Human process interventions
Human Process Interventions Individual, Interpersonal and Group Process Approaches Organization Process Approaches
Human Process Interventions Individual, Interpersonal and Group Process Approaches Organization Process Approaches
COACHING Involves working with organization members (managers and executives), on a regular basis to help them clarify their goals, deal with potential stumbling blocks and improve their performance. Highly personal interventions Help managers gain perspective on their dilemmas and transfer their learning into organizational organiza tional results. When done well, improves personal productivity and effective leading.
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Coaching or counselling Goals: Assisting an executive to more effectively execute some transition such as merger integration and downsizing Addressing a performance problem Developing new behavioural skills as a part of leadership development program. Makes client understand how their behaviours are contributing to a current situation.
Application Stages: 1. Establish the principles of the relationship : establishing goals of engagement, parameters of relationship (schedules, resources etc) 2. Conduct an assessment 3. Debrief the results 4. Develop an action plan 5. Implement the action plan 6. Assess the results
Training
and Development
For T&D to be considered as an OD intervention, it must focus on changing the skills and knowledge of a group of organization members to improve their effectiveness. Application Stages: 1. Perform a need assessment: 1. Organization assessment (systems that may affect the ability to transfer the training back to the organization) 2. Work assessment (tasks, activities and decisions that participants perform better after training)
2. Develop the objectives and design of training
Eg. To be able to successfully handle 95% of customer complaints To produce an acceptable strategic plan for the participant¶s department
3. Deliver the training 4. Evaluate the training
Reaction Learning Behaviour Results
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T-groups
(sensitivity training)
Goals: Understanding one¶s own behaviour Understanding the behaviour of others Understanding group processes Increased interpersonal diagnostic skills Transforming learning into action Self-analysis
Process consultation
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Designed to help to improve processes: Communication Interpersonal relationships Problem-solving and decision-making Leadership and authority Process consultation is Activities« that help the client perceive, understand and act upon the process events which occur in the client¶s environment. Schein (1987)
Group Process PC deals with interpersonal and group processes that describe how organization members interact with each other Group process includes: Communication: x
x
Nature and style of communication, process of
transmitting and receiving thoughts, facts and feelings. Can be overt or covert
Functional roles of gp members x
x
Individuals must address and understand their self identity, influence and power that will satisfy personal needs while working to accomplish group goals. Gp members must take on roles that enhance x
x
Task related activities Gp maintenance actions
Gp problem solving and decision making x
To be effective, gp must be able to identify problems, examine alternatives and make decisions
Group norms x
x
Standards of behavior about what is good and what is bad Process consultant can be helpful in assisting group to understand whether he norms are helpful or dysfunctional.
Use of leadership and authority x
x
How different leadership styles can help or hinder a group¶s functioning Consultant can help a leader adjust his or her style to fit the situation
Basic
Process Interventions
Individual Interventions Designed primarily to help people be more effective in their communication with others Eg; process consultant can provide feedback about individual¶s overt behaviours during meetings
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Transaction Analysis A valuable approach to understanding of human behaviour and action. Developed by Dr. Eric Berne, author of the book, ³Games people play´ Discussed by Dr. Thomas A Harry in his book, ³I¶M O.K., - U¶RE O.K.´
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While we communicate with others, we share not only facts & information, but also emotions, values, benefits& traditions .
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Starting point of the theory: When 2 people encounter with each other, one will speak to the other. This is called the transaction stimulus The reaction from the other will be called the transaction response. The person sending the response is called the Agent and the person who responds is called the respondent. T.A. became the method of examining the transaction wherein ³I do something to you and you do something back´
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In any personal interaction, a study of TA is useful in understanding and appropriately responding to varied behaviour. TA divides the individual personality into 3 ego states. Ego states have been defined as a constant pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving. These states are produced by recalling past events recalling real people, real time, real places and real feelings.
