ANNAMALAI
UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY B.Sc. AGRICULTURE AGR 121: AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY THEORY NOTES
Chapter
Chapter Name
No.
Page No.
Part - I 1.
Introduction to Agricultural Meteorology
2
2.
Atmosphere
6
3.
Weather and Climate
18
4.
Solar Radiation and Light
39
5.
Temperature
57 Part – II
6.
Atmospheric Pressure
2
7.
Wind
12
8.
Atmospheric Humidity (Moisture)
27
9.
Clouds and Precipitation
33
Evaporation and Transpiration
39
10.
Part - III 11.
Precipitation
2
12.
Agroclimatic Zones
23
13.
Agroclimatic normals for field crops
26
14.
Weather Forecasting
30
15.
Agricultural Seasons of India
35
1
Part - I Chapter
1
–
Introduction to Agricultural Meteorology Meteorology is defined as a branch of physics dealing with the lower atmosphere (Atmosphere is a deep blanket of gases g ases surrounding the earth) with particular emphasis to the individual phenomenon. In other words it is concerned with the study of the characteristic and behavior of the atmosphere. It explains and analyses the changes of individual weather elements such as air pressure, temperature and humidity that are brought about due to the effect of insolation on the earth ’s surface. (Insolation refers to radiation from the sun received by earth ’s surface). Agro meteorology is a science investigating the meteorological, climatologic and hydrologic conditions, which are significant for agriculture owing to their interaction with the objects and processes of agricultural production. In nutshell, it is a science dealing with climatic conditions, which is directly related to agriculture.
Divisions of Meteorology: 1. Dynamic Meteorology
It deals with the forces that create and maintain motion and the latest transformations associated therewith. 2. Physical Meteorology
It deals with pure physical nature such as radiation, heat, evaporation, condensation, precipitation, ice accretion (continuous coherence) and optical acoustical and electrical phenomena. 3. Climatology
Climatology refers to the study of weather patterns over time and space. It concerns with the integration of day-to-day weather over a period of time. It refers to the average av erage
2
conditions of the weather. Climatology is made up of two Greek words, kilma + logos; kilma means slope of the earth, and logos means a discourse or study. In brief, climatology is simultaneously an old and a new science. It is a statistical meteorology which determines the statistical relations, mean value normal, frequencies, variation distribution etc. 4. Synoptic meteorology
Its purpose is the analysis and forecasting of the weather phenomena. Thus synoptic meteorology comprises dynamic as well as physical meteorology and to a lesser extent climatology in order to obtain a synopsis of the state of atmosphere. 5. Aeronautical meteorology
It deals with application of meteorology to the problems of aviation. 6. Maritime meteorology
It is related to marine navigation. 7. Agricultural meteorology
It deals with application of meteorology to agriculture, soil conservation etc. 8. Hydrometeorology
It is concerned with meteorological problems relating to water supply, flood control, irrigation etc. 9. Medical meteorology
It deals with the influence of weather and climate on the t he human body. 10. Aerology
It is a branch of meteorology that is concerned with the conditions of the free atmosphere on the basis of direct observations.
3
Meteors and its Classification:
Meteors are defined as an atmospheric phenomenon, having a luminous appearance that travels through space as aerolites, fireballs, stars etc. a.
Aerial meteors
:
Wind, Tornado
b.
Hydro or Aqueous meteors
:
Rain, hail, snow and dew
c.
Litho meteors
:
Dust and smoke
d.
Luminous meteors
:
Rainbow and halos (circle of light and sound luminous body around the sun or moon)
e.
Igneous meteors
:
Lightening and shooting stars.
Development and Importance of Agricultural Meteorology
Superstition served to interpret atmospheric mysteries such as rain, wind and lightening. In the early civilization, Gods were often assigned to the climatic elements, Indians still hold ceremonial worships/dances to Gods to produce rains at times of drought. The Greek philosophers showed a great interest in meteorological science. In fact the word “Meteorology” is of Greek origin means the study on things about meteors and optical phenomena. In fact, the word “Meteorology has been borrowed from Aristotle ’s Meteorologica” dated about 350 BC. The period of weather tradition and superstitions
“
in the development of meteorology lasted until the beginning of the 17 th Century when the invention of instruments for scientific analysis of weather phenomenon was made. In 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer and in 1643, his student Torricelli discovered the principles of mercurial Barometer. The climatological map was published by British astronomer “Edmund Hally’ in 1686. By 1800, dependable weather observations were made in Europe and USA. An International Meteorological Organization had been established in 1878. The World Meteorological Organization
4
(WMO) took its present form in 1951. It serves as a specialized agency to carryout the worldwide exchange of meteorological information with the head quarters in Geneva, Switzerland. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) was established in the year 1875. The division of Agricultural Meteorology was started by the IMD in 1932 to meet the needs of agriculture and researchers. The IMD has brought out many useful publications on rainfall. The Rainfall Atlas of India was published published based on the rainfall rainfall data from 1901 to 1950. In addition to rendering advice from time to time, the IMD began to offer regular weather service and farmers weather bulletins from 1945. The bulletins are broadcast daily in 20 regional languages in all the All India Radio stations on expected weather conditions during the next 36 hrs. Weather report is also broadcasted through television. At present 8000 rain gauge stations and 52 principal types of Agro met observatories are available in our country. Scope of Agricultural Meteorology
Climatic factors alone affect the yield of crops to an extent of about 40%. In India the success of agriculture depends mainly on monsoon rains. Agricultural Meteorology is mainly concerned with microclimatology in which the influence of the shallow layer of atmosphere immediately above the surface is studied. Successful crop production depends not only upon the total seasonal rainfall but also on the proper distribution. The study of agricultural meteorology helps the farmers to know when the monsoon rain begins, its distribution etc. Apart from this the farmer will be able to know about the weather abnormalities and their destructive effect on crops.
5
Chapter
2
–
Atmosphere It is necessary to review our memory with our earlier understanding of atmosphere, which serves as a platform for studying the meteorology. The word atmosphere derives from the Greek word
Atmos” which means vapour and
“
Sphaira” which means
“
sphere. It is used now to denote the gaseous g aseous sphere surrounding surrounding the earth. Stratification and Composition of Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of many gases, not a chemical compound. In addition, it contains water vapor volume and huge number of solid particles, called aerosols. Some of the gases (N, O, Ar, CO 2) may be regarded as permanent atmospheric components componen ts that remain r emain in fixed proportions to the total gas g as volume. Other constituents vary in quantity from place place to place and from time time to time. If the suspended suspended particles, water vapour and other variable gases were excluded from the atmospheres, we would find that the dry air is very stable all over the earth up to an altitude of about 80 kilometers. Composition of Atmosphere
6
Principal gases comprising dry air in the lower atmosphere. Constituent
Percent by volume
Nitrogen (N2)
78.08
Oxygen (O2)
20.94
*Argon (Ar)
0.93
Carbon dioxide (Co2)
0.03
*Neon (Ne)
0.0018
*Helium (He)
0.0005
Ozone (O3 )
0.00006
Hydrogen (H2)
0.00005
*Krypton (Kr)
Trace
*Xenon (Xe)
Trace
Methane (Me)
Trace
*Inert chemically never found in any chemical compounds As shown in the table, two gases, nitrogen and oxygen, make up about 99 per cent of the clean, dry air. The remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute about 1 per cent of the atmosphere generally homogenous and it is called as homosphere. At higher altitudes, the chemical constituents of air changes considerably. The layer is known as the heterosphere heterosphere.. Nitrogen
It is chemically inactive and an important plant nutrient, but it has to be fixed in the soil to make it available to the plant. The fixation of nitrogen nitrogen in the soil is carried carried out by the following agencies.
7
1. Nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteria a.
Symbiotic root nodule leguminous bacteria - Rhizobium group.
b.
Symbiotic root nodule leguminous bacteria -on Casuarinas.
c.
Symbiotic leaf nodule bacteria on Pavetta and Dioscorea.
d.
Symbiotic root nodule - Actinomycetes in Myrstica and Almus.
2. Nitrogen fixation by free living
a.
Azetobacter and clostridium group of bacteria.
b.
Photosynthetic and chemo synthetic – Sulphur bacteria.
c.
Free living east cells of fungi.
d.
Blue green algae.
