or prepositions, others appear only in composition.
Those used separately a-, ab-, abs-,
away
are:
in-,
—
in
pro-, pro-, prod-,
forward ad-, to
inter-, between
retro-, back
ante-, before
ob-, toward, against
sub-, subs-, under'
circum-, around
per-, through,
subter-, beneath
thoroughly
com-, con-, together post-, after de-, away, down prae-, before
super-, over supra-, over
praeter-, past
e-, ex-, out
Those used only
in composition are:
trans-, across
—
amb-, am-, an-, around
intro-, within
re-, red-, back
dis-, di-, apart
por-, forward
se-, sed-, apart
For vowel changes occurring
in the composition of verbs see 34ff.
261. Some verbs are formed by the combination of words not regularly used as prefixes, with simple verbs. These are called Syntactic
Compounds:
animadverts, attend benedico,
to
—
(animum
adverto).
bless.
maniimitto,
set free.
satisfacio, do enough.
In compoimds like calefacio, heat, and consuefacio, habituate, the first was probably a formerly existing noun-stem, but was treated as a
part
verbal stem in -e.
VERB-STEMS 262.
The
is modified to serve as a basis for the In this way three stems are formed,
root of a verb
the various forms.
— —
and Participial. The Present Stem is the basis of the following forms: Present, Imperfect, and Future tenses in both voices and in all moods in ^y^Jj, i)iSSg,Ml?s are found.
Present, Perfect,
Present Infinitive in both voices.
26j-26j)
CON:rUGATION
85
Present Active and Future Passive Participles.
Gerund.
The
Perfect
Stem
is
the basis of the following forms:
Perfect, Pluperfect,
—
and Future Perfect Indicative Active;
Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active. Perfect Infinitive Active.
The
Participial
Stem
is
the basis of the following forms:
Perfect Passive Participle and, therefore,
—
all
—
forms of which
this is a part, namely, the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive, the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive, the Perfect Infinitive Passive.
Future Active Participle and, therefore, the Future Active Infinitive.
Supine and, therefore, the Future Passive Infinitive. 263.
Every form
of the Indicative
and Subjunctive (except
the present indicative and the perfect passive system) consists of three parts,
— stem, mood and tense
sign,
and personal
ending. 264.
The Imperative has no mood and
tense signs. Personal
endings are attached directly to the stem, except that the
thematic vowel appears in the third conjugation, in the third person plural of -io verbs of the third conjugation, and in the third person plural of the fourth conjugation.
THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 265.
Voice,
The inflection of the verb by which are expressed Mood, Tense, Number, and Person is called Con-
jugation.
There are four conjugations, distinguished by the vowel of the present stem. The Present Active Infinitive
most conveniently
indicates the conjugation;
the
infinitive endings (rfg/*be/^owi"rofi0i®jugations are respec-
VERBS
86 tively -are, -ere, -ere,
and
-ire.
be found by dropping the 266.
{266-269
may
The
infinitive
present stem ending -re.
Stem-vowel,
First Conjugation.
Most verbs of are some primary
,
a.
this conjugation are denominative,
verbs: as, sto, stand, no, swim.
verbs of this conjugation originally had a stem in a: subdue; perfect, domui (for domavi); supine,
but there
Some primary as,
domo,
domitum
(for
domatum). 267.
Second Conjugation.
Stem-vowel,
e.
This conjugation includes both primary and denominative
The stem-vowel e usually appears in the present system only; but it appears in all forms of certain verbs with The stem- vowel is roots ending in e: as, fieo, weep, neo, spin.
verbs.
shortened before another vowel. 268. Third Conjugation. most forms to i or u.
Stem-vowel, e or
o,
changed
in
The stem-vowel is the thematic vowel. The present stem may be simply a root with the thematic vowel, as in dico, say; or the root may be modified in various ways, as follows:
—
make, do; Vfac.
1.
Present in -16:
2.
Present in -SCO :
3.
Present in -esso :
4.
Present in -to:
5.
Present in -no:
6.
Present with inserted nasal:
The
as, facio,
as, cresco, as,
grow; Vcre.
capesso, seize; \/cap.
as, fiecto,
(See 257.) (See 256.)
bend; Vfiec.
as, sterno, strew; \/stra. as,
rumpo, break; \/rup.
nasal sometimes appears also in the perfect and participial
systems:
as,
iungo, join;
Viug;
perfect, iunzi;
participle,
iunctus. 7.
Reduplicated:
as, sisto, set; \/sta.
Fourth Conjugation. Stem-vowel, i. Verbs of this conjugation are either primary or denominative. In the primary verbs fei^^^yj^toPJiJirs in the present system only: as, venio, come (veni, ventum); in the denominative verbs 269.
VOICE
270-274) it
87
appears also in the perfect and participial systems: (finivi,
finish
The stem- vowel
finitum).
i
becomes
as, finio, i
before
another vowel.
A
270.
forms of the
few verbs have forms of two conjugations. first
and the
Lavo, wash, has
A few verbs of the third conjugation have
third.
occasional forms of the fourth: as, oriretur or oreretur,
and
orior, arise; potiretur or poteretur,
potiri,
from
and
oriri,
from
potior, get possession of;
moiiri or mori, from morior, die.
In certain verbs the perfect system or the participial system, or both, belong to a conjugation different from that of the present system:
aim
at,
as, peto,
quaero, seek, haurio, drain, vincio, bind.
271.
The term
Irregular
is
applied to certain verbs
which, though in large part regular, have some forms made by adding the personal endings directly to the root.
(See 251.)
The
irregular verbs are sum, possum,
void, nolo, maid, fero, eo, qued, fid, edo,
and
do.
VOICE 272.
There are two
voices, Active
and Passive.
Deponent Verbs Certain verbs, called Deponents, have a complete passive system only, but with the meanings of the active. In addition to the passive forms they have also the future infinitive 273.
active (the future infinitive passive
and future participles active,
t he
is
not used), the present
geru nd, and the supine.
The
future passive participle and, sometimes, the perfect passive participle are passive in meaning.
Some verbs
are used either as active verbs or as deponents: as, assentio
or assentior, agree; populo or populor,
pillage.
A few verbs, called Semi-Deponent, have active forms present system, passive forms with active meanings in in the These are audeo, dare, participial systems. and the perfect 274.
fido, trust
gaudeo,
(and
rejoice,
compounds confido, solecf^i^^^^^ims^t®
its
trust, difiido, distrust),
VERBS
88
{275-280
MOODS AND TENSES There are three Moods, and Imperative.
275. tive,
Indicative
The
276.
Present,
Indicative
Imperfect,
Mood
Mood
Future,
— Indicative, Subjunchas
six
tenses,
Future Perfect. 277.
— the and
Pluperfect,
Perfect,
"
The Present has no
tense-sign; the personal endings
For vowel changes
are added directly to the present stem. see 315.
278.
The
tense-sign of the Imperfect
is
-ba-, the vowel being
shortened before the personal endings -m,
-t, -nt,
and
-r.
In
the third and fourth conjugations the stem-form to which this
attached ends in -e-: as, rege-ba-m, capie-ba-m, audie-ba-m. In the fourth conjugation in earlier Latin, and in poetry of all periods, this e is sometimes omitted: as, scibam, for sciebam. is
279.
The
conjugations
tense-sign of the Future in the is
-b- and the thematic vowel,
changed, except in the
first
person singular, to
tense-sign of the Future in the third is
-a- in the
first
first
and second
— that i
is,
e or o,
The
or u.
and fourth conjugations
person singular (shortened because
it is fol-
m
lowed by or r), -e- in all other forms (shortened before -t and -nt). In early Latin the fourth conjugation sometimes has a future like that of the first and second: as, audibo, for audiam.
The
regular future of eo, go,
280.
stem
is
The
Perfect
is
is
formed
ibo.
Rarely the
in various ways.
the same as that of the present:
as, solvi,
from
solvo,
from verto, turn. Sometimes it is different only by the lengthening or change of the vowel: as, fugi, from fugio, The comflee; veni, from venio, come; egi, from ago, drive. monest tense-sign is -v-. This appears in the form -av- in nearly all the verbs gfg,|^ g^^,.^j^^ation, and in the form loose; verti,
-iv- in nearly all of the fourth: as,
amavi, audivi.
The
sign
: ;
MOODS AND TENSES
281-284)
89
-V- appears also in the perfect of
some verbs of the second and third conjugations: as, delevi, from deled, destroy; novi, from nosed, learn. Five verbs of the third conjugation with nasal suffix have the perfect in -vi; these are cemo, lino, sino, spem5, and stemo. In verbs of this class with perfects in -avi and -evi there
281.
are often shoirtened forms in
all
the tenses of the perfect system,
V and the following vowel disappearing before s or r
:
as,
amasti,
for amavisti; consuerat, for consueverat; in the subjunctive,
amaverim; consuessem, for c5nsuevisseni; in the amasse, for amavisse. Perfects in -m also have shortened forms, but the vowel
amarim,
for
infinitive,
disappears only before
s,
not before r :
as, audisli, for audivisti;
aadierunt, for audiverunt.
The perfect forms of nosed are similarly shortened: as, nosse, for novisse compounds of moved: as, commossem, for commovissem.
also
282. -u,
-lit,
ii, lit,
as,
Some verbs with in the first
from eo.
-m
perfects in
and third persons
Rarely there
is
a
have also forms in
singular: as, audii, audiit;
first
person plural in -iimus
audiimus.
283. Another common tense-sign of the perfect is -u-. This appears in most verbs of the second conjugation, in many of the third, in a few primary verbs of the first (see 266), and very rarely in the fourth: as,
284.
monm,
alui,
Another common tense-sign
appears, especially with
mute stems,
sonm,
salui (from salio).
of the perfect in
many
is -s-.
This
verbs of the third
conjugation, in some of the second, and in a very few of the
aim, sens!. For consonant changes due to of the final consonant of a root with s, see 49. combination the generally remains the same as in the the root vowel of The variation: as, cessi, from cedo; is occasional there but present, rejd, rego; fiuxl, from flup; ussi, from from mitto; from misi, fourth: as, carps!,
ijyQ^
Digitized
by Microsoft®
VERBS
go 285.
Some
perfects
{285-288
have reduplication,
— that
is,
a prefix
and the vowel from cano; pepuli, from pello.
consisting of the initial consonant of the root
e:
A from cado; cecini, stem- vowel a is weakened to i or e ae to i. If the stem- vowel of both present and perfect is i, o, or u, that vowel appears in the reduplication: as, didici, from disco; poposci, from posco; If the verb begins with sp or st, both cucurri, from curro. consonants appear in the reduplication, but s disappears from the root: as, spopondi, from spondeo; steti, from sto. as, cecidi,
;
Reduplication occurs, with a few exceptions, only in the third
—
It is found in four verbs of the. second, conjugation. and in two of the first, mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, tondeo, do and sto. Reduplication does not occur in compounds, except in compounds of do, sto, disc5, posco, and sisto: as, abdidi, circumdedi; cecidi from caedo, but occidi from occido; it occurs also in repperi (for repeperi), rettuli (for retetuli) and sometimes in compounds of curro.
—
—
286.
The
Perfect Passive
— that the perfect —
perfect system, indicative,
perfect infinitive,
are
is,
and
all
other passive tenses of the
the pluperfect and future perfect
and pluperfect subjunctive, and the
made by
a combination of the perfect
passive participle with forms of the present system of the verb
amatus sum, / have been loved; amatus esse, to But forms of the perfect system of esse are sometimes used: as,' amatus fui, for amatus sum; amatus fuerat, for amatus erat. esse,
to he: as,
have been loved.
287.
The
tense-sign of the Pluperfect
tached to the perfect stem; a
is
is
-era-,
shortened before
final
which is atm, t, and nt.
288. The tense-sign of the Future Perfect is -er-, followed by the thematic vowel; this is attached to the perfect stem. The forms of this tense are similar to those of the Perfect Sub-
and the occasional forms of the second person singular and the first and second persons plural with -i-, that is, -is, -imus, and -itis, are due to confusion with the perfect subjunctive,
junctive, where -x-
is
?Jjgyi&V nS^^^ular ending
of the third
:
MOODS AND TENSES
28g-294)
person plural, -int instead of -unt,
91
a mere imitation of the
is
corresponding form of the perfect subjunctive. 289.
In early Latin (and rarely in
later writers)
indicative sometimes has the ending -so (or -sso)
-sim (or -ssim)
:
as, capso,
Forms
the future perfect
the perfect subjunctive
from capio; amasso, from amo; faxim, from
These are forms of an
facio; negassim, froin nego.
jugation.
,
earlier
system of con-
and same system, are found, especially in dixem for dixissem; dixe for dixisse.
of the perfect indicative, pluperfect subjunctive,
perfect infinitive, belonging to this early Latin: as, dixti, for dizisti;
Subjunctive 290.
The Subjunctive Mood has
ent, Imperfect, Perfect, 291.
Mood
The
four tenses,
— Pres-
and Pluperfect.
tense-sign of the Present
is
for the first conjugation
-e- (representing a form of the old optative mood-sign), the
For the
stem-vowel a disappearing before the other vowel. other conjugations the tense-sign shortened, as usual, before final
is
m,
-a-. t,
nt,
Both e and a are and r. The long
stem- vowel of the second and fourth conjugations
and in the
is
shortened,
third conjugation the thematic vowel does not appear
Some irregular verbs have the tense-sign -i-, the mood-sign of the old optative; in this way are formed the usual of sum, of volo and its compounds, and subjunctive present occasional forms like duitn (from do), edim, etc. in this tense.
292.
The
tense-sign of the Imperfect
is
-se-,
which
is
added
to the present stem, s becoming r between two vowels (see 46) as, es-se-s,
293.
ama-re-s.
The
tense-sign of the Perfect
to the perfect stem.
is -eri-,
which
is
added
Confusion with the future perfect indica-
tive often shortens -is to -is in the second person singular and, rarely,
294.
-imus to -imus in the
The
first
person plural.
tense-sign of the Pluperfect
is
-isse-,
which
added to the perfect stem. In
all
forms a long vowel
For the forms
of
is
shortened before final m,
^^i^§i^mMmA
t,
see 264.
nt,
and
r.
is
VERBS
92
{2QJ-3OO
VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Besides the forms of the three moods, certain
295.
noun and adjective forms are treated as parts of the verb. These are the Infinitives, the Supines, and the Gerund, which are verbal nouns, and the Participles, which are verbal adjectives. Infinitives
296. There are six Infinitives, and Future for each voice.
The ending
297.
which
is
amare
for
— the Present,
Perfect,
of the Present Active Infinitive
is
-se,
attached to the present stem.
This ending appears only in esse, to be, esse, to eat, and their compounds. In other verbs it comes between two vowels and is changed to r: as,
299.
(Ferre and velle stand for ferse and velse.)
The ending
298.
which
amase.
is
of the Perfect Active Infinitive
attached to the perfect stem:
The ending
is
-isse,
amav-isse.
of the Present Passive Infinitive is -ri, ex-
cept in the third conjugation where audi-ri; but reg-i.
as,
This infinitive
it is -i is
:
as,
ama-ri, mone-ri,
sometimes extended by
the addition of the syllable -er, with shortening of the preceding
vowel: 300.
amarier, dicier.
as,
The
as follows
:
—
three other infinitives are formed
by combination
The Future Active is the future active participle with esse: amaturus esse. The Perfect Passive is the perfect passive
as,
participle with
esse:
as,
amatus esse.
Active and Perfect Passive Infinitives esse
But is
in
the Future
often omitted: as
amaturus for amatiirus esse; amatus for amatus esse. The Future Passive is the Supine in -um with iri, the present passive infinitive of eo, go, us^^g^Qegs^j^^i^^s, amatum iri.
VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
301-305)
93
Supine 301. The Supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, formed from the participial stem, but with the suflSx -tu-, not -to-. There are only two forms in common use, the accusative, and the dative or ablative singular: as, amatum, amatu. There is a rare dative in -tu.
—
Gerund 302.
The Gerund
is
the neuter singular of the Future Pas-
noun of the second and ablative cases. the English verbal noun
sive Participle (Gerundive), used as a verbal
declension, with genitive, dative, accusative,
The meaning in -ing :
as,
is
the same as that of
regendi causa, for the sake of ruling. Participles
—
There are four Participles, 303. the Present and the Future Active, the Perfect and the Future Passive. 304.
The Present Active
Participle
is
formed by adding
the suffix -nt- (nominative singular -ns) to the present stem,
the long stem-vowels of the
first,
second, and fourth conjuga-
tions being shortened except in the nominative singular.
The
thematic vowel of the third conjugation appears as e; in the fourth conjugation the same form of the stem is used as in The Present Active Participle is dethe imperfect indicative. clined as an adjective of the third declension
ing of the English participle in 305.
The Future Active
and has the mean-
-^ng.
Participle
is
formed with the
suffix
-uro- (nominative singular masculine, -urus) added regularly to the participial stem with omission of final -0: as, amatiirus, monitUTUS, rectiirus, cursiirus. There is, however, occasional The Future variation: as, moritiirus, oriturus, ruiturus.
Active Participle is declined as an adjective of the first and second declensions an^^g^^^|j|J^ about to happen.
VERBS
94
The
{306-308
Passive Participle is formed with the changed to -so- (nominative singular mascuThere is great variety irr the stem-forms line, -tus or -sus). Some verbs, especially those to which this suffix is attached. of the second and third conjugations, add -tus or -sus directly to the root-syllable (with the usual consonant changes): as, auctus, from augeo; suasus, from suadeo; factus, from facio; Most first-conjugation verbs have the sparsus, from spargo. 306.
Perfect
suffix -to-, often
-atus,
in
participle
exception in the
first
verbs
fourth-conjugation
conjugation
is
in
An
-itus.
potus, from poto; in the
Verbs in -u6 have the partifrom loquor, and secutus, from sequor. Verbs with the perfect in -ui regularly have the participle in -itus: as, domitus, monitus, genitus; but there are fourth, sepultus, from sepelio. ciple in -utus;
so also locutus,
The quantity
exceptions; as, sectus, doctus, cultus.
root-vowel
is
of the
generally the same as in the present, but there
is
occasional variation.
The
suffix -so-
(nominative -sus)
is
regularly used with
all
roots ending in a dental, the dental being assimilated to the
following s: as, fossus from fodio; but ss
is
reduced to s after
a long syllable: as, clausus from claudo. Many other verbs by analogy take the suffix -so-: as, mersus, from mergo; pulsus,
from pello; cursus, from curro.
The the
is declined as an adjective of and second declensions and has the meaning of the
Perfect Passive Participle
first
English perfect passive participle. of esse, to be, to
form the
It is
used also with forms
perfect, pluperfect,
and future perfect
tenses in the passive voice. 307.
The
Perfect Passive Participle of
Deponent Verbs has
usually an active but sometimes a passive meaning.
The
Perfect Passive Participle of other verbs seems sometimes to
have an active meaning:
as,
cenatus, having dined; coniuratus,
conspiring; placitus, pleasing; potus, having drunk. 308. suffix
Th,e
-ndo-
Future Passive Participle
is
(nominati-B5^/«iB(gjj^gur/c45ias©iline
formed with the -ndus) ad4ed to
PERSON
309-311)
95
that form of the present stem which appears in the present
amandus, monendus, regendus, audienand fourth conjugations was probably -undo-, and this is often found in early Latin; active participle: as,
The
dus.
eundum
always the future passive participle of eo. The is declined as an adjective of the and second declensions.
future first
original sufiSx in the third
is
passive participle
TENSE-GROUPS 309.
The
tenses of the indicative
— Primary or Principal —
are grouped as follows
and subjunctive
:
:
amo, / love -amabo, / shall love ama^n, / have loved amavero, / shall have loved
Present
Future Present Perfect
Future Perfect
Secondary or Historical
:
— amabam, / was
Imperfect
loving
Historical Perfect amavi, / loved
amaveram, I had
Pluperfect
The
perfect indicative,
it
loved
should be noted, has two uses,
— one
(the
present perfect) denoting action completed in present time, the other (the historical perfect) denoting past action.
In the subjunctive the present and perfect are primary tenses, the imperfect and pluperfect are secondary tenses. It should be noted that tenses of present and future time are primary, those of past time are secondary.
NUMBER 310.
Verbs have two numbers, Singular and Plural.
PERSON 311.
Third.
Verbs have three persons, Digitized
—
by Microsoft®
First,
Second, and
VERBS
96
The
personal
313
endings of the indicative and subjunctive,
except the perfect indicative active, are as follows: Person
(312.
—
PRINCIPAL PARTS
314-31^ The second person
singular of the present
(in the third conjugation with the thematic
Verbs of the third conjugation
rege, audi.
is
97 simply the present stem
vowel
e)
:
ama, mone,
as,
ending
in -io lose -i- before the
-e: as, cape.
There
no second person plural of the future imperative passive.
The imperatives
314.
due,
is
fae,"
and
of dico, diico, facio,
—
the longer forms,
diee, duee,
and
faee,
Deponents have rarely -mino instead
first
die,
three
— are more common.
The same statement applies to compounds except that compounds of faeio always have
these verbs,
of
the longer form.
of -tor in early Latin.
In the union of the personal endings with the stem or
315.
tense-sign certain vowel changes occur:
A
and fero are
except in early Latin, where for the
fer,
long vowel
is
—
shortened before the endings -m,
amabam, amat, amet, amant, monet,
-t,
-nt,
and
-r:
as,
In early Latin and
audit, regar.
in poetry, however, the original long vowel before final -t
is
sometimes
retained: as, videt.
In the
first
person singular of the present indicative active of the
conjugation, a disappears
by
contraction before 6 : as,
and fourth conjugations the stem-vowel
The thematic vowel
is
u
was
first
in the second
shortened: as, moneo, audio.
as,
rego;
(earlier o) before nt (regunt),
endings (regis, regit, regitur). plural, -ont,
;
of the third conjugation appears as 6 in the first
person singular of the present indicative active: before r (regeris), as
amo
until the
end
as, ruont, vivont, sequontur.
The
appears as e
it
and as
i
before other
early ending of the third person
of the republic retained after u, v,
Sometimes qu became
and qu:
c: as, secuntur.
In the second and third persons singular of the present indicative active i is sometimes lengthened by the poets.
of the third conjugation
PRINCIPAL PARTS
The which show 316.
Principal Parts of a verb are four forms
the Present Stem, the Conjugation, the
—
Perfect Stem, and the Participial Stem. These are: (i) The First Person Singular of the Present Indicative Active. (2)
The Present /J/p&elty^ie/
VERBS
98
The
(3)
318
{317,
First Person Singular of the Perfect Indica-
tive Active.
The Nominative
(4)
Singular Neuter of the Perfect
Passive Participle. The
neuter of the participle is selected rather than the masculine,
because in intransitive verbs the latter
serves
its
is
Moreover the neuter
used impersonally.
purpose even
if
the participle
participle nor supine occurs,
lacking, while the former
may be
is
identical with the supine
is
not found at
all.-
the future active participle
is
and
If neither
sometimes
given as one of the principal parts.
So, for example, the principal parts of amo, remain (intransitive), are:
love,
and maneo,
amo, amare, amavi, amatum maneo, manere, mansi, mansum.
The
317.
Principal Parts of
Deponent Verbs are the
first
person singular of the present indicative passive, the present infinitive passive,
and the
first
person singular of the perfect
indicative passive, as: Conor, conari, conatus sum.
CONJUGATION OF SUM
The
318. follows.
irregular
This verb
is
verb sum, be, is conjugated as given first because it enters into
the conjugation of other verbs. Principal Parts Pres. Indic.
'
Pres. Inf.
Perj. Ind.
Fut. Partic.
esse
fui
futurus
sum
Indicative Present Singular
Plural
sum, / am es, you (sing.; est; he
is
are
^.^.^^^^ ^^
sumus, we are estis, you (plu.) are
^.^^^^
they are
CONJUGATION OF SUM
3^8)
99
Lnperfect
Singular
Plural
eramus, we were eratis, you were
eram, / was eras., you were erat, he
was
erant, they were Future
erimus, we shall be
ero, / shall be eris,
you
erit,
he will be
will be
you
eritis,
will be
erunt, ihey will be Perfect
fui,
fuimus, we have been, were
/ have been, was
you have been, were he has been, was
you have been, were
fuisti,
fuistis,
fuit,
fuerunt, fuere, they have been, were
Pluperfect
fueram, I had been
fueramus, we had been fueratis, you had been fuerant, they had been
fueras, you had been fuerat, he had been
Future Perfect
fuerimus, we shall have been
fuero, T shall have been fueiis,
you
will have been
fueritis,
fuerit, he will have been
you
will have been
fuerint, they will' have been
Subjunctive Imperfect
Present
sim
simus
essem
sis
sitis
esses
essetis
sit
sint
esset
essent
essemus
Pluperfect
Perfect
fuerim
fuerimus
fuissem
fuissemus
fueris
fueritis
fuisses
fuissetis
fuerit
fuerii^j
igitized
by
Mici
fuissent
VERBS
lOO
Oip, 320
Imperative Present este, be (plu.)
es, he (sing.)
Future esto,
you
estote,
shall he
you
shall he
sunto, they shall be
esto, he shall he
Participle
Infinitives
Pres. esse, to be Perf.
fuisse, to have been
Fut.
futurus esse,
The meanings
to he
about
to he
Fut. futurus, about
of the Subjunctive are so numerous
single translation
to he
and varied that any
might be misleading; therefore none
is
given.
The various forms of this verb are made from two one of which, es, serves as the present stem, the other, as the perfect stem and as the basis of the participial stem.
319. roots, fu,
Other forms of the verb in occasional use ate: Pres. Subj., siem, sies, siet, sient; also, fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant.
Imperf. Subj., forem, fores, foret, forent. Fut. Inf., fore.
There
is
no present
participle; a participial
in the adjectives absens
The
element appears, however,
and praesens.
following verbs are conjugated as models of the
four regular conjugations:
—
FIRST CONJUGATION
amo, 320.
amo
love
'C!
OpSig pONJUgATIO^
32o)
lOI
^
-a^:
Imperfect Singular
amabam, / was amabas
Plural loving,
I loved
amabamus amabatis
amabant
amabat Future
amabo, / amabis amabit
amabimus
shall love
amabitis
amabunt Perfect
amavi, / have
loved, I loved
amavisti
amavimus amavistis
amavit
amaverunt or -re Pluperfect
amaveram, I had amaveras amaverat
amaveramus
loved
amaveratis
amaverant
Future Perfect
amavero, / amaveris amaverit
shall have loved
amaverimus amaveritis
amaverint Subjunctive
Present
Imperfect
amem
amemus
amarem
amaremus
ames
ametis
amet
ament
amares amaret
amarent
Perfect
amaretis Pluperfect
amaverim
amaverimus
amavissem
amavissemus
amaveris amaverit
amaveritis
amavisses amavisset
ainivissetis
amaverint
amavissent
Imperative Present
ama,
love (sing.)
amate,
love (plu.)
Future
amato, you shall love amato, he shall Ism.
amatote, you (plu.) shall
amant^ they
shall love
love
VERBS
102 Infinitives
(J2I
SECOND CONJUGATION
322)
103
Future Perfect Plural
Singular
amatus ero, I amatus ens amatus erit
shall have been loved
amati erimus amati eritis amati erunt
Subjunctive Imperfect
Present
amemur
amer
amarer
amaremur
ameris or -re amemini
amareris, -re
ametur
amaretur
amaremini amarentur
amentur Perfect
amatus sim amatus sis amatus sit
Pluperfect
amatus essem amatus esses amatus esset
amati simus amati sitis amati sint
eimati
essemus
amati essetis amati essent
Imperative Present
amare,
amamini,
he loved (sing.)
he loved (plu.)
Future
amator, you shall he loved
amantor, they
amator, he shall be loved
shall he loved
Participles
Infinitives
Pres. amari, to he loved Perf.
amatus esse,
to
have
Perf.
amatus, having been
Fut.
amandus,
loved
been loved
Fut.
amatum about
iri, to
he
to be loved
to he loved
SECOND CONJUGATION moneo,
advise
Principal Parts
322.
monere
mone5
monui
monitum
Indicative Passive
Active
Present
moneo mones monet
monemus
moneor
monemur
monetis
moneris, -re
monemini monentur
Digitized
by MicrosoflS
VERBS
I04 Active
(322 Passive
Imperfect
monebamur
monebam monebamus
monebar
monebas monebat
monebaris, -re monebamini
monebatis
monebatur
monebaat
monebantur
Future
monebimur
monebo
monebimus
monebor
monebis monebit
monebitis
moneberis, -re monebimim monebuntur monebitur
monui
monuimus
monuisti
monuistis
monuit
monuerunt, re
monebuat
Perfect
monitus sum monitus es monitus est
moniti
sumus
moniti estis
moniti sunt
Pluperfect
monueram monueramus monueras monuerat
monueratis
monuero
monuerimus
mbnueris monuerit
monueritis
monuerant
monitus eram monitus eras monitus erat
moniti eramus moniti eratis moniti erant
Future Perfect
monuerint
monitus ero monitus eris monitus erit
moniti erimus moniti
eritis
moniti erunt
THIRD CONJUGATION
323) Active
Passive Pluperfect
monuissem monuissemus
105
momtus
VERBS
io6 Active
(J2J Passive
324)
VERBS IN
-10
OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION
Active
107
Passive Pluperfect
rexissem rexissemus
rectus essem recti essemus
rexisses
rexissetis
rectus esses
recti essetis
rexisset
rexissent
rectus esset
recti essent
VERBS
io8
Verbs in
-io of the
(324
Third Conjugation
capio, take
Principal Parts
capere
capi5
captum
cepi
Indicative Passive
Active
Present
capimur
capio
capimus
capior
capis
capitis
caperis, -re capimini
capit
capiunt
capitur
capiuntur
Imperfect
capiebam,
capiebar, etc.
etc.
Future
capiam,
capiar, etc.
etc.
Subjunctive Present
capiam,
capiar, etc.
etc.
Imperfect
caperem,
caperer, etc.
etc.
Imperative Present
capere
cape
capite
capito
capitote
capitor
capito
capiuntd
capitor
capimini
Future
capiuntor
Infinitives
Pres. capere
capi Participles
Fut. capiendus
Pres. capiens ,
Gerund Digitiia9i^aiflfc%bm>
FOURTH CONJUGATION
325)
109
FOURTH CONJUGATION audio, hear
326.
Principal Parts
audio
audire
audivi
auditum
no
VERBS Active
(326 Passive
Imperfect
audirem
audiremus
audirer
audires
audiretis
audireris, -re
audiremini
audiret
audirent
audiretur
audirentur
audiverim
audiverimus
auditus sim
auditi simus
audiveris
audiveritis
auditus sis
audili sitis
audiverit
audiverint
auditus
auditi sint
audiremur
Perfect
sit
Pluperfect
audivissem
audivissemus
auditus essem auditi essemus
audivisses
audivissetis
auditus esses
auditi essetis
audivisset
audivissent
auditus esset
audifi essent
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION
32?)
Examples:
III
—
First conjugation: conor, conari, conatus
sum, attempt Second conjugation: vereor, vereri, veritus sum, fear Third conjugation: utor, uti, usus sum, use Fourth conjugation: ordior,
orsus sum, begin
ordiri,
The semi-deponent audeo,
dare, has an old perfect subjunctive ausim. For the meanings of the participles of Deponent Verbs and for the deponent use of the perfect passive ps-rticiple of certain regular verbs, see 273 and 307.
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION 327.
There are two Periphrastic Conjugations,
— the Active,
consisting of the future active participle with the auxiliary
verb sum, and the Passive, consisting of the future passive
sum. The Active indicates a future or intended action, the Passive indicates one that is
participle with the auxiliary verb
intended, proper, or necessary.
The conjugation
is
as follows:
112
VERBS
"3
IRREGULAR VERBS
330)
Participle
Infinitives
potens (adj.)
Pres. posse Perf.
potuisse
Longer forms, potessem and potesse, are sometimes found;
also, the
early present subjunctive possiem.
Conjugation of void, wish, and 330.
Nold, he unwilling,
malo, prefer,
is
is
its
compotinds
a compound
a compound of tnagis
(in the
of ne and volo; form mag) and volo.
114
VERBS
(JJJ
332, 333)
IRREGULAR VERBS
"5
ii6
VERBS
{334
7
IRREGULAR VERBS
335-33^)
Qued, can, and flequed, can
335.
eo, except that the perfect
is
qum,
II
not, are
nequivi,
conjugated like
and that certain
forms are lacking.
Conjugation of 336.
fid, be
made, be done, or become
make, do, lacks the present passive system,
Facio,
perfect
and
sum, factus esse, supplied by fid
etc.
except the future passive participle faciendus;
its
participial systems are complete: f actus
The missing present
passive system
is
fio
fiam
fiamus
fis
fias
fiatis
fiat
fiant
fiunt
fit
Imp.
fiebam fiam
Fut.
fierem
Imperative Pres.
337.
Infinitive
fite
fi
Prepositional
—
Subjunctive
Indicative Pres.
:
fieri
compounds of facio are usually conjugated reguBut sometimes forms of fio are used in such
larly; e.g. conficior, deflcitur.
compounds:
as, confit, confiunt, defit, infit.
calefacio, patefacio
have forms of
fid in
Compounds
like benefacio,
the passive.
Conjugation of edo,
eat
In addition to forms with the thematic vowel, edo has forms in certain parts of the present system, made by attaching 338.
the personal endings directly to the root ed-, the d of the root
being changed to s and the vowel being lengthened. Principal Parts: edo, edere or esse, edi, esum.
Subjtmctive
Indicative Pres.
edo
/
edimus estis(editis)
edis(edas)
editis(edatis)
est(edit)
edunt
edit(edat)
edint(edant)
Imp. edebam Fut.
edim(edam) edimus(edamus)
es(edis)
edam
esseni(edereni) Digitized
by Microsoft®
'
VERBS
ii8
(339,
340
Imperative
Pres.
,
Pres.
es (ede)
este (edite)
Fut.
esto (edits)
estote (editote)
esto (edito)
edunto
Infinitive
Participle
Gerund
esse (edere)
edens
edendi, etc.
In the participial system there are esus, esurus, and the supines esum, esu.
The longer forms of the present indicative are found only in late Latin. The subjunctive forms edim, etc., are the only ones in common use till the Augustan period.
In the passive, besides the regular forms, the present indicative estur
and the imperfect subjunctive essetur occur rarely. The compound comedo has the perfect passive participle comestus, as well as comesus.
Conjugation of do, 339.
This verb
tion, except that
is
a
give
conjugated as a verb of the first conjugalong only in the second person singular
is
and present imperative and in the nominative singular of the present participle. The passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. of the present indicative
Early forms from another root du- are the present subjunctive duim,
dms,
duit, etc., and,
sometimes, duam, duas, duat,
The verb do had originally two meanings, compounds contain the latter meaning. 340.
Compounds with a monosyllabic
of the third conjugation, e
and a becoming
etc.
give
and
put,
and most
prefix are conjugated as verbs i
and Those with a
in the perfect
systems: as, abdo, abdere, abdidi, abditum.
participial
dissyllabic
prefix are conjugated like the simple verb do: as, circiundo, circumdare,
circumdedi, circumdatum.
Compounds sometimes have the subjunctive
-duim, etc^ interdo sometimes has the present indicative interduo from the same root.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
DEFECTIVE VERBS
341, 342)
119
DEFECTIVE VERBS 341.
Defective Verbs lack certain forms.
mon and
Conjugation of Indicative Pres.
The most com-
the forms of each which are found are as follows:
aio
aid, say
Subjunctive
—
,
VERBS
I20
{343-345
Conjugation of fari, speak
343.
Indicative Perf. fatus
Pres.
fantur
fatur
Fut.
fabor fabitur
— — —
sum
fati
sumus
fatus es
fati estis
fatus est
fati
sunt
fati
eramus
Plup. fatus
eram
fatus eras
fati eratis
fatus erat
fati
erant
Imperative fare Infinitive
fari
Gerund
Participles
fans
fandi
fatus
fando
.
Supine fatu
(abl.)
fandus Other forms are used in compounds of
fari.
—
Three verbs are used mainly in the perfect system, The coepi, I have begun, memini, I remember, and odi, / hate. perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect of memini and odi have the meanings of the present, imperfect, and future respectively. These verbs all have a complete perfect active system. In addition, coepi has coeptiirus, coepturus esse, coeptus, and a complete perfect passive system, which is used regularly when there is a dependent passive infinitive: as, id fieri coeptum est, this began to be done; a few forms of the present system occur Memini has the imperative forms memento, in early writers. mementote. Odi has osurus and occasional forms of a perfect passive system used as deponents. 344.
345.
Many
verbs of the second, third, and fourth conjugations are
used only in the present system.
Inceptives derived from verbs have no
perfect system of their own, but use that of the simple verb; they participial system.
The verbs used
have no
as regular forms of greeting, avere (or
havere) and salvere, appear rarely except in the infinitive and imperative: salve, salvete, salveto ;ave, avete, aveto.
The verb cedo, give
plural cette, has no otheir^jamgt/ by Microsoft®
(imperative)
5^(5,
LIST OF VERBS
347)
121
IMPERSONAL VERBS 346. These verbs are used (except for a few scattered forms) only in the third person singular and the present and perfect infinitives: as, pluit,
it
rains; licet,
it
is allowed.
verbs are used impersonally in certain senses:
happens; constat,
it is
evident.
The
passive of
Some
some
personal
accidit, it
as,
intransitive
used impersonally as, itur, it is gone, i.e. some one goes; pugnatur, there is fighting; ventum est, some one came. verbs
is
:
LIST OF VERBS 347.
In this
list
the following verbs are omitted:
— regular
first, second, and fourth conjugations, inflected amo, moneo, and audio; verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations whose only irregularity is the lack of the perfect or participial system, or both; inceptives formed from existing simple verbs and having no peculiarities. The principal parts of compounds are given under the simple verb; compounds are not noted in their proper place in the alphabetical list if the form of the verbal element is the same as that of the simple verb. A prefixed hyphen indicates that the verb is found only in compounds. The abbreviations Def. and Impers. are used for Defective and Impersonal.
verbs of the like
abici5, see iacio.
acquiro, see quaerS.
abigo, see ago.
acud, acuere, acm, acutum.
aboleo, abolere, abolevi, abo-
adhibeo, see habeo.
.
adicio, see iacio.
litum. abripio, see rapid,
adigo, see ago.
abscido, see caedo.
adim5, see emo.
abstineo, see teneo.
adipiscor, see apiscor.
accerso, see arcesso.
adolesc5, see alesco.
accido, see cado.
adsideo, see sedeo.
accido, see caedo.
afficio, see facio.
accipio, see capio. Digitized
aggredior, see gradior. by Mia
;
VERBS
122 agnosco, see nosed. ago,
agere,
arripio, see rapio.
So
actum.
egi,
{347
But
circumago and perago.
ascendd, see scando. aspergo, see spargo.
abigo, abigere, abegi, abac-
attineo, see teneo.
tum; and
attingo, see tangd.
so adigo, ambigo,
exigo, prodigo, redigo, subigo, transigo.
(Seecogoand
audeo, audere, ausus sum. auged, augere, auxi, auctum. ave, Def., (345).
dego.) aio, Def., (341).
alesco,alescere. adolesco,ado-
adultum
adolevi,
lescere,
batuo, batuere, batui. bibo, bibere, bibi.
coalesce coalescere, coalui,
coalitum; exolesco, exoles-
cado, cadere, cecidi, casurus.
cere,exolevi, exoletum; ino-
Cpds., -cido, -cidere, -cidi,
inolevi;
-casum. caedd,caedere, cecidi, caesum.
inolescere,
lesco,
subolesco, subolescere. algeo, algere, alsi.
Cpds., -cido, -cidere, -cidi,
allicio, see -licio.
-cisum.
alo,
alere,
alui,
altum
or
alitum.
cano, canere, cecini.
Cpds.,
-cino, -cinere, -cinui (rarely
ambigo, see ago. ambio, see e5.
-cecini).
capesso, capessere, capessi^,
amicio, amicire, amixi or ami-
amictum.
capessitum.
ango, angere.
capere, cepi, captum. So antecapio; other cpds.,
aperio, aperlre, aperui, aper-
-cipio,
cui,
capio,
tum. apiscor,
apisci,
aptus
adipiscor, adipisci,
sum;
-cipere, -cepi, -cep-
tum.
sum.
adeptus
carpo,
tum.
carpere,
carpsi,
carp-
Cpds.,
-cerpo,
-cer-
so indipiscor.
pere, -cerpsi, -cerptum.
arcess5 (or accers6),arcessere,
caveo, cavere, cavi, cautum.
arcessivi, arcessitum.
cedo, Def., (345).
ardeo, ardere, arsi, arsurus.
cedo, cedere, cessi, cessum.
arguo, arguere, argui, argutum.
-cello, -cellere.
arrigo, see'rego.
Digitized by i/crog5^"l^o>
So antecellS,
'e«^ell6.
But ex-
LIST OF VERBS
347)
123
cello, excellere, excellui, ex-
comprimo, see premo.
celsum.
concido, see cado.
-cendo, -cendere, -cendi, -cen-
sum.
concido, see caedo.
concino, see cano.
censed, censere, censui, cen-
concipio, see capio.
sum. cemo, cemere, cre^, -cretum
concludo, see claudo.
(rarely certum).
cdnfercid, see farcid.
cieo, ciere, civi, citum.
in cpds.,
-citum;
-cio,
concutio, see quatid.
-cire,
Also,
cdnficid, see facid.
-civi,
cdnfiteor, see fateor.
always accio. Other cpds. have forms of both conjugations. cingo, cingere, cin^, cinctum.
cdnfringd, see frangd.
clauded, claudere; also clau-
cdmved,
so
do, claudere.
claudo,
close,
clausum.
congruo, congruere, congrui. conicid, see iacid.
cdnivere,
cdnivi
or
cdnixi.
claudere, clausi,
Cpds.,
congredior, see gradior.
-cludo,
-cludere, -clusi, -clusum.
conquird, see quaerd.
cdnspergd, see spargd. cdnspicid, see -spicid.
clepo, clepere, clepsi.
cdnstitud, see statud.
coepi, Def., (344).
cdnsuld,
c5gd, cdgere, coegi, coactum.
cdnsulere,
cdnsului,
cdnsultum. conticescd, conticescere, con-
collido, see laedo.
ticm.
colligo, see lego,
cold, colere, colui, cultum.
contined, see tened.
comburo, see uro.
contingd, see tangd.
cotnininiscor, comminisci, com-
mentus sum.
coqud, coquere, coxi, coctum. corrigd, see regd.
como, comere, compsi, comptum. comperco, see pared,
corripid, see rapid,
comperio, see -perio.
credd, credere, credidi, credi-
compesco, compescere, com-
crebrescd,
compingo, see pango
crepare,
crepui
paia rare), crepitum. Digitized
cre-
tum. crepd,
pescui.
crebrescere,
brui.
by Microsoft®
(-cre-
VERBS
124
cresco, crescere, crevi, cretum.
crudesco, crudescere, crudui.
cubo,
cubui
cubare,
rare),
(cubavi
cubitum.
i347
dirimd, see emo. diripio, see rapio.
disco, discere, didici. discutio, see quatio.
cudo, cudere, -cudi, -cusum.
-cumbo, -cumbere, -cubui, -cu-
disicio, see iacio.
dissided, see sede5.
bitum. dissilio, see
saUo.
cupio, cupere, cupivi, cupitum.
curro,
currere,
sum. is
cucurri,
cur-
In cpds., the perfect
-cum
or
ditesco, ditescere.
dividere,
divido,
-axcam.
do,
dare,
divi-
decerpo, see carpo.
Impers.
So 340.
Other cpds. are of the third dere,
defetiscor, see fatisco.
see
etc.;
conjugation:
decipio, see capio.
datum.
dedi,
circumdo,
decet, decere, decuit.
divisi,
sum.
abdo, ababditum; so
e.g.
abdidi,
addo, cond5, credo, dedo, di-
dego, degere. deleo, delere, delevi, deletum.
delibuo, delibuere, delibui, de-
do, edo, indo, obdo, perdo,
prodo, reddo, subdo, trado,
vendo.
libiitum.
deligo, see lego,
doceo, docere, docui, doctixm.
delitesco, delitescere, delitui.
domo, domare, domui, domi-
demo, demere, dempsi, demp-
tum. duco, diicere,
tum.
diixi,
ductum.
deprimo, see premo.
dulcesco, dulcescere.
depso, depsere, depsui, deps-
duresc5, diirescere, diiruL
tum. edo, edere or esse, edl, esum.
deripio, see rapio.
descendo, see scando.
So comedo, but
desilio, see salio.
or
see faci5.
desipid, see sapid,
efficio,
detineo, see teneo.
eicio, see iacio.
died, dicere, dixi, dictum, diffiteor,
^ee fateor.
dnigO, see lego.
comesum
comestum.
elicio, see -licio.
eligo, see lego. Digitized
by kMVS^Sm>^ eminere,
eminm.
LIST OF VERBS
347)
em5,
emere, emi, emptum. So coetno and, rarely, in-
teremo and peremo usually iaterimo and perimd. Most cpds. change e to i in present system: adimo, dirimo, eximo, redimo. Cf. also como, demo, promo, sumo. ;
eo, ire,
the
ii
or
ivi,
same,
ambire,
Cpds.
itum.
except
ambivi,
axnbio,
ambitum.
I2S
ositional cpds., -ficio, -ficere, -feci,
-fectum.
fallere,
fallo,
refello,
farcio,
fefelli,
refellere,
farcire,
confercire,
falsum.
refellL
fartum
farsi,
(rarely farctum)
confercio,
.
confertum;
refercire,
fercio,
re-
refers!,
refertum. fateor,
fateri,
Cpds., -fiteor,
See also veneo.
Prep-
benefacio, calefacio.
fassus
sum.
-fiteri,
-fessus
sum.
erigo, see rego.
evanesco, evanescere, evanui.
fatisco, fatiscere.
faveo, favere, iam, fautum.
einlesco, e\^escere, e^olui.
-fendo, -fendere, -fendi, -fen-
excio, see cieo.
sum.
excipio, see capio.
For
fero, ferre, tuli, latum.
excludo, see claudo.
cpds. see 332.
excutio, see quatio.
ferveo,
exerceo, see arced.
fervere,
ferbui;
also
fervo, fervere, fervi.
exigo, see ago.
fido, fidere, fisus
eximo, see emo.
figo, figere, fixi,
sum.
fixum.
exolesco, see alescd. findo, findere, fidi, fissum.
expergiscor, expergisci, exper-
fingo, fingere, finxi, fictum.
rectus sum. fio,
experior, see -perio.
fieri,
factus
sum.
For
cpds. see 337.
explodo, see plaudo.
fleets, fiectere, flexi,
exsilio, see salio.
fleo, flere, flevi,
exuo, exuere, exui, exutum.
-fligo, -fligere, -fflxi, -flictum.
flexum.
fletum
flu6,fluere,fluxi, (fluxus, adj.).
facesso,
facessere,
facessivi
or facessi, facessitum. facio, facere, feci, factum.
non-prepositional
cpds.^
fodio, fodere, fodi, fossum. [for],
So as
fan, fatus sum.
(343).
Def.,
VERBS
126
frango, frangere, fregi, frac-
tum.
Cpds., -fringo, -frin-
gere, -fre^, -fractum.
frendere,
fresum
ico, icere, ici, illicio,
or
ictum.
see -licio.
illido, see
fremo, fremere, fremui. frendo,
{347
laedo.
imbuo, imbuere, imbui, imbutum. impingo, see pango.
fressum. frico, fricare, fricul,
frictum or
incesso,
incessere,
incessivi
(incessi rare).
fricatum. frigesco, frigescere, -frixi.
incido, see cado.
frigo, frigere, frixi, frictum.
incidd, see caedo.
fnior, frui, fructus
sum.
incipio, see capid.
fugi5, fugere, fugi, fugiturus.
incipisso, incipissere.
fulcio, fulcire, fulsi, fultum.
include, see claudo.
fulgeo, fulgere, fulsi; also ful-
incutio, see quatid.
indipiscor, see apiscor.
go, fulgere.
funds, fundere, fudi, fusum.
indulged, indulgere, indulsi.
fungor, funp, functus sum.
induo,
induere,
indui,
indii-
tum.
furo, furere.
ingredior, see gradior.
gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum. gemo, gemere, gemui.
ingruo, ingruere, ingrui.
gero, gerere, gessi, gestum.
inquam, Def., (342).
gigno, gignere, genui, genitum.
inquire, see quaero.
glisco, gliscere.
insideo, see sede5.
glubo, glubere.
inolesco, see alesco.
insilio, see salio.
gressus sum.
instituo, see statuo.
Cpds. -gredior, -gredi, -gres-
interficio, see facio.
sus sum.
inveterasco, inveterascere, in-
gradi,
gradior, ,
vetera^a.
haereo, haerere, haesi, haesu-
irascor, irasci, iratus
sum.
rus.
haurio, haurire, hausi, haus-
tum (but hausurus). have, see ave. hiSCO, hiSCere.
iacid,
iacere,
So superiacio.
ieci,
-icio, -icere, -ieci, Digitized
by kcroSSm'^^y
in
iactum.
Other cpds., -iectum;
poetry
with
.
LIST OF VERBS
347) lengthening
a
of
preposi-
tional element with a final
consonant
in the present sys-
licet,
licere,
-licio,
So
-iecio, -iecere.
But
licuit
or licitum
Impers.
est.
tem, due to an earlier form
127
-licere, allicio,
elicio,
-lexi,
-lectum.
illicid,
pellici5.
elicere,
elicui,
elicitum.
iubeo, iubere, iussi, iussum.
iungo, iungere, iiiim, iunctum.
lingo, lingere, linxi, linctum.
iuvenesco, iuvenescere.
lino, linere, levl, litum.
iutum
iuvo, iuvare, iuvi,
(also
linquo, linquere, liqui, -lictum. liqueo, liquere, licui.
iuvaturus).
liquor, liqui.
labor, labi, lapsus
lacessere,
lacessd,
loquor, loqui, locutus
sum.
sum.
liiceo, lucere, luxi.
lacessivi,
lacessitum.
ludo, lUdere, lusi, lusum.
lugeo, lugere, luxi.
laedo, laedere, laesi, laesum. illido, illidere, illisi, illisum.
luo, loose, luere, lui. -luo, wash, -luere, -lui, -liitum.
lambo, lambere. ]a.v\, lautum or lotum (rarely lavatum). Also, in early Latin and in poetry,
lavo, lavare,
malo, malle, maliu.
adlego, interlego, perlego or
mando, mandere, mandi, mansum. maneo, manere, mansi, mansum. mansuesco, see suesco.
relego,
marcesco, marcescere, -mar-
lavo, lavere. lego, legere, legi, lectum.
pellego,
praelego,
sublego,
translego.
vowel change,
With
colligo, colli-
gere, collegi, collectum ;
so deligo, eligo, seligo.
X
So
and With
in perfect, diligo, diligere,
dilexl,
tellego
dilectum; and so in-
and neglego
(rarely
perfect intelle^ andneglegi) libet, libere, libuit
est.
or libitum
cui.
maturesco, maturescere,
medeor, mederi. memini, Def., (344). mergo, mergere, mersi, mersum. metior, metiri,
mensus
Digitized
stmi.
meto, metere, messui, messtmi.
metud, metuere, mettu.
Impers.
ma-
tiirui.
by Microsoft®
.
VERBS
128 mico,micare,micui.
So emico,
But dimico,
intermico.
di-
i.347
neglego, see lego.
neo, nere, nevi.
micare, dimicavi (rarely dl-
nequed, see queo.
micui), dimicatum.
nigresco, nigrescere, nignu.
Im-
mingo, mingere, minxi, mictum. minuo, minuere, minui, minutum.
nolo, nolle, nolui.
misceo, miscere, miscui, mix-
nosco, noscere, novi, notum.
ninguit or ningit, ninxit. pers. niter, niti, nixus or nisus
sum.
So ignosco, intemosco, per-
turn.
misereor, misereri, miseritus (rarely misertus) svim.
mitesco, mitescere. mitto, mittere, misi,
missum.
molo, molere, molui, molitum.
mordeo,
mordere,
momordi,
nosco, praenosco; but agni-
tum and cognitum from agnosco and cognosce. notesco, notescere, notm. nubo, nubere, nupsi, nuptum. -nuo, -nuere, -nui.
morsum. morior, mori or moriri, mor-
tuus
moveo, tum.
sum
(but moriturus).
movere,
mo-
movi,
obliviscor,
oblivisci,
oblitus
sum. obmutesco, obmutescere, obmutui.
mulceo, mulcere, mulsi, mul-
obsideo, see sedeo.
sum. mulgeo, mulgere, mulsi, mulsum.
obsolesco, obsolescere, obsolevi,
obsoletum.
obtineo, see teneo. obtingit,obtingere,obtigit.
nanciscor, nancisci, nactus or
nanctus sum.
occallesco, occallescere, occa-
nascor, nasci, natus sum.
neco,
necare,
neca^
rare) , necatum.
lui.
(necui
eneco (enico enec-
rare), enecare, enecui,
tum ( enicavi, enecatum rare) necto, nectere, nexui or nexi,
nexum.
Im-
pers.
occido, see cado. occido, see caedo. occino, see cano. occipio, see capio.
occulo, occulere, occului, occul-
tum.
•
Digitized
by Microsofi®
LIST OF VERBS
347)
129
6di, Def., (344).
pectd, pectere, pexi,
operio, operire, operui, oper-
pellieid, see -licid.
tutn.
pexum.
pelld, pellere, pepuli,
oportet,oportere,oportuit.
Im-
In
cpds.
reppuli
pers.
opperior, see -perio.
sum. sum. Fut.
ordior, ordiri, orsus
Present sys-
Part, oriturus.
tem, except
inf.,
(for repepuli)
but from
repelld.
opprimo, see premo. orior, oriri, ortus
pulsum.
-puli;
perf.
usually of
pended,pendere,pependi (cpds. -pendi), -pensum. pendd, pendere, pependi (cpds. -pendi), percelld,
pensum. percellere,
perculi,
perculsum.
third conjugation.
perficid, see facid.
paciscor, pacisci, pactus
sum.
So depeciscor or depaclscor. paenitet, paenitere, paenituit.
Impers.
orpansum. Soexpando; dispando or dispendo, dispesor dispansum.
peg^
Cpds.,
pactum.
rare),
-pingo,
compered or
parere, peperi,
partum
(but pariturus).
petior,
peri)
;
deponent,
experior,
sum; and
experiri, expertus
perquird, see quaerd. perspieid, see -spicid.
passus sum.
perpeti,
petessd or petissd, petessere. petd, petere, peti^, petitum.
Impers.
est.
pingd, pingere, pinxi, pictum.
pased, paseere, pavi, pastum. patior, pati,
reperid
piget, pigere, piguit or pigitum
compared, eompersi. parid,
and
pertined, see tened.
pared, parcere, peperci or par-
parsurus.
comperid
(but perf. repperi for repe-
-pingere,
-peg?, -pactum,
si,
-perid, -perire, -peri, -pertum.
so opperior.
pango, pangere, pepigi (panxi
and
pergd, see regd.
So
pando, pandere, pandi, passum
sum
perfringd, see frangd.
per-
perpessus
sum.
pinsd or pisd, pinsere, pinsui or
pisivi,
pistum or pinsi-
tum. plangd, plangere- planxi, planc-
tum.
paved, pavere, pavi. Digitized
by Microsoft®
VERBS
130
plaud5, plaudere, plausi, plau-
sum.
So applaudo, circum-
plaudo; but explode, explodere, explosi, explosum, and so supplodo.
plexum.
So deponent in cpds., -plec-pleo, -plere, -ple\ii, -pletum. plico, plicare, -plicavi or -pli-
-plicatum or -plicitum. pluere,
sum. Cpds., -primo, -primere, -pressi, -pressum. prodigo, see ago.
pluit
or pluvit.
Impers.
poUuo, polluere,
pollui,
proficiscor, proficisci, prof ectus
sum. profiteor, see fateor.
-plexus sum.
tor, -plecti,
pluit,
premo, premere, pressi, pres-
proficio, see facio.
plecto, plectere, plexi,
cui,
{347
poUu-
tum. pono, ponere, posui, positum. porricio, porricere, porrectum.
promo,
prdmpsi,
promere,
promptum. prosilio, see salio.
psallo, psallere, psalli.
pubesco, pubescere, pubui. pudet, pudere, puduit or pudi-
tum est. Impers. pungo, pungere, pupugi
(cpds.,
-punxi), punctum.
putesco, putescere, putui.
porrigo, see rego.
posed, poscere, poposcL
quaero,
possideo, see sedeo.
possum, posse, potior,
potiri,
potul.
sum.
potitus
inf.,
usually of third conjugation. poto, potare, potavi, potimi or
potatum.
quaesumus forms in quatio,
are
the
common
quatere,
only
use.
quassum.
-cussum. queo, quire, quivi, quitum.
praeside5, see sedeo.
prandere,
pransi,
pransum. prehendo, prehendere, prehendijprehensum; alsopren46, prendere, prendi, pren*
-quiro,
-quism, -quisitum. quaeso, quaesere. quaeso and
Cpds., -cutio, -cutere,-cussi,
praecino, see cano.
sum.
Cpds.,
-quirere,
Present system, except
prandeo,
quaesm,
quaerere,
quaesitum.
-,.
...
,,
Digitized
by
queror, queri, questus sum. quiesco, quiescere, quievi, qui-
etum.
rabo or rabid, rabere.
;
LIST OF VERBS
347) rapid,
rapere, raptii, rapttxm.
Cpds., -lipid, -ripere, -ripui,
In
-reptum.
Latin
early
surrupio (perf. .surrupuit or surpuit)
found
is
for
sur-
131
rddd, rddere, rdsi, rdsum.
rudd, rudere,
mdm.
rumpd, rumpere, rtipi, ruptum. rud, mere, rui, -rutum (but ruiturus).
ripi5.
saepid, saepire, saepsi, saep-
recido, see cado.
tum.
recido, see caedo. recipio, see capio.
salid, salire,salui. Cpds.,-silid,
recludo, see claud5.
-silire, -silui (-silivi late).
redigo, see ago.
salve, Def., (345).
redimo, see emd.
sancid,
refercio, see farcid.
sapid,
reficio, see facio.
regere,
sanxi,
sanc-
sapere, sapivi.
Cpds.,
-sipid, etc.
sarcid, sarcire, sarsi, sartum.
refrigesco, see frigesco.
rego,
sancire,
tum,
refello, see fallo.
rexi,
rectum.
scabd, scabere, scabi.
Cpds., -rigo, -rigere, -rexi,
scalpd, scalpere, scalpsi, scalp-
-rectum but pergo, pergere, perrexi, perrectum, and so surgd; rarely porgo for por-
scandd,
;
ttxm.
scandere.
