A Agg r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e ®
for CSEC Examinations
A g r i c u l t u r a l Ag Science ®
for CSEC Examinations Ronald Ramharacksingh
CSEC is a registered trade mark of the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) .
Agricultura Agricu lturall Science Science for for CSEC CSEC Examina Examinations tions is an independent publication and has not been authorised, sponsored, or otherwise approved by CXC.
Macmillan Education Between Towns Road, Oxford, OX4 3PP A division of Macmillan Publishers Limited Companies and representatives throughout the world www.macmillan-caribbean.com ISBN: 978-1-4050-6576-4 Text © Ronald Ramharacksingh 2011 Design and illustration © Macmillan Publishers Limited 2011 First published in 2011 All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers.
These materials may contain links for third party websites. We have no control over, and are not responsible for, the contents of such third party websites. Please use care when accessing them. Designed by Macmillan Education and Jim Weaver Typeset by Orchard Publishing, Cape Town, South Africa Illustrated by Tech Type; Tek-Art; Roger Wade Walker c/o Beehive Illustration; Ian West c/o Beehive Illustration and David Woodroffe Picture research by Zoe Spilberg Cover design by Gary Fielder at Clear 22 Cover Photos: Norman Livingston, Photolibrary, Science Photo Library and with kind consent of the author. Printed and bound in Malaysia 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Contents Series preface
ix
About this book
x
Section A: The Business of Farming 1 The role and importance of agriculture 1.1 1.2 1.3
The importance of agriculture in national, regional and international economies Career opportunities in agriculture Institutions concerned with agricultural development in the Caribbean
2 Challenges confronting agriculture 2.1 2.2 2.3
Local and regional challenges Issues affecting global agriculture Terminology used in food safety, importation and certification
3 Alternatives to conventional farming 3.1 3.2
Non-conventional farming systems The principles of organic farming
4 Economic factors of production 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5
The economic functions of production, consumption and marketing The factors of production Factors of production related to agriculture The ‘law of diminishing returns’ Demand, supply and price relationships
5 Trade agreements 5.1
The effect of international trade agreements
6 Farm financing and support services 6.1 6.2 6.3
Sources of capital Co-operatives Incentives given to farming
7 Farm organisation and planning 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
Farm management and farm records Income and expenditure Partial and complete budgets The relationship between budgeting and decision-making
1 2 3 7
15 16 21 26
31 32 35
41 42 44 45 47 51
61 62
68 69 72 75
80 81 84 86 87
Section B: Crop Production 8 Soil and soil fertility 8.1 Soil formation 8.2 The soil profile 8.3 The major components of soil 8.4 The physical and chemical properties of major soil types 8.5 The carbon and nitrogen cycles
91 92 95 96 98 104
v
Contents
8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14
The factors affecting soil fertility Importance of minor nutrients in crop production Fertiliser ratio Maintaining soil fertility Composting Soil erosion Different types of soil erosion The causes of soil erosion Soil and water conservation methods
9 Land preparation 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8
The relationship between climate and agricultural production Measuring rainfall and temperature Interpreting weather records Weather records and farming decisions Land preparation methods Machinery used in crop husbandry Care and maintenance Safety precautions when operating tools, machinery and equipment
10 Plant morphology and physiology 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6
The structure of plants Sexual and asexual reproduction in plants Sexual and asexual reproduction in relation to crop production Seed germination Plant processes Environmental factors and plant growth and development
11 Plant genetics, breeding and biotechnology 11.1 11.2 11.3
The principles of genetic inheritance Plant breeding Biotechnology in plant improvement
12 Crop husbandry 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10
Cropping systems Cultural practices associated with crop production The effects of weeds on crops Methods of weed control Pests and crop damage Major crop diseases Pest and disease management Chemicals in the environment Cultivation of vegetable crops Plant quarantine
13 Harvesting and post-harvest practices 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5
Post-harvest technology Harvesting crops Harvesting methods Harvest and post-harvest practices for ornamentals From the farm to the table
14 Processing and utilisation 14.1 14.2 14.3
vi
Reasons for processing crops Food processing techniques Utilisation of processed products
106 108 109 110 113 114 114 115 116
125 126 127 129 131 131 135 138 139
144 145 151 156 157 164 167
174 175 178 181
186 187 189 190 191 193 195 197 198 200 203
208 209 209 210 211 212
216 217 217 222
Contents
Section C: Animal Production 15 Morphology and physiology 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6
The digestive system of a bird Ruminant and non-ruminant digestive systems Functions of the digestive system parts The process of digestion Digestion in rabbits The structure of an egg
16 Nutrition 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9
Nutrients in animal nutrition The balanced ration Appropriate rations for livestock Feed conversion ratio (FCR) The importance of FCR Systems of grazing The advantages and disadvantages of different grazing systems The importance of forages in livestock feeding Forage conservation
17 Housing 17.1 17.2 17.3
Housing requirements for farm animals Housing for broilers, layers and rabbits Bee production and fish farming
18 Animal genetics, breeding and reproduction 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.9 18.10 18.11 18.12
Breeds of farm animals Uses of different breeds of farm animals Animal genetics Breeding systems in animal production The advantages of cross-breeding The principles of genetic improvement Artificial insemination in farm animals Advantages and disadvantages of artificial insemination Terms used in animal reproduction Egg formation and incubation in poultry Embryo transfer Genetic engineering in livestock production