The above agencies are known as biological agencies, which fixes the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
8
3. Lightning and powerful electrical charges
During lightning and powerful electrical charges are released and ‘N’ and ‘H’ in elements present in the atmosphere forms NH 2 dissolved and brought down by rain and water as NH3 . About 2 to 20 lbs of nitrogen is added to the soil/acre. 4. By means of artificial methods
By electrical arc method. Oxygen
It has got considerable importance in plant and animal life. It plays an important role in respiration, bacterial activity in soil oxidation and absorption of plant nutrients and several soil forming or weathering activities in the soil, which improve plant food availability. 3. Carbon dioxide
It plays an active part in photosynthetic activities. 4. Argon
It is used extensively in electric lamp bulbs because of its inertness. It is also used in florescent tubes. It flows with blue light. 5. Neon
Neon is used to fill florescent florescent tubes. It flows with distinctive orange red colour. 6. Helium
It is the second highest element with a density of 0.177 gms per liter (Hydrogen 0,08988 gms /liter). It is used to inflate balloons balloons because it it will not burn. 7. Krypton
This glows with brilliant green and yellow y ellow colour.
9
8. Xenon
It is chemically inert and glows with a blue green colour. Besides these the atmosphere also contains small quantities of ozone (O 3 ), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Sulphur dioxide (SO 2) and traces of Iodine, NaCl,NH 3 Carbon monoxide etc., The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is not quite constant. The vegetable World continuously consumes CO 2, which again is produced by the animal World, through burning of fuels, volcanic action and various process of decay in the soil. But the oceans by dissolving the excess of CO 2, so effectively regulate it that the amount of CO 2 in t he atmosphere remains almost constant. Ozone, which is present in the lower atmosphere, has a maximum in the upper atmosphere between 10 and 25 km (30,000 and 80,000) where it amount varies considerably. Apart from this the composition of the atmosphere is remarkably constant all over the earth ’s surface. Water vapour:
The air also contains variable of water vapour. The water vapour present in the atmosphere varies up to 4% by volume volume as in tropical tropical humid climate. Most of the the vapour is found in the lower part pf the atmosphere. The maximum amount of water vapour that the air can absorb depends entirely on the temperature of the air, the higher the temperature of the air the more water vapour it can hold. The air is saturated with moisture when this maximum amount is reached, when air is cooled below its saturation temperature condensation takes place, water droplets formed or at low temperature ice crystals formed. Small water drop lets and ice crystals are kept afloat in the air by the t he ascending air currents and under special circumstances the water droplets and ice crystals coalesce and form large drops or snow flakes which are precipitated from the clouds when they become too large to be kept afloat. Sold particles of atmosphere:
The air also contains a variable amount of impurities such as dust, soot, salts, fungal spores, bacteria and pollen (both organic and in organic) Over a city it is estimated to contain, 1,00,000 0articles per cc. A cigarette puff sends about 400 crores of dust particles. The main source of dust is the arid regions such as deserts and steppes. The minute dust particles are readily distributed throughout the lower atmosphere and
10
carried for from the source. The industrial regions forest fires and volcanoes constitute the main source of soot. Through the action of winds, spray is whirled up from the oceans, and when it evaporation the salt remains in the air in the form of minute particles. The presence of dust particles in the atmosphere is important since when the air is cooled to its saturate temperature, condensation takes place on certain active nuclei. The salt particles particles from the the oceans are most most active as condensation condensation nuclei nuclei on which the water vapour condenses condenses to form fog or rain. They are the cause for twilight. Layered structure of the Atmosphere:
During the international Geophysical year (1957-62), important discoveries were made about the atmosphere and many new new facts came came to light. The earth’s atmosphere consists of zones or layers arranged like spherical shells according to altitude and temperature variations above the earth ’s surface.
According to Peterson, the
atmosphere is divided into the following more significant spheres.
11
1.
Troposphere
2.
Stratosphere
3.
Mesosphere (also called Ozonosphere)
4.
Ionosphere
5.
Exosphere
1. Troposphere:
It contains about 75 per cent of the total gaseous mass of the atmosphere. It has been derived from the Greek word ‘trops’ meaning “mixing ” or turbulence. The average height of this lowermost layer of the atmosphere is placed at about 14 km above sea level. Under normal conditions, conditions, the height height of the troposphere troposphere at the poles poles is about 8 kilometers, while at the equator it is about 16 kilometers.
12
Troposphere is marked by turbulence and eddies. It is also called connective region. Various types of clouds, thunderstorms as well as cyclones and anticyclones occur in this sphere because of the concentration of almost all the water vapour and aerosols in it. Wind velocities increase with height and attain maximum at the top. The most important feature is decrease in temperature with increasing elevation up to 14km. Tropopause is a shallow layer separating troposphere troposphere from the next thermal layer of the atmosphere i.e., stratosphere. Tropopause (Greek word) means where the mixing stops. The temperature remains constant throughout the tropopause. The height of the tropopause is about 1 to 2 km. k m. 2. Stratosphere: The stratosphere begins at the tropospause, which forms its lower
boundary. The lower stratosphere is isothermal in character (16-30 kilometers). There is a gradual temperature increase with height beyond 20 km i.e., upper stratosphere (temperature inversion). inversion). No visible weather phenomena phenomena occur above tropopause.
13
3. Mesosphere or Ozonosphere: There is maximum concentration of Ozone between 30
to 60 kilometers above the surface of the earth. Because of the concentration of ozone in this layer it is called the ozonosphere. ozonosphere. It is a warm layer because of selective selective absorption of ultra violet radiation by ozone. In fact, it acts as a filter for ultra violet radiation from the sun. In this layer the temperature increases with height @ 5 0 C/km. The maximum temperature recorded in the ozonosphere is higher than that at the earth’s surface. Because of the preponderance if chemical processes, this sphere is sometimes called as chemosphere.
14
4. Ionosphere: Ionosphere, according to Peterson, lies beyond the ozonosphere at a
height of about 60 km above the earth ’s surface. surface. At this level the ionization ionization atmosphere atmosphere begins to occur. Above ozonosphere, ozonosphere, the temperature temperature falls again reaching a minimum minimum of about 1000C at a height 80 km. above earth’s surface. Beyond this level the temperature increases again due to the absorption of short wave solar radiator by the atoms of O & N in this ionosphere.
Layers of Ionosphere
D Layer
:
60-89km.
E Layer
:
90-130 km.
E1 Sporadic Layer
:
110 km.
E2 Layer
:
150 km.
F1 Layer
:
F2 Layer
:
150- 380 kms.
G Layer
:
400km and above. 15
5. Exosphere:
The outer most layer of earth ’s atmosphere is known as the exosphere, which lies between 400 and 1000 kilometers. At such great height density of atoms in the atmosphere is extremely low. Hydrogen and helium gases predominate in the outer most regions. Kinetic temperature temperature may reach reach 55680 Celsius.
Modern Views Regarding the Structure of Atmosphere
On the basis of composition, the atmosphere is divided into two broad spheres. 1. Homosphe Homosphere re and 2. Heterosphere
16
Homosphere means zone of homogenous composition height - up to 88 kilometers. The proportions of the component gases of the sphere are uniform at different levels. It is sub-divided into a. Troposphere
-
very shallow transition layer tropopause
b. Stratosphere
-
Stratopause
c. Mesosphere
-
Mesopause
Heterosphere:
The atmosphere above the homosphere is not uniform in composition. Different layers of the atmosphere in this part differ from one another in their chemical and physical properties. In this sphere gases are said to be arranged into the following four roughly spherical shells, each of which has its own distinctive composition. 1. Nitrogen layer - 200 km above earths surface molecular N. 2. Oxygen layer - Average ht. 1120km (atomic oxygen) 3. Helium layer
- Average ht. 3520km.
4. Hydrogen layer - these layer are ar e arranged according to the weight of the gases. g ases. Lapse rate:
The rate of decrease of temperature with increase in height at a given place and time is called Lapse rate. The normal lapse rate is 6.50 C per km increase in height.
17
Chapter
3
–
Weather and Climate Phenology:
It indicates the coming season. It is a science, which deals with the reoccurrence of important phases of animals and vegetable life in relation to climate during the year. Events such as leafing, flowering, fruiting, leaf shedding, migration of birds, occurrence of insects etc provide indications of the coming season. According to Indian Meteorological Department the flowering in mango tree takes place by 15th December in Chennai and Andhra Pradesh while in northern state it is as late as 15th of March. Seasons:
1.
Spring
:
2.
Summer :
April to June – Flowering and fruiting takes place.
3.
Autumn :
July – September.
4.
Winter
October – December.