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Ego states: ³a set of consistent & coherent patterns of thinking, feeling & behaving.´ Manifested in Tone of voice Gesture/Posture Facial Expression Vocabulary
Ego
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States:
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STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY AS PER TA, THE STRUCTURE OF PERSON ALITY IS DIVIDED I NTO THREE EGO STATES: P ±PARENT EGO STATE (TAUGHT CONCEPT OF LIFE) A- ADULT EGO STATE (THOUGHT CONCEPT OF LIFE) C- CHILD EGO STATE (FELT CONCEPT OF LIFE)
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The Parent state: The ego state which is µtaught¶ to us Built up gradually through modelling parents/elders Reading books, watching films etc. It is the repository of beliefs, prejudices, values. Our ingrained voice of authority, absorbed conditioning, learning and attitudes from when we were young. Parent is made of huge no. of overt recorded playbacks
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The Parent The Parent, again, has two parts: The Controlling or Critical Parent, (CP) and The Nurturing Parent (NP) .
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The Controlling Parent Critical.
Giving injunctions.
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The Nurturing Parent Unconditionally supportive
Defender
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Vocabulary: Should, don¶t, must, always, never, I know, now what? Because I said so. I¶ll take care of you, poor thing, therethere, come on, give it a try
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Tone: Sneering, loud, harsh, contemptuous, condescending, punishing, sympathetic, encouraging
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G esture/PosturePointed finger, shaking head, arms folded on chest, tapping feet/fingers, Facial Expressionsmile encouragingly, set jaw, outthrust chin, look down the nose with raised eyebrows
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The Adult The Adult Ego State is the part which -computes data and takes decisions It is oriented to current reality .
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The Adult The part of the Adult which records and recalls data like a computer is the-Photographic Adult, while that which associates, assesses, organizes data to look for options and arrive at decisions is the-- Combining Adult .
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V ocabulary:
how, why, when, where, what, alternatives, results, yes, no, caused by, statistics, facts not opinions. Tone: clear & calm, confident, factual, enquiring.
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G esture/Posture:
straight (not stiff), lean forward to listen/look, relaxed, thinking with hand on chin, patient. F acial Expression: thoughtful, watching attentively, questioning, alert, lively
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The Child The Child is the centre of all feelings and emotions The four basic feelings being SAD, ANGRY, HAPPY and SCARED
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The Child has three parts :The Natural or Free Child (NC) ± hateful/loving, impulsive, spontaneous, playful. The Adapted Child (AC) ± fearful, guilty or ashamed The Little Professor -- which is the intuitive, creative and manipulative aspect .
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The Child W hen Adapted Child is attempting to
free itself from Parental influence it is called -REBELLIOUS CHILD
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V ocabulary:
Wow, give me, I want, MINE, I wish, I¶m scared, help Tone: giggle, chuckle, whine, swear, yell, fast & high-pitched, whistle, playful, ask permission. G esture/Posture: slumped, curled up, putting up hand to ask question
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Facial Expression: tears, pouting, downcast or uplifted eyes, tilted head, wide-eyed, fluttering eyelashes, flirtatious, admiring
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Kinds
of transactions
Complementary transactions: When the transaction gets the appropriate response from a specific ego state in the other person Lines of communication are kept open between the transactors
Kinds
of Transactions:
Complementary Transaction 40
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Adult-Adult: ± Do you know which days we are supposed to put the garbage out? ± I am under the impression that Monday and Thursday. Child-Parent: ± Wow, there sure is a lot of this crummy garbage to put out! ± It really is very large and heavy but I will be proud of you if you can do it.
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Crossed
transactions
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Crossed Transactions When the transactions get the unexpected response from an unexpected ego state from the other person Crossed transactions are a frequent source of resentment between people (transactors) Eg: Do you know where the x-ray is ? It¶s right where you left it, can't you remember anything? Stimulus: Do this for me! (Looking for a ³Yes Dad´ response) Response : I have no time!! Stimulus: Cook dinner for me please!!! (looking for some nurturing parent) Response: I¶m too tired!! (also looking for some nurturing parent)
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Specific example example of ego states ± crossed transactions Child-Parent / Adult-Adult : ± Wow, there there sure sure is a lot of of this crummy crummy garbage to put out! ± Perhaps Perhaps if we make make certain certain to take take it out out twice a week the loads will be more manageable. Child-Child / Parent-Child: ± Don¶t you you really really hate hate the size size of these these crummy garbage cans we have to take out! ± Quit whining whining about it and just just do! do!
Crossed/ Blocked Transaction 45
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U When lterior ransactions the T transaction has a hidden hi dden message and it hooks the ego state the hidden message was going for and for not the one the overt message was aimed at. Ulterior message is more important to the sender than the overt message.
