[Yeon, Jaehoon; Brown, Lucien] Korean a Comprehen(Book4You)

Korean A Comprehensive Grammar Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar is a complete reference guide to Korean grammar. It presents a thorough yet accessible overview of the language, concentrating on the real patterns of use in modern Korean. The book moves from the alphabet and pronunciation through morphology and word classes to a detailed analysis of sentence structures and semantic features such as aspect, tense, speech styles and negation. Avoiding complex grammatical terminology, the Grammar provides practical information regarding how these grammatical patterns are used in realworld conversation. Through the provision of realistic and lively examples, the book presents readers with Korean grammatical patterns in context. An extensive index and numbered sections provide readers with easy access to the information they require. Features include: U Detailed treatment of the common grammatical structures and parts of speech U Clear, jargon-free explanations U Extensive and wide-ranging use of examples U Particular attention to areas of confusion and difficulty U Korean-English parallels highlighted throughout The depth and range of Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar makes it an essential reference source for the learner and user of Korean irrespective of level. For the beginner, the book offers clear explanations of essential basic grammar points while for the more advanced learner it provides detailed descriptions of less frequent grammatical patterns. Jaehoon Yeon is Reader in Korean and Chair of the Centre of Korean Studies at SOAS, University of London. Lucien Brown is a Research Fellow in the Centre of Korean Studies at SOAS, University of London.

Routledge Comprehensive Grammars Comprehensive Grammars are available for the following languages: Bengali Cantonese Catalan Chinese Danish Dutch Greek Indonesian Japanese Modern Welsh Modern Written Arabic Slovene Swedish Turkish Ukrainian

Korean A Comprehensive Grammar Jaehoon Yeon and Lucien Brown

First published 2011 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2011 Jaehoon Yeon and Lucien Brown The right of Jaehoon Yeon and Lucien Brown to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Typeset in Sabon and Gill by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Yeon, Jaehoon. Korean : a comprehensive grammar / Jaehoon Yeon & Lucien Brown. p. cm. 1. Korean language —Textbooks for foreign speakers — English. 2. Korean language— Study and teaching — English speakers. I. Brown, Lucien. II. Title. PL913.Y594 2010 495.7a8242l — dc22 2010029069 ISBN: 978-0-415-60384-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-60385-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-83300-1 (ebk)

Contents

Preface

Chapter 1 1.1

1.2

xix

Introduction to the Korean language Characteristic features of Korean 1.1.1 Word classes 1.1.2 Word order: Korean as an SOV language 1.1.2.1 Flexible word order 1.1.2.2 The postpositional characteristic of Korean 1.1.2.3 The position of complements 1.1.2.4 Interrogative word order 1.1.3 An intricate system of honorific categories 1.1.4 Korean as an elliptical language Korean script and pronunciation 1.2.1 Basic principles of Hangul writing 1.2.1.1 Letter names and dictionary order 1.2.1.2 Writing syllabically 1.2.2 Hangul pronunciation guide 1.2.2.1 Simple vowels 1.2.2.2 Y-vowels 1.2.2.3 W-vowels 1.2.2.4 The compound vowel 㦮 1.2.2.5 Basic consonants 1.2.2.6 Aspirated consonants 1.2.2.7 Tensed or ‘double’ consonants 1.2.3 Pronunciation changes 1.2.3.1 Pronunciation of syllable-final consonants

1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 12 12 13 13 14 15 18 19 20 20

v

1.2.3.2 1.2.3.3 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.5 1.2.3.6

Contents

1.3

Simplification of consonant clusters Re-syllabification Nasal assimilation Assimilation between ඥ l and ච n Assimilation of ඥ l to ච n after nasal consonants 1.2.3.7 Palatalisation of ඣ t and ම t’ 1.2.3.8 ච n addition 1.2.3.9 ය h reduction 1.2.3.10 Aspiration 1.2.3.11 Reinforcement Korean terms of address 1.3.1 Korean names 1.3.2 Korean titles 1.3.3 Kinship terms 1.3.4 How to address someone in Korean 1.3.4.1 Addressing intimates of similar age 1.3.4.2 Addressing older intimates 1.3.4.3 Addressing elders and notable superiors 1.3.4.4 Addressing non-intimates and strangers 1.3.4.5 Addressing notable subordinates and children

Chapter 2 Nouns, nominal forms, pronouns and numbers 2.1

Nouns 2.1.1

2.1.2

vi

Lack of articles, number and gender 2.1.1.1 Lack of articles 2.1.1.2 Lack of number 2.1.1.3 Lack of gender Bound/dependent nouns 2.1.2.1 ộ ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’ 2.1.2.2 Ἆ ‘-cum-’ 2.1.2.3 Ὁ ‘place’ 2.1.2.4 ₖ ‘occasion’, ‘chance’ 2.1.2.5 ╖⪲ ‘in accordance with’ 2.1.2.6 ▫⿚ ‘thanks to’ 2.1.2.7 ◆ ‘place’

22 23 24 26 26 27 28 29 29 30 32 33 34 35 39 39 40 40 40 41

42 42 42 43 43 44 45 45 46 47 47 47 47 48

2.2

2.1.2.8 ☯㞞 ‘during’ 2.1.2.9 ⚻ ‘may or may not’ 2.1.2.10 ❅ ‘as if’ 2.1.2.11 ➢ ‘when’ 2.1.2.12 ➢ⶎ ‘reason’ 2.1.2.13 Ⰲ ‘reasons’ 2.1.2.14 ⶊ⪋ ‘around the time’ 2.1.2.15 ⹪ ‘thing’ 2.1.2.16 ㈦ ‘only’, ‘just’, ‘nothing but’ 2.1.2.17 㑮 ‘case’, ‘circumstance’ 2.1.2.18 㩗 ‘event’ 2.1.2.19 㭚 ‘the way’, ‘the fact’ 2.1.2.20 㭧/☚㭧 ‘middle’ 2.1.2.21 㰖 ‘since’ 2.1.2.22 㴓 ‘side’ 2.1.2.23 㺚 ‘just as it is’ Nominal forms 2.2.1 Nominal form –㧊 2.2.2 Nominal form –Ṳ/–Ợ 2.2.3 Nominal form –₆ 2.2.4 Sentence patterns with –₆ 2.2.4.1 –₆ ⋮⯚㧊– ‘depending on’ 2.2.4.2 –₆ ➢ⶎO㠦P ‘because’ 2.2.4.3 –₆/Ợ Ⱎ⩾㧊– ‘bound to’ 2.2.4.4 –₆ 㔲㧧䞮– ‘start’ 2.2.4.5 –₆ 㕃㌗㧊– ‘it is easy to’ 2.2.4.6 –₆ 㥚䞮– ‘in order to’ 2.2.4.7 –₆ 㧒㚺㧊– ‘be apt to’ 2.2.4.8 –₆ 㩚 ‘before’ 2.2.4.9 –₆ 㰳㧊㠜– ‘very’ 2.2.4.10 –₆⋮ 䞮– ‘just’ 2.2.4.11 –₆⓪ ‘no way’ 2.2.4.12 –₆⓪ 䞮– ‘indeed’ 2.2.4.13 –₆O⓪P䄺⎫ ‘far from’ 2.2.4.14 –₆☚ 䞮– ‘also’ 2.2.4.15 –₆Ⱒ 䞮– ‘only’ 2.2.4.16 –₆⪲ 䞮– ‘decide to’ 2.2.4.17 –₆⪲ ♮– ‘supposed to’ 2.2.4.18 –₆⯒/₎ ⹪⧒– ‘hope’ 2.2.4.19 –₆㠦 ‘upon, because’ 2.2.4.20 –₆㠦 ➆⧒ ‘depending on’

48 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 51 51 51 51 51 52 52 53 53 54 54 55 56 56 57 58 59 59 60 61 61 62 63 63 64 65 66 67 67 68 69 70 70

Contents

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Contents

2.3

2.4

Chapter 3 3.1 3.2

viii

2.2.5 Nominal form –㦢 2.2.6 Using –O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ to create nominal forms Pronouns 2.3.1 Personal pronouns 2.3.1.1 First-person pronouns 2.3.1.2 Second-person pronouns 2.3.1.3 Third-person pronouns 2.3.2 Demonstrative pronouns 2.3.3 Reflexives and reciprocals 2.3.4 Question pronouns Numbers and counting 2.4.1 Pure Korean and Sino-Korean numbers 2.4.2 Which system to use 2.4.3 Sentence patterns with numbers 2.4.4 Counting and naming periods of time 2.4.4.1 Years 2.4.4.2 Months 2.4.4.3 Weeks 2.4.4.4 Days 2.4.4.5 Telling the time 2.4.4.6 Giving the date

Particles Defining particles Case particles 3.2.1 The subject particle 㧊/Ṗ 3.2.2 The object particle 㦚/⯒ 3.2.3 The possessive particle 㦮 3.2.4 Particles of movement and location 3.2.4.1 㠦 ‘to/in/at’ 3.2.4.2 㠦┺OṖP ‘in/on’ 3.2.4.3 㠦㍲ ‘from/in/at’ 3.2.4.4 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 ‘to’ 3.2.4.5 㠦Ợ㍲/䞲䎢㍲ ‘from’ 3.2.4.6 O㦒P⪲⿖䎆 ‘from’ 3.2.4.7 GO㦒P⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ ‘letting/making (someone do something)’ 3.2.5 Instrumental particles 3.2.5.1 O㦒P⪲ ‘by/with/as’ 3.2.5.2 O㦒P⪲㍲ ‘as’ 3.2.5.3 O㦒P⪲㖾 ‘by means of’

71 73 75 76 76 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 85 87 89 89 90 90 91 92 93