:
January to March - Fresh leaves form in trees.
The sequence of flowering obeys Hopkins Bioclimatic law, to which the time of flowering develops upon the latitude, longitude longitude and altitude. According to the law, 1.
For every degree of latitude north or south of equator, flowering is retarded by 4 calendar days.
2.
For every 50 of longitude for East or West on land areas ar eas flowering is advanced by 4 calendar days.
3.
For each 400’ increase in altitude flowering is retarded by 4 calendar days.
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Boyle’s Law
The Volume of a given quantity of air varies inversely as the pressure upon it, provided the temperature remains constant. Charle’s Law
The volume of a given quantity of air varies directly as the absolute temperature, provided the pressure remains constant. Weather
The condition of atmosphere at a given time defined as weather and it is highly variable. I t is a heat or moisture exchange exchange for a shorter period period of time over over a smaller area particularly particularly
respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness cloudiness,, relative humidity, humidity, and
pressure etc. Weather and climate are the important factors determining the success or
19
failure of agriculture. Weather influences influences agricultural operations from from sowing of a crop to the harvest and depends on the mercy of the weather particularly rain fed agriculture. In India every year there is a considerable considerable damage by floods in one one part of the country and a severe drought causing famines in another part. The total annual pre harvest losses for the various crops are estimated from 10 to 100 per cent; while, the post harvest losses are estimated to range between 5 and 15 per cent. Hence, study of weather element is essential. essential. Weather is the condition of atmosphere atmosphere at a given time. It is the day to day interplay of temperature, humidity, pressure, rainfall etc. The weather conditions of Coimbatore on a particular day at a particular time may not be the same as that of Annamalainagar weather. Eg:
Weather data for Annamalainagar during 2005 Maximum temperature was observed on ----------------------------Maximum rainfall was received on ------------------------------------------Maximum relative humidity was recorded on ---------
Climate
The state of atmosphere over the period of time is known as climate. It is the synthesis of these various elements of the weather. The word climate refers to the mean or normal conditions over a long period such as 20-30 years or more; where as the cold weather refers to the mean or normal conditions over a long period such as 20-30 years or more. Where as the word weather refers to more or less instantaneous conditions in the atmosphere or the trend of there conditions over a relatively short period of time.
1.
Occurrence
Weather
of
elements at a time
the
Climate
weather Expressions of many such occurrences as the flow together in time. Average values of huge elements for a seasonal time is long period (for 30 years)
20
2.
Differentiation of climate
3.
Concerned with how all the Concerned weather elements act as a time
Integration of weather
with
how
they
affect
the
given environment which is turn affects all the organisms.
Longitude
It is the distance east or west on the earth ’s surface measured as an arc of the equator (in degrees up to 1800 or by the difference by time ) between the meridian passing through a particular place and a standard of prime meridian, usually the one passing through Greenwich, England. Meridian
Meridian is a great circle of the earth passing through the geographical poles at any given point on the earth ’s surface. Equator
It is an imaginary circle of around the earth, equally distance at all points from both the North Pole and the South Pole. It divides the earth ’s surface into the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere like dividing the coconut fruit at the centre horizontally. Factors influencing the climate
The most important climate elements are temperature precipitation, humidity, wind velocity, duration of monsoons and cloudiness air pressure etc., which in different combinations decided the climate of a place. Because of the intimate relation between climate and vegetation climates are classified according to the type of plants grown or cultivated soil such as tropical climate, forest climate, desert climate, pine forest climate, tundra climate etc. The climatic elements are the results of interaction of number of factors such as
21
1. Latitude- distance from the north or south of equator. 2. Altitude – the elevation of a place above mean sea level. 3. Precipitation 4. Distance from the sea 5. Topography 1. Latitude:
Latitude is the angular distance, measured in degrees, north or south from the equator. It is the main factor in determining the climatic zones such as torrid, temperate, tropical, subtropical and polar zones. It is found that the quality of grains is better in higher latitudes than that of lower latitudes. For Example:
1. Canadian wheat is of better quality than Egyptian wheat. 2. Italian rice is superior to Indian rice. The latitude of a place in question for its depends on the angle of incidence of the incoming radiations from the sun, the length of the day and night, the length of the seasons, the amount of incoming radiations etc., Distance from East to West
:
2933 km
Distance from North to South
:
32144 km
Land frontiers
:
15200 km
Coast line
:
6083 km
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Solstice
It is the time when the sun reaches its maximum distance from the equator (summer solstice when it touches tropic of cancer on 21 st June and winter solstice when it touches Tropic of Capricorn on 21 st December).
23
0’ to 23 ½ 0 L
=
Tropical region
23 to 66 ½ 0 L
=
Temperate region
Above 66 ½ 0
=
Polar region.
i. Tropical Region (Climate)
The tropical climate is characterized by high temperature throughout the year because it is the region of sun ’s movement. The Equatorial Belt
The equatorial belt comes under the tropical region and the sun is north of the equator during the northern summer and south of the equator during the southern summer. At the equator the sun is in Zenith at both equinoxes. equinoxes. About 230 N and S the sun reaches Zenith only at the time of the solstices. Thus near the equator the sun is in zenith twice a year and there will be maximum of incoming radiation in spring and autumn. The length of the day varies but little throughout the year and the sun is high in the sky every day. The annual variation in the temperature is therefore very small. But the diurnal variation in temperature will be relatively large because the length of the day varies but little. Zenith
Zenith is defined as the time at which part of the sun is directly overhead.
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Horizon
Horizon refers to an imaginary line at which earth of sea or sky appears to meet. Equinoxes
Equinoxes refer to the time of the year at which the sun crosses the equator and day and night are equal.
ii. Subtropical climate
This is also characterized by high temperature alternating with low temperature in winter. Subtropical is also characterized by high temperature alternating with low temperature in winter.
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iii. Temperate Region
The temperate climate is distinguished by low temperature all through the year. It has got moderate temperature with well-distributed rainfall, humidity etc. This is the ideal climate region for
successful success ful crop production.
The temperate climate has low
temperature throughout the year. Here the sun does not reach the Zenith in mid summer. The days are long and the sun is high in the sky in summer and in winter the days are short and the sun is low in the sky with the result that the incoming radiation varies considerably through out the year. As a result the annual variation in temperature tends to increase from the equator towards the poles. iv. Polar Region
Since it is far away from the suns influence this region will be extremely chill or cold through out the year. The polar climate is noted for its very low temperature throughout the year. Here the sun is below the horizon day and night in mid winter and above the horizon day and night in mid summer. At the poles there is no diurnal variation in the incoming radiation and the daily variation in temperature vanishes. On the other hand the difference between the incoming radiation in winter and summer has increased to a maximum, with the result that the annual variation in temperature increases. 2. Altitude
It is the elevation of a place, the metrological elements vary rapidly with height above the sea level and it has a profound influence on a climate. Even in the tropical climate, the high mountains have temperate climate. The temperature decreases by 0.6 0 for every 100 m from the sea level. Generally there is a decrease in pressure and increase in precipitation and wind velocity. The important effects of altitudes are
26
1. As the height increases the pressure is decreased the barometer reading in difference heights are as follows: a. 30” at sea level b. 29” at 830 feet. c. 15” at 18,500 feet. 2. As the height increases the mean temperature is decreased and the decrease is usually 10 F fro every 300’ ascent (0.6 C for every 100 m increase in height from sea level) 3. As the height increases the precipitation also increases. 3. Precipitation
As the height increases the precipitation also increases and hence rainfall is more in mountainous regions. The quantity and distribution of rainfall decides the nature of vegetation and the nature of the cultivated crops. The crop region is classified on the basis of average rainfall, which is as follows:
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Rainfall (mm)
Name of the climatic region
Less than 500
Arid
500-700
Semi arid
750-1000
Sub humid
More than 1000
Humid
4. Distance from the Sea
The presence of large water bodies like lakes and sea effect the climate of the surrounding areas. E.g., islands and coastal areas. The movement of air from earth surface and from water bodies to earth modifies the climate. The extreme variation in temperature during summer summer and winter is minimized in coastal areas and islands. The difference between marine and continental climate can be classified as follow:
Marine
Continental
1.
Rainfall
More and well distributed
Less and ill distributed
2.
Temperature
Variation is less
Variation is more
3.