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U lterior Social level:Transactions Stimulus: Would you do this for me? Response: Yes, I will Psychological level: Stimulus: I want this done, Son. Response: O.K. dad.
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Transaction
tips at work
Try mostly to keep Adult to Adult Do divert to Natural child to Natural child sometimes (holidays, sports, music etc.) Don¶t get into Critical parent to adaptive child ³You haven¶t given me any reason for«´ Nor nurturing parent to adaptive child ³I agree threshold assessment is a nonsense´
Certainly do not do adaptive child to nurturing parent ³I¶m sorry I have to ask this, but the «.demands this´ Nor critical parent to critical parent ³I agree,young people today are illiterate´
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eXERCISE From the undernoted communications, indicate whether the Boss (B) seems to be in his P/A/C± X: How do you like the new filing system I have just set up? B: You spend much time in deciding how to do things. You just do it and be done with it.
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X: How do you like the new filing system I have just set up? B: I really like it. I wish I had system like it when I had your job 5 years ago.
X: How do you like the new filing system I have just set up? B: Poor boy! You must have worked all day to set up that system. Can I help you to catch up your other work?
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Exercise
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Imagine one co-worker is unexpectedly patted your back. W hat ego state is shown by each of the following responses. 1.You think I would like to know what made him do that. 2.You respond silently µthat feels good¶. 3.Suddenly you feel a mental voice saying¶ Never let anyone touch you. Familiarity breeds contempt¶.
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LIFE POSITIONS Depending on the understanding of the ego states individuals can understand their life positions. As per transactional analysis, there are four life positions.
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Life
Positions:
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I AM OK,YOU ARE NOT OK Attitude- ³I am always right´ Generally operates from high critical parent and rebellious child ego states Highly prescriptive Any disagreement arouses a strong reaction.
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I AM NOT OK,YOU ARE OK. Quite submissive
Less innovative Lacks risk taking responsibilities Operates mostly from compliant child ego
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I AM NOT O.K,YOU ARE NOT O.K Most destructive life position Very low µadult ego¶ state and other ego states are also not functionally distributed Helpless, depressed, miserable,suicidal,feel miserable, lack of confidence Do not trust others
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I AM OK,YOU ARE OK High emotional intelligence (EQ) most healthy life position Express confidence in self and trust in others Ego states ±nurturing parent, adult and happy child ego states
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Stroking The Types of Strokes You Seek Depend on Your Okayness
POSITIVE STROKES
NEGATIVE STROKES
PRAISE
PUT-DOWNS
COMPLEMENTS
CRITICISM
RECOGNITION
DEGRADING
AFFECTION
RIDICULE
REWARDS
SCOLDING
SYMPATHY
PUNISHMENT
CONSOLATION
DISCOUNTING
SELF-SATISFACTION FROM JOB WELL DONE
CONDITIONAL STROKES STROKES WITH ULTERIOR MOTIVES
STROKES GIVEN FOR WHAT YOU DO, RATHER THAN FOR WHAT YOU ARE:
(1)
PERFORMANCE ORIENTED STROKE
(2)
ACCOMODATION & CONFORMITY ORIENTED STROKES
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The
Johari Window: A Model for SelfUnderstanding Model considers that there is information
you and others know only you know about yourself only others know about you nobody knows
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The hari Window Jowillingness Your or unwillingness to engage is self-disclosure, and listen to feedback, has a lot to do with your understanding of yourself and others¶ understanding of you.