Cpds.,
-scendd, -scendere, -scendi,
-scensum.
rig5.
remimscor, reminisci. reor, reri, ratus
seated
sum.
or
scatd,
scatere
or
scatere.
reperio, see -perio.
scindd,
repo, repere, repsi.
sum.
reprimo, see premo.
scindere,
scidi,
scis-
scribd, scribere, scripsi, scrip-
tum.
require, see quaere.
resided, see seded.
sculpd, sculpere, sculpsi, sculp-
tum.
resilid, see salid.
resipiscd, resipiscere, resipivi.
seed, secare, secui, sectum.
respergd, see spargd.
seded, sedere, sedi, sessum.
retined, see tened. rided, ridere,
risi,
risum.
ringor, rin^, rictus
sum. Digitized
So circumseded,superseded but other cpds., -sided, -sidere, -sedi, -sessum. by Microsoft®
VERBS
132
status, statuere, statui, -statu-
seligo, see lego.
sen-
sensi,
sentire,
sentio,
sum. ptiltum.
serere,
sertum;
-serui,
satum; sow.
Cpds., -sero, -serere, -se^a, -situm.
-sti-
sidere,
-sedi),
sidi
sm,
(-sidi
or
situm.
solvi,
rare
-statum or
Most
cpds.
have
circumsteti, supersteti.
forms of third sonit,
stridere,
stridi;
also
tum. struS,
conjugation,
steti,
strings, stringer e, strinxi,stric-
solu-
sonare, sonui, sonaturus.
sonunt,
struere,
struxi,
struc-
tum. suadeS, suadere, suasi, sua-
sum. subigS, see agS.
etc.)
sorbeo, sorbere, sorbui (sorpsi
subolescS, see alescS. succidS, see cadoJ
rare).
spargo, spargere, sparsi, spar-
Cpds., -spergo, -sper-
gere, -spersi, -spersum.
spemo, spemere,
succidS, see caedS.
suesco, suescere, sueia, sue-
tum.
sprevi, spre-
tum.
sufficiS, see faciS.
sugS, sugere, sua, siictiun.
-spicio, -spicere, -spexi, -spec-
turn.
spondeo,
stare,
strido, stridere.
tum.
sum.
sto,
strides,
statum.
soleo, solere, solitus simi.
solvere,
-stinxi,
strepo, strepere, strepui.
sisto, sistere, stiti,
(Also
stinguere,
-stinctum.
perfect -stiti; but antisteti,
-sessum.
sino, sinere,
stravi, stra-
sterto, stertere, -stertui.
-stitum.
serpo, serpere, serpsl.
sotio,
-stituo,
stemo, sternere, tum.
stingu5,
entwine. sero, serere, se^i,
solvo,
Cpds.,
stemuo, stemuere, stemuL
sequor, sequi, secutus sum.
sido,
tum.
tuere, -stitui, -stitutum.
sepelio, sepelire, sepelivi, se-
sero,
i347
spondere,
(cpds., -spondi),
spopondi
sponsum.
spud, spuere, -spui, -spixtum. Digitized
sum, esse, fui, futiirus. siimS, sumere, siimpsi, sumptum. suS, suere, sui, siittun.
supplSdS, see plaudS. '
by Microsoft®
.
LIST OF VERBS
347) surgo, see rega.
133
traho, trahere, tram, tractum.
surripio, see rapid.
transigo, see ago.
tremo, tremere, tremui. taedet,
taesum
taedere,
est.
tribuo, tribuere, tribui, tribu-
tum.
Impers. tango, tangere, teti^, tactum. Cpds., -tigo,
-tigere,
-tigi,
trudo, trudere, trusi, trusum. tueor, tueri, tutus sum.
tundo,
-tactum. tego, tegere, texi,. tectum.
temno, temnere, -temptum.
tundere,
-tudi
(but
from retimdo), tu(-tusum or -tunsum)
rettudi
-tempsi,
sum
turgeo, turgere, tursl.
tends, tendere, tetendi (cpds. -tendi), late).
tendo
tentum (tensum But extends and oshave extensus and
ostensus (besides the regular forms) in classical Latin. teneo, tenere,
tenui.
Cpds.,
ulciscor, ulcisci, ultus
sum.
unguo, unguere, unxi, unctum. (Also ungo, ungere.) urgeo, urgere, ursi. uro, urere, ussi, iistum. utor, uti,
usus sum.
-tineo, -tinere, -tinui, -ten-
tum.
vado, vadere, -vasi, -vasum.
tergeo, tergere, tersi, tersum. (tergo, tergere rare.) tero, terere,
tri^/i,
vulsum. (Also
tritum.
texo, texere, texui, textum.
(Also tinguo, tinguere.)
'
tollere,
sustuli,
subla-
tondere,
-totondi,
-tondi
or
tonsum.
tono, tonare, tonui, -tonitum or -tonatum.
torqueo, torquere, torsi, torturn.
vends, see do. veneo, venire, venii. venio, venire, veni, ventum.
vergS, vergere.
turn.
tondeo,
vollo, vollere,
volli.)
tingo, tingere, tinxl, tinctum.
tollo,
veho, vehere, vexi, vectum. vello, vellere, velli (vulsi late),
verrS,
verrere,
-verri,
ver-
simi (early vorro, etc.) verts,
vertere, verti,
versum
(early vortS, etc.).
vescor, vesci. vesperascit, vesperascere, ves-
peravit. torre5, torrere, torrui, tostum. Digitized by Microsom>
Impers.
VERBS
134
^sum.
vols, velle, volui.
dnctum.
vincio, vincire, vinxi,
^sere,
volvo, volvere, volvi, volutum.
vomo, vomere, vomui, vomitum. voveo, vovere, voin, votum.
vinco, vincere, T^ci, victum. visb,
349
Tavo, vivere, Aaa, -victum.
veto, vetare, vetui, vetitum.
video, videre, vidi,
(34^,
visi.
PREPOSITIONS Originally case-forms alone served to
348.
way
show
in a general
those relations which later were expressed, by prepositidns in
combination with certain cases. Then various adverbs began to be used, to define more exactly the meaning of the case-form,
and a new part
Many
of these
was thus developed.
of speech, the preposition,
adverbs which came to be used as prepositions
continued to be used also as adverbs, either as independent words or, as prefixes, in combination with verbs: as, ante, cir-
cum, contra,
The
inter, per, post.
origin of
are case-forms in.
:
some prepositions
is
doubtful: as, ab, ad;
many
as ex, extra, infra, supra, circum, coram, ante,
(For the origin of adverbs see 195
£f.,
and
for the use of
adverbial or prepositional prefixes with verbs see 260.)
The use
of prepositions with case-forms
is
treated under the head of
Syntax.
CONJUNCTIONS The
some Conjunctions is doubtful, but most pronominal adverbs as the following, derived from the relative, interrogative, or indefinite pronoun: -que) quoque, quidem, quippe, cur (for quor), quam, cum (for quom), quando, quod, ubi (for quubi), quia; from other pronominal roots: sed, ceterum, enim, nempe, utrum, si, dum. The following are from noun or adjective stems: modo, venuil, vero. The following combinations contain the pronominal element: quamvis, quare, qupminus. The con349.
of
them
are
origin of clearly
:
—
—
—
junction vel
The Syntax.
is
the imperative of void.
classi%;ation
and use
of conjunctions are treated
Digitized
by Microsoft®
under the head of
INTERJECTIONS
J5o)
13S
INTERJECTIONS 350.
Some
Interjections are mere exclamations of surprise,
joy, grief, etc.: as, 6, id,
words:
by
as,
em
eheu; some are derived from other later superseded
(probably from eme, take)
en, the Greek \\v
—
,
—
ecce (from a pronominal stem), pro
and preposition); others are Greek words: as, euge, euhoe; others are oaths, containing the names of deities: as, (the adverb
hercle, pol.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
THIRD PART— SYNTAX Syntax
351.
treats, of the
combination
of
words
in
sentences.
A
352.
Sentence
sion of thought.
a complete statement or expresbe Simple, having only one
is
may
It
and predicate, or it may consist of two or more members, called Clauses, each having a subject and
"subject
predicate.
PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Clauses are either Principal
353.
A
ordinate (dependent).
Main
Clause.
The verb
the indicative, but
of
A
354. called
often called the is
most often
in
be in the subjunctive, imperative, or in indirect discourse and, sometimes, in
exclamations a principal verb
is
is
a Principal Clause
may
historical infinitive;
Subordinate Clause
(independent) or Sub-
Principal Clause
is
is
in the infinitive.
The verb
of a
in the indicative or subjunctive.
sentence consisting of two or more principal clauses
Compound;
principal clauses
a sentence consisting of
one or more
and one or more subordinate clauses
is
called
Complex. The subordinate clauses may be coordinate with one another or one may be subordinate to another.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 355. said.
The Subject The Predicate
that about which something is is that which is said about the
is
Subject. 356.
The Subject
used as a noun.
is
a
noun
Digitized
or pronoun, or anything else by Microsoft® 136
PHRASE
357-3'^l)
The Subject may be an
infinitive or a clause:
praeclarum est scire Latine,
it is
placuit ei ut legates mitteret,
B. G.
The
I,
34,
137
it
seemed
best to
him
to
send envoys;
I.
infinitive subject is especially
verbs: as, peccare licet 357.
—
a fine thing to know Latin; Brut. 140.
nemim, no one
common
with impersonal
is at liberty to sin;
Par. 20.
As the subject may be expressed by the personal end-
may
ing of the verb, a sentence
consist of a single word:
as,'
venit, he aame.
358.
may be
The Predicate
a
is
finite
sum
a form of the verb
verb or an infinitive;
(or a verb of similar
or, it
meaning)
with a predicate noun or adjective defining or describing the subject: as, Caesar imperator erat, Caesar was commander; fortissimi sunt Belgae, the Belgians are the bravest.
359. copula.
The verb sum, when used Other verbs are so used
in this
way, is called a with predicate
in the passive
nouns and adjectives; these are fio, become, videor, seem, and to name, choose, regard, etc.
verbs meaning
:
—
hi consules facti sunt, these became consuls; Cat.
amicus appellatus 360.
erat, he
5, 13,
often omitted: as,
founded; Liv.
10,
called
M.
14.
a friend; B. G.
i, 3, 4.
it may be easily haec hactenus (sc. dixi), so much But forms of the auxiliary verb sum are 2. coloniae deductae (sc. sunt), colonies were
The Predicate
is
rarely omitted unless
supplied from the context: for that; Att.
had been
i,
as,
i.
PHRASE 361.
A
Phrase
is
a group of two or
more words connected
in
sense and not containing a finite verb (i.e. any form of the indicative, subjunctive, or imperative) as, cottidianis proellis, in :
daily battles;
ab extremis Galliae finibus, from the very borders
decertare, to contend in Gaul;' proelio of ' ^ Digitized by Microsoft®
battle.
— CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
138
{362-36$
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 362. follows:
Sentences are classified according to their meaning as
—
Declarative: postero die castra movent, on the next day they move their camp;
E.G.
I, IS, I.
Interrogative: quis est
me
mitior?
who
than I?
is gentler
Cat. 4, 11.
Imperative or Hortatory: consuUte vobis, take counsel for yourselves; Cat.
hos latTones interficiamus,
let
us
4, 3.
kill these robbers;
B. G.
7, 38, 8.
Exclamatory: utinam copias eduxisset! would
that he
aerumnas incidisse! misery! Fam. 14, i, i.
te in tantas
to
had led out his forces! Cat. 2,4. think that you fell into such
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 363.
may
Interrogative Sentences are of various forms.
They
pugnare? do you want to fight? Pl.Rud. ion. The lack of an interrogative word is rather common if the question contains the negative non: as, patere tua consilia non sentis? you don't see that your schemes are known? Cat. 1,1. It is often doubtful whether contain no interrogative word:
as, vis
such sentences are interrogative, exclamatory, or declarative.
—
Or, they
may
364.
by an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb
(a)
be introduced as follows:
quid agis? what are you doing? Cat.
:
i, 27.
quali fide existimatis eos esse? wliat sort of honcrr do you think they
have? Font. 31. cur loquimur?
365.
(b)
usually the
why do we speak? Cat.
by the first in
iucunda? can
enclitic
2, 17.
-ne attached to the emphatic word,
the sentence: as, potestne tibi haec lux esse
this light of
day he pleasant
to
you? Cat.
i,
15.
Sentences thus intro(|}i^g^(y^j5/cfego^n-committal as to the
— ANSWERS
366-371)
139
expected answer; or they may expect an aflSrmative answer; or, less often, a negative answer. The enclitic -ne is sometimes attached to other interrogative words: as, utnimne, whether.
sometimes loses
It
its
vowel:
as,
for itane; viden, for
itan,
Tidesne. 366.
(c)
by
an affirmative answer:
n.5nne, expecting
nonne meministi? don't you remember? Fin. 2, 10. nonne hunc in vincla duci imperabis? won't you order him
—
to be
put
into prison? Cat. i, 27.
367.
(d)
num num 368.
by num, expecting a negative answer:
baxbardrum Romulus rex barians? Rep. I, 58. infitiari
(e)
pbtes? can you deny? Cat.
by an;
this is especially
—
was Romidus a king of bar-
fuit?
i, 7.
common
in
argumentative
language, introducing questions which are purely rhetorical
and often exclamatory:
as,
an vero P. Scipio
Ti.
Gracchum
privatus interfecit? did Publius Scipio, a private citizen, really
cause the death of Tiberius Gracchus? Cat. 369.
(f)
by ecquis
i, 3.
ecqui)
(adjective,
and,
by
rarely,
ecquando: ecquis hie est? is anyone here?
ecqui
PL Am.
metus? have you any fear?
1020.
Verr. 4, 18.
ecquando his de rebus tales viros audituros existimasli? did you think that such
men would ever hear
about these things? Verr.
2,
43.
ANSWERS 370.
The answer
of the question:
potest? can ita,
it
he
as,
yes
is
expressed
valetne?
is
by
repetition of the verb
he well? valet, he is; fienne
done? potest, yes ; or by an adverb, etiam,'
—
sane, sic, vero, etc. numquid -nsf is there anything you want? etiam, ilia maneat? is she to remain? sic, yes; Ter. Ph.
371.
:
The answer no
is
expressed
by
yes; PI.
Am.
S44-
813.
repetition of the verb
of the question with ^;gggg^jgji^/§^j^suniusne esse tufi? can
— CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
I40
we
non possumus,
be safe?
non, minime,
etc.
:
—
{372-376
by an adverb,
no; Phil. 12, 27; or
venitne? has he come? non, no; PI. Ps. 1067.
an haec contemnitis? do you despise means;
De
Or.
these things?
minime, by no
295.
2,
ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS In Alternative Questions the
372.
member
first
intro-
is
duced by utrum or -ne, or, especially in early Latin, has no introductory word; the second member is introduced by an: utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est? Acad.
2,
is
this
your fault or ours?
95.
servosne es an liber? are you a slave or free?
PI.
Am.
343.
Tacitus es an Plinius? are you Tacitus or Pliny? Plin. Ep.
If the second
373. it
consists simply of
questions), necne:
—
pater eius rediit an
member an non
is
9, 23, 3.
a mere negation of the
or, rarely
non? has his father
first,
(but often in indirect
returned or not? Ter. Ph. 147.
sunt haec tua verba necne? are these your words or not? Tusc.
374. the two
Rarely an introductory utrum precedes an alternative question, members being introduced by -ne and an: as, utrimi censes ilium
tuamne de se orationem that he
libentius
auditurum fuisse an
meam?
do you think
would have heard your speech about himself with greater pleasure or
mine? Fin.
375. as,
3, 41.
2,
60.
The two members
are sometimes introduced
by -ne
.
.
.
-ne:
versans Siculisne resideret arns Italasne capesseret oras, deliberating
whether he should shores; Aen.
376.
member
5,
The
settle
in the Sicilian fields or
particle -ne is
way
to the Italian
iussi
—
persequemur otium an hunc laborem?
give myself to leisure or undergo this toil?
cum
his
sometimes attached to utrum in the
or to an in the second:
utrumne
make
702.
three are few or
BtsH^e^iot^^i^p^gft®
shall I obediently
Hor. Epod.
interrogetur tria pauca sint anne multa, since
it
first
is
i,
7.
asked whether
APPOSITIVES
377-3^l)
A
377.
member among For
the noblest citizens?
is
sometimes introduced by utrum, the second
utrum
as,
is,
in clarissimis est civibus is? is he
Flacc, 45.
single questions introduced
378. tion
single question
being suppressed:
141
by an
see 368.
Single questions sometimes contain alternative details; the ques-
not which thing
fore, are
particles:
is true,
but whether either
These, there-
is true.
not alternative questions and do not contain the alternative
—
quaero
num
id iniuste aut
improbe
fecerit,
/ ask whether he did
this either
unjustly or dishonestly; Off. 3, 54. num Homerum, num Hesiodum coegit obmutescere senectus? did old
age compel either Homer orHesiod
379. all
An
but the
alternative question
first
«n fortunam
may
to
become silent? Cat.
M.
23,
contain more than two members;
are regularly introduced
by an
:
as,
utrum hostem an vos
utriusque populi ignoratis? are you ignorant of the enemy or
of yourselves or of the fortunes of the two peoples? Liv. 21, 10, 6.
Syntax of the Parts of Speech
SYNTAX OF NOUNS APPOSITIVES 380. A noun meaning the same person or "thing as another noun or pronoun and used in combination with it, usually for the purpose of identification or description, is called an Appositive and is said to be in Apposition. 381.
An Appositive agrees with its noun
case and,
if
possible, also in
or pronoun in
number and gender:
—
P. Scipio, pontifez maximus, Publius Scipio, pontifex maximus; Cat.
lo^
I, 3.
Statorl, antiquissimo custodi
huius urbis,
to
Jupiter Stator, the
most ancient guardian of this city; Cat. i, 11. Themistocles veni ad te, /, Themistocles, have come
Them. historia,
to
you; Nep.
9.
magistra vitae, history, the teacher of life; De Or. 2, 36. illas omnium doctrinarum inventrices, Athenas, to say
ut omittam
nothing of Athgigit^0WffSKiBffi ^^ leairning;
De Or.
i, 13.
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
142
An
382.
aedem
may
Appositive
denote time or cause or other ideas
by subordinate
usually denoted
{382-386
clauses:
—
Salutis dictator dedicavit, he dedicated the temple of Safety
when he was
dictator;
Liv. 10,
i, g.
fortuna praemia vobis ea victoiibus proponit, Fortune ofers you these
rewards if you conquer; Liv. 21, 43,
An
383.
Appositive usually follows
5.
its
noun, but
may
pre-
cede: as, gravissimus auctor Cato, Cato, an authority of the great-
Tusc.
est weight;
A
384.
(See also 381, example from
4, 3.
noun
pronoun
or
is
De Or. i, 13.)
sometimes accompanied by an
appositive which denotes only a part of the whole denoted
the noun or pronoun. Especially alius
—
common
alius,
and
This
called
is
Partitive
by
Apposition.
in this construction are quisque, uterque,"
alter
— alter: —
quos Poenus in civitates quemque suas dimisit, ginian sent away, each
to his
own
whom
the Cartha-
state; Liv. 21, 48, 2.
decemviri alius in aliam partem castrorum discurrunt, the decemvirs hurried one
to
one part of the camp, another
to
another; Liv. 3,
SO, 12.
In poetry and late prose the accusative
386.
apposition with a clause:
—
is
sometimes used in
iaculum emittit in auras, principium pugnae, he hurled his javelin the air, the beginning of the fight; Aen. 9, 53.
into
deserunt tribunal manus intentantes, causam discordiae, they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists,
386.
A
noun
in apposition
a cause of dissension; Tac. Ann.
with a locative
is
i,
27.
put in the abla-
tive with or without the preposition in (see 612).
The
preposition
denoting place
to
Tarquinios, in city;
is
regularly used with appositives of nouns
which or from which:
—
urbem
Tarquinii, a very prosperous
Rep.
fldrentissimam,
to
2, 34.
Tusoulo, ex clarissimo- miinicipid, from Tuscuhim, a very famous
town; Font,
/[digitized
by Microsoft®
PREDICATE NOUNS
3^7-390) 387. tive:
—
An
Infinitive or a Clause
may
143
be used as an apposi-
hoc admiratus sum, mentidnem te hereditatiun ausum esse facere, / wondered at this, that you dared to mention inheritances; Phil. 2, 42.
Caesar senatus in
eum beneficia commemoravit, quod rex appellatus
esset, Caesar mentioned the kindness of the senate toward him,
had been
the fact that he
called king;
B. G.
i,
43, 4.
id agunt, ut viri boni esse videantur, they strive for this, that they
may seem 388.
A verb
good men; Off.
to be
i,
41.
sometimes agrees, not with
its subject,
but with
an appositive of the subject; this is the regular construction if the appositive is urbs, oppidum, or civitas, and is common with cases of partitive apposition:
—
Corinthum, totius Graeciae lumen, ezstinctum esse voluerunt, they wanted Corinth,
the light of all Greece, to be extinguished;
Manil.
11.
Corioli oppidum captum, Corioli-town was taken; Liv. 2, 7,^, duae res mazimae, altera alter! defuit, the two most important
were lacking, one
to
one of them, the other
9.
things
Brut. 204.
to the other;
PREDICATE NOUNS 389.
in
A
Noun
Predicate
agrees in case and,
number and gender with the noun which
describes
:
stilus
—
optimus dicendi magister
eloquence;
nta
De
Or.
i,
(est), the
pen
Rose.
Am.
it
possible,
defines or
is the best teacher
of
150.
rustica parsimoniae magistra est, country thrift;
if
life is the
teacher of
75.
consules creantur Caesar et Servilius, Caesar and Servilius are elected consuls;
B. C.
3, i, i.
For the use of the Predicate Nominative see 358, 359. 390.
A
predicate
noun
(or
adjective)
with an infinitive
(except the historical^gi^d^g^n^kme^ary infinitives)
is
regu-
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
144
larly in the accusative,
subject or not:
non
—
whether the
est amici talem esse,
it
is
i.391-393
infinitive
has an expressed
not the part of a friend to act so;
Lael. sp. si
vos voltis perhiberi probos, if you want
he held in honor;
to
Ter. Ad. 504.
hoc est patrem esse?
But very sative
is
is this being
and almost always
rarely,
a father? Ter. Ad. 707.
uxor
invicti lovis esse nescis,
unconquered Jove; Hor. C. ait fuisse
when
in poetry,
omitted, the predicate nominative
is
used:
you don't know
the subject accu-
—
that
you are
the wife of
3, 27, 73.
navium celerrimus, it says it was
the swiftest of boats;
CatuU.
4, 2.
For the use of a predicate noun or adjective with a complementary infinitive see 951.
391. With impersonal verbs which take a subject infinitive and a dative of the person, if the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predicate noun or adjective may be in the dative:
—
licuit
esse otioso Themistocli, Themistocles might have been lazy;
Tusc.
I,
33.
vobis necesse est fortibus viris esse, brave
men; Liv.
it is
necessary for you to be
21, 44, 8.
nostrapte culpa facimus ut malis expediat esse, by our
we make 392.
A
it
profitable to be bad;
predicate noun in the accusative
is
:
—
Hamilcarem imperatorem Nep. Hamil.
me augurem ducem 393.
fault
often used in
connection with the direct object of verbs meaning choose, call, etc.
own
Ter. Ph. 766.
fecerunt, they
make,
to
made Hamilcar
general;
2.
nominaverunt, they named
me augur;
Phil. 2, 4.
se praebuit, he ofered himself as leader; Vat. 33.
With the phrase nomen
esse, the name, which would
naturally be in the predicate nominative or accusative,
put in th| dative: as, Faustulo fuisse his name was FaustuliBi^itizid'^y m^i^fof®
nomen
is
often
ferunt, they say
— CASES OF NOUNS
394~39^) 394.
A
predicate noun
is
145
rarely used in the ablative: as, Dolabella
hoste decreto, Dolabella having been voted an enemy; Phil. 11, 16.
An
395.
infinitive or a clause
may
be used as a predicate
noun: vivere est cogitare, to
live is to think;
altera est res ut res geras deeds; OS.,
A
396.
Tusc.
:
5,
non omnis
iii. great
dicitiir
agmen,
its
subject, but with
Trojan band;
the boys are called the
602. error stultitia dicenda est, not every mistake is to be
called folly;
Div.
2, 89.
contentum suis rebus esse mazimae sunt dmtiae, one's
you do
66.
—
Troianum
Aen.
s,
the other thing is that
verb sometimes agrees, not with
a predicate noun pueri
i,
magnas,
own
content with
to be
possessions is the greatest wealth; Par. 51.
The predicate uses of
the genitive, dative, and ablative are treated under
the Cases.
CASES OF NOUNS
The
principles here stated apply not only to nouns but also
to all other declined substantives,
adjectives
397.
and
—
i.e.
to pronouns,
NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE CASES The nominative is used as the subject of
verb and of the historical infinitive (see 963) Caesar
ita respondit,
Caesar replied as follows; B. G.
—
:
i,
Appius ius dicere, Appius pronounced judgment; Liv.
398.
and to
participles used as nouns.
a
finite
14, i.
2, 27, i.
The nominative is used also as the case of adwhen used in this way, is called the Vocative.
dress, and,
Stems in -o of the second declension are the only ones which have a special form for the vocative :
quo usque tandem abutere,
—
Catilina, patientia nostra ?
tell
how long will you abuse our patience? Cat. 1,1. res omnis mihi tecum erit, Hortensi, all my attention will
us, Cati-
line,
you, Hortensius; Verr. Digitized
a. pr. 33.
by Microsoft®
he given to
— SYNTAX OF NOUNS
146
But the nominative
of o-stems is
{399-403
sometimes used as a case
of address: as, audi tu, populus Albanus, hear, ye people of Alba;
Liv.
So, also,
I, 24, 7.
an adjective
in
agreement with a voca-
tive or an appositive of a vocative: as, nate,
my
solus,
son, thou alone
my
great power;
mea magna potentia
Aen.
The nominative is sometimes used by an interjection:
399.
O O
festus dies!
in exclamations,
—
usually accompanied
664.
i,
joyful day I Ter. Eun. 560.
frustra suscepti labores
nature! Hor. C. 3,
5,
In these cases the nominative
in vain endured! Mil. 94.
toils
!
pro curia inversique mores
alas, the senate-house
I
and our
perverted
7.
may be
regarded as the subject of a verb
to be supplied.
GENITIVE CASE 400.
The Genitive
is
used with substantives, adjecrarely, with adverbs.
and verbs, and, very
tives,
Genitive with Substantives and Adjectives Possessive Genitive
401. The Possessive Genitive is used to denote not only actual ownership but also origin, cause, place, etc. :
potentia Pompei, Pompey's power; Sail. Cat. 19.
clamor oppidanorum, the shouts of the townsmen; Liv. Canachi signa, statues by Canachus; Brut. 70.
bellum Venetorum,
the
Trasumenni pugna,
the battle of
402.
When
war with
the Veneti;
B. G.
—
Caesaris adventus, the arrival of Caesar; B. G.
The
3, 16, i.
Trasumennus; Liv.
by the noun on which
called a Subjective Genitive:
403.
33, 8.
23, 43, 4.
the Possessive Genitive denotes the person
does* the act indicated
reliquias
2,
Danaimi,
the
remains
left
possessive adjective
it
depends,
6, 41, 4.
by the Greeks; Aen.
is
who it is
i,
30.
regularly used instead of
the posseSsive genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun (for Digitized
by Microsoft®
GENITIVE CASE
404-408)
exceptions see 623); if there the implied genitive:
—
is
a qualifying word
ad vestram omnium caedem, for
tuum studium
147
the
it
agrees with
murder of all of you; Cat. 4, when you were young; Fam.
adulescentis, your zeal
4.
15,
13, I-
tuam 404.
ipsius amicitiam, your
The
possessive idea
own
friendship; Verr. 3,
by an
often expressed
is
always used instead of the genitive of alius:
—
adjective; alienus
servBi tumultu, in the insurrection of the slaves; B. G. aliena virtQs, another's courage; Sail. Cat.
7.
i,
is
40, j.
7, 2.
405. The repetition of a noun governing two possessive genitives where the English uses "that " is regularly avoided: as,
quis est qui possit conferre vltaxa. Treboni
who
is there
who could compare
Dolahella? Phil. 11,
406.
the life of
cum DolabeUae?
Trebonius with that of
9.
For the sake
of brevity the possessor
is
sometimes put in
place of the thing possessed: as, videtisne captivorum dratidnem
cum
perfugis convenire ? do you see that the talk of the captives agrees with that of the deserters?
407. depends
B. C.
In a few is
2,
39, 2.
common
phrases the noim on which the genitive
sometimes omitted:
—
Hectoris Andromache, Hector's wife, Andromache; Aen. 3, 319. Hasdrubal Hamilcaris, Easdrubal, son of Hamilcar; Liv. 26, 17,
4.
Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus, the slaw of Claudius; Ter. Ph. Didasc. ventum erat ad Vestae, we had come to the temple of Vesta; Hor.
S. i,
9. 35-
408.
with
The
sum
Possessive Genitive
or facio
:
—
is
often used in the predicate
omnia hostium erant, all things belonged to the enemy; Liv. 6, 40, 17. neque Galliam potius esse Ariovisti quam populi Romani, and that Gaul did not belong to Ariovislus more than to the Roman people; B. G.
oram Romanae rule; Liv.
i,
45,
i.
dicionis fecit, he brought the coast Under
2b^6^^e§-/,yM/croso«®
Roman
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
148 This construction the verb
is
common when
especially
is
was
a fool
the part of
est consulis videre quid agatur,
the subject of
—
an infinitive or a clause:
stulti erat sperare, it
{4OQ-412
it is
to
hope
; Phil.
2,
the consul's duty to see
23.
what
is
Mur. 4. negavit moris esse Graecorum ut in convivio Tirorum accumberent mulieres, he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to recline at a man's dinner; Verr. i, 66. being done ;
409. The genitive with causa, and postridie is of possessive origin:
gratia,
—
ergo, tenus, instar, pridie,
amicitiae causa, by reason of their friendship; B. G.
Aen.
ergo, on his account;
illius
i,
laterum tenus, as far as the sides; Aen. 10, 210. instar montis equum, a horse like a mountain; Aen. pridie eius diei,
410. their
on
the
day
39,
2.
6, 670.
B. G.
before this day;
i,
2, 15.
47,
2.
Certain adjectives meaning similarity or connection and
opposites sometimes
take the Possessive Genitive;
so,
similis, dissimilis, contrarius, par, dispar, proprius, alienus, etc.
In this construction the adjective
is
treated as a noun.
Genitive of Definition
411.
The Genitive
is
sometimes used to define a word
of general meaning; this
Genitive
:
Troiae
urbem
(the regular phrase
of Troy; Aen.
i,
haec vox voluptatis,
nuUam
virtus aliam
would be Troiam urbem),
this
word "pleasure"; Fin.
mercedem no
reward beyond
other
this
one of praise
glory; Arch. 28.
The Genitive denoting
stantives, adjectives,
eorum una quis
2, 6.
desiderat praeter banc laudis et
Whole
Genitive of the
412.
the city
565.
gloriae, virtiie desires
and
called also the Appositional
is
—
the whole is
used with sub-
and adverbs which denote a part:
pars, one pari of them; B. G.
omnium mortalium? who
of all
i, 1, 5.
men?
Verr.
5,
And. 398sapientum octavusc^ygig^jfft,^/%^j5jij|g men; Hor. aliquid boni, something good; Ter.
179. '-"''^
S. 2, 3, 296.
—
— GENITIVE CASE
413-417) 6 maior iuvenum,
primos
O dder of the youths;
civitatis, the first
men
parum, enough
dom; Sail. Cat. s, 4. ubinam gentium sumus? where in
413.
The
to that pitch of
Genitive of the
descriptive adjective:
—
Hor. A. P. 366.
of the state; B. G. 2, 3,
satis eloquentiae, sapientiae
eo miseriarum,
149
Whole
the world are
we? Cat.
little
i, 9.
rarely used with the positive of a
is
8.
Adjectives of the third declension are rarely found in this con-
struction unless used in combination with an adjective of the
second declensions: tion;
N. D.
I,
as, nihil solidi, nihil
first
and
eminentis, no solidity, no projec-
75.
This construction is found sometimes in the predicate
415.
quid est tui consili? what is your advice? Fam. 11, quid est huic reliqui? what is
left for
him?
conquered; Sail. Cat.. 11,
Uterque, each (of two),
416.
:
i, 3.
Sull; 89.
mllites nihil reliqui viclis fecere, the soldiers
or,
wis-
misery; Sail. Jug. 14, 3.
peditum ezpediti, the light-armed infantry; Liv. 37, 18, sancte dedium, thou holy one of the gods; Aen. 4, 576.
414.
i.
eloquence, too
left
nothing to the
7.
both,
when used with
a pronoun,
sometimes, with a noun and a pronoun combined, takes the
genitive; with a
agreement:
—
noun
it
is
regularly used as an adjective in
uterque nostrum, each one of us;
quaium civitatum utraque,
Sull. 13.
each of these states; Verr.
uterque dux, each commander; Marc.
The
plural
is
s, 56.
24.
used either with the genitive or in agreement.
In certain phrases where the English uses of, an is uSed instead of the Genitive of the Whole; the most common adjectives thus used are extremus, imus, medius, multus, nullus, omnis, plerique, quot, reliquus, 417.
adjective in agreement
summus,
tot, totus,
and ultimas
extrema hieme, media aestate, of summer; Manil. 35. hi
omnes,
all
of
:
—
at the end of winter, in the middle
thef$iy^^^i„y^ft^
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
150
With cardinal numerals (except
418.
dam, a
mille)
certain one, the ablative with e, ex, or
used instead of the genitive unus ex
genitive
An
419.
—
and with qtude is regularly
Cat. 3, 16.
nostris, one of our colleagues;
Fam.
11, 21, 5.
sometimes used with unus and quidam.
is
extension of the Genitive of the
sages as the following:
—
angusta viarum, the narrow in
:
isGs, the only one of these;
quidam de coUegis
The
(418-421.
aequo campi, on
streets;
Aen.
Whole
j,
is
found in such
pas-'
332.
the level plain; Liv. s, 38, 4.
Genitive of Material
The Genitive
used to denote material. a development of the Genitive, of the Whole
420. is
is
:
flumen verborum, a stream of words; Or. 53. obtorti circulus auri, a chain of twisted gold; Aen.
5,
—
This
559.
Genitive of Quality
421.
The Genitive
quality,
but only when
is
sometimes used to denote a accompanied by a qualifying
it is
word. There
is
often no distinction between the genitive and abla-
but the genitive regularly denotes a quality permanent and usually one that is internal rather than
tive in this sense,
which
is
external
:
—
homines magnae virtiitis, men of great courage; B. G. 2, 15, 5. eius modi consilium, a plan of this sort; B. G. s, 29, 5. plurimarum palmarum gladiator, a gladiator of many victories; Rose.
This genitive
Am. is
magnae habitus .3. G.
17.
sometimes used
in the predicate
auctoritatis, regarded as a
man
:
—
of great influence i
7, 77, 3.
notus animi ^Atevafji^iegmiffilJlihiStl^nal spirit; Hor. C.
2, 2, 6.
GENITIVE CASE
422-425) 422.
The Genitive
of Quality
nection with a proper name;
noun
151
rarely used in direct con-
is
usually attached to a
it is
in apposition with the proper
—
name:
man
Cato, adulescens nullius consili, Cato, a young
Q. Fr.
common
of no judgment;
I, 2, 15.
Hannibalem, annorum novem, Hannibal, when nine years Liv. 21,
423. it is
When the Genitive of Quality denotes length, height, etc.,
sometimes called the Genitive of Measure:
pedum,
in altitudinem
424.
old;
I, 4.
One form
as,
of the Geniti-ve of Quality
scrobes trium
B. G.
trenches three feet deep;
7, 73, 5.
the use of certain
is
substantives and, more frequently, adjectives, to denote indefinite value:
non
—
flocci facio,
I don't care a straw; hit. 13, 50, 3. homo sit; parvi eaim pretrest qui tarn
noli spectare quanti
est, don't consider
value
who
The
genitive
how much
is so worthless;
man
the
Q. Fr.
nihil!
worth, for he is of small
is
14.
i, 2,
Objective Genitive is used to denote the object of an action implied in a noun, an adjective, or a participle
425.
used as an adjective:
—
cupido gloriae, desire for glory;
odium potentiae Jug.
Sail.
Cat.
nobilitatis, hatred of the
7, 3.
power of the nobility;
Sail.
30, 3.
Helvetiorum
iniiiriae populi
tians to the
Roman
Romani,
people; B. G.
the i,
wrongs done by 30.
the Helve-
(Helvetiorum
is
sub-
jective, populi is objective.)
cupidum rerum novarum,
memorem Cat.
vestri,
desirous of a revolution; B. G.
oblitum
sui,
4, 19.
tempestatum potentem, ruling amantissimos Cat.
i, 18, 3.
mindful of you, forgetful of himself;
rei
the storms;
publicae viros,
Aen.
msn most
i,
80.
devoted to the state;
3, s.
Dignus, worthy, and indignus, unworthy, are rarely used with the genitive;
see 687.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
—
1
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
152 426. ity,
With a present
{426-43
participle the genitive denotes
a permanent qual-
the accusative a particular instance.
427.
In place of the Objective Genitive we sometimes find a possessive
—
a descriptive adjective, or a prepositional phrase: neque neglegehtia tua neque odio id fecit tud, he did this
adjective,
neglect
metus odium
neither
from
nor hatred of you; Ter. Ph. 1016.
enemy; Sail. Jug. 41, 2. Antonium, hatred of Antony; Fam. 10, 5, 3. (Cf. ereptae Tirginis ira, in wrath at the loss of the maiden; Aen. 2, 413.) hostilis, /eor of the
in
Genitive of Specification
428.
The Genitive
used with a few adjectives to denote that with reference
nouns and many to which a quality This construction
and
is
particularly
of Specification
is
exists.
is
an extension of the Objective Genitive
common
in
the poets and later prose-
writers: praestantiam
rerum,
fessi
virtutis,
preeminence in virtue; Lael. 70.
tired of trouble;
Aen.
i,
178.
integer vitae scelerisque purus, upright in
Hor. C.
I,
linguae feroces, bold of tongue; Tac. H.
429.
life
and free from
guilt;
22, I. i,
35.
Either the genitive or the ablative
is
used with adjec-
tives denoting plenty or want; as, plenus, dives, onustus, refertus, ezpers, inanis,
430.
and inops.
Animi, in mind (really a locative), and, by analogy, the genitive
mentis are used with adjectives and verbs which express mental condition:
—
animi maturus, mature in mind; Aen.
g, 246.
sanus mentis aut animi, sound in mind or heart; Plaut. Trin. 454. AntiphO me ezcniciat animi, Antipho distresses my heart; Ter. Ph. 187.
Genitive with Verbs Genitive of Charge or Penalty
431. Verbs meaning to accuse, condemn, or acquit take a genitive of the charge and, sometimes, a genitive of the penalty: Digitized by Microsoft®
—
— GENITIVE CASE
432-434)
accflsatus est proditionis, he
was accused
153 of treason;
Nep. Milt.
7, S-
pecuniae publicae est condemnatus, he was condemned for embezzle-
ment of
the public
funds; Flacc. 43.
video non te absolutum esse improbitatis, sed
illos damnatos esse you were acquitted of outage, bid that they were condemned for murder; Veir. i, 72. ut damnarentur votorum, that they be condemned to pay their vows;
caedis,
/
see not that
Liv. 27, 45, 8. capitis
condemnari,
to be
condemned
to death;
Rabir. 12.
This use probably originated in the combination ofcrlmine, or a similar word, with the genitive.
The charge is sometimes expressed by de with the by an ablative like crimine with the genitive. The
432.
ablative, or
Genitive of the Penalty
and multiples
quanti, is
is
confined in prose to capitis, pecuniae,
like dupli.
Of other words the ablative
used.
433. The Genitive noun reus:
Charge or Penalty
of the
is
used also with the
pecuniarum repetundarum reus, charged with extortion; condemned to pay his vow; Aea. 5, 237.
Sail.
Cat. 18,
3.
voti reus,
Genitive with refert and Interest
434.
With
the impersonal verbs refert and interest, the
person or thing affected, is
if
of the third person
expressed by the genitive;
of the third person reflexive, of the possessive adjective,
Refert
is
if
and not
reflexive,
of the first or second person or
by the ablative
singular feminine
— mea, tua, nostra, vestra,
or sua.
characteristic of early Latin, interest of later Latin,
beginning with Cicero.
The
degree of interest
the genitive of value or by an adverb:
—
is
expressed by
quid tua id refert? magni, what difference does that make to youf
much; Ter. Ph. 723. faciundum aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur, something must be done which should seem more for their good than his own;
/S^zfogy W*rofeoft®
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
154 video quid
my The verb
mea
intersit,
(435^43^
quid utriusque nostrum, I see what
Fam.
advantage, what for the advantage of us both;
is
sometimes omitted:
quid id nostra? what's that
as,
is
for
7, 23, 4.
to
us?
Ter. Ph. 940.
435.
The person
—
accusative:
is
rarely expressed
by the dative
by ad with the
or
quid ref erat intra naturae finis viventi ? what difference does
it
bounds of nature? Hor. S. 1, i, 49. aut ad meam rem ref ert ? what difference does
it
make
to
one
living within the
quid ad or to
me my interests?
Genitive with Verbs of Plenty or
Want
The genitive is sometimes used with verbs, as with adjectives, meaning plenty or want:
436. it is
make to me
PI. Pers. 513-
—
implentur Bacchi, they Jill themselves with wine; Aen.
egeo
consili,
I need
Att. 7, 22,
advice;
For the ablative with these verbs 437. struction,
With verbs meaning but the genitive
me laborum levas,
is
you
i,
215.
2.
see 528.
separation, the ablative is the regular con-
sometimes found in poetry:
relieve
me
of
my
troubles; PI.
desine querellarum, cease your complaints; Hor. C.
—
Rud.
247.
2, 9, 17.
abstlneto irarum, refrain from anger; Hor. C. 3, 27, 69.
Objective Genitive with Verbs of Mental Action or Sensation
Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, or Reminding
Memini and reminiscor, when they mean to be mindful of (also memini meaning to mention) and obliviscor, when it means to be unmindful of, take the genitive nee me meminisse pigebit Elissae, / shall not regret the thought of 438.
:
—
Elissa; Aen. 4, ZZS-
reminisceretur virtutis Helvetiorum, of the Helvetians;. B. G.
i,
let
him
Achillam, ciiius supra meminimus, Achilles,
B.C.
3,
bear in
mind
the courage
13, 4.
whom I mentioned above;
108,2.
obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum, dismiss the thought of
and
fires;
CaXDig/tbed by Microsoft®
murder
GENITIVE CASE
439-442)
1^5
The genitive is used also with the impersonal expression venit mentem as, venit mihi Platonis in mentem, the thought of Plato comes :
my
mind; Fin.
remember,
means
to
5, 2.
Memini and
439. to
in
reminiscor,
to retain
when they mean
in the mind, and oblmscor,
literally to forget,
take the accusative:
Cinnam memini, / remember Cinna;
literally
—
when
it
Phil, s, 17.
reminiscens pristini temporis acerbitatem, remembering the bitterness of the past; Nep. Ale. 6, 3.
totam causam oblitus
The
440.
distinction
est, he forgot the
whole case; Brut. 217.
which has been given
is
observed, especially in the case of reminiscor, which
and usually takes the accusative.
tively rare
only the genitive of a person.
not always is
compara-
Obliviscor takes
Neuter pronouns and adjectives
are regularly in the accusative.
441.
Recordor, remember, takes de and the ablative of a
person; of a thing either de and the ablative, the accusative,
very rarely in classical Latin, the genitive: as, flagitidrum sudrum recordabitur, he will remember his crimes; Pison. 12. or,
442.
the thing or, if it is
by
reminding, — adtnoneo, commoneo, and — take the accusative the person reminded;
The verbs
commonefacio, is
of
of
expressed by the genitive, by de with the ablative,
a neuter pronoun and sometimes even if it is a noun, same constructions occur with moneo,
the' accusative; the
—
except that the genitive is very rare: admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae, he reminded one of his poverty, another of his greed; Sail. Cat. 21, 4.
mearum me miseriarum commones, yoM remind me Rud. 743. commonefacere quemque
of
my
misery;
PI.
benefici sui, he reminded each one of his
kindness; Sail. Jug. 49, 4.
quod vos
lex
commonet,
eam rem nos Sail.
that of which the
locus admonuit,
Jug. 79,
tlie
law reminds you; Verr.
place has reminded
me
3, 40.
of this thing;
I.
legafis perfidiae monitis, the envoys being reminded of their treachery;
Liv. 3O) 37, 'Digitized by Microsoft®
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
156
(443-448
Verbs of Mental Sensation
Misereor and miseresco, pity, take the genitive:
443.
miseremini sociorum, pity your
—
Verr. i, 72.
allies;
tniserescite regis, pity the king; Aen. 8, S73-
The impersonal verbs
444.
miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet,
and taedet take an accusative of the person who feels pity, etc., and a genitive of the person or thing toward which the feeling is directed:
—
eorum nos miseret, we
me
civitatis
morum
pity them; Mil. 92.
piget taedetque, /
of the state; Sail. Jug. 4,
The
am sick and tired of the morals
9.
sometimes used impersonally. All may have as subject a neuter pronoun (almost without exception in the singular), an infinitive, or a quod-clause. With pudet the genitive is sometimes used of the person before whom there is a feeling of shame: as, nos ne civium quidem horum pudet? not passive, miseretur,
is
these verbs except miseret and miseretur
even before these citizens are
445.
we ashamed? Liv.
22, 14, 4.
In poetry the genitive sometimes occurs with cupio, fastidio (used
impersonally), invided,miror, studeo,and vereor (once in prose, Att. 8, 4,1).
Objective Genitive with potior
The
is sometimes used with potior, get posseswhich usually takes the ablative: as, partis Siciliae potitus est, he became master of part of Sicily; Nep. Dion. 5, 5.
446.
sion
genitive
of,
The phrase rerum to be,
potiri
is
common
in the sense to become, or
master of the situation.
Tacitus uses rarely the same genitive with apiscor and adipiscor. Genitive of Exclamation
447.
Very
rarely, in imitation of Greek, thegenitive is
tions: as, foederis
heu
taciti, alas, the secret
covenant;
used in exclatna-
Prop.
5, 7, 21.
DATIVE CASE 448. The Dative denotes direction or connection. It Is used with verbs and adjectives, rarely with nouns and adverbs, and sometisg/ggeaM^S^fe^^ sentence as a whole.
DATIVE CASE
449-453)
157
Dative with Verbs Indirect Object
The Dative
449.
used with
is
many
verbs, transitive
or intransitive, to denote that toward which an action or feeling
directed.
is
Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs
With
450.
transitive verbs in the active voice the Dative
of the Indirect Object
is
used in connection with the Accusative
of the Direct Object; with the passive voice the direct object
—
becomes the subject and the indirect object remains: Utteras a te mihi reddidit, he gave me a letter from you; Fam. regi haec dicite,
tell
the king this;
Aen.
i,
nuntiabantur haec Curioni, these things were announced B. C.
2, 17, i.
137. io
Curio;
37, 1.
2,
451. Verbs of motion, which regularly take the accusative with a preposition, sometimes take the dative:
—
cum
subsidium ferrent, while they brought help
aliis alii
other; B. G. 2, 26,
rogas ut
mea tibi
Fam.
I, 9,
This construction
to
one an-
2.
me
scripta mittam, you ask
to
send you
my wriiings;
23.
is
regularly confined to nouns denoting persons, but
the poets sometimes use
it
with nouns of place:
caelO capita ferentes, raising their heads
to
^
heaven; Aen.
3,
678.
Carthagini iam non ego nuntifis mittam, no more shall I send messengers Carthage; Hor. C. 4,
to
So, with
sky; Aen.
452.
4, 69.
an intransitive verb:
5,
it
clamor caelo,
the shout rises to the
451.
With
scribo, write, the person is either in the accusative with the
preposition, or, less often, in the dative.
453.
The verb dono,
present, takes either the accusative of
the thing and the dative of the person or the accusative of the
person and the ablative of the thing: praedam
—
militibus donat, he presents the booty to the soldiers; B. G. 7,
II, 9.
hunc
civitate
dona^j^^^jj^^^g^w with citizenship;
Arch.
5.
•
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
1S8 454.
(4S4~45^
Verbs usually intransitive sometimes have a direct
—
object in connection with the indirect:
multi se alienissimis crediderunt, ptany entrusted themselves
to utter
strangers; B. G. 6, 31, 4.
id eis persuasit, he convinced them of this; B. G.
i, 2, 3.
equites imperat civitatibus, he demanded horsemen
B. G.
6, 4, 6.
from
the states;
(Cf. the passive use: singulis censoribus denarii
trecenti imperati sunt, three hundred denarii were
each censor; Verr.
demanded of
137.)
2,
Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs
455.
The Dative
of the Indirect
Object
is
many
following groups of intransitive verbs; in
used with the
cases the English
uses a transitive verb with a direct object to express the
same
idea.
456. for
(a)
Many
verbs denoting a mental attitude or action;
example, verbs meaning
to advise,
command,
persuade, believe,
obey, yield, envy, favor, flatter, help, injure, indulge, pardon, please, displease, serve, resist, spare, threaten, trust,
and
distrust
:
—
an C. Trebonio persuasi? cui ne suadere quidem ausus essem, have
I persuaded Gains Trebonius? whom I would not have dared even to advise; Phil. 2, 27.
huic legioni Caesar et indulserat et confidebat, Caesar had indulged this legion
457.
Some verbs
please; iubed, crrder
and had confidence in of these
it;
B. G.
i,
40, 14.
meanings take the accusative;
e.g. delecto,
(dative probably not before Tacitus); iuvo, help;
laedo, injure.
Other verbs take either the accusative or the dative without apparent
dif-
ference of meaning; e.g. adulor,/aiwj upon; de&cio, fail; despeto, despair
458.
The verbs
fido
and
confido, trust,
and
diffido, distrust,
of.
sometimes
take the ablative.
The verb person,
invideo,
when
it
means
begrudge, takes the dative of
the
— the dative, accusative, ablative (with or without a preposition),
or (once) the genitive, of the thing;
when
it
means
envy, the dative of the
person or the dative of tl}§/^g^^|t)i!j^J^SsBS#essive genitive of the person.
DATIVE CASE
459-4'^4)
159
459. Verbs of this class (denoting mental attitude or action), which take the. dative, are used only impersonally in the passive,
—
the dative being retained: his persuader!
non
cui parci potuit?
poterat, they could not be persuaded; B. G.
who could
Exceptions are very rare;
e.g.
2,
10, S-
be spared? Liv. 21, 14, 4.
why am I
cur invideor?
envied? Hor.
A. P. s6.
Some
meaning to verbs of this audiens esse, or dicto audiens esse, to he obedient to; praesto esse to be on hand; fidem habere, to have confidence in; morem gerere, to humor. 460.
expressions equivalent in
class take the dative; e.g.
461.
Some nouns
take the dative
:
—
meaning
similar in
obtemperatio legibus, obedience miserils suis
to the
remedium, a cure for
to verbs of this class
laws; Legg.
42.
i,
their woes; Sail. Cat. 40, 3.
insidiae consuli, the plot against the consul; Sail. Cat. 32,
462.
(b)
The impersonal
verbs, libet, licet, convenit, con-
ducit, expedit, liquet, accidit, contingit, evenit:
quibus
licet
B. G. si
fortunatissimis,i£)to
may now
—
be most fortunate;
6, 3S, 8-
quid accidat Romanis, if anything should happen B. G.
463.
iam esse
(c)
i.
to the
Romans;
1, 18, 9.
Some verbs denoting
denoting contention or difference:
union, and, in poetry, verbs
—
potest hoc homini huic haerere peccatum? can this crime be associated with this tibi certat
man?
Rose.
Amyntas, Amyntas
diSert sermoni,
it
differs
is
Am. your
17.
rival; Eel. 5, 8.
from prose; Hor.
Indirect Object with
S. i, 4, 48.
'
'
Compound Verbs
464. The Dative of Indirect Object is used with many verbs compounded with ad, ante, circum, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, Some of these verbs are transitive, others insub, and super. transitive, the former J^gfc&o|fedir^ and indirect objects:—
•
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
l6o finitinus
bellum
non solum
inferre, to
make war on
{465-469
their neighbors;
part in these matters hut even took the lead;
umquam succumbet
nee
B. G.
i, 2, 4.
rebus sed etiam praefuit, he not only took
interfuit iis
Fam.
i, 8, i.
inimicis, he will never yield to his enemies;
Deiot. 36.
The
compounds is due to the preposition; with others due to the meaning of the simple verb.
dative with most
(e.g. confido, trttst) it is
465.
If the
no idea of
meaning of the compound
such that there
is
is
direction, the verb takes a direct object; e.g. inter-
ficio, kill.
In some compounds an original idea of direction has been and the accusative is used; e.g. aggredior, attack; obeo,
lost,
undertake; oppugno, oppose.
To emphasize phrase
is
the idea of motion or place a prepositional
often used with compounds:
ut in gladium incumberet, so that he fell
—
upon
his sword; Inv. 154.
tamquam ad saxum adhaerescunt, they cling as if to a rock; Acad.
Some compounds take
466.
2, 8.
either the accusative of the
thing and the dative of the person, or the accusative of the
person and the ablative of the thing;
e.g.
circumfundo, impertio, induo, intercludo: tibi
haec
licia
quinis castris
circumdo, / put these threads around you; Eel. 8, 75. oppidum circumdedit, he surrounded the town with five
camps; B. C.
3, 9, 4.
Some compounds cum with the ablative. Some compounds take
467. or
aspergo, circumdo,
—
(e.g.
comparo, confero) take either the dative
either the dative or the accusative without
difierence of meaning; e.g. antecedo, praecurro, invado.
468. is like
The
that of
poets sometimes use the dative with verbs whose meaning
compounds which take the dative;
survive (see 479); excello
The
469.
=
adjective obvius
supero
=
supersum,
and the adverb obviam used
connection with a verb take the dative:
—
mgter sese tulit obvia, his mother came to meet him; Aen. obviam Clodio, ^itiw^b^MidtfispfM'ii. 29.
cui fit
e.g.
praesto, surpass.
1,
in
314.
DATIVE CASE
470-473)
161
.
Dative of Reference
The dative
used with many verbs to denote the thing concerned in the action or condition expressed by the verb. The dative may 470.
the person
is
or, rarely,
— advantage or disadvantage, denote actual — or a mere connection, more or remote — interest,
i.e.
tibi patet,
mihixlausa
less
mea domus
is closed to
consurrexisse
me; Rose. Am.
omnes
M.
honor; Cat.
illi
est,
:
my own house
is
open
you,
dlcuntur, all are said to have risen in his
63.
ut suae vltae consuleret, that 'he should consult for his
B. G.
to
145.
own
life;
7, 12, 3.
471. The Dative of Reference is often used loosely, having no connection with any single word, but denoting an interest in the fact as a whole:
—
talia iactanti procella
a
The
velum adversa
blast strikes the sail athwart;
ferit,
Aen.
i,
as he utters these words
102.
dative thus used often takes the place of a Possessive
Genitive qualifying a single word:
—
sese Caesari ad pedes proieceruut, they threw themselves at Caesar's feet;
iter
B. G.
i,
31,
2.
Poenis obstruere voluenmt, they wanted Carthaginians; Cat.
472.
and
The
satis:
—
dative
bene facere
is
rei publicae, to benefit the state;
operam dabo ut
to block the
march of the
75.
used with verbs qualified by bene, male,
Optimo viro male dicere, Att.
M.
to
speak
ill
tibi satisfaciam,
of
I
an
Sail.
excellent
Cat.
3.
man; Deiot.
shall endeavor to satisfy
28.
you;
2, 4, 3.
473. The Dative of Reference is used of the person upon whose judgment a statement is based:
—
erit ille
mihi semper deus, he mil always be a god in my eyes; Eel.
Quintia formosa est multis, Quintia Catull. 86,
i- Digitized
is beautiful in the eyes of
by Microsoft®
i, 7.
many;
—
•
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
l62
Closely connected with this indicate the point of vieiv:
—
is
the use of the dative of participles to
urbe egressis tumulus, there is a those coming out); Aen. I,'] j:^.
est
Many verbs
474.
(e.g.
{474-478
hill
as you come out of the city [for
consulo, metuo, prospicio) take either
the Accusative of Direct Object or the Dative of Reference,
according to the meaning.
The Dative
475.
of Reference
is
sometimes attached to nouns:
—
aut coUo decus aut capiti, an ornament for the neck or head; Aen.' 10, 135.
tribuniciam potestatem,
bulwark of
The Dative
476.
ei mihi,
vae
munimentum
libertati, tribunician power,
the
liberty; Liv. 3, 37, S-
of Reference
is
sometimes used with
ah me! Aen. 2, 274. woe to the conquered! Liv.
victis,
5,
interjections:
—
48, g.
Dative of Separation
477.
The Dative
advantage)
is
of
Reference (denoting advantage or
denoting things this construction poetry:
—
aureum
ei detraxit
N. D.
dis-
often used with verbs of separation; with nouns is
rare
and
is
confined to
amiculum, he took a golden mantle from him;
3, 83.
hunc mihi timorem
eripe, take this fear from
me; Cat.
fessos oculos furare labori, steal your weary eyes
from
i, 18.
toil;
Aen.
s,
845-
The verb
and the accusaand the ablative
intetdico, forbid, takes the dative of the person
tive or ablative of the thing, or the accusative of the person
of the thing.
Ethical Dative
of a personal pronoun is sometimes used emotion or surprise to indicate a slight degree of interest in the statement as a whole; if of the second person This is a form of the Dative it serves merely to call attention.
478.
The dative
in expressions of
of Reference:
Digitized
by Microsoft®
DATIVE CASE
479-4^2)
quid mihi Celsus agit, what
163
Celsus doing, I wonder; Hor. Epis.
is
i,
3, 15-
ad
at tibi repente venit
came
to
me; Fam.
me
Caninius, but look, Caninius suddenly
9, 2, i.
Dative of Possession
The dative
479.
the possessor:
—
used with forms of sum to denote
is
controversia milii fuit
cum avunculo
tuo,
/ had a debate with your
uncle; Fin. 3, 6. est homini
cum deo
similitudo,
man
has a resemblance
to
God ;hegg.
I- 25.
The verbs absum and desum, ,be
wanting,
and supersum,
survive, take
the Dative of Possession.
For the dative with the phrase nomen esse see 393.
Dative of Agent
The dative is sometimes used to denote the perwho has something to do or who has something done.