19 Animal husbandry 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 19.10
The care of young chicks and rabbits Management practices associated with rearing broilers, layers and rabbits Rearing a batch of broilers Animal health Pests and diseases of poultry and rabbits: symptoms, prevention and control The economic importance of bees The types of bees in a hive The social activities of bees Pests and diseases of bees Honey and other bee products
20 Animal products technology 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4
Animal products and by-products The dressing percentage of farm animals The slaughter of broilers The marketing of eggs and meat
225 226 228 228 229 231 231
235 236 238 239 240 240 241 243 244 247
252 253 254 256
263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 274 276 278
285 286 288 289 289 290 291 292 292 293 294
300 301 304 305 306
vii
Contents
Section D: Horticulture (Double Award only) 21 Horticulture 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6
What is meant by horticulture? The importance of horticultural plants The cultivation of horticultural plants Harvesting techniques of horticultural plants Quality requirements for flowers The establishment of lawn and turf grasses
310 311 312 312 316 316 317
Section E: Animal Management (Double Award only) 22 Animal management 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7
Management practices in the rearing of livestock Preventing food spoilage Principal cuts of meat The quality requirements of meat Safety requirements in the processing of food Value-added products The role of biotechnology in animal production
321 322 330 332 332 333 333 335
School-based Assessment (SBA) component
339
Answers to multiple choice questions
372
Index
373
viii
Series preface This series of textbooks for the Caribbean Examinations Council [CXC] examinations has been developed and written by teachers with many years’ experience of preparing students for CSEC examinations in Caribbean schools. This book can be used for either the Single or Double Award. A textbook is used in different ways at different times.
▸ Readers may be starting a topic from scratch and need to be led through a
logical explanation one step at a time. ▸ Students with a working knowledge of a topic may need to clarify a detail, or
reinforce their understanding. Or, they may simply need to believe that they do have a good grasp of the material. The specially created format is the same for all books in the series. Diagrams and pictures are placed on the page in such a way that they can be consulted as the reader wishes, but interrupt the text as little as possible. ▸ Short answer questions (called In-Text Questions, even though they are not
placed in the main body of the page) allow the student to test his or her grasp of the topic. A student who can answer an ITQ gains confidence; a student who cannot knows to go back over the topic and try again. ▸ Important technical terms are highlighted in the margin where they are first
used. This emphasises their importance and makes an index-based search easier to do.
Teachers throughout the region have emphasised that inclusion of SBA material is important for these books. Each CSEC syllabus specifies the type of SBA exercise that is expected. This subject may be studied at Single Award or Double Award level; the SBA requirements differ. Accordingly, a chapter offering detailed advice for both is included.
Dr Mike Taylor Series Editor
ix
About this book This book isn’t just words on a page. Here are some important features. Each will help you, if you take advantage of it. ▸ There are two columns. The bigger column has the text and some really large
diagrams; you can read straight down it without interruption. The smaller column has other diagrams which the text mentions. Look at them carefully as you need them. You may find that looking at a diagram for a few seconds is worth a few minutes of reading. ▸ The first time that an important new word occurs, it is repeated in the smaller
column. If you want to check what a word means, you can find it quickly. ▸ There are questions called ITQs (In-Text Questions). When you have read the
nearby text, try to answer the question, in your head or on paper. If you can, you’re on the road to understanding. If you can’t, just go back and read that bit again. Answers to ITQs are at the end of each chapter, so you can tell how good your answer was. ▸ At the end of each chapter there are some examination-style questions. Your
teacher will suggest how you can use them. Some are multiple choice questions, and the answers to these can be found at the end of the book. ▸ Whether for the Single or the Double Award, you have to present an SBA
involving practical work and the production of a record of what you have done, including a financial analysis. The last chapter has a detailed explanation of what is expected, an explanation of how you might set about the practical work and what is important in it. ▸ There is a detailed index. Don’t be afraid to use it to find what you want!
x
1 By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
T h e r o l e a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f agriculture ✓ understand that agriculture is important in national, regional and international
economies ✓ list the various career opportunities and levels of training in the agricultural
sector ✓ know and understand the functions of local, regional and international
institutions concerned with agricultural development in the Caribbean.
Concept map Role of agriculture
Economic importance
Career opportunities
Regional
National
International
employment food security
contribution to GNP
foreign exchange trade liberalisation
journalism
food production
agro-processing
education
certication
sales and marketing
Agricultural development
Local
Regional
International
Ministry of Agriculture
CARICOM CFNI CDB CARDI UWI CASE ECIAF GSA
EU IICA FAO OAS IDB CIDA
quality control
management
engineering
food inspection
services
1
Section A: The Business of Farming
1.1 The importance of agriculture in national, regional and international economies agriculture ▸
ITQ1 Distinguish between ‘agriculture’, ‘farming’ and ‘husbandry’.