94 94 95 95 98 100 102 102 106 107 109 111 112 112 113 113 115 115

3.2.6

3.3

Comitative particles 3.2.6.1 ὒ/㢖 ‘and/with’ 3.2.6.2 䞮ἶ ‘and/with’ 3.2.6.3 O㧊P⧧ ‘and/with’ 3.2.7 The vocative particle 㞚/㟒 Special particles 3.3.1 The plural particle ✺ 3.3.2 Particles of topic and focus 3.3.2.1 The topic particle 㦖/⓪ 3.3.2.2 O㧊P㟒 ‘if it’s’ 3.3.2.3 O㧊P㟒Ⱖ⪲ ‘indeed’ 3.3.3 Particles of extent 3.3.3.1 Ⱒ ‘only’ 3.3.3.2 ㈦ ‘only’ 3.3.3.3 ⹬㠦 ‘except for’ 3.3.3.4 ⿖䎆 ‘from’ 3.3.3.5 ₢㰖 ‘up until’ 3.3.3.6 ☚ ‘also’, ‘even’ 3.3.3.7 㫆㹾 ‘even’ 3.3.3.8 Ⱎ㩖 ‘even’ 3.3.3.9 O㦖/⓪P䄺⎫ ‘far from’ 3.3.4 Particles of frequency 3.3.4.1 Ⱎ┺ ‘every’ 3.3.4.2 㝿 ‘apiece’ 3.3.5 Particles of approximation and optionality 3.3.5.1 㸺 ‘about’ 3.3.5.2 O㧊P⋮ ‘about’, ‘or’, ‘just’ 3.3.6 Particles of comparison and contrast 3.3.6.1 㻮⩒ ‘like’ 3.3.6.2 ṯ㧊 ‘like’ 3.3.6.3 Ⱒ䋒 ‘as . . . as’ 3.3.6.4 ⽊┺ ‘more than’ 3.3.6.5 ➆⧒ ‘unusually’ 3.3.6.6 ╖⪲ ‘in accordance with’

Chapter 4 Verbs 4.1

Characteristics of Korean verbs 4.1.1 Types of verbs: Processive and descriptive 4.1.2 Types of verbs: 䞮– verbs 4.1.3 Types of verbs: Negative verbs 4.1.4 Types of verbs: The copula (equational verb)

116 116 118 119 120 121 121 123 123 128 128 129 129 131 131 133 134 135 138 138 139 140 140 140 141 141 142 144 145 145 146 147 148 149

Contents

150 150 150 153 154 155

ix

Contents

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

x

4.1.5 Verb bases 4.1.6 The infinitive form 4.1.7 The dictionary form 4.1.8 Attaching verb endings Negatives 4.2.1 Short negatives with 㞞 and ⴑ 4.2.2 Long negatives with –㰖㞠– and –㰖 ⴑ䞮– 4.2.3 Negative commands and proposals with –㰖 Ⱖ– 4.2.4 Expressions that require negative verbs Hearer honorifics: Speech styles 4.3.1 Introducing the concept of honorifics 4.3.2 The Korean speech styles system 4.3.3 The polite style 4.3.4 The formal style 4.3.5 The intimate style – Panmal style 4.3.6 The plain style 4.3.6.1 Plain style statements 4.3.6.2 Plain style questions 4.3.6.3 Plain style proposals 4.3.6.4 Plain style commands 4.3.7 The familiar style 4.3.8 The semi-formal style Referent honorifics 4.4.1 Subject honorifics 4.4.1.1 The subject honorific marker –O㦒P㔲– 4.4.1.2 Verbs with special subject honorific forms 4.4.1.3 Subject honorific particle –℮㍲ 4.4.2 Object honorifics 4.4.2.1 Verbs with special object honorific forms 4.4.2.2 Object honorific particle –℮ 4.4.3 Honorific nouns 4.4.4 Putting the honorifics system together Tense and aspect 4.5.1 Past tenses 4.5.1.1 Simple past –㞮/㠞– 4.5.1.2 Past-past –㞮/㠞㠞– 4.5.1.3 Observed or perceived past tense

157 159 161 161 164 164 165 167 169 170 170 171 172 173 176 178 179 181 183 184 186 186 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 192 193 194 196 196 197 198 200

4.5.2

4.6

Future tenses 4.5.2.1 –Ỷ– 4.5.2.2 –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– 4.5.2.3 –O㦒PඥỢ 4.5.2.4 –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮– 4.5.2.5 Summary of Korean futures 4.5.3 Continuous tense/aspect 4.5.3.1 Continuous states with –㞚/㠊㧞– 4.5.3.2 Continuous actions with –ἶ 㧞– Derived verbs: Passives, causatives and others 4.6.1 Passives 4.6.1.1 Derived passive verbs 4.6.1.2 Passives with ♮– 4.6.1.3 Passives with other support verbs 4.6.1.4 Passives with –㞚/㠊㰖– 4.6.2 Causatives 4.6.2.1 Derived causative verbs 4.6.2.2 Causatives with –Ợ 䞮– 4.6.2.3 Causatives with –☚⪳ 䞮– 4.6.2.4 Causatives with 㔲䋺– 4.6.3 Transforming descriptive verbs into processive verbs 4.6.3.1 Forming processive verbs with –㰖– 4.6.3.2 Forming processive verbs with –䞮–

Chapter 5 Auxiliary (support) verbs 5.1

Auxiliary verbs with –O㞚/㠊P 5.1.1 –O㞚/㠊P Ṗ– (ongoing activity ‘away’) 5.1.2 –O㞚/㠊P 㡺– (ongoing activity ‘towards’) 5.1.3 –O㞚/㠊P ⌊– (finish, achieve) 5.1.4 –O㞚/㠊P ⏩– (do all the way) 5.1.5 –O㞚/㠊P ⚦– (do for future reference) 5.1.6 –O㞚/㠊P ╖– (do repeatedly) 5.1.7 –O㞚/㠊P ⻚Ⰲ– (do completely for regret or relief) 5.1.8 –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– (try doing) 5.1.9 –O㞚/㠊P ⽊㧊– (seem) 5.1.10 –O㞚/㠊P ザ㰖– (lapse into a negative state)

203 203 206 208 209 210 211 212 213 216 216 216 220 221 223 224 225 229 231 231

Contents

232 232 233

235 235 235 236 237 237 238 239 240 241 243 244

xi

Contents

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7

Chapter 6 6.1

6.2

xii

5.1.11 –O㞚/㠊P 㕩– (do repeatedly) 5.1.12 –O㞚/㠊P 㭒– (perform a favour) 5.1.13 –O㞚/㠊P 䂮㤆– (do rashly) Auxiliary verbs with –┺ 5.2.1 –┺ ⽊– (after trying doing) 5.2.2 –O㞚/㠊P┺ 㭒– (run an errand) Auxiliary verbs with –ἶ 5.3.1 –ἶ ⋮– (after finishing) 5.3.2 –ἶ Ⱖ– (end up) 5.3.3 –ἶ ⽊– (do and then realize) 5.3.4 –ἶ 㕌– (want to do) Auxiliary verbs with –O㦒Pඥ₢ 5.4.1 –O㦒Pඥ₢ ⽊– (think it might) 5.4.2 –O㦒Pඥ₢ 㕌– (afraid it might) 5.4.3 –O㦒Pඥ₢ 䞮– (think of doing) Auxiliary verbs with –⋮/O㦒PචṖ 5.5.1 –⋮/O㦒PචṖ ⽊– (look like) 5.5.2 –⋮/O㦒PචṖ 㕌– (think it might) Auxiliary verbs with –Ợ 5.6.1 –Ợ ♮– (turn out so that) 5.6.2 –Ợ ⽊㧊– (seem) Auxiliary verb with –O㞚/㠊P㟒 5.7.1 –O㞚/㠊P㟒 ♮/䞮– (must, have to)

Clausal connectives Causal connectives 6.1.1 –O㞚/㠊P㍲ 6.1.2 –㞚/㠊 6.1.3 –O㦒P┞₢ 6.1.4 –O㦒P┞ 6.1.5 –O㦒Pඥ䎢┞₢ 6.1.6 –O㦒P⸖⪲ 6.1.7 –₎⧮ 6.1.8 –ⓦ⧒ἶ 6.1.9 –▪┞ and O㞮/㠞P▪┞ 6.1.10 –O㦒Pඥ⧒ Contrastive connectives 6.2.1 –㰖Ⱒ 6.2.2 –O㦒P⋮ 6.2.3 –O㦒P⋮ Ⱎ⋮

244 245 246 247 247 247 248 248 249 250 251 252 252 253 254 255 255 256 257 257 258 258 258

259 259 260 263 263 266 267 268 268 270 270 272 272 272 274 275

6.2.4 6.2.5

6.3

6.4

6.5

–O㦒P♮ –O㞚/㠊P☚ 6.2.5.1 –O㞚/㠊P☚ in permissive constructions 6.2.5.2 ‘Don’t have to’ with –㰖㞠㞚☚ 6.2.5.3 Idiomatic –O㞚/㠊P☚ expressions 6.2.6 –▪⧒☚ 6.2.7 –ἶ☚ 6.2.8 –O㞚/㠊P㍲⧒☚ 6.2.9 –O㦒Pච✺ 6.2.10 –O㦒Pඥ㰖⧒☚ 6.2.11 –O㦒Pඥ㰖㠎㩫 6.2.12 –O㦒Pඥⰳ㩫 6.2.13 –Ệ⓮ 6.2.14 –ⓦ┞ 6.2.15 –O㞚/㠊P ⽺㧦 Additional and sequential connectives 6.3.1 –ἶ 6.3.2 –ἶ㍲ 6.3.3 –ἶ ⋮– 6.3.4 –O㞚/㠊P Ṗ㰖ἶ 6.3.5 –Ệ┞㢖 6.3.6 –O㦒PⳊ㍲ 6.3.7 –O㦒PⳆ 6.3.8 –㧦OⰞ㧦P 6.3.9 –┺OṖP 6.3.10 –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ 6.3.11 –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ Optional connectives 6.4.1 –Ệ⋮ 6.4.2 –✶㰖 6.4.3 –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖 in oblique questions 6.4.4 –O㦒Pඥ㰖 in oblique questions 6.4.5 –O㦒Pඥ⧓ Ⱖ⧓ O䞮–P Conditional connectives 6.5.1 –O㦒PⳊ 6.5.1.1 –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡– 6.5.1.2 –O㦒PⳊ ἶⰯỶ– 6.5.1.3 –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 䞮–