480.
son
This
is
a development of the Dative of Possession.
It
regular construction with the future passive participle,
mon
is
is
the
com-
with the perfect passive participle and forms of the perfect
passive system, and
used rarely with other passive forms:
is
—
Caesari omnia find tempore erant agenda, Caesar had everything
do at once; B. G.
mihi res provisa
neque cernitur 481.'
with ab,
dam
To is
est,
ulli,
/ have
he
is
the thing arranged; Verr. 4, pr.
not seen by
any one' Aen.
him
482.
i,
440.
avoid ambiguity, the regular agent construction, the ablative
sometimes used with the gerundive:
as, ei
?
The
me
referen-
show
my grati-
ego a
gratiam non putem? should I not think that I ought
tude to
to
2, 20, i.
to
Plane. 78.
datives with probor, be approved, and videor, seem, are in
origin Datives of
Refereng^/^ed
/,/
M/crosoft®
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
164
i4^3~4^7
Dative of Purppse or Tendency
483.
The
This
tendency.
is often used to express purpose or often found in combination with the
dative is
Dative of Reference, denoting the person concerned muneii
misit, he sent
it
Nap. Att.
as a present;
cecinit receptui, he gave the signal for
a
retreat;
:
—
8, 6.
Tusc.
3, 33.
quinque cohortes castris praesidio relinquit, he leaves five cohorts as
a guard for
the
camp; B. G.
60,
7,
2.
paupertas probro haberi coepit, lack of wealth began
a disgrace;
484.
The
Sail.
Cat. 12,
to he considered
i.
indeclinable adjective frugi
is
—
a dative of this sort:
ero frugi bonae, I shall he good for something; PI. Ps. 468.
homines
fortes et frugi,
men
Also cordi, as in Verr.
my 485.
—
causam recepttii
486.
thrifty; Verr. 3, 67.
mea
in this construction
fllia
mazime
cordi est,
is
sometimes attached
lacrimis, a reason for tears; Aen. 3, 305.
signum, a signal for
The
retreat;
Phil. 13, 15.
dative of the gerund and gerundive
used in this construction:
cum
and
112, .mihi
daughter is very dear to we.
The dative
to nouns:
brave
i,
—
is
sometimes
solvendo civitates non assent, since the communities were not ready for payment {were not solvent)
;
Fam.
3, 8, 2.
referundae ego habed linguam natam gratiae, / have a tongue made to express gratitude;
PI. Pers. 428.
triumvirum coloniis deducendis, a triumvir for founding colonies; Sail.
Jug. 42,
I.
Dative with Adjectives 487.
The
dative with adjectives
is
like the
Dative of it is a
Indirect Object with intransitive verbs; or, rarely,
Dative of Purpose or Tendency. It is used especially with adjectives denoting fitness, likeness, nearness, service, and their opposi tes j^^/zed /jy M/crosoft®
ACCUSATIVE CASE
488-493)
par similisque ceteris,
and
eqiuil to
prozimi Germanis, next
to the
.
Some
488.
it is
idoneum locum
B. G.
made them
i, i, 3.
tributary to themselves;
4, 3, 4.
causae est alienum, castris
like the rest; Sail. Cat. 14, 4.
Germans; B. G.
vectigales sibi fecerunt, they
B. G.
165
1,
49,
damaging
to the
delegit, he selected
cause; Caec. 24.
a place suitable for a camp;
I.
adjectives (e.g. benevolus, fidelis, idoneus, utilis) take
either the dative, or the accusative with a preposition.
For the Possessive Genitive with adjectives denoting
489.
similarity
or connection see 410.
With
similis the dramatists regularly use the genitive, later writers
either the genitive or dative; Cicero uses the genitive of persons
and
either
the genitive or the dative of things.
The pronoun idem
is
regularly followed
by atque or a
relative clause,
but in poetry sometimes takes the dative, like similis: as, idemfacit Occident!, he does the same thing as a murderer; Hor. A. P. 467.
490. propius,
The adjectives propior and proximus, like the adverbs and prozime, sometimes take the accusative:
—
propior
montem, nearer
the hill; Sail. Jug. 49,
proximus mare oceanum, nearest
491. adverbs:
the ocean;
;)rope,
i.
S. G.
3, 7,
.:.
Like the dative with adjectives is the occasional dative with congruenter naturae convenienterque vivere, to live in har-
as,
mony and
agreement with nature; Fin.
3, 7, 26.
ACCUSATIVE CASE 492.
The Accusative Case was a verb. The other uses
object of
first
used as the direct
are derived from that.
connected chiefly with verbs, sometimes with adjectives to express extent, and rarely with nouns. It is
Direct Object
The Direct Object of a verb is in the accusative; denotes either that' which is produced or that which is affected by the acti@^,fe|rf^^,y^|-Jjfe— 493.
it
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
1 66
duas legiones
conscribit, he enrolls two legions; B. G.
oppida sua omnia incendunt, they burn nisi
494.
me
fallit,
(494-498
unless
I
am
deceived
{it
all their
deceives
In colloquial language a direct object
is
10, 3.
i,
towns; B. G.
me)
i, S, 2.
Sest. 106.
;
sometimes used with
verbal nouns: as, quid tibi istanc tactio est? what right have you to touch her? Pi.
Poen. 1308.
A
Direct Object may be used also with the following verbs, which are usually intransitive:
—
(a) Verbs denoting /ee/wg, especially grief; e.g. doleo, gaudeo, gemo, horreo, maereo, and queror; also iuro,
495. fleo,
—
maneo,
rideo, sitio and taceo : meimi casum doluerunt, they lamented my calamity; Sest. 145. quod Ariovisti crudelitatem horrerent, because they dreaded the cruelty of Ariovislus; B. G.
quae manent
sanguinem nostrum
The
i,
victos, things
32, 4.
which await the conquered; Liv. 26, 13, 18.
sitiebat, he thirsted for our blood; Phil.' 5, 20.
poets use a direct object with a great variety of verbs usually
intransitive; e.g. ardebat Alexim, he burned with love for Alexis; Eel. 2,
(b) Intransitive .verbs, usually denoting motion,
496.
compounded with si
certain prepositions:
insulam adisset,
—
if he should go to the island;
tives qui circimistant senatum, the citizens
Cat.
Caesar
I,
B. G.
when
4, 20, 2.
who stand about the senate;
21.
omnem agrum Picenum percurrit, Caesar
num; B.
i.
C.
overruns all Pice-
i, 15, i.
For compounds taking either the dative or the accusative see 467. 497.
(c)
Other intransitive verbs of motion; and the passive vehor:
cum Xerxes maria had walked
me 498.
and
vecti, having
sailed the land; Fin.
journeyed over
as,
Digitized
1,
2,
ira.
22, 9.
all the seas;
Adjectives (originally present participles)
sometimes take a direct object: Liv. 25, 13, 4-
ambulo,
ambulavisset, terram navigasset, when Xerxes
the seas
lupus fugit, the wolf fled from me; Hor. C.
maria omnia
e.g.
—
fugio, navigo,
Aen.
i,
524.
ending in -bundus
vitabundus castra, avoiding the camp;
by Microsofi®
)
ACCUSATIVE CASE
499-502) 499.
The
passive voice of verbs meaning
reflexively in poetry
and takes a
167 put on
to
direct object:
—
is
sometimes used
galeam indoitur, he puts on a helmet; Aen. 2, 392. f errum cingitur, he girds on the useless sword; Aen.
inutile
2,
510.
500. The accusative is sometimes used in apposition with a clause: as, admoneor ut aliquid etiam de sepultura dicendum ezistimem, rem non difBcilem, / burial also,
am
reminded
— an easy
consider that something must be said about
to
matter; Tusc.
i,
102.
Accusative of Exclamation 501.
The
accusative
The
used in exclamations.
is
construction originated in sentences in which the accusative
was the object me miserum
an easily supplied verb:
of
wretched
!
testis egregios
1
man
that
fine witnesses!
I ami Fam.
14, i,
—
i.
Gael. 63.
In early Latin the accusative is used with the interjections ecce and em, in later Latin sometimes with en. The combination of forms of is with ecce gives eccum, eccos, etc.; and with em, ellum, etc. The enclitic -ne sometimes gives to an exclamation an interrogative force: as, hocine saeclum O this generation! {can it possibly be?); Ter. Ad. !
304-
Accusative of Kindred Meaning 502.
Many
intransitive verbs
tive in the accusative
may
take a substan-
which has, or suggests, a meaning
similar to that of the verb.
The
substantive
may
be a noun derived from the same root
as the verb, or one which has a similar meaning but no etymological connection; or it
of
may
meaning similar to that
be an adjective with which a noun
of the verb is to
cur non eosdem cursiis cucurrerunt? course? Agr.
2,
be supplied: =—
why did
the
same
in woe; PI.
Am.
they not
run
44.
ut vrvks aetatem miser, that you
may
live
your
life
1023.
magnum
clamat, he's making a great noise;
acerba tuens,
lookitt
PL
Mil. 823.
1
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
68
503. Verbs denoting Kindred Meaning:
herbam mella
or smell take
taste
—
(jOSSOj an Accusative of
sapiunt, the honey tastes of grass; Plin.
pastillos Rufillus olet, Rufillus smells of lozenges;
504.
Some
H. N.
Hor.
ii, i8.
S. i, 2, 27.
which rarely or never take a
intransitive verbs
noun may take a neuter pronoun or adjective of quantity as an Accusative of Kindred Meaning; and some transitive verbs may take such an accusative in connection with the direct object: idem
—
make the same boast; Cat. M. 32. making many other mistakes; N. D. 1, 29. hortatus, having said a few words of encouragement
gloriari, to
multa
alia peccans,
pauca mllites
to
the soldiers; Sail. Jug. 49, 6.
eos hoc moneo, / give them
505.
The poets
this advice;
Cat.
2, 20.
use this construction with great freedom,
sometimes even with passive verbs vox hominem sonat,
the voice
:
—
sounds human; Aen.
i,
328.
saltaret uti Cyclopa, to dancethe Cyclops dance; Hor. S.
Bacchanalia
^wmt,
Two see 392.
adjective
may
the
507.
the Satyr dance;
Hor. Epis.
2, 2,
125.
Accusatives
Instead of the predicate noun a predicate as, longiorem mensem faciunt, they
be used:
month longer; Verr.
Many
2,
129.
verbs meaning inquire, demand, teach, or conceal one of the person, the other of the
take two accusatives, thing:
63.
For the twoaccusativeswithverbsmeaning make, choose,
call, etc.,
make
i, 5,
they live a Bacchanalian life; Juv. 2, 3.
Satyrum movetur, he dances
506.
—
—
— me
sententiam rogavit, he asked
Caesar Haeduos frumentum of the
Eaedui; B. G.
omnes
celat,
opinion; Q. Fr.
2, i, 3.
Caesar kept demanding corn
i, 16, i.
why should I tench you yourletters? Pison. 73. he[fm^^M^^j^gg^^m eeeryone; Nap. Eum. 8, 7.
quid te litterasdoceam? iter
me my
flagitare,
ACCUSATIVE CASE
508-511)
Some of
608.
169
these verbs (e.g. peto, posed, postul6,quaerd) sometimes
take, instead of the accusative of the person, the ablative with ab, de, or ex, and, instead of the accusative of the thing, the ablative
509. sive:
—
The
accusative of the thing
with de.
used also with the pas-
is
sententiam rogatus, having been asked his opinion;
Sail.
Cat. 50, 4.
posceris exta, you are asked for the entrails; Ov. F. 4, 670. belli artes edoctus, trained in the arts of
nosne hoc
celatos, to think that
this; Ter.
this
Hec. 645.
hidden from
quid
ille
is
usually a neuter pronoun
and the construction
—
id
With
non
probably not
is
'
se velit, if he wanted anything of him; B. G.
id cogit omnis, he forces everybody to this; si
sunt? why was
cogo, accuse) sometimes
(e.g. volo,
to be distinguished from that of 504: si
me
Ps. 490.)
take two accusatives, but the thing or adjective of quantity
25, 40, j.
kept in the dark about
(But quor haec celata
me? PL
Certain other verbs
510.
war; Liv.
we have been
me
accusas, if you do not accuse
Rep.
me
these verbs also the accusative of the thing
passive: as, ego hoc cogor,
/ am forced
to this;
i,
34, 2.
i, 3.
of that; PI. Trin. 96.
may be
Rab. Post.
used with the
17.
511. Two accusatives are often used with verbs compounded with circum or trans, one being the object of the verb, the other of the preposition:
—
quos sua praesidia circumduxit, he B. C.
led
them around his fortifications;
3, 61, I.
flumen exercitum traducere maturavit, he hastened across the river; B. G. 2,
The
accusative connected with the preposition
also with the passive: as,
as,
army
may be
used
traducto exercitu flumen, the army
river; B. C. 3, 76, i. So also with Dyrrachiumpraetervehuntur, they sail past
having been taken across the
praetervehor:
to lead the
5, 4.
Dyrrachium; B. C.
3^,^,^^,i;
,^
„,,„3„^
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
lyo 512.
The verb
traicio
means
(512-51$
also pierce or cross,
takes only the accusative which
is
and
in these senses
connected with the preposition: as,
ciun ratibus Trebiam traicerent, wlien they crossed the Trebia cm rafts; Liv. 21, 56, 8.
Accusative of Limit of Motion 513.
The
limit of motion
is
accusative with a preposition: legatos ad
Caesarem mittunt,
regularly expressed
—
by the
they send envoys to Caesar; B. G. i, 11, 2.
in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy; B. G. i, 10, 3.
sub populi Romani imperium ceciderunt^ they fell under the
Roman people;
With names
the
power of
Font. 12.
towns and small islands and with domos), and rus, country, the preposition is regularly omitted. But with names of towns and small islands, if the meaning is not to but to the neighborhood of, a preposition is used: 514.
domum, home
of
(also the plural
—
Catilinam Massiliam ire dictitant, they say that Catiline Marseilles; Cat.
2,
is
going to
16.
Latonam confugisse Delum,
that
Latona fled
domum redierunt, they returned home; domum reditionis spe sublata, the hope
B. G.
to i,
Delos; Verr.
i,
48.
29, 3.
of a return home being gone; B.G.I, 5, 3ut domos suas discederent, that they scatter to their homes; Nep. Them. 4, 2. rus ibo, I shall go to the country; Ter. Eun. 216. ut ventum ad Cannas est, when they had come near Cannae; Liv. 22, 44,
I-
Poets and later prose writers often omit the preposition with names of countries
and common nouns
of place.
domus means a building, it regularly has the preposition: as, M. Laecae domum, / say that you came to the house of Marcus Laeca; Cat. i, 8. When accompanied by an attribute, especially 515.
If
(Uco te venisse in
any adjective'but a posseg^^^JJ gl'Wc)^/^
preposition.
— 516-521)
ACCUSATIVE CASE
171
516. The preposition is regularly used with urbem and oppidum, even when the name of the town is given: as, ad urbem Fidenas tendunt, they hasten to the city of Fidenae; Liv. 4,
The
617.
preposition
is
^t,,
10.
not used with the supine in -um, which
is
an
accusative case expressing limit of motion; or in the following phrases: ezsequias
go
ire, to
to the
funeral.
infitias ire, to deny.
venum venum
dare,
suppetias It is
rem
to sell.
ire, to be sold. ire, to
go to one's assistance.
sometimes omitted in the phrases malam crucem
ire
and malam
go to the torture (colloquially, to the deuce).
ire, to
Accusative of Extent
The
518.
accusative
(especially latus, longus,
space or time:
—
is
used with verbs or adjectives altus) to denote extent of
and
multa milia passuum proseculi, having followed for many miles; B. G. fossas
cum
2, II, 4.
qmndecim pedes latas,
trenches fifteen feet wide; B. G. 7, 72, 3.
dies et noctes nos fata circumstent, since the fates stand about
us day and night; Phil. 10, 20. undeviginti annos natus erat, he was nineteen years old; Brut. 229.
519.
Either the Accusative of Extent or the Ablative of Measure of
Difference
is
used with the verbs absum and
disto.
from which the distance is measured is not given, the is sometimes used: as, positis castris a mUibus passuum quindecim, having encamped fifteen miles away; B. G. 6, 7, 3. 520.
If the place
ablative with a or ab
521.
In expressions of time, instead of a cardinal numeral
with a plural noun, an ordinal with a singular noun
is someemphasize the fact used with iam, to that the statement times contained in the verb is still true: as, annum iam tertium et
^cesimumregnat,Ae Extent of time per
decem
is
is
now ruling
often expressed
his twenty-third year; Manil.
by per with the
dies facti sunt, games were carried on for ten days; Cat. 3, 20.
For the Ablative of E?tpfe^ ^JJiWfe/S^/^S.
7.
accusative: as, ludi
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
172
A neuter pronoun
522.
many
{522-525
or adjective of quantity
used with
is
verbs as an Accusative of Extent, to denote degree.
most common are aliquid, aliquantum, quicquam, multum, plurimum, tantum, quantum, and nihil:
—
multum stmt B. G. si
much
in venationibus, they are
The plus,
occupied in hunting;
4, I, 8.
me amas
tantum quantum profecto amas,
as you really do; Att.
if
you
love
me
as
much
2, 20, 5.
Accusative of Specification 623.
The
accusative
thing in respect
to
is
sometimes used to denote the is made.
which a statement
With a few exceptions the construction
is
confined to nouns
denoting the mind or a part of the body and to neuter plural
The former use
adjectives such as alia, cetera, omnia, etc.
is
rather
common
and
found occasionally in prose beginning with Sallust; the very rare in both prose a,nd poetry:
is
in
poetry beginning with the Augustan period
—
latter (except cetera) is
percussa mentem, stricken in mind; Georg.
4, 357.
caput nectentur, their heads shall he bound; Aen.
virum cetera egregium, a clari
524.
man excellent in
genus, of illustrious birth; Tac. Ann.
The Accusative
partem (with a qualifying word), in part. vicem (with a qualifying word), on account virfle or
309.
6, 9.
of Specification appears also in the following
phrases which are used as adjectives or adverbs:
secus (with
s,
other respects; Liv. i, 35, 6.
—
of, etc.
muliebre), in sex.
id genus, of that sort. id aetatis, of that age.
id temporis, at that time.
hat noctis,
at this
time of night.
625. The use of the adverbial quid, why, originated in this construction, and also that of quod in such phrases as quid est quod, why is it that, and niliil
est quod, there is nd^&im^-kHfC'K^rosoft®
ABLATIVE CASE
526-528)
1 73
Subject of Infinitive
The
526.
infinitive dicit
accusative
is
used as the subject of any
except a historical infinitive: montem ab
—
hostibus teneri, he says that the mountain
by the enemy; B. G.
i,
Divitiacum ad se vocari iubet, he orders Divitiacus
him; B. G. at te
i,
Romae non
is held
22, 2. to be called to
19, 3.
fore, but to think that
you won't
be in
Rome;
Att.
s,
20, 7.
ABLATIVE CASE 527.
The Ablative combines
of three original cases,
— the
in itself the functions
true Ablative, which de-
noted separation or departure, the Instrumental, which denoted originally association, and the Locative, which denoted the place where. The uses of the Ablative are therefore grouped under .three heads, Separative,
—
Instrumental, and Locative.
Separative Uses Ablative of Separation with Verbs
628.
Verbs denoting separation take the ablative.
In this class are included not only verbs denoting actual separation but also those which denote absence, aversion, ces-
and want. The ablative preposition, but no general rule accompanied by a is often It is regularly used when the noun can given. be for its use sation, difference, freedom, deprivation,
denotes a person; also with verbs denoting difference or aversion;
and with verbs denoting itself
literal
separation, unless the verb
contains a separative preposition.
It is regularly
omitted
with verbs denoting only figurative separation. Poets, and prose-writers beginning with Livy, omit the preposition more freely :
—
Digitized
by Microsoft®
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
174 te tuo loco
demovere potuenint,
(j2g,
they might have removed
530
you from
your place; Plane. 53. uti ex Galliae finibus pellerentur, that they would he driven out of Gallic territory; te
ab eo
libero,
B. G.
i,
31, 11.
I free you from him; Q. Fr.
3, i, 9.
ciTitatem dominatu regio liberarit, he freed the state
from a
king's
rule; Plane. 60.
oppugnatione desistunt, they abandon the siege; B. G.
quod abhorret a meis moribus, which Cat.
I,
is inconsistent
6, 39, 4.
with
my habits;
20.
omnibus egere rebus,
to be
in want of everything; B. C. 3, 32, 4.
For the genitive with these verbs see 436, 437; for the dative see 463, 477.
Ablative of Separation with Adjectives
529. The Ablative with or without a preposition is used with alienus and with adjectives denoting freedom or want:
—
alienum maiestate dednun, inconsistent with Div. 2, 105. alienus a
litteris,
liber cura, free
a stranger
from
the dignity of the gods;
to literature; Verr.
care; Fin.
i,
2,
64.
49.
inopes ab amicis sunt, they are destitute of friends; Att.
For the genitive with alienus see 410; for the dative meaning want see 429.
i, i, 2.
see 487.
For the
genitive with adjectives
Ablative of Place
Whence
Whence is regularly expressed by the ablaa preposition; but the preposition is omitted with names of towns and small islands (unless the meaning is from the neighborhood of), with domo, from home, riire, from the country, and, in poetry, humo, from the ground: 530.
Place
tive with
—
decedit ex Gallia, he withdrew from Gaul; Quinct. 16.
Roma acceperam
litteras,
/ had
received
a
letter
from Rome; Att.
8, 2.
Delo
f^mp^^s ;
proficiscitur, Beg'M9
Verr.
1,
46.
5,
ABLATIVE CASE
531-533)
1
75
de iUius Alexandrea discessu, about his departure from Alexandrea; Att. II, 18,
I.
ut a Mutina discederet, that he should of
Modena;
retire
from
the neighborhood
Phil. 14, 4.
cum rure redierit, when he returns from the country; Fam. s, 20, 9. domo ezcesserant, they had gone away from home; B. G. 4, 14, 5. vix oculos attollit
Ov. Met.
531. osition
2,
humo,
she scarcely
lifts
her eyes from the ground;
448.
Poets and later prose-writers sometimes omit the prepit would be used in classical prose; e.g. rediens
where
from Illyria; Tac. Ann. 3, 11. On the other hand the preposition is sometimes used (especially by Livy) with names of towns and with domo and rure. The preposition is regularly used with names of towns if accompanied by urbe or oppido also with domd when it means a building and, sometimes, if it is accompanied by a qualifying word. niyrico, returning
;
Ablative of Source
532. ti6n, is
The
ablative, either with or without
a preposi-
used to denote source.
This construction
is
found chiefly with nascor,
he born,
and
the participles of other verbs denoting parentage or descent: ex
me
natus
es,
you are
my
—
son; Ter. Heaut. 1030.
sate sanguine divom, sprung from the blood of the gods; Aen. 6, 125. edite regibus, descendant of kings; Hor. C.
i, i, i.
Belgas esse ortos a Germanis, that the Belgians were descended from the Germans; B. G. 2, 4, i.
533.
The
idea of source
sometimes emphasized when the
is
English would indicate the place where:
—
Rhenjis oritur ex Lepontiis, the Rhine rises in
the country of the
Lepontii; B. G. 4, 10, 3.
ex vinculis causam dicere,
Especially in the
to
common
a fronte, in front a tergo, in the rear a dextra, on the
plead his cause in chains; B. G.
phrases:
—
a latere, on the side ex hac parte, on this
5^^, ,^ Miofbm^^^
""^ '^«
^'A
i, 4, i.
side
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
176
One form
534.
(j34-537
Source is what is sometimes This denotes the source
of the Ablative of
called the Ablative of Accordance.
Certain words are often of an act, a condition, or a statement. used in this construction, e.g. casu, consilio, consuetudine,
—
iudicio, sententia, sponte,
and voluntate
:
—
virtutem ex consuetudine vitae interpretemur, according nihil nisi
standard of
life;
Lael. 21.
conimuni consilio acturos,
that they
to the
let
would do nothing
was not in accord with a common purpose; B. G. de
us interpret virtue
that
3, 8, 3.
consili sententia, according to the vote of the council; Verr. 5, 53.
quam
(gloriam)
nemo meo quidem
which no one in my judgment at
The common phrase ex senatus
iudicio est postea consecutus,
least afterward attained;
c5nsulto
is
Brut. 32.
of this nature.
Ablative of Agent
The' ablative with a or ab is used with a passive 535. verb to denote the person who does the act :
—
ab senatu amicus appellatus erat, he had been called a friend by senate; B. G. i, 3, 4. a patre eram deductus, I had been led by my father; Lael. i.
536.
A
thing
more or
less
definitely
treated as an Ablative of Agent: portus ab Euroo
waves; Aen.
—
fliictu ctirvatus, the
personified
the
may be
harbor curved by the southeast
3, S33-
animus bene informatus a
natfira,
a sold well formed by nature;
Off. I, 13.
537.
On
the other hand a person
is
sometimes regarded as
—
but very rarely a means, and the preposition is not used, with a passive verb: as, haec (castella) excubitoribus tenebantur, these redoubts were Usually, is
if
the person
used with per:
as,
is
held
by sentinels;
B. G.
7, 69, 7.
regarded as a means, the accusative
per ezploratores certior f actus est, he was
informed through scouti^gj^J^yj^j^Saofte
ABLATIVE CASE
53^-541) 538.
The agent
construction
is
177
sometimes used with an intransitive
verb which suggests the meaning of a passive: lest the
man should fall
For the Dative
of
at the
hands of
Agent see
ne vir ab hoste cadat, an enemy; Ov. H. 9, 36.
as,
{be slain by)
480.
Ablative of Material
539. The material out of which a thing is made is expressed by the ablative with ex or de (often omitted
in poetry)
.
—
scutis ex cortice faclis, shields
ex oratore arator factus
sit,
made
from,
man; Phil. 3, 22. templum de mannore, a temple
of bark; B. G.
540.
The
preposition
quid Tulliola
mea
is
—
fiet?
33, 2.
of marble; Georg. 3, 13.
aere cavo clipeum, a shield of hollow bronze; Aen.
phrases as the following:
2,
a pleader he has become a plow-
3, 286.
usually omitted in such colloquial
what will become of
my dear
Tidlia?
Fam.
14, 4, 3-
quid te futurum est? what will become of you? Verr.
de fratre quid fiet? what will become of
my
brother?
2,
155.
Ter.
Ad. 996.
For the Genitive of Material see 420.
Ablative of Comparison
641.
followed
An
adjective in the comparative
by quam with a substantive
as that of the
first
thing compared.
regularly
is
in the
same case
But
that
if
the nominative or accusative, the adjective followed by the ablative without quam.
is
in
may be
In Cicero the ablative construction is, with a few exceptions, to negative sentences and interrogative sentences
restricted
implying a negative.
Relative pronouns are, however, regu-
larly in the ablative without
quam, and
Digitized
by Microsoft®
in poetry this construc-
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
178
is sometimes used even when the nominative or accusative:
tion
—
non
callidior es
Am.
quam
hie,
{542^545
first
noun
not in the
is
you are not more shrewd than he; Rose.
49.
nihil est virtute amabilius, nothing is
more
than virtue;
attractive
Lael. 28.
Herodotum cur veraciorem ducam Ennio? why should I Herodotus more truthful than Ennius? Div.
2,
consider
116.
Polybium sequamur quo nemo fuit diligentior, let us follow Polybius than whom no one was more careful; Rep. 2, 27. Lucili ritu, nostrum melioris utroque, in the manner of Lucilius, a better
542.
may
man
than either one of us; Hor. S.
The comparatives
2, i,
29.
plus, minus, amplius,
and longius
take the ablative, but are regularly inserted without effect
upon the case
:
—
tecum plus annum
vixit,
he lived with you more than a year; Quinct.
41.
reliquumspatium est non amplius pedum sexcent6rum,/Ae remaining distance is not more than six hundred feet; B. G.
543. as,
38, 5.
In negative sentences alter and alius sometimes take the ablative:
nee quicquam aliud
544.
i,
libertate, nothing else than freedom;
Fam.
11, 2, 2.
Certain ablatives are used for the sake of brevity, instead of
clauses.
The most common
are aequo, credibili, dicto, exspectatione,
iusto, necessario, opinione, solito,
and spe
:
—
opinione celerius, faster than one would think;
Fam.
14, 23.
plus solito, more than usual; Liv. 24, 9, 7. serius spe omnium Romam venit, he came to
Rome
later
than every one
expected; Liv. 26, 26, 4.
The comparative
545.
of
an adverb usually takes quam; rarely the
ablative, except in negative sentences
tempus
te citius
words; Rose.
quam oratio Am. 89.
and
in poetry:
deficeret, time
—
would fail you sooner than
lacrima nihil citius arescit, nothing dries more quickly than a tear; Inv. i,
si
109.
bl^ndius Orphed moderere fidem,
if
you should play
persuasively thaf)Qffj^^tf^l^g^^g^ff^2^, 13.
the
harp more
-
ABLATIVE CASE
546-549)
1 79
Ablative of Cause
646.
The Ablative
is
used to denote Cause.
This construction probably originated in the Ablative of Its development was largely due, however, to the
Source.
influence of the Ablative of
The
resembles.
construction
Means, which
it
often closely
therefore, partly Separative
is,
and partly Instrumental. The Ablative of Cause is sometimes accompanied by a preposition, ab, de, or ex, rarely in:
—
—
ille
timore, ego risu corrui, he collapsed from fear,
Q. Fr.
2, 8,
Veneris praesidio ferox, made bold by C.
ab
Ira,
I from
laughter;
2.
the protection of
Venus; Hor.
I, IS, 13-
on account of anger; Liv.
qua de causa, /or
this reason;
26, i, 4.
B. G.
i, i, 4.
ex vulnere aeger, disabled by a wound; Rep.
2, 38.
in hac laude delector, / take pleasure in this praise;
(So also gaudeo, laetor, glorior,
etc., either
Fam.
6, 4, 4.
with or without the
preposition.)
547. of,
The Ablatives
on account
of,
of Cause,
causa and gratia, for
the sake
are used with a preceding genitive or with a
possessive adjective in agreement:
—
coronam habuisse honoris Caesaris causa, posuisse had taken the crown to do honor Caesar, that he had put it aside on account of grief; Att. 14,
rgscripsit se
liictus gratia, he replied that he to
19, 3-
vestra reique publicae causa, for your sake and that of the state; Verr.
Nomine
is
5,
173.
often used in the
same way,
either with a genitive or
a
possessive adjective.
648.
Cause
is
expressed also
by the
accusative with ob, per, propter,
and,' sometimes, ad.
649. a:s,
A
preventive cause is often expressed
neque decretum exaudtri consulis prae
by the
ablative with prae:
strepitu et clamore poterat, the
consul's decree could not be heard because of the tumult Digitized by Microsoft®
and shouts; Liv.
2, 27, 8.
— SOS54
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
i8o
{S
Instrumental Uses Ablative of
Accompaniment
Accompaniment
denoted by the ablative, regularly with the preposition cum. The term accompaniment is to be understood in a wide sense, 550.
is
including not only union and companionship, but also connection of
all
kinds,
— comparison,
contention, etc.
:
—
cum Pansa vixi, I have lived with Pansa; Att. 14, 20, 4. cum Caesare egit, he pleaded with Caesar; B. G. i, 13, 3. nee haec solitudo cum ilia comparanda est, this solitude he
compared with
is not to
that; 0£f. 3, 2.
nobiscum hostes contendenmt,
enemy fought with us; B. G.
the
s,
17, S-
cum
In certain military phrases
551.
never
if
the ablative
omnibus
copils
is
unqualified or
ad Derdam
for Ilerda; B. C.
i,
is
is
often omitted, but
qualified
by a numeral
:
proficiscitur, with all his troops he starts
41, 2.
uterque ciun equitatu veniret, that each should come with cavalry;
B. G.
cum
I,
The verbs misceo, commisceo, and confundo, mix, and
552.
The verbs
assuefacio and assuesco,
he accustomed), take the ablative
take the dative (see 463),
553. as,
the par-
iunctus and coniiinctus, joined, take the ablative with or without
ticiples
cum.
42, 4.
his quinque legionibus, with these five legions; B. G. i, 10, 3.
—
make familiar (assuesco
also
These verbs sometimes misceo and commisceo only in poetry. without cum.
In poetry and late prose simul
is
sometimes used instead of cum:
simul nobis habitat barbarus, the barbarian
lives
with us; Ov. Trist.
5,
10, 29.
For the dative with words meaning Ablative of
The
554.
The
manner
via, or
in
which an act
is
is
used
performed.
is not used with modo, more, pacto, ratione, with certain commori words which had come
preposition
and
Manner
ablative, either with or without cum,
to denote the
ritu,
contention, see 463.
555-55?)
ABLATIVE CASE
to be used as adverbs,
—
e.g. dolo,
i8i
fraude, furto, iure, iniuria,
ordine, silentio; or with arte, certamine, ope, and vitio.
preposition
omitted
if
—
nuUo pacto
fieri
The
sometimes omitted with other nouns, and usually they are qualified by an adjective: is
potest,
it
can't be done in
iure an iniuria, rightly or wrongly; Verr.
censores
any way; Fin. 2,
i,
27.
ijo.
vitio creati, censors irregularly appointed; Liv. 6, 27, 5.
mente veneremur, provided we worship them with a
ut eos pura
mind; N. D.
clean
cum
reliquias
2,
71.
cura exsecutus est, he followed
up
the
remnants
dili-
gently; Liv. 39, 41, 6.
555.
Manner may be
per vim, with violence; per
expressed also litteras,
by
by the accusative with
per: as,
letter.
Ablative of Attendant Circumstance
556. The ablative is used to denote a circumstance connected with the action of the verb.
The
preposition
cum
is
it is
regularly omitted:
words and phrases quanto id
cum
sometimes used, but with
cum periculo fecerit,
at
—
what risk he did
this;
tua peste ac pemicie proficiscere ad bellum,
and
destruction set out for war; Cat.
i,
to
common
B. G.
i, 17, 6.
your own ruin
33.
exercitum duarum cohortium damno reducit, he leads back his army with the loss of two cohorts; B. G. 6, 44,
i.
exierunt malis ominibus, they went out with bad omens; Sest. 71.
merito tuo
feci,
/ have done as you
deserve; Att. 5, 11, 6.
Ablative of Quality
557.
only
if
The the
ablative
noun
is
This construction
is
used to denote a quality, but.
accompanied by a qualifying word.
may
be used either attributively or in the
from the Genitive of Quality (see 421), the ablative usually (but by no means always) denotes a transipredicate.
As
distinct
tory or external quality^,-^^^^
^^ ^.^^^^^^
— SYNTAX OF NOUNS
1 82
sum maxima, I am
spe
statura fuit htmiili, he
(SSSS^I
in very great hope; Q. Fr.
was
of low stature;
i, 2,
Nep. Ages.
16.
8, i.
confixa claims digit! pollicis crassitCdine, held by spikes of the thick' ness of one's thumb; B. G. 3, 13, 3. singulari fuit industria, he
Nep. Cato,
was a man of unparalleled industry;
3, 1.
In later Latin the Ablative of Quality often qualifies a proper name; rarely in Ciceronian Latin.
Ablative Absolute
558.
A
substantive and a participle in the ablative
are often used in loose connection with a sentence, to express any one of a variety of ideas. This construction probably originated in the sociative use many examples show that
of the Instrumental (see 527), but its
development was due partly to the influence of the true
Ablative and the Locative.
[The perfect participle is most commonly used in this conthe present sometimes, and the future from Livy Instead of a participle, the second member of the phrase on. may be a substantive or an adjective used predicatively. struction,
The Ablative Absolute ideas
is
used to express the following
:
559.
Time:
(i)
hdc respdnsd dato away; B. G. Lepid6
TuUo
et
discessit,
when
this
answer had been given, he went
i, 14, 7.
consulibus, in the consulship of Lepidus and Tullus
[Lepjdus and Tullus being consuls); Cat.
560.
15.
(2) Cause:
rggnarl volebant libertatis dulcedine ing
to
(3)
ndndum
ezperta, Ihey were will-
be ruled by a king because they had not yet experienced the
sweetness of freedom; Liv.
561.
i,
i, 17, 3.
Manner:
instate equo se hostibus obtulit, with his horse at full speed he rushed
upon
the
enemyt,l§iti^^^^^fy^^ft@
ABLATIVE CASE
562-560) 562.
183
(4) Condition, sometimes with velut, quasi, tamqtiam,
or nisi: semper existimibitis viv6 P. C16did
nihil
eSrum vOs visurOs
fuisse,
you
always think thai if Publius Clodius had been alive you would not have seen any of these things; Mil. 78. will
omnes, velut dis auctdribus quisque acceptis, proelium poscunt, all demand each as if he had taken the gods as his supporters; Li v. 21, 45,
battle,
563. id
(5) Opposition,
sometimes with
quamquam:
etsi or
(oppidum) paucis defend entibus ezpugnare ndn potuit, though defended the town, he could not take
etsi invitS still at
564.
me tamen me auctore profectus my instigation, he started ; Att.
Any
(6)
instruction;
The
ferja
2, 12, 2.
est, though against
my
wish,
13, 28, 3.
attendant circumstance:
brevitatem secQtus
565.
B. G.
it;
9.
sum
Fam.
/ have aimed
te magistro,
at brevity
under your
11, 25, i.
ideas of time and cause are often combined:
quibus rebus cognitis Caesar apud milites cdntionStur, when (and because) he had learned this, Caesar
The
566.
particularly
made a speech
to the soldiers;
subject of the ablative absolute phrase
if it is
is
B. C.
i, 7, i.
sometimes omitted,
the antecedent of a relative pronoun:
—
quaerentibus quid rei esset, when they asked what the matter was; Liv.
3,
5°. 4.
digredientibus qui
who
A
567. struction:
—
spem omnem secum
ferebant,
carried all hope with them; Liv. S, 40,
clause sometimes takes the place of the
cognito vivere Ftolemaeum,
when
it
when
those departed
2.
was learned
noun
that
in this con-
Ptolemy was
alive;
Liv. 33, 41, sincerto quid neterent,
it
being uncertain what they should seek; Liv. 28,
36, 12.
568.
Sometimes a
participle
cdnsulto, after deliberation;
is
used alone in an impersonal sense:
OfiE. i,
nee auspicato nee litatS, without auspices or favorable sacrifice; Liv.
569. struction
A
noun or pronoun
if it
is
—
27. 5, 38, i.
rarely used in the ablative absolute con-
denotes a person or thing mentioned elsewhere in the sentence.
There are occasional exceptions: Digitized
—
by Microsoft®
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
l84 vosne ego patiar married
nemo
cum mendicis nuptas me
beggars while I
to
am
vivo viris ? shall I
you be
let
alive? PI. Stich. 132.
credat te invito provinciam
erit qui
{570-572
be no one to believe that the province
tibi
esse decretam, there will
was assigned
to
you against your
will; Phil. II, 23.
Means
Ablative of
570.
The
which an act gladiis
used to denote the means by accomplished
ablative is
:
pugnatum
lacte et
came
is
est, the battle
—
was fought with swords; B. G. j, 52, and meat; B. G. 5, 14, 2.
Aeacidae telo iacet Hector, Hector Aen.
I,
4.
vivunt, they live on milk
(slain) by Achilles' spear;
lies
99.
exercitus interitus ferro, the destruction of the
army by
the sword;
Pison. 40.
For the Ablative of Means of a noun denoting a person see 537. 571.
This construction
adjectives meaning full:
is
—
used with verbs meaning
fossam aggere explent, they fill
the trench with earth;
to jill
B. G.
7,
omamentis plenam domum, a house full of ornaments; Verr.
opimum
praeda, rich in plunder; Verr.
i,
and
79, 4. 4, 126.
132.
For the genitive with these words see 429, 436.
The Ablative and phrases: 572.
vescor,
—
of
Means
is
used also with the following words
(a) With the deponents utor, and some of their compounds:
fruor, fungor,
—
commoda quibus utimur lucemque qua we use and the quousque abutere
light of
fruimur, the blessings which
day which we enjoy; Rose.
patientia nostra?
potior,
haw long
will
Am.
131.
you abuse our
patience? Cat. 1,1. lacte et
came
vescebantur, they lived on milk and meat;
Sail.
Jug.
89,7.
These verbs sometimes take the accusative in early and For the genitive with potior see 446. The verb epulor, feast,
sometimesWs the ablatjy^-f^g^ ^^ Microsoft®
late Latin. like vescor,
ABLATIVE CASE
573~577)
185
573. (b) Sometimes with opus est and usus est, there need (opus and usus being used as the subject of est) :
opus
viro
est, there is
need of a
man;
ablative with usus est
574. qualified
is
common
is
Liv. 24, 8, 12.
usus est tua mihi opera, / need your help;
The
—
PI. Pars. 328.
only in early Latin.
The ablative with opus est and usus est is sometimes by a participle which contains the important idea of
the phrase:
—
ne ezistumarent
opus esse,
sibi perdita re publica
let
them not think
that he needed to ruin the state; Sail. Cat. 31, 7.
quam
subito argento
money;
Sometimes a
575.
Opus
is
est, there is
est, there is
need of haste; Liv.
used also as a predicate noun: 5,
8, 13, 17.
as,
quaecumque opus
sunt,
40, 6.
With the verb contineor, satisfied, and the adjective
(c)
conteiitus,
quickly I must find
need of silence; PI. Cist. 124.
whatever things are needed; B. G.
576.
how
—
:
maturato opus
usus
siet,
participle is used alone in the ablative in an
impersonal sense
tacito
mi usus invento
PI. Ps. 50.
consist
of,
the participle
fretus, relying on:
quae quattuor his virtutibus continetur, which
—
consists of these four
virtues; Fin. 2, 48.
own lot;
contentum suis rebus esse,
to be
superioribus victoriis
relying on their former victories; B. G. 3,
freti,
content with one's
Par. 6, 51.
21, I.
Ablative of Price
The
577.
ablative
is
used to denote
definite
price
or value; and, with a few exceptions, indefinite price or value,
if
indicated
by a noun
:
—
denariis tribus aestimavit, he valued
it
at three denarii; Verr. 3, 215.
vilest viginG minis, it is cheap at twenty
Eriphyla auro gold; Inv.
viri i,
minae;
PI.
Most. 297.
-wtam vendidit, Eriphyla sold her husband's 94. Digitized
by Microsoft®
life
for
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
1 86
(578-582
Either the genitive or ablative of certain adjectives
578.
is
used to express indefinite price; thus, magni or magno, parvi or parvo, minimi or minimo, quanti or quanto. So, the genitive or ablative of certain substantives: as, nihil! or nihilo.
For the Genitive of Price see 424.
Verbs meaning
579.
exchange (muto, commiito, permuto,
to
and, rarely, verto) take the ablative of the thing given or the
thing taken in exchange:
—
Lucretilem mutat Lycaeo Faunus, Faunus exchanges Lycaeus for
Hor. C.
Lucretilis;
mitibus mutare
f uneribus
vertere
Muto and
bitter;
Hor. C.
triumphos,
to
turn triumphs into funerals; Hor. C.
35, 4its
compounds sometimes take the ablative with cum or
The Ablative
580.
kind feelings for
16, 25.
I,
I,
i, 17, i.
tristia, to substitute
of Price
is
pro.
used with verbs meaning
to
punish, to denote the penalty: as, Frusinates tertia parte agri
damnati, Liv. 10,
the people of
Frusino were fined a third of their
territory;
I, 3.
For the Genitive of the Penalty see 431-433.
Road
Ablative of the
581.
as the
The
ablative
is
used of the road which serves
means of a journey:
Aurelia via profectus est, he
—
set out
by the Aurelian road; Cat.
2, 6.
porta CoUina intravere, they entered by the Colline gate; Liv. 3, 51, 10. secundo tlumine iter facere coepit, he began to march down the river;
B. G.
7, 58, S-
Ablative of
Measure
of Difference
With adjectives and adverbs in the comparasometimes with adjectives and adverbs in the superlative, and with other words which imply comparison the ablative is used ^i^iSySi^iikSbM^O'Sure of difference: 582.
tive,
—
ABLATIVE CASE
5^3-5^5) uno
die longiorem
mensem
one day; Verr.
2,
187
faciunt, they
make
the
month longer by
129.
quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebriores
mitte-
litterae
bantur, the more burdensome the siege, the more often were sent; B. G. 5, 45, fuit
puniendum
nihilo
i.
(So, also, the correlatives
minus, punishment had
quo
.
to be inflicted
.
letters .
eo.)
none the
less; Mil. 19.
multo
me
vigilare acrius, that
multo maxima pars, much
I watch much mare sharply; Cat.
i, 8.
the greatest part; Cat. 4, 17.
hie locus aequo fere spatio a castris utriusque aberat, this place
almost equally distant from the
camp
of each; B. G.
i,
43,
was
i.
583. The Ablative of Measure of Difference is used with the adverbs ante, abhinc, and post, to denote time before or after: as, tribus ante (abhinc, post) annis, three years before (or after). There is often a following clause introduced by quam, or, by
combination with the adverbs, it is introduced by antequam or postquam. An ordiiial with an ablative denoting time when is sometimes used when followed by quam with a clause: as, tertio anno antequam or postquam. Quemi may stand for postqviam:
months
as,
mense quam coeptum
oppugnari, eight
after the siege began; Liv. 21, 15, 3.
The
584.
accusative
ante and post:
is
sometimes used with the prepositions
ante (or post)' tres annos, three years before In late Latin, rarely in classical Latin, this con-
(or after).
struction ordinal
octavo
as,
sometimes followed by quam and a clause. The sometimes used in this construction when followed
is
is
by a clause: as, ante (or post) tertium annum quam. The Accusative of Extent is sometimes used with abhinc: as,
abhinc tres aimos, three years ago.
585.
Instead of the ablative the Accusative of Extent
used with verbs meaning
numero aliquantum Liv. 22, 18, f
is
rarely with comparatives:
sometimes
—
praestabant, in numbers they were somewhat superior;
.i.
STmam aliquantum ''
to surpass,
augustiorem, a figure somewhat more dignified; Liv. Digitized
by Microsoft®
i,
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
1 88
(5S6-58Q
Ablative of Specification
The Ablative
586.
respect to
of Specification denotes that in
which a statement
is
made.
The preposition in is used sometimes with abstract nouns and regularly with pronouns, except relatives:
—
hi
omnes
lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt, these all differ
from one another in language, customs, and laws; B. G. r, i, 2. homines non re sed nomine, human beings not in fact but in name; Off. I, 105.
similem in fraude et malitia, similar in trickery and evil-doing; Rose.
Com.
20.
in ea superiores, superior in this; Fin. 3,
For the Supine
in -u as
The Ablative
587.
an Ablative
5.
of Specification see 1017.
of Specification
is
used with dignus and
indignus and, by the poets and later prose- writers, with the verb dignor:
—
amici digni amicitia, /ne«rf.s worthy of friendship; Lael. 67. omni honore indignissimum, quite unworthy of every honor; Vat. 39. haud tali me dignor honore, I do not deem myself worthy of such honor; Aen.
i,
335.
For the genitive with dignus and indignus see 426.
Locative Uses Ablative of Place
The
588.
expressed super)
:
—
place where a thing
by the
in Venetis,
among
sub monte,
at the foot of the
589.
Gaul; B. G.
the Veneti;
viridi,
B. G.
is
done
is
usually
2, r, r.
3, 17, i.
mountain; B. G.
on a couch of green
i,
48, i.
leaves; Eel. i, 80.
is used to express not only place in a but also various figurative ideas. Thus the prepo-
This construction
literal sense
or
is
ablative with in (sometimes sub, rarely
in citeriore Gallia, in nearer
fronde super
Where
ABLATIVE CASE
590-594) sition in
view
of,
may assume
in spite
of:
various meanings,
—
189
—
e.g.
in the case
of,
in
in tantis rei publicae periculis, in so great dangers of the state; Cat. 1,4.
quanto hoc magis in fortissimis civibus facere debemus, how much more ought we to do this in the case of our bravest citizens; Mil. 92. in tanta foeditate decreti, in view of the great cruelty of the decree;
Liv. 3, 47,
s-
noscitabatur in tanta deformitate, he was recognized in spite of great disfigurement; Liv.
2, 23, 4.
590. Verbs denoting motion regularly take the accusative with a preposition, but verbs meaning to place regularly take the ablative with a preposition :
—
Plato ratidnem in capite posuit, iram in pectore locavit, Plato has
put reason in
the
head and has located anger in the heart; Tusc.
I, 20.
pone sub curru
solis,
put
me under
the chariot of the
sun; Hor. C.
i,
22, 21.
ligna super foco reponens, putting logs
591. consido,
upon the hearth; Hor. C.
i, 9, 5.
Also the following verbs denoting motion take the ablative: sit
down,
defigo, drive in, fasten;
settle;
accusative); imprimo, press
upon
—
demerge, plunge (also
(also dative); include, shut into (also
dative).
592.
The
ablative of
the plural of
names
towns and small
of
islands, in
declensions and, in classical Latin, in the
all
singular of the third declension, to denote place where:
— Ciinus,
is
used without
at
the preposition
Cumae; Gabus,
at
Gahii;
Calibus, at Cales; Carthagine, at Carthage; Capreis, at Capri. 593.
The
ablative singular of town-names of the
first
and second
declensions, with the preposition in, is sometimes used instead of the
Locative, especially as, in
Liv.
when
there
is
assimilation with a preceding ablative:
monte Albano Larinioque, on
the
Alban mount and
at
Lavinium;
s, 52, 8.
594.
Urbs, oppidum, municipium,
etc., in
apposition with a town-name
usually take the preposition: as, Albae in urbe opportuna, at Alba, a convenient city; Phil. 4, 6.
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SYNTAX OF NOUNS
igo 595. ad:
General locality
ad Tibur, in
as,
{595' 599
sometimes denoted by the accusative with
is
Tibur; Phil.
the neighborhood of
6, lo.
For the use of the Locative Case of town-names and other nouns see 606-614.
In designations of place where, the preposition is often common nouns, especially if they are
596.
omitted with certain
accompanied by a qualifying word; e.g. initio, libro and libris, numero, parte and partibus, pnncipio, regione, rure; also with any noun qualified by cunctus, omnis, totus, universus, or medius. The preposition is regularly omitted with dextra, on the right; laeva, sinistra, on the left; also with animo (except in the phrase in animo esse or habere) and animis, corpore, lingua, memoria, and the phrase terra maiique. loco,
597. In poetry and any noim:
—
bellum geret
Italia,
later prose the preposition
he will wage war in Italy; Aen.
thalamS, in your chamber; Hor. C.
598.
The
i,
be omitted with
263.
16
i, 15,
following verbs take the ablative of place where, with or
without a preposition: sto, consto,
may
and
— acquiesco,
take pleasure in; nitor, rest, rely
or the ablative without a preposition. ablative without a preposition.
upon;
Innitor takes the dative (see 464),
consisto, persist in.
The
participle subnixus takes the
and
Fido, confido,
diffido usually take
the dative (see 466), sometimes the ablative without a preposition.
Ablative of
The time when
599.
a thing
is
done
is
Time
or the period of time within which
regularly expressed
usually with a qualifying word:
—
by the
superiore aestate, in the previous summer; B. G.
hieme, in the winter; B. G.
5, 8, 3.
5, i, i.
adventu Caesaris, on Caesar's proximis comitiis, at the
ablative,
arrival; B.
last election;
G.
B. G.
7,
5, 54, 2.
67, 7.
paucis diebus opus efBcitur, within a few days the work is finished;
. B. G.
6, 9, 4.
tribus proximis amSSs/ttBititiiy iile:last>t^ee years; SaU. Jug. 11.
ABLATIVE CASE
600-603)
I91
600. With words denoting a period of life or a term of oflBce, and with words denoting a period of time, when preceded by
a numeral adverb, the preposition in the noun
is
is
regularly used, unless
accompanied by a qualifying word:
—
in adulescentia, in youth; PI. Bac. 410.
eztrema
pueritia, at the
in consulatu nostro, in
end of boyhood; Manil. 28. considship; Arch. 28.
my
ter in anno, three times a year; Rose.
The preposition
is
Am.
132.
sometimes used with other words, especially when not accompanied by
those denoting periods of time, even
a numeral adverb
:
—
in tali tempore, at stich a time; Liv. 22, 35, 7.
in diebus proximis decern, within the next ten days; Sail. Jug. 28, 2. in hora ducentos versus dictabat, he dictated two hundred verses
hour; Her. S.
601.
The
an
1, 4, 9.
ablative of time within which
when
followed
by a
relative
clause sometimes denotes time after: as, diebus decern quibus materia
coepta erat comportari, within ten days after the lumber began to he hauled;
B. G.
4, 18, I.
sometimes expressed by the accusative cum; time within which by the accusative with intra or per 602.
Time when
with ad or
sub-, or
is
the ablative with :
—
ad horam destinatam, at the appointed hour; Tusc. 5, 63. sub occasum solis, toward sunset; B. G. 2, 11, 6. cum prima luce, at daybreak; Att. 4, 3, 4. intra annos quattuordecim, within fourteen years; B. G. i, 36,
7.
per eos ipsos dies profectus, setting out during those very days; Liv. 31, 26,
1.
The Roman Calendar 603.
The year
is
usually indicated
by the names
of the con-
suls in the ablative absolute construction, less often
by
reck-
oning from the traditional date of the founding of the city, le.T, B.C.: as, L. Domitio Ap. Claudio consulibus,' in the consul'-'•' '
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5
SYNTAX OF NOUNS
192
(604, 60
ship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius (54 B.C.) B. G. I, i; the same date might have been expressed as follows: ;
annis post
tesimo post
Romam conditam septingentis Romam conditam.
or
— 5,
anno septingen-
604. Before 45 B.C. the months of March, May, July, and October had thirty-one days, February twenty-eight, the others Beginning with 45 B.C. the number of days in twenty-nine.
the months was the same as now. is
called
day of the month Nonae, the Nones, the March, May, July, and Octo-
Kalendae, the Calends, the
thirteenth Idus, the Ides; but in
The
first
fifth
ber the Nones are the seventh, the Ides the fifteenth.
when used
Calends, Nones, and Ides,
as dates,
The
are in the
Other days are reckoned back from these.
Ablative of Time.
The day before is indicated by pridie with the accusative: as, pridie N5nas lanuarias (abbreviated prid. Non. Jan.), the fourth Other days are indicated by ante diem with an of January. whole phrase being treated as a preposition, with Thus, ante diem sextum Kalendas AprHIs (abbreviated a. d. VI Kal. Apr.) is the twenty-seventh of March, since in reckoning forward or back the Roman counted both the first and the last of the series. ordinal, the
the accusative Nonas, Idus, or Kalendas.
A
date expressed in this
ad or
ex, from, or as,
way may be preceded by a
in, to.
preposition
Sometimes a shorter form
quinto die ante Idus Octobris (abbreviated
V
is
used:
Id. Oct.), the
eleventh of October.
The second day
before the Nones, Ides, or Calends
Roman method
ing to the
Ablative of Extent of *
605.
ablative
Extent of time :
—
is,
accord-
of reckoning, the third.
is
Time
sometimes expressed by the
tota nocte ierunt, they went during the whole night; B. G.
i,
26, 5.
quod quinque horis proelium sustinuissent, because they had kept
up
the fight for five hours;
B. C.
i,
For the Accusative o^^Jggtjjp^v^j^^
47, 3. 518.
LOCATIVE CASE
6o6-6lj)
1 93
LOCATIVE CASE The Locative Case denotes
606.
Only the following nouns have a
the place where. locative case
:
—
Names of towns and small islands in the singular and second declensions: as, Romae, at Rome; Lanuvi, Lanuvium; Melitae, at Malta; Cypri, at Cyprus.
607.
(a)
of the first at
608.
A few
(b)
town-names
in the singular of the third de-
But the ablative of third more commonly used to denote place where.
clension: as, Carthagini, at Carthage.
declension nouns 609.
is
Some common nouns
(c)
clensions; these are the
domi
of the first
and second de-
(rarely domui), at home; humi, on
ground; belli and militiae, in war; rarely terrae, in the
earth.
Also, of the third declension, run, in the country (the ablative
rure
is
610. island:
used in the same sense).
Very
(d)
—
the
rarely,
Aegypti, in Egypt; Val. 4,
Romae Numidiaeque, Cretae considere,
Of
all
611.
to settle
i,
name
of
a
country or large
15.
Rome and
in Numidia; Sail. Jug. 33, 4.
in Crete; Aen. 3, 162.
other words the ablative
used to denote place where.
is
In early Latin, instead of the locative of names of towns and with in
islands, the ablative
612.
at
For the locative aniini see 430.
When
oppidtim, insula,
etc.,
often used.
is
a locative
is
followed
by an
— the appositive
is
appositive,
— urbs,
in the ablative with
or without the preposition: as, Albae, in urbe munita, at Alba,
a
fortified
town; Phil.
4, 6
;
Antiochiae, celebri
at Antioch, once
a busy city; Arch.
the preposition
is
proper
name
in the city of 613.
The
is
If
4.
quondam
urbe,
the appositive precedes,
always used; under these circumstances the sometimes in the ablative: as, in urbe Rdma,
Rome;
locative
Liv. 39, 14,
7.
domi may be accompanied by a
or alienus in the genitive, or
your house; domi alienae,
at.
by a
possessive adjective
domi tuae, at heme; doim Caesaris, at Caesar's
possessive genitive: as,
another fwn's
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES
194 But when
house.
the noun
is
{614-616
thus qualified, the ablative with in
is
sometimes used instead of the locative. In the following words and phrases a locative
614.
time when:
—
die in such combinations as die septimi,
day
piidie, the day. before; postridie, the
yesterday; luci, in the light;
mani
(later,
after;
is
on
used to denote the seventh
cottidie, every
mane), in
the
day;
day; heri,
morning; temper! or
tempori, on time; vesperi, in the evening.
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION Adjectives are classified according to their nature
615.
as follows 1.
:
—
Descriptive adjectives, denoting quality or quantily:
as,
boniis, good; multus, much. 2.
3.
Participial adjectives: as, patiens, patient; rectus, straight.
Pronominal adjectives; these include (a) Demonstrative and Interrogative adjec-
adjectives: as, hie, this; (b) Relative tives: as, qualis, of
what
sort, uter,
adjectives: as aliquis, some; (d)
which (of two);
(c)
Indefinite
the Distributive adjectives,
quisque, each, and uterque, each (of two); (e) the Intensive, (f) alius, another,
ipse;
and
4.
Possessive adjectives:
5.
Numeral
two).
alter, the other (of as,
meus, my; cuius, whose.
adjectives: as, unus, me.
Participial Adjectives
nouns in gender, number, and are therefore to that extent adjectives. Only those which denote a permanent quality, however, are classed The present active and the perfect passive are as adjectives. 616.
and
All participles agree with
case,
often used in this way.