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Figure 8.2 Johari
Window
Figure 8.2
Source: Joseph Luft, Group Processes: An Introduction to Group Dynamics. Copyright © 1984. Mayfield Publishing Company. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
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The
Four Panes of the Johari Window Open Blind Hidden Unknown
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Open Area the ³public´ or ³awareness´ area Represents and contains information that both you and others know Information that you don¶t mind admitting Gets bigger over time as relationships mature
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Open Area
A productive relationship is related to the amount of mutually held information Building a relationship involved expanding this area
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Blind Area Information about yourself that others know but you are not yet aware Others may see you differently than you see yourself Effective relations strive to reduce this area Open communication encourages people to give you feedback
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Hidden Area Information that you know that others do not Private feelings, needs, and past experiences that you prefer to keep to yourself If this area is too large, you can be perceived as lacking authenticity
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Unknown Area Information that is unknown to you and to others Areas of unrecognized talent, motives, or early childhood memories that influence your behavior Always present, never disappears Open communication can expose some of this area
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Johari Window The four panes are interrelated Changes to one pane impact the size of the others As relationships develop, the open area should grow
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Self-Disclosure/ Feedback Styles Two communication processes within our control that impact relationships: 1. Self-disclosure of thoughts, ideas, and feelings 2. Seeking feedback from others
Characteristics of using both effectively:
candor openness mutual respect
Figure 8.3 Johari Window at the Beginning of a Relationship (left) and After a Closer Relationship Has Developed (right)
Figure 8.3
Source: Joseph Luft, Group Processes: An Introduction to Group Dynamics © 1984. Mayfield Publishing Company. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
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IMPROVING PERCEPTIONS
Objective is to increase size of open area: a. Disclosure ²tell others about yourself b. Feedback ²receive information from others about yourself found in the blind area
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IMPROVING PERCEPTIONS
Applying the Johari W indow a. diversity awareness²interacting with others b. the 360-degree feedback process c. dialogue²sharing perceptions
Group Interventions Aimed at the process, content or structure of the group. Include comments, questions or observations about group membership, agenda setting, review etc.
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Criteria for process consultation Inability to identify or resolve issues Unsure about available consultancy services Probability that the client will benefit Client and consultant have compatible goals Client ultimately knows what interventions are most applicable Client can learn how to assess and resolve his or her own problems.
Results
of PC
Performed with groups performing mental tasks, so difficult to measure If combined with other interventions, results are difficult to evaluate.
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Third-party
intervention
Third-party intervention focuses on conflicts between two or more people Conflict is inherent in groups and is neither good nor bad per se Conflict can enhance motivation and innovation and mutual understanding.
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A cyclical model of conflict (Walton 1987)
Triggering
event
Triggering
Behaviour
Behaviour
event Issues
Issues Consequences Episode 1
Consequences Episode 2
4 1.
strategies of conflict resolution
T o prevent the ignition of the conflict by understanding the triggering factors and avoiding them. 2. To set the limits on the form of the conflict. Eg; to resolve grievances on the weekly meeting 3. Help the parties cope differently with the consequences of the conflict eg; reducing dependence, ventilating feelings to friends , developing additional sources of emotional support. 4. Attempt to eliminate or to resolve the basic issues causing the conflict.
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Team
building
Team building refers to a broad range of planned activities Helps groups improve the way they accomplish tasks Helps group members enhance their interpersonal and problem-solving skills
Team
building activities
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Activities related to one or more individuals Activities oriented to the group¶s operations and behaviours Activities affecting the group¶s relationship with the rest of the organisation
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Types of teams Groups reporting to the same manager Groups involving people with common goals Temporary groups formed to accomplish a single task Groups consisting of people with interdependent roles Groups with no formal links but whose collective purpose requires co-ordination
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Factors affecting outcome of teambuilding activities Length of time allocated to the activity Team¶s willingness to look at the way it operates Length of time the team has been together Permanence of the team
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A Gestalt approach to team building A form of team building that focuses more on individual than the group. Major advocate is Stanley M.Herman Based on psychotherapy developed by Fredrick Perls called ³Gestalt Therapy´ Based on the belief that persons function as whole, total organism. Each person possesses positive and negative characteristics that must be ³owned up to´ and permitted expression
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People get into trouble when they get fragmented Try to live upto the demands of others rather than being themselves. Goals of Gestalt therapy: awareness, integration, maturation , authenticity, self regulation and behavior change Gestalt OD practitioner fosters the expression of positive and negative feelings.
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Techniques and exercises used in team building ROLE A N ALYSIS TECHNIQUE (RAT or RAP): Designed to clarify role expectations and obligations of team members Different roles- different behaviour May not have clear idea of behavior expected from him Technique build by Dayal & Thomas To clarify the roles of top management in a new organization Consensus Focal role
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First step: analysis by individual Role, place in organization, rationale for existence, place in achieving overall organizational goals etc. Discussed with team Addition and deletion Second Step: Incumbent¶s expectation of others Agreed to by gp. Third step: - explicating others¶ expectation and desired behavior
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Written summary is made ± Role profile ± It is (a) A set of activities classified as to the prescribed and discretionary elements of the role (b)The obligation of the role to each role in its set (c) The expectation of this role from others in this set
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RA is a structured exercise to provide: (a) An overall picture of what the role is supposed to achieve and the rationale for the existence of that role (b) The contribution of that role to the achievement of the overall roles (c) The inter-linkages to the other related roles in the organization.