Land and Sea Breeze
Sea breeze is regular
No sea breeze
5. Topography (Relief)
The surface of landscape (levelled or uneven surface areas) produces marked changes in the climate. This involves the altitude of the place, steepness of the slope and
28
exposure of the slope to light and wind. The frost occurrence will be mostly in the valleys rather than the hills. Besides these, soils and vegetation as physical factors also affect climate to a smaller extent. i) Soil type
Soil is product of climatic action on rocks as modified by landscape and vegetation over a long period of time. The colour of soil surface affects the absorption, storage and reradiation of heat. White colour reflects while the black absorbs more radiation. Due to the differential absorption of the heat energy, variations in temperature are created at different places. In black soil areas the climate is hot while in red soil areas it is comparatively cooler due to lesser heat absorption. E.g. Tirunelveli and Ramnad District. ii) Vegetation
Kind of vegetation characterizes the nature of climate. Thick vegetation is found in tropical regions where temperature and precipitation are high. General types of vegetations present in a region indicates the nature of climate of that region. Thick forest areas with more vegetation will be cooler than the desert because the forest trees and by the surrounding surrounding environment environment becomes becomes cooler. cooler. The black soil soil type regions regions generally a hot climate exists because of more absorption of by the black soil. Other factors that influence the weather and climate marginally are i.
Semi permanent high and low pressure systems.
ii.
Winds and air masses.
iii.
Atmospheric disturbances or storms.
iv.
Oceans currents.
v.
Mountain barriers
29
The temperature distribution near the earth surface would be as follows a. Mean annual temperature is highest at equator and lowest at poles. b. Annul variation in temperature is small at the equator (with maximum temperature in spring and autumn) c. Diurnal variation in temperature is greatest at the equator and decreasing with increasing latitude.) Classification of Climate:
Mr. Koppen has classified the climate into eleven principal types as follows: 1. Tropical rainforest climate:
It occupies the major portions of the equatorial belt. Along the west coast the belt is relatively narrow and along the east coast it spreads out 26 0 N and S because of the monsoons and on the land trade winds give warm weather and rainfall most of the year. This climate is characterized by a.
High temperature coldest weather above 18 0C (64.40 F) annual variation in temperature less than 6 0C (110F).
b.
Sufficient rainfall to maintain tropical forest, either rain at all seasons, two rain maxima or one long rain period and one short and dry season with at least 6 cm rainfall.
c.
Vegetation of the megatherm type, which require high constant temperature, abundant precipitation and high relative humidity.
30
2. Tropical –Savanna Climate:
This zone surrounds the tropical rain forest. They have a dry period caused by the migration of the doldrums and the climate is characterized by a.
High temperature, coldest much above 18 0C annual variations in temperature less than 12 0 C.
b.
Relatively abundant rainfall in summer and dry winter, with at least one month with less than 6cm rainfall.
c.
Vegetation related to the tropical rain forest, but because of the winter dryness the forests are replaced by open land with trees.
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3. Steppes
The steppes continue for into the interior continent where the dryness is in part due to the large distance from the coast coast and lack of moisture moisture bearing winds. winds. The equatorial part and eastern part of the steppe region has light summer rainfall chiefly because of summer showers, and the portion indicated by WR (winter rainfall) has dry summer and slight winter rainfall. The steppe climate is characterized by a.
Temperature varying within wide limits.
b.
Lack of rainfall, evaporation-exceeding precipitation most of the rain at rare intervals and the amount varying considerably.
c.
Vegetation adapted to high temperature large temperature variation and long day periods.
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4. Deserts
Here the descending air in the subtropical anticyclones causes extreme dryness. The deserts are characterized by: a.
High summer temperature, large diurnal variation and moderate annual variation in temperature.
b.
Cloudy sky, extreme dryness, dust and sand storms, rains squalls at rare intervals.
c.
Very sparse vegetation of steppe type.
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5. Warm climate with dry winter:
Adjacent to savannas and winds are mainly monsoon type, dry winter and wet summer. a.
Mean temperature of the coldest month below 18 0C but above –30C mean temperature of warmest month over 10 0C.
b.
Dry winter and wet summer at least 10 times as much as rainfall in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter. Warm climate with dry winter.
2. Warm Climate with dry summer:
Under the poleward part of the subtropical anticyclones where because of the annual migration of these anticyclones, the prevailing westerlies give rain in winter. a.
This zone is characterized by temperature as in climatic zone
–
5.
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b.
Dry summer and moist moist winter with at least least 3 times as much much rainfall in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer having less than 3 cm of rainfall.
c.
Vegetation of the mesothermal type adapted to dry and warm summers and moderately cold and wet winters.
The summer summer is frequently too dry dry and whether is too cold cold for the vegetation. As a result most plants blossom in spring and autumn where there are sufficient heat or moisture. 3. Humid temperate climate
They are under the influence of moisture throughout the year with a high temperature in winter and sufficient rainfall in all seasons. a.
Temperature as in climate zone (No. 5 and 6).
b.
No appreciable annual variation in rainfall.
c.
Vegetation of mesothermal type adopted for high moisture throughout the year (Evergreens).
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8. Cold climate with moist winter
This coincides with sub polar belts of pine forests. a.
Mean temperature of coldest month less than warmest month above 10 0C.
b.
Rains all through the year on the coast mostly in winter in land mostly in summer.
c.
Vegetation
–
isothermal type, which required short summer and long
winter and needs snow cover for protection during the long and cold winter (E.g. Pine and Fir). 9. Cold Climate with Dry Winter
In high latitudes because of the low winter temperature and the great distance from moisture bearing winds, the rain during winter is very small other characteristics are similar to zone. (8). 10. Tundra Climate
In the northern permanent most part of the continent. The mean temperature of the warmest winter is below 100C. Subsoil is frozen throughout throughout the year and and there are no no forests.
36
11. Ice climate
The polar cap of /snow and ice with mean temperature of the warmest month is below 00C (32.50F) Thornthwaite establishes five climatic provinces that correspond closely to natural plant covers. Climatic province
Type of vegetation
T.E. Index
Wet
Rainforest
>=128
Humid
Forest
64 - 127
Sub Humid
Grass land
32 – 63
Semi arid
Steppe
16 – 31
Arid
Desert
<16
If we travel along the west coast from the equator towards North Pole we pass the climatic zone in the following order. 1.
Tropical rain forest
2.
Savanna
3.
Steppe
4.
Desert
5.
Warm summer rain
6.
Warm winter rain
7.
Temperate rain all seasons
8.
Cold moist climate
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9.
Cold winter dry climate
10. Tundra 11. Ice. The following are some of the most important elements of weather, which in different combinations make up the climate of particular place or areas. Weather parameters/Weather elements:
1. Solar radiation 2. Temperature 3. Air pressure 4. Wind velocity and wind direction 5. Moisture (humidity) 6. Cloudiness (Sunshine hours) 7. Precipitation (Rainfall) All these are highly variable and constitute the weather / climate. A change in one of the elements generally brings about changes in the others. All these weather elements are discussed n the following chapters.
38
Chapter - 4 Solar Radiation and Light The sun is primary source of heat to the earth and its atmosphere. The heat received from other celestial bodies as well as the interior of the earth from the sun is about 1, 49,000,000 (1.49 * 108) kilometers. The diameter of the sun measures roughly about 13,82,400 (1.38*106) kilometers. The surface temperature of the sun is estimated between 55000C and 61000C. The interior temperature ranges from 8*106 to 40*1006 0K. Solar radiation provides more than 99.9 percent of the energy that heats the earth and does not change appreciably from year to year and varies only with latitude and season. Undoubtedly, the radiant energy from the sun is the most important control of our weather and climate. The most astonishing fact about the incoming solar radiation (insolation) that strikes the earth ’s surface is that it is equal to about 23-billon horsepower. Actually it is this amount amount of energy received received from the sun that acts as the driving force for all the atmospheric as well as biological processes on the earth.
39
Besides, all other sources of energy found on earth such as coal, oil and wood etc., are nothing but converted from of solar energy. All matter (not at the absolute zero temperature) what ever their temperature sends out energy into the surrounding space in the form of electromagnetic waves and the propagation of this energy as well as the energy it self is called
Radiation”. (If we
“
assume that the sun is perfectly black, the temperature it should have in order for the flux at the outer limits of the earths atmosphere to equal the solar constant and this is know as the “Effective temperature of the sun ” and is equal to 5760 0K.) A black body at the temperature of the sun will radiate upward 99% of its energy between the wavelengths 0.15 and 4. About ½ of the radiation will be in the region of the spectrum between 0.38 to 0.77 and the reminder in the invisible ultraviolet and infrared regions. The word ‘insolation’ is abbreviated form of “incoming solar radiation”. Radiant energy from the sun that strikes the earth is called insolation.