ITQ2 List as many different types of agricultural production as you can think of, focusing on those found in the Caribbean.
The word agriculture comes rom the Latin agri cultura, meaning ‘cultivation o the feld’. It covers all the arts, skills, sciences, industries and services used by humans to obtain ood rom the land. This includes the cultivation o crops and the rearing o livestock, together with the related industries supplying seeds, chemical ertilisers, machinery, fnance and technology. In addition, agriculture involves marketing and processing. Oten ‘agriculture’ is used to mean the same as ‘arming’ and ‘husbandry’. But arming and husbandry have more to do with specifc activities such as dairy arming, crop husbandry, organic arming, livestock husbandry, mixed arming and exotic arming. Traditionally, agriculture has been recognised as the art o tilling the soil and a way o lie or amilies in rural communities. With modern technology and a rising world population, agriculture today is seen as an art, a skill, an applied science, a multi-aceted discipline, a business and a vocation, ocused primarily on ood production.
Foreign exchange earnings
oreign exchange ▸
Agriculture is very important to the economies o all Caribbean countries, both regionally and internationally. When Caribbean agricultural goods and services are sold to other countries, oreign exchange is earned. For example, the export o bananas and coee earns oreign currency. However, when oreign agricultural goods and services are imported, Caribbean currency is converted to oreign exchange; importing agricultural machinery rom abroad is thereore a loss to the local community.
Contribution to Gross National Product Gross National Product (GNP) ▸
The Gross National Product (GNP) is a measure o the current value o goods and services rom all sectors o the national economy. Agriculture is a vital sector o the national economy and contributes to the GNP.
Food security ood security ▸
Food security means being sel-sufcient in ood. Most Caribbean countries are now boosting their local ood production and reducing ood imports. In the Caribbean, ood security is aected by: • low agricultural productivity, resulting rom inefcient use o water and other inputs • a decline in earnings rom traditional crops resulting rom the loss o trade preerences • a dependency on imported ood resulting rom the inability to produce ood locally at competitive prices • increased poverty in many countries because o a loss o agricultural jobs. Food security can be promoted by initiatives to improve ood production and marketing, expand trade opportunities, increase income and improve nutrition.
Employment ratio of imported food to local produce The agricultural sector can provide employment or many people. There is a wide range o job opportunities, such as arming, agricultural education, marketing, engineering and arm management. Improved agricultural production improves the employment prospects o a region – i more ood is grown locally then more jobs
2
1 · The role and importance of agriculture
are created. Importing ood rom abroad reduces the number o local agricultural jobs. There is also concern about the quality o some o the ood imported into the Caribbean. It is thought that some imported ood may be responsible or an obesity problem within the population.
National and regional plans for agricultural development agricultural plans ▸
Agricultural plans are policy documents, prepared by governments, private frms or international organisations, setting out plans or agricultural development. Normally, local or national plans are prepared by the government o each Caribbean country or a fve-year period. The plan or each country identifes the areas o agriculture which need attention and may speciy the current status, constraints, strategies and resources required or the development o each area. Careully prepared plans can bring about agricultural development and national development. Regional plans or agricultural development are produced through the cooperative eorts o Caribbean countries, based on the agricultural needs o the region. Specifc goals, objectives, constraints, strategies, resources and evaluation procedures help to put the plans into practice.
Trade liberalisation tari ▸ trade liberalisation ▸
ITQ3 Make a list of the major roles of agriculture in the economy of a country.
ITQ4 Explain what is meant by ‘food security’.
ITQ5 How does importing food reduce the number of job opportunities?
Practical activity: Look at some national, regional and international statistical reports about ood production, imports or exports.
Trade liberalisation helps global competitiveness. A air trade in goods and services develops through removing taris and non-tari barriers. A tari is a tax levied by a government on imports (or occasionally exports) or purposes o protection, support o the balance o payments, or the raising o revenue. Global trade liberalisation initiatives encourage greater efciency in marketing and trade by restructuring trade policy regimes to reduce the level o protection rom competition. Trade liberalisation does not just depend on the removal o barriers and the negotiation o better access conditions. It requires rules which defne the ramework or each government in the ormulation o their trade policies. This should result in each country being encouraged to improve productivity in agriculture and making greater eorts to improve the quality o agricultural products.
1.2 Career opportunities in agriculture Careers in agriculture include: • ood production • sales and marketing • services • ood inspection and quality control • agro-processing • engineering • education • journalism • management and administration • certifcation. Some career areas extend beyond the agricultural sector: sales and marketing, services, engineering, management and administration can all be associated with many other industries.
