Problemas de Hoyo TEMA VII: PROBLEMAS DE HOYO.
En muchos casos, aunque se disponga de los mejores equipos, herramientas, materiales, tecnología y personal capacitado durante la perforación del pozo, pueden presentarse una serie de problemas que en algunos casos pueden ser difíciles de resolver y además ocasionan altos costosos. Estos problemas están asociados con la formación, las condiciones operacionales y los problemas mecánicos en el hoyo que puedan impedir que las operaciones de perforación continúen. Entre los más comunes se encuentran: derrumbes de la formación o inestabilidad del hoyo, pérdidas de circulación parcial o total del fluido de perforación, desviación crítica del hoyo, atascamiento de la sarta de perforación o desprendimiento de una parte de la misma, arremetidas, y reventones. Prevenir estas situaciones que puedan alterar el ritmo de la perforación y los costos asociados en el proceso es el principal interés para el personal del taladro; ya que sino son controladas a tiempo o el operador no puede solucionarlas utilizando las técnicas convencionales, pueden causar la pérdida total del pozo; por lo que hay que tener en cuenta que mientras una técnica de remediación es beneficiosa para un problema quizás para otro no lo sea. Uno de los principales problemas durante la perforación del pozo es ocasionado cuando la sarta de perforación o una herramienta se atasca en el hoyo. En estos casos se deben utilizar herramientas especiales para recuperarlas, lo cual puede ocasionar daño a la formación. Sin embargo, algunas formaciones pueden ser dañadas forzando fluido de perforación a través de ella, cuando se utiliza una presión de sobrebalance muy grande mientras se perfora, logrando que la permeabilidad de la roca disminuya en las cercanías del hoyo. Esta situación también puede ocasionar pérdidas de circulación cuando se encuentra una formación muy porosa y permeable. 17
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Problemas de Hoyo
Por otra parte, una presión inesperada en el subsuelo; puede ocasionar una arremetida en el hoyo, así como también las operaciones de viaje de tubería, específicamente cuando se extrae la sarta del hoyo, ya que disminuye el nivel de fluido de perforación en el pozo, provocando que la presión disminuya en el fondo, lo que se conoce como presiones de achique. En ambas situaciones se pierde el sobrebalance en el pozo y los fluidos fluyen hacia la superficie de manera descontrolada. El influjo o arremetida puede ser de petróleo, agua o gas, sin embargo, cuando esta es causada por gas natural o sulfuro de hidrógeno, puede ser más peligrosa. Cuando esta situación ocurre tan rápido que los perforadores no tienen tiempo de cerrar los impiderreventones se produce un reventón en el pozo. Por el contrario si los impiderreventones son cerrados a tiempo, es posible bombear un fluido de perforación de mayor densidad para circular el influjo.
7.1- Conceptos de Presión
Los gases y los líquidos son fluidos, que pueden estar en movimiento o en reposo (estáticos), pero aunque estén en reposo la masa, las partículas, los átomos y las moléculas están en continua agitación por lo que ejercen presión sobre las superficies que los contienen[1]. La presión es un término empleado comúnmente en la industria petrolera y para definirlo se debe recurrir a la noción más elemental de fuerza: La presión es la magnitud que indica cómo se distribuye la fuerza sobre la superficie a la cual está aplicada [2]. La magnitud de la presión se puede calcular, de manera general, dividiendo la intensidad de la fuerza por el área de la superficie, mediante la ecuación 7.1:
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Problemas de Hoyo
Donde: P: presión. F: fuerza. A: área. Existen varios tipos de presiones y cada una de ellas depende del medio que proporcione la fuerza. A continuación se definirán los conceptos de presión más comunes que pueden ser encontrados durante la perforación de un pozo.
7.1.1.-Presión Hidrostática
Es la presión que ejerce el peso de una columna de fluido sobre las paredes y el fondo del recipiente que lo contiene. Cuando actúa en un punto determinado de un fluido en reposo provoca una fuerza perpendicular a las paredes del recipiente y a la superficie de cualquier objeto sumergido que esté presente. Su valor es directamente proporcional a la densidad del fluido y a la altura de la columna medida verticalmente. Las dimensiones y geometría de esta columna no tienen efecto en la presión hidrostática, es decir, su valor es independiente de la forma del recipiente que lo contiene. En la Figura 7.1, se muestran las fuerzas que ejerce un fluido en equilibrio sobre las paredes del recipiente y sobre un cuerpo sumergido. En todos los casos, la fuerza es perpendicular a la superficie.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Figura 7.1: Efectos de la Presión Hidrostática [1].
Todos los líquidos pesan, por ello cuando están contenidos en un recipiente las capas superiores oprimen a las inferiores, generándose una presión debida al peso. La ecuación para determinar la presión hidrostática depende de las unidades en que esté expresada la densidad del fluido de perforación y la altura de la columna hidrostática. Se puede determinar de manera general usando la ecuación 7.2: PH = FC B ρ B h
(7.2)
Donde: presión hidrostática. : factor de conversión. ρ : densidad del fluido.
: altura de la columna hidrostática. Las unidades dependen del sistema de clasificación de medidas en que se quieran expresar dichas magnitudes. Las unidades más comunes utilizadas en campo son:
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Problemas de Hoyo
Donde: : presión hidrostática, lpc. ρ: densidad del fluido, lb/gal.
h: altura de la columna hidrostática, pie. Y se aplica sólo cuando el fluido está en reposo, es decir, cuando no hay circulación.
7.1.2.- Presión de Sobrecarga
Es la presión ejercida por el peso de la matriz de la roca y los fluidos contenidos en los espacios porosos sobre una formación particular. La Figura 7.2 muestra la dirección en la que actúa el peso de sobrecarga sobre el espacio poroso y los fluidos contenidos en él.
Figura 7.2: Presión de Sobrecarga [3].
La formación debe ser capaz de soportar mecánicamente las cargas bajo las cuales está sometida en todo momento. La presión de sobrecarga es función principalmente
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Problemas de Hoyo
7.1.3.- Presión de Formación
También conocida como presión de poro, presión del yacimiento o presión de la roca; es la presión ejercida por los fluidos o gases contenidos en los espacios porosos de las rocas [4]. El peso de sobrecarga afecta las presiones de la formación, puesto que este es capaz de ejercer presión en los granos y los poros de la roca. La presión de formación se clasifica de acuerdo a su valor de gradiente de presión en: normal, subnormal y anormal [3]; según el rango de valores indicado en la Figura 7.3.