40
Deflection of solar radiation:
The incoming solar radiation suffers deflection as follows: 1. Absorption by ozone layer in the upper atmosphere (about 5%). 2. Scattering by dry air. 3. Absorption, scattering and diffuse reflection by suspended solid particles and 4. Absorption and scattering by water vapour. The surface of the earth is a poor reflector of solar radiation. i. Fresh snow reflects 80 - 85% of incoming radiation. ii. Old snow – 40% iii. Grass - 20 to 44% iv. Rock – 12 to 15% v. Dry earth – 14% vi. Wet earth – 8 to 9%. vii. Cloud reflects 78% No radiation is reflected be a smooth water surface when the sun is with 40 0 of the Zenith. Reflection of solar radiation by earth’s surface and by clouds ( Albedo of earth):
The “Albedo of the earth” is a quantity used to measure the total reflecting power of the earth and atmosphere. It is defined as the fraction of the incoming solar radiation returned to space by scattering and reflection in the atmosphere and by reflection at clouds and at the earth surface. It represents the unused fraction of the incoming solar energy; the part that is absorbed a bsorbed neither in the atmosphere nor in the earth. The average albedo value of the earth is 34% Transfer of heat:
The atmosphere is a poor absorber and the earth ’s surface is good absorber of incoming radiation, and the atmosphere receives most of the heat energy via the earth surface.
41
The heat received in one place may be transported to other places by the following mechanism 1. Conduction 2. Radiation 3. Turbulence 4. Advection 5. Convection 1. Conduction
Conduction is the process of heat transfer through matter by molecular activity. In this process heat is transferred from one part of a body to another or between two objects touching each other. Conduction occurs through molecular movement. 2. Radiation
Radiation is the process of transmission of energy by electromagnetic waves and is the means by which energy emitted by the sun reaches the earth. 3. Turbulence
The wind is never a steady current. It consists of a succession of gusts and lulls of short period (Gust refers to sudden blast of wind and Lull refers to become calm). This irregular motion is called Turbulence is made up of number of small eddies that travel with general air current, super imposed on it. These eddies carry heat, moisture, dust etc, with them as they travel from one place to other. The turbulence transfer of heat is most effective in the vicinity of earths surface is distributed through air column, through mixing of neighboring air masses. 4. Advection or large-scale air currents
These are mainly horizontal currents and so heat is transported from one place to another mainly through horizontal currents and hence only in horizontal direction where as turbulence and convective currents transport heat along the vertical.
42
a. Vertical mixing
In vertical mixing of heat the air is subject to pressure changes as it moves up or down through the atmosphere (in turbulence). In the atmosphere the ascending air will be cooled adiabatic ally and the descending air will be heated adiabatic lapse rate. The result of turbulence mixing along the vertical is to create dry adiabatic lapse rate if the air is unsaturated and a moist adiabatic lapse rate if the air saturated. Vertical mixing will tent to decrease the temperature and increase moisture content in the upper portion of the mixed layer and increase the temperature and decrease the moisture content in the lower portion. This will decrease the relative humidity near the earth ’s surface and increase in the upper surface. b. Horizontal mixing
The horizontal mixing takes place at constant pressure and no adiabatic change involved. Two different air masses masses of different temperature temperature either of which which is saturated might become saturated after complete horizontal mixing.
43
5. Convection
Convection is the process of transfer of heat, through movement of a mass or substance from one place to another. Convection is possible only in gases or fluids, for they alone have internal mass motions. In solid substance this type of heat transfer is impossible. The instability is created in the lower layer of the atmosphere either through the diurnal heating of the earth’s surface by the sun or through heating of the air when it travel towards warmer regions. Gustiness, cumulus clouds, showers and thunderstorms are directly caused by instability. As soon as the temperature lapse rate near the earth exceeds the dry adiabatic slightest disturbance will upset the stratification. Air from earth’s surface rises and air from higher levels sinks to replace the ascending masses. This process of overturning of unstable air is called “Convection”. If the rising currents reach the condensation level, clouds will form. The descending air surrounding the rising masses will be heated adiabatically the R.H. Will be lower and the sky will be broken clouds of the cumulus type. The weather phenomena that convection will produce depend on the depth of the unstable layer, the height of the condensation level and the distribution of temperature aloft. Heat Budget
Of the total solar radiation reaching the outer limit of the atmosphere, about 25 per cent is reflected by clouds and 7 percent is scattered back to space by suspended particles and it is not used to heat air. The earth surface reflects 2 percent pf radiation to the space. About 19 per cent of solar radiation is absorbed a bsorbed by gases and water vapour va pour in the atmosphere. About 47 per cent cent is absorbed by the earth. Out of which which 23 percent is absorbed by the earth from scattering of clouds and atmosphere. And 24 percent is received directly from the sun. Thus approximately two-thirds of the total radiation is effective in heating the earth. The total energy coming to the earth over a considerable period of time is equal to the total outward losses. In order to maintain the terrestrial heat balance, the 66 percent of solar radiation gained must be balanced by the same
44
amount of energy radiated back to space in the form of long-wave terrestrial radiation (transferred by conduction conduction and convection). convection). In this way the overall heat heat budget of the earth is balanced. If this were not so, the earth would soon become either very hot or very cold. Actually there is a deficit of heat at higher latitudes and surplus in low latitudes. Latent heat
Normally, when heat is given to a substance, substance, its temperature temperature rises. However, the heat heat which changes the physical state of a substance but not raise its temperature is called latent heat of that substance. The latent heat of a substance is thus the amount of heat absorbed (or given out) by a unit mass of the substance to change its state without change of temperature. The latent heat is used up in overcoming the force of attraction between the molecules of the substances. Sensible heat flux
It is same as enthalpy and the product of heat capacity times the Kelvin temperature, at constant pressure for a perfect gas. This is used in meteorology in contrast to latent heat. In crop canopies the heat energy utilized in raising the temperature is referred to as sensible heat. Sensible heat advection
The process in which warm dry air passing over a field supplies energy for transpiration. Solar Constant
It is the amount of solar energy incident on a unit area at right angle to the sun ’s rays at the earth’s mean distance per unit time in the absence absence of atmosphere. Solar constant is 2 cal /cm2/ minute. The sun is the source of more than 99 per cent of the thermal energy required for the physical physical processes taking place in the earth atmosphere system. system. Every minute, the sun radiates approximately 56x10 26calories of energy. In terms of the energy
45
per unit area incident on a spherical shell with a radius of 1.5x10 13 cm (the mean distance of the earth from the sun) and concentric with the sun, this energy is equal to
56 x 1026 cal. Min-1 S=
------------------------------------------------ = 2.0 langely min-1. 4 (1.5x1013 cm) 2
(Langley =gram calories cm-2).
Solar constant = 2.0 gram calories cm-1min-1
The solar constant (S) is a true constant, but fluctuates by as much as 3.5 percent about its mean value, depending upon the distance of earth from the sun. Solar constant is defined as the rate at which solar radiation is received outside
the earth’s atmosphere on a surface perpendicular to the sun ’s rays when the earth is at an average distance from the sun. The Smithsonian Institute, USA has come to the conclusion conclusi on that the standard value of solar constant is 1.94g cal. cm-2 min-1. Since there is fluctuation in the amount of radiant energy emitted by the sun due to periodic disturbances on the solar surface, the amount of solar constant, therefore, registers a slight increase increase or decrease. However, this hardly exceeds exceeds 2-3 per cent. cent. The amount of insolation received on any date at a place on the earth is governed by 1. The solar constant which depends on (a) energy output of the sun and (b) distance from the earth to sun. 2. Energy out put of the sun. 3. Distance from the earth to sun. 4. Transparency of the atmosphere. 5. Duration of the daily sunlight period. 6. Angle at which the sun ’s rays strike the earth.