3
Section A: The Business of Farming
Food production The most specialised careers in agriculture are associated with the production o crops and the raising o livestock (see Table 1.1). Occupation
Job description
Qualifcations needed
Labourers
Unskilled workers who work or armers; involved in ploughing, planting, harvesting, looking ater animals.
A basic knowledge o tools and machinery is useul to gain employment. An NVQ level 1 qualifcation could be helpul.
Farmers
Farmers cultivate their land, grow crops, raise livestock and sell their produce. They liaise with advisors and are aware o new developments and methods o production so that they can make efcient use o land and resources.
Farmers need a basic knowledge o agriculture, the use o tools and machinery and the ability to keep records and to control their fnances. They need training to secondary level, studying to NVQ level 2 or CXC in Agricultural Science.
Overseers/ Managers
Have responsibilities or specifc areas on large arms. They may do the same work as armers, but will be in charge o teams o labourers and may specialise in crop production or raising animals.
Overseers and managers need the same skills as armers, together with the ability to deal airly with the workorce (the labourers).
Extension ofcers
Extension ofcers are advisors who inorm armers about the latest developments in machinery, equipment and arming techniques. They work with researchers to tell them what armers need to be more productive. They provide a means o communication between researchers and armers.
Diploma, Associate Degree or Bachelors Degree in Agriculture.
Research workers
These include: engineers developing new arm machinery; chemists developing new ertilisers and pesticides; biologists researching new breeds o animals and new types o crop plants. Research is carried out in laboratories and institutes, employing other sta such as laboratory technicians. Figure 1.1 shows research workers in the feld.
Usually a research worker will have a university degree in a science subject, e.g. Biology, Chemistry, Physics or Engineering. Laboratory sta are trained to secondary level and have good grades in CXC science subjects.
Veterinarians (vets)
Vets care or sick animals and are also responsible or testing or diseases in animals. Veterinary nurses help the vets in their work.
Vets need a university degree in Veterinary Medicine.
Agricultural engineers
Plan, supervise and manage the building o agricultural projects, including drainage schemes, ood p rocessing plants and structures or housing livestock. Many work or government agencies or are involved in research which involves designing new agricultural equipment.
A university degree in Engineering.
Viticulturists
Specialists in managing vineyards; require a knowledge o grapes, their growing conditions, when to harvest and prune. Can be involved in research developing new techniques or culturing vines and breeding new varieties.
Need a basic knowledge o agriculture, with specialist knowledge o grapes. Qualifcations vary rom diploma level to a university degree in Horticulture or an agricultural subject, depending on level o responsibility.
Table 1.1
Veterinary nurses need qualifcations: at least CXC in science subjects.
Some careers in ood production.
Sales and marketing Agricultural produce is sold in shops, supermarkets or on market stalls (see Figure 1.2). It usually has to be transported rom arms to the wholesalers and rom there to retailers and other outlets. All this involves loaders and drivers. At the wholesalers, produce may be stored or some time, providing employment or storekeepers, clerks and security ofcers. Managers, cashiers and sales personnel become involved when produce reaches the shops.
Figure 1.1 Agricultural scientists carrying out some feld tests on plants.
4
1 · The role and importance of agriculture
Services The jobs associated with servicing any industry include technicians, drivers, electricians, plumbers and mechanics. Very ew o these jobs require specialist knowledge o agriculture, although some mechanics and technicians may develop expertise in dealing with agricultural machinery.
Food inspection and quality control These are very important aspects o ood production, both or resh produce and or processed ood. Lack o inspection and poor quality control procedures result in inerior produce and health hazards. Careers in these areas require training and qualifcations to at least NVQ or equivalent level. Qualifed people may be employed in agro-processing or by government agencies.
Agro-processing Figure 1.2 stall.
An agricultural market
Agro-processing involves turning agricultural produce into products (preserved ruits, jams, wines and sauces), which can be marketed locally, nationally or exported. The employment opportunities are numerous. They range rom unskilled labour (in processing and packaging plants) to biochemists and quality assurance ofcers who have proessional qualifcations.
Engineering Agriculture depends on mechanisation to become more efcient. Transport o produce and animals rom arms to processing plants is essential and increasingly processes are becoming mechanised. Harvesting o many crops is done by machinery, rather than by hand. Ploughing, sowing, spreading ertilisers and spraying with pesticides can all be done mechanically, thus saving time and reducing the cost o labour. Engineers are employed to develop and maintain machines. New techniques in processing and preserving ood require machines which are designed and manuactured by engineers.
Education Education is vital to agriculture at all levels − rom schools to colleges and institutes, through to university. In schools, pupils are made aware o agriculture and the environment (see Figures 1.3 and 1.4). Figure 1.4 on page 6 shows a land laboratory in a school. This is an area where many dierent types o crops are grown.
Figure 1.3
An agriculture teacher and her students examining a mango tree.
5
CSEC Agriculture Sec A prf5.indd 5
02/03/2011 2:29 PM
Section A: The Business of Farming
Figure 1.4
A land laboratory (secondary school).