276 276

Contents

277 278 279 280 280 281 281 282 282 282 283 283 284 284 285 288 288 288 290 291 292 293 294 297 302 302 302 304 305 307 308 309 309 310 311 311

xiii

6.6

6.7

6.8

Chapter 7 7.1

7.2

xiv

–O㦒PⳊ ♮– –O㦒PⳊ 㞞 ♮– –㰖㞠㦒Ⳋ 㞞 ♮– / 㞞 . . . Ⳋ 㞞 ♮– 6.5.2 –┺Ⳋ/–⧒Ⳋ 6.5.3 –O㦒P⩺Ⳋ 6.5.4 –┺OṖP ⽊Ⳋ 6.5.5 –O㞮/㠞P▪⧒Ⳋ 6.5.6 –Ệ✶ 6.5.7 –O㞚/㠊P㟒 6.5.7.1 –O㞚/㠊P㟒 ♮/䞮– 6.5.8 –O㞚/㠊P㍲㟒 6.5.9 –O㦒PⳊ . . . –O㦒Pඥ㑮⪳ Causative connectives 6.6.1 –Ợ 6.6.2 –Ợ⊪ 6.6.3 –☚⪳ Intentive connectives 6.7.1 –O㦒P⩂ 6.7.2 –O㦒P⩺OἶP 6.7.3 –ἶ㧦 Comparison connectives 6.8.1 –❅㧊 6.8.2 –┺㔲䞒 6.5.1.4 6.5.1.5 6.5.1.6

Contents

Modifiers Modifying forms 7.1.1 Future/prospective modifier –O㦒Pඥ 7.1.2 Dynamic modifier –⓪ 7.1.3 State/result modifier –O㦒Pච 7.1.4 The retrospective modifier –▮ 7.1.5 The past retrospective modifier –O㞮/㠞P▮ 7.1.6 The past prospective modifier –O㞮/㠞P㦚 Sentence patterns with modifier clauses 7.2.1 Modifier ộ ‘the fact that’ 7.2.2 Modifier ộ ṯ– ‘it seems that’ 7.2.3 –O㦒Pඥ Ἆ ‘with the combined purpose of’ 7.2.4 –O㦒Pඥ Ἒ䣣㧊– ‘plan to’ 7.2.5 –O㦒Pච/⓪ ₖ㠦 ‘as long as you’re at it’ 7.2.6 –⓪/▮ ₎O㠦P ‘on the way to’

312 312 313 313 314 315 315 316 316 317 318 319 319 320 321 321 322 322 323 324 325 325 326

328 328 329 330 331 333 335 336 336 337 339 340 341 341 342

7.2.7 7.2.8 7.2.9 7.2.10 7.2.11 7.2.12 7.2.13 7.2.14 7.2.15 7.2.16 7.2.17 7.2.18 7.2.19 7.2.20 7.2.21 7.2.22 7.2.23 7.2.24 7.2.25 7.2.26 7.2.27 7.2.28 7.2.29 7.2.30 7.2.31 7.2.32 7.2.33

Chapter 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11

–O㦒Pච┺㦢/⛺/䤚㠦 ‘after’ –⓪/O㦒Pච ╖⪲ ‘in accordance with’ –⓪ ☯㞞/㌂㧊㠦 ‘while’ –O㦒Pඥ/⓪/O㦒Pච ⚻ ‘may or may not’ –O㦒Pඥ/⓪/O㦒Pච ❅ ‘just like’ –O㦒Pඥ/⓪/O㦒Pච ❅䞮/❅㕌– ‘seem like’ –O㦒Pඥ ➢ ‘when’ –O㦒PඥⰂ 㠜– ‘no way that’ –O㦒Pඥ Ⱒ䞮– ‘worth’ –O㦒Pඥ/⓪/O㦒Pච ⳾㟧㧊– ‘seem like’ –O㦒Pඥ ⹪㠦O⓪/㟒P ‘rather . . . than’ –O㦒Pච/⓪ ⹪⧢㠦 ‘because of’ –O㦒Pච/⓪ ⹮ⳊO㠦P ‘on the other hand’ –O㦒Pඥ ㄪ䞮– ‘nearly’ –O㦒Pඥ ㈦ ‘only’ –O㦒Pඥ 㑮㧞/㠜– ‘can/cannot’ –O㦒Pච/⓪ 㧊㌗O㠦O⓪PP ‘since’; ‘unless’ –O㦒Pච/⓪ 㧒/㩗㧊㧞/㠜– ‘ever/never’ –O㦒Pඥ 㩫☚⪲ ‘to the extent that’ –O㦒Pඥ/⓪/O㦒Pච 㭚㞢/⳾⯊– ‘think/know’ –⓪ 㭧㠦/☚㭧㠦 ‘in the middle of’ –⓪ 㭧㧊– ‘be in the middle of’ –O㦒Pච 㰖 ‘since’ –O㦒Pච 㺚O⪲P ‘as it is’ –⓪ 㻯䞮– ‘pretend’ –O㦒Pච/⓪ 䐋㠦 ‘because of’ –O㦒Pච/⓪ 䞲– ‘as much as’

Sentence endings –ἶⰦἶ ‘of course’ –Ệ✶ ‘it’s because’, ‘you see’ –⋮/O㦒PචṖf (dubitative questions) –O⓪Pῆ, –O⓪Pῂ⋮, –O⓪PῂⰢ/ῂⲒ (exclamations) –⍺ (mild exclamations) –╊ (disapproval) –O㦒PඥỎ (inferences, regrets) –O㦒PඥỢ (promise-like futures) –O㦒Pඥ₢f (suggestions and tentative questions) –O㦒Pඥ⧮ ‘feel like (doing)’ –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ ‘I’m afraid’

342 343 344 345 345 346 346 347 348 348 348 349 350 350 351 352 354 355 356 356 357 358 358 359 360 361 361

Contents

362 363 364 365 367 368 369 369 370 370 373 374

xv

Contents

8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16

–O㦒P⩾Ⱎ⓪/O㦒P⩾Ⱒ ‘should, must’ –O㦒P⪊/O㦒P⩺ⶊ⋮ (granting permission; orders) –O㦒PⰞG (promise-like futures) –㧬㞚 ‘you know’ –㰖 (tag questions)

Chapter 9 9.1 9.2

9.3

9.4

Quotations

xvi

382

Direct quotations 382 Indirect quotations 383 9.2.1 Quoted statements 384 9.2.2 Quoted questions 386 9.2.3 Quoted proposals 387 9.2.4 Quoted commands 388 9.2.5 The verb 㭒– in quoted commands 389 9.2.6 Quoting verbs 390 Reduced indirect quotations in reported speech 393 9.3.1 –┺ἶ, –⌦ἶ, –⧒ἶ, –㧦ἶ 394 9.3.2 –╖, –⍂, –⧮, –㨂 395 Special patterns with indirect quotations 397 9.4.1 –┺/⌦/㧦/⧒┞O₢P ‘upon telling’; ‘I told you’ 397 9.4.2 –┺/⧒Ⳋ ‘if you say that’ 399 9.4.3 –┺/⧒Ⳋ㍲ ‘I heard . . . , right?’ 399 9.4.4 –┺/⧒⓪◆ ‘I heard’ 399 9.4.5 –㧊⧒⓪ ‘a . . . called . . .’ 400 9.4.6 –┾/〉/㧪/⧖ Ⱖ㧊– ‘I mean’ 401

Chapter 10 10.1 10.2

375 376 376 377 379

Other word classes

Adnouns Adverbs 10.2.1 Grammatical classification of adverbs 10.2.1.1 Proper adverbs 10.2.1.2 Derived adverbs 10.2.1.3 Sentence adverbs 10.2.1.4 Conjunctive adverbs 10.2.2 Semantic classification of adverbs 10.2.2.1 Time adverbs 10.2.2.2 Degree adverbs 10.2.2.3 Manner adverbs 10.2.2.4 Onomatopoeic/mimetic adverbs

402 402 405 405 405 406 411 413 414 414 417 418 420

10.3

Prefixes and suffixes 10.3.1 Prefixes 10.3.2 Suffixes 10.3.2.1 Noun-deriving suffixes 10.3.2.2 Adverb-deriving suffixes 10.3.2.3 Verb-deriving suffixes 10.3.2.4 Adnominal suffix –㩗

425 425 430 430 437 437 440

Glossary of linguistic terms

441

Related readings and bibliography

448

Index of grammatical constructions (Korean)

451

Index of translation equivalents (English)

467

General index

474

Contents

xvii

Preface

This book aims to provide a thorough overview of Korean grammar for learners of the language at all levels. The book is suitable for all learners of Korean who speak English as their first language (or who have a good understanding of English), whether they be based in Korea or overseas, or whether they be of Korean or non-Korean heritage. In addition, the book should be of interest to teachers of Korean, especially those operating in an English-speaking setting and for linguists working on Korean. For beginner learners, the book offers clear explanations of essential basic grammar points. For more advanced learners, the book provides detailed description of less frequent grammatical patterns. The level of description that the book offers of Korean grammatical constructions throughout is perhaps unrivalled by other English-language publications in the field. It is the belief of the authors that through these detailed explanations, learners can increase their understanding of Korean grammar and, ultimately, use Korean language in a more native-like way. With the exception of Chapter 1 (which provides an introduction to the Korean language), the book is organized according to grammatical categories. In turn, we look at nouns, nominal forms, pronouns and numbers (Chapter 2), case particles (Chapter 3), verbs (Chapter 4), support (or ‘auxiliary’) verbs (Chapter 5), verbal connectives (Chapter 6), modifiers (Chapter 7), sentence endings (Chapter 8), quotations (Chapter 9) and other word classes (Chapter 10). In cases where a grammatical pattern may belong to more than one category, the pattern is allotted to the category that it fits best and is then cross-referenced under the other possible category. Three indexes are included at the back of the book: a grammatical patterns index (in Korean), an English equivalents index and a general index.