Augustan poets and
nent; Cicero uses futurus
occasionally so used
The
future active
later prose- writers: as,
and venturus.
is
so used in the
mansurus, perma-
The
future passive
a^i^e'SW^hsSfh timendus,
terrible.
is
-
6iy-62l) 617.
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
195
Participles used as adjectives are sometimes compared:
si
—
qui adustidris col&ris essent, ij any were more sunburned; Liv. 27, 47,
homo
eruditissimus, a very learned
man;
2.
Verr. 4, 126.
Pronominal adjectives are treated under the head
of Pronouns.
Possessive Adjectives Possessive adjectives are ordinarily not used unless
618.
they are needed to make the meaning clear; they are used also to give emphasis or denote a contrast.
—
619. The reflexive possessive adjective of the third person, suus,— in an independent clause regularly refers to the subject; sometimes to another word, when the context makes the meaning
—
clear:
Orgetorix ad judicium
omnem suam
familiam coegit, Orgetorix
gathered all his people at the trial; B. G.
hunc
i, 4, 2.
sui cives e civitate eiecerunt, his fellow-citizens drove
him from
the state; Sest. 142.
Romanls multitudo sua auxit animum, their own numbers the courage of the Romans; Liv. 21, 30, 4. 620. of the
which
increased
In dependent clauses suus usually refers to the subject main verb; sometimes to the subject of the clause in it
stands:
—
Nasidius eos hortatur ut rursus auxiliis confiigant, fleet of
B. C.
cum
BrutJ classe additis suis
Nasidius urges them
to fight
again with the
Brutus, adding his {Nasidius') troops as auxiliaries;
2, 3, 3.
Helvetii persuadent Rauracis uti oppidis suis exustis proficiscantur, the Helvetians persuade the
out; B. G.
621.
Rauraci
to
burn
their
towns and
set
I, 5, 4.
In indirect discourse suus refers sometimes to the subbut usually to the subject of the verb
ject of the infinitive,
—
which introduces the indirect discourse: quam praedicant fratris sui membra dissipavisse,
they say that she
scattered her brother's limbs; Manil. 22.
omnes
finitimos
neighbors
suae
virtuti
invidere,
envie^tJMiimMlhhf^-
{they said) ^'
3^' 4-
that all their
f
-
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES
196
The
622.
{622-62
lack of a non-reflexive possessive adjective of the
third person
is
supplied by the genitive of the demonstrative
pronouns. For the use of the possessive adjective instead of an objective genitive For the possessive adjective with refert and interest see 434.
see 427.
The
623.
magno
as,
B. G.
sui
for
cum
pericttld,
with great danger
to
themselves;
4, 28, 2.
The noun
of a personal or reflexive pronoun is emphasis instead of a possessive adjective:
genitive
sometimes used
personal or reflexive pronoun
is
regularly used
—
accompanied by omnium or utriusque ad omnium nostrum vitam pertinent, they pertain
is
:
of vs; Cat.
domus
I,
when
to the life
the
of all
14.
utriusque nostrum, the houses belonging
to
each of us; Q. Fr.
2, 4, 2.
For the Appositive Genitive with a possessive adjective see 403
The
624.
dramatists;
rare possessive adjective cuius, whose,
it
is
found chiefly in the
has either an interrogative or a relative force.
ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATE ADJECTIVES Adjectives
625.
may
be
classified
also according to
their use, as (a) attributive, (b) predicate.
An
626.
rectly
:
—
Attributive Adjective qualifies a noun di-
magnis itineribus contendit, he hastens by forced marches; B. G.
i,
38, 7.
eventiis varil sequebantur, various results followed; B. G.
pervenerat ad loca nata insidiis, he had come for an ambush; Liv. 22, 4,
627.
the
A
to
2, 22, 2.
places fitted by nature
2.
Predicate Adjective qualifies a noun through of a verb, which serves as a means of con-
medium
nection between thg,^^y^^34^oJj^adjective:
—
— AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
628-630)
197
foituna caeca est, fortune is blind: Lael. 54.
idoneum locum
cum
arbitratus, thinking the place suitable; B. G. 4, 23, 4.
milites alacriores effecissent,
more eager; B. G.
Capita as his own; Rose.
A
Am.
had made
the soldiers
21.
was a learned man; Brut.
fuit doctus, he
628.
they
Capitoni propria traduntur, three farms are given to
praedia
tria
when
3, 24, 5.
94.
form of the Predicate Adjective is the Prowhich is used with verbs not ordinarily taking
special
leptic Adjective,
a predicate adjective, to denote the result of the action of the
verb: si
parcent animae fata superstiti, if the fates will spare let
my
love
and
her live; Hor. C. 3, 9, 12.
scuta latentia condunt, they put their shields away in concealment;
Aen. alios
3, 237.
age rabidos, drive others mad; Catull. 63, 93.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 629.
All adjectives (including participles) agree with
nouns
their
in gender,
number, and case
:
—
fortissimi sunt Belgae, the Belgians are the bravest; B. G.
mulier
litteris
Graecis et Latinis docta, a
and Latin
i, i, 3.
woman familiar with Greek
literature; Sail. Cat. 25, 2.
quail pietate exastimatis esse eos? what sort of piety do you think they
have? Font. 31.
tuae potestatis omnia
sint,
keep everything in your
own
control;
Liv. 22, 39, 21.
bina castra comlnuniunt, they fortify two camps; Liv. 22, 44,
630.
A collective noun
is
often qualified
by a plural adjective by the sense:
—
(or participle), the gender being determined pars perexigua
Romam
taken unarmed to
omnis aetas currere ^
'
i
ineimes delali sunt, a very small part were
Rome;
Liv.
2, 14, 8.
obvii, people of all ages
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by Microsoft®
ran
te
m^et them; Liv. 27,
— SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES
198 631.
If
nouns,
it is
{631-634
an adjective (or a participle) qualifies two or more usually plural, but it may be singular, in agreement
with the nearest:
—
NIsus et Euryalus priml, Nisus and Euryalus first; Aen. 5, 294. res erat multae operae ac laboris, it was a matter of much effort and toil;
An
632.
B. G.
s, 11, 5-
adjective (or a participle) qualifying
nouns
of different genders,
noun
as,
:
hominis
lands and
if
two
or
more
attributive, agrees with the nearest
agros omnis et maria parentia,
all the
man; Tusc. i, 6g. the nouns mean persons;
seas subservient to the welfare of
If predicate, it is
neuter,
utilitati
if
usually masculine,
if
they mean things; sometimes,
nected idea,
it
agrees with the nearest:
if
the nouns form a con-
—
pater mihi et mater mortui essent, how long my father and mother had been dead; Ter. Eun. 517. tempus et ratio administrandi eius libera praetori permissa, time
quam pridem
and manner of conducting
this
were
left to the
discretion of the
praetor; Liv. 35, 25, 10.
ut bracchia atque umeri liberi ab aqua esse possent, so that their
arms and shoulders could
633.
If
be kept out of water; B.
G.
7,
56, 4.
the nouns include both persons and things, a predi-
cate adjective (or participle)
is
sometimes masculine, sometimes
neuter, and sometimes agrees with the nearest,
if
that
is
plural:
rex regiaque classis una prof ecti, the king and the royal fleet
set
out
together; Liv. 21, 50, 11.
inimica inter se esse liberam civitatem et regem, that a free state
and a king are incompatible; Liv.
44, 24,
2.
patres decrevere legates sortesque exspectandas, the senate decreed that the envoys
634.
and the prophecies should
be awaited; Liv. 5, 15, 12.
Two
things are
or more masculine or feminine nouns denoting sometimes qualified by a neuter adjective (or parti-
ciple) in the predicate:
—
stultitiam et timiditatem et iniustitiam dicimus esse fugienda,
say that folly, timidity, and injustice are
we
avoided; Fin. 3, 39. nox atque praeda hostis remorata sunt, the night and plundering
delayed the ew^«9ir//^JbyJ/\%rq^^.
to be
ADJECTIVES AS SUBSTANTIVES
'^SS'^jS)
199
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES AS SUBSTANTIVES 635. In the singular, the masculine of an adjective is rarely used as a substantive except as a predicate genitive: as, stulti erat sperare,
was
it
the part of a fool to hope; Phil. 2, 23.
masculine of participles
is
The
used freely in any case except the
The masculine nominative of adjectives and parsometimes used even in prose: as, si tabulam de
nominative. ticiples is
naufragio stultus arripuerit, extorquebitne earn sapiens?
if
a
from a shipwreck, will the wise man pull it away from him? Off. 3, 8g. But it is rarely found unless qualified by a pronominal adjective, hie, quidam, etc. It is used more freely in poetry.
fool snatches a board
—
The substantive but examples are
use of feminines
that of masculines,
is like
rare.
Neuter adjectives and participles are used substanany case, but are most common with prepositions and as Genitive of the Whole: 636.
tively in the singular in
varium
et mutabile
—
semper femina, woman
is
always a variable and
changeable thing; Aen. 4, 569.
rapto vivit, he lives on plunder; Liv. 22, 39, 13.
naves
in
aridum subduxerat, he had drawn
B. G.
ex insperato, unexpectedly; Liv.
upon dry land;
1, 25, 9.
aliquid boni, something good,; Ter.
637.
the ships
4, 29, 2.
And. 398.
In the plural, masculine adjectives and participles are
used freely as substantives
in
oderunt peccare bonl, good
any
men
case:
—
hate to sin; Her. Epis.
contemptu regentium, by contempt for
i, 16, 52.
those in power;
Tac. Ann.
12, S4-
suos continebat, he restrained his men; B. G.
638. thing,
Neuter
— are
plurals,
—
e.g.
i,
15, 4.
bona, good things, omnia, every-
used freely in the nominative and accusative,
rarely in the other ca-^^f^^ed by Microsofm
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES
200
{639-642
639. Perfect Passive Participles used as substantives be qualified either by adverbs or by adjectives:
—
may
ob admissum foede dictumve superbe, on account of a foul crime a haughty word; Lucr. 5, 1224.
or
ferocibus dictis, with fierce words; Liv. 23, 47, 4.
640. Some adjectives constantly used as substantives have become nouns, and may be qualified by adjectives; so, for example, the names of the months; amicus, friend; inimicus,
enemy; dextra,
the
right;
sinistra,
the
left;
fera,
wild beast;
hiberna, winter-quarters ; patria, native land; propinquus, kins-
man;
regia, palace.
ADJECTIVES INSTEAD OF ADVERBS Adjectives are often used where adverbs would be
641.
used in English erat
Romae
—
:
Rome; Rose. Am.
frequens, he was often at
invitus feci, / did
it
unwillingly; Cat.
M.
16.
42.
se totos tradiderunt voluptatibus, they have given themselves wholly to
pleasure; Lael. 86.
Thus, instead of adverbs, the adjectives tremus, and ultimus are used to denote the
Troiae qui primus ab oris venit, who
Aen.
I,
first
prior, first
primus, princeps, pos-
or last to do a thing: as,
came from
the shores of
Troy;
I.
For the use
of adverbs instead of adjectives see 648.
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES Comparatives and Superlatives (adjectives and adverbs) have regularly the same meanings as in English, but they are often used where there is no definite comparison, the comparative denoting a degree that is rather high or too high (that is, higher than usual), the superlative denoting a degree that is very high. This meaning of the superlative is the same as would be expressed by the positive with admodum or valde, or by per or prae in composition with an adjective or adverb: 642.
—
—
senectus est natura loquacior, old age , Cat.
M.
is naturally rather talkative;
55.
vir foitissimus,
a
vqruji^kl^m ^(mtBsSfE)^, 12, 4.
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
643-646)
643
The
.
superlative
is
20I
sometimes used when there are only two persons maximus erat, to Numitor, who was the oldest
or things: as, Numitori, qui (of two brothers); Liv.
The
superlative
by unus,
adjective,
The
644.
is
i, 3, 10.
often strengthened
superlative
is
est possible degree, often able:
by
vel, eoen, longe,
by far,
—
an
used with quam, to denote the high-
with the addition of a form of possum,
quam plurimum scribere, to write as much as possible; De quam mazimis potest itineribus in Galliam contendit, into
or, if
the one.
Gavl by as rapid marches as he can; B. G.
quam maturrime,
as early as possible; B. G.
i,
Or.
x,
150.
he hastens
i, 7, i.
33, 4.
For the superlative with quisque see 691. 645.
When two
qualities are
compared, both adjectives or or, if magis is used,
adverbs are regularly in the comparative,
—
both are in the positive verior quam gratior, more true than agreeable; Liv. 22, 38, 8. libentius quam verius, with greater satisfaction than truth; Mil. 78. Celer disertus magis est quam sapiens, Celer is more eloquent than :
wise; Att. 10,
Rarely the
first
in the positive, or
i, 4.
adjective or adverb
is
in the comparative, the second
both are in the positive:
—
vehementius quam caute, more eagerly than cautiously; Tac. Agr. 4. Claris maioribus quam vetustis, 0/ a family that was famous rather than old; Tac. Ann. 4, 61.
646. in
The
following adjectives
— nearly
agreement often denote a part
of
superlatives
all
an object:
— medius,
reliquus, extremus, Imus, intimus, postremus, primus,
and ultimus
:
—
in coUe medio, half in
extremo ponte,
summus So, also
B. G.
I,
way up
the hill;
B. G.
summus,
1, 24, 2.
end of the bridge; B. G. 6, 29, 3. mons, the top of the mountain; B. G. i, 22, i. at the
multus and serus in such phrases as multo
22, 4;
—
and nocte
die, late in the day,
sera, late at night, Liv. 1, 57, 9. Digitized by Microsoft®
SYNTAX OP ADVERBS
202
{647-651
SYNTAX OF ADVEkBS 647.
Adverbs are used to qualify verbs, adjectives,
and other adverbs
(or adverbial phrases):
nuper pacati erant, they had been
—
recently subdtied; B. G.
tam propinquis hostibus, with the enemy minus facile, less easily; B. G. i, 2, 4.
i, 6, 2.
so near; B. G. i, 16, 6.
paene in conspectu, almost in sight; B. G. For the classification of adverbs see 297-213.
i, 11, 3.
Adverbs are sometimes used to qualify nouns, especially
648.
those containing a verbal or adjectival idea:
—
hinc abitio, departure from here; PI. Rud. 503.
baud dubie plane
maxim6
victor, undoubtedly victorious; Sail. Jug. 102, i.
in all respects a
vir,
man; Tusc. 2, 53. nuUo publice emolumento, with
privatim periculo,
personal danger and no public recognition; Liv.
Some common
649. satis,
and si
—
sic,
vales,
bene
satis esse
For the use
adverbs,
—
very great
6, 39, 6.
especially bene, male, ita,
are often used as predicate adjectives: est, if
you are
iinum consulem,
well, it is well;
that one consul
Fam.
—
5, i, 1.
was enough; Liv.
34, 43, 4.
adverbs as prepositions see 1025-1027.
of
Adverbs of place are sometimes used instead 650. noun with a preposition :
—
of a pro-
inde maiorem adoptavi, of these I adopted the older; Ter. Ad. 47. (inde = ex eis.)
apud eos quo se 38. is
(quo
unde
te
De
Or.
=
contulit,
among
those to
audisse dicis, he from 2,
For the meanings
whom
he went; Verr. 4,
ad quos.)
=
whom you
say you heard
it;
285.
(unde
of the
comparative and superlative of adverbs see
ex quo.)
642-645.
THE USE OF CERTAIN ADVERBS 651.
Of the adverbs meaning
so,
tam
(like
adeo and eo)
denotes degree; ita and sic usually denote manner: tam opportune tempore,
at so favorable
a time; B. C.
—
3, 36, 8.
sic'mnites cdasb\a.tgs^.lw,v^ri^t^s^co^ed his troops; B. G.
7, 19, 6.
NEGATIVE ADVERBS
652-657)
203
Certo and certe mean certainly, but certe
652.
in restricted aflBrmations,
meaning
at least, at
any
is
used also
rate: as,
res
fortasse verae, certe graves, things perhaps true, at any rate
important; Fin.
lam
653.
4, 7.
referring to past
and present time means already or
now, with reference to the time that has elapsed referring to future ;
time
it
means immediately; with negatives
Nunc
654.
refers to present
it
means
time without reference to any
other.
After present contrary-to-fact conditions
lated as
it is:
as, si
{no) longer.
it is
best trans-
discere posses fidem, ea disciplina a
me adhi-
bita esset; nunc, etc., if you could learn good faith, I should have given you this lesson; as
it is,
is
best translated as
Primum mt&ns first or in the first
655.
plying a
series,
and
is
So, tunc, then,
etc.; Liv. i, 28, g.
after past contrary-to-fact conditions
often followed
place,
was.
beginning or im-
by deinde,
and denique or postremo, finally. Prim5 means at first, as opposed to
it
next,
or,
turn,
then,
afterward, emphasizing
the idea of time only.
Quidem,
656. it
word it emphasizes; when followed by quidem honestum, verum hoc
indeed, at least, follows the
often has an adversative force, especially
sed, autem, etc.: as, est istuc
expedit, that is honorable to he sure, but this is expedient; Off. 3,75.
Ne
The word between ne and quidem: as, ne or phrase emphasized stands nor does Varus either copias producere, Varus quidem dubitat .
.
.
quidem means
not even, rarely not either.
hesitate to lead out his troops; B. C. 2, 33, 3.
NEGATIVE ADVERBS
Non
657. is
is
the negative for statements and questions, and
used also with single words.
command
sions of
Non 768). '
Ne
is
the negative for expres-
or wish.
sometimes used with the hortatory subjunctive Ovid uses it even with the imperative.
is
Digitized
by Microsoft®
(see
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS
204
Haud (haut, hau) negatives a
658.
single
{658-663
word and in classical
Latin is commonly used only with adjectives and adverbs: as, haud facile, not easily; Sail. Cat. 13,5. Cicero uses it with a few verbs, especially in the phrase
Nee
659.
is
haudjcio an, / don't know
but that.
sometimes used for non in early writers and
rarely in later writers, chiefly in the combinations
necdum,
not
and necopinans, unaware.
yet,
One negative in a clause usually counteracts another: non possum non confiteri, I must confess; Fam. 9, 14, i. Thus non nemo means some one, nonnumquam, sometimes, etc. After a general negative like nego or numquam, the corneve, and also ne relatives neque neque, neve quidem, do not counteract, but add emphasis to the negative idea: as, nihil umquam neque insolens neque gloriosum ex ore eius exiit, nothing either insolent or boastful ever came from his 660.
as,
.
lips;
.
Nep. Timol.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
4, 2.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS
The
661.
person of the verb
shown by
is
its
ending;
hence, Personal Pronouns are regularly used as subjects
only to express emphasis or contrast: quos ego a Catilina non revoco,
from
—
these I, for
my part,
do not
call
away
Catiline; Cat. 2, 22.
ego reges
eieci,
vos tyrannos introducitis, / drove out kings, you are
bringing in tyrants; ad Her. 4, 66.
The Latin has no
662.
except the reflexive sui.
personal pronoun of the third person
The
lack
is
supplied
by the demon-
strative
and
relative pronouns.
663.
The
genitive singular of the personal pronouns,
of the reflexive sui,
meus,
laius,
is
and suus being regularly used instead
sessive genitive.
and
usually objective, the possessive adjectives Digitized
by Microsoft®
of the pos-
the reflexive pronoun
664-66y)
Of the two forms used as an
205
ending in
of the genitive plural, that
objective genitive;
larly as a genitive of the whole,
-um
that ending in
sometimes as an
is
-1 is
used regu-
objective genitive,
—
and always when accompanied by omnium: habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui, you have a leader mindfid of you, forgetful of himself; Cat. 4, ig.
uterque nostrum, each one of us; Att.
13, 33, 2.
custodem huius urbis ac vestrum, guardian of
this city
and of you;
Cat. 3, 29.
omniiun nostrum vitam,
The
664.
the life of
plural of the personal
us
all;
Cat.
pronoun of the
i,
14.
first
person
is
some-
times used instead of the singular as a conventional expression of modesty: as, sitque
of
me
memor
nostii necne, referte mihi,
let
me know
whether she thinks
or not; Ov. Trist. 4, 3, 10.
665.
nouns:
The personal pronouns as, tii te in
custody; Cat.
i,
are used also as reflexive pro-
ciistodiam dedisti, you gave yourself into
19.
THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN i
666.
The
Reflexive Pronoun
sui, like
the possessive
adjective suus (see 619), in an independent clause refers regularly to the grammatical or logical subject; but often to
some other word when the context makes the meaning
clear
:
—
is sibi
legationem ad civitates suscepit, he iOok upon himself an
embassy
cum
to the states;
B. G.
i, 3, 3.
etiam feras inter sese natura •udld beasts friendly to
quos studeo sanare sokes; Cat.
conciliet, since nature
one another; Rose.
sibi ipsos,
/ am
Am.
makes even
63.
eager to cure them for their
own
2, 17.
667. In dependent clauses it may refer to the subject of the dependent clause; when so used, it is called a Direct Reflexive; or, it may refer to the subject of the main clause, and is then called
an Indirect Reflgxi^e.^ ^B^Uhe^ndirect Reflexive
is
regu-
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS
2o6 larly
{668-671
used only when the dependent clause expresses the words
or thought of the subject of the main clause: si
qua
ad quam se
eluceat,
vittutis
Eignificatio
—
similis
animus
adiungat, i/ any indication of virtue should appear, to which a congenial
mind may
attach itself; Lael. 48.
huic mandat ut ad se revertatur, this B. G.
a Caesare invitor
sibi
his envoy; Att.
he orders to return to him;
ut sim legatus, I 18, 3.
2,
am
invited by Caesar to be
(Referring to the logical subject.)
In indirect discourse, when the subject from that of the verb introducing
668. is
man
4, 21, 2.
different
usually refers to the latter: Ariovistus respondit
—
omnes
of the infinitive it,
the reflexive
ad se oppugnandum
Galliae civitates
venisse, Ariovistus replied that all the states of Gaul had come to attack
him; B. G.
i,
44, 3.
Faustulo spes fuerat, regiam stirpem apud se §ducari, Faustulus
had
were being reared in his
believed that children of royal birth
house; Liv.
1,
5.
5,
(Referring to the logical subject of the
introducing verb.)
ne existumarent
opus esse,
sibi perdita re publica
let
them not think
that he needed to destroy the state; Sail. Cat. 31, 7.
(Referring
to the logical subject of the infinitive.)
669.
The
reflexive
English " one ":
as,
is
brag about one's self; Off.
670.
Suus
late Latin:
as,
is
sometimes used of an indefinite person
deforme est de se ipsum praedicare, i,
like the
bad form
to
137.
sometimes strengthened by
suo
it is
sibi gladio
hunc
sibi,
but chiefly in early and
iugulo, Tvith his
own sword I
kill
him;
Ter. Ad. 958.
For the use of ipse as a reflexive pronoun see 675. For the use of is instead of the reflexive pronoun see 719.
THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN 671.
The
Intensive Pronoun ipse,
self,
is
used alone
as a substantive, or in apposition with another word. It
is
used alone as ifp^-mkr^icrosoft®
-
THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN
672-677)
emphasize an omitted sub-
(a) In the nominative, to
672.
ject of the
second, or third person:
first,
207
—
ipse, / myself shall manage; De Or. i, omnia ad nos defenmt, they themselves report
moderabor ipsi
De
Or.
any other
—
:
erat scriptum ipsius
Cat.
case, as
manu,
it
an emphatic pronoun of the
had been written in his own hand;
3, 10.
id rei publicae praeclanun, ipsis gldriosum, this state, glorious
674.
To
(c)
for themselves; Phil.
autem
Nomentanus
(d)
erat super ipsum,
the
—
erat Pythagoras, the Master said;
"Master " was Pythagoras; N. D. Hor.
was splendid for
2, 27.
designate an important person: 'ipse"
ipse dixit;
675.
eoerything to us;
250.
1,
(b) In
673.
third person
iii.
i,
now
the
10.
Nomentanus was above
the host;
S. 2, 8, 23.
As an
indirect reflexive, in a subordinate clause,
referring to the subject of the
main
clause:
—
peitimuerunt ne ab ipsis descisceret, they were afraid that he woidd
abandon them; Nap. Ale.
7, s, i-
Ariovistus respondit si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, sese ad etun
venturum
fuisse, Ariovistus replied that, if he
thing of Caesar, he would have come to him; B. G.
676.
If
agrees with se
there
it,
677.
the form
1,
34, 2.
a reflexive pronoun in the predicate, ipse sometimes
but more often
ipsum
me
is
had wanted any-
it
agrees with the subject:
interfecit, he killed
himself; Tac. H.
—
3, 51.
ipse consolor, / console myself; Lael. 10.
Ipse
is
ipsum
used in apposition with nouns and pronouns; used to intensify adverbs of time:
—
is
ipse Caesar, Caesar himself;
Fam.
turpe tnihi ipsi videbatur, even
nunc ipsum, ywrf now; Att.
to
it
seemed disgraceful; PhU.
12, 16.
For the use of ipse with a possessive Digitized
6, 10, 2.
me
adjective, see 403.
by Microsoft®
i, g.
— SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS
2o8 Ipse
678.
and
is
much more
used
is
{678-682
than the English
freely
own
often to be translated very, exactly, of one's
self
accord,
etc.:
ad id ipsum creatus,
elected for this very
purpose; Liv.
2,
42, 5.
triginta dies erant ipsi, there were exactly thirty days; Att. 3,21.
arma
arms fell of
ipsa cecideruat, the
their
own
accord; Off.
i, 77.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
The Interrogative Pronoun referring to an indefnumber is quis, who; the corresponding adjective qui, what or of what kind ( = qualis)
679. inite is
:
quis
who more famous than Themistoclesf
Themistocle?
clarior
—
Lael. 42. scribis te velle scire qui sit rei publicae status,
want
The
680.
to
—
eum
quis
is
The
me? who
it
that
you
i, 7, 10.
calls
my name?
him? Cat.
2, 12.
Ter. Ph. 990.
Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective referring to
fluat iudicari
direction
you write
Fam.
between quis and qui is not always sometimes used as an adjective, qui as a sub-
two persons or things
partem
country is;
senator appellavit? what senator addressed
qui nominat
681.
state of the
distinction
observed; quis stantive:
know what the
is
non
flows; B. G.
ut oculis in utram
uter, which:
as,
possit, so that
you cannot
see in
which
i, 12, i.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Quis, any one, some one,
682.
indefinite pronouns, nisi, ne,
ubi,
etc.
clause:
and
is
the most indefinite of the
rare except in combination with
and certain interrogative and
—
relative words, as
It always stands after one or
d^erit quis, some one si
is
may
say; Off.
more words
of its
3, 76.
quid in te pecca.\i,ffiti^^,tlifffifQMmny wrong; Att.
si,
num,
3, 15, 4.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
683-686)
The corresponding
Indefinite Adjective
and
case of the interrogative pronoun is
is
209
qui; but, as in the
adjective, the distinction
not always observed; see 680. 683.
and nescio
Aliquis (adjective, aliqui), quispiam,
quis,
some one, all have about the same meaning, and are somewhat less vague than quis. Of similar meaning are the double negatives non. nulll, some, several (used also adjectively, as is the singular
non
nullus),
non nemo, some
in these there is a Aliquis sometimes ut
me
aliquid putare nugas, to think
CatuU.
my
3, 15, 8.
nonsense of some value;
i, 4.
Quidam, a
certain one, is
who might be named
if
more
definite, referring to
one
necessary: as, video esse hie quosdam, /
see that there are certain ones here; it is
—
means a person or thing of some importance: you want me to be somebody; Att.
veils esse aliquem, that
meas esse
684.
and non nihil, something, but of number or quantity.
one,
fundamental idea
Cat.
As an adjective
i, 8.
often used to soften the meaning of a noun: as, timiditate
ingenua quadam, hy a
Quisquam (substantive and
685.
De
sort of natural timidity;
Or.
2,
10.
adjective), awy one, and the
adjective ullus are used only in negative sentences or phrases,
implying a negative, in conditional clauses, and in which follow a comparative and imply a negative: estne quisquam de quo melius existimes tu? m there any one of whom
in questions
—
clauses
si
you have a better opinion? Rose. Com. 18. cuiquam generi liominum probatus sit, if he class of
saepius
men;
Verr.
cimi hoste coaflixit
certavit, he fought
is
approved by any
2, 17.
more
quam quisquam often with the
cvun inimico con-
enemy than any one
ever
wrangled with a personal foe; Manil. 28. sine ni
tillo
metii, without
any fear; Verr.
oSerumentas habebis clavos, unless
5,
96.
pluris in tergo tuo
you have more
stripes
quam
iilla
navis longa
on your back than any man-
of-war has nails; PI. Rud. 753.
686.
Qui^as and qmlibet
more than two; utervis and
mean any
one whatever, referring to
uterlibet. eiiAer, of two.
Neuter
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS
2IO
means
neither, of
two; in the plural
it
{pS^-dgi
two groups: as, side saw the other;
refers to
neutri alteros primo cemebant, at first neither Liv. 21, 46, 4.
687. Nemo, besides its regular use as a pronoun, is sometimes used as an adjective, in place of nuUus, and is regularly so used with a proper name, another pronoun, "or an adjective or par-
—
used substantively: ut hominem neminem pluris Fam. 13, 55, 1.
ticiple
faciam, that I rate no
man more highly;
nemo Cornelius, no Cornelius; Att. 6, i, 18. nemo quisquam, no one at all; Ter. Euti. 1032. nemo Arpinas, no one of Arpinum; Plane. 22. Nullus, not any, no, regularly an adjective,
688.
is
often
used as a substantive in the plural and sometimes in the singular; the genitive and ablative singular are regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nullis
nemo
^ta posset esse iucundior,
Tusc.
I,
-
none coiM
life be
more pleasant;
94.
niilUus insector calamitatem, 2,
:
to
I
persecute
no
one's misfortune;
Phil.
98.
beneficia ab nullo repetere, he asked favors of no one; Sail. Jug. 96,
2.
Quicumque, whoever, properly a relative pronoun, is often an indefinite pronoun or adjective, any whatever: as, qui quacumque de causa ad eos venenmt, who have come to them for any reason whatever; B. G. 6, 23, 9. 689.
used, especially in the ablative, as
690. is
"
DISTRIBUTIVE
PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
Quisque, each,
every, refers to
more than two; uterque
each, of two.
691.
Quisque almost never stands word with which
regularly follows the
nected in sense.
It is often
not an individual but a
men; Arch.
26; so,
first
in its clause,
it is
most
used with superlatives to indicate as, optimus quisque, all the best
class:
wi^ji^-f^j^^g
and
closely con-
^uj^erkt^s,
—
in
omni
arte opti-
relative pronouns and adjectives
602-6q6)
mum
quidque rarissimum
most rare; Fin.
qudque amio
81;
2,
quinto
139.
2,
The combination
common
always the as,
Sicilia tota censetur, every fifth year all Sicily is
assessed; Verr.
so
est, in every art the best is
and with ordinal numerals:
211
that
struction, as
if
quisque with the reflexive pronoun was sometimes used irregularly, without conwere an indeclinable word: as, multis sibi of
it is it
many
quisque imperium petentibus,
seeking power, each for
himself; Sail. Jug. 18, 3.
692. Uterque in the plural, except when it is used with a noun plural in form but singular in meaning, refers to two
groups:
—
pugnatum
est
ab utrisque
acriter, both sides
fought vigorously; B. G.
4, 26, I.
utiisque castris,/(w each camp; B. G.
i,
51,
i.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Relative
693.
and
Pronouns
Adjectives
are
connecting
words, which refer to a substantive (called the Antecedent),
and serve to introduce clauses usually subordinate.
Relatives
are either definite, as qui, who; quails, of which kind; or indefinite, as quicumque, whoever; qualiscumque, of whatever kind. definite relatives are
The
ever.
694.
indefinite relatives
The
he had; B. G.
pronoun is never omitted in Latin, as it is equitatum omnem quern habebat, all the cavalry
i,
15,
i.
The antecedent
(especially
repeated in the relative clause: locis esse
The
meaning whoare always compounded forms. indefinite, as qui
relative
in English: as,
695.
sometimes
if it is
as, iter in
dies, locus, or res) is
sometimes
ea loca facere coepit quibus in
Germanos audiebat, he began to make a journey Germans were; B. G. 4, 7, i.
into those places
in which he heard the
696. the
The
relative clause often precedes the
antecedent; when
one containing sometimes
this occurs, the antecedent is
placed in the relative clause, .taking the case of the relative
•^
'
Digitized
by Microsoft®
— SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS
212
{dgy-JOZ
pronoun; the antecedent may then be represented in clause by a demonstrative pronoun :
quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus,
I did in
things
my
attigit
consulship, he has touched
own
its
—
hie versibus, what
upon in
his verses;
Arch. 28.
quae pars on the
Romano
calamitatem populo
civitatis
poenas
persolvit, that part of the state
Roman people was the first to pay the penalty;
The antecedent is sometimes attracted
697.
pronoun, even when
na^ non Am. 1009.
the ship; PI.
B. G.
i, 12, 6.
as,
Naucratem
whom I wanted
Naucrates
erat,
ea piinceps
into the case of the relative
not included in the relative clause:
it is
quern convenire volui in
was not on
intulerat,
which had brought disaster
to
find
698. An antecedent which would naturally be an appositive in the main clause usually stands in the relative clause, agreeing in case with the relative
pronoun:
/ pushed on
to
as,
Amanum
contend!, qui
Amanus, a mountain
that
was
mons
erat
hostium plenus,
covered with the
enemy; Att.
s,
20, 3-
699.
An
adjective, usually a superlative or numeral, properly belong-
ing to the antecedent, sometimes stands in the relative clause, agreeing
with the relative:
as,
vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud
beautiful vessels which he
700.
had seen at his house; Verr.
eum
viderat, those very
4, 63.
In colloquial language the relative clause sometimes contains
a redundant demonstrative pronoun without construction, which might properly stand in the main clause: as,
partum bene, he who well obtained; PI.
is
Rud. 1240.
The antecedent
701.
ille
qui cavet, diutine uti
bene
licet
on his guard may enjoy for a long time what he has (Cf. 714.) is
often omitted, especially
if
it
is in-
definite:
sunt qui dicant, there are those who say; Cat.
bene
est cui
deus
obtulit
quod
Heaven has given what
is
2, 12.
satis est, blessed is the
enough; Hor. C.
man
to
whom
3, 16, 43.
A relative clause may refer to an idea as its antecedent; then introduced by quod, id quod, or quae res: as, si a
702. it is
vobis, id
which
I
quod non spero, deserar, do not expect;
if I
should be deserted by you,
^(f^^y ^/cfe%«®
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
703-709)
213
703. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands: as, anulum quern haberet, pallium qu5
amictuS, soccos quibus indutus asset sua the ring
which he wore,
slippers he
the cloak with
had on, he had made with
Rarely a relative pronoun
704. dent: as,
you are wont
to
do;
his
own hand; De
consuesti,
Fam.
its
antece-
5, 14, i.
plural,
and
for the
agreement of predicate adjectives
if
the
Or. 3, 127.
when you do something
a relative has more than one antecedent
If
confecisse,
attracted into the case of
cum aliquid agas eorum quorum
of those things that
705.
is
manu
which he was covered,
they are of different genders,
it
it is
in the
follows the rules
(see 632, 633)
:
—
fruges atque fructus quos terra gignit, the fruits and crops which the earth produces;
N. D.
2, 37.
otium atque ^vitiae, quae prima mortales putant, leisure and wealth, which
706.
If the
men
Sail.
Cat. 36.
is a collective noun, the relative may equitatum praemittit qui videant, he sends
antecedent
be in the plural: the cavalry
reckon of the first importance;
as,
forward
B. G.
to see;
i, 15, i.
707. If the relative dause contains a predicate noun meaning the same person or thing as the antecedent, the relative usually agrees with the predicate noun: as, animal hoc quern vocamus hominem, that animal which
we
call
man; Legg.
708.
A
i, 22.
relative
sometimes agrees with a personal pronoim implied in
a possessive, or with some other word easily supplied from the context: vestT^ qui
cum summa
is of the greatest
integritate vixistis,
importance
to
hoc maximS
you who have
—
interest, this
lived with the greatest
integrity; Bull. 79.
coniuraTere pauci, d§ quj
and of
709.
A relative clause
the relative pronoun,
quae tua prudentia Att."6, 9, 1.
(sc. coniiiT&tifine)
this {conspiracy)
is
I
will
speak;
dicam, a few have conspired,
Sail.
Cat. 18,
i.
containing an abstract noun, the antecedent of
sometimes used to characterize a person:
est, te valere,
I hope you are well, such
The same idea may be expressed by
is
as, spero,
your pmdence;
the Genitive of Quality,
cuius es prudentiae, or byagiJ/^gy^^tHftj^fefe^, pro tua prudentia.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS
214
A
710.
pronoun
relative
is
sometimes equivalent to a per-
sonal or demonstrative pronoun,
which
is
not subordinate
quae cxim
:
—
men; B. G. For the use
and may introduce a clause
ita sint, since these things are so;
quae res magno usui nostris
a
of
(jlO-yi^.
f uit, this
Cat.
thing
i, lo.
was of
great service to
om
4, 25, i.
relative adverb
instead of a relative pronoun in expres-
sions of place see 660.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, ille, and idem. They are used either as substantives
711. iste,
is,
or
as adjectives. As substantives they supply the lack of a personal pronoun of the third person; as adjectives they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives. 712.
Hie,
this, refers
time, or thought:
—
to
what
near the speaker in place,
is
hi sunt extra provinciam piimi, these are the first outside the province;
B. G.
I, 10, s.
his paucis diebus, in these last few days; B. G. 3, 17, 3. hie
tamen
vvnt, yet this
Hie sometimes
man
lives;
Cat.
i, 2.
refers to the speaker himself:
militem aecipias, receive these arms and this soldier
as, (i.e.
haec anna et hunc
we
myself); Liv. 2.
10, II.
713.
Die, that, refers to
place, time, or thought
It
:
—
what
is
remote from the speaker in
de
illius
sol
me ille admonuit, thai sun has reminded me; De Or.
diseessu, concerning his departure; Att. 11, 18,
sometimes hie est
refers to
ille
what
Demosthenes,
is
familiar:
this is the
i.
3, 209.
— famous Demosthenes; Tusc.
s,
103.
Medea 714.
ilia,
the
In poetry
well-known Medea; Manil. 22.
ille is
of increased emphasis
sometimes used superfluously, but with the
— ^V>°'^i^^S§W^^^<^f^ ^^ designated :
effect
715-718) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
AND ADJECTIVES
215
quem neque fides neque ius iurandum negue ilium misericordia repressit, whom neither honor nor oath nor pity restrained; Ter. Ad. 306. nunc deztra ingeminans showering blows,
now
ictus,
nunc ille sinistra, now with his right hand same man, with his left; Aen. 5, 457.
he, the
715. Hie and hie sometimes mean respectively the former and the latter, referring to two persons or things just mentioned: as, Caesar beneficiis ac munificentia magnus habebatur, integritate vitae Cato; ille mansuetudine et misericordia clarus factus, huic severitas dignitatem addiderat, Caesar was hdd great for his kindness and generosity, Cato for the integrity of his life; the former became famous through humanity and mercy, the latter' s dignity was based upon austerity; Sail. Cat. 54, 2. But hie sometimes means the former, ille the latter, when the person or thing designated by hie is more prominent in the speaker's mind: as, melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria;
haee in tua,
ilia
in deoiium
manu
est, certain peace is better
than
hoped-for victory; the former is in your hands, the latter in the
hands of
the gods; Liv. 30, 30, 19.
is more indefinite than hie or ille, what is near or to what is remote. It is used as a personal pronoun of the third person whenever the context does not call for the more definite hie or ille. It is often explained by a relative clause, of which it is the antecedent:
716.
Is,
this
or that,
referring either to
—
ex eo loco ad flumen contenderunt, from the river; si
obsides ab
hastened
to
dentur, if hostages should be given by them; B. G.
1,
B. G. ils
this place they
2, 9, 3.
14, 6. is
qui erit adductus in iudicium, he
who
shall be brought to trial; Verr.
3. 207.
717.
neque
man
Is is
is
sum
sometimes similar in meaning to qui mortis perieulo terrear, /
that is frightened by
718.
danger of death; B. G.
In combination with a connective
English and that too:
—
Digitized
is is
by Microsoft®
am 5,
talis,
such: as,
not the sort of 30,
2.
sometimes used
like
the
{jI^^S
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS
2l6
vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment
magnum
negotium
piece of business to
Att.
719.
Is
voyage,
that too for life; Cat. 4, 7.
mense
and
it is a great month of July;
Quinctili,
that too in the
s, 12, I.
BuSdent Rauracis
una cum
uti
them; B. G.
Hie,
720.
make a
sometimes used instead of the
is
to set out with
and
est navigare atque id
ille,
iis
reflexive
pronoun:
as, per-
proficiscantur, they persuade the Rauraci
i, 5, 4.
and
is refer either
to
what precedes
or to
what
follows in time or thought.
721.
what
Iste, that of yours, refers to
near the person
is
addressed or to what relates to him or affects him: ista subsellia vacuefacta simt, the benches near
Cat.
—
you were
deserted;
I, 16.
ista praetura, that proctorship of yours; Verr. 2, 46.
It
used also without personal reference, to express contempt:
is
onimi est ista moUitia, that
A
722.
is
weakness of mind; B. G.
as,
7, 77, 5.
neuter pronoun often refers to a clause either pre-
ceding or following: hoc dico nullum
— te
signum
reliquisse, this
I say
that
you
left
a
not
statue; Verr. i, 53.
eo,
quod Minucius prospere pugnasset, on Minucius had fought successfully; Liv. 22,
The word
723. omitted:
as, solis
is brighter
that,
candor
this
account,
as used in the English phrase that illustrior est
quam
than that of any fire; N. D.
2,
quae possit
peated:
as, nulla est celeritas
there is
no quickness which can
because
34, 5. of, is regularly-
ullius ignis, the light of the
40. cvan.
Sometimes the noun
sun
is re-
animi celeritate contendere,
rival the quickness of the
mind; Tusc.
1,
43.
724. force viiTs,
Hie, ille, is, and iste (usually ille) sometimes acquire a concessive by the addition of quidem: as, libri scripti ab optimis illis quidem sed non satis eruditis, books written by men excellent to be sure, but
insufficiently educated;
Tusc.
i, 6.
Idem, the same, refers to what has been mentioned or about to be mentioned, or identifies two or more persons or
725. is
by the same substantive; means unchanging: Digitized by Microsofm things fienoted
—
or, as
an adjective,
it
— ALIUS AND ALTER
726-730) eodem tempore,
at the
same time
217
{just mentioned); B. G. 2, 24, 1.
causas simiUimas inter se vel potius easdem, cases very much like one another or rather just the same; Brut. 324.
idem semper
Idem
726.
—
over or yet:
is
vultus, always the
same expression;
Off. 1, 90.
often used where the English would use more-
eadem in piimis faceta oratio, a fine speech and morean exceedingly bright one; Brut. 273. rebus angustis animosus appare; sapienter idem contrahes vela, splendida et over
in straitened circumstances show a good spirit; yet if you are wise,
you
To
727.
express the idea the same as,
atque or ac,
A
728.
ut, the preposition
idem
cum, and,
is
used with qui,
in poetry, the dative.
demonstrative pronoun usually agrees with a prediif there is one, rather than 'with the word to which
cate noun, it refers;
will take in your sails, etc.; Hor. C. 2, 10, 21.
a demonstrative pronoun used in an indefi-
so, also,
nite sense as subject or object regularly agrees
with a predicate
noun: hie locus est
unus quo perfugiant; hie portus, haec
arz,
haec ara
sociorum, this is the only place where they can take refuge; this is the harbor, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies; Verr. 5, 126.
ea erat confessio caput
was
Romam
esse, this
was a
confession that
Rome
the capital; Liv. i, 45, 3.
eas divitias putabant, they thought this to be wealth;
Sail.
Cat. 6.
ALIUS Airo ALTER 729. alter
Alius might be included
among
among
indefinite pronouns,
demonstratives, but on account of similarity of
meaning and use they are best treated together. used both as pronouns and as adjectives. 730. ring to
when used
Alius,
more than two;
alius, one
.
.
.
another.
one or the other, of
alone,
it is
means
other,
They
another,
refer-
used also correlatively, alius
Alter,
when used
^^jMi^ Bf>Wi^^iS8m>
alone,
means
'^« second, of
are
.
.
.
either
a series;
— SYNTAX OF VERBS
2l8 it is
used also correlatively, alter
other:
.
—
divitias
praeponunt,
alii
.
.
{731-734
alter, the one
.
.
the
.
potentiam, some prefer wealth, others
alii
power; Lael. 20. fuit
claudus altero pede, he was lame in one foot; Nep. Ages.
proximo, altero,
tertio,
second, third,
first,
8, i.
denique reliquis conseciitis diebus, on the
and then
of the days that followed;
the rest
Phil. I, 32.
alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit,
one
lost his
army, the other
sold it; Plane. 86.
The phrases
731.
alius
.
.
.
and
alius
alter
.
.
.
alter are
used also in a reciprocal sense:alius
ex
alio
causam
quaerit, they ask one another the reason; B. G. 6,
37,6. ut alter alteri inimicus aiudlio esset, so that one other;
In
B. G.
s,
sometimes used instead of
this sense uterque is
utnquest cordi, each
The
is
reciprocal idea is expressed also
By
alter: as,
by
uterque
inter nos (or vos or se)
alii
mean
one
.
.
.
:
as,
5.
a condensed form of expression alius
twice in a clause or phrase to another: as, aliud
the
dear to the other; Ter. Ph. 800.
cohortafi inter se, encouraging one another; B. G. 4, 25,
732.
enemy helped
44, i3-
is
used only
one, another
.
.
.
natura iter ostendit, nature points out
to one man, another to another; Sail. Cat. 2, 9. So, with alias aliud sentiunt, they an adverb in place of one pronoun
one road
:
—
think one thing at one time, another at another; Or.
733.
As
2,
30.
from alii, ceteri means all the others, the rest; but in this word the idea of completeness is not
distinct
so, also reliqui,
so definite.
SYNTAX OF VERBS VOICE 734.
The Active and Passive Voices have
meanings as
usually the
same
in English.
With^rare exceptions intransitive verbs are used only impersonally in the passiveo^/^yj^ jajcASoifefee third person singular:
AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH SUBJECT
735-73^) as,
ibatur in earn sententiam, they came
decision; Q. Fr. (e.g.
2,
passive voice
was gone)
{it
to that
of intransitive verbs
may have
convenio, meet)
The
But compounds
i, 3.
2I9
a complete passive voice. sometimes used in a reflexive sense
is
accingitur ense, he girds himself with a sword; Aen.
:
640.
7,
ut lavarentur in fluminibus, that they bathe in the rivers; B. G. 4,
umeros mstemor pelle, I
cover
my shoulders with a skin;
AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH
A
735.
person:
verb agrees with
—
hos ego video consul, / vobis populi
Romani
A
736.
cum
to the
Roman
non desunt; vos ne populo Romano the protection
Roman
of the
may
people
not seem to be want-
people; Cat. 4, 18.
tanta multitudo lapides conicerent,
throwing stones; B. G.
when
plural verb
:
—
so great a crowd were
2, 6, 3.
pars maior receperunt sese, the greater part retired; Liv. 34, 47,
The
distributives quisque
721.
ITS SUBJECT
noun sometimes takes a
collective
i, 10.
2,
the consul see these; Cat. i, 9.
praesidia
not wanting to you; look out thai you
ing
Aen.
subject in number and
its
deesse videamini providete, is
—
and uterque sometimes take a
6.
plural verb: as,
uterque eorum exercitum eductmt, each one of them leads out his army; B. C. 3, 30, 3-
With two
737.
in the plural:
fuenint, hath Quintus times;
Fam.
4, 6,
more singular subjects the verb may be
or
as, et
i.
Maximus et L. Paullus iis temporibus Maximus and Lucius Paullus lived at those
Q.
Or, the verb
may
be in the singular:
as,
captus est, the daughter of Orgetorix and one of his sons were captured; B. G. i, 26, 4. With two or more singular subjects denoting things and
Orgetorigis
filia
atque iinus e
filiis
regarded as expressing a single idea, the verb is usually in the fama et ^^ta innocentis defenditur, the reputation
singular: as,
and
life
738.
mav'
of
an innocent man
With
singular
be in the plural
and
are defended; Rose,
Am.
15.
plural subjects pombined, the verb
or, if Digitized
the nearest subject by Microsoft®
is
singular, the
SYNTAX OF VERBS
220
(73^743
verb may be in the singular: as, quanto in periculo et castra et legiones et imperator versaretur, in what danger the camp, the legions,
and
A
739.
the
commander were
singular subject accompanied
take a plmal verb: the others
involved; B. G.
as,
had decided;
Lentulus
Sail.
cum
Cat. 43,
by an
2,
26, 5.
cum may
ablative with
ceteris constituerant, Lentulus with
i.
If the subjects are of different persons, the verb is in the person rather than the second or third, and in the second rather than the third: as, si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero
740.
first
valemus,
Fam.
you and Tullia are
if
A
741.
well,
Cicero and
verb having a relative as
its
of the expressed or implied antecedent:
adsum
I are well;
I.
14, s,
qui feci,
tu qui scis, you
I who did it am who know; Att.
subject
—
is
in the person
here; Aen. 9, 427. s, 2, 3.
In the compound forms of the passive system the par-
742.
—
with the subject in gender, number, and case: cum id nuntiatum esset, when this had been announced; B. G. 1, 7, i. se ad earn rem paratos esse arbitrati sunt, they thought that they were
ticiple agrees
ready for this thing; B. G.
With subjects
of different
i, s, 2.
numbers or genders the
participle
follows the rules for the agreement of adjectives; see 631-634.
For the agreement of a verb with an appositive see 388;
for
agreement
with a predicate noim see 396.
MOODS ANB TENSES INDICATIVE
The
743. (a)
as,
Indicative
Mood
MOOD
is
used as follows:
—
In independent declarative sentences which state a fact:
castra movent, they move the camp; B. G.
i,
15, i.
In independent interrogative sentences which make inquiry regarding a fact: as, quid te impedit? what hinders you? (b)
Cati
I,
28.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
—
•
MOOD
INDICATIVE
744"?4?)
In exclamatory statements of fact:
(c)
what men he has (d)
Iii
Cat.
left!
221 as, reliquit
quos viros!
4.-
2,
dependent clauses which state or assume a
These
fact.
include certain types of relative, temporal, causal, adversative, conditional,
and substantive
clauses; examples of the use of the
indicative are given in the treatment of these clauses.
The
744.
indicative in questions introduced
command
times equivalent to a
quin tu adducis lormn?
why
quin conscendimus equos?
or exhortation:
don't
why
you
by quin
—
is
some-
tighten the strap? Liv. 9, 10, 7.
don't
we mount our horses?
Liv.
i,
57.7-
From
this
comes the use of quin with the imperative:
attendite, iudices, consider
The Use
it
of the
The meanings and tive are as follows
in this way, judges,
Tenses
of the Indicative
quin
as,
sic
Mil. 79.
Mood
uses of the six tenses of the indica-
: :
The Present Tense
745.
— why not?
represents an action as occurriflg
or as actually in progress, or a condition as existing in present
time: as, epistulas scribo, I write
letters;
writing a letter; valet, he is well.
It
is
epistulam scribo, /
am
used also of a general
truth: as, risii inepto res iaeptior nulla est, nothing
is
more
foolish than foolish laughter; Catull. 39, 16.
746. The present sometimes represents an action as attempted or as just about to occur; this is called the Conative
Present:
—
qui mortis
poenam removet, who wants
Cat. 4,
iam iamque manu 747.
The
aside the death penalty;
present
tenet, he is just about to grasp is
sometimes used instead
eras est mihi iudicium, to-morrow I si
to set
7.
him; Aen.
2,
530.
of the future:
have a case in court; Ter.
—
Eun. 338.
vincimus, omnia tuta erunt, if we conquer, everything will be safe; SaU. Cat. 58,
9.
me pauca dicam, before I return tDSi^mVfiM^^Amt myself; Cat. 4, 20.
antequam ad sententiam redeo, de to the subject,
-
•
SYNTAX OF VERBS
222
In vivid narration the present
748.
occurring in past time; this ad eum Caesar legates 35,
is
{748-752
often used of an action
called the Historical Present:
is
mittit,
Caesar sends envoys
to
Mm;
—
B. G.
i,
I-
munun arietibus feriri vident, aurum atque argentum domum regiam comportant, when they see that the wall is being
postquam
assailed with battering-rams, they take the gold
palace; Sail. Jug. 76,
With expressions denoting duration
749.
with iam) the present
begun
dition
te
is
in the past
iam dudum
of
time (usually
used to indicate that an action or constill
—
continues:
/ have long been urging you; Cat. i, 12. iam annos habitat, he has lived at Lilybaeum now
many years; Verr. 4, 38. cum ista causa versatur,
anni stmt octo
case has been before us;
The present
now
eight years that this
is
used rarely with iam dudum:
as,
exact the penalty long since due; Aen. 2, 103.
indicative
is
sometimes used instead of the
subjunctive, in deliberative questions: quoi dono lepidum
it is
Clu. 82.
Similarly, the present imperative
iam dudum sumite poenas, 750.
silver to the
hortor,
Lilybaei multos these
and
6.
novum
libellum?
new book? CatuU. i, i. advolone an maneo? shall I fly or quid ago? what am I to do? Aen.
— to
whom am I
to
dedicate
my
bright
751.
The Imperfect Tense parce agebat, she used
represents an action or condition
to live
—
economically; Ter. And. 74.
ara vetus stabat, an old altar stood there; Ov. Met.
commentabar declamitans
13, 40, 2.
4, 534.
as continuing or repeated in past time:
wtam
I wait? Att.
shall
cottidie,
6,
326.
/ practised declaiming every day;
Brut. 310,
752.
The imperfect sometimes
represents an action or condi-
tion as just beginning, or as only intended:
iamque arva tenebant, and 2,
2og.
Digitized
—
they were just reaching the fields; Aen.
by Microsoft®
INDICATIVE
7 53-75^^
MOOD
223
quod tua sponte faciebas, which you were going accord; Cat. si licitum esset,
lo
do of your own
13.
i,
veniebant, they were coming, if
it
had been allowed;
Verr. 5, 129.
The imperfect
753.
is
used with expressions denoting dura-
tion of time, to indicate that
was
still
an action begun at an
continuing in past time:
—
earlier
time
copias quas diu comparabant, the forces which they had long been gathering; Fam. 11, 13, 5. iam dudum flebam, I had been weeping for a long time; Ov. Met. 3
For the use of the imperfect indicative
,
656.
in the apodosis of contrary-to-
fact conditions see 921-923.
754. will
The Future Tense denotes an
action or condition which
occur or be in progress in future time:
/ shall write a
letter, or,
as,
epistulam scribam,
I shall he writing a letter; adero, I shall
he present.
A
verb in the future
may
or
it
as,
\avum you
alive;
may
contain a mere statement of fact,
contain a promise or an expression of determination: te
non relinquam
shall die
;
moriere vir^s, I
under the rod; Verr.
4, 85.
will not leave
you
Thus the future
indicative in the second person sometimes has the force of an
imperative: to the
as,
nuntius ibis PeUdae, you will go as a messenger
son of Peleus; Aen.
2,
547.
Latin is more accurate than English in the expression time and regularly uses the future in subordinate clauses
755. of
'where, in English, futurity clause,
and the present
is
is
expressed only in the principal
used in the subordinate clause:
—
sequemur ducem, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow nature as our guide, we shall never go astray; Off. i, 100. nunc animiim advortite dum argumentum huius eloquar comoediae, now attend while I set forth the plot of this comedy; PL Am. 95. naturam
756.
The
present fact:
si
future
—
is
sic erit, you'll find
hoc verum
sometimes used to denote the future discovery of a it
erit, this
so; Ter. Ph. 801.
i0^i^mi^ ffS
Eun. 732.
.
SYNTAX OF VERBS
224
The
757.
{TS?-?^^
sometimes used instead of the dedemus ergo Hannisurrender Hannibal? Liv. 21, 10, 11.
future indicative
is
subjunctive in deliberative questions: as,
balem?
we then
are
The
758.
to
Perfect Tense has two distinct meanings:
may
it
represent an action or condition as completed in present time, or
may be used may mean
it
first
use
is
I have written a
letter
or / wrote a
The
letter.
called the Present Perfect, the second the Historical
The
Perfect.
Thus, epistulam
English past tense.
like the
scrips!
perfect
is
the regular tense of narration.
It
is
used not only of isolated occurrences, but also of an action or a condition which continued for some time, when the writer wishes merely to state, not to describe the fact.
The
759.
perfect
is
sometimes used to indicate
briefly,
but
emphatically, that a condition has ceased to exist: as, fuimus
Troes, fuit Ilium, we have ceased
Aen.
2,
325.
It is
to he
Trojans, Ilium has perished;
sometimes used referring to the future, in
order to emphasize the certainty of a result by representing as already accomplished: as, si
eundem (animum)
vicimus, if you shall have the same ii, 43,
we have conquered; Liv.
2.
The
760.
spirit,
it
habueritis,
perfect
truth (called the
is
sometimes used, especially in poetry, of a general Perfect), implying that what has always been,
Gnomic
continues and will continue to be:
—
rege amissfi constructa mella diripuere, when their king plunder the honeycombs; Georg.
is lost
they
4, 213.
nfillum saeva caput PrSserpina fagit, not one sold does cruel ProserpinA
pass by; Hor. C.
i,
28, 19.
Certain perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects have the mean-
761.
ings of the present, imperfect or perfect,
and future
respectively.
are memini, / remember, odi, / hate, and coepi, / begin (see 344)
now and
cognovi, /
know (I have
learned)
,
These ;
also,
and consuen, I am accustomed
(7 have accustomed myself)
Sometimes in subordinate clauses the perfect
762. context
makes
^ould seem
to
demand
is
used where the
the pluperfect; in these cases the writer
the statement fronD^zeWB>iraiBfefifo!«iew without reference to the
—
;
INDICATIVE
763-766)
MOOD
context: as, quia pacis auctores fuSrunt,
became they advised peace, war; Liv. i, i, r.
763.
The
belli Achivfis abstinuisse,
ifls
the Greeks refrained
225
from using
the privilege of
Pluperfect Tense represents an action or condition
as completed in past time: as, epistulam scripseram, / had written a letter;
adhuc valueranij up
to that
time I had been in
good health. 764.