Agricultural Science is a core subject in junior secondary schools, laying a oundation or urther agricultural training. In senior secondary schools, dierent agricultural courses are oered. Some students prepare or Agricultural Crat subjects; others prepare or the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) Agricultural Science qualifcations. Vocational courses, such as associate degrees in Agriculture and Forestry, are oered at the Eastern Caribbean Institute o Agriculture and Forestry (ECIAF) in Trinidad and Tobago and at other institutions in Jamaica, Guyana and St Lucia. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Ministry o Agriculture, through the Extension Services, oers a wide range o short courses or armers. The University o the West Indies (UWI) oers degree courses in many agricultural and associated topics. There are also opportunities or postgraduate training leading to higher degrees. There are job opportunities or well-trained teachers, together with support sta, in all these institutions.
Journalism Journalism in the agricultural sector can suit those who write clearly and have an interest in agriculture and the environment. Journalists contribute to agricultural journals and magazines, government documents, inormation leaets and instructions. Photography and graphic design also provide rewarding careers. Qualifcations vary, but experience and a detailed knowledge o the subject matter are essential. ITQ6 Make a list of the personnel required to organise and run a retail outlet selling agricultural produce.
ITQ7 A farmer has a contract to supply a supermarket chain with salad vegetables. Make a list of the different jobs involved in harvesting, packaging and transporting his produce to the supermarket.
Practical activity: Choose a career or career area that interests you. Investigate the qualifcations required and employment opportunities available.
6
Management and administration Businesses and organisations require good management, so managers and administrators are needed in all sectors o agriculture. Small arms can be run by a armer, but large arms employ managers to take charge o the organisation o labour and resources. There will be employment opportunities or administrators and managers in all other aspects o the industries and institutions associated with the agricultural sector. For example, wholesale and retail outlets, schools and colleges need administrative sta at all levels, including secretaries and accountants.
Certification Qualifcations are important in any career and can lead to employment at a higher level. Many schools and colleges organise courses leading to qualifcations in the agricultural sector. On completion o the course and ollowing an examination, these institutions issue certifcates, diplomas or degrees stating the level o expertise reached. In schools, examinations are organised by the Caribbean Examinations Council. In other institutions, the examinations are organised by the college or university. All these examinations are set and judged by experts with a good knowledge o their subject. To gain employment in this area, years o experience o teaching the subject are required.
1 · The role and importance of agriculture
1.3 Institutions concerned with agricultural development in the Caribbean Local institutions Local institutions, both governmental and non-governmental, are essential or any modern agricultural economy. The quality o the support mechanisms determines the quality o the agricultural output. More importantly, it creates a sound oundation or new initiatives, growth and expansion in the agricultural sector. Each Ministry o Agriculture is divided into several divisions which work in collaboration with afliated agencies, armers’ organisations and commercial agri businesses to provide support services to armers and agriculturalists or agricultural development. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Ministry o Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources consists o 11 divisions (see Table 1.2, overlea), each having responsibilities or dierent aspects o agriculture, planning and training. ITQ8 What are the functions of the Forestry Division of the Ministry of Agriculture? (see Table 1.2)
ITQ9 What are the functions of the Extension, Training and Information Division? (see Table 1.2)
Practical activity: Visit your local regional administration ofce and fnd out how it helps the armers in your area. You could ask or advice on irrigation schemes, or how to prevent and control diseases in crops grown locally.
Figure 1.5
An agricultural research station dealing with livestock improvement.
Figure 1.6 A demonstration – armers are shown how to carry out a procedure.