xix

Preface

The book can be used in several ways, including the following: 1 You can use the book as a reference guide to ‘dip in’ to. Whenever you encounter a Korean grammatical pattern in your studies that you need more information about, you can look it up in the index and read the relevant section(s). 2 You can use the book to assist your ‘production’ in writing and preplanned speaking. If you are unsure how to express a particular sentence pattern from English in Korean, you can look it up in the English equivalents index and find the corresponding Korean expression. 3 You can read the book in ‘chapter chunks’ according to your interests. Say, for example, you are interested in Korean tenses, you could read Chapter 4.5 in its entirety. 4 You could just read the book cover-to-cover! Due to the way the book is organized, it should be suitable just for reading right through for a comprehensive overview of the entire grammatical structure of the Korean language. As for grammatical terminology, our policy is that whenever we use a grammatical term it should be explained either in the text or in the glossary at the end. Although we have tried to keep the use of grammatical terms to a minimum and make the explanations as simple as possible, we also believe that the understanding of grammatical categories can ultimately help the reader to better their understanding of Korean grammar. As readers who already have some familiarity with the language will know, the way that Korean is spoken (or written) will vary greatly depending on whom you are talking (or writing) to. This phenomenon, and the use of honorifics and speech styles, is covered in Chapter 4. Elsewhere, the common practice has been to represent examples in the so-called ‘polite’ speech style wherever possible. This style is the most useful for Korean learners, in that it is conversational and informal, but can also be used towards elders or strangers (usually) without being rude. Where examples appear in speech styles that are non-honorific (and which would thus typically be impolite for addressing elders or strangers), they are marked as such. At times, the inclusion of such examples is necessitated by the fact that the grammatical construction being described or the example being given is more natural in another style rather than the ‘polite’. Lastly, the authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Korea Foundation and the Academy of Korean Studies during different stages of writing this book.

xx

Chapter 1

Introduction to the Korean language

1.1

Characteristic features of Korean

Overview Korean is a language with approximately 78 million speakers which include 48 million in South Korea, 24 million in North Korea and nearly 6 million outside of Korea – mainly in China, the USA, Japan and central Asia (the former USSR). Korean is relatively homogeneous, with minor geographically based dialectal differences. The post-1945 division between North and South Korea and their different language policies have made the two Koreas linguistically divergent. The data used in this book represents the standard Seoul speech in the Central dialectal zone. Korean has a number of characteristic features that distinguish it from other languages, particularly English and European languages. For example, Korean has neither the definite nor indefinite article (such as ‘the’ and ‘a/an’ in English). There is no sharp distinction of gender and plurality of a noun. There is no special distinction for the third-person present singular in a verb. There is no conspicuous accent for a word, although there are some accents in a sentence and these vary according to the region of the country. As a general rule, Korean usually puts stress on the first syllable of a word. The linguistic affinity of Korean to other languages is still disputable. The most convincing hypothesis about its origin is the Altaic hypothesis, that is, Korean is one of the Altaic languages along with Mongolian, Turkic and Manchu-Tungus. The difficulty of reconstructing genetic ties to other languages is mainly due to the lack of evidence of written data. 1

1 Introduction to the Korean language

1.1.1

Word classes

As in any language, Korean words can be classified into several different classes according to the way they are used. Korean verbs consist of a basic part, the base, to which various endings are attached in order to make them mean different things:

Ṗ㣪.

I am going.

Ṫ㠊㣪.

I went.

ṖỶ㠊㣪.

I will go.

In the examples above, the verb base in each sentence is the same. It means ‘go’ – and its base is Ṗ–. However, by attaching three different endings, three different meanings are produced. While languages such as English have a separate category of adjectives (and use these adjectives in combination with the verb ‘be’ – ‘He is tall’, etc.), in Korean adjectives can be considered a subset of verbs. These are known as descriptive verbs, whereas other verbs (that typically depict an action) are known as processive verbs. In most ways, descriptive verbs behave the same as processive verbs and can take a lot of the same endings:

㡞ㄦ㣪.

[She, it, etc.] is pretty.

㡞ㄺ㠊㣪.

[She, it, etc.] was pretty.

㡞㊮Ỷ㠊㣪.

[She, it, etc.] will be pretty.

However, there are some differences in the way that descriptive and processive verbs operate. These differences are summarized later in this book (see 4.1.1). The major properties of Korean verbs are discussed in Chapter 4. Unlike verbs, Korean nouns can be used with no endings attached to them. Instead, particles can be optionally added to show the relationship between the noun and the rest of the sentence (especially the verb). In the following sentence, –Ṗ marks ⹒㑮 as being the grammatical subject of the sentence (i.e. the person performing the action connoted in the verb) and –⯒ marks 㡺㰫㠊 ‘squid’ as being the grammatical object (i.e. the thing having the action connoted by the verb performed on it). Without these markers, the sentence could (in context) be taken to mean that it was the squid that ate Minsu rather than the other way around!

2

⹒㑮Ṗ Minsu

㡺㰫㠊⯒ squid

ⲏ㠞㠊㣪 ate

Minsu ate squid.

Korean nouns are described in more depth in Chapter 2 and particles are discussed in Chapter 3. Korean also contains more minor word classes (such as adnouns and adverbs), which are explained in Chapter 10.

1.1.2


Word order: Korean as an SOV language

The basic word order of Korean can be described as SOV: subject–object– verb. With the verb coming after rather than before the object, this makes Korean word order quite different from English:

English:

Minsu SUBJECT

ate VERB

kimchi OBJECT

Korean:

⹒㑮Ṗ Minsu SUBJECT

ₖ䂮⯒ kimchi OBJECT

ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. ate VERB

As an SOV language, Korean has several other features which are typical of such languages (but different to English). These features are summarized below.

1.1.2.1

Flexible word order

As long as the verb is properly placed at the end of the sentence, the position of the remaining words is relatively free. In the example below, although the first word order is the most common, all three may frequently occur in speech:

⹒㑮Ṗ Minsu-SUBJECT

⹎⋮㠦Ợ Mina-TO

㍶ⶒ㦚 present-OBJECT

㭒㠞㠊㣪. gave


⹒㑮Ṗ ㍶ⶒ㦚 Minsu-SUBJECT present-OBJECT

㭒㠞㠊㣪. gave

㍶ⶒ㦚 present-OBJECT


㭒㠞㠊㣪. gave


Minsu gave Mina a present. As you can see, while the verb always remains fixed at the end of the sentence, the other constituents may be moved about quite freely. The order often depends on what is old information (and therefore not so important) and what is new information (and therefore more important).

3


While old information tends to come at the front of the sentence, new and more important information likes to come close to the end and near to the verb – the one element which is indispensible in a Korean sentence. Although, technically speaking the verb should always come last in a Korean sentence, in real speech this is not always the case. On occasions, other elements may be heard following the verb:

⌊ 䂲ῂ⓪ ⥆㠊Ṫ㠊㣪S 㰧㦒⪲.

My friend ran to his house.

⋮⓪ 㡗䧂⯒ ⽊㞮㠊㣪S 㠊㩲G㡂₆㍲.

I saw Yonghi, yesterday here.

As in these examples, once a complete sentence has been uttered, it may be supplemented with further constituents which appear after the verb. This tends to happen when the speaker realizes that he/she has omitted important information from the sentence or when, judging from the hearer’s reaction, he/she realizes that more clarification is needed. Although such word order is considered non-standard and does not appear in writing, it can frequently be heard in casual speech.

1.1.2.2

The postpositional characteristic of Korean

Another distinctive feature of Korean which is connected to its SOV word order is the fact that it has postpositions (that come after the noun) rather than prepositions (which come before the noun). Rather than saying ‘at school’ as in English, Korean speakers say ‘school-at’:


䞯ᾦ㠦 school-AT

㧞㠊㣪. is

Minsu is at school.

In addition to postpositions that are the equivalent of English prepositions, Korean also uses particles attached to the end of nouns to mark their grammatical function, as noted above. As well as particles coming after nouns, typical of languages with an SOV word order Korean also attaches suffixes (or verb endings) to the end of verbs.

⹒㑮Ṗ MinsuSUBJECT Minsu caught

㌆㠦㍲ mountainON a snake on the

㍶㌳┮㦖 You (lit. ‘teacher’)-TOPIC 4

You must have been happy.

⺖㦚 snakeOBJECT mountain.

㧷㞮㠊㣪. catch-PAST TENSE-POLITE

㫡㦒㔲㠞Ỷ㔋┞┺. happy-HONORIFIC-PASTMUST-FORMAL

As we can see, particles must come after the noun, and verbal suffixes must be attached after the stem. Also, it is clear that two or more particles may follow the noun, and, as you can see in the last example above, even as many as four suffixes may be attached to a verb stem. It is to this extent that in Korean important items are established at the very end of the sentence.

1.1.2.3


The position of complements

In Korean, words that complement or modify (i.e. elaborate, describe, clarify, identify, delimit) a noun always and without exception come before the noun in question:

ADNOUN (see 10.1)

┺⯎ other

㌂⧢ person

another person

POSSESSIVE NOUN

㧎䢎㦮 Minho’s

╊⺆ cigarettes

Minho’s cigarettes

MODIFYING CLAUSE NOUN

Ⱎ㔶 alcohol

㑶 drink

the alcohol that I drank

ADVERB VERB

ゾⰂ quickly

Ṫ㠊㣪 went

went quickly

On this point, Korean differs from Indo-European languages, in which the modifier may also follow the modified. In particular, note how the last two patterns listed above result in different word orders from those found in English.