The Future
Perfect Tense repriesents an action or condi-
tion as completed in future time: as, epistulam sciipsero, I shall
have written a
matter will have
letter; refiixerit res, the
This tense
is
much more common
lost interest.
in Latin than in English,
which often uses the present or perfect in subordinate clauses, accuracy- would demand the future perfect: carmina turn melius, cum venerit ipse, canemus, we shall sing our
—
when
when he comes
songs better
eum
go
765.
himself; Eel. 9, 67.
cimi videro, Arpinum pergam, when I have seen him, I shall
The
to
Arpinum;
Att. 9, 15,
future perfect
is
i.
sometimes used instead of the future to
emphasize the certainty of the completed act:
—
"quid cessas?" "fecera," "why do you delay?"
"I'll
do
it
at once'"
Ter. Ph. 882. qui
Antonium oppresserit bellum cdnfgcerit, whoever crushes crushed) Antony will have finished the war; Fam. 10, 19,
(shall have 2.
Epistolary Tenses
sometimes uses tenses which are letter is received; that is, he treats occurrences from the point of view of the recipient of the letter. Thus he may use the imperfect or the perfect in766.
In
letters the writer
appropriate to the time
when the
stead of the present, the pluperfect instead of the present perfect: proficiscebar inde pridie
dedi,
/ am
Nonas QmnctQes, cum hoc ad
setting out from here
this letter to
you; Fam.
2, 8, 3.
hiems rem gen prohibuerat, being done;
te litterarum
on the sixth of July, when I send
the winter has presented the thing
V^iif^%,y^icrosom
from
— SYNTAX OF VERBS
226
SUBJUNCTIVE
(767,
768
MOOD
767. The Subjunctive Mood is a combination of two moods which existed independently in the Indo-European language the Subjunctive and the Optafrom which Latin is derived, (a) it tive. The Indo-European Subjunctive had two uses:
—
—
expressed the will of the speaker; (b)
Indo-European Optative
it
had two
also
the wish of the speaker; (b)
it
uses:
—
(a) it expressed
wish,
and
Of these
expressed possibility.
four uses the Latin Subjunctive retains three, will,
The
expressed /MiMriij/.
—
expresses
it
It is probable that the Latin
possibility.
Sub-
junctive was at one time used also to express futurity, but in the literary period this use of subordinate clauses,
had disappeared except in certain types and the origin of the use of the sub-
junctive in such clauses
The Subjunctive used
is
a matter of dispute.
as an expression of will
is
called the
Volitive Subjunctive; as an expression of wish, the Optative
Subjunctive; and as an expression of possibility, the Potential Subjunctive, the Subjunctive of Action Conceivable, etc. these three uses
all
and subordinate
From
other uses of the Subjunctive in independent
clauses are derived.
Subjunctive
Mood
in Independent Clauses
Volitive Subjunctive
Subjunctive of Exhortation or 768.
The
subjunctive
or a command.
is
Command
used to express an exhortation
The negative
is
regularly ne, rarely non.
In early and colloquial Latin the second person singular is often used in positive commands. Otherwise,
(especially sis)
the second person is used only in prohibitions (then almost always the perfect tense), or when the subject is indefinite: hoc quod coepi primum enarrem,
let
me first
tell
the story I've begun;
Ter. Heaut. 273.
amemus
patriam,
let
us love our fatherland; Sest. 143.
a legibus non recedSigitts^dSyulilmisi^rt from the laws; Clu. 155.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
f6Q-77l) ne
transieris
Hiberum,
227
don't cross the Ebro; Liv. 21, 44, 6.
ne ezspectetis, don't wait; PI. Ps. 1234. isto bono utare dtun adsit, use this blessing white you have
M. cautus
mi
sis,
Tir6, be careful,
aut bibat aut abeat,
let
him
desinant insidiaii consuli, Cat.
769.
Cat.
it;
52,-
my dear
either let
Tiro;
Fam.
16, 9, 4.
drink or go away; Tusc.
them cease
5,
118.
against the consul;
to plot
32.
I,
The subjunctive
command
of exhortation or
is
some-
times used in the imperfect or pluperfect, to denote an unfulfilled
obligation in past time:
—
urbis periculo commoverentur, they ought to have been moved erally, tliey
were
to be
moved) by the danger
imitatus esses Voconium, you ought to have imitated Verr.
I,
Voconius;
107.
ne poposcisses, you should not have asked; Att. 770.
(lit-
to the city; Sest. 54.
This type of subjunctive
is
2, i, 3.
sometimes equivalent to a
clause of concession, the present referring to present time, the perfect to past time
ne
facial
do
:
—
ea quae iuvenes, at multo maiora
(literally, let
he does
much
fuerit aliis, tibi
did he begin
him not
facit,
do) the things that
greater things; Cat.
M.
though he does not
young m^n
do, still
17.
quando esse coepit? suppose he was to be to you? Verr. i, 37.
to others,
when
Deliberative Subjunctive
a form of the Volitive Subjunctive used originally in questions which askeS the will or advice of the person addressed. The negative is non. 771.
This
is
The usage is extended to real deliberative questions which a person puts to himself, and to questions of a purely rhetorical and often excl&,matory nature which imply the impossibility of the thing mentioned.
The present
is
used of present time,
—
« the imperfect, rarely the perfect, of past time: I to do? am I not what then am earn? igitur faciam? non quid
Ter. Eun. 46. Digitized by Microsoft®
to
go?
.
SYNTAX OF VERBS
228
{y)2,
773
huic cedamus? shall we yield
to him? Phil. 13, 16. an ego non venirem? was I not to come? Phil. 2, 3. tibi narret! he tell the story for youl Ter. Ph. looi.
afueris tarn diu et
cum
away so long, and 772.
his de dignitate contendas? have
will
you contend with
these for
Such questions are sometimes introduced by
or without -ne
:
—
utine haec ignoraret
suom patrem
!
you been
honor? Mur.
uti or ut, either
the idea of her not
21.
with
knowing her own
father! Ter. Ph. 874. te ut ulla res frangat? could anything crush
you? Cat.
i, 22.
For the present indicative in deliberative questions see 750; for the future indicative see 757.
Optative Subjunctive
773.
The subjunctive
negative
is
The
used to express a wish.
is ne.
The present
(rarely the perfect) refers to future time
and de-
may
perfect
notes that the object of the wish
be attained.
The
sometimes used to express the idea that the wish may have been already attained. The imperfect is used regularly of a wish unattained in present time, the pluperfect of a wish unattained in past time; but the imperfect sometimes refers to past time. The present and perfect are often, the imperfect and pluperfect are regularly preceded by utinam when utinam is used, the negative is sometimes non instead of ne is
;
:
sint beati,
may
—
they he happy; Mil. 93.
utinam ilium diem videam, may I see that day; Att. 3, 3. ne istuc luppiter sirit, may Jupiter not allow this; Liv. 28, 28, 11 mtinam spem impleverim, I hope I may have come up to his expectations; Plin. Ep. I, 10, 3.
I
utinam
Clo'dius viveret,
utinam
ille
all his
utinam
would
that Clodius were alive; Mil. 103.
omnis secum copias eduzisset, would forces with him; Cat. 2, 4.
te dl prius perderent,
would
that the gods
that he
had
killed
had
led out
you
before;
Capt. 537. utinam susceptus non essem, wotdd that I had not been allowed live; Att. 11, ^0zed by Microsoft® PI.
to
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
774-77^) 774.
In early Latin and in poetry
qui) is often
used instead of utinam:
ut pereat positum robigine t§luni,
Hor.
ufi or
—
may
229
ut (rarely, in imprecations,
weapon
the
rust
away unused;
S. 2, I, 43.
qui ilium di
omngs
perduint,
may
all
the gods destroy
him; Ter. Ph.
123.
775.
In poetry a wish
stret,
is
sometimes expressed in the form of a condi-
si umam argenti fors quae mihi monO if some chance would show me a pot of silver; Hor. S. 2, 6, 10.
by
tional clause introduced
776.
si: as,
Unfulfilled wishes in present or past time are sometimes intro-
duced by the imperfect subjunctive of volo or other verbs of wishing:
—
M. Antonius, / wish Mark Antony were here; Phil, i, 16. cuperem vultum videre tuum, / wish I could see your face; Att. 4, vellem adesset
17,4.
nollem datum, I wish
it
hadn't been given; Ter. Ph. 796.
Potential Subjunctive
The
777.
subjunctive
or condition as possible.
The present and
is
used to represent an action negative is non.
The
perfect regularly denote a present or future
possibility, the imperfect a past possibility:
hoc vobis incredibile videatur,
this
—
may seem
you
to
incredible;
Verr. 3, 109.
non
facile dixerim,
I could not
easily say; Tusc. 5, 121.
hoc bellxim quis arbitraretur uno anno thought that this
The
perfect
is
saria, these things
778.
The
war could
confici
sometimes used of past time:
may
as,
haec fuerint non neces-
not have been necessary; Brut. 52.
Potential
soften an assertion
posse? who would have
he finished in one year? Manil. 31.
:
—
Subjunctive
is
'
often used merely to
velim sic existimes, / should like to have you think so; Fam. hoc ebi>£xma.v6xim.cL!ff^^m^}^j^ift(§ssertion; Brut. 25.
12, 6.
-
SYNTAX OF VERBS
230
The
779.
Potential Subjunctive
is
^779-7^^
used when the verb
the indefinite second person singular, to express the idea (or one)
can" or "could":
—
saepe videas, you can often see; Hor.
perfectum Demosthenem
in
is
"you
S. i, 4, 86.
facile dixeris,
you might
easily call
Demos-
thenes perfect; Brut. 35.
Afros
a
Romanam crederes aciem, you Roman battle-line; Liv. 22, 46,
The
780.
indicative
is
would have thought
the Africans
3.
used in certain expressions where the
English idiom would suggest the Potential Subjunctive:
longum
est,
it
would take a long
tim.e; dif5.cile est, it
as,
would be
difficult.
For the Potential Subjunctive as the apodosis of a condition of the second
t}fpe see 915.
For the Potential Subjunctive
in subordinate clauses see 906.
Tenses of the Subjunctive 781.
The use
Mood
in Subordinate Clauses
of the tenses of the subjunctive in
independent
clauses has been treated in connection with the various types of
independent subjunctives.
The use
subjunctive in subordinate clauses ing principle, based as the
is
upon the tense-groups
Sequence of Tenses:
of the
tenses of the
determined by the follow-
—
(see 309)
and known
Tenses of the subjunctive depending upon a primary are primary (i.e. present or perfect) those dependupon ing a secondary tense are secondary (i.e. impertefise
;
The present and imperfect denote contemporaneous with or subsequent to
fect or pluperfect).
action that
is
(i.e. incomplete at the time of) the action of the main verb; the perfect and pluperfect denote action that is past (i.e. completed) at the time of the action of the
main verb
:
—
qyid est quod iam amplius exspectes? what is there which you can
any longer expEaffti£&hyV/i&rosoft®
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
782-784)
neque abest suspicio quin ipse
mortem
sibi
231
erit
and sus-
consciverit,
picion is not lacking that he committed suicide; B. G.
i, 4, 4.
verendtim mihi ne quisquam crudelius factum esse shall have to fear that
cruelly; Cat. i,
some one will say
that
dicat,
I have acted
S-
dicent quid statuerint, they will say what they decided on; Verr.
domo
erant itinera duo quibus itineribus
two roads by which they could leave
quod per tratii
fines
emn
2,
175.
exire possent, there were
their
Sequanonun Helvetios
Haeduorum
quare in
/
too
homes; B. G.
traduxisset,
i, 6, i.
quod a magis-
accusaretur, satis esse causae arbitrabatur
animadverteret, because he had led the Helvetians
through the territory of the Sequani and because he was accused
by the magistrate of the Haedui (Caesar) thought there was cient reason
why
he should punish him; B. G.
suffi-
i, 19, i.
ut de finibus suis exirent, he persuaded the people
civitalj persuasit
of the state to leave their territory; B. G.
i, 2, i.
Ariovistus tantam arrogantiam siimpserat ut ferendus
non
videretur,
Ariovistus had assumed such arrogance that he seemed unendurable; B. G. I, 33, 5.
782.
The present
perfect,
though properly a primary
often takes the secondary sequence:
—
mihi ut satis esset praesidi provisum should be ample protection; Cat.
est,
/ have arranged
tense,
that there
2, 26.
ne ignoraretis esse aliquas pacis condiciones ad vos veni, I have come to you that you may know that there are some chances of peace; Liv. 21, 13,
783.
The sequence
the present
is
2.
of tenses is
sometimes disregarded, and
followed by the secondary sequence simply be-
cause the writer
is
thinking of past time:
as,
cuius rel tanta
^s
ut Ithacam sapientissimus vir immortalitati anteponeret, so great is the power of this sentiment that the wisest of men preferred Ithaca to immortality; De Or. i, 196. est
784.
On
the other hand,
refers to present *^ .
if
the subordinate verb clearly
time,„or to, a.ction completed ' Vigitized by Microsoft® .
in present time,
SYNTAX OF VERBS
232
may
the present or perfect
secondary verb
—
:
filius pertiniuit
{785-787
be used, even
if it
depends upon a
ne ea res mihi noceret, cum praesertun adhuc stili my son was afraid that this thing might injure me,
poenas dem,
I am
especially since
Fam.
still
paying
the penalty for
my
writing;
6, 7, 1.
ardebat cupiditate
sic
umquam
ut in nulla
^derim, he was so on
iiagrantius studium
fire with eagerness that
I have never seen
more burning ardor in any man; Brut. 302.
In clauses of result (sometimes also in relative, causal,
785.
clauses) depending upon a secondary tense, the be used instead of the imperfect, though the sub-
and adversative perfect
may
The
ordinate verb refers to the same time as the main verb. fact contained in the subordinate clause
tense being treated as independent:
adeo anceps Mars so doubtful
fuit
was
—
ut propius
thus emphasized, the
is
penculum fuerint qiu werunt, who conquered were in
the conflict that those
greater danger ; Liv. 21, fuit mirifica vigilantia qui
i, 2.
suo toto consulatu
somnum non
viderit,
he was wonderfully wide-awake, for in his whole consulship he
did not know what sleep was;
Fam.
7,
30,
i.
cum ab bora septima ad vesperum pugnatum sit, aversum hostem videre nemo potuit, though they fought from the seventh hour till evening, no one could see
786.
In a clause expressing a general
upon a secondary this
is
an enemy inflight; B. G.
tense,
it is
truth,
if
i,
26, 2.
the verb depends
regularly in the secondary sequence;
unlike the usual English idiom: as,
ibi,
quantam vim ad
stimulandos animos ira haberet, apparuit, here it appeared what power anger had to goad the mind; Liv. 33, 37, 8. 787.
The
Historical Present (see 748)
as primary, sometimes as secondary,
is regarded sometimes and takes therefore either
the primary or the secondary sequence: persuadent Rauracis uti una
Rauraci
—
cum iis proficiscantur,
to set out together
with them; B. G.
they persuade the
i, 5, 4.
pe|suadet Castico ut regnum occuparet, he persuades Casticus seize the
power h^n&dh/M^osofm
to
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
f 88-792)
233
788. The Historical Infinitive (see 963) takes regularly the secondary sequence: as, Caesar Haeduos frumentum, quod essent polliciti, flagitare, Caesar demanded of the Haedui the gram which they had promised; B. G. i, 16, i.
Subordinate clauses in the form of deliberative ques-
789.
and
tions referring to past time or contrary-to-fact conditions
conclusions, retain their proper form, even
a primary tense: quaerd a
—
te cur C.
ask you
why I was
5.
repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei -ns esset adlata? if he had
ille si
refused
him?
they depend upon
Comelium non def enderem, 7
not to defend Gajus Cornelius; Vat.
quod
if
this,
do you doubt that violence would have been
ojffered
Sest. 62.
But the apodosis subordinate clause,
when used
of a past contrary-tp-fact condition,
may
as a
take the form of the future participle active or
passive with fuerim; see 924.
The imperfect subjunctive
790.
in contrary-to-fact condi-
and conclusions is treated as a secondary tense and is regularly followed by the secondary sequence: as, quid me prohiberet Epicureum esse, si probarem quae diceret? what would prevent me from being an Epicurean, if I accepted what he said? tions
Fin.
I,
27.
The
791. hibitions
is
perfect subjunctive in potential clauses or in pro-
regarded as a primary tense:
—
excellentibus ingeniis citius defuerit ars, qua civem regant,
qua hostem superent,
great geniuses
would be more
the skill to control the citizen than the skill to conquer the
Liv.
2,
course will.be preferable in
792.
it
When
enemy;
43, 10.
ne dubitaris quin id mihi futurum
clause
quam
likely to lack
my
sit
antiquius, don't doubt that this
eyes; Att. 7, 3, 2.
the perfect subjunctive
and has dependent upon
sequence takes the primary '^ ^ Digitized
it
is
itself
a subordinate
another subordinate clause,
when
it
by Microsoft®
represents the present
SYNTAX OF VERBS
234
perfect of the indicative,
(7PJ,
and the secondary sequence when
represents the historical perfect or the imperfect:
nemo
fere vestrum est, quin, quern
ad
modum
—
Syracuse was captured; Verr. culpa Pelopis qui non
curandtmi, greatly
far each thing was
A subjunctive
793.
to
is
how
4, 115.
fMum
blame
it
captae sint Syra-
cusae, audierit, there is hardly one of you but that has heard
magna
794
docuerit quatenus esset quidque
Pelops for not teaching his son how
to receive attention;
Tusc.
dependent upon an
i,
107.
infinitive, participle,
gerund, or supine follows the sequence of the finite verb of the sentence; except that a verb dependent or participle finite
may be
upon a perfect
in the imperfect or pluperfect,
primary tense
—
infinitive
even
if
the
verb
is
satis
mihi multa verba fecisse videor, quare esset hoc bellum
in a
:
necessarium, / think I have said enough
to
show why
this
war
is
unavoidable; Manil. 27.
versabor in re saepe quaesita, suSragia clam an palam ferre melius esset, I shall be busy with a question often asked, whether better to vote secretly or
The
794.
junctive (a)
after
is
it is
openly; Legg. 3, 33.
lack of a future and future perfect in the sub-
supplied as follows:
by the use
—
forms with sim or essem primary or secondary tenses respectively.
(b)
by the use
of active periphrastic
of the
idea being represented
ordinary subjunctive forms, the future
by the present
after
primary tenses, the
imperfect after secondary tenses, the future perfect idea being represented by the perfect after primary tenses, the pluperfect after secondary tenses.
The
method
employed for active verbs having a future depend upon a future or future perfect or upon a verb whose meaning suggests futurity (hope, With a main future or future perfect the periphrastic fear, etc.). form is used only if the time of the dependent verb is subsequent to that of the main verb. Under all other circumstances the second 'method is employed:,—;.. .,_ first
is
active participle, unless they
Digifizea
by Microsoft®
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
795-79?) non
est
dubium quin
non
legiones venturae
come; Fam.
that the legions will not
235 sint, there is
no doubt
2, 17, 5.
quod mihi proposueram, cum essem de belli genere I had set before myself when I was going to speak
dicturus,
what
of the character
of the war; Manil. 17.
tempus cum desideres,
erit
come when you
the time will
will desire;
Mil. 69.
sum
quidnam de
sollicitus
know what
is
provinciis decematur, I
decided about the provinces;
egestatem suam se laturum putat,
si
Fam.
am
anxious
hac suspicione liberatus
he thinks that he will bear his poverty,
if
to
2, 11, i. sit,
he is (shall have been)
Am. 128. quam agrum maluisset, ei se argento
freed from this suspicion; Rose.
qiu pecuniam
any one preferred money Liv. 21, 45,
to land,
satisfacturum, if
he would satisfy
him with cash;
s.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN THE INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNCTIVE from independent At an early stage in the history of language, thought was expressed by means of brief independent sentences. Though one might be subordinate to another in thought, it was independent 795.
All subordinate clauses are developed
sentences.
in form.
This coordinate arrangement
is
called parataxis.
From
was developed hypotaxis, subordination in form. For example, the earlier form of expression would have been rogo, fiat, / ask, let it be done; then the second clause came to be regarded as subordinate and was connected with the first by the conjunction ut, rogo ut fiat, / ask that it be done. this
—
Relative Clauses 796.
Under
this
head are included
all
clauses introduced
by
relative pronouns, relative adjectives, or relative adverbs.
Relative Clauses of Fact
797.
The
indicative
is
used in a relative clause which
states a fact.
Such clauses clause, or they
may be essential to the meaning of the main may bej/^jfeeailiylMrirofeB®, independent, adding a
— SYNTAX OF VERBS
236
Statement of fact which
main
(7p8
not essential to the meaning of the
is
clause: '
ea legione
quam secum habebat,
with him; B. G.
se
i,
Caesari dediderunt
8, ;
i.
in
quos gravius Caesar vindicandum Caesar; upon them Caesar decided
statuit, they surrendered to
that
a more
mith that legion which he had
severe penalty should be inflicted;
numquam
tantam dimicationem quanta
never was before; Att. 7, i, 2. apud eos quo se contulit gratiosus, popular among
has gone; Verr.
B. G.
3, 16, 3.
such a struggle as
fuit,
those to
whom
he
4, 38.
Relative Clauses of Characteristic
The subj unctive is used
in a relative clause which character of the antecestates a fact as a result of the 798.
dent. This
is
Such clauses more often after one
a development of the potential subjunctive.
are used rarely after a definite antecedent,
that
is
indefinite or negative or after
an interrogative antecedent
They are used also after the demonstratives is, talis, tantus, and eiusmodi, and after the adjectives unus, solus, dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus: which implies a negative.
—
secutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castris continerent, storms followed which kept our
men
in camp; B. G. 4, 34, 4.
sunt qui dicant, there are those who say; Cat. si
quis est qui
ntilla est natio
fear; Cat.
quam pertimescamus,
is
is therefor
sum qui mortis periculo
by danger of death; B. G.
unus
there is
no nation which we
2, 11.
quid est quod exspectes? what
neque
2, 12.
me acciiset, if there is any one who accuses me; Cat. 2,3.
5,
terrear,
you
to
expect? Cat.
/ am not one
1, 6.
to be frightened
30, 2.
est solus inventus qui dissideret, only one
man was found who
disagreed; Sest. 130.
videtur qui imperet dignus esse, he seems to be worthy to rule; Legg. 3,5.
nequed initium
uUum
I cannot find any story; Ter.
invenire idoneum,
imde exordiar narrate,
suitable beginning with
Heo/J/feed by Microsoft®
which I
may
start
my
RELATIVE CLAUSES
799-^03) 799. in
237
Dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus sometimes take an infinitive
poetry and late prose; dignus and indignus sometimes take a clause
introduced by ut in early and late Latin.
800. istic
Comparatives are sometimes followed by characterby quam; the relative is sometimes
clauses introduced
omitted:
—
maiores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset, they cut trees larger
than a soldier could carry; Liv. $s,
non longius hostes aberant quam quo telum
5, 6.
adig^ posset, the
enemy
were not farther distant than a javelin coidd be thrown; B. G.
2,
21, 3-
Segestanis imponebat amplius the Segestans
801.
followed erat
quam
ferre possent, he imposed
more than they coidd bear; Verr.
upon
4, 76.
In classical Latin comparatives are more commonly by a clause of result introduced by ut: as, clarior res
quam
ut tegi posset, the thing was too notorious
to be
con-
cealed; Liv. 26, 51, II.
802.
After a negative antecedent or an interrogative implyis sometimes used instead pronoun (see 820)
ing a negative, qiun of the relative
nemo
fuit
:
how
great
qui
power
sensibus? who
there is in the senses?
is there
Acad.
who does
2, 20.
Relative clauses of a parenthetical nature expressing
restriction or proviso are teristic;
nominative
3, 53, 3-
qum cemat quanta vis sit in
not see
803.
of the
quin vulneraretur, there was no one who was not wounded;
B. C. quis est
—
sometimes treated as clauses
such clauses are often introduced by
mode
:
—
oratidnes, quas
quidem legerim,
of charac-
qm quidem
his speeches, at least such as
or
I have
read; Brut. 65.
servus est nemo, qui is
no
slave,
modo
tolerabili condicione sit servitutis, there
provided he is in an endurable state of servitude;
Cat. 4, 16.
quod sciam, so faiD^ti^tila^S/liShsoil^. 641.
•
SYNTAX OF VERBS
238
804. But the indicative quantum and when the verb
{804-807
is
often used in such clauses, especially with
is
sum
or possum; always in quod attinet:
—
quantum audio, uxore ezcidit, my master, according to what I hear, lost a wife; Ter. And. 423. prodidisti et te et illam, quod quidem in te fuit, you have betrayed yourself and her, so far as was in your power; Ter. Ad. 692. erus,
has
quod ad vos
attinet, so far as
you are concerned; Liv.
5, 9, 5.
Similar to such expressions as est qui, there is one who,
805.
are the expressions est
why:
there is reason fuit fuit
—
cum,
there is a time
when, and est quod,
aibitrarer, there was a time when I thought; De Or. 1,1. tempus cum Germanos Galli virtute superarent, there was a time when the Gaids surpassed the Germans in courage; B. G. 6,
cum
24, I.
est
quod gaudeas,
there is reason for
In poetry and early Latin (rarely in
806.
Trin. 310.
to rejoice; PI.
classical prose) the indica-
sometimes used in relative clauses following an indefinite and
tive is
affirmative antecedent:
—
sunt quos pulverem
Olympicum coUegisse
delights to have raised a cloud of
Hor. Epis. classical
defined
2, I,
whom
it
i, i, 3.
when popular opinion
is
mistaken;
63.
prose the indicative
by such words
iuvat, there are those
Olympic dust; Hot. C.
est ubi (vulgus) peccat, there are times
In
you
as multi
is rare,
and
except
when
the antecedent
is
nomiulli.
Causal or Adversative Relative Clauses
807.
The subjunctive
is
used in relative clauses which
express a causal or adversative idea; in causal clauses the relative
is
sometimes preceded by
ut, utpote,
or quippe
:
—
• fortiinate adulescens,
inveneris,
qui tuae virtutis
Homerum praeconem
fortunate youth, since you found
Homer
as the
herald of your valor; Arch. 24.
nee consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset,
battle;
moram
had sought this very Liv. ^2pjsiitg:ed by Microsoft®
the consul, since he
certamini
fecit,
and
thing, did not delay the
inn
8o8-8ll)
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Cicero, qui
omnes
239
superiores dies milites in castris continuisset,
septimo die qiunque cohortes frumentatum
mittit,
though on
all the
days before Cicero had kept the soldiers in camp, on the
seventh
day he sent five
cohorts to get grain; B. G. 6, 36,
i. «
808. ut qiu
The
indicative
and utpote
is
used often with quippe qui, very rarely with
qui.
Relative Clauses of Purpose
809.
The subjunctive This
express purpose.
subjunctive: legatum
—
a development of the volitive
mantun distinendam
qui earn
mittit,
used in relative clauses which
is
is
curet, he sends his
lieutenant to see that this force is kept separated; B. G. 3, 11, 4.
sunt multi qui eripiunt
who
take from
aliis
quod
some in order
habebam quo confugerem, / had a Fam. 4, 6, 2.
The
aliis largiantur, there
are
many
to give to others; Off. i, 43.
place where
I might take refuge;
ablative of the relative pronoun, quo,
is used as a containing purpose clauses an adjecconjunction to introduce tive or adverb in the comparative:
810.
—
obducuntur cortice
trunci,
quo sint a frigoribus et caloribus tutiores,
the trunks are covered with bark that they
from cold and adiuta me, quo id
heat;
N. D.
2,
may
be better protected
120.
fiat facilius, help
me, that
this
may
be
more
easily
aaomplished; Ter. Eun. 150.
811. is
Rarely, a purpose clause which does not contain a comparative
introduced
by quo:
as,
habuerat, he had treated the himself; Sail. Cat. 11,
exercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, liberaliter
army
generously, that he might
make
it
loyal to
5.
Other uses of relative clauses are treated under Conditional Sentences, Indirect Discourse, the Iterative Subjunctive, etc.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
SYNTAX OF VERBS
240
(812-814
Subordinate Clauses Introduced by Conjunctive Particles Clauses of Purpose 812.
most commonly expressed by a clause affirmative, by ut (earlier form, uti), if
Purpose
introduced, negative,
if
by ne
is
(rarely ut ne).
The verb
is
in the sub-
junctive.
This construction
is
pendent constructions, tive subjunctive:
—
probably developed from two inde-
— the
volitive subjunctive
and the opta-
Dumnorigi custodes ponit, ut quae agat scire possit, he puts guards over Dumnorix, in order to know what he does; B. G. i, 20, 6. ultra
eum
encamped beyond him with
of from his supplies; B. G. i, quod ego praetermltto, ne in hac exstitisse videatur,
crime
commeatu Caesarem
castra fecit eo consilio, uti
cluderet, he
may
te ulciscor, ut
/ pass
48,
this object, to cut
2.
civitate tanti facinoris inunanitas
this by, that the
enormity of such a
not seem to have existed in this state; Cat.
ne impune in nos
inter-
Caesar
illuseris,
/
shall
i, 14.
punish you, that
you may not make sport of us with impunity; Ter. Eun. 941.
813.
Occasionally a purpose clause
by ut non, but
is
apparently introduced
an affirmative clause, and the negative applies only to a word or phrase, not to the whole clause: as, confer te ad Manlium, ut non eiectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos isse videaris, betake yourself to Manlius, that you may seem to have gone, not driven out to strangers but invited to your friends; Cat.
814. ing
it is
really
i, 23.
Purpose clauses are often used parenthetically, depend-, of saying to be supplied
upon a verb
ne longior sim,
:
vale, not to bore
vere ut dicam, de te futurum about you;
—
you (I say) farewell; Fam. est, to tell the truth, it is
Ve^.^^i^?^^ ^.^^^^^^
15, 19, 4.
going to be
CLAUSES OF RESULT
815-818) 815. is
If
two purpose
and the second
clauses are coordinated
negative, the connective
especially in later writers, ut vis minueretur
24I
regularly neve or neu; sometimes,
is
neque
:
—
neu ponti nocerent,
that their effectiveness
might be
and that they might not injure the bridge; B. G. 4, 17, 10. ut ea quae statuit praetemuttam neque eos appellem, to pass over the decisions he made and not to call upon those persons; Verr. 3, 115. lessened,
816. Independent clauses with nedum (rarely ne) may be mentioned in connection with purpose clauses, though their history is uncertain. The verb in these clauses is in the present (rarely the imperfect) subjunctive:
—
nee vim tribumciam sustinere potuerunt;
nedum
his temporibus
power;
salvi esse possimus, they could not endure the tribunician
much
less
in these times can we be safe; Clu. 95.
secundae res sapientium animos fatigant; ne
ill!
temmen;
victoriae
perarent, prosperity weakens the character even of wise
much 817. as, erat
less
Nedum
is
did they use discretion in their victory; SaU. Cat. 11,
used sometimes merely to emphasize a word or phrase:
domicilium huius urbis aptius humanitati tuae
ponnesus,
nedum
8.
quam
tota Pelo-
Patrae, a residence in this city was more suited
refinement than all Peloponnesus, not to speak of Patrae;
Fam.7,
to
your
28, i.
Other methods of expressing purpose are treated under Relative Clauses the Infinitive (962) the Future Active Participle (999) the Gerund and Gerundive (1007), and the Supine (1015). (809)
,
,
,
Clauses of Result 818.
Result
duced by negative
is
ut,
is. regularly expressed by a clause introwith the verb in the subjunctive. The
non.
The is a development of the potential subjunctive. main clause often contains an adjective- or adverb denoting This
degree or quality, as, for example, tantus, adeo,
talis, ita:
—
multa rumor adfingebat, ut paene bellum confectum videretur, rumor started many false reports, so that the war seemed almost finished; B. C.
i,,
_. 53
I.
DigiliZ' Di'gifiz'ed
by Microsoft®
SYNTAX OF VERBS
242 sunt
ita multi,
non
ut eos career capere
a prison cannot hold them; Cat.
neque
is
(819-822
possit, they are so
many
that
2, 22.
es ut te metus a periculo revocarit, you are not of that sort
that fear has called
you bach from danger; Cat.
i, 22.
While negative purpose clauses are introduced by ne ne quid, ne ullus, etc., negative result clauses are introduced by ut nemo, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc. 819.
quis,
After negative ideas, either expressed or implied, result
820.
nullum tempus intermlserunt they
:
no time elapse without sending envoys across
let
B. G.
—
by quin (see 802) quin trans Rhenum legato s mittereht,
clauses are sometimes introduced
the
Rhine;
s, 55, I.
numquam tarn male est Siculis qmn aliquid facete dicant,
things never
go so badly with the Sicilians that they cannot say
something
witty; Verr. 4, 95.
Substantive Clauses
Any
821.
clause which serves as the subject or object of a
verb, as an appositive, or predicate
noun
stantive clause; thus, indirect discourse
is
is
properly a sub-
the object of the
an indirect question is the object of the In practice, however, the term is confined to the following clauses when they are used as nouns: a. Indicative clauses introduced by quod b. Subjunctive clauses verb introducing verb on which
it
it,
depends.
—
;
without introductory particle;
by
ut, ne, quin, or
c.
Subjunctive clauses introduced
quominus.
Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Indicative
822.
The only common form
the verb in the indicative
meaning
is
that or the fact that:
of
substantive clause with
that which
—
is
introduced by quod
perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti, it happened very him anywhere; Att. 1, 17, 2. Caesar senatus in eum beneficia commemoravit, quod rex appel-
accidit
unfortunately that you did not see
latus esset, Caesar called his attention to the favors that the senate ^
had bestowed upon him, B. G.
I,
43, 4. Digitized
the fact that he
by Microsoft®
had been
called king;
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
823-826)
243
hoc uno praestamus vel mazime fens, quod conloquimur inter nos, in this one thing most of all
we talk praeterquam quod the fact that
id,
to
we
one another;
fieri
non
are superior to the beasts, in
De
besides the fact that this could not
pretended; Div.
as for the fact that
Nep. Epam.
32.
be done,
quidem it
potest,
cannot even be
2, 28.
me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, falleiis, am emulating Agamemnon, you are mistaken;
5, 6.
Cum
824.
quod
you think I
is
sometimes used in the sense of quod, introducing a sub-
stantive clause: as, hoc
me beat, quom perduellis vicit, this makes me happy,
has conquered his enemies; PI.
Clauses introduced etc.,
1,
fingi
A substantive clause with quod is sometimes used like an accusa-
823.
tive of specification: as,
that he
Or.
ne
potuit,
by cum
Am.
642.
after expressions of joy, grief, gratitude,
are substantive rather than causal, as appears from the use of the
indicative:
—
magna
cum te di monuere, we have great joy in the fact warned you; Sail. Jug. 102, scum tantum vales apud Dolabellam, / congratulate you that
laetitia
npbis est
that the gods have
gratulor
tibi,
you have so much influence with Doldbella; Fam. '
Substantive Clauses with the Verb in the Subjunctive
The subjunctive
826.
in substantive clauses, as in all sub-
ordinate clauses (see 795), its
9, 14, 3.
is
developed from one or another of To which one of the independ-
uses in independent sentences.
ent uses a certain type of substantive clause should be assigned, is
in
some
cases a matter of disagreement.
Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volltlve Subjunctive
Substantive clauses with the verb in the subjunctive are
used with the following classes of verbs: 826.
As object clauses with verbs expressing will or to command, induce, advise, ask, allow, decide, accomplish (when the idea is one of purpose rather than .(a)
purpose, — strive,
—
result).
'
as,
The
caranective
is
ut or ne:
—
suis imperavif ne quod telum reicerent, he ordered his
throw back
'a
sM^^d3igWQr&Pitp46,
2.
men
not to
SYNTAX OF VERBS
244
{82^-829
quod suades, ut ad Quintum scribam, as for your
advice, that
I
write to Quintus; Att. 11, 16, 4.
peto quaesoque ut tuos
mecum
and
Many
iubed, order,
you
to save
to
wait; Att. 16, 10,
amici iacentem animum excitet,
to
i.
make every effort
see to it that he rouses his friend's prostrate soul; Lael. 59.
these
of
form
earlier
beg
5, 4, 2.
constitueram ut manerem, I had decided eniti et efficere ut
and
serves, / ask
your friends together with me; Fam.
verbs
take
also
the
subjunctive without
and many take a complementary and veto, forbid, take the accusative and infinitive of expression,
Those which contain the idea of saying or thinking and infinitive.
may
ut,
an
infinitive;
regularly.
take the accusative
With the passive of these verbs the substantive clause is persuasum erat Cluvio ut mentiretur, if But verbs of Cluvius had been persuaded to lie; Rose. Com. 51. admonishing have a personal subject and the object clg,use is retained: as, admoniti sumus ut caveremus, we were warned to be careful; Att. 8, 11 D, 3. 827.
the subject: as, si
As subject clauses with certain impersonal verbs, with restat and sequitur, when the dependent clause expresses not a fact, but a thing to be 828.
—
(b)
as, licet, oportet, interest;
anticipated; also with phrases like melius est, necesse est, ius est, lex est,
mos
mea magnl see
est,
opus est; the connective
interest te ut videam,
you; Att. 11, 22,
into court; Quinct. 33.
who
of great importance to
it is
829.
is
g^,
to
had remained,
to
bring you
primam esse historiae legein,ne quid falsi dicere audeat? know that it is the first rtde of history, that it shall
of these verbs
(c)
me
does not
ut or the infinitive; so,
—
—
(Clause in apposition with subject.)
not dare to say anything false?
Many
ut or ne:
2.
illud restiterat, ut te in ius educerent, that
quis nescit
is
De
Or.
2,
62.
and expressions take also the subjunctive without regularly, licet and oportet.
With verbs meaning
to hinder, prevent, avoid, refuse,
impedio, prohibeo, caveo, vito, recuso.
ne, quin, or qu6minffl®/f/zeri
iiy
M/crosoft®
The connective
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
830-834)
qui tu id prohibere
me
potes ne suspicer?
245
how can you
my
prevent
suspecting this? PI. Trin. 87.
neque recusare quin armis contendant, nor did
they refuse to engage
in battle; B. G. 4, 7, 3. nee aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus, old .
age does not prevent our retaining an interest in agriculture; Cat.
M. 830. as,
60.
Substantive clauses are used also with the passive of these verbs:
impedior ne plura dicam, /
am prevented from
Caveo sometimes takes the
831.
saying more; Sull. 92.
imperative of ten takes
infinitive; the
In the sense
the subjunctive without connective.
to take
care that caveo
takes the subjunctive with ut.
832. Of the three connectives, ne is used regularly only after an affirmative main clause, quominus after either an affirmative or a negative, qvun only after a clause that contains or implies
a negative. 833.
(d)
With
expressions of douht or ignorance
of this
type are derived directly from the deliberative subjunc-
They occur after such dubium est, quis dubitat, quis tive.
qtun:
when the
Substantive clauses
main clause contains or implies a negative.
—
non dubitat quIn brevi
sit
expressions as ignorat, etc.
non dubito, non The connective is
Troia peritura, he does not doubt that Troy
M.
will quickly fall; Cat.
31.
non esse dubium quin pliirimum Helvetii possent,
that there
doubt that the Helvetians were the most powerful; B. G. quis ignorat quin tria
Graecorum genera
sint?
was no
i, 3, 6.
who does not know
that there are three kinds of Greeks? Flac. 64.
neque abest suspicio quin ipse is
834.
Non
sibi
mortem
consciverit, suspicion
not wanting that he committed suicide; B. G.
dubito takes also the accusative
late writers), the indirect question,
infinitive alone.
_. ... Digitized
,
infinitive (chiefly in
and, in the meaning not
^^ by Microsoft® ,
and
i, 4, 4.
...
hesitate,
the
SYNTAX OF VERBS
246
(835-838
Substaatlve Clauses Developed from the Optative Sabjuactlve
Substantive clauses with the verb in the subjunctive are used as object clauses with the following classes of verbs: 835. is
used,
Verbs meaning
(a) is
to
velim ut
tibi
amicus
sit;
The
wish.
ut or ne, but often there
is
—
opto ut beatus
when one
connective,
—
no connective: sis,
/ should
him
like
friend of yours; I want you to be happy; Att. 10, 16,
vellem
me
dinner;
836 clause
.
is
ad cenam
Fam.
invitasses,
would
that
you had
to he
a
me
to
i.
invited
12, 4, i.
When vols has the idea of requesting or commanding, the dependent developed from the volitive subjunctive:
as, volo ut
mihi respon-
deas, / want you to answer me; Vat. 14.
and cupio the accusative and more common; the accusative is usually omitted when the subject of the infinitive is the same as that of the main verb. 837.
With
void, nolo, maid,
infinitive construction is
838. that,
(b) Verbs
meaning
to fear.
The
connectives are ne,
introducing an affirmative idea, ut, that not, introducing a
Instead of ut, ne non is used regularly after main clauses which contain or imply a negative; rarely otherwise. In the earlier paratactic form of expression vereor, ne veniat, for example, meant I am afraid, may he not come; then, I am negative idea.
afraid that he
may
may come; vereor, ut veniat meant am afraid he may not come.
I
am
afraid,
he come; then, I id paves,
ne ducas tu illam; tu autem, ut ducas, you fear
you may marry her; you, on
the other
marry her; Ter. And. 349. timed ne hoc propalam fiat, / am afraid
hand, that you
that this
may
this, that
may
not
become known;
PI. Mil. 1348.
vereor ut Dolabella ipse nobis prodesse possit, / Dolabella himself ,
may
not be able to help us;
non vereor ne non scribendo
te expleam,
not satisfy you ^^gem&ilwiisfcms^ig;
am
Fam.
/ do not fear
Fam.
afraid that
14, 14, 1.
2, i, t.
that
I may
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
839-843)
So also when fear
839.
is
247
only implied, as in periculum est:
as, vidit
periculum esse ne exercitum nequiquam tradiixisset, he saw that there was danger that he had brought his army over
840.
Verbs of fearing
the accusative
and
may
to
no purpose; Liv.
21, 33, 9.
take also the complementary infinitive,
infinitive, or the indirect question.
Substantive Clauses Developed from Clauses of Result
Since these are derived directly from clauses of result,
841.
found in the potential subjunctive, from which the
their origin is
clause of result
is
Substantive clauses of this.type with
derived.
the verb in the subjunctive are introduced
—
as follows:
by ut and
are used
842. (a) With verbs meaning to bring about, accomplish, when the dependent clause states a fact (see 826); the clause is
used as the object of an active verb, the subject of a passive
verb
:
— ea
feci ut essent nota,
that they were
/ made
those things
known); Acad,
known
(brought
it
about
i, 8.
non potest ut eum tu non cognoveris, it cannot be that you did know him; Verr. 2, 190. quae res commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat, this thing made fieri
not
it
843.
possible for provisions to be brought; B. G. 2, 5,
(b)
As the subject
of certain impersonal verbs,
accidit, contingit, evenit; of est {it is is the
5.
a fact
—
as,
that), accedit {there
additional fact that), est with a predicate adjective, e.g.
verum, falsum, rarum {it is true that, etc.) of relinquitur, and sequitur, when the dependent clause states a fact:
—
;
accidit ut
omnes Hermae
deicerentur,
were thrown down; Nep. Ale.
more
happened
that all
theHermae
3, 2.
est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta, his vineyards
it
restat,
it is
a fact
extensively than another;
that one
Hor. C.
man
plants
3, i, 9.
ad senectutem accedebat ut caecus esset, to old age was added the fact that he was blind; Cat. M. 16. Terum non est; sequitur ut falsum sit, it is not trus; it follows that it is
false; 'Pa,^i§kzed by Microsoft®
SYNTAX OF VERBS
248 844.
by
With tantum abest two
ut; of these,
one
clause of result: as,
is
(844-846
clauses are often used, each introduced
a substantive clause, subject of abest, the other
is
a
tantum aberat ut sua signa noscerent, ut vix ad arma
capienda competeret animus, so far were they from recognizing their own standards that they hardly had presence of mind to put on their armor; Liv. 22, S, 3-
845.
A
substantive clause of this type
is
often used as sub-
ject with fore or futiirum esse, instead of a future infinitive
active or passive; this
is
a necessary periphrasis
pendent verb has no future non speraverat Hannibal bal
had not expected
infinitive:
—
fore ut tot populi that so
many
when
the de-
ad se deficerent, Hanni-
peoples would revolt to him;
Liv. 28, 44, 4.
clamabant fore ut
ipsi se di ulciscerentur, they cried out that the
would avenge themselves; Verr.
gods
4, 87.
For the same usage in contrary-to-fact conclusions in indirect discourse see 981.
Indirect Questions
846. An Indirect Question is a subordinate clause introduced by an interrogative word, pronoun, adjective, adverb, or particle. The verb is in the subjunctive.
—
The
particles thus used are -ne,
num
(which does not
differ
meaning from -ne), and nonne (used only after quaero). Indirect Questions are used with verbs meaning to ask, think, doubt, fear, learn, know, tell, etc., or with any other word or expression capable of introducing an interrogative idea: in
—
[considerabimus] quid fecerit, quid factat, quid facturus
sit,
we
shall
consider what he has done, what he is doing, what he is going to do;
Inv. incerti
I,
36.
quo fata ferant, uncertain where
Aen.
the fates are carrying us;
3, 7.
vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte, you see white with the deep snow; Hor. C. Publilius itUTUsne •
sit
et
how
Soracte stands
i, 9, i.
quando ex Aledio
scire poteris, whether
Publilius will go and when, you can find out Att. 12, 24, 1, Digitized by Microsoft®
from Aledius;
INDIRECT QUESTIONS
847-S49)
void uti mihi respondeas to tell
me
num quis legem
whether any one dared
to
249
sit
ausus
/ want you
f erre,
propose the law; Vat. 17.
quaero a te nonne oppressam rem publicam putes, / ask you whether
you do not think
'
For methods
An
847.
the state is burdened; Phil. 12, 15.
of expressing future time in indirect questions see 794.
indirect question ordinarily represents a direct ques-
but
tion in the indicative;
may
it
represent (a) an exclamation
—
or (b) a direct question in the deliberative subjunctive: incredibile est
quam ego
ista
non curem,
non
ista
me
quo
(representing
little
I
quam ego
curd!)
vertam nescio, I don't know where
me
resenting quo
neque
how
is incredible
it
care for those things; Att. 13, 23, 3.
to
turn; Clu. 4.
(rep-
vertam?)
satis constabat quid agerent,
and
they would better do; B. G. 3, 14, 3.
it
was not
very clear what
(representing quid agamus?)
o
848.
Sometimes, especially
if
the main clause contains or
suggests the idea of trial or expectation, a clause introduced si, if, to
see
if, is
quaesivit
si
used instead of an indirect question
cum Romanis
mitted to serve with the
banc
si nostri transirent
to see if
ad
Gonnum
our
militare liceret, he asked if
Romans;
it
by
was per-
Liv. 40, 49, 6.
hostes exspectabant, the enemy were waiting
men would
cross this; B. G.
2, 9, i.
castra movet, si poliii oppido posset, he moved his
toward Gonnus,
849.
—
:
to see if
he could take the town; Liv. 42, 67,
camp 6.
Certain expressions which would naturally introduce in-
had
meaning and are used thus, nescio quis had become an indefinite pronoun, meaning some one; nescio quo, nescio unde, etc., had become adverbs: direct questions
lost their original
without effect upon the
mood
of the verb
;
—
boni nescio quo
modo
tardiores sunt, the good are in some
way more
dilatory; Sest. 100.
me
nescio quando venisse questus est, he complained that
come
at
some
^kf^
HfiSnsoft®
I had
SYNTAX OF VERBS
250
{850-854
Thus, the following phrases are used regularly as
850.
adverbs:
— mirum
(mire) quam, wonderfully;
minim quantum, immane
tremendously; sane quam, valde quam, exceedingly;
quantum, monstrously: mire quam pleases
Medus
lllius
me
—
loci cogitatio delectat, the thought of that place
wonderfully; Alt.
acinaces
i,
immane quantum
11,3. discrepat, the Persian dagger is
monstrously out of place; Hor. C.
The subjunctive
851. clause
is
is
i, 27, 5.
used regularly with forsitan, perhaps, and the
an indirect question, the adverb representing fors
sit an.
852. In colloquial language and in poetry the word which would naturally be the subject of the indirect question is sometimes taken into the main clause as object, or, rarely, if the main
verb
is
—
passive, as subject:
Marcellum quam tardus sit, you know Marcellus how slow he Fam. 8, 10, 3. quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves, in a little matter of money it is often seen how unreliable some people are (some people are seen how unreliable they are); Lael. 63.
nosti
is;
Indirect
853.
Alternative
Questions
are
regularly
intro-
duced by the same particles as direct alternative questions; see 372-376, 379. If
the second
member
is
a mere negation of the
more common than an non
:
as,
first,
quaesivi a Catilina, in
necne
is
noctumo
conventil fuisset necne, / asked Catiline whether he had been at the nocturnal meeting or not; Cat. 2, 13.
Haud
854.
by
an, the
scio often takes
first
member
an indirect question introduced
of the alternative question being sup-
This form of expression in Ciceronian Latin indicates the writer's belief in the truth of the fact contained in the question: as, haud scio an ita sit, / am inclined to think it is so; pressed.
Tusc.
2,
41.
So, but less
commonly,^!^^ ^^^Ja^^grtum,
etc.,
are used with an.
1
TEMPORAL CLAUSES
8s5-^5?)
The
855.
,
questions as, in
is
25
origin of the use of the subjunctive in indirect
not determined.
It
clearly a late development,
is
early Latin, ideas which in the classical period would be
expressed as indirect questions are coordinated with the main
verb and are in the indicative:
as, vide avaritia quid facit, see what avarice does; Ter. Ph. 358. So, sometimes in classical poetry: as, viden ut geminae stant vertice cristae? do you see
how
the double crests stand
upon
his
head? Aen.
6, 779.
Temporal Clauses Temporal Clauses with
In early Latin
856.
cum
cum
(quom), meaning when, takes
the indicative. In classical Latin cum, meaning when, takes the indicative
if
the clause refers to present or future time
Romae videor I read a
esse
letter
cum tuas
from you; Att.
timi denique interficiere
you will
litteras lego,
to be
:
in
—
Rome when
2, 15, i.
cum nemo
he put to death
/ seem
inveniii potent, etc., then at last
when no one can
be found, etc. ; Cat. 1,5.
cum ego P. Graniimi testem produzero, ref ellito si poteris, when I call Publius Granius as witness, refute him if you can; Verr.
In classical Latin,
857.
troduced by cum
when a temporal
5, 1 54.
clause in-
a distinction is sometimes made between a clause which merely defines the time of the main action and one which states a circumstance connected with it; in the first case the indicarefers to past time,
tive (historical present, imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect)
used; in the second, the subjunctive (imperfect or
is
pluperfect).
The fact
distinction
and the
cum (which
is
that which
is
made between
relative clause of characteristic; is
a relative conjunction)
is
the relative clause of
and the subjunctive with
really a subjunctive of charr
acteristic.
The distinction is, however, not regularly observed. The subjunctive isflipii46fe/5ji»i9|-,§se^nmon than the indica-
SYNTAX OF VERBS
252
{858-860
tive in temporal clauses referring to past time
even where no idea of characterization eo
cum was
venio, praetor quiescebat,
apparent
cum ex urbe
driving
him from
Gallo narravi,
:
—
got there, the praetor
cum
pellebam, hoc providebam, while I was
the city,
I was anticipating
this; Cat. 3, 16.
cum proxime Romae f ui, quid audissem, / told Callus,
when I was
last
in Rome, what I had heard; Att. 13, 49, 2. magnas permulti amiserant, at the time
in Asia res
when very many had lost great fortunes in Asia; Manil. cum inambularem in xysto, ad me Brutus venit, while walking in the portico, Brutus came Caesari this •
858.
used
is
resting; Verr. 4, 32.
quern ego
turn
is
when I
and
cum
id
me; Brut.
nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe
had been reported
B. G.
to
to
19.
I was
10.
proficisci,
when
Caesar, he hastened to leave the city;
I, 7, I.
Sometimes a clause introduced by cum
is
temporal
I
only in form, and really contains the main idea of the sentence; in this case the indicative
is
always used and the clause follows
the grammatically independent clause:
—
iam dilucescebat cum signum consul dedit, it was already growing light when the consul gave the signal; Liv. 36, 24, 6. iamque hoc facere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in publicum procurrerunt, and they were just getting ready to do this, when the matrons suddenly rushed into the street; B. G. 7, 26, 3-
For the same reason the indicative is used in temporal clauses main clauses which denote a lapse of time as, nondum centum et decern anni sunt cum lata lex est, it is not yet a hundred and ten years since the law was passed; Off. 2, 75. 859.
following
:
860. The indicative is used also in temporal clauses which, though they do not contain the main idea of the sentence, are still obviously statements of fact and not time-clauses: as, caedebatur virgis in medio foro, cum interea nullus gemitus audiebatur, he was beaten with rods in the middle of the forum, while meantime not a gfMW^dPi' ifleitf^fWeir. $, 162.
TEMPORAL CLAUSES
861-864)
253
861. The subjunctive may be used in a temporal clause, even in early Latin, not because the clause is temporal, but for other reasons; for example, because the verb is in the indefinite
second person
:
as,
(infamia) etiam turn
quom
^rivit
esse credas
mortuam, disgrace still lives even when you think it dead; PI. Pers. Or the subjunctive may be due to attraction, or to the 356. iterative meaning of the yerb; or it may be potential. cum meaning whenever see 904, 927. For the expression est cum, there is a time when, see 805. For the use of cum primum see 870, 873. For the use of
Temporal Clauses with antequam and priusquam 862.
Antequam and priusquam
are combinations of an ad-
verb with the relative conjunction quam; the adverbial element is
main clause and
often treated as a part of the
is
separated
from the conjunction by one or more words. 863.
Antequam and priusquam necessarily
ent time in general statements only;
when
refer to pres-
so used, they
take the perfect indicative or the present subjunctive; rarely, the present indicative
:
—
membris utimur priusquam didicimus, etc., we use our limbs before we have learned, etc.; Fin. 3, 66. antequam pronuntient, vocem sensim excitant, before they declaim, they start the vocal organs gradually;
ea ante
efiicit
paene quam
De
Or.
i,
251.
cogitat, he accomplishes these things
almost before he thinks; Div.
i,
120.
864. In clauses referring to future time antequam and priusquam take the present or future perfect indicative or the present subjunctive; rarely, the future indicative
or the perfect subjunctive:
—
antequam pro L. Murena dicere before
in
I begin
my own
to
institud, pro
me ipso pauca dicam,
speak for Lucius Murena, I will say a few words
behalf;
Mur.
2.
nunquam conquiescam antequam illorum
rationes percepero, / shall
never rest until[id^^T^amJidh^fmethods ;
De
Or. 3, 145.
—
•
SYNTAX OF VERBS
254
{865-867
veniat, litteras mittet, before he comes, he will send a
antequam
Agr.
letter;
2, 53.
priusquam quicquam convivis dabis, gustato tute prius, before you give anything to the guests, taste first yourself; PI. Ps. 885.
antequam
sit
ea res
is brought, it is
allata, laetitia frui satis est
enough
pugnae, until that news
to revel in the joy of the battle; Phil. 14, i.
865. In clauses referring to past time, antequam and priusquam take either the indicative or subjunctive; the perfect indicative (very rarely the imperfect or plu-
perfect)
is
commonly used
to
denote a
fact, regularly if
the main clause contains a negative; the imperfect subjunctive (rarely the pluperfect) act as anticipated or forestalled:
used to represent an
is
—
neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumen pervenerunt,o«(i they did not stop running until they reached the river; B. G. priusquam educeret in aciem, orationem est exorsus, led {should lead) his
men
into battle, he began
i, 53, i.
before he
a speech; Liv.
21,
39, lo-
antequam verbmn facerem, de
sella surrexit, before
I
could utter a
word, he rose from his chair; Verr. 4, 147.
inde ante discessit
quam
ilium venisse audissem, he went
away from
I should hear {should have heard) that he had come;
there before
Att. 14, 20,
2.
866. When the main verb is a historical present, antequam and priusquam take the present subjunctive, rarely the perfect :
hunc
priusquam ab adversariis sentiatur, communit, he this quickly, before it is noticed by the enemy; B. C. i,
celeriter,
fortifies
54, 4-
non prius duces dimittunt quam ab lus not
867. freely,
let
After
sit
concessum,
the leaders go until they have agreed, etc.; B.
Cicero's
where there
antequam urbem
is
time
no idea
Romam
the
subjunctive
of anticipation
caperent,
in
is
etc., they
G.
do
3, 18, 7.
used
more
ducentis annis Italiam Gall! tran:
as,
scenderunt, two hundred years before they took the city of Rome, the Gauls crossed into m^f'1^t^J^'f°^s,
— TEMPORAL CLAUSES
868-870) 868.
255
Pridie quam, on the day before, takes the indicative or, beginning
with Livy, the subjunctive; postridie quam, on the day
after,
takes the
indicative.
869.
Potius quam, rather than, takes the subjunctive, some-
by
times (beginning with Livy) introduced the
an
main verb
is
an
infinitive, the
infinitive; ante, prius,
sense of potius
:
—
depugna potius quam Att.
and
ut; except that,
subordinate verb also
citius are
may
if
be
sometimes used in the
serrias, fight it out rather than be
a
slave;
7, 7, 7.
multi potius
many
quam
ut cruciarentur se in Tiberim praecipitavenmt,
rather than be tortured threw themselves into the Tiber;
Liv. 4, 12, II.
debere eos Italiae t5Qus auctoritatem sequi potius qtiam unius hominis voluntati obtemperare,
that they ought to follow the
example of all Italy rather than yield B. C. I, 35, I.
animam
omittunt prius
quam
to the
wUl of a
man;
loco demigrent, they lose their lives
PL Am.
rather than yield their ground;
240.
Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, 870.
single
Postquam (postea quam),
etc.
ubi, ut, simul atque (simul
ac or simul alone, rarely simul ut or simul et),
and cum
primum (quom extemplo in Plautus) take the indicative, usually the perfect or the historical present; postquam
sometimes,
ubi, ut,
and simul atque
perfect or pluperfect
:
—
rarely, take the im-
postquam Caesar pervenit, obsides poposcit, he demanded hostages; B. G.
after
Caesar arrived,
i, 27, 3.
ubi neutri transeundi initium facitmt, Caesar suds in castra reduzit,
when
neither side began to cross, Caesar led his troops back into
camp;'B. G.
2, 9, 2.
qui ut peroravit surrexit Clddius, when he finished his speech, Clodius got
up; Q. Fr.
2, 3, 2.
simul atque introductus in,
he finished
est,
rem
confecit, as soon as he
^^kmW^l^om
was brought
— SYNTAX OF VERBS
2S6
{871-874
nostri simul in arido constitenint, in hostes
as soon as our attack on the
men
enemy; B. G.
cum primum Romam
impetum
made an
4, 26, 5.
veni, as soon as
I came
to
Rome;
Att. 4,
ubi lux adventabat, milites clamorem toUere iubet, when approaching, he ordered the soldiers Jug. 99,
fecerunt,
took position on dry ground, they
1, i.
dawn was
to raise the battle-cry; Sail.