SUBNORMAL
NORMAL
ANORMAL
0.433 lpc/ lpc/ pie
0.465 lpc/ lpc/ pie
Agua Dulce
Agua Salada
Figura 7.3: Rangos de Valores de Gradiente de Presión [3].
Presión Normal
[4]
: se dice que la presión de poro es normal cuando la formación
ejerce una presión igual a la columna hidrostática de fluido contenido en los poros de la misma. Las presiones normales son causadas principalmente por el peso de la columna hidrostática de la formación que va desde el punto donde se ejerce presión hasta la superficie. La mayor parte de la sobrecarga en las formaciones con presión normal es soportada por los granos que conforman la roca. El gradiente de presión de los fluidos de la formación generalmente se encuentra en un rango que va desde 0,433 lpc/pie hasta 0.465 lpc/pie, y varía de acuerdo con la región geológica.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Para entender las fuerzas responsables de estas presiones que soportan los fluidos en el subsuelo, se deben considerar los procesos geológicos que ocurrieron previamente. Los que tienen mayor relación con la presión de la formación son los siguientes: • Deposición : a medida que el material detrítico es llevado por los ríos hasta el mar,
se libera de suspensión y se deposita en el suelo. Inicialmente los sedimentos formados no están consolidados ni compactados por lo tanto las formaciones resultantes tienen una porosidad y permeabilidad relativamente alta. A través del espacio entre los granos, el agua de mar mezclada con estos sedimentos se mantiene comunicada con la formación generando una presión igual a la columna hidrostática del agua, lo cual ocasiona presiones normales en la formación. • Compactación :
una vez que la deposición ha ocurrido, el peso de las partículas
sólidas a lo largo de la columna estratigráfica es soportado en los puntos de contacto de los granos presentes en la matriz, por lo tanto lo sólidos formados durante este proceso geológico no influyen en la presión hidrostática ejercida por los fluidos en los espacios porosos y la presión de la formación no se ve afectada. Por otra parte, a mayor profundidad de enterramiento, los granos de la roca previamente depositados están sujetos a incrementar su presión. Esto causa un reordenamiento en la matriz de la roca trayendo como consecuencia el cierre de los
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Problemas de Hoyo
Presión de Formación Subnormal
[5]
: ocurre cuando la presión de la formación
es menor que la presión normal, generalmente con gradientes menores a 0,433 lpc/pie. Pueden encontrarse en formaciones someras, parcial o completamente agotadas y en aquellas que afloran en superficie. Esto indica que estas presiones existen, bien sea, en áreas con bajas presiones de sobrecarga o en depósitos calcáreos. Formaciones con presiones subnormales pueden ser desarrolladas cuando la sobrecarga ha sido erosionada, dejando la formación expuesta a la superficie.
Presión de Formación Anormal :
las formaciones con presión anormal ejercen
una presión mayor que la presión hidrostática de los fluidos contenidos en la formación. Se caracterizan por el movimiento restringido de los fluidos en los poros, es decir, es imposible que la formación pueda liberar presión; de lo contrario se convertirían en formaciones de presión normal. Para que esto ocurra debe existir un mecanismo de entrampamiento que permita generar y mantener las presiones anormales en el sistema roca-fluidos. Teóricamente el gradiente de presión en una formación de presión anormal varía entre 0,465 y 1,0 lpc/pie, por lo que cuando se genera un aumento en la presión de poro, generalmente no excede un gradiente de presión igual 1,0 lpc/pie [5].
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Problemas de Hoyo
Para entender el origen de las presiones anormales se han propuestos diversos mecanismos que tienden a explicar las causas geológicas que provocaron estas presiones: • Efecto de Sobrecarga o Compactación : es ocasionado en la mayoría de los casos
por las altas tasas de sedimentación. En general, a medida que ocurre la deposición, las capas superiores van generando sobrecarga en las capas inferiores, esto hace que la porosidad de la formación disminuya continuamente y vayan expulsándose los fluidos contenidos en ella. Cuando los sedimentos se depositan a mayor velocidad de la que pueden ser expulsados los fluidos del espacio poroso, la sobrecarga es soportada parcialmente por la presión de poro, causando presiones anormalmente altas [4]. • Actividad Tectónica:
cuando ocurren grandes movimientos tectónicos pueden
generarse fallas en la formación que pueden sellarla evitando así el escape de los fluidos del espacio intersticial [4]. • Efectos Diagenéticos:
la diagénesis es un término que se refiere a la alteración
química de los minerales de la roca por procesos geológicos. Las lutitas y carbonatos, sufren cambios en su estructura cristalina, lo cual da como resultado que se formen presiones anormales en la formación. Por ejemplo, la transformación de arcillas
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Problemas de Hoyo
concentración a una de alta. Durante este proceso la presión caerá en la formación de baja salinidad y aumentará en la formación más salina creando presiones anormales [4].
7.1.4.- Presión de Fractura
Es la máxima presión que resiste la matriz de la formación antes de abrirse o fracturarse en un punto específico del hoyo, es decir, la capacidad que tienen las formaciones expuestas en un pozo para soportar la presión del fluido de perforación más cualquier presión añadida desde la superficie bien sea de forma intencional o no. Por lo tanto, si la presión en el hoyo es mayor que la presión de fractura de la formación esta se abrirá ocasionando la pérdida del fluido. Para que ocurra la fractura es necesario que la presión ejercida sobre la formación sea mayor al esfuerzo efectivo de ésta, es decir, debe ser mayor que la suma de la presión de poro más la componente horizontal de la presión de sobrecarga. Es importante determinar la presión de fractura de una formación porque a través de ella se pueden conocer parámetros de control del pozo y planificar adecuadamente cualquier operación que se desee realizar en el mismo como por ejemplo desde la velocidad de los viajes de tuberías o el control de una arremetida. Algunas ventajas
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Problemas de Hoyo 7.1.5.- Diferencial de Presión
[6]
Es la diferencia de presión entre la presión hidrostática (PH) y la presión de la formación (PF) ejercida por el fluido de perforación en el fondo del pozo. Se puede determinar utilizando la ecuación 7.4: ΔP = P H @ P F
(7.4)
Se clasifica en tres tipos:
Presión en Balance :
se dice que la presión en el hoyo está en balance cuando la
presión hidrostática (PH) ejercida sobre el fondo del pozo es igual a la presión de la formación (PF) (ver Figura 7.4a).