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RA helps the organization to: Bring role clarity to the role occupants Bring clarity across functions between the related roles in the organization Bring greater understanding to the expectations from the focal role as seen by the members who are affected by the performance of the focal role Build trust, collaboration, team spirit and internal customer orientation
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Set
clear objectives for planning of work, its monitoring and review Give and receive objective feedback on performance Facilitate realistic identification of training and development needs Aid potential appraisal, career planning, succession planning.
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Interdependency Exercise Useful if team members have desire to improve cooperation among themselves and other units Latent issues Suppose top 10 people are present:
2 straight lines, facing each other Interview about the importance of interdependence Shifted rows Pairing in the same row Great deal of data for diagnostic purpose.
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Role Negotiation Technique Helps when the causes of team ineffectiveness is based on people¶s behavior that they are unwilling to change Role negotiations intervenes directly in relationships of power, authority and influence within the group The change effort is directed towards work relationships. Assumption is ³most people prefer a fair negotiated statement to a state of unresolved conflict´ One cannot be effective without the help and cooperation of others Others will not help unless they get help and cooperation in return to become effective
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Role Negotiation Technique The
idea
The expectations of others largely decide a person's role. When these are clear, role conflict and role ambiguity can reduce. Everyone knows what everyone else expects. Role negotiation is a process for clarifying these expectations. You negotiate with an individual not a group. The method Each person w rites dow n privately the following: - In order for me to achieve my objective ( For example to contribute effectively to the work), I would like you to: -
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Do these three things................................................... ............................................................. .... Keep doing these three things................................................... .................................................... Stop doing these three things................................................... ...................................................... Each person then shares their information with their partner. At this stage just listen and seek clarification, don't argue or get defensive! It helps to have equal time to talk. The parties now negotiate their expectations. A party can: -
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Say "Of course I will accede to your request". This would be sensible if the request is easy and gives you an immediate benefit. Say "I can't do that because......" The request might violate your values, by being (say) unethical, or it might be politically impossible.. Say "I would be prepared to meet your request if you would help me with this one of mine". The request might not give you an immediate benefit and demand work. Acceding would help your colleague and the team. You would also get something back directly. 4 The parties record and preferably d is play their agreements. This helps people to follow through with their decisions.
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The Appreciations and concerns exercise One deficiency :lack of expression of appreciation Another is avoidance of confronting concerns and irritations Steps 1. Each member to jot down 1-3 appreciations for each gp. Member 2. 1-2 irritations 3. Facilitator may make suggestions 4. 1 Volunteer ± all mention appr. & concerns about him 5. Each group member listens inturn.
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Responsibility Charting RACI Charting
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Objectives To understand the need for and an d ultimately the benefits of having clearly defined roles and responsibilities To be able to analyze and develop an effective RACI chart
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So What is
RACI Charting?
A systematic and participative technique to: Identify all functions (activities, tasks, and decisions) that have to be accomplished ac complished for effective operation Clarify roles and individual levels of participation in relation to each function Develop best methods for individuals to fill these roles
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Therefore,
With Clear Roles and Responsibilities, We Should Expect to See... Increased productivity through well defined accountability Increased capacity by eliminating overlaps and redundancies Less confusion/misunderstandings by encouraging teamwork Streamlined work process by eliminating eliminating unnecessary interfaces and assigning assigning µaccountability¶ where it belongs Improved organization organization effectiveness by allowing disciplines to cooperate and share responsibility
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Unclear Roles
and Responsibilities Result in Comments Like These... ³My boss always overrules my decisions whenever he/she wants´ ³The approval process for even the simplest item takes so long today´ ³It seems every department has someone putting together a spreadsheet on the same data´ ³Things are always slipping through the cracks´ ³I have theand responsibility, but not authority, Clear Clear roles responsibilities can bethe identified RACI charting to get thethrough job done´
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RESPONSIBLE: R:
Responsible
A: Accountable C:
Consult
I:
Inform
Do The Job.