46
The distance between the earth and the sun varies between 94.5 million miles (157.5m km) at aphelion (July 1st) and 91.5 million miles at perihelion (January1 st). The amount of radiation received is seven percent greater at perihelion than at aphelion. This is a consequence of the inverse square law, which states, in effect, that the radiation received on any unit area decreases in proportion to the square to the distance of the sources. 1 Intensity = -----d2 (Aphelion – The point farthest from the sun in the orbit of a planet. Perihelion - The point nearest from the sun in the orbit of a planet) Transparency of the atmosphere has a more important bearing upon the amount of insolation, which reaches the earth ’s surface. The areas having dust, clouds, water vapour and cloudiness or polluted air will receive less direct insolation. The transparency of atmosphere depends on the latitude of a place. At middle and high latitudes the sun’s rays must pass through thicker layers of reflecting/scattering material and it is not so at tropical latitudes. Effect of Light on Plants
Solar radiation consists of a bundle of rays of radiant energy of different wavelengths. The sun emits emits radiant energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. waves. The visible portion of the solar spectrum appears as light. Light travels with a speed of 2,97,600 km/sec. It takes 8 minutes and 20 second to reach the earth. Light is the total effect of the combination of the seven different colours, Viz., Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red (VIBGYOR). The waves that produce the effect of red colour are the longest and those producing the violet are the shortest. Waves shorter than the violet are called Ultraviolet rays, while those longer than the red are known as infra Red rays. The ultra violet waves form only 6 per cent of the insolation, but have strong
47
photochemical effects on some substances. The infrared rays, even though invisible, form 43 per cent of the isolation. They are largely absorbed by water vapour that is concentrated in the lower atmosphere.
Solar radiation is the primary source of electromagnetic spectrum having different wavelength. Different type of radiation is shown below. (Wavelength in micron) 1. Cosmic rays 10-7 to 10-4 micron 2. Gamma rays 10-4 to 10-3 micron 3. X rays 10-3 to 10-1 micron 4. U.V.1 to 390 micron 5. Visible 390-760 micron 6. Infrared 760-106 micron 7. Radio wave 106-1013micron Visible solar radiation is called as light. The shorter wavelength in the solar spectrum is harmful to the plants when exposed to excessive amounts. The atmosphere, however, absorbs almost all the shorter wavelengths. The infra radiation has thermal effect on plants by supplying necessary energy for evaporation of water from the plants.
The visible portion of the solar spectrum is the light with wavelength ranging from 0.4 to 0.7. Light is one of the important climatic factors for many vital functions of the plant. It is essential for the synthesis of the most important pigment i.e., chlorophyll. The chlorophyll absorbs the radiant energy and converts into potential energy of carbohydrates (photosynthesis). The carbohydrate thus format is the connecting link between solar energy and living World. In addition, it regulates the important physiological functions like transpiration.
48
Effect of light on plant can be studied under four headings 1. Light intensity 2. Quality of light 3. Duration of light and 4. Direction of light. 1. Light Intensity: A standard unit called candle measures the intensity of light. The amount of light
received at a distance of one meter from a standard candle is known as “Metre Candle or Lux”. The light intensity at one foot from a standard candle is called “Foot candle” or 10.764 luxes and the instrument used is called as “Lux meter”. About one per cent of
the light energy is converted into biochemical energy. Very low light intensity reduces the rate of photosynthesis and may even results in result in the closing of the stomata detrimental to plants in many ways. This results in reduced plant growth. Very high light intensity increases the rate of respiration. It causes rapid loss of water, i.e., it increases the transpiration rate of water from the plants resulting in closure of stomata. The most harmful effect of high intensity light is that it oxidizes the cell contents, which is termed as “Solarisation”. This oxidation is different from respiration and is called as “
Photo oxidation”. Under natural conditions light intensity varies greatly and plants
shoe marked response to changes of light intensities. Based on the response to light intensities the plants are classified as follows: i) Sciophytes - (Shade loving plants)
The plants that grow better under partially shaded (low light) conditions e.g., Betel vines, Buckwheat, Turmeric etc., ii) Heliophytes - (sun loving Plants)
Many species of plants produce maximum dry matter under high light intensities when the moisture is available at the optimum level, e.g. maize,
49
sorghum, rice etc. Except under glass house or shaded conditions, intensity of light cannot be controlled. 2. Quality of Light
When a beam of white light is passed through a prism, it is dispersed into different colours with their wavelengths partitude. This is called the visible part of the solar spectrum.
The different colours and their wavelength are as follows: Violet & Indigo
400-435nm
Blue
435-490nm
Green
490-574nm
Yellow
574-594nm
Orange
594-626nm
Red
626-750nm
Visible rays 390-760 mill micron /m/nm
50
1 Micron = ------------------------ meter or 10 -6m 10,00,000 1 = ---------- mm = 10 -3mm 1000 Milli micron: 10-9 m = nanometer
The Principal wavelengths absorbed and used in photosynthesis are in the violet-blue and the orange-red regions. Among this, red light is the most favorable light for growth followed b violet-blue. Ultra violet and shorter wavelengths kill bacteria and many fungi.
51
3. Duration of light
The duration of light has greater influence than the intensity. It has a considerable importance in the selection of crop varieties. The response of plants to the relative length of the day and night is known as photoperiodism. The plants are classified based on the extent of response of day length as follows.
i) Long day Plants
The plants which develop and produce normally when the photoperiod is greater than the critical minimum (greater than 12 hours) e.g. Cereals, Potato, Sugar beet, Wheat, Barley etc. ii) Short day plants
The plants which develop normally when the photoperiod is less than the critical maximum (less than 12 hours) e.g. Tobacco, Soybean, Millets, Maize, Sugarcane, etc.
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iii) Indeterminate or day neutral plants
Those plants which are not affected by photo period, e.g., Tomato, Cotton, Sweet potato, pineapple etc., The photoperiodism influences the plant characters such as floral initiation and development, bulb and rhizome production etc. If a long day plant is grown during periods of short days the growth of internodes are shortened and flowering is delayed till the long days come in the season. season. Similarly when short day plants are subjected subjected to long day periods, there will be abnormal vegetative growth and there may not be any floral initiation in Rice Cv. CO 38. But now a days many crops do have photoinsensitive varieties. 4. Direction of light
The direction of sunlight has a greater effect on the orientation of roots shoots and leaves. In temperate regions, the southern slopes show better growth of plants than the northern slopes due to higher contribution of sunlight in the southern side.
53
Orientation of leaves
The changes of position or orientation of organs of plants caused by light is usually called as
Phototropism”. For example, the leaves are oriented at right angles to
“
incidence of light to receive maximum radiation. Photo morphogenesis
It is defined, as changes in the morphology of plants due to light. This is due to ultra violet and violet rays of the sun.
Duration of sunlight period (Length of day)
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The vertical rays of the sun at noonday fall directly overhead at the equator on March 21st and this is called ‘Vernal equinox’. The vertical rays continue to move northern to the tropic of cancer and are overhead there on June 21 st and this date is known as “
Summer solstice” (In northern hemisphere) and the rays return to the equator on
September 21st and this date is known as” Autumnal equinox”. Then it reaches the tropic of Capricorn on December 21 st and this date id known as “ Winter solstice’ (in northern hemisphere). The summer and winter solstices will be reverse in the southern hemisphere. At equinox days and nights are of equal length throughout the world. In summer solstice the day will be longer whereas in winter solstice the day will be shorter than night. The northern pole will be in daylight for the full 24 hours on summer solstice and will be dark for full 24 hours on winter solstice of northern hemisphere.
Angle of the sunrays The effect of varying angle at which the sun ’s ray strike the earth can be seen daily by the march of the sun across the sky. At solar noon the intensity of insolation is the greatest but in the morning and evening hours when the sun is at low angle, the amount of insolation is also small. At equator the angle of incidence varies from 231/2 0 North of the zenith to 231/20 South of the zenith. The intensity of solar radiation ranges from 92% on June 21 st and December 21st to 100% on March 21st and September 23rd. The range is only 8%. At 450N latitude the angle of incidence varies from 211/2 0 south of zenith to 681/20 south of only 211/20 above the horizon. The variation in intensity is due to the change in the angle of incidence from 93% of maximum on June 21 st to 98% on December 21st. The inclination of the earth is 66 033’ against the plane of the orbit and this angle is the main reason for the seasons. Only at the time of Equinox (March 21, September 23) does the dividing line of the lighted and dark half of the earth parallel and pass through the poles. Between March 21 and September 23 to the north pole is tilted towards the sun and from September 23 to March 21 the south Pole is tilted towards the sun. The sun is
55
fixed in its place but rotates on its axis once in 25 1/3 days. The path taken by the earth round the sun is called the
Eliptic”. The orbit of earth round the sun is roughly
“
circular, with only a slight eccentricity (in a conic section). The sun ’s ray strikes the surface of the earth perpendicularly near the equator and with greater obliquity as the place moves from the equator to the poles. As the obliquity increases, the surface over which the rays spread out is increased and the insolation received by unit surface decreases. Facts about earth a. Superficial area: 19, 69, 50, 000 (1.97x108) sq. miles b. Land surface: 5, 75, 10,000 (5.7x 107) sq. miles. c. Water surface: 13, 94, 40, 4000 (1.39x108) sq. miles. d. Earth makes one complete revolution on it axis in 23 hours and 56 minutes. e. Earth rotates round the sun in 365
1/4
days.
f. Earth revolves in its orbit round the sun at a speed of 6,66,000 m.p.h. g. Earth rotates on its axis at a t an equatorial speed of 1000 m.p.h. h. The earth is closest to the sun on January 1 at about 91, 342,000 miles and
farthest away on July 2nd 94,454,000 miles. The sun is a star with a surface temperature of about 6000 0C radiates into space. On a surface exposed normal to the Sun ’s rays at the mean distance from the sun, energy of 1.94 gm cal/cm2 per minute is received on an average. This energy amount of 1.94 gm cal/minute is called the Solar constant. The mean intensity of the solar radiation received on January 1st and July 2nd at the boundary of the atmosphere is 2.007 and 1.877 g cal/cm2/minute respectively.