1.1.2.4

Interrogative word order

In Korean, the word order in yes/no interrogatives (questions) does not change from that of statements. Unlike in English, the position of subject and verb do not alter. In fact, in certain styles of speech (see 4.3), the same sentence can be interpreted as a statement or as an interrogative purely depending on intonation:

⹒㑮Ṗ 㰧㠦 Ṗ㣪 Minsu is going home. Is Minsu going home?

(with falling intonation) (with rising intonation)

5


In so-called wh-questions, the question word (where, why, when, what, etc.) does not need to come at the beginning of the sentence (as it typically does in English). Usually, it stays in the same place where the missing information being asked for would be included in the corresponding answer. In the following examples, see how the Korean word for ‘what’ in the question appears in the same position as ‘fruit’ in the answer. Also note how this is not the case in English, where ‘what’ moves to initial position.

A: ⹒㑮Ṗ 㰖⁞ ⶊ㠝㦚㌂ἶ 㧞㠊㣪f What is Minsu buying now? B: ⹒㑮⓪ 㰖⁞ ὒ㧒㦚㌂ἶ 㧞㠊㣪.

1.1.3

Minsu is buying fruit now.

An intricate system of honorific categories

Although every language has different registers and levels of politeness, in few languages is this system encoded in an elaborate system of honorifics as it is in Korean. Along with Japanese, Korean is one of the few languages in which the speaker can systematically encode his/her social relationship with the hearer and the people he/she is talking about (and between different people he/she is talking about) through the addition of grammatical markers and special sets of vocabulary. When speaking Korean, it is practically impossible to utter a single sentence without bearing in mind your social position in relation to the hearer and the people you are referring to (i.e. comparative age and rank, level of intimacy, etc.). Honorifics can commonly be broken into two groups: hearer honorifics and referent honorifics. Hearer honorifics – more frequently referred to as ‘speech styles’ in the case of Korean (see 4.3) – index the relationship between the speaker and the hearer (and/or immediate audience). In Korean, this is achieved by a range of six different speech styles. As a taster of this, when addressing an intimate of similar age or younger (or a child), the speaker may apply the ‘intimate’ speech style as in the sentence below, which consists of the –㠊 verb ending:

⻚㓺Ṗ ⻢㖾 Ṫ㠊. [INTIMATE]

The bus has gone.

However, when speaking to a non-intimate or someone of superior age or rank, the –㠊㣪 ending of the ‘polite’ speech style would be more appropriate:

⻚㓺Ṗ ⻢㖾 Ṫ㠊㣪. [POLITE] 6

The bus has gone.

Referent honorifics (see 4.4) mark the relationship between the speaker and the grammatical subject/object of the sentence. This may either be the hearer him/herself or a third person. In the most complex of cases, this can result in an ‘honorific’ sentence that looks quite different to its ‘non-honorific’ counterpart:


㍶㌳┮℮㍲G㰚㰖⯒ 㧷㑮㕃┞┺. [HONORIFIC] The teacher is eating a meal. 㩲䂲ῂṖG⹻㦚 ⲏ㔋┞┺. My friend is eating a meal. In the honorific sentence, respect is shown to the teacher by using the honorific subject particle –℮㍲, the honorific noun for meal 㰚㰖 and the honorific verb for eat 㧷㑮㔲– (which incorporates the honorific marker –㔲–). In the non-honorific sentence, when discussing one’s friend, the plain counterparts of these words are used instead. Although the two sentences mean the same they are composed of two totally different vocabulary sets. The reasons why Korean and Japanese have developed such elaborate systems of honorifics are not totally clear. However, the perpetuation of the Korean system has certainly been influenced by the hierarchical structure of Korean society. Even in modern-day South Korea, families, companies and schools, etc. have rigid vertical social structures in which younger parties are expected to show deference and compliance towards elders and seniors. In some situations, an age difference of only one year may be enough to trigger a non-reciprocal pattern of honorifics (in which the younger party uses honorifics, but receives plain forms).

1.1.4

Korean as an elliptical language

Every language has full sentences in which all constituents are present, and elliptical sentences in which certain words are dropped. However, a peculiar feature of Korean is that major constituents such as the subject and the object can readily be dropped from the sentence. On this point Korean differs from Indo-European languages, in which – apart from certain grammatically sanctioned drops (for example, ‘you’ does not need to be included in English imperatives such as ‘go home!’) – the subject has to be present in every sentence. In Korean, however, contextually sanctioned drops are highly frequent. In other words, it is common and perfectly natural to drop constituents from the sentence when these can easily be 7


worked out from context. For example, when two acquaintances meet by chance on the street, the following question is understood as meaning ‘where are you going?’ even though there is no explicit mention of ‘you’:

㠊❪ Ṗ㣪f

Where are (you) going?

With this dropping of constituents, many Korean sentences contain nothing but a verb. In the following, unless a different contextual frame is in operation, the sentence will normally be understood as referring to the first person:

ⲏ㠞㠊㣪.

I’ve eaten.

Although including the subject (and/or object) is never incorrect, in many cases it seems superfluous and could even sound clumsy.

1.2

Korean script and pronunciation

Overview Korean is written using a phonemic writing system (i.e. a writing system that represents individual sounds) known both in South Korea and internationally as Hangul (䞲⁖) but in North Korea as Chos\n’g]l (㫆㍶⁖). Unlike the majority of writing systems that came into being through a process of evolution, Hangul is a deliberate invention dating back to the fifteenth century (1443). The invention of Hangul is attributed to King Sejong the Great, who was the fourth king of the Chosin dynasty (1392– 1910). In addition to writing purely in Hangul, Korean can also be written in a mixed script combining this phonemic system with logographic Chinese characters, known in Korean as Hancha (䞲㧦; 豀螳). In South Korea, the use of Hancha has greatly decreased in recent years and is now mainly limited to sporadic use in broadsheet newspapers and some academic publications. North Korea does not use Chinese characters at all.

8

There are several different systems for rendering Korean in the Roman script. The current book largely adopts the McCune-Reischauer system, as this is generally the most convenient for native English speakers. It should be noted however that South Korea has now stopped using this system in favour of the Revised Romanization system. Transcriptions used

in this book will therefore differ from what you may encounter in Korean place names, road signs and so forth.


The current section provides a concise introduction to Hangul and the sounds of Korean that are associated with it. It should be noted that the pronunciations given are based on the ‘standard’ language of Seoul. This may at times differ from the pronunciations you will hear in real everyday conversation, particularly from Koreans who speak regional dialects.

1.2.1

Basic principles of Hangul writing

Hangul is a phonemic writing system. This means that vowels and consonants are represented with letter-like symbols. Modern Korean has a total of 24 basic letter shapes, which extends to 40 when you include compound letters. The current section introduces the names of the characters and the way that they are written syllabically.

1.2.1.1

Letter names and dictionary order

The Hangul letters are summarized in the following table, with their names, and sorted by the normal South Korean dictionary order. Regarding the names of consonants, note that these are composed of two syllables, which are most commonly formed as follows, taking ථ as an example:

First syllable:

Character in question, followed by the vowel ා (e.g. for ථ, “゚”)

Second syllable: Zero consonant ඳ (not pronounced), followed by the vowel 㦒 and then the consonant in question (e.g. for ථ, “㦣”) Regarding the dictionary order of characters, note that consonants and vowels have separate sequences. The consonant sequence has priority, and letters in the same line appear in sequence after the left-most letter:

9


Consonants (with names)

Vowels

ඝ

O₆㡃P

ර

඼

ල

඾

ච

O┞㦖P

඿

ව

ශ

ෂ

ඣ

O❪⁕P

ඥ

ඞ

ස

හළෆ

෇

OⰂ㦚P

෈

෉්෋

෌

ත

O⹎㦢P

෍

෎

ථ

O゚㦣P

ද

O㕣゚㦣P

න

O㔲㢍P

඲

O㕣㔲㢍P

ඳ

O㧊㦧P

ප

O㰖㦨P

ඵ

O㕣㰖㦨P

බ

O䂮㦩P

භ

O䋺㦪P

ම

O䕆㦫P

ඹ

O䞒㦬P

ය

O䧞㦭P

1.2.1.2

ඤ

O㕣₆㡃P

O㕣❪⁕P

ා

Writing syllabically

Although Hangul has individual ‘letters’ for consonants and vowels, they are not written in a linear fashion such as in the Roman alphabet. Instead, they are grouped together into square syllable blocks according to the following principles: 1 Each syllable block must begin with a consonant sign. Where a spoken syllable begins with a vowel, the absence of the initial consonant is written with the zero letter ඳ:

10

Spoken

Written

Meaning

[a-u]

㞚㤆

younger brother/sister

[o-i]

㡺㧊

cucumber

2 The consonant letter (represented below as ‘C’) is placed either to the left or above the sign for the following vowel (‘V’), depending on the vowel sign’s shape, resulting in two possible patterns:

when vowel sign is vertical

㞚⻚㰖

when vowel sign is horizontal

㭒㥶㏢


Note that in the case of [horizontal vertical] vowel letter compounds (හ, ළ, ෆ, ෉, ්, ෋, ෎), where the horizontal letter represents a w-like sound, the initial consonant sign appears in the empty top left corner:

when vowel sign is vertical and horizontal

㣎 ὒ

3 A syllable-final consonant letter is always written underneath the initial consonant–vowel grouping, with height adjustments for a square end product:


㩫 Ⱖ


㦢㤊

4 There are no Hangul blocks with two initial consonant signs (except for the double consonant letters ඞ, ඤ, ද, ඲, ඵ). There are, however, some Hangul blocks with two final consonant signs written at the bottom:



㌌ ╃ ⴁ ῌ

Note, however, that due to restrictions against consonant clusters, both of these consonants can only be pronounced if they are followed by a vowel (see 1.2.3.1, 1.2.3.2).