Presión en Sobrebalance :
se dice que la presión en el hoyo está en sobrebalance
cuando la presión hidrostática ejercida en el fondo del pozo (PH) es mayor que la presión de la formación (PF) (ver Figura 7.4b). La mayoría de los pozos son perforados en condiciones de sobrebalance para evitar el
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Problemas de Hoyo
objetivo final como por ejemplo: disminución de la tasa de penetración, la posibilidad de atascamiento diferencial y pérdida de circulación del pozo, los cuales se explicarán más adelante.
Presión en Bajobalance :
se dice que la presión en el hoyo está bajobalance si la
presión hidrostática ejercida en el fondo del pozo (PH) es menor que la presión de la formación (PF) (Ver Figura 7.4c). Cuando se perfora un pozo en condiciones de bajo balance, las pérdidas de circulación se reducen al máximo, por lo que la posibilidad de fracturar la formación disminuye considerablemente.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Simplificando se obtiene la ecuación 7.6: G L = 0,052 B ρ
(7.6)
Donde: GL: gradiente del liquido, lpc/pie. ρ: densidad del fluido, lb/gal.
La presión de formación puede ser el principal factor que afecte las operaciones de la perforación. Si esta presión no es conocida apropiadamente, puede ocasionar problemas en la perforación como pérdidas de circulación, reventones, atascamiento de tuberías, e inestabilidad de hoyo. Todos estos problemas se tratarán más adelante. Desafortunadamente, no es fácil conocer con precisión los valores de la presión de la formación debido a la existencia de presiones anormales o subnormales [7].
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Problemas de Hoyo 7.2.1.- Problemas de Hoyo Durante los Procesos de Viajes de Tuberías
El proceso de hacer viajes consiste en sacar o introducir la sarta de perforación en el fondo del hoyo con el propósito de retirar o reemplazar la mecha desgastada, colocar un revestidor en el hoyo o para realizar otras operaciones relacionadas con la perforación del pozo. Durante este proceso es necesario considerar el procedimiento operacional, las presiones de surgencia, presiones de achique y el llenado correcto del hoyo.
7.2.1.1.- Presión de Surgencia
También llamada presión de compresión, se origina cuando la sarta de perforación, o el revestidor se introduce en el hoyo, ocasionando que el fluido de perforación situado debajo de la mecha sea forzado a salir a la superficie por el espacio anular
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Problemas de Hoyo
En la Figura 7.5, se muestra el esquema mecánico del movimiento de la sarta de perforación que genera la presión de surgencia. La Figura 7.5a muestra como se baja la sarta dentro del pozo antes de llegar a la zapata del último revestidor cementado. En la Figura 7.5b se muestra la sarta de perforación una vez que ha pasado la profundidad de la zapata. En la Figura 7.5c, se fractura la formación en su zona más débil producto de bajar la sarta a una velocidad mayor de la permitida, y ocurre la invasión del fluido de perforación hacia la formación.
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Problemas de Hoyo
genera una invasión de fluidos de la formación (puntos rojos) hacia el hoyo. En la Figura 7.6c, aumenta la invasión de los fluidos de la formación debido a la presión de succión generada mientras se saca la sarta de perforación.
Figura 7.6: Esquema mecánico de la sarta de perforación durante la generación de presión de achique[3].
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Problemas de Hoyo
El cálculo de las presiones de surgencia y achique es difícil debido a la forma en que se mueven los fluidos y la tubería en el hoyo. Cuando se efectúa un viaje o se corre un revestidor se genera una situación en la cual la tubería se mueve a través del fluido más que el fluido a través de la tubería. El patrón de flujo que domina este movimiento puede ser laminar o turbulento dependiendo de la velocidad a la que se mueve la tubería. Las presiones de surgencia y achique se pueden determinar cuando la velocidad del fluido en la tubería se rige bajo las condiciones de flujo laminar. Para ello se han
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Problemas de Hoyo
Otra presión de surgencia negativa ocurrió mientras el revestidor fue levantado por las cuñas. Los análisis teóricos muestran que puede ser debido a la rotura de los geles del fluido de perforación o a efectos inerciales (punto a) [7].
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Problemas de Hoyo
saliendo del hoyo. Si la sección inferior de la tubería está cerrada, la magnitud de la tasa de flujo total, de manera general, viene dada por la ecuación 7.7 [8]: 2
q t = vt
Donde: q t : tasa del fluido de perforación. v t : velocidad con que viaja la tubería. d1 : diámetro de la tubería.
πdf fff ffffff 1f
4
(7.7)
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Problemas de Hoyo
d vfffffff e dpffffffffffff ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff b c dL 1.000 d d μ
f
=
a
+
vf fff tf 2
2
2@ 1
Donde: d pffff f fffff:ffffpresión de surgencia por unidad de longitud, lpc/pie. d L μ : viscosidad plástica del fluido de perforación, cp.
fffffff va : velocidad del fluido de perforación en el anular, pie/seg.
(7.9)
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Problemas de Hoyo 7.2.1.3.- Llenado de Hoyo
[9]
Generalmente los problemas que se presentan al tratar de mantener el hoyo completamente lleno de fluido durante la extracción e inserción de la sarta de perforación son la causa fundamental del 50% al 70% de todos los reventones registrados en la industria. A medida que se extrae la sarta, el nivel del fluido de perforación en el hoyo bajará debido al volumen que ésta ocupa, a las pérdidas de fluido que se producen en superficie y a la filtración o pérdida del fluido de perforación hacia las formaciones permeables. Como consecuencia del descenso del
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Problemas de Hoyo
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Problemas de Hoyo 7.2.2.- Problemas de Hoyo Durante las Operaciones de Perforación
Durante las operaciones de perforación del pozo ocurren con frecuencia ciertos
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Problemas de Hoyo
Efectos Químicos :
el intercambio iónico en arcillas como las ilitas, mica,
esmectita, clorita, y capas de arcillas mezcladas pueden causar muchos problemas de inestabilidad de hoyo. Los ingenieros pueden erróneamente simular mecanismos de
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Problemas de Hoyo
El fracturamiento hidráulico (ver Figura 7.9a) puede ocurrir cuando la presión del fluido de perforación es excesivamente alta mientras que la exfoliación (ver Figura 7.9b) usualmente se presenta cuando la presión de poro aumenta más que la presión
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Problemas de Hoyo
tubería [20]. El arpón generalmente se utiliza cuando el espacio anular es tan pequeño que no permite la entrada de una herramienta de tipo enchufe u overshots
[20]
.