I-
postea quam bis consul f uerat, after he had been twice consul ; Caecil. 69.
871.
Following definite expressions of time postquam takes
commonly than the
the pluperfect more
circumstances post
perfect.
Under these
quam and is may be omitted
sometimes separated from
is
used as a preposition in the main clause
;
or post
altogether:post diem quartum they
came
sexto anno
to
quam
Nap. Ale. 872.
est in Britanniam
ventum, four days
indicative:
erat expulsus, six years after he had been exiled;
1, 5.
—
primum
poterit, se illinc subdiicet, as soon as she can, she'll get
away from
there; Ter.
Eun. 628.
simul ut videro Ciirionem, as soon as I see Curio; Att. 10,
873.
after
i.
Ubi and simul atque introduce also clauses referring time and then take the future or future perfect
to future
ubi
quam
Britain; B. G. 4, 28,
Postquam
subjunctive, where
is
it
4, 12.
sometimes found with the imperfect or pluperfect
cannot be explained as potential or as due to any of
the causes which might lead to the use of the subjunctive in a subordinate
and are emended. must be explained as due to the
clause; such passages are generally regarded as corrupt If the subjunctive is
allowed to stand,
it
analogy of the subjunctive with cum.
Ubi and cum primum also are sometimes found with the subjunctive. Tacitus sometimes uses the historical infinitive with postquam.
874.
Postquam and ut sometimes have the meaning
referring to a period of time: •
—
since,
postquam natus sum, satur numquam fui, since I was born, I have never had enou^SitPsap)Mi
TEMPORAL CLAUSES
^75-^77)
257
ut illos de re publica libros edidisti, nihil a te postea accSpimus, since you published those hooks about the state, we have had nothing from you; Brut. 19.
875.
Clauses introduced by any of these particles
bine the idea of cause with that of time; this
is
postquam with the imperfect; the present also used in this sense: of
may com-
espdcially true is
—
sometimes
postquamliberastjubi habitet dicere incerte scid,»0w that she's free, I haven't enough information to tell you where she lives; PI. Epid. 504.
quae omnia
intellegit sibi nihil prodesse,
knows
convincittir, he
now
quam
postea
that all these things are of
testibus
no use
to
him,
that he is being refuted by witnesses; Verr. 5, 103.
For the use of these particles with verbs denoting
indefinite or repeated
action, see 904.
Temporal Clauses with dum, donee, quoad, and 876.
Dum,
quam
quoad, and
diu,
quam
diu
meaning as long as, same
while, take the indicative; the tense is usually the
as that of the ut aegrdto,
main verb dum
peius in Italia to
—
fuit,
sperare
have hope, as long as there
long as
quam
:
anin\a est, spes esse dicitur, sic ego, quoad
Pompey was
non
destiti, as the sick
is life, so
I did not
in Italy; Att. 9, 10,
man
Pom-
is
said
cease to hope, as
3.
diu quisquam erit qui te defendere audeat, vives, as long as
there shall be
Cat.
any one who dares
to
defend you, you shall live;
1, 6.
hostes popuU
Romani fuimus per
nos, quoad nostra
arma noe
we were enemies of the Roman people, relying while our arms could protect us; Liv. 23, 42, 2.
tutari poterant,
upon 877. also
is
ourselves
In poetry and late prose (beginning with Livy) donee used in
this sense:
donee gratus eram
—
tibi,
Persarum vigui rege beatior, while I was was prosperous and more happy than
pleasing in your sight, I the king of the Persians;
Hor. C.
3, 9, i.
donee armati abibant, peditum labor in persequendo
fuit,
while they
fled with their arms, the foot-soldiers engaged in the pursuit;
Liv. 6, 13, 4.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
SYNTAX OF VERBS
258 878.
Dum, meaning
(878-881
while {in the time during which),
regularly takes the present indicative, regardless of the
main verb;
tense of the indicative:
dum
—
rarely the other tenses of the
haec geiuntur, Caesari nuntiatum
was brought
going on, word
quas (artes)
si,
dum
to
dum
whUe i,
these things were
46, i.
est tener, combibeiit, if he absorbs these arts
while he is young; Fin. 3, 9.
haec
est,
Caesar; B. G.
.
aguntur, Cleomenes ad Helori litus peivenerat, while
were going on, Cleomenes had come
these things
Helorum; Verr.
S,
to the coast at
91.
dum conficiebatur, quaesivit a me, while this sacrifice was being performed, he asked me; Nep. Hann. 2, 4. dum animos hostium certamen averterat, capitur murus, while the
quae divina res
had
battle
distracted the attention of the enemy, the wall
Liv. 32, 24,
879.
In poetry and later prose (beginning with.Livy) the is sometimes used:
—
imperfect subjunctive caneret
dum
Tibull.
dum 880.
valle sub alta, while he
was singing in
the deep valley;
2, 3, 19.
tererent tempus, while they were wasting time; Liv.
2,
47, 5.
dum sometimes denote cause as well as dum aedificant, in aes alienum inciderunt, while they
Clauses with
time: as, hi build
was taken;
5.
(i.e.
by building) houses, they have got into debt; Cat.
2, 20.
881. Dum, meaning until, usually denotes anticipation or purpose and takes the present or imperfect subjunc-
tive; this is
probably a development of the optative use
of the subjunctive:
omne opus
—
contexitur,
dum
iusta
muri
altitude expleatur, the whole
structure is put together until the proper height of the wall is
reached; B. G. is
7, 23, 4.
diun veniat sedens
ibi opperibere,
you
shall sit there
and wait
till
he comes; PI. Bac. 48. ^Verginius,
waited
dum till
he
collegam consuleret, moratus,
c0iykiim^tfM»d^hmgue; Liv.
Verginius having 4, 21, 10.
— /
TEMPORAL CLAUSES
'882-884)
Dum,
882.
until, referring to the future,
!
sometimes takes the present,
future, or future perfect indicative; and, referring to the past, the perfect indicative, as a statement of fact; but these constructions are rare in classic prose.
most commonly used with the and later prose, it sometimes takes the present subjunctive when the main verb is 883.
Donee,
until, is
perfect indicative; in poetry
present or future. Other tenses of the indicative are sometimes found, especially the future and future perfect,
— and occasionally the imperfect
or pluperfect subjunctive, to denote anticipation or purpose in
past time; in late Latin the imperfect subjunctive in a simple statement of fact:
—
is
often used
usque eo timui, donee ad reiciundos iudices venimus, / was afraid up to the time when we came to reject the jurors; Verr. i, 17. secuntur cervonun simulacra, donee redeant ad se, they follow the
forms of stags until they come
to
haud desinam donee perfecero hoc, it
themselves; Lucr. 4, 995. I'll
never
rest'
until I've pushed
through; Ter. Ph. 419.
duzit longe, donee curvata eoirent inter se capita, she drew
hack
till
the curved tips should meet;
Aen.
neque proelium omisit donee eaderet, and he did not until he fell; Tac. Aim. 3, 20. 884.
Quoad meaning
until is
it
far
11, 860.
stop fighting
comparatively rare;
it
takes
the perfect indicative or the present (rarely the imperfect) subjunctive:
neque finem sequendi feeerunt quoad equites praecipites hostes egerunt, and they did not stop the pursuit till the cavalry drove the
enemy headlong; B. G.
5, 17, 3.
ego hie cogito commorari quoad here
till
I feel
better;
Fam.
me
refleiam,
/ am planning
to stay
7, 26, 2.
ezereebatur luctando quoad stans eomplecti posset, he used to practise wrestling till he should be able to get a good grip standing;
Nep. Epam. For
2, 5.
clauses of Troviso
m'^4a)^' fmi%S§ft®
SYNTAX OF VERBS
26o
.
{885-887
Temporal Clauses with quando 885.
Quando
Plautus;
it
as a temporal conjunction
takes the indicative:
quando
illud
quod cupis
—
effecero,
is rare,
except in
when I have done what you want;
PI. Cure. 364.
quando legates Tyrum misimus, when we
sent envoys to Tyre; Agr,
2,41.
Causal Clauses
Quod, quia, and quoniam, because, take the indicative; but if the reason is not that of the speaker or writer, the subjunctive is used on the principle of implied indirect 886.
discourse (see 983) ita
fit
—
:
ut adsint propterea quod oSicium sequuntur, taceant
idcirco quia periculum vitant, so
happens
it
autem
that they are here
because they seek to do their duty, but are silent because they want to
avoid danger; Rose.
quoniam de genera since
a
i.
nunc de magnitudine pauca dicam, I have spoken about the nature of the war, now I will say
little
supplicatid
about
its
importance; Manil. 20.
meo nomine
thanksgiving
/ had freed
mater
Am.
belli dixi,
was
decreta est, quod
voted in
my name
urbem Ubeiassem, a
because (as the vote read)
the city; Cat. 3, 15.
irata est quia
non redierim, mother
is
angry because I did not
return; PI. Cist. 99.
de suis privatim rebus ab eo petere coeperunt, quoniam consulere non possent, they began
to petition
civitati
him about
their
private affairs, since they could not take counsel fen- their state;
B. G.
887.
A
s, 3, 5-
reason sometimes appears in the form of indirect
discourse, depending
introduced by quod:
upon a verb of saying in the subjunctive, as, rediit quod se oblitum nescio qtiid
diceret, he returned because he said he
had forgotten something;
Off. I, 40.
So also with cum, since: ei laneum pallium iniecit, cum id esse apttmi ad omae anni tempus diceret, he put on him a woolen cloak, since he said that this was suited to every Q^^Bndo^jllMi^maqft^, D. 3, 83.
CAUSAL CLAUSES
888-8pj) 888.
Non
261
quod, non quia, and non quo (for non eo quod)
introduce a cause the truth of which
is
denied; the verb
is
regularly in the subjunctive (on the principle of implied indirect discourse),
may
but
be in the indicative to emphasize the it is denied as a cause:
—
truth of the statement, though
non quia salvos
vellet,
sed quia perire causa indicta nolebat, not
because he wanted to spare them, but because he did not want
them
non quo
to die
without pleading their cause; Liv. 38, 33, 11.
libenter
male audiam, sed quia causam non libenter I am willing to be in bad repute, hut because
relinquo, not because
I
am
unwilling
to give
up
the case;
De
Or.
2,
305.
889. If a clause of this sort is negatived, it may be introduced by non quin, instead of non quod non: as, non qmn posset verum inveniri, sed quia videbatur indignum esse, not that the truth could not be discovered, but because it seemed to be an outrage; Mil. S9890.
After magis,
quam quod
(quia, or quo) takes the subjunctive: as,
magis quia annuum imperium consulare factum est quam quod deminutum
quicquam to
sit
ex legia potestate, rather because the consular
a year than because anything was taken from
Quando,
891.
since, is
the regal
comparatively rare;
office
was
power; Liv. it
limited 2, 1, 7.
introduces the
reason of the writer or speaker and takes the indicative: as,
quandd virtus est adfectio auimi, the mind; Tusc. 4, 34.
since virtue is a condition of
Cum, 5mce, takes the subjunctive. This is a natudevelopment of the temporal clause with cum:
892. ral
—
Haedui cum se defendere non possent, legates ad Caesarem mittunt, since the Haedui could not protect themselves, they sent envoys to Caesar; B. G. i, 11, 2 (denoting both time and cause). quae cum
When
893.
ita sint, since this is so;
i, 26.
the action of the subordinate verb
identical with that of the prevails,
Cat.
and cum, when
takes the indicative: as,
relative causal
treated as
referring to present or future time,
cum
quiescunt, probant, when (and
since) they say nothing, they approve; Cat. i, 21.
For
is
main verb, the temporal construction
^^-smiM^hMofm
SYNTAX OF VERBS
262
{894-89.7
Adversative and Concessive Clauses
Quamquam, though, introduces an adversative 894. statement of fact and takes the indicative :
quamquam premuntur tant, though
forward
quamquamst
to
—
aere alieno, dominationem tamen exspec-
they are burdened by debt, they nevertheless look
supreme power; Cat.
scelestus,
2, 19.
non committet hodie umquam iterum ut
vapulet, though he is a rascal, he will never get himself beaten a
second time to-day; Ter. Ad. 159.
895.
In poetry and later prose This construction
junctive.
is
quamquam sometimes takes the subis not common before
found in Cicero, but
Tacitus.
896. Quamquam, etsi, and tametsi sometimes mean and yet and introduce an independent sentence: quamquam haec iam tolerabilia videbantur, and yet these things now
—
seemed endurable; Mil. 76. tametsi hoc minime
Fam. 897.
tibi deest,
and
yet
you don't need
this at all;
2, 7, 2.
Conditional clauses often have an adversative force, when introduced by etsi, tametsi, or etiam si; these
especially
compounds may then be treated as adversative conjunctions and translated though (instead of even if). Etsi and tametsi in this sense usually introduce adversative statements of fact and take the indicative; etiam it
si is
never necessarily adversative;
introduces conditional clauses either in the indicative or in .
the subjunctive and etsi
may always be
translated even
if:
—
ab hoste ea dicebantur, tamen non neglegenda existimabant, though these things were said by the enemy, yet they did not think they should be disregarded; B. G.
s,
28, i.
quae tametsi Caesar intellegebat, tamen quam mitissime potest legates appellat, though Caesar understood these things, he
addressed the envoys as pleasantly as possible; B. G.
etiam
si
quod scribas ndn habebis,
scribito
7,
still
43, 4.
tamen, though you have
nothing to wriUjigtSUeiiiti^iyiiBamft^, 26,
2.
ADVERSATIVE AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
898-906)
Quamvis
898.
263
as much as you wish) and licet when used as concessive conjunc-
(literally,
(literally, it is permitted)
,
take the subjunctive. In both cases the subjunctive
tions,
is
hortatory in origin.
Clauses
introduced by these conjunctions are properly called concessive rather than adversative
and are like hortatory clauses with a Quamvis usually takes the pres-
concessive force (see 770).
ent subjunctive; licet takes the present or perfect subjunctive (according to the principle of sequence of tenses) senectus quamvis non
sit gravis,
age is not a burden, licet pericula
it
—
:
tamen auf ert viriditatem, though old away one's vigor; Lael. 11.
nevertheless takes
impendeant omnia, subibo, though
all
dangers threaten,
I will undertake it; Rose. Am. 31. licet non sint confirmati, a me tamen ut conflrmati obserrabuntur, though they have not been confirmed, they mil nevertheless be regarded by
Quamvis
me
as if they had been; Plin. Ep.
2, 16, 3.
rarely takes the indicative.
Quamvis, quamquam, and
etsi are
sometimes, especially in later
Latin, connected with participles, adjectives,
and phrases:
—
tamen magnSls,
res belld gesserat, quamvis rei publicae calamitosas, at he had done things in war which, though disastrous still
Volscis
were
great; Phil. 2, 116.
quamquam n6n
publicd cdnsilio capessentibus arma, voluntariis
secutis mSitiam, the Volscians, though not taking of the people, following the
900.
to the slate,
campaign as
up arms by
decision
volunteers; Liv. 4, 53, i.
Cum, though, introduces an adversative
clause,
and takes the subjunctive. This is a natural development of the temporal clause with cum:
—
cum
primi ordines concidissent, first
tamen reliqm resistebant, though the
ranks had fallen, nevertheless the
rest resisted;
B. G.
7, 62, 4.
(Both temporal and adversative.) Cato,
quom
esset Tusculi natus, in populi
Romani
civitatem suscep-
tus est, though Cato was born at Tusctdum, he was taken into the citizenship of the
Roman
people; Legg.
2, 5.
In early Latin (rarely in the classical period) cimi, though, takes the indicative.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
SYNTAX OF VERBS
264
In correlation with turn (meaning usually both
901.
and)
{goi-go4
cum
regularly takes the indicative, but,
if
.
.
.
the clause has
an adversative meaning, it takes the subjunctive: as, cum te a pueritia dOexerim, turn hoc tuo facto multo acrius dQigo, though I have loved you from boyhood, still I love you much more deeply on account of what you have done; Fam. 15, 9, i.
A
902.
concessive idea
is
sometimes expressed by ut with the sub-
junctive; the origin of this usage
is
—
uncertain:
ut omnia contra opinionem acciderent,
tamen se plurimum navibus
posse, though everything turned out contrary to their expectation, {they
knew) that they were very strong in ships; B. G.
non
(exercitus) ut not retreat,
An
903.
main
certaminum
eiat, ita
from
pedem,
is
3, 9, 6.
insistet certe, though the
army does
Phil. 12, 8.
will at least stop;
adversative idea
dicative, the
rest
it
referat
sometimes expressed by ut with the
in-
clause containing the correlative ita or sic : as, ut quies
battle, still
ab apparatu operum
nihil
cessatum, though there was
they did not stop the construction of the works; Liv. 21,
8,1.
For adversative
relative clauses see 807.
Subjunctive of Repeated Action
In early Latin and in the
904.
period the indicative was used
Then
part of the Ciceronian denote repeated action.
first
to
the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive began to be used
in subordinate clauses referring to past time,
are as
common
as the indicative.
The
and
in later Latin
present and perfect sub-
junctive also are sometimes used, but very rarely unless the verb is in the indefinite second person. Such clauses may be
introduced by the relative pronoun or by a conjunction, cially,
cum
{whenever),
si,
— espe-
quotiens, quando, ubi, or ut (some of
these often with the indefinite suflSx -cumque):
—
ubi spatium inter muros postulare videretur, pilae interponuntur, ,
wherever the space between the walls seemed to
were put in; BOQitiz^dil^ Mcrosoft®
demand
it,
piers
SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION
Q05, god)
265
qui unvun eius ordinis off endisset omnis adversos habebat, whoever had
ofended one neque,
of that order had tltem all against him; Liv.
aliter si faciat,
a,
does otherwise, he has no authority over his people; B. G.
utcumque locus opportunitatem a chance; Liv.
46, 2.
ullam inter suds habet auctoritatem, and,
if he
6, 11, 4.
daret, wheneuer the place gave them
21, 35, 2.
Subjunctive by Attraction 905.
clauses
The
subjunctive
which are
often used in subordinate
is
connected in thought with
closely
another subjunctive or an
infinitive.
The connection must be an
essential one, and, even then, the sometimes used, especially if the writer wishes to emphasize or vouch for the fact contained in the clause:
ihdicative
is
—
quis aut
eum
diligat
who
loves
a
quern metuat aut
man whom he
fears or
eum on-e
a quo se metui putet?
whom
by
he thinks he is
feared? Lael. S3mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, it is the
custom at Athens for those who have been
battle to be eulogized
killed in
in afi assembly of the people; Or. 151.
ne hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, suos circumvenire possent,
lest the
should be able
enemy, because they were so superior in numbers,
to
surround his men; B. G.
2, 8, 4.
Independent Subjunctive Constructions in Subordinate Clauses 906.
The potential subjunctive
(especially
when the verb is in
the indefinite second person), the optative subjunctive, and the deliberative subjunctive vix erat hoc
may
be used in subordinate clauses:
—
imperatum cum ilium spoliatum videres, hardly had when you might have seen him stripped;
this order been issued
Verr. 4, 86.
ubi consulueris, mature facto opus est, when you have deliberated,
you must
act quickly; Sail. Cat. 1, 6.
haec die natali meo
scrips!,
have written this on
my
quo utinam susceptus non essem,
birthday,
been allowed to live; Att. 11, g,
quo
me
vertam
/
on which day I wish I had not 3.
ae^f§itiJe4Ql^tl\imi9SSdHkich
way
to turn; Clu. 4.
— SYNTAX OF VERBS
266
{goy-QIO
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 907.
A
Conditional Sentence consists of two parts,
the Protasis (or condition) and the Apodosis (or conThe Protasis is regularly a subordinate clause clusion).
introduced by
or sin.
nisi,
si,
The Apodosis
regu-
is
a principal clause, but may be subordinated to another clause. The Apodosis is sometimes introduced larly
by a
correlative to
si,
—
as, igitur, therefore, turn, then, at,
at least, etc.
The Use 908.
An
of the Conditional Particles
affirmative protasis
originally a locative, then an
is
usually introduced by
adverb meaning in
—
si, if,
thai case (cf.
sic, so).
A
negative protasis
regularly introduced
is
by
nisi, unless
(sometimes by ni); it is introduced by si non, if the negative is to be applied to a single word. A negative protasis is sometimes introduced by nisi 909.
An
si.
affirmative protasis containing an idea opposed to
that of a preceding protasis is
introduced by
by
domi sum, I
am
home;
at
is
introduced by sin;
or, especially
or aliter:
foris est
home,
PI.
si feceris id,
I
non,
minus
si (or sin) si
si
—
animus; sin
my mind
if
if
negative,
the predicate
foris
is
it
omitted,
sum, animus domi est, if I am out, my mind is a(
is out; but if
Merc. 589.
habebo gratiam;
shall he grateful; if
si
non fecens, ignoscam,
you do not do
it,
if
you
do' it,
I will forgive you; Fam.
5,
19, 2.
tecum omn^s tuos; si minus, quam pltirimos, take out with you aU your companions; if not all, as many as you can; Cat. 1, 10.
ediic
910.
Sive, or
Latin.
It is
sive
seu
(cy:
.
if, is
used after a preceding
more commonly used .
.
si chiefly in
as a correlative, sive
early .
.
.
seu) introducing alternative conditional clauses
or sentences: as, siv^i^ssmiy
mi^oi®iemus?
sive
meliorem
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
gil,gi2)
suam causam
267
fore putavit, quid iniustius? if he was afraid, what
more cowardly?
he thought his cause would be stronger, what
if
more unjust? Att.
8, 9, 3.
Types
Sentences
of Conditional
There are three types of conditional sentences, as lows
—
:
First
The
Type
— Conditions
fol-
of Fact
treated as an assumption of fact in present, past, or future time. The indicative is regu911.
condition
is
used in both protasis and apodosis; any tense may be used the tenses of protasis and apodosis may be the larly
;
same or
different
:
—
parri sunt foris anna, nisi est consilitun domi, arms are of small use abroad, unless there is si
iionoris
wisdom
home;
at
Off. i, 76.
causa statuam dederunt, inimici non sunt,
the statue as
if they gave
a compliment, they are not enemies; Verr.
2,
150.
si
accelerare volent, consequentur, if they are willing to hurry, they
si
quicquam
wilt overtake
him; Cat.
2, 6.
caelati adspexerat,
manus
abstinere non poterat, if
he had got his eyes on anything embossed, he couldn't keep his
hands of
912.
A
it;
Verr. 4, 48.
protasis of this type
may
denote a single act, a redenotes a repeated act, the
peated act, or a general truth. verb, if it refers to past time,
may
be in the imperfect or plu-
perfect subjunctive (see 904).
If it
denotes a general truth, the
verb
is
If it
regularly in the present or perfect subjunctive,
indefinite second person is used; rarely, otherwise: si
—
quis prehenderetur, consensii militum eripiebatur, if caught, he
B.C.
3,
was rescued by
the
unanimous
the
any one was
action of the soldiers;
110,4.
nee habere virtutem satis est nisi utare, and enough unless you use it; Rep. i, 2. turpis excusatio est, si quis contra
fecisse fateatui,
thatfor
if
it is
to
have virtue is not
rem publicam
a disgraceful excuse
afriem^s^Sf^e.^hasacMMgainst
if
se amici caus^
any one
confesses
the state; Lael. 40.
SYNTAX OF VERBS
268
A
913. in
protasis referring to the future
the present indicative: as,
enmt,
if
(piJ-piT
we conquer, everything
si
may have
the verb
vincimus, omnia nobis tuta
will be safe for us; Sail. Cat. 58, 9.
For the use of the perfect indicative in the apodosis see 769.
The apodosis of a conditional sentence of the first type be an imperative, a hortatory subjunctive, or any other form of the verb demanded by the sense or the context: 914.
may
—
£U
haec
ita sunt, sic
honor
quod
si
me
me
colitote ut detun, if this is so,
as a god; Cat.
M.
you are
to
81.
non possumus facere, moriamur,
if
we cannot do
it, let
us die;
Phil. 7, 14. si
meis incommodis laetabantur, urbis tamen periculo commoTerentur, if they rejoiced at
my
misfortunes, they might at least have
been disturbed by the danger of the city; Sest. 54.
(Potential
Subjunctive.)
Second Type 915.
time.
— Conditions
of Possibility
The condition is treated as a possibility m future The present or perfect subjunctive is regularly
used in both protasis and apodosis.
The subjunctive
development of the horta-
of the protasis is a
tory subjunctive; the subjunctive of the apodosis subjunctive: si
deus
—
te interroget, quid
respondeas?
what would you answer? Acad. si
a corona relictus sim, non
if
is
the potential
a god should ask you,
2, 80.
queam
dicere, if I should be deserted
by the crowd, I could not speak; Brut. 192. si
me
suspendam, meis inimicis voluptatem creaverim,
hang myself, I should
916.
The
future indicative
delight
is
917.
if
I should
enemies; PI. Cas. 403.
sometimes used
emphasize the certainty of the result:
pavidum f erient ruinae, him fearless; Hor. C. 3,
my
in
the apodosis, to
as, si fractus inlabatur orbis,
if the sky should break
and fall,
im-
the ruins will strike
3, 7.
The apodosis
of a future condition,
whether
of the first
type or of the secondpOTfeyc/bjr 'te'-aip^orm which expresses or
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
pi5, gig)
—
implies futurity,
269
the periphrastic conjugations, the im-
as,
perative, the present indicative of verbs denoting wish, possinecessity, etc.
bility,
quid, si hostes
:
—
ad urbem veniant,
what are you going
facturi estis?
do if the enemy should march on the city? Liv. 3, 52, 7. vir tuos si veniet, iube domi oppenrier, if your husband comes, to
him
intraie, si possim, castra
camp,
I can; Liv.
if
hostium volo, / want
to enter the
enemy's
12, 5.
2,
non possum istum accusare, si cupiam, / cannot accuse him, shoiM wish to; Verr. 4, 87. 918.
If
tell
wait at home; PI. Cist. 426.
to
a future condition
in the past, the
is
regarded from a point of view
verb of the protasis
is
in the imperfect or plu-
same mood and tense may be used may have a past tense of the indicative
perfect subjunctive; the
the apodosis, or
it
the periphrastic conjugation: at turn si dicerem,
non
I
if
in
—
audirer, but at that time
{it
was
of
clear that) if
I should speak, I should not be heard; Clu. 80. si
omnia quae postulates facere be {have been) willing to
were you
quos ego,
to
do? Quinct.
/ intended oppose
my
to
The
83.
triumphare prohiberent, testes
summon them
— Conditions
condition
is
citaturi fui,
as witnesses, if the tribunes shotdd
triumph; Liv. 38, 47,
Third Type
919.
me
si tribiini
voluisset, quid ageres? if he should
do everything that you required, what
4.
Contrary to Fact
treated as contrary
The subjunctive
to fact in
used in both protasis and apodpsis, the imperfect referring to present time (very rarely to past), the pluperfect to past time.
present or past time.
Is
The use of the subjunctive in conditional sentences of this type probably originated in the past-future use (see 918) si intus esset, evocarem, if he were in, I should call him out; PI. Ps. :
—
640. nisi tu amisisses,
should n^er
ntunquam recepissem,
unless
h^ifim&^fiio^^'^- "•
you had
lost
it,
I
— SYNTAX OF VERBS
270
(^20-922
neque diutius Numidae resistere quivissent, ni pedites magnam cladem facerent, and the Numidians would not have been able to
hold out
any
920.
Either the protasis or the apodosis
—
sound mind, would he have dared
Roma
now; Fam.
is
refer to present
a form of
if
sum
eam
before,
out the
if he
were of
army? Pison.
50.
certe relinqueres, if you
you would
certainly leave
it
7, 11, i.
The imperfect
in the apodosis
to lead
profectus esses, nunc
had not departed from Rome
921.
may
mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum?
nisi ante
great
(facerent refers to past time.)
time, while the other refers to past time: si
had caused
unless the infantry
longer,
slaughter; Sail. Jug. S9, 3-
or perfect indicative is used regularly
the verb denotes possibility or duty, or
if
it
with the gerundive or a predicate adjective
longum est):^ eum vitae cuisum tenuissem? how
(e.g. satis est, optabilius est,
consul esse qui potui, nisi
I have been consul, unless I had followed
Rep. 1, 10. Pompeius privatus
could
this course of life?
.
si
were a private si ita
tamen
esset,
citizen,
he
still
is
erat mittendus, if
ought
to be sent;
putasset, optabilius Miloni fuit, if he
Pompey
Manil. 50.
had thought
so, it
would
have been preferable for Milo; Mil. 31.
922.
verb to
The
may
imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect indicative of
any
be used in the apodosis to denote an action just about
happen or actually in progress when interrupted by the action under these circumstances usually
of the protasis; the protasis
contains or implies a negative
iam tuta tenebam,
:
—
ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset,
reaching a safe place {and would have reached fierce people attacked
pons
iter
paene hostibus
the bridge almost gave
me; Aen. dedit,
a famous
victory, if
the
358.
to the
enemy, had
it
not been for one
2, 10, 2.
praeclare viceramus, nisi Lepidus recepisset Antonium,
,
/ was just had not
m unus vir fuisset, Horatius Codes,
a path
man, Horatius Codes; Liv.
6,
it),
we had won
Lepidus had not taken Antony under his
protection; ¥a.xe)i^fSziemiy^icrosom>
— CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
023-Q26)
271
923. Past tenses of the indicative of the active periphrastic conjugation are sometimes used in the apodosis. In such sentences
it is
often diflScult to determine whether the idea
future (see 918) or contrary to fact:
—
past-
is
si Romae esset, contentus futurus erat, witk which, if he were in Rome, he would be satisfied; Att. 12, 32, 3. relicturi agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus litteras misisset, they would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them
quibus,
a 924.
If
letter;
the apodosis
fect subjunctive
which
it
Yerr. 3, 121. is itself a subordinate clause, the imperremains unchanged, regardless of the tense on
depends; instead of the pluperfect, the perfect subjuncis regularly used after a pri-
tive of the periphrastic conjugation
mary
tense si
and sometimes after a secondary tense animam edidisset, non dubito
turn P. Sestius
(see 785)
quin aliquando
statua huic statueretur, if Publius Sestitts had given ghost then,
up in
I do
facturus fueris,
si
what you would have done Liv. 9, 33,
eo tempore censor fuisses, tdl
if
the
you had been censor
me
at that time;
7-
ea res tantum tumultum praebuit fuissent, effusiira se
ut, nisi castra
omnis multitudo
Punica extra urbem
that, if the
In early Latin and in
classical
the city, 7.
poetry the present and perfect
subjunctive are sometimes used in contrary-to-fact conditions:
—
he were at home, I would tdl you; PI. Asin. 393. delicias tuas, ni sint inelegantes, velles dicere, you would want to talk si sit
domi, dicam
caused
fuerit, this thing
Punic camp had not been outside whole population would have poured out; Liv. 26, 10,
such a panic
925.
up
not doubt that at some time a statue would be set
his honor; Sest. 83.
^c quidnam
the
:
tibi, if
of your pleasures, if they were not unseemly; Catull. 6,
i.
Other Forms of Protasis 926.
The
protasis of
any type
of conditional sentence
may
be expressed by a single word, a phrase, or by a clause not in the regular form of a protasis: ^
—
qualem(dratidnem) nximquam Catilina victor habuisset, such a speech as Catiline
i»i»^g^^ ^fl^igf^^^f^ successful;
Sest. 28.
SYNTAX OF VERBS
272 nihil
{g27,g28
posse evenire nisi causa antecedente, that nothing can happen unless a cause precedes; Fat. 34.
nemo umquam
sine
magna
spe immortalitatis se pro patria offerret ever expose himself to death for his
ad mortem, no one wotdd
country without great hope of immortality; Tusc. flliam quis habet, pecunia est opus, a
tolle
man
money; Par. 44. banc opinionem, luctum sustuleris, destroy will have put
dares banc vim to
an end
M.
to grief;
Tusc.
i,
absque eo
is
32.
this idea
and you
30.
Crasso, in foro saltaret, had you given this power
Marcus Crassus, he would have danced in
(dares
i,
has a daughter, he needs
the forum; Off. 3, 75.
potential subjunctive.)
esset, recte ego
mihi vidissem, were
should have looked out for myself
all right;
it
not for him, I
Ter. Ph. 188.
Conditional Relative Sentences
Clauses introduced by relative words are often may have any of the forms
927.
equivalent to protases and
found in conditional sentences: haec qui videat, nonne cogatur
—
confiteri
deos esse?
the
man who
should see this would be compelled, wouldn't he, to admit that there are gods? N. D. 2, 12. quaecumque vos causa hue attulisset,
brought you here, I should rejoice;
cum rosam rose,
laetarer, whatever cause
De
Or.
viderat, incipere ver arbitrabatur, whenever he
he thought
it
was
had
2, 15.
saw a
the beginning of spring; Verr. 5, 27.
Conditional Clauses of Comparison
These are introduced by quasi (rarely quam si) tamut si, velut si, ac si (in late Latin), or ceu (chiefly in poetry); sometimes by tamquam or velut (without si). All 928.
quam
si,
mean
as
origin),
if.
The subjunctive
and the tense
is
is
used (probably volitive in
usually determined
by the sequence
tenses; sometimes, however, the imperfect or pluperfect after a
:
of
used
primary tense, to mark the action as contrary to fact. is implied in the introductory word (quam, ut,
The apodosis etc. )
is
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CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
g29, Qjo)
hie est obstandum, relut
si
Romana moenia pugnemus, here we were fighting before the walls of
ante
we must make a stand as Rome; Liv. 21, 41, 15.
if
hos (honores) petunt, quasi honeste
ita
vixerint, they seek these
honors just as if they had lived honorably;
tamquam de regno
Ausonum
gens, perinde ac
Ausonian race was
si
Fam.
it
si
inter-
asset res mea, / shoidd like
undertake his business, just as if 2,
had fought in an
9.
eius negotium sic velim suscipias, ut to
Jug. 85, 19.
a kingdom; Liv. 40, 6, 6. intemecivo bello certasset, the
destroyed, just as if
necine war; Liv. 9, 25,
you
Sail.
dimicaretur, ita concurrenmt, they rushed to-
gether as if they were fighting for
deleta
273
it
were
my own
affair;
14.
Clauses of Proviso 929.
The
present and imperfect subjunctive are used
in Clauses of Proviso introduced
modo, provided, This
is
ne,
sometimes
The by the subject of
a development of the volitive subjunctive.
is
may
express a wish entertained either
verb or by the writer or speaker; or merely conditional: the main
—
omnia postposui, dtun modo praeceptis thing else secondary, in
Fam.
my
patris parerem,
desire to obey
may
it
/ held
my father's
be
every-
precepts;
16, 21, 6.
honesta neglegimt,
dum modo
honor, if only they
dum
or
Latin) non.
(in later
clause
The
if only.
by dum, dum modo,
negative
may
potentiam consequantur, they neglect
obtain power; Off. 3, 82.
res maneant, verba fingant arbitratu suo, provided the facts
remain,
modo ne
sit
let
them make up words as they please; Fin.
ex pecudum genere, provided he
5,
89.
is not of the herd of
cattle; Off. i, 105.
Clauses of Proviso are sometimes introduced by ut or ne: as, probanda est dementia, ut adhibeatur rei piiblicae causa severitas, mercy is a thing to be commended, if only strictness is observed in the interests
930.
ita
of the state; 0&.
i, 88.
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— SYNTAX OF VERBS
274
IMPERATIVE The Imperative is used
931.
{931-934
MOOD to express a
command
or
request.
The present calls for the immediate performance of the act. The future is used, as a rule, only when it is clear that the act is not to be performed immediately, as, for example, when it
—
forms the apodosis of a conditional sentence referring to the future; it is used also to express a permanent command, in rules, laws, etc.
:
proficiscere;
—
—
educ tecum omnes tuos, depart; take out with you
your companions; Cat. es, bibe,
cum
animo obsequere,
eat,
valetudini consulueris,
drink,
tum
and
voyage;
Fam.
moribus
932.
The
be merry; PI. Mil. 677.
when you make arrangements for the
consulito navigatidnl,
have attended to your health, then
si iste ibit, ito, if
all
i, lo.
16, 4, 3.
he goes, you go; PI. Ps. 863.
ways;
PI. Trin. 295.
third person of the future imperative is
used chiefly
vivito antiquis, live in the old-fashioned
in legal statements: as, regio imperio
two of regal power; Legg.
duo
stinto, there shall be
3, 8.
933. The future imperative of scio habed usually, instead of the present. For quin with the imperative see 744.
is
used regularly, and that of
For the use of the imperative in the protasis of conditional sentences see 926.
Negative 934.
Negative
Commands
Commands
by noli by cave or cavete with the present 831), and by the perfect subjunctive with ne are regularly expressed
or nollte with the infinitive,
subjunctive (see (see 768)
:
quemquam pleniorem ad dicendum fuisse, do not think any one was more fluent of speech; Brut. 125. cave eastimes me abiecisse curam rei publicae, do not think that I noli putare that
.
ne
have sis
lost interest
in the state;
Fam.
9, 24, 4.
admiratus, dSieiMzbd i%nf^sedgf^m.
7, 18, 3.
THE INFINITIVE
935-939) 935.
The
present imperative with ne
pofetry; the future imperative with
ne saevi,
[Boreal ilante,
is
trust not the horse;
ne
simen ne
arate,
is
rules, laws, etc.:
—
Aen.
2,
48.
when the north wind H. N. 18, 334.
iacitd,
not plow, do not sow your seed; Plin.
936.
used in early Latin and in
used in
And. 868.
be not angry; Ter.
equS ne ciedite,
ne
275
blows, do
Other forms of expression are cave ne, cura ne, fac ne, or vide ne
with the subjunctive.
The
poets sometimes use the present subjunctive with ne; and they
sometimes use, instead of noU, other words of similar meaning,
—
e.g.
fugej mitte, parce.
937.
Two commands,
of
which
second
the
is
negative
(whether imperative or stibjunctive) are regularly connected
by neve:
—
hominem mortuom burn a dead fructfis feros
in urbe
man
urito, neither
bury nor
2, 58.
moUite colendo, neu segnes iaceant terrae, make
•wild fruit's edible
Georg.
ne sepelito neve
in the town; Legg.
by cultivation, and
let
not the lands
the
lie idle;
2, 36.
THE
INFINITIVE
Infinitive is a verbal noun and has characboth noun and verb. Like a noun it may be used in certain case-constructions and it is sometimes qualified by a neuter adjective or demonstrative; like a verb it has distinctions of voice and tense, it governs the 938.
The
teristics of
'Same case as
its
verb,
The Use
and
of the
it is
Tenses
qualified
by adverbs.
of the Infinitive
tenses of the infinitive regularly denote time which is relative to tfet of the verb upon which the infinitive depends. The preser^t ten^e depojes action in progress, the perfect tense
939.
.
The
action cQsapWsds'the future tense action
still
at the time 6f th«";aG^9^^^f, Jh^mdiy^erb.
to be performed
SYNTAX OF VERBS
276
(g40-g44
With some verbs which look forward
940.
to the future (for
example, verbs meaning to wish or plan), the present infinitive refers to future
time
—
:
I
scire studeo quid egeris,
doing; Att. 13, 20,
am
anxious
to
know what you have been
3.
cogito in hortis Crassipedis cenare, /
am
planning
to
dine in the
gardens of Crassipes; Att. 4, 12.
The present
941.
infinitive is
sometimes used instead
of the
future with verbs meaning to hope, promise, or threaten; also
with verbs of saying when they contain the idea of promising:
—
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, they hope to be able to get control of all
Gaul; B. G.
1, 3, 7.
operam dare promittitis, if you promise to attend; PI. Trin. 5. illi se, quae imperarentur, facere dixerunt, they said that they would do what was ordered; B. G. 2, 32, 3. si
942.
With verbs
of remembering the present infinitive
used of a completed act:
member 943.
that
as,
meministis
fieri senatixs
is
sometimes
consultum, you
re-
a decree of the senate was passed; Mur. 51.
In indirect discourse (see 964) the perfect infinitive
represents any past tense of the indicative.
944.
The
perfect infinitive
is
sometimes used instead of the present
to emphasize the completion of the act:
—
bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfecisse, a war which we can finish before winter; Liv. 37, 19, 5.
tendentes Pelion imposuisse Olympo, striving
Hor. C.
to
put Pelion on Olympus,
3, 4, SI.
For the same reason the perfect passive
infinitive,
usually without
often used with volo (rarely with cupio
and nolo): as, monitos etiam atque etiam volo, / want them warned again and again; Cat. 2, 27; also with oportet, decet, and similar verbs: as, quod iam pridem factum esse,
is
esse oportuit, which ought
to
haw
been done long ago; Cat.
i, 5.
In poetry the use of the perfect infinitive where the present would
seem more natural
is,
no ^J(fee,§99'*S«n^)fee to metrical reasons.
THE INFINITIVE
Q45-94^)
277
945. The future infinitive is used only in indirect discourse with verbs of saying, thinking, perceiving, etc., and with verbs of similar meaning, for example, verbs meaning to hope', prom-
—
ise, threaten, etc.
946.
Instead of the future infinitive, the periphrastic form
futurum esse or fore
may
be used, with ut and the subjunctive,
either active or passive; this circumlocution
the verb has no future participle or supine:
magnam
in
spem veniebat
is
—
necessary
when
fore uti pertinacia desisteret, he
becoming very hopeful that he
woiM give up
was
his obstinacy; B. G.
i,
42, 3-
qua ex re futurum
uti totius Galliae
result of this thing
turned
947.
The
would be
away from him; B. G.
i,
they thought that the
war would soon
The Uses infinitive is
be
is
debellatum
sometimes used to
mox fore rebantur,
be {have been) finished; Liv. 23, 13, 6.
of the Infinitive
Infinitive as
The
as,
Gaul would
20, 4.
perfect passive participle with fore
denote completed action in future time:
948.
animi a se averterentur, the
that the loyalty of all
Nominative Case
used as subject with est and a
predicate adjective; with est and an abstract predicate noun,— for example, fas est, mos est, opus est, tempus est;
with est and a predicate possessive genitive; and with for example, decet, expedit, many impersonal verbs, When used iuvat, licet, oportet, placet, praestat, pudet.
—
way, the infinitive may have a subject accusaand may take a predicate noun or adjective in the
in this
tive
accusative
:
—
longum est ea dicere, it would take a long time to tell this; Sest. 12. neque erat facile nostrls uno tempore propugnare et munire, and it was not easy for our men to fight and build fortifications at the same time; B. C. 3, 45, 3. cum vivere ipsum turpe sit, when mere living is disgraceful; Att. 13, 2°i 2.
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-
SYNTAX OF VERBS
278 si
eos hoc nomine appellari fas est, if
Mur. 80. amentis pacem cogitare,
{949~95^ right for
it is
them
to be called
by this name; erat
it
was a madman's
act to think of
peace; Lig. 28.
oratdrem
irasci
to lose his
minime
decet,
temper; Tusc.
non esse cupidum pecunia
Many
it is
quite
unbecoming for an orator
4, ^s.
est, not to be covetous is wealth; Par. 51.
verbs or expressions of this sort
may
take a substantive clause;
see 828.
The
949.
infinitive is
sometimes used as the subject
of other
verbs:
non
cadit invidere in sapientem, envy does not come to a wise
Tusc.
man;
3, 21.
quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere in iinum coegit, the fact that they desired the things, feared. the
same
same
things, hated the
same
things, brought therri all together; Sail. Jug.
31,14-
The
950.
and
infinitive
is
used also as a nominative in apposition
as a predicate nominative:
—
proinde quasi iniuriam facere id
do
injustice,
vivere est cogitare, to
live is to
if that only, to
demum
were
to
esset imperio
make use
iiti,
just as
of power; Sail; Cat.
12, 5-
Infinitive as
The
951.
with
many
think; Tusc.
5,
in.
Accusative Case
infinitive without subject accusative is used verbs to denote another act of the same
subj ect. This
is
called the
pletes a thought
Complementary
which
With most verbs the which are intransitive tion.
of tl^s
is
Infinitive because
only introduced by the
it
com-
finite verb.
infinitive is a direct object; it is
with those used like an accusative of specifica-
The verbs
(or verbal phrases) which take an infinitive type are especially those meaning wish, decide, intend,
prepare, strive, hasten p^ii^b^(mlmik0^ease, dare, fear, neglect,
THE INFINITIVE
g52-g54)
279
learn, remember, forget, ought, seem, be able, be accustomed.
noun
predicate
the main verb,
or adjective
— that
is,
he
—
wage war
p^buli copia esse inciperet, as soon as there began to
a supply of fodder; B. G.
longer; Cat.
Some
to
4, 6, 5.
2, 2, 2.
nobiscum versari iam diutius non potes, you.cannot fieri
A
as the subject of
gerere constituit, he decided
with the Germans; B. G.
cum primum
same case
in the
usually the nominative:
cum Germanis
bellum
is
studebam
doctior,
of these verbs
live
with us any
i, 10.
may
/ was eager
to
become more wise; Lael.
i.
take a substantive clause instead of the
infini-
tive; see 826, 835.
An
952.
when
infinitive of this
it refers
type
may
take a subject accusative even
same person as the subject
to the
of the
main
rarely, unless the infinitive is esse, videri, putarl, or dici:
—
verb,
— but
cupio me esse clementem, I want to he merciful; Cat. i, 4. gratum se videri studet, he is eager to seem grateful; Off. 2, 70.
As an abstract noun the
953.
infinitive
may
be used as the
object of a verb, or in apposition with the object, or as an accusative case with a preposition:
—
hie vereri perdidit, he has lost his sense of shame; PI. Bac. 158.
ut totum hoc beate vivere in una virtute poneret, that he should base this
whole matter of a happy
tu das epulis
life
on virtue done; Tusc.
accumbere (Uvum, you
at the feasts of the gods;
Aen.
i,
give
me
5,
33.
the privilege of reclining
79.
misereri, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec
omnia morbos Graeci appel-
lant, pity, envy, longing, joy, alt these things the Greeks call dis-
eases; Tusc. 3,
7.
nil praeter plorire, nothing except
The
infinitive with subject accusative is
following verbs 954.
This
is
weeping; Hor.
(1)
:
—
Verbs meaning say,
think,
S. 2, 5, 69.
used with the
know, perceive.
the construction of principal clauses in indirect
discourse; see 965.
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SYNTAX OF VERBS
28o
{955-957
The subject accusative is sometimes omitted, but rarely unless would be me, nos, te, vos, or se. When the subject is omitted, a predicate noun or adjective is sometimes in the nominative, but chiefly in poetry: it
—
/ admit
stulte fecisse fateor,
that
I have
acted foolishly ; PI. Bac. 1013.
oblitum credidi, / thought he had forgotten; Fam. ait fuisse
navium celerrimus,
CatuU.
uxor
it
says
it
was
9, 2, i.
the swiftest of boats,
4, 2;
esse nescis, you forget that you are the wife of
invicfi lovis
unconquerable Jove; Hor. C. 3, 27, 73.
955.
Verbs denoting emotion,
(2)
complaint,
indignation,
grief,
pride,
—
for example, joy,
wonder; these are
verbs of thinking or saying, and the dependent construction may properly be regarded as indirect discourse
:
—
salvom
te
advenisse gaudeo, /
am glad that you have arrived in safety;
Ter. Ph. 286.
ne querantur se esse deserted; Tusc.
956.
or teach:
(3)
—
relictas, lest they
complain that they have been
5, 14.
Verbs meaning
order, compel, forbid, permit,
tertiam aciem castra munire iussit, he ordered the
camp; B. G. i, 49, 2. hunc patiemur fieri miserum? are we going to
men
of the third
line to fortify the
let
him become unhappy?
Ter. Ph. 536.
Some verbs 957.
of these
meanings
may
take a substantive clause; see 826.
Verbs of wishing, when the subject of the from that of the verb upon which
(4)
infinitive is different it
depends hoc te
:
scire volui,
eas res jg
—
I wished you
to
iactari nolebat, he did not j_
Digitized
know
this; Att. 7, 18, 4.
wish these things disacssed; B. G.
by Microsoft®
i,
the infinitive
g^S-gdo)
Infinitive with Passive
281
Verbs
Many
verbs which in the active voice take the infinitive with subject accusative are used also in the passive voice with a dependent infinitive. 958.
Verbs of saying, thinking, etc., are used either personally or impersonally in the present system and, as a rule, impersonally J
system and
in the perfect
in the periphrastic conjugation
centum pagos habere dicuntur, tons; B. G. 4,
mother of Pausanias
Homer was dicendum is no 959. believe,
est
is
vixisse,
lived at that time;
blind; Tusc.
5,
Rep.
Videor, seem,
is
it
is
Nep. Paus.
fuisse, there is
said that the 5, 3.
a tradition
that
114.
nullam esse rem publicam,
state;
it
must
be said that there
3, 43.
used, as a rule, personally in all forms; credo, if they have. a dependent Sulmonenses cupere ea facere quae vellet, the people 0} Sulmo are eager to do what he
impersonally; other verbs impersonally
dative: as, Caesari nuntiatur it
they are said to have a hundred can-
Homerum caecum
traditum est
—
I, 4.
tempore matrem Pausaniae
dicitur eo
:
announced
wishes; B. C.
i,
to
Caesar that
18, i.
Infinitive
with Adjectives
In poetry beginning with the Augustan period (rarely in earlier poetry) and in post-Augustan prose the infinitive is used with many adjectives, especially 960.
those which denote wish, ability, fitness (or the reverse) to
do something. This use
is like
that of the complementary infinitive with verbs
or the supine in -u with adjectives: avidi committere
pugnam, eager
fortis tractare serpentes, brave
to
—
begin the fight; Ov. Met.
enough
to
5, 75.
handle serpents; Hor. C.
i,
37, 26.
nescia humanis precibus mansuescere corda, hearts that knew not
how
to be
merciful to
human
prayers; Georg. 4, 470.
niveus videri, snoiB'isiMti'tMMM^o^r. C. 4,
2,
59.
SYNTAX OF VERBS
282
Infinitive of
The
961. is
infinitive
Exclamation
with or without subject accusative
The
used in exclamations.
interrogative enclitic -ne
often attached to the emphatic hoc non videre!
non pudere!
mene
—
pose,
word
:
—
ashamed/ Ter. Ph. 233.
incepto desisterel that I should abandon
The
my
purpose/ Aen.
Purpose
used in poetry to denote purchiefly with verbs of motion and with verbs
meaning to
infinitive is
give or undertake:
—
non Libycos populare Penatis venimus, we have not come the
Libyan homes; Aen.
i,
Aen.
s,
to pillage
527.
man
loricam donat habere viro, he gives the
a breastplate
to
wear;
260.
quis sibi res gestas Augusti scribere suinit? self to write the achieoem^nts of
The
is
the idea of not seeing this! Fin. 4, 76.
that he shouldn't be
Infinitive of
962.
ig6i-g64
expression do bibere, give
to
who
upon him-
takes
Augustus? Hor. Epis.
i, 3, 7.
drink, occurs in prose as. well s^ poetry. '
Historical Infinitive
In animated narration the present infinitive'may 963. be used instead of the imperfect (rarely the perfect) indica-
The
tive.
in
subject
is
in the nominative.
Beginning with Sallust the historical infinitive dependent clauses, relative and temporal
—
cottidie
:
Caesar Haeduos frumentum
demanded grain of
the
—
flagitare,
Haedui; B. G.
i,
is
used rarely
eo'ery
day Caesar
16, i;
Catilina poUiceri tabulas novas, Catiline promised abolition of debts; Sail.
Cat. 21,
2.
postquam exui aequalitas, when
equality
was overthrown;
Ta.c.
Ann.
3, 26.
Indirect Discourse
964.
of onojs
Direct Discourse
is
the quotation, without change,
own or another's words or thoughts
an independent
sent^}ia»feec/ by Microsoft®
in the
form of
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
965-968)
283
Indirect Discourse is the quotation, with the necessary changes of pronouns, tense, person, etc., of one's own or another's words or thoughts in the form of a dependent sentence, the object of a verb of saying or think-
—
ing expressed or implied.
The
construction of indirect discourse
is used also knowing and perceiving, and after manyother verbs which express or suggest in any way the idea
after verbs of
of speech or thought. Declarative Sentences in Indirect Discourse
965.
In declarative sentences in indirect discourse the with subject accusative is used in all principal
infinitive
clauses, the subjunctive in all subordinate clauses.
966.
For the use of the tenses of the
infinitive in principal clauses see
939, 941-943, 946-947.
The
tenses of the subjunctive are regularly treated according
sequence of tenses (see 781), the sequence being determined by the tense of the verb of saying etc., which to the rule for the
For the treatment of original which have no corresponding tenses
introduces the indirect discourse. futures
and future
perfects,
in the subjunctive, see 794.
967. The present and perfect subjunctive are often used even when the introductory verb is in a secondary tense; this irregularity (called repraesentatio) is due to a feeling that the
statement
is
made more
vivid
by representing the action
occurring or as completed in present time.
as
In the course of a
long passage in indirect discourse the sequence
may
change
several times.
For the use of the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive with a perfect a primary tense see 793.
infinitive after
968.
Verbs of remembering with the present
the secondary sequence. „.
..
,,
Digitized
...
,^
by Microsoft®
infinitive (see 942) take
SYNTAX OF VERBS
284
Examples
969.
course
:
declarative
of
—
proponit esse nonnuUos
quorum
sentences
the
common
there
1, 17, i.
eum animadverteret, he thought
reason why he should punish him; B. G. i, 19, i. Numidiae partem quam nunc peteret turn adven-
turam, he made
new
dis-
sufficient
regi patefecit
he
indirect
apud plebem plurimum some whose authority among
people is very great; B. G.
causae arbitrabatur quare in
was
in
auctoritas
valeat, he declares that there are
satis esse
{969-971
it
clear to the king that the part of Numidia
sought would then come
him;
to
Sail.
Jug. iii,
which
i.
erilem filium eius duxisse audio uxorem, I hear that his master's son has got married; Tar. Ph. 39. legati venerunt, qui se
envoys came,
B. G.
to
ea quae imperasset facturos pollicerentur,
promise that they would do what he should order;
4, 22, I.
Ariovistus respondit,
si
iterum expeiiri
velint, se
tare, Ariovistus replied that, if they
he
hunc
was ready
aiunt,
to fight it out;
cum taurum
B. G.
i,
immolavisset,
wanted 44, 4.
paratum esse decerto try
mortuum
say that after he had sacrificed the hull he
a second time,
(Repraesentatio.)
fell
concidisse, they
dead; Brut. 43.
(Tense of the subordinate verb due to the perfect infinitive.)
meministine
me
dicere fore in armis certo die, qui dies futiirus
diem sextum Kal. Novembris, C. Manlium? do you remember that I said that Gaius Manlius would be under arms esset ante
on a certain day, which day would of November? Cat.
be the sixth before the
Kalends
i, 7.
For the occasional omission of the subject of the main verb see 954.
The verb
970.
from the context:
non minus se
must sometimes be supplied omnes Caesari ad pedes proiecerunt:
of saying etc. as,
id contendere, all threw themselves at Caesar's feet,
(saying) that no less were they striving for this, etc.; B. G.
A
971.
followed quidvis
comparative with
quam
by the accusative and
me
potius perpessurum
i,
31, 2.
in indirect discourse is often
infinitive:
as,
noime aAtmasm.
quam ex Italia exiturum?
did I
not declare that I would endure anything whatever rather than leave Italy?
Fam.
2,
16,3.
Tlj^^ii^jy^j^y^sg^ut maybe used; seeSOl.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
972-974)
285
When
one subject is compared with another in indirect by means of such phrases as idem qui, a comparative with quam, tantus quantus, etc., and it is apparent that the second verb would be the same as the first, the second verb, 972.
discourse
which would naturally be in a subject
finite
mood,
attracted into the accusative:
is
te suspicor
eisdem rebus quibus
me
—
is
omitted, and
its
ipsum conunoTeri, / suspect
same things as myself; Cat. M. (properly, quibus ipse commoveor.) you are disturbed by
that
the
i.
aiebat se tantidem aestimasse quanti Sacerdotem, he said he put the
same price on
it
(properly, quanti
as Sacerdos; Verr. 3, 215.
Sacerdos aestimasset.)
973. it is
A
subordinate clause
may have
the indicative, (a)
if
not a part of the indirect discourse, but an explanatory
statement;
or, (b) if
the writer wishes to emphasize or vouch
for the statement contained in the clause:
—
Caesari renuntiatur Helvetiis esse in animo iter in Santonum fines facere, qui
non longe a Tolosatium
est in provincia,
planning
who
to
it is
make an
announced
is
finibus absunt, quae civitas
Caesar that the Helvetians are
expedition into the territory of the Santones,
are not far distant
which
to
from
the territory of the Tolosates,
in the province; B. G.
i,
a
state
10, i.
video esse hie in senatu quosdam qiu tecum una fuerunt, I see that here in the senate there are certain ones
Cat.
974.
by a relative pronoun are sometimes indeIn indirect discourse these are treated as principal
Clauses introduced
pendent; see 710. clauses
who were with you;
I, 8.
and have the accusative and infinitive. So by cum, ut {as), quamquam, etc.:
censent
unum quemque nostrum mundi esse partem,
illud
also, occasionally,
—
clauses introduced
ex quo
nature cSnsequi, they think that each one of us
verse,from which this naturally follows ; Fin.
is
(
= et ex eS)
a pari of the uni-
3, 64.
ez quo intellegi potuit, ut mare ventorum vi agitari, sic populum Romanum hominum seditiosorum vocibus concitari, from which it could be understood that as the sea so the
is
disturbed by the violence of the winds,
Roman pegi^iSMl^p'M^kkf^f^'"''^^
°S agitators; CIu. 138.
SYNTAX OF VERBS
286
(.975-979
Questions in Indirect Discourse
975.
The subjunctive
discourse which in
person.
used in any question in indirect form had its verb in the second
is
its original
If in its original
form the verb was
the
in
first
or third
person, a real question, which expected an answer, has the subjunctive; a rhetorical question, which expected no answer, has
the accusative and infinitive: si
bonum
—
ducerent, quid pro noxio danmassent? if they thought
him a good man, why had
they
condemned him as guilty? Liv.
27> 34, 13-
num
recentium iniuriarum memoriam (se) deponere posse? cotdd
memory
he lay aside the
976.
An
of recent wrongs? B. G.
original subjunctive in a deliberative
i,
14, 3.
question
is
always
retained in indirect discourse.
Commands .