11


1.2.2

Hangul pronunciation guide

The current section provides basic guidelines regarding how each of the 40 Hangul letter shapes should most normally be pronounced. Note, however, that there are a number of changes between the way that Korean is written and the way that it is pronounced. Although some basic sound changes are dealt with in this section, the majority of irregular pronunciations are described in the following section (see 1.2.3).

1.2.2.1

Simple vowels

Korean has eight simple vowels, which are written with the Hangul vowel signs ර, ඿, ස, ෈, ෍, ා, ඼ and ව. Historically, the last two signs ඼ and ව originate in the combinations [රා] and [඿ා], which is why they are traditionally not considered as ‘basic’ vowels and listed underර and ඿ in the normal alphabetic sequence. In modern Korean, however, they represent simple vowels. Since any Hangul block must begin with a consonant symbol, syllables that begin with a vowel in pronunciation are written with the zero symbol ඳ to the left or above the vowel sign. Written in syllable-block form, the eight simple vowels are as follows. For each vowel, we give an English equivalent, the relevant phonetic symbol and how the vowel is represented in the McCune-Reischauer system of Romanization:

12

Hangul

English parallels

Phonetic symbol

McCuneReischauer

㞚

A in father or cargo

[a]

a

㠊

British English: O in often US English: U in burn

[m]

|

㡺

O in core

[o]

o

㤆

like OO in moon

[u]

u

㦒

like U in pull, curt or urgh! (but lips not pushed out and not rounded!)

[k]

}

㧊

EE in feet (but usually shorter!)

[i]

i

㞶

British English: A in care US English: A in apple

[æ]

ae

㠦

E in bed

[e]

e

It should be noted that many native speakers of Korean (particularly younger generations) do not differentiate between 㞶 and 㠦 and pronounce both of these as a sound somewhere between the two.

1.2.2.2


Y-vowels

Korean has six Y-vowels that consist of a y-like sound before a simple vowel. The Y-vowels are written by adding one additional short stroke to the relevant simple vowel signs. Written in syllable-block form, the Y-vowels are as follows:

Hangul

English parallels

Phonetic symbol

McCuneReischauer

Simple

Y-vowel

㞚

㟒

YA in yahoo

[ja]

ya

㠊

㡂

British English: YO in yob US English: YEA in yearn

[jm]

y|

㡺

㣪

YO in yoga

[jo]

yo

㤆

㥶

YOU in youth

[ju]

yu

㞶

㟮

British English: YA in yay! US English: YA in yak

[jæ]

yae

㠦

㡞

like YE in yet or yes

[je]

ye

Many native speakers of Korean (particularly younger generations) do not differentiate between 㟮 and 㡞 and pronounce both of these as a sound somewhere between the two.

1.2.2.3

W-vowels

Korean has six W-vowels that consist of a w-like sound (as in English ‘was’) before a simple vowel. The W-vowels are written by combining the horizontal letters ස [o] or ෈ [u] with one of the vertical letters ර, ඿, ඼, ව and ා. Their pronunciation is generally what one would

13


expect from these combinations, except for the W-vowel that is written as [ස ා] but usually pronounced as [we].

Hangul

English parallels

Phonetic McCunesymbol Reischauer

Elements W-vowel 㡺㞚

㢖

British English: WA in wag [wa] US English: WA in swan

wa

㤆㠊

㤢

like WO in wonder

[wm]

w|

㡺㞶

㢲

like WEA in wear

[wæ]

wæ

㤆㠦

㤾

like WE in wet

[we]

we

㡺㧊

㣎

usually like WE in wet

[we]

oe

㤆㧊

㥚

like WEE in weep

[wi]

wi

Not only do native speakers tend to pronounce 㤾 and 㣎 the same, but many speakers (particularly younger generations) do not differentiate between these two and 㢲. Note that, although 㣎 and 㥚 are pronounced as [we] and [wi] by the majority of speakers of Seoul Korean, these are not the original pronunciations of these vowels. In fact, both of these were originally simple vowels, with 㣎 pronounced as [ö] (similar to the German ö umlaut) and 㥚 as [ü] (similar to the vowel sound in French ‘rue’ or ‘tu’). Although these pronunciations are now less common, they are still officially recognized and may be heard in the speech of some older speakers.

1.2.2.4

The compound vowel 㦮

Korean has one complex vowel, 㦮, which consists of a glide from 㦒 [÷] to 㧊 [i]. However, this vowel is only ever pronounced in this way when it occurs at the start of a word without being preceded by any consonant. In other positions, it is pronounced the same as 㧊 (i.e. like EE in feet). These two pronunciations are summarized below:

14

Position

Pronunciation Examples

WORD-INITIAL (at the start of a word, with no preceding consonant)

Quick glide from [㦒] to [㧊]

NOT WORD-INITIAL [㧊] only (after consonant or in second or later syllable)

McCuneReischauer


㦮㧦㦒㧊㧦 / }i [xi-ja]

⦚ἶ ⦶ἶ / [ttiko] Ệ㦮 Ệ㧊 / [km-i]

Also, bear in mind that 㦮 takes on the irregular pronunciation of 㠦 (i.e. like E in bed) when it appears as the possessive particle 㦮 (see 3.2.3). In the most complex of examples, 㦮 may be pronounced in three different ways within one short phrase:

written as:

⹒㭒㭒㦮㦮㦮㦮 the significance of democracy

pronounced as: [⹒㭒㭒㧊㠦㦮㧊G] Even when 㦮 appears in initial position, you may sometimes hear it pronounced as a simple vowel (i.e. like 㦒 or 㧊), particularly in dialectal speech.

1.2.2.5

Basic consonants

Korean has ten basic consonants that are presented in the table below. As can be seen, the first four consonants have separate ‘voiced’ and ‘unvoiced’ pronunciations. These will be explained below.

15


Hangul (Name) English parallels

When unvoiced:

When voiced:

ථ

O゚㦣P

P, as in park, B, as [p] / [b] but more relaxed in about

p, b

ඣ

O❪⁕P

T, as in tall, but more relaxed

t, d

ප

O㰖㦨P

CH, as in child, J, as [7] / [/] but more relaxed in injury

ch, j

ඝ

O₆㡃P

K, as in kill, G, as but more relaxed in again

[k] / [g]

k, g

න

O㔲㢍P

S, as in sky, but more relaxed or SH as in shin (see below)

[s]

s

[ 6]

sh

D, as in idea

[t] / [d]

ත

O⹎㦢P

M, as in mother

[m]

m

ච

O┞㦖P

N, as in net

[n]

n

ඳ

O㧊㦧P

NG, as in sing

[n]

ng

ඥ

OⰂ㦚P

Tongue-flap R as in Scottish rock or Mary or Tongue-tip L as in let or lip (see below)

[o]

r

[l]

l

H, as in hack or hope, but with much heavier breath release

[h]

h

ය

16

Phonetic McCunesymbol(s) Reischauer

O䧞㦭P

Further notes regarding the pronunciation of these consonants are as follows:


(a) Pronunciation of ථ, ඣ, ප, ඝ As shown in the above table, the primary pronunciation of these is similar to English P, T, CH and K. Like P, T, CH and K, they are unvoiced (i.e. pronounced without voice sounds in the vocal cords). However, unlike English P, T, CH and K, they are unaspirated (pronounced followed by no or very little release of air). To approximate the Korean pronunciations, attempt to pronounce the corresponding English sounds without a following puff of air. However, the table also shows that these consonants can – in some environments – become voiced (i.e. pronounced with voice sounds in the vocal cords) and thus sound similar to the English B, D, J and G respectively. This happens under the following conditions: 1 When the consonant occurs between two vowels. Note how, in the following examples, the first appearance of the consonant is unvoiced and the second (between two vowels) is voiced:

Hangul

McCune-Reischauer

Meaning

⹪⽊

pabo

fool

☚⚧

toduk

thief

㧦㭒

chaju

often

ἶ₆

kogi

meat

2 When the consonant occurs after the voiced consonants ත, ච, ඳ and ඥ:

Ṟ゚

kalbi

ribs

䂾╖

ch’imdae

bed

㞞㭒

anju

appetizers

ἓ₆

ky|ngi

game, match

(b) Pronunciation of න The basic pronunciation of න is akin to that of S in English, if somewhat weaker. However, when න occurs before ා, any of the Y-vowels or 㥚, its pronunciation changes to SH:

17


㌂㔺

sashil

truth, fact

㌺㤢

shaw|

shower

㓒䚲

shwimp’yo

a pause

(c) Pronunciation of ඳ As previously noted, when ඳ occurs at the start of syllable, it is a zero consonant that is not pronounced. The pronunciation as NG [º] only applies when it occurs at the bottom of a syllable block:

㡗㟧

y|ngyang

nutrition

㧟㠊

ing-|

a carp

(d) Pronunciation of ඥ ඥ has two different pronunciations. When it is pronounced at the start of a syllable, it is pronounced as ‘tongue-flap’ R. When it is pronounced at the end of a syllable or when it occurs twice in succession, it is pronounced as ‘tongue-tip’ L. ‘Tongue-flap’ R is pronounced by briefly tapping the front of the tongue against the bone ridge behind the teeth, slightly behind the position used for [t] or [d]. Although there is no equivalent sound in most varieties of English, Scottish English, Japanese and Spanish have similar sounds. ‘Tongue-tip’ L is pronounced by pressing the front of the tongue against the bone ridge behind the teeth, as in let or lip (but not lack or all, which involve the whole tongue).

⽊⧒

pora

purple

゚㥾

piyul

ratio

ア⩺㣪

pilly|yo

borrow

1.2.2.6

18

Aspirated consonants

In addition to its simple consonants, Korean has two other consonant sets. The first are the four aspirated consonants ඹ, ම, බ and භ. These are the aspirated equivalents of ථ, ඣ, ප and ඝ. They are pronounced accompanied by a much heavier puff of air than is normally found in English and never become voiced.