La
Figura 7.26 muestra una herramienta de este este tipo.
Figura 7.26: Herramienta arpón o Spear [23].
• Huso de Enroscaje o Tapared Tap
[20]
: es una de las herramientas más antiguas
usadas en las operaciones de pesca y se usan para enroscar el pez dentro de su diámetro interno y luego ser recuperado. Esta herramienta no puede ser liberada por lo tanto sólo debe ser usada cuando el arpón no ofrece una solución efectiva. En la
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Problemas de Hoyo
Figura 7.27: Herramienta Huso de Enroscaje [24].
• Cesta de Desperdicios
[9]
: cuando se pierde en el hoyo una pieza de equipo
relativamente pequeña, es decir, desperdicios; pueden recuperarse con cestas especialmente fabricadas para ello (ver Figura 7.28A). El material que puede clasificarse como desperdicio incluye conos de barrena, dientes, cojinetes, pedazos de escariadores o ensanchadores, cuñas partidas, pedazos de guaya, herramientas manuales, pequeños trozos y astillas provenientes de la tubería de perforación partida y residuos metálicos provenientes del uso de una fresadora (un accesorio que se emplea para cortar y moler pedazos de acero).
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Problemas de Hoyo
desperdicios se tienen las cestas de desperdicio tipo lengüeta y las cestas de circulación reversa. ♦ Cesta de Desperdicios Tipo Lengüeta
[9]
: es una de las herramientas más
antiguas, sencillas, y económicas que se utilizan en las operaciones de pesca. Se conectan en el extremo inferior de la sarta de perforación y cuando se encuentra a unos cuantos pies del fondo del hoyo, se gira lentamente y se baja sobre los desperdicios. Si la cesta escogida es casi del ancho del hoyo, los dedos o lengüetas removerán cualquier desperdicio en las paredes depositándolos en ella. Luego se aplicará peso a la herramienta, haciendo que los dedos biselados se doblen hacia adentro atrapando los desperdicios en su interior. Al extraer la cesta del hoyo, los desperdicios salen junto con ella. ♦ Cestas de Circulación Reversa
[9]
: las cestas de circulación reversa son operadas
a chorro y utilizan el principio de circulación normal de un pozo, es decir, se baja por la sarta de perforación y regresa por el espacio anular junto con los desperdicios (ver Figura 7.28B).
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Problemas de Hoyo • Imanes de Pesca
[9]
: los desperdicios que pueden ser atraídos por un imán pueden
ser extraídos del hoyo mediante un imán de pesca. Los imanes de pesca son herramientas muy poderosas con vías de paso que permiten circular el fluido a través de los mismos. El principio de funcionamiento de estas herramientas es el siguiente: se hace descender el imán en el hoyo hasta estar por encima de los desperdicios. Se inicia la circulación de manera de lavar la parte externa de los desperdicios para facilitar el contacto magnético, una vez limpios, son atraídos y sujetados por el imán. Debajo del imán se colocan diversos tipos de mangas o camisas para evitar que los desperdicios puedan desprenderse mientras se saca el imán del hoyo (retenedor de desperdicios). Igualmente poseen adaptadores, de manera que pueda introducirse a través de un cable fino en vez de utilizar la tubería de perforación. Esto acelera considerablemente las operaciones, puesto que no es necesario enroscar y desenroscar la tubería de perforación en los viajes de penetración y salida del hoyo. En la Figura 7.29 se muestra un corte transversal de un imán de pesca, en el cual se puede apreciar la ubicación del elemento magnético y el retenedor de desperdicios respectivamente.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Herramientas para Lavar
[9]
Muchas veces no es suficiente enganchar el pez solamente, sino que es necesario lavar el pez con el fin de liberarlo. Para ello se usan herramientas para girar el pez y remover cualquier elemento de obstrucción que pueda ser la causa del atascamiento. Entre las herramientas más usadas se encuentran: la cánula y la zapata rotatoria. • Cánula o Washover:
esta herramienta se corre en el hoyo y tiene un calzador
rotatorio que remueve la lutita o capa de esta que ocasiona el atascamiento de tubería en las paredes del hoyo, sin embargo, si toda la capa que se encuentra en las paredes del hoyo sostiene a la tubería y esta es removida el hoyo puede fallar. Para prevenir esto se une un conector superior denominado back-off conector en la parte superior de la tubería atascada y al lado de la cánula. Este aparato rota separadamente de la cánula y protege el tope de la herramienta atascada [20]. La cánula o washover se debe emplear con mucho cuidado, ya que el mal uso de ella puede originar atascamiento de la misma sino se presta la atención adecuada. Finalmente después que toda la lutita y las capas de la misma son removidas de las paredes del hoyo, la cánula y la tubería de perforación (asegurada al lado de la cánula) son extraídas del hoyo simultáneamente herramienta de este tipo.
[21]
. La Figura 7.30 muestra una
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Problemas de Hoyo
Figura 7.30: Cánula o Washover [24].
Zapata Rotatoria o Rotary Shoes [27]:
es usada para cortar la unión entre dos
objetos y crear un espacio entre ellos, como por ejemplo entre un pez y la pared del hoyo en la cual se encuentra atascado. Están diseñadas para solucionar problemas específicos del hoyo y se insertan en la base de la cánula o washover . La zapata rotatoria puede cortar en la base, en el diámetro interno o externo. Existen dos tipos básicos de zapata rotatoria, la zapata dentada y la zapata quemadora. La zapata dentada se utiliza cuando la severidad del trabajo recae en remover formación para liberar la sarta (ver Figura 7.31a) y la zapata quemadora se utiliza
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Problemas de Hoyo
Figura 7.31: Zapatas Rotatorias. a) Zapata rotatoria dentada. b) Zapata rotatoria quemadora
[27]
.