977.
subjunctive
in Indirect Discourse
— whether
Commands
— have the verb The
rect discourse.
tense
is
regular principles of sequence
originally imperative or
in the subjunctive in indi-
usually determined
—
:
by the
nuntius venit bellum Atheniensis indixisse; quare venire ne dubi-
a message came
taret,
Athenians had declared war; where-
that the
fore he should not hesitate to come; Nep. Ages. 4,
respondit:
si
ab armis discedere
velint, se adiutore
que ad Caesarem mittant, he their
arms,
B. G.
978. followed
5,
replied: if they
i.
utantur legatos-
wanted
them take his advice and send envoys
let
41, 7.
to lay to
down
Caesar;
(Tenses due to repraesentatio.)
Some verbs of saying etc. may denote will or desire and are then by an object clause: as, Pythia respondit ut moenibus ligneis se
milnirent, the Pythian priestess replied that they should defend themselves
with wooden walls; Nep.
Them.
2,
6.
Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse
979.
The
protasis
is
a subordinate clause and has the
subjiyictive.
The
apodosis
is
aDl§!t^t^\sim)iom^<^ has the accusative
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
g8o)
and
287
was originally imperative or hortawhich case the subjunctive is used see 914, 977.
infinitive, unless it
tory, in
The
;
by the
tenses are in general determined
principles
of sequence. Conditions of Pact or Possibility
980.
may
These
be treated together, as there
is
no
distinc-
tion in indirect discourse between future conditions that were originally in the indicative
and those that were
In both cases the tense
the subjunctive.
originally in
of the protasis is deter-
mined by the sequence and the apodosis has the future Examples
—
:
lovem
aiunt philosophi,
sic
loquitur
si
respondit:
.
.
quid
si
B. G. tive
loqui, the philosophers
speaks Greek; Brut. 121.
se
velit,
(Direct:
ilium ad se venire oportere, he replied:
wanted anything of him, he ought (Direct:
34, 2.
I,
if he
loquitur.)
.
ille
if he {Caesar)
Graece loquatur,
si
say that Jove speaks thus,
infinitive.
vult
si
.
.
.
to
come
to
him;
oportet; present subjunc-
due to repraesentatio.)
non dicam ne illud quidem, si maxime in culpa fuerit ApoUonius, tamen in hominem. honestissimum tarn graviter animadverti non oportuisse, / will not say this either, that if ApoUonius was very much at fault, still so severe a punishment ought not to have been inflicted upon a most honorable man; Verr. 5, 20. (Direct: si fuit
.
.
.
oportuit.)
erat scriptum, nisi
demn him .
domum
had been written
it
.
.
eum
damnatiirds,
death;
Nep. Paus.
would con-
(Direct: nisi reverteris
3, 4.
damnabimus.)
sensit, si in
turbam
f uturum.
get
to
reverteretur, se capitis
that unless he returned home, they
homine
exisset ab
tarn necessario se relictum,
ut ceteri consilium sequerentur, he
abroad that he had been deserted by d
the result 6, 3.
Toluptatem
would be
that others
(Direct: si exierit si
.
.
man
would adopt .
ipsa pro se loquatur
saw
that if
it
should
so closely connected,
that policy;
Nep. Dat.
sequentur; see 946.)
concess^ram arbitror
dignitati,
I think that if .Pleasure should speak for'herself, she would admit her inferiority to Merit; Fin. 3,
concedat.)
Digitized
i.
by Microsoft®
(Direct: si loquatur
.
.
.
SYNTAX OF VERBS
288
(98 1, 982
Conditions Contrary to Fact
Conditional sentences of the third type (contrary to
981.
fact) are treated in indirect discourse as follows:
The mood and The verb of the
—
tense of the protasis remain unchanged. apodosis,
active, takes the
if
form
of the future
active participle with fuisse (rarely esse).
The verb of the apodosis, if passive, is represented in indirect by futiirum fuisse followed by ut with the imperfect
discourse
subjunctive.
Examples: illud
—
Asia cogitet, rio
nuUam calamitatem afuturam
non teneretur,
Asia think
let
this, that
fuisse, si
hoc impe-
no disaster would be
lacking, if she were not held by this government; Q. Fr. i, i, 34.
(Direct: abesset
clamitabat Eburones,
si
.
si ille
non
tenerer.)
adesset, ad castra (non) ventiiTds esse,
he kept crying out that the Eburones, if he were there, would not be
coming
to the
camp; B. G.
5, 29, 2.
(Direct:
si
adessem
.
.
.
venirent.)
(apparebat),
diiitius
si
vixisset,
Italiae inlatiiros fuisse,
it
was
Hamilcare duce Poen6s anna evident that if he
had
lived longer,
under the leadership of Hamilcar the Carthaginians would have brought
war
into Italy; Liv. 21,
2, 2.
(Direct: si vixisset
.
.
.
intiilissent.)
de Caesaris
nisi niintii
victoria essent allati, existimabant plerique
futiirum fuisse uti (oppidum) amitteretur, unless reports about Caesar's victory had been brought, most people thought that the
town would have been allati
982. direct
If
.
.
.
amissum
lost;
B. C.
3, loi, 3.
(Direct: nisi essent
esset.)
the verb of the apodosis was in the indicative in the
form
(see 921-923),
it
becomes the perfect
infinitive in
the indirect: as, Platonem existimo, si genus forense dicendi tractare voluisset, gravissime potuisse dicere, I think that Plato, if he
had wanted
to cultivate the
forensic style of oratory, might have
been a
Digitized
i, 4.
by Microsoft®
(Direct: si voluisset
PARTICIPLES
p83-g86)
289
Implied Indirect Discourse
The subjunctive is often used in dependent which would naturally have the indicative and, when so used, indicates that the clause contains an indirect quotation of words or thought 983.
clauses
:
Paetus omnes
libros,
Paetus gave Att. cottidie
me
—
quos frater suus
all the
reliquisset,
mihi donavit,
books which (he said) his brother had
left;
2, I, 12.
Caesar Haeduos frumentum quod essent
day Caesar demanded of the Haedui he reminded them) they had promised; B. G. every
nisi restituissent statuas,
polliciti flagitare,
the grain i,
which {as
16, 1.
vehementer minatur, he
threatens
violently unless they restore the statues; Verr. 2, 162,
them
(Apodosis
implied in minatur.)
For the use of
this
type of subjunctive in causal clauses see 886,
PARTICIPLES 984.
Like adjectives
Participles are verbal adjectives.
they qualify nouns and agree with them in gender, numand case; like verbs they have voice and tense and
ber,
govern cases.
The Use 985.
of the
Tenses
of the Participle
A participle denotes time which is relative to that
of the verb in its clause. 986.
The present
participle represents action as in progress
at the time of the action of the verb
pugnans
:
—
occiditur, he is killed while fighting; B. G. s, 37,
maniis tendentes vitam orabant, stretching out
their
5.
hands they begged
for life; Liv. 44, 42, 4.
Like the present indicative (see 749), the present participle denote action begun in the past and still continuing: as,
may
haec secum Sail.
difl
Jug. 113,
I.
volvens, having considered this for a long time;
In/ppjigy/jj-m^Ja^f^rose
it
sometimes
refers
SYNTAX OF VERBS
290
and denotes purpose:
to the future
orantes, envoys were sent
987.
The
to
(987-990
as, legati
ask help; Liv. 21,
missi auxilium
6, 2.
perfect participle represents action as completed at
the time of the action of the verb
:
—
his de rebus Caesar certior factus nihil (Gallls)
committendum
exis-
timavit, having been informed about these things, Caesar thought that nothing should be entrusted to the
Gauls; B. G.
4, 5, i.
ad Caesarem reversuros, the envoys said matter had been considered they would return to
legati dixerunt re deliberata
when
that
the
Caesar; B. G.
988.
The
4, 9, i.
perfect participle of
some deponent verbs
repre-
sents action as in progress; so, regularly, ratus, solitus,
and
veritus; and, often, arbitratus, ausus, conatus, conflsus, diffisus,
gavisus, locutus, secutus, and usus
Metellum esse _
:
—
rati portas clausere, thinking it
dosed the gates;
Sail.
Jug.. 69,
was Metellus, they
i.
isdem ducibus usus Kumidas subsidio oppidanis same guides he sends the Numidians to help B. G.
989.
using the
the townspeople;
2, 7, I.
This construction
prose-writers,
mittit,
and by them
of passive verbs
:
—
ad templum ibant
is is
used freely by the poets and later extended to the perfect participle
tristes et tiinsae pectora palmis, they
went
to the
temple in sadness and beating their breasts with their hands;
Aen.
I,
triennio sub
480.
(Reflexive use)
Hasdrubale meruit,
niilla
re praetermissa, he served
for three years under Hasdrubal, neglecting nothing; Liv. 21 4, 10.
990.
The
future active participle represents action as
still to
be performed at the time of the action of the verb.
The
future passive participle represents action as intended,
necessary, or proper.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
PARTICIPLES
991, 992)
The Uses 991. tions,
—
291
of Participles
Participles are used to express a variety of relaespecially, time, cause, means,
manner, situation,
—
condition, opposition:
omne malum nascens
facile opprimitur, every evil is easily overcome
(Time)
at its birth; Phil. 5, 31.
longius prosequi veritus, ad Ciceronem pervenit, because he was afraid to follow further,
he came
Cicero; B. G.
to
(Cause)
5, 52, i.
quae contuens animus accedit ad cognitionem deorum, by contemplating these things the
N. D. flentes
2,
153.
mind
a knowledge of the gods;
arrives at
(Means)
implorabant,
they
begged
with
B.
tears;
G.
i,
51,
3.
(Manner) stantem urbem
reliquit,
he
left
the city standing; Cat. 2, 2.
(Situa-
tion)
apparebat non admissos Carthaginem ituros, if they were not given audience, they
became apparent
that,
Carthage; Liv.
to
(Condition)
21, 9, 4.
non mihi
it
would go
admonito venisset in mentem,
nisi
occurred to
me unless I had
been reminded;
would not have
it
De Or.
2,
180.
(Con-
dition) ibi
perturbatus Lentulus tamen et signum et
manum suam cognovit,
thereupon, though thrown into confusion, Lentulus identified his
hand and For the use of
seal; Cat. 3, 12.
(Opposition)
participles as adjectives see 616-617.
The compound
forms of passive verbs are developed from the use of the perfect participle as a predicate adjective.
For the use
of participles as substantives see 636-639.
Verbs
992.
of perception
take either the accusative and
tive or a present participle in
object:
—
Catdnem
infini-
agreement with the accusative
sedentem, / saw Cato
sitting in the
audiam Hiberum narrantem loca, I shall hear you country of the B'0^i!^;M!^tMSfp%, 6.
describing the
vidi in bibliotheca
library; Fin. 3, 7.
te
;
SYNTAX OF VERBS
292 993.
The present participle
used with verbs meaning to represent:
is
Polyphemum Homerus cum
{993-997
ariete
Polyphemus talking with
the
conloquentem
ram; Tusc.
5,
faclt.
Homer
—
represents
115.
ipsos induzi loquentes, / have introduced them as speaking in person; Lael. 3.
The
infinitive is
used rarely
the dependent verb
if
lack of a present passive participle,
dependent verb the
is
it is
passive: as, construi a deo
world being constructed by God; N. D.
994.
The
is
active, but, for
the regular construction
mundvun
facit,
if
the
he represents
i, 19.
perfect participle often expresses an idea which in
English would be in the form of a coordinate clause:
as,
ut hos
in Britanniam traductos necaret, that he should take these over
Britain and put them 995.
The
to
death; B. G.
to
5, 6, 5.
perfect participle in agreement with an object of
habeo emphasizes the continued
an action:
effect of
—
pecunias magnas collocatas habent, they have large sums of money invested; Manil. 18. perfldiam
Haeduorum perspectam habebat, he had
lessness of the
996.
Haedui; B. G.
observed the faith-
7, 54, 2.
In early Latin participles are used similarly with reddo and euro
in late Latin with do ; in classical Latin missus with f acio :
—
hie transactum reddet stratas
omne, he will get it all done; PI. Capt. 345. legiones Latinorum dabo, / will overwhelm the legions of
Latins;\Av.
Manlium missum 997.
The
fecit,
he
let
Manlius go;
Off. 3, 112.
perfect participle in agreement with a substantive main idea of the phrase
often contains the
:
angebant vinim
Sicilia
post banc
man;
Liv. 21,
i, 5.
with rage at the rescue of the maiden; Aen. 2, 413. conditam, sirwe the founding of this city; Cat. 15.
ira,
urbem
3,
So, rarely, the present participle: as, fugiens is stirring
up
Pompeius homines movet,
the people; Att. 7, 11, 4.
For the ablative of the perfect see 574.
—
Sardiniaque amissae, the loss of Sicily and
Sardinia troubled the ereptae virginis
Pompey's flight
the
8, 6, 6.
Digitized
participle with opus est and iisus est by Microsoft®
— 9g8-l002)
The
998. of
PARTICIPLES
sum
future active participle
is
293
used chiefly with forms
in the active periphrastic conjugation.
For
use as
its
an adjective see 616.
The
999.
and
future active participle
is
used, chiefly in poetry
Aeneadas, they
filled the shores, to see those
—
later prose, to denote purpose:
complebant
litora visuri
with Aeneas; Aen.
legatos oraturos auxilia, he sent envoys to ask for reinforce-
nilsit
ments; Tac. Ann.
The
107.
s,
46.
2,
future passive participle
used in the following construc-
is
tions:
1000.
With forms
(1)
of
sum
in the passive periphrastic
conjugation.
The neuter
singular
is
often used impersonally; transitive
verbs used impersonally sometimes take an accusative object; the dative is
is
common
used with utor
etc.
with intransitive verbs, and the ablative :
—
nunc est bibendum, now we must drink; Her. C. i, 37, i. aetemas poenas in morte timendumst, we have to fear eternal punishment in death; Lucr. resistendum senectuti
utendum
1001.
i,
est,
iii.
one must
resist old
age; Cat.
M.
Cat.
M.
(2)
As an
35.
adjective; see 616.
— — the future passive
In agreement with the object of certain verbs, verbs meaning receive or
denotes purpose:
—
deliver,
agrum de nostro patre colendum habebat, he had a field from my father; Ter. Ph. 364. hos Haeduis custodiendos to
guard; B. G.
tradit, he
erected; Cat. 3,
(3)
As the
hands them over
especially participle
to cultivate,
to the
Haedui
6, 4, 4.
signum conlocandum locaverunt,
1002.
35.
exercitationibus modicis, one must take moderate exercise;
they contracted to have the statue
2a
^igimiiy:/pMicrosom>
— SYNTAX OF VERBS
294
{10O3-IOO7
Gerundive and Gerund
The
1003.
future
passive
participle
is
used most
often as a verbal adjective in agreement with a noun, referring either to present or to future time,
taining
When
no idea
so used
The gerund
it is is
intention,
of
necessity,
and con-
or propriety.
called the gerundive.
the- neuter singular of the gerundive
used as an active verbal noun in the genitive, dative, accusative and ablative. As a noun it is governed by other words; as a verb it may have an object. The essential difference between the gerundive and the gerund is the fact that the gerundive is grammatically passive and agrees with a substantive, while the gerund is grammatically active and, if transitive, has an object. 1004.
The gerund of an intransitive verb may be used in case. The gerund of a transitive verb is practically
any oblique
never used in the dative or accusative, or in the ablative with a preposition; it occurs rarely in the genitive, more often in the ablative without a preposition, but in both cases chiefly when the object is a neuter pronoun or neuter plural adjective used substantively.
Case-Constructions ot Gerundive and Oerund
1005.
The
1006.
The
case-constructions of the gerundive phrase and the gerund, so far as they are found, are the same as those of nouns. .
genitive
is
used with substantives and adjec-
tives: proelii
committendi signum,
the signal for beginning the battle;
B. G.
2,21,3. insuetus navigandi, unused
cupidus te audiendi, eager
1007.
With causa Cat.
M.
hear you;
B. G.
De
5, 6, 3.
Or.
2,
16.
or ^atia the genitive expres^.es purpose:
exercendae memoriae •
to sailing;
to
gratia, for the sake of training the
38.
praedandi ca.usii,fdpim^fi^oM
—
memory;
2, 17, 4.
GERUNDIVE AND GERUND
IO08-IOI4) 1008.
The
295
genitive of quality sometimes serves to express purpose:
Romam
pads petendae,
as, ut
mitterent
Rome
envoys to seek peace; Liv. 9, 45, 18.
oratores
that they should send to
1009. With nostri, vestri, and sui, which are genitive singular neuter in form (see 231), the gerundive ends in -i, regardless of genddr and number: as, vestri
adhortandl causa, for the sake of encouraging you; Liv. 21, 41,
1010.
The
tive instead of to select
genitive of the gerund sometimes takes
a direct object:
examples; Inv.
The
1011.
as,
exemplorum
an objective geni-
eligendi potestas, a chance
2, S-
dative
is
used with a few verbs and, especially
in late writers, with adjectives denoting fitness (see 486) praeesse agro colendo, Rose.
Am.
i.
to be
:
—
in charge of the cultivation of the land;
50.
quisque pugnando locum ceperat, each one had taken a place for fighting; Sail. Cat. 61,
2.
perferendis militum mandatis idoneus, suitable for carrying out the instructions of the soldiers; Tac.
cum
(for
1012.
Ann.
i,
23.
solvendo civitates non essent, since the
The
paying) dative
purpose of their
office,
;
is
Fam.
were not solvent
states
3, 8, 2.
used with the
with comitia,
titles of officials, to
486)
election, etc. (see
:
—
indicate the
triumvlros coloniae deducendae, triumvirs for founding a colony; Liv. 21, 4-
-
6,
_
comitia consulibus rogandis, an election for nominating consuls; Div. i, 33. dies rbgationi ferendae, the day for proposing the measure; Att. i, 14, 5.
1013.
The
accusative
is
with other prepositions: — ills
me
used with the preposition ad ; rarely
ad dicendam causam adest, he is here to make excuses, Ter. Ph. 266. vocas ad scribendum, you summon me to write; Or. 34.
ob rem iudicandam pecuniam accipere, judgment on a case; Verr. 2, 78.
1014.
The
ablative
is
constructions, — means,
with or without a
used in
many
to take
nounbe used either
of the ordinary
cause, time, etc.;
prg^gjfeiflsyiM/e^rosoft®
money for passing
it
may
— SYNTAX OF VERBS
296
{1015-IO18
quaerendis vadis, by seeking shallow water; Liv. 21, 28, 12. flendo turgiduli rubent ocelli, her eyes are swollen and red with
weeping; Catull.
3, 18.
partiendo praedam, by distributing the booty; Liv. 21,
5, 5.
industiia in agendo, energy in action; Manil. 29.
consilium illud de occludendis aedibus, that idea about shutting the house; Ter.
THE SUPINE -um is used with verbs
The Supine
1015.
in
tion to express purpose (see 517)
the
up
Eun. 784.
same construction
it
;
as its verb
:
may
—
of
mo-
be followed by
ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt, they came to Caesar to congratulate him; B. G. i, 30, i. legates mittunt rogatum auxilium, they send envoys to ask for aid; B. G.
I, II, 2.
Manilio filiam nuptum dat, he gives his daughter marriage
marry); Liv.
{to
non Grais seratum matribus Greek matrons; Aen.
The
1016. in
i,
Manilius in
to
49, 9.
ibo,
/
shall not go to be
a slave
to the
786.
2,
future passive infinitive, consisting of the supine
-um with iri, is rare
except in Cicero.
For the usual substitute
see 845.
The Supine
1017.
and with the nouns pendent case
in -u fas
is
and
used with a, few adjectives nefas; it never takes a de-
:
terribiles
nsu
ioira&e, figures terrible to see; Aen. 6, 277.
videtis nefas esse dictu it is
wrong
to
1018. The supine and indiguus:
—
ita dictu
nihil
The only and
Visu.
opus
dignum
est,
miseram
fuisse talem senectutem,
you
see
M.
13.
say that such an old age was unhappy; Cat.
in -u
is
used rarely with opus
est,
and with dignus
you must speak so; Ter. Heaut. 941.
dictu, nothing worth mentioning; Liv. 4, 30, 4.
supines in -u in
common
Digitized
use are aucUtu, cognitu, dictu,
by Microsoft®
f actii,
SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS
10ig-I022)
297
SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS The
uses of prepositions have been treated in connection with
the cases of nouns. 1019.
The
accusative :
—
following prepositions are used only with the
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS
298
In and sub, when used with the accusative, denote
1023.
place whither; is
(1023-JO28
when used with the
ablative, place where.
Subter
used regularly with the accusative; rarely, in poetry, with the
Super, meaning upon, at, or in addition to, is used with the accusative; meaning concerning, with the ablative. ablative.
Dissyllabic prepositions are sometimes postpositive;
1024. that
is,
Ad, cum, and de often follow a
they follow the noun.
relative,
and cum
pronoun as an 1025.
is
regularly attached to a personal or reflexive
enclitic.
Certain adjectives and adverbs are sometimes used as
prepositions.
The
following are used with the accusative:
propior
propius
pridie
proximus
proxime
postridie
—
clam usque
1026.
Propior, proximus, propius, and proxiine are used also with the and with the ablative with ab. Pridie and postridie are used also with the genitive. Clam occurs very rarely as a preposition except in early Latin. Usque is rarely used as a preposition; it is commonly comdative,
bined with ad in the phrase iisque ad.
1027.
The
following adverbs are sometimes used as prepo-
sitions with the ablative:
—
palam The use prose.
of these
procul
simul
words as prepositions occurs only
In Ciceronian prose procul
is
in poetry
and
late
always used with ab, simul with cum.
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions are either coordinating or suiborCoordinating conjunctions connect two members, words, phrases, or clauses, usually of similar grammatical nature; if clauses, both are independent or Subordinating conjunctions conboth are dependent. nect dependent clauses with the clauses upon which 1028.
dinating.
—
—
they dfepend. Digitized
by Microsoft®
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
I02g-I035)
299
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (a) Copulative
1029. (ac),
1030.
when
The
neque
Conjunctions
copulative conjunctions are
(nee),
Et and -que simply connect, but -que
members naturally
the two
-que, atque
et,
neve (neu), etiam, and quoque.
hos video et de re publica sententiam rogo, I opinion about the state; Cat.
is
used regularly
belong together: see
—
them and ask
their
i, 9.
senatus populusque Romanus, the senate and the
Roman
people;
Plane. 90.
1031.
Et
is
sometimes used in the sense
of etiam, too, es-
pecially before pronouns: as, et ilia iure laudantur, those things too are justly praised;
1032. second.
When When
Tusc.
-que connects two words it is attached to the member is a phrase or clause, it is
the second
usually atta:ched to the preposition, especially
first
if it is
attached to the second: terunt,
3, 28.
and toward sunset
as,
word; but
if
the
first
word
monosyllabic, the enclitic
sub occasumque
they gave
up
is
may
a
be
solis sequi desti-
the pursuit; B. G.
2,
11, 6.
more than two members et may but the first, or may be omitted altogether; or., rarely, the last two only are connected, usually by -que attached to the last. The repetition of -que in a series of more 1033.
When
precede each, or
there are
all
than two members occurs only in poetry. 1034.
Two
adjectives qualifying the
same noun are regularly con-
nected.
1035. Atque (ac) is used when the second member is more important than the first. It is used also after words of likeness in the sense Idem, alius, simul, contra, etc., pr unlikeness,, comparatives, but, with very few after also etc.; than, as, of
—
—
exceptions, only
when
ffetf'fefetyiMenibi^^contains a negative:
—
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS
300
simul atque de Caesaris adventu cognitum
was
of Caesar
non
{1036-IO39 as soon as the arrival
est,
reported; B. G. 5, 3, 3.
dm secus ac sentiebam, / did not speak otherwise than I thought; De
Or.
24.
2,
baud minus ac Aen.
iussi faciunt, they
do no
less
than they were ordered;
3, 561.
For the use of atque or ac see 1038.
Neque
1036.
(neu)
(nee)
non 'wderunt nee ufi
is
usually equivalent to et non; neve
equivalent to et ne
is
:
—
sciunt, they did not see
suae pristinae virtutis
memoriam
animo, that they should keep
and should not
he disturbed in
and do not know; Tull. 24. neu perturbarentur
retinerent
memory
the
mind; B. G.
of their former valor 2, 21, 2.
Neque is sometimes used instead of neve as, suadebit tibi ut discedas neque verbum ullum respondeas, he will advise you to go away and answer :
not a word; CaecO. 52.
1037.
Nee
ullus
is
ordinarily used instead of et nullus, nee
umquam instead of et numquam, etc. But et and a negative may be used if the negative belongs to a single word: as, si te Tarentum to
et non Samarobrivam misissem, if I had Tarentum and not to Samarohriva; Fam. 7, 12, i.
sent
you
1038. Atque and neque are used before vowels or consonants; ae and nee are never used in prose before vowels and rarely before
e,
g,
and qu; the poets sometimes violate
this
principle.
1039. Etiam (as a conjunction) and quoque, too, connect a word with another word to be supplied from the context. Etiam usually precedes, quoque always follows the word to which it belongs:
—
etiamne hoc negabis? else);
PL Am.
will
patriae quis exsul se
10.
this also? (i.e. this
quoque fugit? what
and something
exile
from
his country has
himself and his country); Hor. C. Digitized by Microsoft®
escaped himself also?
16
you deny
760.
(i.e.
2,
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
IO40-IO44)
Disjunctive Conjunctions
(6)
The
1040.
sive (seu),
301
disjunctive conjunctions are aut, vel, -ve,
and
These denote
an.
difference or choice.
Aut connects alternatives which are as a rule essenand of which one excludes the other: as, hie vincendum aut moriendum est, here you must conquer or die; 1041.
tially different
Liv. 21, 43,
s.
1042. Vel (an old imperative of volo) implies a choice between alternatives which are not mutually exclusive, or merely between forms of expression :
orabant ut
—
modo Rhenum
auzilium ferret, vel exercitum
sibi
transportafet, they begged
army
only bring his
him
bring them help or {if he wished)
to
across the Rhine; B. G. 4, 16,
5.
post obitum vel pothis excessum Romuli, after the death or rather the departure of
Romulus; Rep.
2, 52.
Vel sometimes introduces an example and
may
be translated for inIn poetry and
stance; it is used before superlatives in the sense of even. late prose it is
used instead of aut.
Sive (seu) as a disjunctive conjunction denotes a non-
1043.
essential distinction or uncertainty
or writer
:
—
on the part
of the speaker
quid perturbatius hoc ab urbe discessu sive potius turpissima fuga?
what more this
like
a panic than
this departure
most disgraceful flight? Att.
urbem matri seu novercae
reliquit,
(jf the other story is true) to his
For
sive introducing
1044.
The
a grotasis
from
the city or rather
8, 3, 3.
he
left the city to
his mother or
stepmother; Liv. 1,3,3.
see 910.
enclitic -ve denotes
a non-essential distinction
usually connects words, phrases, or dependent clauses:
—
amici regis duotresve, two or three friends of the king; Att.
;
it
6, i, 3.
decretum ut consules sortirentur compararentve inter se, it was decreed that the consuls should draw lots or arrange between themselves; Liv. 24, 10,
For the use of an see
2.
zi^m.^ ^^ Microsofm
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS
302
Both copulative and disjunctive conjunctions may
1045.
be used as
.
.
-que
.
.
.
.
.
-que and -que
.
.
.
.
and the other negative,
ative
For the use
of
Many adverbs bial force: as,
cum
.
.
ac
.
neque, neither
.
neque
.
.
nunc,
.
.
or
is
neque
.
affirm.
.
et.
mode
.
.
.
modo, qua
.
.
.
qua.
Adversative Conjunctions
are autem, sed
These usually denote modification or
etc.
at,
.
turn see 901.
The adversative conjunctions
1046.
.
poetry and later prose,
when one member
;
.
stand before each more:
are used in this way, losing wholly or partly their adver-
nunc
(c)
tamen,
.
.
or; in
et
may
of a series of three or
and; neque .
.
they
is,
each member
aut, either
.
.
.
.
et, both
.
nor; aut
— that
correlatives,
alternative or before as, et
{1045-1050
contradiction. 1047.
Autem is the weakest, denoting contrast or merely it may usually be translated however, but sometimes,
transition;
when
there
moreover. first
is
no suggestion
Autem
is
may
of contrast, it
postpositive,
— that
is, it
(sometimes after the second) word of
be translated
stands after the
its clause.
Sed, verum, and ceterum,
hut, contradict or modify a sometimes used in a weaker sense, simply to introduce a new thought or to resume an old one. Vero, hut, in fact, is stronger except in the historians, where it is often equivalent to autem; vero is postpositive.
1048.
previous statement; sed
1049.
Tamen,
is
nevertheless,
yet,
introduces a statement in
opposition to a previous one which cessive or adversative;
it
may
stand
is
in
form or sense con-
first in its
clause or follow
an emphatic word. 1050.
At, hut (sometimes ast in poetry), introduces
an oppos-
ing argument or the imaginary objection of an opponent or a
sharp transition of
thsftil/gi^ iiylrotoid/lKJing
an apodosis
it
may
— COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
IO51-I054)
be translated
and
1051. tions are
if
remember; Aen.
the gods to Atqui,
genus humanum tenmltis, at speyou scorn the human race, at least expect
at least: as, si
memores,
rate deos
303
i,
542.
an emphatic form
yet, is
The following common:
of at.
correlative uses of adversative conjunc-
non solum (or non modo) .... sed etiam, not only non modo non .... sed ne quidem, not ordy not
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
hut also. .
but not
even.
But non modo (followed by ne quidem) is used non modo non if the two members have a verb in common Eind the verb stands in the second member: as, non modo praesidi quicquam sed ne nuntius quidem cladis Romam .
.
.
instead of
est missus, not only no guard, but not even a messenger of the disaster
was
sent to
Rome; (d)
The
1052. etc.
Liv.
5,
38, 9.
Logical Conjunctions
logical conjunctions are itaque,
These introduce a statement which
result of a preceding statement.
is
igitur, ergo,
the logical
Igitur is usually post-
positive. (e)
1053.
The
causal
Causal Conjunctions
conjunctions
are
nam,
These introduce the reason ing statement or an explanation of it. enim, etenim.
Enim
is
namque,
for a preced-
postpositive except in Plautus and Terence, where
almost always has its original meaning of indeed, may stand at the beginning of its clause.
it
really,
and
ASYNDETON 1054.
Asyndeton
junction between
is
the omission of a coordinating con-
members
that would naturally be connected.
This occurs especially in lively narrative and is more common when there are more ^)^^g^^^pi^/fjQ%^gf^rs than when there are
304
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS
only two; see 1033.
It occurs also in certain
{1054
common combi-
Optimus Maximus; and when the year is designated by the consuls' names (unless only the nomen or cognomen is given) as, M. Messalla M. Pisone consulibus, in the consulship of Marcus Messalla and Marcus Pisa; B. G. i, 2, i. nations: as, luppiter
:
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Subordinating conjunctions,
— cum,
ut,
quamquam, si,
are treated under the head of Subordinate Clauses.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
etc.,
—
.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 1066.
The arrangement
of
upon
greater or less degree
words in a clause depends to a
their relative importance.
It
is
based upon the principle that the elements of the thought are expressed in order of emphasis, the subject being normally the most emphatic. The position of the verb, which normally stands at the end, is an apparent exception to this principle, but in most clauses the verb serves only to make definite an idea which has been already anticipated from the meaning or
construction of the preceding words.
1066.
The normal
lated, is as follows: 1.
Subject.
2.
Words
—
order, so far as
one
may
be formu-
qualifying the subject (not necessarily im-
portant, but closely connected in sense with the subject,
and
really forming a part of
it)
4.
Direct Object (if there is one). Adverbs qualifying , the verb.
5.
Verb.
An
indirect object stands normally either before or after a
3.
direct object
(if
there
is
The
one).
position of other elements
example, ablatives of cause, means, etc., and prepositional phrases) is determined in part by the emphasis which the (for
writer wishes to give to them.
The
•
following details are noteworthy:
—
(i) Qualifying words normally follow the words 1067. which they qualify; these include descriptive and possessive adjectives, indefinite pronominal adjectives, ordinal numerals, appositives, and geni^j^ed by Microsoft® 3°S
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS
3o6
{1058-1063
But the following qualifying words normally precede the
— demonstrative adjectives
words which they qualify: ille
when
it
means
well-known),
the
(except
adjectives of quantity
(multus, totus, etc.), and cardinal numerals.
and interrogative words normally stamd first in their clauses also demonstrative words or phrases which serve to connect a clause with a preceding one: as, ad eas res (2) Relative
1058.
;
conficiendas
Org'etorix
deligitur,
Orgetorix is chosen; B. G.
to
accomplish
these
things
i, 3, 3.
1059. (3) When a noun is accompanied by a qualifying word, a case-form depending either upon the noun or upon the
word usually stands between them maiore iumentormn quam hominum pemicie,
qualifying
:
—
with greater loss oj
baggage-animals than men; Liv. 21, 35, i. subiectos Alpinis montibus campos, the fields lying at the foot of the
Alps; Liv. 21, 35,
1060.
(4)
8.
Vocatives usually stand after one or more words
in the sentence.
1061.
(5)
Most adverbs normally precede the words which
they quahfy. 1062.
(6)
A
monosyllabic preposition
tween an adjective and B. G.
I, 2, 3.
its
noun:
as,
is
often inserted be-
una ex
parte, on one side;
A preposition is often separated from its noun by a
qualifying word: as, Tolosates; B. G.
i,
a Tolosatium finibus, /row
10, i.
the territory of the
For postpositive prepositions see 1024.
1063. (7) A governing word is often inserted between a noun and its qualifying word: as, eodem usi ccmsiiib, following the same plan; B. G. i, 5, 4.
For postpositive conjunctions see 1047, 1052, 1053.
The normal order is liable to unlimited variation, by which all possible shades of emphasis may be expressed. EmpHasis is secure^j^^J^e^ollo^ng ways:
-
•
I064-1068)
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS
307
(i) By putting a word in a position in the clause than that in which it would normally stand, especially
1064. earlier
by giving
the
it
magna
first
place:
dis immortalibus
due
Romam
to the
—
habenda
immortal gods; Cat.
quae asportata sunt,
est i,
the things
great gratitude is
gratia, 11.
which were carried
(contrasted with those left at Syracuse); Verr.
1065.
By
(2)
to
Rome
4, 121.
putting before a noun a qualifying word
—
which would normally follow it: Romae ad primum nuntium cladis
eius ctun ingenti terrore ac
tumultu concuTsus in fonun populi est factus,
at
Rome (empha-
sized to denote change of scene) at the first news 0} this disaster,
in great alarm and confusion, a crowd of people gathered in the forum (primum and ingenti emphatic); Liv. 22, 7, 6. cur ego non ignoscam, si anteposuit suam salutem meae? why should I not forgive him if he put his (mm safety before mine? Pison. 79.
Emphasis may be given also by separating a qualifying word from the word which it qualifies: as, haec res unius est propria Caesaris, this thing belongs 1066.
By
(3)
to
Caesar alone; Marc.
putting together words of contrasted meaning
or similar origin: as,
quod victoribus
victi ultro inferrent
because the conquered actually brought war Liv. 21,
11.
upon
arma,
their conquerors;
I, 3.
By reversing the order of words in the second one pair is contrasted with another: as, finis et Gallls pair, when fuit Romams, the Gauls ceased to terrify pavendi et territandi and the Romans to fear; Liv. 21, 25, 13. This is called Chiasmus. The use of the same order in the second pair is called Anaphora: 1067.
as, to
(4)
princeps in proelium ibat, ultinxus ezcedebat, he was the
go into
1068.
battle, the last to
The
come out; Liv.
following facts
—
may
first
21, 4,-8.
be noted regarding subordi-
nate clauses: Relative clauses normally follow the clause containing the antecedent; for relative clau^s.prep|dj[gg.di^ntecedent see 696.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS
3o8
(1069
Clauses of result, substantive clauses, and indirect questions
normally follow the main clause. Temporal, adversative, conditional, and purpose clauses normally precede the main clause.
When clauses
the subject or object of the
is
the same, or
when the
main and subordinate
subject of one
is
the object
(either direct or indirect) of the other, it usually stands at the
beginning of the sentence:
—
hostes, ubi primtun nostros equites conspexerunt, nostros per-
turbaverunt, the enemy, as soon as they saw our cavalry, put our
men Caesari
to flight;
cum
this
was announced
city;
1069.
•
desire to
B. G.
4, 12, i.
id nuntiatum est, maturat
B. G.
i,
7,
to
proficisci,
when
from
the
i.
The arrangement of words was affected also by the produce a rhythmical succession of sounds and by the The
individual habit of the writer.
and that
position of the subject
verb at the end were fixed by The position of words in the middle of a clause was
at the beginning
custom.
ab urbe
Caesar, he hastened to set out
of the
not so definitely established; ablatives, prepositional phrases,
even forms of the verb sum (which do not stand habitually at the end) seem to be placed anywhere in the middle of the clause. These could be shifted without great change of emphasis, and their arrangement is probably often to be explained as a matter of
rhythm
or habit rather than emphasis.
In poetry the arrangement
is
affected also
by the
restrictions
meter and by the possibility of securing emphasis by placing a word at the beginning or end of a verse. of
Digitized
by Microsoft®
FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC 1070. Alliteration is the repetition of sounds; the term is used most frequently of a series of two or more words beginning with the same letter.
Anacoluthon is a change in the construction of a sentence which leaves the first part without proper grammatical connection
:
—
ceterae philosophSnim disciplinae
.
.
eas nihil adiuvare arbitror, the
.
other instructions of the philosophers
.
.
.
these
I think
give
no help;
Fin. 3, II.
Analogy
similarity in
is
many forms and
form or expression; to
Anaphora is the use of the same same place in successive clauses:
or a similar
—
ter si resuTgat
this are
murus aeneus,
word
ter pereat, ter uxor capta
if three times the wall of bronze should rise, three times
three times
due
constructions. in the
virum pidret, would it fall,
would the captive wife bewail her husband; Hor. C.
3, 3, 65.
(See 1067.)
Anastrophe Antithesis
the use of a preposition after
is
its case.
—
the juxtaposition of contrasted ideas: vincere scis, victoria uti nescis, you know how to conquer, you do know how to use your victory; Liv. 22, 51, 4. is
Aposiopesis effect
:
—
quos ego
is
an abrupt pause
in a sentence, for rhetorical
— sed mStos praestat compSnere
better to
not
calm the angry waves; Aen.
i,
fluctiis,
135.
(Cf.
whom I
— but
it is
Anacoluthon.)
Asjnadeton; see 1054.
Brachylogy
is
brevity or condensation of expression
:
—
ne cuius suoTum popularium mutatam secum fortunam esse vellent, that they might not wish to change lots with any of their countrymen (secum for cum fortuna sua); Liv. 21, 45, 6.
Chiasmus;
see lOBBlgltized by Microsoft® 309
— FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC
310
{1070
one or more words needed to com-
Ellipsis is the omission of
plete the sense: ad Carmentis (sc. aedem), (See 360 and 407.)
Enallage
the shrine of Carmentis; Liv. s, 47> 2.
at
the use of one part of speech for another, one
is
ber or gender for another, etc. populum late regem, a people :
Aen.
ruling widely
(regem
templa Vestae, is
the temple of Vesta (templa for
regnantem);
for
templum); Hot. C.
16.
i, 2,
the use of mild or agreeable language to soften
an unpleasant fact
—
:
quid mihi accidisset, if anything should happen
si
num-
21.
I,
Euphemism
—
to
me
(i.e.
if
I should
die); Phil. 1, 10.
Euphony
the choice or arrangement of words for agreeable
is
sound.
Hendiadys is the expression of a complex idea by the use of two nouns in the same case connected by a conjunction, instead of a single noun qualified by an adjective or a genitive:
—
quilem pateris libamus
et auro, such as
patens aureis); Georg.
H3^allage nova
in
me
2,
sing of forms changed into
corpora); Ov. Met.
H3rperbaton
offer
from golden bowls
—
is
new
bodies (for in
a violation of the natural order of words: all the
gods I pray you; Hor. C.
Hysteron Proteron et in
arms; Aen.
Litotes
ing
is
2,
:
—
is
Hor. C.
will be
by deny-
sordidos, leaders stained with no dishonor-
2, i, 21.
—
nOn ezistumas
'
the midst of
an implied comparison, expressed by the figura-
tive use of words: te
—
353.
a form of expression which affirms an idea
able dust;
—
i, 8, 1.
is a reversal of the logical order media arma ruamus, let us die and rush into
opposite: duces non indecoro pulvere
its
Metaphor
novas formSs
i, i
per omnis te deos aro, by
moriamur
(for
an interchange of grammatical relations: animus mutatas dicere formas corpora, my mind prompts
is fert to
we
192.
invidiae incendid conflagraturum 7 do you not think you
consumed^jL^^rg^l^g^^aX.
i,
29.
—
-
FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC
lOJo)
Metonymy to which
the use of a word suggested by another word
is
related in sense: as,
it is
31I
Mars
for bellum,
Ceres for
patiis.
Onomatopoeia is the use sound the thing signified:
—
of
words which suggest by their may
vipera nostris sibilet in tumults et super ossa cubet,
upon
Oxymoron cum
my
tomb and
lie
upon
my
bones; Prop.
the viper hiss
5, 7, 53.
the juxtaposition of contrasted words:
is
tacent, clamant, when
they
—
are silent, they cry out; Cat.
21.
i,
(C£. Antithesis.)
Personification
is
the treatment of inanimate things as per-
sons: age die Latinum, barbite, carmen, come play a Latin tune,
Hor. C.
Pleonasm
is
I,
32, 3.
the use of unnecessary words:
my
harp;
—
erant itinera duo quibus itineribus ezire possent, there were two roads by
which they could depart; B. G.
Simile
is
illustration
i, 6, i.
by comparison:
senatus consultum inclusum in tabulis
—
tamquam
in vagina reconditum,
a decree of the senate enclosed in our records, like a sword concealed in its scabbard; Cat. i, 4.
Synecdoche
is
the use of a part for the whole:
Gallica temperat 6ra, he guides the Gallic mouth
(i.e.
—
horse);
Hor. C.
i,
8,6.
—
Synesis is construction according to sense: magna pars occisi, a large part were killed; Sail. Jug.
58, 2.
(See 736.)
—
is the separation of the parts of a compound word: quam rem cumque, whatever thing; Hor. C. i, 6, 3. per mihi mirum visum est, it seemed very strange to me; De Or. i, 214.
Tmesis
Zeugma
is
the connection of two words with a verb which
strictly applies in sense to
only one of them:
—
n6n legates neque prima per artem temptamenta tui pepigi, / envoys nor made my first trial of you by cunning (from pepi^ with legttos); Aen.
8, 143.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
sent sc.
no
mi^
VERSIFICATION The
subject of Versification
not a part of Latin Grammar,
is
but, for the convenience of students,
it
has been thought best
to give a brief general treatment of the subject
common
technical terms in
1071.
Latin poetry
more
sisting of a
is
and
to define
use.
based upon quantity, each verse con-
or less definitely-established series of long
and short syllables. The quantity of syllables is in general the same in poetry as in prose. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants (one of which may be at the beginning of the following word) in the latter ;
case the syllable
is
said to be long by position.
if its
vowel
is
short
consonant.
The
short
and
is
followed
A
syllable
is
by not more than one
principles governing the quantity of vowels
and diphthongs are given under the head
of
Sounds, sections
12 to 20; those relating to the length of syllables in sections 23 to 26. 1072.
The
unit in versification
is
a short syllable, marked w;
the time occupied in pronouncing a short syllable
a mora.
A
long syllable
short syllables;
it
is
is
marked
—
.
stands in the place of a short one;
and
is
marked >.
prolonged to
fill
morae (marked 1073. is
a
morae.
A
On
is
called
regarded as the equivalent of two
A
long syllable sometimes
it is
then said to be irrational
the other hand, a long syllable
the time of three morae (marked l_
)
may
be
or four
I—I ).
verse is
a definite succession of feet; each foot containing a definite number of
gtoup of syllables
Digitized
by Microsoft® 312
VERSIFICATION
IO74-I077) 1074.
The
following feet are in
morae
Feet of three
more or
Dactyl,
Iambus, w
^^
w
—
Spondee,
morae
five
Feet of six
—w— Paeon, — www Cretic,
1075.
morae
ww
Ionic,
Choriambus,
two short
If
wwww
—ww—
w
Bacchius,
(for
—
— -^^
Proceleusmatic, Feet of
use:
morae
Anapaest,
www
Tribrach,
common
less
Feet of four
—w —
Trochee,
313
syllables stand in place of a long syllable
example, a tribrach for an iambus), the long syllable
is
A foot containing an irrational long syllable is itself called irrational. A dactyl standing in place of a trochee said to be resolved.
is
1076. if
and
called a cyclic dactyl
there
One is
—
is is
is
resolved,
is
of the
it is
two short
1077. or
syllables,
Elision.
The
it is
a long syllable having the
mark
At the end
word a vowel, a diphthong,
of a
or h.
our practice to omit
sto,
The Romans it
—
— do, dem,
In
(— w—) word is
rare
if
the
immediately preceded by a the necessity of elision is avoided these cases
would be elided
all
re,
In dactylic verse
cretic ) or the final syllable of an iambic (w Elision rarely elided before a short vowel.
vowel.
slurred the
altogether.
stem, sim, qui (plural).
is
syllable that
first
are regularly elided before another
following monosyllables are not elided:
rem, spe, spem,
a long syllable
the ictus on the though properly both have it.
word beginning with a vowel sound;
If
the custom to
m and a preceding vowel
final
— usually
called the thesis of the foot; the
rest of the foot is called the arsis.
ictus
— ww or —w w.
pronounced with greater stress than the called the ictus and is marked thus: -^ w w.
having the ictus
syllable
marked
syllable in each foot
one
others; this stress
The
is
is
by the arrangemenfo^/JiWbjSTO^dfeoft®
VERSIFICATION
314
Sometimes
Hiatus.
1078.
elision
{1078-1084
does not occur wliere
it
Hiatus occurs especially when the iirst word is an interjection, a proper name, or a Greek word. It occurs sometimes in the principal caesura of a verse and, in the dramatists, when there is a change of speakers. regularly would occur; this
When is
is
called
/r^'ato^.
a long vowel or a diphthong, instead of being elided,
treated as a short syllable, 1079.
The ending
Caesura.
There
called caesura.
one of these there
it is
is
may
called semi-hiatus.
a word within a foot
of
be a pause in the sense; this
likely to
called the principal caesura or the caesura of the verse.
sometimes impossible to say which
A
caesura 1080.
marked
is
Diaeresis.
is
be several caesuras in a verse; at
is
is
It is
the caesura of the verse.
l|.
word and a foot end together
If a
it is
called diaeresis.
1081.
There
Syllaba Anceps.
The
of a verse.
is
a slight pause at the end
last syllable (called syllaba anceps)
either long or short; a vowel or
m preceded by a vowel
may
is
be
usually
not elided before a vowel at the beginning of the next verse
An
Acatalectic Verse
one in which the last foot is one in which the last foot is incomplete; the time is usually made up by a pause marked if two morae are lacking. But in A if one mora is lacking; catalectic iambic verse it is assumed that the last arsis is omitted and the preceding thesis is prolonged, thus: v^ U._i.. 1082.
complete.
A
is
Catalectic Verse is
A
OCCASIONAL PECULIARITIES 1083.
Some kinds
of verse are
preceded by an introductory
two scheme
syllable or syllables (a short, a long, or
called an anacrusis
and
in a metrical
the rest of the verse thus, 1084.
Two
:
shorts). is
This
is
separated from
.
vowels (or a vowel and a diphthong) belonging
to different syllables ig/^^jyvgpwicS^B^imes coalesce to
form a
VERSIFICATION
1085-Iogo)
single syllable: as, aurea, Aen.
This
is
is
I,
A
short vowel
the foot and
as,
is
sometimes used as long:
308; amor, Aen. 12, 668; liminaque, Aen.
called diastole.
On
698; dehinc, Aen.
i,
6,
678.
called synizesis or synaeresis.
1086.
Aen.
315
is
It occurs
as, videt,
3, 91.
This
almost invariably in the thesis of
often merely a recurrence to an earlier quantity.
the other
hand a long vowel
dederunt, Hor. Epis.
i, 4,
7.
sometimes used as short: This is called systole.
is
This
shortening probably represents in most cases an actually existing pronunciation.
The poets sometimes allow themselves in proper
The vowels
1086.
variations of quantity
names. i
and u
are sometimes treated as conso-
vowel is short, is long by genua laMnt, Aen. 5, 432. 5, 663; On the other hand consonantal i and u are sometimes treated
nants; the preceding syllable,
if its
position: as, abiete, Aen.
as vowels: as, Gaiiis, CatuU. 10, 30; siltiae, Hor. C.
A
Syncope.
1087.
sometimes dropped; sents the
Aen.
I,
common
i,
23, 4.
short vowel between two consonants
is
and probably reprerepostum for repositum,
this is called syncope
pronunciation:
as,
26; periclo for periculo, Hor. C. 3, 20,
i.
1088. In early Latin final s was indistinctly pronounced and does not count in making a syllable long by position. This peculiarity occurs as late as Catullus.
In early Latin the
first syllable of ille, illic
quippe, inde, unde, nempe, and oninis
is
(pronoun), immo,
sometimes treated as
short.
1089.
Iambic Shortening.
A
long syllable preceded
short monosyllable (the monosyllable elision), or a short initial syllable,
or followed
1090.
by
may
by a
be the result of
and immediately preceded
the ictus, is often treated as short.
Synapheia.
One
verse
is
another by the elision^oE^^a^^v^w^lj^w
sometimes combined with
^ and a preceding vowel,
— VERSIFICATION
3i6 at the
end
{logi-iogs
vowel at the beginning of said to be hypermetrical and the
of the first verse before a
The
the second.
combination
is
first
verse
is
called synapheia.
METER used of the definite system by which a verse or a strophe (a stanza, a group of verses) is measured. 1091.
The word
1092.
Trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verses are usually
named according
meter
to the
is
number
of pairs of feet (dipodies)
they
(two dipodies), trimeter (three), tetrameter (four). But they are sometimes named according to the numquaternarius, senarius, octonarius; the tetrameter ber of feet, contain:
dimeter
catalectic
is
regularly called the septenarius.
Other verses are named according to the number of tetrameter (four feet), pentameter (five), hexthey contain: feet 1093.
ameter (six). 1094.
Trochaic verses containing cyclic dactyls are called
logaoedic verses.
Of the various kinds
of
meter
it will
be
sufiicient to describe
those two which the student finds in his early reading of Vergil
and Ovid,
1096.
The
— the
Dactylic Hexameter and Pentameter.
The Dactylic Hexameter The scheme of the dactylic hexameter
fifth foot is
the verse
is
almost always a dactyl; when
called a spondaic verse.
end with a word
is
as follows:
it is
—
a spondee,
Spondaic verses usually
of four syllables.
The last syllable (the syllaba anceps) may be either long or short. The principal caesura occurs most often after the thesis of the third foot; less often after the thesis of the fourth, in which case there
second.
is
usually another caesura after the thesis of the
Sometimes the principal caesura
•short syllables, in
^^^^mcf4y\^^rM^
is
foot.
between the two
VERSIFICATION
1096-Iogg)
A
1096.
caesura
3 17
immediately after the thesis
is
called
masculine; one between the two short syllables of the arsis
is
called feminine.
A diaeresis after the fourth foot is called
In the second half of the dactylic hexameter, especially
1097.
in the fifth to coincide. if it is, it is
and sixth feet, word-accent and ictus are very likely The last word in the verse is rarely a monosyllable; usually preceded by a monosyllable.
The 1098.
the bucolic diaeresis.
Dactylic Pentameter
The ancient grammarians divided this verse into and called it pentameter. It is now treated as a hexlacking the arsis of the third and sixth feet. The thesis
five feet
ameter,
of the third foot is
prolonged to compensate for the missing
The pentameter
arsis.
is
rarely used except in combination
with the hexameter, with which Distich (couplet). follows :
—
it
The scheme
forms the Elegiac Stanza or
of the Elegiac Distich is as
1 I
I
-
\i^^^
Spondees are used only in the first half of the pentameter. third foot is always a long syllable, and this syllable always ends a word. The last syllable of the verse, as in the hexameter, may be either long or short. In Ovid, the last word of the pentameter is usually one of two syllables. The sense is usually complete at the end of each
The
stanza.
There are verse:
THE ORAL READING OF VERSE two opinions as to the Roman method
of reading
^-
I. That the word-accent disappeared when the ictus on a different syllable. This is the method in general use. 2. That the word-accent was always heard, and that,
1099. fell
when the also
ictus did not coincide with the word-accent, the ictus
was heard but
^^^^l^mmfh
AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS CITED In citations from Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil the author
The
omitted.
is
Cicero:
Caesar: B.
C, Bellum
B. G., Bellum Gallicum
Catullus
CatuU.,
Manil.,
-pro
Lege
actio
Ma-
nilia
Acad., Academica
Marc, pro Marcello
Ad
Mil., pro
Heren-
Agr., ie Lege Agraria
N.
Aiticum
ris Oratoribus
Caecil.,
Dimnatio
Caecilium
Cat. M., Cato
Paradoxa
Pison., in
Pisonem
Plane, pro Plancio
Cat., in Catilinam
Maior
{de Senectute)
Clu., pro Cluentio
Deiot., pro Deiotaro Or., de Oratore
Q.
tica
C, Carmina{Odes) Epod., Epodoi
Phil., Pkilippicae
in
Cael., pro Caelio
De
A. P., de Arte Poe-
Epis., Epistulae
Or., Orator
Fr.,
ad Quintum
Fratrem
S.,
Juv.,
Sermones (Satires)
Juvenal
LivY Lucretius Nep., Nepos: Liv.,
Lucr.,
Ages., Agesilaus
Ale, Alcibiades
Quinct., pro Quinctio
Att., Atticus
Rabir., pro Rabirio
Dat., Datames
Rab.
Epam., Epaminondas Eum., Eumenes
Post., pro Rabi-
rio
Rep., de
Postumo
Re Publica
Hamil., Hamilcar
Div., de Divinatione
Rose. Am., pro Roscio
Hann., Hannibal
Fam., ad Familiares
Milt., Miltiades
Fin., de Finibus
Amerino Rose. Com., pro Roscio Comoedo
Flacc, pro Flacco
Sest.,
Font., pro Fonleio
SulL, pro Sulla
In v.,
Tull., pro Tullio
Fast., Fasti
Tuse., Tusculanae Dis-
H., Heroides
Fat., de Fato
de
Inventione
Rhetorica 'La.el.jLSelius citia)
(deAmi-
actio
II Hor., Horace:
de Officiis
Par.,
Caec, pro Caecina
Natura
I Verrem
Deorum Off.,
Brut., Brutus, de Cla-
de
D.,
Arch., pro Archia Att., ad
Milone
Verr., in
Mur., pro Murena
nium
—
Verr. a pr., in Verrem
Lig., pro Ligario
Cicero: Her., ad
of the
Cicero:
Leg^., de Legibus
Civile
name
following abbreviations are used:
pro Sestio
putationes Djgitized bu- Micmsoft® Vat., tn Vatinium
318
Paus., Pausanias Them., Themistocles Timol., Timoleon^ Ov., Ovid:
Met., Metamorphoses Trist., Tristia
LIST OF PL, Plautus:
Am., Amphilruo Asin., Asinaria
Bac, Bacchides Capt., Captivi Cas., Casina Cist., Cistellaria
WORKS CITED
P1.,Plautus: Stich., Stichtis
Trin., Plin.,
Trinummus
Pliny, junior:
Ep., Epistulae Plin.,
H. N., Historia Naturalis
Epid., Epidicus
Prop., Propertius
Merc, Mercator
Sail.,
Most., Mostellaria Pers.,
Persa
Ter.,
Terence: Addphi
Ad.,
And., Andria Eun., Eunuchus
Heaut. Heauton Timo,
roumenos
Pliny, senior:
Cure, Ctiradio
Mil., Miles Gloriosus
319
Sallust
Cat., Catilina Jug., lugurtha
Tac, Tacit US:
Poen., Poenulus
Agr., Agricola
Ps;, Pssudolus
Ann., Annates
Rud., Riidens
H., Historiae
Digitized
by Microsoft®
Hec, Hecyra Ph.,
Phormio
TibulL, TiBULLUS
Val.jVALERIUS MAXIMUS
Vergil: Aen., Aeneis Eel., Eclogae
Georg., Georgica
Digitized
by Microsoft®
INDEX The references are to sections. The following abbreviations may be noted adv. = adverb or adverbial; app. - appositive or apposition; charac. = characteristic; cl. = clause; compar. = comparison; conjug.- conjugation; constr. = construction; cpd. = :
compound;
decl.
subjunctive; vb. &, ab,
= declension; loc. = locative; pass. = passive; subj. = subject; subjv. = = verb; w. = with. Other abbreviations will be readily understood.
abs, 1021; w. abl., 528; place
whence, 530, 53 1; agent, 535; cause,
Time, 605.
546.
adv. ending, 197, 199. abhinc, w. abl. of measure of difference, 583; w. ace. of extent, 584.
-a,
Ablative, for forms see Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns; loss of -d, Syn45; nouns used only in, 138. tax: in app. w. loc, 386, 612; pred. noun, 394; w. fids and cpds., 458; w. a or ab denoting extent, 520;
Separative, Instrumental, and Locative uses, 527; Separation, w. w. adjs., 529; Place vbs., 528; Whence, S3°. S3^'< Source, S32-534; source instead of place where, 533;
Accordance, 5341 Agent, S3S-538; agent w. intrans. vb., 538; Material, 539. 54°; Comparison, S4i-54S; Cause, 546-549; w. causa and gratia, 547; w. prae, 549; Accompaniment, 550-553; Manner, 554; Attendant Circumstance, 556; Quality, 557; Ablative Absolute, 558-569; subj. of abl. abs. omitted, 566; cl. as subj., 567; 568; 572; 574; 576; 579;
597; Time, 599-602; w. prep., 600; denoting time after, 601; Extent of
Ablaut, 44. absens, 319. absque, 1021. Abstract nouns, forms, 75, 76; in plu., 135-
absum,
constr., 479, 519. -abus, for -is, first decl., 93. ac, see atque. Acatalectic, 1082. Accent, 27-29; in verse, 1076, 1079.
Accompaniment, Accordance,
abl.,
550-553.
abl., 534.