Hangul

(Name)

English parallels

Phonetic symbol

McCuneReischauer

ඹ

O䞒㦬P

P, as in park, but with much heavier puff of air

[ph]

p’

ම

O䕆㦫P

T, as in talk, but with much heavier puff of air

[th]

t’

බ

O䂮㦩P

CH, as in chat, but with much heavier puff of air

[7 h]

ch’

භ

O䋺㦪P

K, as in kill, but with much heavier puff of air

[kh]

k’

1.2.2.7


Tensed or ‘double’ consonants

Korean also has five tensed consonants, which are written with the five ‘double’ consonant letters ද, ඤ, ඵ, ඲ and ඞ. These are pronounced by putting the mouth into the same position as that for the simple counterpart, holding the mouth tense and tight in that position, and then suddenly releasing the sound with virtually no voice and little aspiration (breath release). The tensed double consonants of Korean have no close parallel in English. They are, however, somewhat similar to Italian double consonants (pp, tt, cc) and to Japanese tensed consonants. As for English pronunciation, the closest we get to Korean ද, ඤ, ඞ are English P, T, K when they appear after S (as in ‘spy’, ‘style’ and ‘sky’), which are also pronounced without aspiration (breath release), but much less tensing. Korean ඵ is also somewhat similar to English TCH in words such as ‘matching’, but more tense and with no puff of air. As for Korean ඲, the best parallel is a succession of English words finishing and starting on S, such as ‘mass suicide’, with a strong volume increase on the second S.

Hangul

(Name)

English parallels

Phonetic symbol

McCuneReischauer

ද

O㕣゚㦣P

P, as in spy, but with more tensing

[pp] / [v]

pp

ඤ

O㕣❪⁕P

T, as in style, but with much more tensing

[tt] / [t]

tt 19


ඵ

O㕣㰖㦨P

TCH, as in matching, but with tensing and no breath release

[t7] / [u]

tch

඲

O㕣㔲㢍P

SS, as in mass suicide, but with initial tensing and later volume increase

[ss] / [s]

ss

ඞ

O㕣₆㡃P

K, as in sky, but with much more tensing

[kk] / [r]

kk

1.2.3

Pronunciation changes

The pronunciation of Korean is complicated by a number of changes between how it is written and how it is actually pronounced. The reason for these spelling–pronunciation irregularities is that modern Hangul spellings are not supposed to be strict transcriptions of pronunciations, but representations of underlying forms.

1.2.3.1

Pronunciation of syllable-final consonants

Generally speaking Korean consonants may appear both at the beginning or the end of a syllable. However, they are only pronounced fully (according to the pronunciations detailed above (see 1.2.2.4, 1.2.2.5, 1.2.2.6)) when they appear at the start of a syllable. When they are pronounced at the end of a syllable, they lose much of their sound mass and distinctiveness. The reason for this is that Korean final consonants are never released. Nonrelease means that the speaker puts his/her mouth into the position for the consonant, but then tenses up the mouth, and finishes by relaxing it again without producing any sound. With the consonants ථ p, ඣ t and ඝ k this produces pronunciations quite different from English, where the corresponding sounds rely on the release of sound (and a puff of air). If you ask a Korean speaker to read the Korean words below, you should immediately feel this difference. In fact, you may find it hard to hear the final consonants at all.

20

Korean word

Compare with the English . . .

ῃ

soup

cook

⹻

rice

pap

Ἵ

immediately

cot

The non-release of final consonants means that many of the distinctions between consonant sounds are lost. Without being released, many of the distinctive features of consonant sounds simply cannot be realized. This includes the plain consonants ප ch, න s and ය h and all of the aspirated and tensed consonants. Thus, although these consonants may be written in final position (except for ද pp, ඤ tt and ඵ tch), they can never be pronounced in final position. Instead, as shown in the table below, these consonants are pronounced according to the closest possible non-released sound (i.e. the sound which is produced by the same part of the mouth).

Written consonant

Pronunciation in final position

Example

ඥ

ඥ

䕪 arm

ච

ච

㦖 silver

ත

ත

ⴎ body

ඳ

ඳ

㣿 dragon

ථ

ථ

㰧 house

ඹ ඣ

㰰㰧 straw ඣ

⹱– receive

ම

ṯ– ṝ the same

ප

Ṭ– ṝ have, hold

බ

㌊ṭ ㌊ṝ complexion, skin

න

❇ṩ ❇ṝ lampshade

඲

Ṫ– ṝ went (past stem of ‘go’)

ය

䧞㦭䧞㦙 (name of letter ය)

ඝ


ඝ

㡃 station

ඞ

㡄– 㡃 compile, weave

භ

⎮ ⎗ around, about

Note, however, that what is written as a final consonant of one syllable block can in some cases be pronounced as the opening sound of the next syllable block (see 1.2.3.3). In such cases, the full pronunciation can be maintained.

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1.2.3.2

Simplification of consonant clusters

A ‘consonant cluster’ refers to instances in which two or more consonants appear in succession without any vowel sounds between them (examples in English include strike, helps, crisps). In Korean pronunciation, consonant clusters are not allowed. However, clusters of two consonants do sometimes appear in writing in final consonant position. In such cases, one of the sounds must always drop (or otherwise move to another syllable through ‘re-syllabification’ (see 1.2.3.3)). Luckily, knowing which consonant drops and which is pronounced is usually totally predictable, as shown in the following table. Note however, that for the combinations ඦ lk and ඨ lp, some speakers may pronounce the ඥ l rather than the prescribed ඝ k or ථ p in certain words.

Consonant cluster

Sound pronounced

Example

ඟ

ඝ

⍡ ⍟ soul, spirit

ජ

ච

Ⱔ– Ⱒ– many

ට

ත

㌌– ㌒ boil

ඩ

ඥ

㣎ὂ 㣎Ἶ single-way track

ණ

ඹ ථ

㦠– 㦣 recite

ධ

ථ

Ṩ ṧ price

ඡ

ච

㞟– 㞞 sit

ඦ

ඝ

㧓– 㧋 read Ⱗ– Ⱏ clear – but frequently pronounced as Ⱖ

ඨ

ථ

⹵– ⹻ step on ⍩– ⍯ wide – but frequently pronounced as ⍦

22

ඪ

ඥ

䞻– 䞶 lick

ඬ

ඥ

⤁– ⣺ bore (a hole)

1.2.3.3

Re-syllabification

Re-syllabification refers to the process whereby a consonant is written at the end of one syllable block but pronounced at the start of the next syllable. This happens whenever one syllable block ends in a consonant and the following syllable has no opening consonant sound. The one exception to the rule is the final consonant ඳ ng. This cannot become the opening sound of the following syllable block because ඳ ng can only appear as a final consonant sound.


Here are some basic examples of nouns that show re-syllabification:

How it is written

How it is pronounced

Meaning

☛㧒

☚₎

Germany

㠎㠊

㠊⍞

language

㔶㧎

㔲┢

new person (i.e. newcomer, ‘new face’, etc.)

As in the above examples, most nouns that show re-syllabification are Sino-Korean words composed of compounds of two or more elements originating from separate Chinese characters (for example, 㔶㧎 ‘new person’ is composed of the elements 㔶 (萿) ‘new’ and 㧎 (蝸) ‘person’). The words are written to reflect the base forms of these two separate elements (i.e. 㔶-㧎) rather than pronunciation (i.e. 㔲-┢). Re-syllabification also occurs when particles (see Chapter 3) (with no opening consonant sound) and the copula (see 4.1.4) are attached to nouns (ending in a consonant) and when verb endings (with no opening consonant sound) are attached to verb stems (ending in a consonant):

Written

Pronunciation

Meaning

䞲ῃ㧊

䞲ῂ₆

Korea-SUBJECT

ⶒ㦚

ⶊ⯒

water-OBJECT

㟓㧊㠦㣪

㟒₆㠦㣪

medicine-COPULA

㧛㠊㍲

㧊⻚㍲

wear –㞚V㠊㍲ verb ending (see 6.1.1)

㧛㦒Ⳋ

㧊ぢⳊ

wear –O㦒PⳊ verb ending (see 6.5.1)

23


The rule of re-syllabification can be said to override the rules regarding the pronunciation of syllable-final consonants described above (see 1.2.3.1). If a consonant can be re-syllabified, it can naturally be rendered according to its full pronunciation. For this reason, adding a particle (with no opening consonant sound) or the copula to a noun (ending in a consonant) and adding verb endings (with no opening consonant sound) to verb stems (ending in a consonant) allow the final consonants to ‘recover’ their original pronunciation.

Original noun

Noun particle/copula

㰰㰧 straw

㰰㧊㰖䞒 straw-SUBJECT

⌁ ⋵ sickle

⌁㦒⪲ ⋮㓺⪲ sickle-INSTRUMENTAL

Verb stem

Verb ending

ṯ–ṝ be the same

ṯ㞚㍲ Ṗ䌖㍲ be the same –㞚V㠊㍲ (see 6.1.1)

Ṫ–ṝ went (past stem of ‘go’)

Ṫ㦒Ⳋ Ṗ㝆Ⳋ went –O㦒PⳊ (see 6.5.1)

The rule of re-syllabification also overrides the rules regarding the simplification of consonant clusters. If a consonant cluster is followed by a vowel at the start of the next syllable, the first consonant of the cluster can be pronounced as the final sound of the current syllable and the second consonant of the cluster can simply move across to the next syllable. This also allows for sounds at the end of nouns and verb stems to be ‘recovered’ when certain particles, the copula and verb endings are added:

Original noun

Noun particle/copula

⍡ ⍟ soul, spirit

⍡㦚 ⍟㔂 spirit-OBJECT

Ṩ ṧ sickle

Ṩ㦒⪲ ṧ㓺⪲ price-INSTRUMENTAL

Verb stem

Verb ending

㌌– boil

㌌㞚㍲㌊Ⱎ㍲ boil –㞚V㠊㍲ verb ending (see 6.1.1)

㧓– went (past stem of ‘go’)

㧓㦒Ⳋ 㧒⁎Ⳋ read –O㦒PⳊ verb ending (see 6.5.1)

1.2.3.4

24

Nasal assimilation

‘Assimilation’ refers to a phonological change whereby a sound assimilates to become similar to a neighbouring sound.