Herramientas para Cortar
Estas herramientas seccionan la porción superior de una sarta atascada, para así permitir el uso de otros instrumentos y luego recuperar la parte restante [9]. Entre las más usadas se encuentran los cortadores internos y los cortadores externos. Generalmente, se usan cuando se requiere recuperar considerables secciones de tubería de perforación. El mecanismo de funcionamiento de ambos tipos de cortadores sigue la siguiente secuencia: lavado, corte y recuperación de la sección cortada. El corte se realiza a través de un juego de cuchillos rotados por la sarta de perforación [24].
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Problemas de Hoyo • Cortadores Externos:
los cortadores externos se usan en conjunto con una tubería
de limpieza para ir sobre el pez y hacer un corte desde afuera. Existen dos tipos de cortadores externos los operados a presión y los operados mecánicamente. Cuando se hace un corte con este tipo de cortadores la tubería que es cortada puede ser recuperada pero se debe tener mucho cuidado cuando se hace el viaje para extraerla del hoyo En la Figura 7.32a se muestra una herramienta cortadora interna y en la Figura 7.32b una herramienta cortadora externa. En ambas figuras se presenta una vista lateral de la misma.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Herramientas para Fresar
Se usan en aquellos casos en que el pez no ha podido ser removido del hoyo en su forma o tamaño original, por lo que es necesario reducirlo a pedazos pequeños que puedan ser circulados hasta la superficie [9]. Si la parte superior del pez ha sido gravemente dañada o partida, es una práctica común fresar el pez preferiblemente por la parte gruesa, por ejemplo: un refuerzo o una conexión hasta eliminar las irregularidades causadas por la rotura de la tubería, es decir, las fresadoras son necesarias para arreglar la parte superior del pez a fin de que la herramienta de pesca escogida pueda tomarlo con firmeza. Adicionalmente, las fresadoras también se emplean para reacondicionar aquellos peces que no pueden ser recuperados por otros métodos [9]. En la Figura 7.33 se muestra la configuración mecánica de una fresadora desde una vista lateral.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Figura 7.33: Herramienta Fresadora [24].
7.2.3.2.- Abandono de la Pesca [9]:
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Problemas de Hoyo
factibilidad que se tiene de continuar con las operaciones. Entre los costos diarios generados por las operaciones de pesca tenemos:
Costos de alquiler de las herramientas de pesca.
Costos del operador que maneja la herramienta.
Costo diario de operación del taladro.
En muchos casos es necesario comparar diariamente el costo total estimado anteriormente con el costo que se generaría si se tomara la decisión de desviar el hoyo para continuar la perforación. Generalmente si el costo total se acerca al 50% del costo que representa desviar y seguir perforando se recomienda abandonar la pesca.
7.3.- Arremetidas
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Problemas de Hoyo
Antes de reanudar las operaciones de perforación el influjo o arremetida debe ser circulado del hoyo. La circulación de un influjo de agua o petróleo no representa mayor dificultad en comparación con la circulación de un influjo de gas. Un influjo de gas es más complicado de remover debido a la necesidad de permitir la expansión del gas a medida que sube en el anular. Si el influjo del gas no se le permite que se expanda a medida que este sube en el hoyo, la presión de fondo en el hoyo será llevada hasta superficie. Debido a que muy pocos hoyos, revestidores y equipos de superficie pueden resistir una presión igual a la presión de fondo del pozo, se permite que la mayoría de los influjos de gas se expandan [30].
7.3.1.- Causas de una Arremetida [4]
El objetivo principal del control de pozos es la prevención de las arremetidas y el objetivo secundario es detectarla rápidamente para circularla lo más rápido posible y
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Problemas de Hoyo
Existen distintos factores que pueden generar un desbalance de presión hacia el pozo y dar lugar a situaciones que pudieran originar una arremetida. Entre los factores que pueden causar una arremetida se encuentran:
Densidad insuficiente del fluido de perforación.
Llenado inadecuado del hoyo.
Pérdida de circulación.
Presiones de achique durante la extracción de la tubería de perforación.
Las primeras tres son los problemas de mantener el control del pozo a través de la presión hidrostática de la columna de fluido de perforación. La cuarta es debido a los efectos dinámicos que reducen la presión de la columna de fluido de perforación al extraer la tubería del hoyo.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Los indicadores más importantes ocurren durante la perforación y durante los viajes de tubería. Entre los indicadores claves mientras se perfora se tienen [4]:
Aumento en la Tasa de Penetración:
un cambio en el ritmo de la perforación se
debe principalmente a cambio en el tipo de formación que se perfora, siempre y cuando el peso sobre la mecha y la velocidad de rotación se mantengan constantes. También si disminuye el diferencial de presión entre la presión de la columna hidrostática y la presión de la formación, lo cual ocurre al penetrar una formación de mayor presión. Esto produce un aumento en la tasa de penetración, independientemente de que las variables de perforación y el tipo de formación atravesada permanezcan constantes. Generalmente el incremento en la tasa de penetración debido al aumento de la presión de la formación no es tan abrupto como el causado por cambios en la dureza de la formación, pero el perforador debe estar alerta después que haya notado un avance en la tasa de penetración. Particularmente debe estar atento a los otros o tros indicadores de la arremetida descritos a continuación.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Aumento en la Tasa de Retorno: s i
se mantiene constante la tasa de bombeo el
flujo ascendente por el espacio anular deberá ser constante. Pero si el flujo anular aumenta sin un cambio en la tasa de bombeo, entonces el flujo adicional es ocasionado por descarga de fluidos de la formación al hoyo.
Cambio en la Presión y Velocidad de las Bombas:
la señal inicial en la
superficie de que una arremetida esta en proceso puede ser un aumento momentáneo en la presión de la bomba. Este aumento raras veces es percibido debido a su corta duración, pero es registrado en los instrumentos de control y apreciado luego de haberse identificado la arremetida. Posteriormente la entrada de fluidos livianos de la formación hace que la presión hidrostática en el anular baje progresivamente. La bomba no tiene que levantar una columna tan pesada como antes y la presión de esta tiende a disminuir mientras que la velocidad de bombeo aumenta.