56
Chapter - 5 Temperature Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance or a thing and a nd it provides a measure of the intensity of heat energy. Air temperature and its Importance
Temperature is necessary for the weathering of soils, promoting bacterial activity, sterilization of soils, killing of weeds, pests and disease, for drying grains and maturity of crops. Every living organism, plant, or animals or insects requires optimum temperature for carrying out the basic biochemical activities for survival. Excessive temperature is
harmful for germination growth, flowering and maturity of fruits. It
increases the transpiration from plants and evaporation from the soil and necessitates frequent irrigation. It is the most important phenomenon phenomenon of solar energy. In climatology the word temperature denotes “Shade” temperature to avoid
the influence of direct
rays of sun. It is measured by means of thermometers. Day temperature at any given time is meant the temperature of the air measured under standardized condition and with certain recognized precautions against errors introduced by radiation from the sun or other heated body. Mean daily temperature
It is the mean of 24 readings taken at hourly intervals as in the self-recording instruments, like thermograph. But in other thermomete t hermometers rs these are usually taken in the morning (8 a.m.), afternoon (2 p.m.) and evening (6 p.m.).
57
Mean monthly temperature
It is the average of the total daily mean temperature for the month divided by the number of days in a month. Mean annual temperature
It is the average of the 12 months temperature for the total of monthly means divided by 12. Mean annual range
The difference between the warmest and coldest months is the mean annual range. Only mean temperature is usually quoted in describing climate.
The centigrade scale labels the temperature of boiling point of water under 1 atm. of pressure 1000C and the freezing point of water as 00C. The Fahrenheit scale labels the same temperature as 2120F and 320F respectively. respectively. The numerical numerical relation between the the two scales is then 0
C
100 =
0
F-32
180
Sensible temperature
The temperature recorded by the thermometer does not always agree with the sensations of heat heat felt by the human body. The sensation of of the heat depends upon upon air movement and humidity. 800F in the equatorial zone is more uncomfortable than 100 0F in the desert because of humidity. Seasonal (temperature) variations
Temperature (Diurnal, (Diurnal, mean and range) vary according according to the season. season. The main factors contributing to seasonal variations are: -
58
1. The angle of inclination of solar rays, which decides the intensity of radiation. 2. Distance between earth and sun 3. The movement of seasonal winds which contributes to rain ra in and precipitation. Diurnal variation
The difference between the maximum and minimum temperature on a day is called diurnal range. It is smaller in the wet season than in the dry season and smaller in coastal areas in the interior place. Annual Variation
The difference between the temperatures in a year is annual variation. The temperature is more in May and June and lesser in November, December in Tamilnadu. The amount of the daily range of variation varies widely with many factors like cloudiness and humidity of the air, nature of earth ’s surface, the vertical lapse rate of temperature, wind, elevation and latitude and is discussed below. Cloudiness:
Cloudiness influences the penetration of insolation to earth ’s surface by day and retardation of net loss of heat by terrestrial radiation at night. Humidity of air
There is only very small diurnal variation of temperature over the ocean; on land, after heavy rains where soil is moist and water stands on the surface, temperature ranges are less than during dry weather, because of the humidity of the air. The average range of temperature increases with distance from water sources. Air with Steep Lapse-Rate
Heating during the day is accompanied by deep convection where by energy absorbed by air near the earths surface is distributed through a thick layer of air. Similarly at night steep lapse rates are often accompanied accompanied winds and turbulent mixing that keep the
59
lower layers warmer than in conditions of still stable air with steep lapse-rate. Diurnal ranges of temperature are usually smaller at in the station than nearly valleys. Daily range of temperature increase with latitude up to subtropical latitude. Maximum daily ranges have been recorded in subtropical deserts where clear air & dry land surface prevails. But in the same latitude along foggy coasts parallel by cool ocean current, sea, breeze chop off maximum temperature, fog interferes with terrestrial radiation at night and hence daily range are ar e the lowest in the world. In middle latitudes, daily ranges very less with latitude than with distance from the sea. In high altitudes diurnal range decrease again, owing to the lessened effectiveness of the daily successive of the sunlight and darkness. Vertical distribution of temperature (Altitude)
As a general rule throughout the troposphere, the temperature decreases with elevation. The rate of decrease decrease with altitude this this condition is reversed reversed at certain levels levels so that temperature temporarily increases with altitude is not uniform; it varies with time of the day, season and location. The average decrease is approximately 0.650C/100m. (6.50C/km). This is known as normal lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient. Temperature Inversion
Although normally, the lower several miles of atmosphere show a decrease in temperature with increasing altitude when the colder air lies below warmer air and closer to earth’s surface the normal lapse rate is reversed and this is called temperature inversion. Horizontal distribution of temperature (Latitude)
The lines connecting places, which have same air temperature, are called isotherms. Thus, all the points on a map through which any one isotherm passes have identical average temperature for the period indicated. There is general decrease decrease from equator to poles (increase in latitude).
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Factors affecting temperature
Elevation of a place
Soil type
Nearness to water body
Presence of hill or mountain
Location of the earth (co-ordinate)
Anthrophic factors
Effect of temperature on Plant growth / Crop Productivity
Air temperature is the most important weather parameter, which affects the plant life. The growth of higher plants is restricted to a temperature between 0 to 60 0C and the optimum For example 10 0C to 400C. Beyond these limits, plants are damaged severely and even get killed. The maximum production of dry matter occurs when the temperature ranges from 20 and 300C. As already seen the temperature of a place is largely determined by latitude and altitude. altitude. Based on the the above the vegetations are classified as tropical (rain forest, desert, grassland), temperature (Grassland, deciduous forest), taiga (coniferous forest), tundra (lowshrubly growth, lichen) and polar. Some investigators have classified the vegetation of the world into four classes based on the prevailing temperature temperature conditions. The four classes classes are 1. Megatherms
-
Equatorial and tropical rain forests
2. Mesotherms
-
tropical and sub tropical, tropical deciduous forests
3. Microtherms
-
temperate and high altitude, alpine vegetation and mixed coniferous forests and
4. Hekistotherms -
artic and alpine regions
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High night temperature favors growth of shoots and leaves and it also affects plant metabolism. On the other hand low night temperature injures the plants. Tender leaves and flowers are very sensitive to low temperature and frost. Temperature is of paramount importance for organic life because of the following factors: -
a.
Temperature governs the physical and chemical processes within the plants, which which in turn control control biological biological reactions reactions which take place within the plants.
b.
The diffusion rate of gases and liquids change with temperature.
c.
Solubility of different substances is depending upon temperature.
d.
The rate of reactions varies with variations in temperature.
e.
Equilibrium of various systems and compounds is a function of temperature and
f.
Temperature affects the stability of the enzyme system.
Every plant has its own minimum, optimum and maximum temperature limits for its normal growth and reproduction. The vital physiological activities of a plant stop both at below the minimum level ad at above the maximum level, whereas physiological activities will be at its maximum at optimum temperature levels. These levels of temperature are known as cardinal temperature points.