AccasATivE, for forms see Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. Syntax:
Means, 570-576; w. utor, etc., w. opus est and usus est, 573,
app. w. cl., 385, 500; pred. vbs. meaning make, w. choose, etc., 392; instead of dat. of ind. obj., 457; w. cpd. vbs., 465-467; Direct Object, 493; w. verbal nouns, 494; w. vbs. usually intrans., 495497; w. adjs. in -bundus, 498; w. pass, of vbs. meaning to put on, 499; Exclamation, 501; w. ecce, etc., 501; Kindred Meaning, 502-505; w. vbs. of taste or smell, 503; Two Accusatives, 506-512; w. vbs. meaning in-
w. contineor, contentus, fretus,
quire,
Price, 577-580; w. mutS, etc.,
w. other vbs., 510; w. vbs. compounded w. circum or trans, 511, 512; Limit of Motion, 513-517; names of towns, etc., 514-516; Extent, 518-522, 585; in expressions of time, 521; Specification, 523-525;
participle alone as abl. abs.,
Penalty,
580;
Road,
in
noun
demand,
teach, conceal, 507,
509;
581;
Measure
of Difference, 582-585; w. ante, abhinc, and post, 583; Speci-
w. dignus, etc., 587; Place Where, 588-598; w. vbs. of motion, 590, 591; instead of loc, Subj. of Inf., 526. 593, 612, 613; prep. or^^gg^^M/,cte2«?fevbs. meaning, constr., 43I.432fication, 586, 587;
321
INDEX
322
acer, decl., i88, 189; compar., 164. Acquit, vbs. meaning, constr., 431, 432. ac si, w. subjv., 928. ad, denoting cause, 548; place where, 595 ; time when, 602; postpositive,
1024. adeo, conjug. in pass., 334. Adjectives, formation, 150-161; cornpar., 162-170; decl., 171; first
and
aedes, 142.
Aeneas, decl., 94. Agent, dat., 480-482; abl., S3S-S38; abl. w. gerundive, 481.
Agnomen,
146.
Agreement, of subj.,
adjs.,
629-634; of vb. w.
735-742.
ai6, 341; ain, 341. -aius, names in, 102.
second decl., 172-177; third decl., 178-189; of two decls., 190; inde-
alienus, for gen. of alius, 404; w. abl.,
191; possessive, 192, 193; neut. ace. sing, as adv., 200; fem. ace. as adv., 201; derived from numerals, 227; interrogative, 233; pro-
aliquis (adj. allqui), forms, 238; ing, 683.
nominal, 236. Syntax: dat. w., 487489; dat. or prep, and ace. w., 488; classification, 615; participial, 616,
Alliteration, 1070.
clinable,
possessive, .618-624; attribupred., 625-628; proleptic, 628; agreement, 629-634; plu. adj. with collective noun, 630; quahfying two or more nouns, 631; qualifying nouns of di£ferent genders, 632; qualifying persons and things, 633; neut. adj. w. nouns denoting things, 634; adjs. and participles as substantives, 635-640; qualified by adjs., 640; adjs. instead of adverbs, 641 comparatives and superlatives, 642-646; compar. of two qualities, 645; with rel. pronoun instead of quaUfying antecedent, 699; adjs. as preps., 1025. admoneo, constr., 442. Adverbs, derivation, 194-206; classification, 207-213; of place, 208-210; of time, 211; of manner, degree, or cause, 212; negative, 213; compar., Syntax: 214, 215; numerals, 228. dat. w., 491; constr. w. comparative,
617;
and
tive
;
545; general use, 647; qualifying nouns, 648; as pred. adj., 649; adv. of place for pronoun w. prep., 650; use of certain adverbs, 651-656; negatives, 657-660; double negative, 660; as preps., 1025; as correlatives, 1045.
Adverbial prefixes, 260. Adversative clauses, relative, 807; w. quamquam, 894-896; w. etsi, tametsi, and etiam si, 896, 897; w.
cum.9oo;Vut.903.
529,
alius, decl., 176, 177; use,
mean-
729-732; w.
abl., 543.
Alphabet,
i, 2.
alter, 176, 177; gen. sing, for gen. sing, of alius, 177; use, 729-731; w. abl., .;43-
Alternative questions, 372-379. alteruter, decl., 177.
ambio, conjug., 334.
ambo,
decl., 223.
amplius, constr., 542. an, in single questions, 368; in alternative questions, 372-379; in ind. quest., 854.
Anacoluthon, 1070. Anacrusis, 1083. Analogy, 1070. Anapaest, 1074. Anaphora, 1067, 1070. Anastrophe, 1070. Anchises, decl., 94. animi, in mind, 430. an non, 373, 853. Answers, 370, 371. ante, w. abl. of measure of difference, 583; w. ace, 584. Antecedent, 693; repeated in rel. cl., 695; in rel. cl. instead of main cl., 696; in main cl., but attracted into case of rel. pronoun, 697; appos. of antecedent in rel. cl., 698; antecedent omitted, 701. Antepenult, 22. antequam, 862-867. Antithesis, 1070.
Apex, 4. Apocope, 41. Apodosis, defined, 907; as subordinate ^^® Conditional sentences.
o/g/feed/,y Micr^'dM'^'
,
INDEX Aposiopesis, 1070. Appositional genitive, 411. Appositives, defined, 380; agreement, 381; denoting time, cause, etc., 382; position, 383; partitive app., 384; ace. in app. w. cl., 385; app., w. loc. or w. nouns denoting place to which or from which, 386, 612; inf. or cl. as app., 387; agreement of vb. w. app., 388. aptus, w. cl. of charac, 798; w. inf.,
323
Case-endings, defined, 87.
causa, w. gen. or adj., 409, 547, 1007. Causal clauses, relative, 807, 808; w. quod, quia, and quoniam, 886-890; w. quando, 891; w. cum, 892, 893; in the form of ind. disc, 887. Cause, abl., 546, 547; prep. w. ace, 548; prae w. abl., 549; abl. abs., 560, 565.
cave5, constr., 829-832; cave in neg.
799-
Arrangement of words, 1055-1069; normal order, 1056-1063, 1068; variations, 1064-1067, 1069.
commands, 934. -ce, attached to
cede, 345.
-ascd, inceptive suffix, 257. Aspirates, 21. Assimilation, 49.
celer, decl., 189.
cenatus, 307. certe, 652. certs, 652.
Asyndeton, 1054. at,
1050.
cSteri, 733.
c§teTum, 1048. ceu, w. subjv., 928.
(ac), 1035, 1038.
atqui, 1050.
Attendant circumstance,
abl.,
556; abl.
abs., 564.
Attraction, subjv., 905. Attributive adjs., 626. audeo, 274. ausim, 326. aut, 1041. autem, 1047. Auxiliary verb, sum, 286, 318. avere, 345.
Characteristic clauses, 798-806; w. quam, 800; w. quin, 802; w. qui, quidem or qui modo, expressing restriction, 803; w. indie, 804, 806; w. est cum or est quod, 805.
Charge, gen., 431-433Chiasmus, 1067.
Choriambus, 1074. circum, vbs.
S",
Bacchius, 1074.
balneum,
demon, pron., 240,
244.
Arsis, 1076.
atque
See De-
clension. Catalectic, 1082.
decl., 140.
bene, compar., 214; quantity of -e, 195. benevolus, compar., 166. bonus, compar., 167; decl., 172. 1
compounded with, constr.,
S12.
circumdO, constr., 466. citerior, compar., 170. clam, as prep., 1025, 1026. Clause, principal and subordinate, 353; as app., 387; as pred. noun, 395-
bSs, decl., 122. Brachylogy, 1070.
Close vowels, 7. Closed syllables, 22.
Bucolic diaeresis, 1096. -bundus, adjs. in, 153; w. ace, 498.
coep'i,
'
344.
Cognate accusative,
see Accusative of
kindred meaning.
C, original use, 5. Caesura, 1079; masc. and fem., 1096. Calendar, 603, 604. Calends, 604. Cardinal numerals, 216-219; w. prep,
and
abl., 418.
Cases, defined, 65-67; formation, 87. See Declension, Nominative, Genitive, etc. '
„. .,. Digitized
,
by
Cognomen, 146. cognosco, meaning
of perf., etc., 761. Collective nouns, w. plu. adj., 630; w. plu. vb., 736. comedd, 338. Commands, subjv., 768-770; in ind. disc, 977. See Imperative mood,
commonefacid,
,BmWm''^'
constr., 442.
constr., 442.
INDEX
324
Comparative degree, meaning, 642;
consto, constr., 598.
comparatives, 185, 186; comparatives w. charac. cl., 800; w. ut-cl., 801. Comparison, adjs., 162-170; adv., 214, 215; abl., 541-545; of two qualities,
consuevi, meaning, 761. consuls, w. dat. or ace, 474. contentus, constr., 576. contineor, constr., 576. Contrary-to-fact conditions, 919-925; in ind. disc, 981, 982. Coordinating conjunctions-, 1029-1053.
decl.
of
645-
,
Complementary
infinitive, 951-953; w. subj. ace, 952; w. vbs. of will or purpose, 826. Compound nouns, 82-86; vbs., 260, 261; constr. w. cpd. vbs., 464-467. Conative present, 746. Conceal,' vbs. meaning, constr., 507-
force, 897.
Conditional particles, 908-910. Conditional sentences, 907-927; of Fact, 911-914; denoting a repeated act or a general truth, 912; of Possibility, 915-918; fut. condition from past point of view, 918; Contrary to Fact, 919-925; indie, in cont.-to-fact cond., 921-923; pres. and perf. subjv., 925; conditional relative sentences, 927; conditional clauses of comparison, 928. confide, constr., 458. Conjugation, defined, 54, 265; characteristics of first conjug., 266; second, 267; third, 268; fourth, 269; irregular vbs., 271; model of first
(amo), 320, 321; second 322; third (rego), 323; vbs. in -io (capio), 324; fourth (audio), 325; deponent, 326; periphrastic, 327; irregular, 328-340; defective, 341-345; impersonal, 346. conjug.
(moneo),
Conjunctions, origin, 349; coordinating and subordinating, 1028; copu1029-1039; disjunctive, 10401045; adversative, 1046-1051; logi105 2 ; causal, 1053 ; omitted, 1054. C5nsisto, constr., 598. lative, cal,
Consonants,
classified, 9; pronunciachanges of single consonants, 41;-47; changes in groups. 48-51; assimilation, 49; l^s|.^°^^
tion, 21;
Copula, 359. cordi, 484.
Correlatives, 1045, 1051. Cretic, 1074. cuius, poss. adj., 624.
cum, quom
509-
Concessive clauses, w. quamvis and licet, 898; w. ut, go2. Condemn, vbs. meaning, w. gen., 431. Condition, expressed' by abl. abs., 562. Conditional clauses, w. adversative
.
copia, 142.
form, 39; w. sub824; w. temporal cl., 856-861; indie, or subjv., 856, 857; introd. main idea or statement of fact, 858-860; w. subjv. in early Latin, 861; w. causal cl., 887, 892, 893; w. adversative cl., 900; correlated w. turn, 901 cum primum, 870. stantive
(conj.),
cl.,
;
cum
w. abl. of accompaniment, 550-552; w. abl. of manner, 554; w. abl. of attendant circumstance, 556; w. abl. denoting time, (prep.),
602; postpositive, 1024. cupio, w. gen., 445; w. subjv., 835; w. inf., 837, 951, 952. euro, w. perf. pass, part., 996. CycUc dactyl, 1075. d, loss of final, 45.
Dactyl, 1074. Dactylic hexameter, 1095-1097; pentameter, 1098. Dates, 603, 604.
Dative, for forms see Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. Syntax: pied. noun w. impers. vb. and inf., 391; w. nomen esse, 393; Indirect Object, w. trans, vbs., 450-454; w. vbs. of motion, 451; w. intrans. vbs., 455463; w. vbs. of mental attitude or action, 456-459; w. phrases or nouns of similar meaning, 460, 461; w. impers. vbs., 462 w. vbs. of union, contention or difference, 463; w. cpd. vbs., 464-467; w. other vbs. of similar meaning, 468; w. obvius and obviam, 469;^ Reference, 470-476; w. vbs. qualified by bene, male, or satis, °°™=' 475! w. interjections.
^^ Micr^lM'
;
INDEX
32s
476; Separation, 477; Ethical, 478; Possession, 479; Agent, 480-482; Purpose or Tendency, 483-486; w. frugl and cordi, 484; w. nouns, 485; w. adjs., 487-489; w. adverbs, 491. d§, w. abl. of material, 539, 540; w. abl. of cause, 546; postpositive, 1024. Declension, defined, 54; formation of cases, 87; general rules, 88; stemendings, 89; First Declension, 9094; Second, 95-105; Third, consonant stems, 106-112; i-stems, 113-119; mixed i-stems, 120, 121; irregular nouns, 122, 123; Fourth, 127-130; Fifth, 131-134; defective, 135-138. See Adjectives and Pronouns. Defective, nouns, 135-138; vbs., 341-
dignus, w. gen., 425; w. abl. 587; w. charac. cl., 798; w. inf. or ut-cl., 799; w. supine, 1018. Dimeter, 1092. Diminutives, nouns, 78, 79; adjs., 159;
34S; Definition, gen. of, 411. Deliberative questions, pres. indie, 750; fut. indie, 757; subjv., 771, 772; in subord. cl., 906; in ind. disc,
diu, compar., 215. do, conjug., 339; cpds., 340; w. perf. pass, part., 996. domus, decl., 130; domum, limit of
.
vbs., 258.
Diphthongs, 8; pronunciation, 20; weakening, 40. Dipody, 1092. Direct object, 493-500; w. vbs. usually intrans., 454.
Direct reflexive, 667. dispar, w. gen., 410. dissimilis, compar., 165; w. gen., 410. distS, constr., 519.
Distributive numerals, 216-219; "sed for cardinals, 218; distrib. pronouns and adjs., 690-692.
motion, 514, 515; domo, place whence, 530, 531; domi, w. quaU-
976.
Demand, vbs. meaning,
constr.,
507-
509-
Demonstrative pronouns, 239-248; meaning and use, 711-728; neut. referring to cl., 722; agreeing w. pred. noun, 728; redundant in rel. cl., 700. Denominative verbs, 253. Dentals, 9. Deponent verbs, 273; meaning of perf. part., 3P7; prin. parts, 317; conjug.,
326.
Derivative verbs, 253-259. Descriptive compounds, 86. Desiderative verbs, 259.
^
dgsum, constr., 479. deterior, compar., 170. Determinatives, 86.
cl., 833, 834. dubito, constr., 833, 834. duco, imperat., 314.
duim,
etc., 339.
dum, w. temporal
cl.,
meaning
-e, abl., third decl., see
-i.
adv. ending, 195. ecce, w. ace, 501. ecquis, ecquando, 369. eccum, etc., 501. edo, conjug., 338. ego, decl., 229. -eius, names in, 102. eiusniodi, w. charac. cl., 798. Elegiac distich, 1098. Elision, 1077. Ellipsis, 1070. ellum, etc., 501. -e,
DiSspiter, 122.
compar., 165.
diffidS, constr., 458.
dignor, w. abl., 587. Digitized
while,
w. indie, 876, 878; w. subjv., 879; denoting cause, 880; meaning until, 881, 882; w. cl. of proviso, 929. duo, decl., 223.
e, see ex.
deus, decl., 104. dexter, compar., 164. Diaeresis, 1080; bucolic, 1096. Diastole, 1085. dico, imperat., 314. Dido, decl., 125. dies, decl., 131. difScilis,
fying gen., 613. donee, w. temporal cl., meaning while, 877; meaning until, 883. dono, constr., 453. Doubt, vbs. meaning, w. substantive
by Microsoft®
INDEX
326 em, w. ace, 501. en, w. ace, 501. Enallage, 1070. Enclitics, list, 30; accent, 31. enim, 1053. eo, conjug., 333; cpds., 334; passive, 334. Epicenes, 62. Epistolary tenses, 766. epulor, w. abl., 572.
quantity of i, 14; conjug., 336; cpds., 337; w. abl., 540. First conjugation, 320, 321. First declension, 90-94. fiS,
Foot, 1073, 1074.
use of
fore ut, 946; fore w. perf. pass, part., 947Forget, vbs. meaning, constr., 438-440. Formation of words, 52, 53; nouns,
compar., 164. ergo, w. gen., 409. -es, or -is, ace. plu., nouns, 115, 118; adjs., 184, 186. -er, adj's. in,
-esco, inceptive suffix, 257. -esso, intensive suffix, 256. et, 1030, 1033; for etiam, 1031.
Frequentative, see Iterative.
etc., 899.
Euphemism, 1070. Euphony, 1070.
fungor, constr., 572. Indicative: form, 279; use, Imperative: form, 264; 754-757.
Future,
compar., 165. facio, accent of cpds., 29; imperat., 314; pass, of cpds., 337. fames, decl., 134. facilis,
familias, 93.
931-933.
Infinitives:
form,
Participles: forrn, act., 305, pass., 308; use, 990; see
300;
Exclamations, nom., 399; gen., 447; ace, 501; infin., 961. Exhortation, subjv., 768, 769. Extent, ace, 518-522. exterus, compar., 170. extremus, denoting a part, 417, 646.
use,
945.
Gerundive and Gerund.
Future perfect,
Indicative, form,
288, 289; use, 764.
Future time,
how
expressed in subjv.,
794-
futurum esse
ut, 946.
G, origin of letter, 5. gaudeo, 274. Gender, 56; general rules, 57-63; first decl., 92; second decl., 99; third decl., 126; fourth decl., 128; fifth decl., 132; variable, 141.
fari, conjug.,
343. fas, w. supine, 1017.
w. gen., 445. faxo, faxim, etc., 289. Fear, expressions of, constr., 838-840. fastidit,
femur, no. fero, conjug., 331; cpds., 332; imperat.,
314-
and
fretus, w. abl., 576. frugi, compar., 168; constr., 484. fruor, constr., 572.
use,
ex, use, 102 1 ; w. separative abl. constructions, 418, 528-534, 539, 546.
-flcus, adjs., in,
68-86; adjs., 150-161; adverbs, 194206; vbs., 249-261. forsitan, w. subjv., 851. Fourth conjugation, 325. Fourth declension, 127-130. Fractions, 220.
Ethical dative, 478. etiam, 1039; in answers, 370. etiam si, adversative, 897. etsi, w. independent sentence, 896; w. adversative cl., 897; w. participles,
fido
fore, forem, etc., 319.
compar., 166.
cpds., conjug., 274; w. dat. or
abl., 456, 458, 598. Fifth declension, 131-134.
forms^93. Final clauses, see Purpose. „.
filia,
...
Digitized
Genitive, for forms see Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. Syntax: 400; Possessive, 401-410; governing
noun omitted,
405, 407; possessor
for thing possessed, 406; poss. gen. in pred., 408; w. causa, gratia, etc.,
409; Subjective, 402; Definition, 411; of the Whole, 412-419; w. positive of adj., 413; in pred., 415; w. uterque, 416; adj. instead of gen. of the whole, 417; Material, 420; Quality, 421-424; w. proper names, 422; Measure, 423; Indefinite Value, Objective, 425-427; adj. or
by MicrSih^^^''
INDEX prep, phrase instead of obj. gen., 427; Specification, 428-430; Charge or Penalty, 431-433; w. refert and interest, 434, 435; w. vbs. of Plenty or Want, 436, 437; w. vbs. of Remembering, Forgetting, or Reminding, 438-442; w. vbs. of Mental Sensation, 443-445; w. potior, 446;
Exclamation, 447.
1007; gen. of quality expressing purpose, 1008; agreeing w. nostri, etc., 1009; w. obj. gen., loio; Dative, ion, 1012; dat. of purpose, 486; Accusative, 1013; Ablative, 1014; agent cOnstr. w. gerundive, 480, 481. gratia,
perfect, 760.
gracilis,
compar., 165.
vowel and
consonant,
6;
vowel
as consonant, 1086; consonant as vowel, 1086. i-stems, 113-119. -i or -e, abl. sing, third decl., nouns, treated
117; adjs., 179, 181, 186. adv. ending, 203. iaciS, cpds., quantity of first syllable, -1,
26.
Gerundive and Gerund, 1003, 1004; Genitive, 1006-1010; w. causa or
Gnomic
I,
327
gratia, constr., 409, 547. Greek nouns, first deal., 94; second, 105; third, 125.
Gutturals, 760.
iam, meaning, 653; w. pres. indie, or imperat., 749.
Iambic shortening, 43 1089. Iambus, 1074. ;
Ictus, 1076.
idem,
decl., 248; use, 725, 726;
w. dat.,
489; expressions meaning the same as, 727; idem qui in ind. disc, 972. idoneus, w. dat. or prep, and ace, 488; w. charac. cl., 798; w. inf., 799. Idus, 604. -ier for
-i,
pres. pass, inf., 299.
igitur, 1052. ille.decl., 239; use,
713-715, 720; posi-
tion, 1057. illic,
quantity of vowel before, 14. habeo, fut. imperat. for pres., 933; w. h,
perf. pass, part., 995.
baud, 658. Hendiadys, 1070. Heteroclites, 139, 140.
Heterogeneous nouns, 141 see Hetero;
decl., 244.
vbs. in, 258. -im, ace. in, third decl., 116. Imparisyllabic nouns, 1 20. -illo,
impedio, constr., 829-832. Imperative mood, forms, 264; use, 931-937; negative commands, 934937; represented by subjv. in ind. disc, 977.
clites.
Hexameter, 1093; dactylic, 1095-1097. Hiatus, 42, 1078. hie, decl., 239; use, 712, 715, 720. Hidden quantity, 12, 13, 15, 16. Hindrance, vbs. meaning, w. subst. cl., 829-832. Historical infinitive, 963; w. post-
quam, 873. Historical perfect, 309. Historical present, 748. Historical tenses, 309. hoc, quantity of 0, 241.
Imferseci, Indicative: forms, 278;
junctive.
Impersonal verbs, 346; w. ace. and gen., 444; pass. w. dat., 459; w. subst. cl., 828, 843-845; w. inf., 948; w. perf. inf., 944. Implied indirect discourse, 983; causal cl.,
Hortatory Subjunctive, 768-770. humi, 98; humo, place whence, 530. humilis, compar., 165. Hypallage, 1070.
Hyperbaton, 1070. Hypermetric, 1090. H5T)otaxis, 795. Hysteron proteron, 1070.
886, 888.
imus, lowest part of, 417, 646. in,~io23; w. ace, 513-517; w. abl. of cause, 546; w. abl. of specification, 586; w. abl. of place where, 588S98; w. abl. of time, 600. Inceptive verbs, 257. Indefinite pronouns, list, 237, 238; use, 682-689. Indefinite second person, 779. Indefinite value, gen., 424.
Digitized
use,
751-753. Subjunctive: form, 292; for use see the various uses of the sub-
by Microsoft®
.
INDEX
328
Indicative mood, general use, 743, 744; Present: 745-750; conative, 746; for future, 747; historical, 748; in deliberative questions, 750. Imperfect: Future: 754-7571 in de751-753liberative questions, 757. Perfect: 758-762; of a general truth, 760; w. meaning of present, 761. Pluper-
954-957; w. pass, vbs., 958, 959; w. adjs., 960; of exclamation, 961; of purpose, 962; historical, 963. See Indirect discourse. Inflection, defined, 54. innitor, constr., 598.
inquam, conjug., 342. Inquire, vbs. meaning,
Future Perfect, 764, 765.
509-
Indicative charac. clauses, 804, 806; in ind. questions, 855; in contrary-to-fact conditions, 921-923. indignus, w. gen., 425; w. abl., 587; w. charac. cl., 798; w. inf. or ut-cl.,
jnstar,
fect, 763.
Epistolary Tenses, 766. in
rel.
clauses,
797;
in
799-
Indirect discoitrse, 964; Principal and Subordinate clauses, 965; tenses of inf. and subjv. 966 pres. and perf subjv. after secondary tense, 967; secondary sequence w. vbs. of remembering, 968; vb. of saying to be ,
;
supplied, 970; indie, in subord. cl.,973; independent rel. cl. in ind. disc, 974; inf. in subordinate cl., 974; Questions in ind. disc, 975, 976; Commands, 977; Conditional Sentences, 979-982; condition of fact or possibility, 980; contrary to fact, 981, 982; Implied indirect discourse, 983. Indirect object, 450-469; position, 1056. See Dative. Indirect questions, 846-855; introduced by si, 848; subj. taken into main cl., 852; alternative questions, 853; haud scio an w. ind. quest., 854; indie in ind. quest., 855. Indirect reflexive, sui, 667; ipse, 675. inferus, compar., 170. Infinitive, forms, 296-300; as subj., 356; as app., 387; as pred. noun, 395; characteristics, 938; use of tenses, 939-947; pres. referring to future, 940, 941; pres. w. vbs. of remembering, 942; perf. in ind. disc, 943; perf. for pres., 944; futfirum esse or fore w. subjv. instead of fut. inf., 946; inf. as nom. case, 948-950; as ace case, 951-957; complementary, 951-953; as abstract noSn, 953; w. subj^acc,, 05?,
constr.,
507-
w. gen., 409. Instrument, see Means. Intensive pronoun, see ipse. Intensive verbs, 255, 256. interdico, constr., 477. Interest, see Reference. interest, w. gen. or poss. adj., 434; w. dat. or ad and ace, 435. Interjections, 350; w. dat., 476.
Interrogative pronouns and adjectives, forms, 232-236; use, 679-681. Interrogative sentences, 363-369; alternative questions, 372-379. intimus, inmost part of, 646. intra, w. ace, 602. Intransitive verbs, impers. in pass., 459, 734invideo, constr., 445, 458. -io, vbs. in, third conjug., 324. Ionic, 1074. ipse, decl., 245; use, 671-678; as indirect reflexive, 675; agreement,
676; in app. w. nouns and pronouns, 677; w. adv. of time, 677. Irrational syllable, 1072; foot, 1075. Irregular nouns, third decl., 122, 123. Irregular verbs, 271; conjug., 328-340. is, decl., 246, 247; use, 716-720; equiv. to talis, 717; as reflex, pronoun, 719; w. charac. cl., 798. -is, nom. plu., third decl., 118; ace plu., third decl., see -es; for -iis, first decl.,
93.
-isso, intensive suffix, 256. iste, decl., 243; use, 721. istic, decl.,
244. 651; in answers, 370. itaque, accent, 31. ita,
123. Iterative verbs, 255. iubeo, w. ace or dat., 457. iugerum, 140; gen. plu., 103. -ium or -um, gen. plu., third decl., 1 18, 121,
iter, decl.,
Microsoft®
INDEX
memini, forms and meaning, 344; w.
luppiter, decl., 122. -ius, -ium,
nouns
329
in,
100; accent, 29;
adjs. in, 173.
pronominal gen. in, 176, 177. iussu, 138. iuvenis, compar., 169.
gen. or ace, 438-440. -met, 193, 231.
Metaphor, 1070.
-ius,
Meter, 1091-1094.
MetonjTny, 1070. metuo, w. dat. or ace, 474. ml, as voe of meus, 173. Middle voice, see Reflexive, mille, decl. and use, 225. minime, in answers, 371.
J, use of letter, 6.
Jussive subjunctive, see Volitive.
K, use of letter, $• Kalendae, spelling, 5; use, 604. Kindred meaning, ace, 502-505.
minus, constr., 542. miror, w. gen., 445.
mirum quam, Labials, 9. lavo, 270. liber, decl., 175. liberi, gen. plu., 103. licet, w. dat., 462; w. subst.
cl.,
828;
w. concessive cl., 898; w. infin., 948. Limit of motion, ace, 513-517. Linguals, 9. Liquids, 9; liquid stems, third decl., 109, -lis,
etc.,
as adv., 850.
misceo, constr., 552, 553. misereor, miseresco, w. gen., 443. miseret, constr., 444. missus, w. facio, 996.
no.
adjs. in, compar., 165.
Mixed i-stems, modo, quantity
120, 121. of final 0, 43; w.
cl.
of
proviso, 929. moneS, conjug., 322; constr., 442. Monosyllables, quantity of vowel, 17. Months, names of, decl., 188; gender, S7-
Moods,
Litotes, 1070.
see Indicative, etc., and the types of sentences and
Locative, 67; first decl., 91; second decl., 98; nouns in -ius, 100; third
various
124; use, 606-614; w. app. in abl., 612; denoting time, 614. locus, decl., 141.
Mora, 1072.
decl.,
Logaoedic, 1094.
clauses.
morior, 270.
Motion, vbs.
of,
w. dat., 451; w.
abl.,
SQO, 591Multiplicatives, 227.
longius, constr., 542.
multus, compar., 167; use, 417.
m,
elision of final, 1077.
magis, in compar., 163, 214. magnus, compar., 167. male, quantity of e, 195; compar., 214. maledicus, compar., 166. malo, conjug., 330; w. subjv., 835; w. inf.,
malus, compar., 167. Manner, abl., 554; per w. acc.^ 555; abl. abs., 561; participles, 991. mare, decl., 113.
Material, gen., 420; abl., 539, 540. maturus, compar., 164. mazime, in compar., 163, 214. Means, abl., 570-576; of a person, 537. Measure, gen., 423. Measure of difference, 582-585.
med,
ace.
and
abl., 231. of,
stems, third decl., 106-108. miito and cpds., w. abl., 579. n, pronunciation, 21.
nam, 1053.
837, 951, 952.
medius, the middle
Mutes, 9; syllable w. short vowel followed by mute and liquid, 24; mute
417, 646. Digitized
-nam,
enclitic, 234.
Names
of persons, 143-149; adopted sons, 147; women, 148; slaves, 149. Nasals, 9; stems, third decl., in, 112; inserted in verb-stems, 268.
nascor, w. abl., 532. natu, abl. only, 138; w. minor, etc., i6g.
nd, quantity of vowel before, 15. -ne, enclitic, 365; in alternative questions, 372-376; in exclamations, 501; in ind. quest., 846.
by Microsom)
INDEX
33°
ne, 213, 657; w. subjv. of exhortation or command, 768, 934, 936; w. opt. subjv., 773; in purpose cl., 812; in subst. cl., 826, 828, 829, 832, 83s; in subst. cl. w. expressions of fear, 838, 839; in cl. of proviso, 929, 930; w. imperat., 935; in ind. disc, 977; for nedum, 816. ne non, in subst. cl. w. expressions of fear, 838.
ne
.
.
.
quidem,
656;
after
general
neg., 660.
nee, for non, 659; see neque. necesse est, constr., 828. necne, 373; in ind. quest., 853. nedum, 816, 817. nefas, w. supine, 1017. Negative adverbs, 213, 657-660; negatives, 660. nemo, forms, 138; as adj., 687. nequam, 191; compar., 168.
two
quin, w. subjv., 889. nos, for ego, 664. nostri, objective gen., nostrum, gen. of the whole, 663. Nouns, gender, 56-63; number, 64; case, 65-67; formation, 68-86; declension, 87-134; defective, 135-138; variable, 139-142. Syntax: appositives, 380-388; pred. nouns, 389396; see Nominative, Genitive, etc. novi, meaning, 761. ns, quantity of vowel before, 13. nt, quantity of vowel before, 15. nullus, decl., 176; use, 138, 417, 688. num, 367; in ind. quest., 846. Number, 64, 310; nouns used only in sing., 135; only in plu., 136; plu. used for sing., 137; meaning of plu. different from that of sing., 142. Numerals, 216-228; cardinals, ordinals,
neque
(nee), 1036-1038; correl. after general neg., 660; connecting pur-
pose clauses, 815. nequeo, conjug., 335. nescio quis, 683; nescio quo, unde,
non
etc.,
distributives,
216-219;
frac-
220; Roman notation, 221; decl. of numeral adjs., 222-226; numeral adverbs, 228. nummus, gen. plu., 103. tions,
nune, 654. compar., 215. -6, adv. ending, 196, 199.
849. neuter, 686. neve (neu), 1036; correl. after general neg., 660; connecting purpose clauses, 815; in neg. commands, 937. nf, quantity of vowel before, 13. ni, go8. niger, decl., 175.
nflper,
nihil (nn), forms, 138.
obliviseor, w. gen. or ace, 438-440. obviam, obvius, w. dat., 469.
nisi, nisi si, 907, 908; nitor, w. abl., 598.
w. abl. abs., 562.
Oblique cases, 65.
Octonarius, 1092.
w. neg. commands, 934. nolo, conjug., 330; w. subjv., 83s; w. noli,
inf.,
Object, direct, 493-500; indirect, 449469. Object clauses, see Substantive clauses. Objective genitive, 425-427, 438-446.
837, 9SI, 952-
odi, 344.
-oius,
names
in, 102.
olle, 242.
Nomen, 145. nomen esse, w. pred. noun in dat.,
omnis, use, 417. 393.
Nominative, as
subject, 397; as voc, 398; in exclamations, 399; in pred., pred. noun w. inf., 390. 358, 3S9j ^s nomine, w. gen. or poss. adj., 547. non, 657; in answers, 371.
Nonae, 604. non modo for non modo non, 1051.
opinione, w. comparative, 544. oportet, w. subjv., 828; w. inf., 948. Opposition, expressed by abl. abs., 563-
nonne, 366; in ind. quest., 846.
n6n nemd, nSn nihil, non nullus, 683. non quia, non quod, non quo, w. subjv. or indicat., 888.
Onomatopoeia, 1070. -ont, -unt, in verbs, 315. OpenVowels, 7; syllables, 22.
Optative subjunctive, 767, 773-776; in subordinate cl., 906. opus est, w. abl., 573, 574; w. participle, 574; as pred. noun, 575; w. supine, 1018.
Digitized
by Microsoft®
'
INDEX Oratio obliqua, see Indirect discourse, 964.
Oratio recta, see Direct discourse, 964. Ordinals, 216-219; ^.cc. sing, as adv., 228. orior, forms, 270. -8s, Greelc nouns in, 105. -Osus, adj. suffix, 155.
Oxymoron, 1070. paenitet, w. ace.
and
gen., 444.
Paeon, 1074. palam, w. abl., 1027. Palatals, 9. par, w. gen., 410. Parataxis, 795. Parisyllables, 113. parte, partibus, 596; partem, 524. Participial adjectives, 616, 617.
Participles, forms, 304-3o8;pres. act., 304; decl., 179-183; fut. act., 305; perf. pass., 306; perf. pass. w. act. meaning, 307; fut. pass., 308. Syntax: characteristics, 984; use of tenses, 985-990; pres. referring to fut.,
986; perf. referring to pres.,
988-989; uses of participles, 9911014; w. vbs. of perception, 992; w. vbs. meaning represent, 993; perf. part, instead of coordinate cl., 994; agreeing with obj. of liabeo and other vbs., 995, 996; containing
main idea
of phrase, 997; fut. act.
denoting purpose, 999; fut. 1000-1002; denoting pass, part., purpose, looi; see Gerundive and Gerund; part, used impersonally as abl. abs., $68; w. opus est or usus part,
est, 574; perf. pass. part, as substantive qualified by adj. or adv., 639; agreement w. subj. in forms of
perf. pass, system, 742.
Particles, 55.
Penalty, gen., 431-433! abl, 580. Pentameter, 1093; dactylic, 1098. Penult, 22. penus, forms, 140. per, prep., of time, 521, 602; of the agent, 537! of cause, 548; of manner, SSSPerception, vbs. of, constr., 992. Pehfect, Indicative: forms, 280-286; tense-sign, -v-, 280; shortened forms, 281, 282; tense-sign, -U-, 283; tensesign, -S-, 284; reduplicated, 285; perf. pass, system, 286; personal endings, 312; use, 758-762; referring to future, 759; gnomic, 760; w. pres. meaning, 761. Subjunctive: forms, 293; use, 781, 791, 792; see also the various uses of the subjv. mood. Infinitive: forms, act., 298; pass., 300; use, 943, 944. Participle: 306, 307; use, 987-989Periphrastic conjugation, 327, 998, 1000; used to supply lack of fut. tenses in subjv., 794; in apod, of cont.-to-fact cond., 923, 924; in ind. disc, 981. Personal endings, indie, and subjv., 311; perf. ind., 312; imperat., 313, 314; vowel changes, 315. Personal or impersonal use of pass, vbs., 958, 959.
Personal pronouns, forms, 229-231; Syntax, 661-665; use of gen. sing,
and
plu., 663; plu. of first pers. for
sing., 664; reflexive use, 665.
Personification, 1070. petfi, constr.,
508.
Phonetic changes, 32-51. Phrase, defined, 361. piget, w. ace. and gen., 444. Pity, vbs. of, constr., 443, 444. Place whence, abl. w. or without prep., 53°. SSI-
Partitive apposition, 384. Partitive genitive, see Genitive of the
Whole. Partitives, 227.
parum, compar., 214. parvus, compar., 167. Passive, see Voice.
Patronymics, 80. pecus, forms, 140. pelagus, 99.
33^
Place where, abl. w. or without prep., 588-598; loc, 606-613. Place whither, ace. w. or without prep., 513-517placitus, meaning, 307. plebs or plebes, forms, 134. Plenty, adjs. of, w. gen. or abl., 429; vbs. of, w. gen., 436.
Pleonasm, 1070. Digitized
by
!J^S&i&^'
417; pleraque, accent, 31.
INDEX
332 Pluperi'ECT,
Indicative: form, 287; Subjunctive: form, 294; see the various uses of the subjv.
use,
763.
mood. Plural, lacking, 135; plu. only, 136; plu. used instead of sing., 137; meaning different from that of sing., 142.
plus, decl., 187; constr., 342pondo, use, 138.
posed, constr., 508. Position, length by, 23, 1071. Position of words, see Arrangement. Possession, dat., 479. Possessive adjectives, forms, 192, 193; use, 618-624; suus, 619-621; instead of poss. gen. of pers. or reflex, pronoun, 403; instead of obj. gen.,
427; w. refert and interest, 434. Possessive genitive, 401-410. Possibility, conditions of, 915-918; in ind. disc, 980. possum, conjug., 329. post, in expressions of time, 583, 584; as prep., followed by quam w. temporal cl., 871. posterus, compar., 170. Postpositive prepositions, 1024. postquam (postea quam), in temporal cl., w. indie, 870, 871; w. subjv., 873; w. hist, inf., 873; referring to a period of time, 874; in causal cl., 875-
postremus, meaning, 641, 646. postridie, w. gen. or ace, 409, 1025, 1026; w. quam and indie, 868. postulo, constr., 508.
Potential subjunctive, 777-780; in subord. cl., 906; in conditional sentence, 915. potior, forms, 270; w. gen., 446; w. abl. or ace, 572. potis, use, 191, 329. potius,
quam, w.
subjv., 869.
potus, having drunk, 307. prae, w. abl. denoting cause, 549. Praenomen, 144. praesens, 319. praetervehor, w. ace, 511. Predicate, defined, 355; consisting of vb. w. pred. noun or adj., 358, 359;
omitted,^6o.
Predicate nouns, agreement, 389; ace. or nom. w. inf., 390; dat. w. impers. vbs., 391; ace. w. vbs. meaning make, choose, etc., 392; dat. w. nomen esse, 393; abl., 394; inf. or cl. as pred. noun, 395; vb. in agreement w. pred. noun, 396; poss. gen. in pred., 408; gen. of the whole, 415; gen. of quahty, 421. Prefixes, in cpd. verbs, 260. Prepositions, origin, 348; w. ace, 1019; w. abl., 1020; w. ace or abl., 1022; postpositive, 1024. Present, stem, 252, 262; Indicative: forms, 277; personal endings, 311; use, 745-750; conative, 746; for fut., 747, 913; historical, 748; w. iam, 749; in delib. questions, 750. Subjunctive: forms, 291; for use see the
various uses of the subjv. mood. Injinilive: forms, act., 297; pass., 299; use, 939-942. Participle: form, 304; decl., 179, 180; use, 986. Present perfect, 309. Price, gen., 424; abl., 577-580. pridie, w. gen., 409, 1026; w. ace, 1025; pridie quam w. indie or subjv., 868.
Primary Primary
suffixes, 72-75.'
tenses, 309; in sequence,
781-
794-
Primary verbs, 250-252. primus, meaning, 641, 646; primum and prima, 655. princeps, decl., 106; use, 641. Principal parts, 316, 317. Principal tenses, see Primary tenses.
compar., 170; use, 641. priusquam, 862-867. prior,
pro, form in cpds., 328. pro, interjection, 350. probor, w. dat., 482.
Proceleusmatic, 1074. procul, w. abl., 1027. prohibeS, constr., 829-832. Prohibitions, 934-937. Proleptic adjective, 628.
Pronominal adjectives, 176, 177, 236, 615; see Pronouns.
Pronouns, forms, 229-248; personal, 229-231; rel. and interrog., 232-236; indefinite, 237, 238;
Predicate adjectives, 627, ^^jfj^ed by Micr3S9f(&^^-
Syntax:
demonstrative, 623,
personal,
INDEX 661-665; reflex., 623, 666-670; intensive, 671-678; interrog. pron. and adjs., 579-681; indef. pron. and adjs.,
682-689; distrib. pron. and adjs., 690-692; rel. pron. and adjs., 693710; demon, pron. and adjs., 622, 711-728; alius and alter, 729-733. Pronunciation, how determined, 10; vowels, 11-19; diphthongs, 20; consonants, 21. prope, compar., 214; as prep., 490. Proper names, 143-149; in plu., 135. propior, compar., 170; constr., 490, 1025, 1026. pTopius, constr., 490, 1025, 1026. Proportionals, 227. proprius, w. gen., 410.
Prosody, see Versification. prdspicio, w. dat. or ace, 474. prosum, conjug., 328. Protasis, 907; unusual forms, 926; see Conditional sentences. Proviso,
cl. of,
929, 930.
prozime, constr., 490, 1025, 1026. prozimus, constr., 490, 1025, 1026. -pte, enclitic, 193, 231. pudet, w. ace. and gen., 444. Purpose, dat., 483-486; relative
cl.,
w. ut, ne or ut ue, 812815; parenthetical cl., 814; two clauses coordinated, 815; infinitive, 962; fut. act. part., 999; fut. pass, part., looi; gerundive or gerund w. causa or gratia, 1007; gen. of quality, 1008; dat., 1012; ad w. ace, 1013; supine, 1015.
809-811;
cl.
333
quands, w. temporal cl.,
cl.,
885; w. causal
891.
Quantity, vowels, 12-19; vowel before another vowel, 14; in monosyllables, 17; in final syllables, 1719; hidden quantity, 12; diphthongs, 20; syllables, 23-26. quasi, w. abl. abs., 562; w. subjv., 928. Quaternarius, 1092. -que, 31, 1030, 1032, 1033, 1045. que8, conjug., 335. Questions, see Interrogative sentences and DeKberative questions; in ind.
disc, 975,976. qui, rel.: decl., 232, 234; indef.: decl., 237; use, 682; interrog.: 679, 680; £is abl., 234; in imprecations, 774. quia, w. causal cl., 886, 888, 890. quicumque, 235; use, 689. quid, adv., 525.
quidam, forms, 238; w. gen. or prep, and abl., 418; meaning, 684. quidem, 656; w. concessive force, 724. qunibet, 238, 686. quin.in questions, 744; w. imperat., 744; w. charac. cl., 802; w. result cl., 820; w. subst. cl., 829; w. causal cl., 889. quippe qui, w. causal or adversative cl., 807, 808. quis, interrog.: decl., 232, 234; use, 679, 680; indef.: decl., 237; use, 682. quis, for quibus, 234.
quispiam, forms, 238; use, 683. qoisquam, forms, 238; use, 685. quisque, forms, 238; use, 690, 691; w. plu. vb., 736; in partitive app., 384. quisquis, 235.
quaero, constr., 508. Qualifying words, position, 1057, 1065. Quality, gen., 421-424; abl., 557. constr., 541, S4S; for postquam, 583, 871; w. superl. and often w. form of possum, 644; w. cl. of charac, 800; w. cl. of result, 801; w. mirum, sane, valde, etc., 850; w. ace. and inf. in ind. disc, 971.; vb. omitted in ind. disc, 972. quam diu, w. temporal cl., 876.
quam,
quamquam, w. adversative cl., 894, 89s; meaning and yet w. independent cl., 896; w. participles, etc., 899. quamvis, w. concessive cl., 8g8; w. participles, etc., 899.
Digitized
quivis, forms,' 238; use, 686.
quo, w. purpose cl., 810, causal d., 888, 890. -quo-, words ending in, 39.
quoad, w. temporal
cl.,
811;
while,
w.
876;
until, 884.
quod, w. subst. cl., 822, 823; w. causal cl., 886-890; quid est quod, 525. quoi, for cui, 234. qudius, for cuius, 234.
quom, see cum. qudminus, w. subst. quoniam, w. causal quoque, 1039.
829, 832. 886.
cl.,
cl.,
quot, 417.
by fl^ifl^§oB®ms
in,
39; adjs., 173.
INDEX
334
r-stems, ending originally in s, no. ratus, w. present meaning, 988. Recessive accent, 27. Reciprocal pronouns, 731. recorder, constr., 441. recusa, constr., 829-832. reddo, w. perf. pass, part., 996. Reduplication, in perf. ind., 285. Reference, dat., 470-476. refert, w. gen. or poss. adj., 434; w. dat. or ad and ace, 435. Reflexive pronoun, decl., 230; reflex, use of pers. pronouns, 665; of ipse, 675; of
is,
719; of vbs., 734.
reicio, 26.
Relative clause, preceding antecedent, 696; introd. by quod, id quod, or quae res, 702; containing abstract noun, 709; of fact, 797; of characteristic, 798-806; causal or adversative, 807, 808; of purpose, 809-811; equivalent to condition, 927; w. inf. in ind. disc, 974.
quantity of vowel before final, 18; between vowels becomes r, 46; pro-
nunciation of final, 21, 1088. saepe, compar., 215. salvere, forms, 345. sane, in answers, 370. satis, compar., 215. Saying, vbs. of, w. ind. disc, 964-982; w. ut-cl., 978. scilicet,
710. reliquus, use, 417, 646; reliqui,
mean-
ing. 733-
Remember, vbs. meaning,
constr.,
438-
441.
206.
imperat. for pres., 933; quod sciam, 803. -SCO, inceptive vbs. in, 257. scribe, constr., 452. Second conjugation, 322. Second declension, 95-105. Second person sing, indef., 779, 904. Secondary sufiixes, 76-81. Secondary tenses, 309; in sequence, 781-794. secus, ace, 524. sed, 1048. scio, fut.
sed, ace.
Relative pronouns and adjectives, forms, 232, 234-236; Syntax: 693710; qui, agreement, 703; attracted into case of antecedent, 704; w. two or more antecedents, 705; w. collective antecedent, 706; agreeing w. pred. noun, 707; agreeing w. word to be supplied, 708; equivalent to pers. or .demon, pronoun,
Remind, vbs. meaning,
!i,
and
abl., 231.
Semi-deponents, 274. Semi-hiatus, 1078.
Semivowels,
9;
how
represented in
writing, 6. Senarius, 1092.
senex, decl., 123; compar., 169. Sentences, defined, 352; compound and complex, 354; classification, 362; interrogative, 363-369. Separation, gen., 437; dat., 477; abl., 528, 529. Septenarius, 1092.
Sequenceof TENSES, 781-794; w. pres. 782; sequence disregarded, 783-785; in clauses of result, etc., in cl. expressing a general 785; truth, 786; w. hist, pres., 787; w. hist, inf., 788; in delib. questions and cont.-to-fact sentences, 789; w. cont.-to-fact conditions and conclusions, 790; w. perf. subjv., 791, 792 w. inf., part., gerund, or supine, 793; in expressions of future time,
perif.,
constr., 442.
reminiscor, w. gen. or ace, 438-440. Repeated action, subjv., 904. repraesentatio, 967. res, decl., 131.
Resolution, in verse, 1075. Result clauses, w. ut, 818, 819; w. quin, 820. reus, w. gen., 433. Rhetorical questions, 771; in ind. disc,
97S-
Rhotacism, 46. Road, abl., 581. Root, defined, 52. rus, limit o^ motion, 514; rure, place whence, S30, S3i; ^rl, l
/jy
;
794sese, 231. sestertius, gen. plu., 103. seu, see sive. si,
in cl. expressing a wish, 775; in cl. equiv. to ind. quest., 848; in prota-
M/cr§^rf©7~9°9;
si
minus,
si alitor,
909.
INDEX Sibilants, 9. sic, 651; in answers, 370. -Sim, perf subjv. in, 289. Simile, 1070. similis, compar., 165; w. gen., 410; w. gen. or dat., 489. .
simul, w. abl., 553, 1027; simul atque (ac, ut, or et), w. temporal cl., 870, 872. sin, 907, 909. Singular, nouns only in, 13s; lacking, 136; meaning different from that of plu., 142. sis, for si vis,
330. sive (seu), 910, 1043. -so, iterative ending, 255; fut. perf., 289. socius, gen. plu., 103. solee, semi-deponent, 274; solitus, meaning, 988. solus, ded., 176; followed by charac. cl.,
798.
Sonants, 9. Sounds, classification, 7-9; pronunciation, 10-21. Source, abl., 532-534. Specification, gen., 428-430; ace, 523525; abl., 586, 587. Spirants, 9. Spondaic verse, 1095. Spondee, 1074. sponte, 138. ss, quantity of vowel before, 16. Stem, defined, 53; of nouns, 69-71; of the declensions, 89; of vbs., 262-264; of the four conjugations, 266-269.
w. abl., 598. Strophe, 1091. studeo, w. gen., 445. sub, use, 1023; w. ace, 5i3;_ w. abl., 588, 590; in expressions of time, 602. Subject, defined, 355; inf. or cl. as subj., 356; omitted, 357; nom. as sto,
subj., 397; ace. subj. of inf., 526, 952; ace. omitted, 954. Subjective genitive, 402. SrrBjuNCTiVE mood, tense-signs, 290-
294; origin and use, 767; Vohtive, 768-772; Optative, 773-776; Potential, 777-779; Tenses in subord.
781-794; relative 'clauses, 798-811; purpose, 812-817; result, 818-820; substantive, 825-^5;.ind. clauses,
335
quest., 846-855; temporal, 856-884; causal, 886-893 ; adversative and concessive, 894-903; repeated action, 904; attraction, 905 conditional sen;
tences, 911-928; proviso, 929, 930; for subjv. in ind. disc, see Indirect discourse. Subordinate clauses, 353, 354; origin, 79S; position, 1068. Substantive clauses, 821, 825; introd.
822, 823; by cum, 824; object cl. w. vbs. of will or purpose, 826; subj. cl. w. pass., 827; subj. cl. w. impers. vbs., etc., 828, 843-845; w. vbs. meaning hinder, prevent, avoid, refuse, 829-832; w. expressions of doubt or ignorance, 833, 834; w. vbs. meaning wish, 835837; w. expressions of fear, 838, 839; w. vbs. meaning accomplish, 842; w. tantum abest, 844; w. fore or futurum esse, 845; w. vbs. of saying,
by quod,
978.
Substantive use of adjectives and participles, 635-640. subter, 1023. SufiSxes, 69-81;
primary, 72-75; sec-
ondary, 76-81. in main cl., 666; in 667; in ind. disc, 668; of an indef. person, 669; strengthened by sibi, 670. sultis, 330. sum, conjug., 318; cpds., 328; as copula, 359; as auxiliary, omitted, 360. sui,
decl., 230;
subord.
cl.,
summus,
use, 417, 646. suopte, etc., 193. supellex, 107, 123. super, 1023. Superlative degree, meaning,
642;
used of only two, 643; w. quam or quam possum, 644. supersum, w. dat., 479. superus, compar., 170. Supine, forms, 301; in -um, use, 517, 1015, 1016; in -u, use, 1017, 1018. Surds, 9. sGs, decl., 122.
suus, 192; in main cl., 619; in subord. cl., 620; in ind. disc, 621. Syllaba anceps, 1081. Syllables, 22; length, 23-26.
INDEX
336 Synapheia, 1090. Syncope, 41 in verse, 1087. Synecdoche, 1070.
ante, post, 584; time after, abl., 601; of reckoning, 603, 604. Tmesis, 1070. -to, iterative vbs. in, 255. tot, use, 417. totus, use, 417.
method
;
Synesis, 1070. Synizesis, 1084. SjTitactic compounds, nouns, 85; vbs., 261. SjTitax, defined, 351. Systole, 1085.
Town-names, place whither, 514, 516; place where, abl., 592-594; loc, 607, 608, 611, 612; place whence, 53°, S3I-
taedet, w. ace. and gen., 444. talis, w. charac. d., 798. tam, 651. tamen, 1049. tametsi, w. independent cl., 896; w.
adversative
tamquam, w. si,
cl.,
897.
tamquam
abl. abs., 562;
tantum abest,
constr., 844. charac. cl., 798; tantus quantus in ind. disc, 972. Teach, vbs. meaning, constr., 507, 509.
w.
and abl., 231. Temporal clauses, w. cum, 856-861; w. antequam and priusquam, 862-
ted, ace.
868; w. postquam, ubi,
etc.,
w. dum, donee, quoad, 876-884; w. quando, 885. temporis (id temporis), 524. Tendency, dat., 483-486.
870-875;
quam
diu,
Imperfect,
etc.,
and
Sequence of tenses. tenus, w. gen. or abl., 409, 1020, 1021. -ter or -iter, adv. ending, 205. Tetrameter, 1092, 1093. Thematic vowel, 251; in imperat., 264; in third conjug., 268, 315; in fut. perf., 288; in pres. act. part'., 304. Thesis, 1076. Third conjugation, 323; vbs. in -io,
constr.,
tres, decL, 223. Tribrach, 1074. Trimeter, 1092. trini, for terni,
218.
tu, decl., 229, 231.
tunc, 654. -turio, desiderative vbs. in, 259. -tus or -itus, adv. ending, 204. tute, tutemet, 231.
vowel treated as consonant, 1086; consonant as vowel, 1086. ubi, in temporal cl., w. indie, 870,
u,
abl. plu.,
fourth decl., 129. -uis or -uos, gen., fourth decl., 129. iillus, decl.,
ulterior,
176.
compar., 170.
ultimus, use, 417, 641, 646. -um, gen. plu., first decl., 93; second decl., 103; third decl., i-stems, 118, 121; fourth decl., 129; adjs., third decl., 183, 186.
-undus, gerundive ending, 308. unus decl., 176; use, 222; w. gen. or prep, and abl., 418; w. charac. cl., 798; uni for singuli, 218. urbs, in app. w. town-names, 516, 531, 594, 612.
324-
Third
w.,
872; subjv., 873.
forms of indie, 276-289; subjv., 290-294; inf., 296-300; part., 303-308; tense-groups, 309; for use, Present,
compounded
S"-
-ubus and -ibus, dat. and
Tenses,
see
trans, vbs.
Trochee, 1074.
w. subjv., 928.
tantus,
traicio, constr., 512.
declension,
nouns,
106-126;
adjs., 178-189.
-tim, adv. ending, 202.
Time, when or within which, abl., 599, 600; other forms of expression, 602; abl. abs., 559, 565; extent of time, ace, 518, 521; abl., 605; perw. ace, 521; time before or after, abl. w. ante, abhinc, post, S^y^cc^
f^
usque, 1025, 1026. usus est, w. abl., 573, 574. ut (uti), in purpose cl., 812-815; in result cl., 818, 819; in subst. cl., 826-828, 835, 836, 841-845; w. expressiqps of fear, 838, 839; in temporal cl., 870; meaning since, 874; in concessive cl., 902; in adversaMicrMM^-' 9°3; '° cl. of proviso, 930;
INDEX ut for utinam, 774; ut ne for ne, 812; ut qui, w. causal cl., 807, 808; ut si, w. subjv., 928. uter, decl., 176; cpds., 177; use, 23s,
681. uterlibet, 686.
uterque, decl., 177; in partitive app., 384; general use, 416, 690, 692; for alter, 731; w. plu. vb., 736; utraque, accent, 31. utervis, 686.
utinam, w. opt. subjv., 773. utor, w. abl., 572; in pass, periphrastic conjug., 1000.
utrum, 372-379; in single question,
337
vereor, w. gen., 445; veritus, w. pres. meaning, 988. vers, 1048. Verse, 1073. Versification, 1071-1099. verto, w. abl. of price, 579. verum, 104S.
vescor, w. abl. or ace, 572. vestri, objective gen., vestrum, gen. of the whole, 663. vetus, compar., 164; forms, 181, 183. vicis, forms, 138; vicem, 524. videlicet, 206.
videS, w. participle, 992; videor, w. dat., 482; used personally, 959. virus, 99.
377-
vis, decl., 122.
V, representing vowel and consonant sounds, 6. T, consonant, treated as vowel, 1086. Value, gen., 424; abl., 577-580. Variable nouns, 139-142. vas, decl., 140. -ve, 1044. vel, 1042.
829-832. Vocative, 66; in second decl., 95, 96; nouns in -ius, 100; adjs. in -ius, 173; use, 398; position, 1060. Voice, 272; pass, of intrans. vbs. used impersonally, 734; reflexive use of
Tito, constr.,
pass., 734;_
vellem, introducing an unfulfilled wish, 776. velut, w. abl. abs., 562; w. subjv., 928. Verbal nouns, 295; w. ace, 494. Verbs, formation, 249-261; stems, 262-264; conjug., 265-271; of two conjugs., 27o;irreg., 271; voice, 272274; deponents, 273; semi-deponents, 274; moods and tenses, 275294; verbal nouns and adjs., 295-308; tense-groups, 309; number, 310; person, 311-31S; P™. pts., 316, 317; conjug. of sum, 318; amo, 320, 321; moneS, 322; rego, 323; capio, 324; audio, 325; deponents, 326; periphrastic, 327; irreg. vbs., 328340; defective, 341-345; impers., 346; list, 347. Syntax: voice, 734; agreement w. subj., 735-742; w. two or more singular subjs., 737; w. sing, and plu. subjs., 738; w. subjs. of different persons, 740; w. relative as subj., 741; w. app., 388; w. pred.
noun, 396; agreement of part, in cpd. forms, 742; see also Indicative, Present, Imperfect, etc.. Sequence of tenses, and the various t3fpes of sentences and clauses.
Volitive subjunctive, 767-772. V0I6, conjug., 330; in imperf. subjv. w. unfulfilled wish, 776; w. subst. cl., S35, 836; w. inf., 837, 951, 952; w. perf. pass, inf., 944. -Tolus, adjs. in, compar., .166.
Torsum, cpds. of, 209. Vowels, long and short, distinguished in writing, 4; classification, 7; pronunciation, 11; quantity, 1 2-19 weakened in medial syllables, 34-38; ;
weakened
in final syllables, 39; loss, 41; combination of vowels, 42; gradation, 44; developed in consonant
groups, 51. vulgus, 99. adjs. meaning, w. vbs., w. gen., 436, 437.
Want,
y, use, 3;
pronunciation, 11.
etc..
Digitized
gen., 429;
Whole, gen. of, 412-419. Wish, vbs. meaning, w. subst. cl., 835, 836; w. inf., 837, 951, 952; introducing unfulfilled wish, 776. See Optative. Words, order, 1055-1069.
z,
use, 3.
Zeugma, 1070. by Microsoft®
Digitized
by Microsoft®
Digitized
by Microsoft®
Digitized
by Microsoft®
Digitized
by Microsoft®