Fluido de Perforación Contaminado con Gas:
cuando se detecta en superficie
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Problemas de Hoyo
El pozo no toma volumen adecuado de fluido de perforación cuando el volumen de fluido utilizado para compensar el volumen de la sarta extraída del hoyo durante los viajes es menor que el volumen calculado, es decir, se requiere menor cantidad de fluido de perforación para compensar el volumen perdido durante el proceso de viaje de la tubería lo cual indica que una arremetida está en proceso de ocurrir.
7.3.3.- Equipos de Control de Pozos y Arremetidas [4]
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Problemas de Hoyo 7.3.3.1.- Estranguladores
El estrangulador (choke) es un elemento que controla el caudal de circulación de los fluidos. Al restringir el paso del fluido con un orificio, se genera una contrapresión o fricción extra en el sistema, lo que provee un método del control del caudal del flujo y de la presión del pozo (ver Figura 7.34).
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Problemas de Hoyo
Figura 7.35: Estrangulador manual ajustable [32]
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Problemas de Hoyo
Entre las limitaciones de este tipo de estranguladores se tiene que su uso no es muy frecuente y por ello deben ser revisadas sus condiciones de funcionamiento periódicamente, al menos una vez por semana.
7.3.3.2.- Válvula de Control Hidráulico o HCR
Las válvulas hidráulicas son usadas para contener y transferir el flujo y la presión del fluido de perforación en el sistema hidráulico. Son muy similares a otras válvulas en
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Problemas de Hoyo
de gas hacia dicha localización puede controlarse mediante una válvula de distribución de contrapresión ubicada en la línea del quemador.
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Problemas de Hoyo
tipo, tamaño y número de impiderreventones se selecciona de acuerdo con los requerimientos de cada pozo en particular.
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Problemas de Hoyo
En la posición de apertura máxima el diámetro de la unidad sellante es igual al diámetro interno del impiderreventón. Un sistema de compresión del anillo que opera hidráulicamente lo comprime radialmente ajustándolo al tamaño de la tubería que se
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Problemas de Hoyo • Impiderreventón Tipo Ariete:
cierran el espacio anular en el exterior de una
sarta de perforación en un pozo, moviendo los arietes desde una posición de reposo hasta la posición cerrada alrededor de la tubería de perforación. Los arietes operan
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Problemas de Hoyo
específico de tubería; por lo tanto, los arietes de tubería vienen en diferentes tamaños de acuerdo al diámetro exterior de las tuberías (ver Figura 7.40). Se pueden usar para mantener la tubería de perforación en el hoyo cuando la presión del pozo trata de
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Problemas de Hoyo ♦ Arietes de Corte :
poseen hojillas de corte adheridas a ellos, como su nombre, lo
indica estos arietes cortan la tubería presente el hoyo a medida que cierran y sellan el hoyo abierto. Cuando no hay tubería en el hoyo, los arietes de corte se comportan
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Problemas de Hoyo
Despejando ρLC se obtiene que:
ρLC = ρ +
PCTP fffffffffffffffff 0,052 B h
(7.19)
Donde: ρLC : densidad del lodo de control, lb/gal. ρ : densidad del fluido de perforación original, lb/gal.
PCTP: presión de cierre en la tubería de perforación, lpc. h : altura de la columna hidrostática, pies.
Densidad Equivalente Máxima del Fluido de Perforación:
es la densidad
máxima del fluido de perforación que puede soportar la formación antes de fracturarse y ocasionar pérdidas de circulación en el sistema. La ecuación utilizada para determinarla es:
ρem = ρ +
fffPIP ffffffffffffff 0,052 B hz
Donde: ρem : densidad equivalente máxima del lodo, lb/gal. ρ : densidad del lodo en el hoyo, lb/gal.
PIP: límite de la prueba de integridad de presión, lpc.
(7.20)
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Problemas de Hoyo Máxima Presión Anular permitida en Superficie :
es la máxima presión que se
puede permitir en el espacio anular en superficie antes de fracturar la formación a nivel de la zapata. MPAPS = PF ac @ PHz
(7.21)
Sustituyendo la ecuación 7.3 en la ecuación 7.21 y especificando la densidad equivalente máxima y la densidad original del fluido de perforación se tiene que:
b
c
MPAPS = 0,052 B ρem @ ρ
B
hz
(7.22)
Donde: MPAPS: máxima presión anular permitida en superficie, lpc. ρe ρ
: densidad equivalente máxima del fluido de perforación, lb/gal.
: densidad del lodo, lb/gal.
hz : profundidad vertical a la encuentra la zapata del revestidor, pies.
7.7.- Reventón
Es el flujo incontrolado de los fluidos del yacimiento dentro del hoyo bien sea hacia la superficie o desde una formación a otra (reventón interno) como resultado de un violento o drástico desequilibrio entre la presión de la formación y la presión ejercida por la columna de fluido de perforación, lo cual permite que los fluidos contenidos en el yacimiento irrumpan velozmente hacia el pozo y lleguen a la superficie sin que el personal del taladro tenga tiempo de controlar el flujo. Los reventones son uno de los riesgos más temidos y potencialmente más costoso de los que puede suceder durante
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Problemas de Hoyo
7.7.1.- Causas de un Reventón
Todos los reventones se originan de una arremetida que no puede ser controlada en superficie, bien sea por errores humanos y/o fallas mecánicas, es decir cuando el personal no aplica a tiempo una contrapresión mayor a la presión del yacimiento para controlar los fluidos en ascenso o cuando el equipo impiderreventones falla o es insuficiente [36]. Muchas veces el error humano más común es subestimar el riesgo existente, esto ocurre cuando el personal encargado de la perforación del pozo no se impresiona con la arremetida y por lo tanto, no toma las acciones pertinentes para evitar el reventón, porque no tienen verdadero temor de que éste suceda. En lo referente a las fallas mecánicas, además de producirse en los equipos impiderreventones, también pueden generarse errores debido a defectos de fábrica, errores en la instalación o por el mantenimiento inadecuado [36]. Los reventones pueden ocurrir en superficie o dentro del pozo (reventones internos). Cada uno de ellos presenta diferentes características y por ende requieren de la aplicación de técnicas de control apropiadas.