7
Section A: The Business of Farming
Name o Division
Functions
Planning Division
• • • •
identiy goals and objectives determine the Ministry’s vision and mission ormulate plans and policies collaborate with other Ministries and agricultural organisations
Project Implementation Unit
• • • •
identiy major agricultural projects determine the order o priority and cost projects implement agricultural projects systematically co-ordinate the implementation process and keep records
Land Administration Division
• • • • •
provide advice and inormation on agricultural state lands handle lease assignments and transers collaborate with the Lands and Surveys Department monitor the terms and conditions o leased lands through visits and record-keeping repossess and re-advertise state lands or lease
Research Division (see Figure 1.5, overlea)
• • • •
conduct laboratory tests and analysis o soils, pests, diseases and livestock eeds provide technical advice, inormation and solutions to arming problems conduct trials on improved crop varieties and exotic arm animals issue import permits and quarantine plants and animals or observation, treatment and certifcation
Agricultural Engineering Division
• provide advice and inormation on agricultural machinery and equipment • advise armers on designs o arm ponds, livestock buildings, irrigation and drainage projects and access roads
Agricultural Services Division
• propagate and sell planting materials (plants, seeds, cuttings, tubers, rhizomes) to armers • cultivate and sell arm produce: wet cocoa beans, bananas, citrus, mango, avocado, sapodilla and pommecythere • produce and sell honey, queen bees and starter colonies
Forestry Division
• • • • • • •
Fisheries Division
• conduct registration o fshermen and aquaculturalists • process applications or the importation, registration and transer o commercial fshing vessels and engines • issue permits or the import/export o fsh (ornamental and ood) and seaood • provide technical advice, assistance, inormation and training courses or fshermen and aquaculturalists
Extension, Training and Inormation Division
• organise and conduct technical training on a wide range o agricultural courses at the Farmers’ Training Centre, Centeno • provide technical advice and inormation to armers • publish and supply technical inormation bulletins and actsheets on crops and livestock • conduct extension training at all agricultural county ofces
(see Figure 1.6, overlea)
propagate and sell orest plants (teak, Caribbean pine, mahogany, cedar) to armers manage orest reserves, parks, orested recreational areas and wildlie maintain demonstration areas o agro-orestry and silviculture undertake reaorestation o watersheds and deorested areas issue permits or hunting and keep records o animals caught provide technical advice and inormation to armers on orestry establishment and management sell orest trees to sawmillers and supervise harvesting operations
Animal Production and Health Division
• provide surveillance o livestock arms or the diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control o animal diseases • conduct laboratory tests and post-mortem examinations (necropsy) o arm animals • control vampire bats against the transmission o paralytic rabies in livestock • develop and implement preventive medicine programmes or animals • provide technical advice, inormation and artifcial insemination o cattle • produce and sell arm animals, goats, cattle (culled, injured) to interested persons
Regional Administration Divisions (North/ South)
• process applications or armers’ identifcation and agricultural incentives at agricultural county ofces • provide advice, inormation and assistance on access roads and designs o arm ponds, irrigation, drainage and livestock buildings • monitor and control destructive agricultural pests and diseases • provide technical assistance in managing apiaries and bee abatement (nuisance, swarms) • sell seeds produced locally at Chaguaramas, Trinidad
Table 1.2
8
The unctions o the divisions o the Ministry o Agriculture, Trinidad and Tobago.
1 · The role and importance of agriculture
Regional institutions There are many institutions in the Caribbean concerned with agricultural development. Some give advice and support, whilst others provide specialised training or careers in the agricultural sector.
The Caribbean Community Caribbean Community (CARICOM) ▸
The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) is an organisation o 15 Caribbean nations and dependencies. It promotes economic integration and co-operation. CARICOM carries out these unctions: • co-ordinates economic policies and development planning • sets up special projects or less-developed countries • operates as a regional single market or many o its members (Caricom Single Market) • handles regional trade disputes.
The Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI) ▸
The Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI) aims to describe, manage and prevent nutritional problems acing Caribbean countries. It runs training courses, conducts research programmes on ood and nutrition and maintains a library. Research areas include: • reduction o under-nutrition in children • prevention and control o diet-related chronic diseases • control o iron defciency anaemia • improvement o household ood security.
The Caribbean Development Bank Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) ▸
The Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) assists Caribbean nations in fnancing projects or its members. Its purpose is to contribute to the economic growth and development o member countries and to promote economic co-operation and integration. Its main unctions are to: • assist members in the co-ordination o their development programmes with a view to achieving better utilisation o their resources, making their economies more complementary, and promoting the orderly expansion o their international trade • mobilise additional fnancial resources or the development o the region • fnance projects and programmes contributing to the development o the region • provide technical assistance to regional members • promote private and public investment in development projects • stimulate and encourage the development o capital markets within the region.
The University of the West Indies University o the West Indies (UWI) ▸
The University o the West Indies (UWI), Faculty o Science and Agriculture, oers a wide range o courses leading to qualifcations (rom diplomas to postgraduate degrees). Qualifcations can be obtained in Natural Sciences, such as Lie Sciences and Chemistry, and aspects o agriculture, such as Animal Science, Food Production, Economics and Extension Services. In addition, research units investigate specifc problems relating to crop and livestock production.
9
Section A: The Business of Farming
The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) ▸
The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) conducts research and demonstrates appropriate technologies to armers. CARDI provides technical assistance in areas such as: • crop production, integrated pest management (IPM) and arming systems • livestock and orages • environmental and soils management • technology services, e.g. Figure 1.7 Goat rearing (a CARDI project). the supply o quality plant products and genetic products and services • market research and statistical services • business development and consultancy.
The College of Agriculture, Science and Education College o Agriculture, Science and Education (CASE) ▸
Practical activity: Imagine that you are an entrepreneur and wish to establish a orestry business. Work out which institutions you would need to consult in order to fnance it and fnd suitably qualifed sta.
The College o Agriculture, Science and Education (CASE), in Jamaica, is a multidisciplinary tertiary level educational institution oering diplomas, associate degrees and Bachelor degrees. O particular relevance are its Bachelor degree courses in Business Studies, Environmental Science and Agri-production and Food Systems Management. There are associate degree courses in General Agriculture, Agricultural Education, Natural Science and Business Studies. There are also courses leading to diplomas in Agriculture and teaching qualifcations. The Department o Animal Science helps to increase productivity o livestock, and the Department o Plant, Soil Sciences and Engineering provides training in Agronomy, Plant Science, Soil Science, Horticulture, Land Surveying, Plant Protection and Crop Production. The diploma in Agriculture was designed to train skilled practitioners in specifc areas o agriculture, who would put their training into practice on arms and in other agricultural enterprises. An Associate o Science degree trains students to be highly competent armers and ‘agri-preneurs’. This qualifcation enables graduates to enter most jobs that require a knowledge o agriculture.