Execute.
These are the individuals who actually complete the task or activity and are responsible for action and/or implementation. Responsibility is often shared, with each individual¶s degree of responsibility determined by the individual with the ³A´.
. Ultimate Ownership. R:
Responsible
A:
Accountable This is the individual who carries the ³yes´ or ³no´ authority and has full veto power for an activity. It is important to clarify the levels of accountability and to distinguish between management accountability and operational accountability. Only one ³A´ can be assigned to a task or activity and authority must accompany accountability.
C:
Consult
I:
Inform
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CONSULT: Communication Before.
In The
Loop. R:
Responsible
A:
Accountable
C:
Consult
These are the individuals who must be consulted prior to a final decision or action. ³Consult´ implies two-way communication.
I:
Inform
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INFORM: Need To Know. Do Not Change The Decision. R:
Responsible
A:
Accountable
C:
Consult
I:
Inform
These are the individuals who need to be informed after a decision or action is taken because they, in turn, may take action or make a decision based on the output. ³Inform´ is FYI and implies only one-way communication.
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RACI Chart for the Grading/Regrading
Regrading Activities Activities 1 Prepare/ revise job description description 2 Validate Validate request and decide decide to continue continue
t m g M e i n L AR I
v e i t t a n e R e s H p r R e P H R V
I L S R H P V
e i v t e t a n e t e t g i i n m e s r d B p r a o m & e C R G C
C AR
Grading I I I
3 Check f or simila similarr roles 4 Evaluate new / changed changed role role 5 Schedule Schedule review for gtading gtading Com Comm mittee 6 Decision Decision by Grading Com Commi mittee ttee 7 Add decision and and description description to matrix matrix an databa 8 Inf Inf orm stakeholde stakeholders rs
A A
R I I
I I
A A A
I I I
I I I
C A A
A I
R R R R R R
Grading 28-and above 7 Aproved grade grade by by BoM 8 Add decision and and description description to matrix matrix an databa 9 Inf Inf orm stakeholde stakeholders rs
A
R R R
R = Responsible (execute) execute) A = Accountable (Yes (Yes or No) No) C = Consulted before I = Informed After
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The 4²Step 1
Process
Determine the activities Prepare a list of functional roles
2
3
4
Develop the RACI chart Get feedback and buy-in (validate)
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Step 1: Determine the Activities There are several sources of activities:
³Current State" or ³Future State" Brown Papers Best Practices Review Functional Decomposition Decomposition Interviews Problem Solving Process
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Guidelines for Developing the Activity or Decision List 1. Avoid 2.
obvious or generic activities, e.g., ³attending meetings´
Each activity or decision should begin with a good action verb. Examples: Evaluate Record Update Develop Report
3.
Schedule Determine Collect Inspect Review
Write Operate Approve Train Authorize
Monitor Prepare Conduct Publish Decide
When the action verb implies a judgment or decision (e.g., evaluate, monitor, inspect, review) add a phrase to indicate the primary outcome. Examples: - ³Monitor phone service handling of customer requests to identify training needs´ - ³Analyze data to locate source of delay´
4. Activities
or decisions should be short, concise, and apply to a role or need, and in general not to a specific person
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Step 2: Prepare List of Functional Roles Roles can be individuals, groups, or entire departments Roles can include people outside the department or even outside the company if appropriate
Suppliers Customers Roles may be based on the ³current state" organization or the ³future state" organization depending on your purpose
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the RRoles Step 3: Develop Functional ACI A Activities
(Or Tasks) / Decisions
A
R
I
A
Chart
R
R
C
R
C
I
R
R
R
C
A
R
A
I I
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Guidelines for Developing a (To-Be)
RACI Chart
Remember new µculture¶ philosophy when defining roles and responsibilities: Eliminate ³checkers checking checkers´ Encourage teamwork 100% accuracy not always required Place µaccountability¶ (A) and µresponsibility¶ (R) at the lowest feasible level There can be only one accountability per activity Authority must accompany accountability Minimize the number of µconsults¶ (C) and µinforms¶ (I) All roles and responsibilities must be documented and communicated
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Vertical Analysis: Chart Analysis
and
Review If You Find:
Then Ask:
No R's or A's
Should this functional eliminated? Have processes changed to a resources should be re-utilized?
role be point where
Lots of R's
Can the functional role much? Can the activity be broken more manageable
No Empty Spaces
Does the individual(s) need to be so many activities? Could µmanagement by exception¶ principles be used, perhaps reducing to I's?
involved in C's
stay on top of so decision / into smaller, functions?