7.7.2.- Reventones Externos
Los reventones externos ocurren cuando los fluidos generados por la formación no se pueden controlar en el pozo y se produce la salida a la atmosfera. En general se ahorra tiempo y dinero si un reventón en superficie puede ser matado usando los equipos existentes en el pozo. La intervención en superficie incluye equipos de
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Problemas de Hoyo
Incendios en el Pozo : influenciadas por las noticias y los medios de comunicación
las personas generalmente perciben un reventón como una explosión masiva seguida por un incendio alrededor del pozo. En la industria petrolera el fuego no está asociado con todos los reventones, incluso pudiera sorprender que quizás el 85% o más de todos los reventones nunca ocasione fuego. La principal razón es que el agua movible del yacimiento fluye mezclada con los hidrocarburos y esto inhibe sino es que previene por completo la combustión. Pero el fuego puede ocurrir si la relación oxígeno/combustible soporta la combustión y existe una fuente de ignición [36].
7.7.3.- Reventones Internos [37]
Los reventones internos se definen como el flujo incontrolado de los fluidos de la formación desde una zona a otra dentro del hoyo, debido a la falta de presión hidrostática en el anular mientras se bombea el fluido de perforación dentro de la tubería de perforación, es decir, se originan por la falta de presión en la columna hidrostática mientras se bombea el fluido de perforación. Muchos reventones internos son el resultado de una combinación de factores y eventos en secuencia. En una operación de perforación, los reventones internos usualmente ocurren cuando hay una arremetida en el hoyo y puede esparcirse cuando el pozo es primeramente cerrado o en algún otro punto durante el proceso de control. Los reventones internos pueden ser muy peligrosos, y en algunos casos representan el fenómeno más destructivo que se haya vivido durante las operaciones de control de pozos, ya que si estos ocurren a profundidades someras pueden convertirse en reventones en superficie y los daños pueden afectar la vida del personal.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Este tipo de reventones son difíciles de interpretar puesto que las condiciones finales del hoyo no pueden ser determinadas con certeza y muchas veces pueden llegar a evadir los análisis. La posibilidad de que ocurra un reventón interno durante la perforación de un pozo es negada constantemente por los operadores ya que sus indicadores usualmente no están a la vista, es por ello que es obligatorio determinar las causas que los originan y diagnosticarlos tan pronto como sea posible, para lo cual es fundamental registrar y analizar los datos de presión y temperatura en superficie puesto que ellos serán la clave para entender el origen y magnitud de lo ocurrido. Los reventones internos generalmente representan un desafío mayor que los reventones superficiales debido a que el volumen y composición de los fluidos presentes no es conocido. Además, la condición del hoyo y de los tubulares involucrados no son suficientes para emitir criterios confiables acerca de lo ocurrido. Por otra parte, la disponibilidad de herramientas de análisis para este tipo de reventones es muy limitada y generalmente sólo se emplean para realizar medidas absolutamente necesarias. Además cualquier operación que requiera el uso de herramientas a cable representa un riesgo potencialmente critico durante las operaciones de diagnostico debido a las condiciones en las cuales se encuentra el hoyo [36]. Se ha dicho que controlar un reventón interno es más un arte que una ciencia. Esto puede ser cierto hasta cierto punto, pero solamente porque el problema no puede ser observado directamente y algunas suposiciones pueden ser hechas considerando la tasa de flujo, la composición de los fluidos, las condiciones del hoyo, las presiones en el hoyo, el IPR del yacimiento y muchas otras.
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Problemas de Hoyo
Las consecuencias de un reventón pueden ser mitigadas, sino eliminadas completamente mediante la planificación adecuada. El tiempo es crucial cuando un pozo está fuera de control. Los problemas financieros, ambientales, y legales, implicaciones de seguridad de un reventón no serán manejadas adecuadamente a menos que el operador tenga un plan de contingencia listo para activar a apenas suceda la emergencia.
Aumento de los costos de perforación en que se incurre como resultado de las operaciones de control de los reventones.
Pérdida de equipo de perforación.
Desperdicio de hidrocarburos.
Daños al yacimiento.
Daños a la superficie (reventones externos).
Pérdida de vidas humanas.
Los planes de respuesta a emergencias para reventones han recibido mucha atención. Un plan pudiera ser general o específico de un sitio dependiendo de donde estén localizadas las operaciones, de las consecuencias de un reventón, de las dificultades logísticas, de los riesgos geológicos y de muchos otros factores.
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Problemas de Hoyo
7.8- Problemas 7.8.1- Problemas Resueltos Ejercicio 1: Atascamiento Diferencial.
Se está perforando a 13.000 pies cuando se informa que existe un atascamiento diferencial en el hoyo. Para liberar la tubería se aplica una tensión de 18.850 lbf con la cual la tubería se elonga 0,5 pies. Sin embargo se observa que con esa tensión no se libera la tubería, por lo tanto se agrega una píldora de 8 lb/gal. Calcule el volumen de
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Problemas de Hoyo
Primero se calcula el área de la sección transversal de la tubería: A=
πf ffff
4
b5 3 c
B
2
@
2
2
= 12,566 pul pulgg
Con el valor obtenido y la ecuación 7.13 se calcula la longitud de la tubería que se encuentra libre: 6
2
ΔL B E B A 0,5 pies pies B 30 B10 lpc B 12,566 pul pulg fff L = fffffffffffffffff=ff ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff = 10.000 pies pies
FT
18.850 lbs
A 10.000 pies de profundidad se encuentra atascada la tubería. Utilizando la ecuación 7.4 se calcula el diferencial de presión a la profundidad obtenida, para ello se debe calcular la PH y la PF. Utilizando la ecuación 7.3 se calcula la PH y la PF. lbs fff PH = 0,052 B 12 ffffffB 10.000 pies pies = 6240 6240 lpc gal gal lbs fff PF = 0,052 B 9 ffffffB 10.000 pies pies = 4680 lpc gal
Se sustituyen los valores obtenidos para PH y PF respectivamente en la ecuación 7.4
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Problemas de Hoyo
720 lpc = PH @ PF Q PH = 720 + 4680 = 5400 5400 lpc Este sería el valor de la presión hidrostática necesario para liberar la tubería y representa la suma de la presión hidrostática del fluido de perforación más la presión hidrostática de la píldora ya que al poseer ambos fluidos diferentes densidades el fluido de menor densidad (en este caso la píldora) ascenderá en el espacio anular hasta colocarse por completo sobre el fluido de perforación. Debido a que la altura de la columna hidrostática de la píldora no es conocida se le asignará un valor X a esta variable y se expresará la altura de la columna hidrostática del fluido de perforación en función de dicha variable.