62
Cardinal temperature for the germination of some important crops (Bierhyzen, 1973)
S. No
Plant
Cardinal Temperature 0C Minimum
Optimum
Maximum
1
Rice
10-12
30-32
36-38
2
Sorghum
8-10
32-35
40-42
3
Maize
8-10
32-35
40-44
4
Wheat
3-4.5
25
30-32
5
Barley
3-4.5
20
38-40
6
Sugar beat
4-5
25
28-30
7
Tobacco
13-14
28
35
8
Carrot
4-5
8
25
9
Peas
12
32-34
40
10
Oats
4-5
25
28-30
11
Lentil
4-5
30
36
In General
Cool season crops
0-15
25-31
31-37
Hot season crops
15-18
31-37
44-50
Apart from yield reductions, many visible injuries on the plants are seen due to very high temperature. Cold injury: (Low Air Temperature and Plant Injury) 1. Chilling injury
Plants, which are adapted to hot climate, exposed to low temperature for sometime, are found to be severely injured. Some effects of chilling are development of chlorotic condition (Yellowing)
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Example: Chlorotic bands in the leaves of Sugarcane, Sorghum and Maize in winter months when the night temperature is below 20 0C. Based on the reaction to chillness, plants can be divided into five categories. a.
Plants killed by exposure to temperature in the range of 0.5 to 5.0 0C for 60 hours. Rice, Cotton, Cowpea.
b.
Plants injured by the above condition but recovered after being placed in favorable conditions. For example Sudan grass, Spanish and Valencia peanut
c.
Plant not likely to suffer serious injury. For example Corn, Sorghum and Pumpkin.
d.
Plants injured by prolonged chillness. For example Buck wheat and Soybean.
e.
Plants not injured by prolonged chillness. For example Sunflower, Tomato and Potato.
In temperate climate two types of injury viz., delayed growth and sterility occur because of low temperature for example, In Japan, rice yields decreases due to insufficient grain maturation caused by low temperatures during the ripening period. Low temperatures delay flowering at a certain stage before heading. Rice yield decreases due to sterility of spike let caused by low temperatures t emperatures at the booting stage or anthesis. The observed injuries may be stoppage of anther development, pollen unrippeness, partial or no dehiscence, pollen grains remaining in anther loculi, little or no shedding of pollen grains on stigma and failure of germination g ermination of pollen on stigma. 2. Freezing injury
Plant parts or entire plant may be killed or damaged beyond repair as a result of actual freezing of tissues. tissues. Ice crystals are formed formed first in the the intercellular intercellular spaces and then within the cells. Ice, within the cells, causes causes more injury by mechanical damage on the
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structure of the protoplasm and plasma membrane. Freezing of water in intercellular spaces results in withdrawal of water from the cell sap due to dehydration and causes death of cells. cells. E.g., Frost damage in Potato, Potato, Tea, etc., etc., 3. Suffocation
In temperate regions, usually during the winter season, the ice or snow forms a thick cover on the soil surface. As a result the entry of O 2 is prevented and plants suffer for want of O2. Ice coming in contact with the roots prevents the diffusion of CO 2 outside the root zone. This prevents the respiratory activities of roots leading to accumulation of harmful substances. 4. Heaving
This is a kind of injury caused by lifting up of the plants along with soil from its normal position. This type of injury is common in temperate regions. The presence of ice crystals increases the volume volume of soil. This causes mechanical mechanical lifting of the soil. Effect of high Temperatures
Cells of most plant species get killed when the temperature ranges from 50 to 60 C. This point of temperature is called Thermal death point and varies with the following factors. 1. The species 2. The age of tissue and 3. The time of exposure to high temperature It is reported that most plant cells are killed at a t a temperature of 45 to 55 C. Some plants tissues withstand a temperature of up to 105 C. The aquatic plants and shade loving plants are killed at comparatively, lower temperature (40 C); where as, for xerophytes it is 50C. High temperature results results in desiccation desiccation of the plants and disturbs the balance between photosynthesis and respiration. Higher temperature increases the respiration leading to rapid depletion of reserve food in plants resulting in growth stunted due to incipient or starvation 65
Heat injuries 1. Sun clad
Injury caused by high temperature on the sides of bark is known as sun clad, this is nothing but exposure of barks of the stems to high temperature during daytime and low temperature during night time. 2. Stem girdle
It is another injury associated with high temperature. High temperature at the soil surface scorches the stems at ground level. This type of injury is very common in young seedlings of cotton in sandy soil where the after noon soil temperature exceeds 60 C to 65C. The stem girdle injury is first noticed through a discolored band a few millimeters wide. This is followed by shrinkage of the tissues, which have been discoloured. The stem girdle causes the death of the plant by destroying the conductive and cambial tissues or by the establishment of pathogens in the injury. As direct effects on crop plants high temperature temperature causes sterility in flowers. flowers. The general effects effects of excessive heat heat are defoliation, pre-mature dropping of fruits. In extreme cases, death of the plants may also occur. Temperature aberrations Heat Wave
A region is considered to be in the grip of moderate heat wave when it recorded maximum temperature exceeds the normal by 5 to 8C. Heat wave is common in the state of Uttar Pradesh (54%Probablity) in the month of June. Incidences are maximum in western UP. Persistence is 5-6 days particularly more in June. Effect of Heat wave
As already discussed under the effect of temperature crop growth the thermal death point affects photosynthesis photosynthesis and respiration. respiration. Increased respiration respiration results in depletion of reserve food, sun clad, stem girdle.
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Cold Waves:
A region is said to be in the grip of a moderate cold wave when it recorded minimum temperature falls short of the normal by 6 C to 8 C and severe cold wave is prevailed when the minimum temperature short falls up to 8 C. Generally experienced from Nov. to March. Severe clod wave generally prevail form January to March that is common in Uttar Pradesh. In Western U.P it is for 1day where as in Eastern U.P it is 2-7days. Degree-days:
At a given location, the period between planting and harvesting is not a specific number of calendar days but rather a summation of energy units, which may be represented as degree-days. A degree-day for a given g iven crop is defined as a day on which the mean daily temp is one one degree above the zero temps. temps. (that is the minimum temperature for for growth) of the plant. Zero temperature:
Spring wheat: 32-400F (depending on variety) Oat: 430F; Field Corn: 54-570F Sweet Corn: 500F, Potatoes: 450F, peas: 400F cotton 620F-640F The period required for achieving maturity is also a function of the length of day is photoperiod. Crop, planted planted in early in the spring requires requires more more calendar days to to mature than the same crop planted later. Growing Degree days (GDD):
GDD or accumulated day degrees is also called as Effective Heat Unit. This is an arithmetic accumulation of daily mean temperature above certain threshold temperature. This is computed computed by using the formula formula suggested by IWATA IWATA (1984). Maximum temperature + Minimum temperature GDD = ------------------------------------------------------------
–
base temperature
2 67
Soil Temperature
In many cases soil temperature is more important to plant life than air temperature. It influences the germination of seeds and root activities. It influences the soil-borne diseases like seeding blight, root rot etc. The decomposition of organic matter will be higher in higher soil temperature with necessary moisture. It controls the nutrient availability. It tropics high temperature of soil causes regeneration of potato tubers. It also affects nodulation on legumes. The surface of the soil is exposed to the direct radiation and movement. It gains heat during the daytime and losses some parts during the night to the atmosphere. Diurnal variation of soil temperature
-
As depth of soil increases temperature increases increases up to 20 cm remains unchanged beyond 30 cm.
-
Surface temperature is doubled in the afternoon compared to morning due to insolation.
-
Variation due to morning and afternoon temperature beyond 30cm depth is negligible.
-
A variation beyond 30 cm is only seasonal changes.
Effect on crop growth
In many instances soil temperatures is of greater importance to plant life than air temperature. For example, Peach and Oak trees can withstand air temperature of –250C but roots of these trees cannot tolerate even up to
160C. It influences the soil borne
–
disease like seedling blight, root rot etc and decomposition of organic matter. Input = storage + output. Storage causes changes changes below surface. surface. Conduction of heat, to lower lower layer depends on thermal properties of the soil like, specific heat, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of the soil. It influences the germination of seeds and root activities. It also influences the soil borne, diseases like seedling blight, root rot etc., and decomposition of organic matter. Greater the soil temperature higher will be the
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decomposition decomposi tion of organic matter. It controls the nutrient availability. availability. In the tropics high temperature of soil causes degeneration of potato tubers. It affects nodulation in legumes. Cardinal Temperature – Temperature of vital activities
Minimum Optimum Maximum
Cool season crops 0-50C 25-310C 31-370C
Hot season crops 15-180C 31-370C 44-500C
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