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Too many A's Does a proper "segregation of duties´ exist? Should other groups be accountable for some of these activities to ensure checks and balances and accurate decision making throughout the process? Is this a ³bottleneck´ in the process and is everyone waiting for decisions or direction? Qualifications Does the type or degree of participation fit the qualifications of the functional role?
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Horizontal Analysis:
Chart Analysis
and Review
Then Ask: If You Find: Is job getting done? Some roles may be waiting to No R's approve, be consulted, or informed. No one sees their role to take the initiative. Too many R¶s
Is this a sign of ³over the wall´ activities? ³Just get it off my desk ASAP!´
No A's
should be
Why not? There must be an 'A'. Accountability pushed down to the most appropriate level.
Too many A¶s confusion because should be
Is there confusion? ³I thought you had it!´ It also creates every person with an ³A´ has a different view of how it is or done.
Too few A¶s & R¶s performed
The process must slow down while the activity is on an ³ad hoc´ basis. Or the procedure may be outdated or it can be streamlined if not needed.
Lots of C's Do all the functional roles really need to be consulted? benefits in consulting all the functional roles? Are there justifiable Lots of I's or
Do all the functional roles need to be only in exceptional circumstances?
routinely informed
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Step 4:
Obtain
Feedback and ´ Buy²Inµ
The RACI chart is shown to people that represent the functional roles on the chart These individuals are asked for their input, and the RACI chart is revised as appropriate The RACI chart may be validated in conjunction with the other products generated by the Process Teams
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Common Errors
µRACI¶ everything (instead of thinking about what is value-added) Do not take into account that people are trying to justify their jobs Do not eliminate the "coordinators & consolidators" Do not use enough µaction¶ verbs in constructing the ³Activities´ list Do not understand it will change Do not consider "interface" issues Learn about it in training and think they can do it without practice
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An Example: Employee Expense
Statement Processing Functional Roles RE ION SECRETAR Y SUPERVISOR ACCOUNT IN
Activities
EMPLOYEE
1. Document Expenses
AR
2.
Complete Expense Acct. Form
AR
3.
Forward To Supervisor
A
4.
Review
C
AR
I
AR
5. Approve 6. Forward To Region Accounting 7. Classify Expenses 8. Audit 9.
Determine Payment Type
I
C
R
R C
ENERAL ACCOUNTIN
A
I
AR AR AR
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Section B Organisation process approaches Confrontation meeting Intergroup relations Large-group intervention Grid® Organization Development Normative approach
Confrontation
meeting
Designed to mobilize the resources of the entire organization to identify problems, set priorities and action targets and begin working on identified problems Developed by Beckhard. Particularly useful when organization is in stress and when there is a gap between top and rest of the organization.
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Confrontation meeting process Schedule the meeting Create a master list Create groups representing multiple perspectives
Set ground rules Groups identify problems and opportunities Report out to the large group
Form problem-solving groups Rank the issues and opportunities, develop an action plan, specify timetable
Provide periodic reports to large group
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Intergroup relations: Microcosm Groups Small groups that solve problems in the larger system Small group member characteristics must reflect the issue being addressed (e.g. if addressing diversity, group must be diverse) Primary mechanism for change is `parallel processes¶
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Microcosm groups: steps for implementation Identify an issue Convene the group Provide group training Address the issue Dissolve the group
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Resolving intergroup conflict Convening to address issues within set time limits Groups work independently to answer questions and clarify Groups discuss discrepancies and contributions Groups work to develop action plans for key areas.
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Large-group interventions Steps for implementation Preparing for the large-group meeting Conducting the meeting Follow-up on the meeting outcomes
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Grid® Organization Development (Blake and Mouton) Phase 1: The Grid seminar Phase 2: Teamwork development Phase 3: Intergroup development Phase 4: Developing an ideal strategic organisation model Phase 5: Implementing the ideal strategic model Phase 6: Systematic critique
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