`
5400 = PH pildora + PH Lodo = 0,052 Bρ pildora B X + 0,052 Bρlodo B 10000 @ X X = 4038 pies pies
a
Finalmente, se calcula el volumen de la píldora en el espacio anular entre la tubería y el revestidor.
b9,875
c
2
2 B 0,5 @5 2 bls fff V = C B h = fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff pies = 211 bls bls B 4038 pies 1029,4 pies @
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Problemas de Hoyo
Ejercicio 2: Presión de Surgencia.
Calcule la densidad equivalente bajo la junta de un revestidor de 4.000 pies cuyo diámetro externo es de 10,75 pulg. y diámetro interno 10,0 pulg, si el revestidor está siendo bajado en un hoyo de 12 pulgadas lleno de fluido de perforación de 9,0 lb/gal y viscosidad plástica de 2,0 cp, a una velocidad de 1,0 pie/seg. Asuma que el revestidor está cerrado. Solución :
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Problemas de Hoyo
Se calcula el gradiente de presión viscosa con la ecuación 7.9:
d vfffffff e 2d 4,06 e dpffffffffffff ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff lpc 0,00584 ffffffffffff b c b c dL pies 1.000 d d 1.00 1.0000 12,0 12,0 10,75 μ
f
a
=
v t ffff + f 2
2
=
2@ 1
1,0 1,0 + ffffff 2
2
=
@
Con esto se calcula la presión de surgencia debajo de los 4000 pies de un revestidor cerrado como: Δ p f =
dpfff ffff ff 0,0058 f f 5844 4.00 4.0000 = 23 lpc ΔL = 0,00 dL
` a
La densidad equivalente a una profundidad de 4000 pies para esta presión de surgencia viene dada por la ecuación 7.10:
ρe = ρ +
pfff 23 ffΔff ffffff ff fffffffB ff4.000 = 9,1 lbsfffffffff f f = 9,0 + 0,052 B h 0,052 gal gal
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Problemas de Hoyo
Ejercioo 3: Presión de Surgencia.
Un pozo está experimentando pérdidas de circulación en la zapata del revestidor. Se va a correr una camisa o revestidor en el fondo del hoyo. Si la camisa es bajada a una
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Problemas de Hoyo Solución :
En este problema, se tiene que el gradiente viscoso será causado en dos zonas, una en la tubería de perforación que baja a la camisa, y la otra en la camisa. Primero se calcula la velocidad del fluido en el anular entre la camisa y el hoyo revestido con la ecuación 7.8: d12fB vfftffff7 2ff B f f f f ff1,55 ffffffff ff pies ffffffffffff va = 2 2 = f 2 2 = 3,27 seg d 2 @ d1 8,5 @ 7 Ahora se calculan las presiones de surgencia por unidad de longitud en esta sección de la camisa con la ecuación 7.9:
dp
μ
d vfffffff e 38d3,27 e a
v t ffff + f 2
1,55 + ffffffff 2
lpc
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Problemas de Hoyo
d vfffffff e 38d0,6 e dpffffffffffff ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff lpc 0,003274 ffffffffffff b c b c dL pies 1.000 d d 1.0 1.000 8,5 4,5 μ
f
+
a
=
v tfffff 2
2
2@ 1
+
=
1,55 fffffff 2
2
=
@
La presión total entre la tubería y el hoyo revestido: dpffff fffffff 0,0032 3274 74 6.40 6.4000 = 21 lpc ΔL = 0,00 dL Se tiene que la presión de surgencia total es la suma de las presiones de surgencia en Δ p f =
` a
la tubería más la presión de surgencia en la camisa, y con esto se calcula la densidad equivalente con la ecuación 7.10: Δ p = Δ p f revestidor + Δ p f tuberia = 246 + 21 = 267 lpc Δ p
267
lbs
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Problemas de Hoyo
Ejercicio 4: Prueba de Integridad de Presión.
Para el pozo UCV-01, calcule el gradiente de fractura, presión de fractura, máxima presión anular permitida en superficie (MPAPS) y límite de la prueba (PIP) si se tienen los siguientes datos:
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Problemas de Hoyo
12 13 14 15
550,0 550,0 550,0 550,0
Solución :
Multiplicando la ecuación 7.20 por el valor 0,052x hz , se obtiene la siguiente ecuación:
P fract = P H z + PIP
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Problemas de Hoyo
Y del gráfico se obtiene que PIP = 550 lpc (límite de PIP) Luego se sustituyen los valores y se tiene:
P fract = PH z + PIP = 945 lpc + 550 lpc = 1495 1495 lpc Para el gradiente de fractura se utiliza la ecuación 7.5 pero en este caso el valor de la presión hidrostática se sustituye por la presión de fractura:
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Problemas de Hoyo
ρ =ρ +
fffPIP ffffffffffff=ff11,1 + fffff1575 ffffffffffffffffffff=ffff14,6 lbs ffffffff
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Problemas de Hoyo
encuentra asentado un revestidor de 12 pulgadas con espesor de 0,5 pulgadas. En ese instante se observa una ganancia en los tanques de 90 bls y se procede a cerrar el pozo, registrándose una presión en la tubería de 260 lpc y una presión en el anular de
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Problemas de Hoyo b. Gradiente del influjo
Usando la ecuación 7.15:
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Problemas de Hoyo
cerrado en su parte inferior y el fluido de perforación que se encuentra en el hoyo es de 13 lb/gal. La viscosidad plástica es de 28 cp. R.- 14,8
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