The Eastern Caribbean Institute of Agriculture and Forestry Eastern Caribbean Institute o Agriculture and Forestry (ECIAF) ▸
The Eastern Caribbean Institute o Agriculture and Forestry (ECIAF) provides courses that last two years and lead to diplomas in Agriculture, Forestry and Agricultural Education. Completion o a diploma enables students to gain employment in agriculture, orestry or education, or to enter other courses in higher education i they wish to.
The Guyana School of Agriculture Guyana School o Agriculture (GSA) ▸
ITQ10 What is the role of the University of the West Indies in agricultural development in the Caribbean?
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The Guyana School o Agriculture (GSA) provides training to certifcate and diploma level in agriculture. The one-year course leading to a certifcate in Forestry trains students to become orestry technicians and teaches them the principles o sustainable orestry. A two-year certifcate course equips young people or careers in arming. The diploma courses last or two years and lead to careers as Agricultural Science teachers or agricultural feld assistants. These courses are in Agriculture, Animal Health, Veterinary Public Health and Livestock Production and Management.
1 · The role and importance of agriculture
International institutions The Caribbean nations are part o the global economy – agricultural development thereore depends on international institutions as well as local and regional organisations.
The European Union European Union (EU) ▸
In October 2008, the 27 members o the European Union (EU) and 15 Caribbean nations signed an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA). It included measures to stimulate trade, investment and innovation, and to promote sustainable development, build a regional market among Caribbean countries and help eliminate poverty. The eect will be to open up markets or produce rom the Caribbean countries by removing taris and encouraging trade liberalisation. The agreement is important or the economies o Caribbean countries and encourages air trade or commodities such as sugar, coee and bananas.
The Inter-American Institute for Co-operation on Agriculture Inter-American Institute or Co-operation on Agriculture (IICA) ▸
The Inter-American Institute or Co-operation on Agriculture (IICA) is an institution or agricultural research and graduate training in tropical agriculture. It was ounded in response to changing needs in the Americas and has evolved into an agency or technical co-operation in the feld o agriculture, promoting agricultural development and rural well-being. The IICA supports and encourages: • agro-energy and bio-uels • biotechnology and bio-saety • rural communities • trade and agribusiness • trade negotiations • institutional modernisation • technology and innovation • environmental management • agricultural health • organic agriculture.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) ▸
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) o the United Nations leads international eorts to deeat hunger. It helps countries to modernise and improve agriculture, orestry and fsheries practices and ensures good nutrition or all. Within the organisation, there are departments or: • agriculture and consumer protection • economic and social development • fsheries and aquaculture • orestry • natural resources management and environment • technical co-operation. There are regional, sub-regional, country and liaison ofces worldwide. There is a sub-regional ofce or the Caribbean in Barbados and country ofces in many Caribbean countries.
The Organisation of American States Organisation o American States (OAS) ▸
The Organisation o American States (OAS) is made up o 35 independent nations o the Americas. It was ounded in 1948 with 21 members, but expanded to include the independent Caribbean nations. The goal o member nations was to ‘achieve an order o peace and justice, to promote solidarity, to strengthen collaboration, and to deend sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence’. It seeks to promote economic, social and cultural development and to eradicate extreme poverty.
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Section A: The Business of Farming
The Inter-American Development Bank Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) ▸
The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) is an international organisation established to support Latin American and Caribbean economic and social development and regional integration. It is the largest multilateral source o fnancing and lends money mainly to governments and government agencies. The bank is owned by 47 member states o which 26, including the Caribbean countries, can borrow money and 21 others cannot. There are some criticisms o the way in which it works. Some o the projects are considered to be damaging to local environments and local people.
The Canadian International Development Agency Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) ▸
ITQ11 Explain what the following sets of initials represent: IICA; FAO; CIDA.
ITQ12 How is the European Union concerned with agricultural development in the Caribbean?
The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) is the ederal body that unds assistance to developing countries in the orm o goods, services, the transer o knowledge and skills, and humanitarian relie in emergencies and or natural disasters. CIDA advises on many topics including: • ood • nutrition • agriculture • rural development • co-operatives • fsheries • orestry • water management • the environment • health and population. Experts broaden the scope o the CIDA beyond fnancial support and help developing countries to take charge o their own economies. In addition, skilled workers and technicians are sent to developing countries. Trainees may also take up scholarships in Canada. CIDA unds many projects, such as: • providing supplements to children with vitamin A defciency • global immunisation programmes • supporting HIV/AIDS prevention, education and care.
Practical activity: Choose one o the international
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institutions and fnd out more about its impact on agricultural development in the Caribbean using the internet. Design a poster that could be displayed in the
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local agricultural county ofce inorming armers o the unctions
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o the institution and how it aects them.
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Agriculture covers a wide range o subject areas and is thereore a ‘multi-aceted discipline’. Agriculture is a key sector o the Caribbean economy. It makes a signifcant contribution to the GNP and to oreign exchange earnings. The production o ood locally is encouraged so that more opportunities or employment are created. Careul planning is needed to bring about agricultural development and boost the national economy and regional economy. Global trade liberalisation encourages improvement in agricultural productivity, greater efciency in marketing and air trade or goods and services. There are many career choices in the agricultural sector; there are employment opportunities or skilled and unskilled people in all aspects o ood production and marketing. The Ministry o Agriculture in each Caribbean country, together with other agencies and institutions, provides support services or agricultural development. In the Caribbean, there are institutions providing advice and support to the agricultural sector, as well as some which provide specialised careers training. Caribbean countries are part o the global economy; their agricultural development depends on contributions rom international organisations.
1 · The role and importance of agriculture
Answers to ITQs
ITQ1
‘Agriculture’ is the general term used or ood production and its associated activities. Traditionally, the term was used to describe the tilling o the soil, but it now includes the cultivation o crops, the rearing o livestock and related industries such as technology, processing and marketing. ‘Farming’ is also used as a general term, but is usually qualiied to describe the type o arming: dairy arming, organic arming, mixed arming. ‘Husbandry’ describes a specialisation in growing crops (crop husbandry) or raising animals (livestock husbandry).
ITQ2
This list can be extensive: bananas, maize, sugar cane, etc. It would be useul to make a list or your area o the Caribbean.
ITQ3
The major roles o agriculture in the economy o a country are: ood security, oreign exchange earnings, contribution to GNP, employment, trade liberalisation.
ITQ4
Food security is encouraging sel-suiciency by promoting and improving ood production and marketing. This will expand trade opportunities, increase the national income and improve nutrition. Food security should reduce dependence on imported oods by promoting the development o ood production locally.
ITQ5
Growing ood locally reduces the need or imported oods. It provides employment or armers, labourers, engineers and in agro-processing. Importing ood cuts down on the number o jobs in arming and associated industries.
ITQ6
Running a retail outlet selling agricultural produce will require: a manager, an accountant, cashiers, sales assistants, cleaners and drivers.
ITQ7
Supplying a supermarket chain with salad vegetables would involve: labourers to harvest vegetables, personnel to sort, clean and grade the produce, packers, drivers to transport the produce, engineers to service the vehicles and machinery needed, oice personnel to take and process the orders.
ITQ8
The Forestry Division manages orest reserves, carries out reaorestation, issues permits or hunting, sells orest plants and harvested timber, provides technical advice and inormation to armers.
ITQ9
The Extension Training and Inormation Division runs agricultural courses at Farmers’ Training Centres, provides technical advice to armers, and publishes technical inormation bulletins and actsheets on crops and livestock.
ITQ10 The University o the West Indies provides a number o courses which
lead to qualiications in agriculture and agricultural development. It trains scientists and engineers and there are research units investigating problems relating to crop and livestock production. ITQ11 IICA is the Inter-American Institute or Co-operation on Agriculture.
It carries out agricultural research and graduate training in tropical agriculture. FAO is the Food and Agriculture Organisation o the United Nations. It helps countries to improve their agriculture, orestry and isheries. CIDA is the Canadian International Development Agency which unds assistance to developing countries. It provides technical assistance and advice on a wide range o issues. ITQ12 The European Union has an agreement with 15 Caribbean nations (the
EPA or Economic Partnership Agreement) to stimulate trade. It should open up markets or produce rom the Caribbean countries by removing taris and encouraging trade liberalisation.
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Section A: The Business of Farming
Examination-style questions
Multiple Choice Questions Write down the number o the question ollowed by the letter o the correct answer. You can check your answers on page 372. 1. An extension ofcer: A carries out research on new pesticides B treats sick animals C is a direct link between the armer and the agricultural research centre D cultivates land or growing crops 2. An example o agro-processing is: A the manuacture o new ertilisers B producing jam rom ruit C ploughing the land D the butchering o domestic livestock 3. Trade liberalisation means that: A air trade in goods and services is encouraged B market access is restricted C local armers produce ewer crops D more people are buying locally produced crops 4. The movement o goods and services rom the agricultural producer to the consumer is: A transportation B marketing C export D management
Short answer and essay-type questions 5. Explain how oreign exchange can be earned rom agriculture in the Caribbean. 6. Describe the job o a armer and outline the desirable qualifcations. 7. Explain why ood inspection and quality control are important aspects o ood production. 8. Outline the work o the Animal Production and Health Division o the Ministry o Agriculture. 9. What are the unctions o CARICOM? 10.Describe how regional agricultural projects are unded.
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