What is known as nasal assimilation happens when a stop consonant (i.e. a consonant whose sound is formed by slowing down or stopping the flow of air through the mouth before being released with an expulsion of breath and sound – in Korean, ඝ k, භ k’, ඞ kk, ඣ t, ම t’, ඤ tt, ථ p, ඹ p’, ද pp) occurs before a nasal consonant (i.e. a consonant produced through the nose with the mouth closed – in Korean ච n, ත m, ඳ ng, althoughඳ ng does not apply here as it never appears in initial position). When this happens, the stop consonant assimilates to the nasal sound that is produced using the same point of articulation:

ඝ k, භ k’, ඞ kk

m

ඳ ng

ඣ t, ම t’, ඤ tt

m

චn

ථ p, ඹ p’, ද pp m

තm


Here are some examples of these changes:

ඝ k, භ k’, ඞ kk

m

ඳ ng

ῃⶒ

m

ῗⶒ

ⲏ⓪┺

m ⲣ⓪┺ eat

⿖㠢Ⱒ

m ⿖㠟Ⱒ kitchen-ONLY

ⶌ⓪┺

m ⶟⓪┺ tie

ඣ t, ම t’, ඤ tt

m

චn

⹱⓪┺

m

⹮⓪┺ receive

⿯⓪┺

m ⿚⓪┺ stick to

broth

ථ p, ඹ p’, ද pp m ත m ⻫ⰳ

m

⻪ⰳ

☫⓪┺

m ☪⓪┺ help [PLAIN]

㞴Ⱎ╏

m 㞪Ⱎ╏ front yard

㠜⓪

m 㠚⓪

net of the law

not exist-MODIFIER (see 7.1.2)

The final example shows the results of two pronunciation changes. The consonant cluster at the end of the first syllable first simplifies to ථ p (㠜⓪ m 㠛⓪) (see 1.2.3.2). Then, ථ p assimilates to ත m (㠛⓪ m 㠚⓪).

25


Assimilation between ඥ l and ච n

1.2.3.5

Although the consonants ඥ l and ච n may frequently occur together, they can never both be pronounced in succession. Thus, one of the two will assimilate to the pronunciation of the other. In most combinations of ඥ l and ච n (be that චඥ or ඥච), ච n will assimilate to ඥ l:

චඥ

m

ඥඥ

⋲⪲

m

⋶⪲

heater

㔶⧒

m

㔺⧒

Shilla (name of a kingdom on the Korean peninsula)

ඥච

m

ඥඥ

䃒⋶

m

䃒⧚

knife blade

䞻⓪┺

m

䞶⯎┺*

lick

*The ඪ consonant cluster simplifies to ඥ

However, for the combination චඥ, there are some exceptions to this rule. For these words, all of which are of Sino-Korean origin, ඥ l assimilates to ච n:

චඥ

m

චච

㌳㌆⨟

m

㌳㌆⌻

output, yield

㧛㤦⬢

m

㧊⿶␾

medical expenses

㔶ⶎ⪲

m

㔶ⶎ⏎

(name of street in Seoul)

1.2.3.6

Assimilation of ඥ l to ච n after nasal consonants

Another peculiarity of ඥ l is that when it occurs after the nasal consonants ත m and ඳ ng, it changes to the nasal ච n:

26

තඥ

m

තච

⁞Ⰲ

m

⁞┞

interest on money

╊⪶

m

╊⏒

discussion

ඳඥ

m

ඳච

❇⪳

m

❇⏏

registration

㡗Ⰲ

m

㡗┞

profit, gain


As well as occurring after what is written as ත m and ඳ ng, the same process also occurs after what is written as ථp (or ඹ p’, ද pp) or ඝ k (or භ k’, ඞ kk) but pronounced as m and ng due to nasal assimilation (see 1.2.3.4):

ථඥ

m

තච

㞫⩻

m

㞪⎗

ඝඥ

m

ඳච

☛Ⱃ

m

☯┯

pressure

independence

Palatalisation of ඣ t and ම t’

1.2.3.7

When ඣ t or ම t ’ occurs before the vowel ා i, the pronunciation becomes ‘palatalized’. Basically, this means that it changes to ප ch and බ ch’ respectively. Note, however, that this change only occurs when the ඣ t or ම t ’ is at the end of a word or stem and theා is part of a suffix, verb ending, particle or the copula. It does not occur elsewhere (for example, in words such as 㠊❪ ‘where’, Ⱎ❪ ‘joint’, 䕆 ‘speck’):

ඣ

m

ප

䟊☡㧊

m

䟊☚㰖 sunrise [䟊 sun ☡ – rise suffix –㧊]

Ⱕ㧊

m Ⱎ㰖

Έ㧊

m

ῂ㰖

ම

m

බ

⺃㧊

m

⹪䂮

㏻㧊Ⳋ

m

㏢䂮Ⳋ if it’s a kettle [㏻ kettle copula 㧊 O㦒PⳊ]

ṯ㧊

m Ṗ䂮

first born [Ⱕ– eldest 㧊 person] firmly [Έ – firm adverb ending –㧊]

field [SUBJECT] [⺃ field subject particle 㧊]

together [ṯ – ‘the same’ adverb ending –㧊]

As well as occurring before ා i, this process also occurs before Y-vowels:

ම

m

බ

⿯㡂㣪

m

⿖㼦㣪 stick [⿯ – stuck causative 㧊㠊㣪]

27


A slightly more complicated thing happens when a final-position ඣ t is followed by a suffix starting in 䧞 hi. The combination of ඣ t and ය h creates the aspirated ම t’ through a process of aspiration (see 1.2.3.10). This then becomes palatalized to produce බ ch’:

ඣය

m

බ

╁䧞–

m

┺䂮–

shut [╁ – shut passive –䧞]

Έ䧞–

m

ῂ䂮–

harden [Έ – hard causative –䧞]

1.2.3.8

ච n addition

In some compound words in which the second part of the compound begins with ා i or any of the Y-vowels, an extra ච n is added in pronunciation. This particularly tends to happen when the two components of the compound can be independent words in their own right. For some words, the addition of ච n is reflected in Hangul spelling (for example, 㞴┞ ‘front tooth’). Otherwise, however, there is no clue in the spelling that tells us that ච n has to be added:

╊㣪

m

╊␾

blanket

䞲㡂⯚

m

䞲⎖⯚

midsummer

Ⳋ㟧Ⱖ

m

Ⳋ⌻Ⱖ

cotton socks

When the first element of the compound ends in a stop consonant (i.e. ඝ k, භ k’, ඞ kk, ඣ t, ම t’, ඤ tt, ථ p, ඹ p’, ද pp), the addition of ච n triggers nasal assimilation (see 1.2.3.4):

28

ඝ/භ/ඞ ච

m

ඳච

⌊⽋㟓

m

⌊⽟⌧

internal medicine

⿖㠢㧒

m

⿖㠟┦

kitchen work

ඣ/ම/ඤ ච

m

චච

↙㧤

m

ↆ┯*

petal

⃑㧤

m

⃂┯*

sesame leaf

*Here, බ and න at the end of the respective first syllables are both pronounced as ඣ in the original components ↙ and ⃑– respectively (see 1.2.3.1)

ථ/ඹ/ද ච

m

තච

㞴㧒

m

㞪┦

the future

㡗㠛㣿

m

㡗㠚⑓

business use/purposes

1.2.3.9


ය h reduction

Full deletion of ය h is obligatory when it occurs at the end of a verb root in front of a vowel sound. In words such as the following, ය is never pronounced.

㫡㞚㣪

m

㫆㞚㣪

good

Ⱔ㞚㣪

m

Ⱎ⋮㣪

many

In addition, when ය occurs between voiced sounds (i.e. all vowels and/or the consonants ත m, චn, ඳ ng, ඥ r), it is pronounced very weakly or is even lost entirely in fast everyday speech:

㡗䢪

m

㡗㢖

film, movie

㡂䟟

m

㡂㟋

travel

⹎㞞䞿┞┺

m

⹎㞚⋾┞┺

I’m sorry

㩚䢪

m

㩖⏪

telephoning

1.2.3.10 Aspiration When ය h occurs next to the basic consonants ඝ k, ඣ t, ථ p and ප ch, it causes them to change into their aspirated counterparts භ k’, ම t ’, ඹ p’ and බ ch’ respectively (ය h is then not pronounced as a separate sound). This aspiration process can occur both when ය h precedes or follows the basic consonant in question. In the first set of examples, ය h precedes the consonant:

යඝ

m

භ

⁎⩝Ợ

m

⁎⩂䅖

යඣ

m

ම

㫡┺

m

㫆䌖

like that

good

29


යථ

m

ඹ

[this combination is not found in modern Korean]

යප

m

බ

⁎⩝㰖Ⱒ

m

⁎⩂䂮Ⱒ

like that

In the next set of examples, ය h follows the consonants:

ඝය

m

භ

⺇䢪㩦

m

⺆䇆㩦

ඣය

m

ම

Ⱕ䡫

m

Ⱎ䏓

ථය

m

ඹ

 䧞

m

⁎䞒

පය

m

බ

ⰴ䧞–

m

Ⱎ䂮–

department store

eldest brother

urgently

hit (the mark)

1.2.3.11 Reinforcement Reinforcement refers to the process by which the basic consonants ඝ k, ඣ t, ථ p and ප ch become pronounced as their tensed or ‘double’ counterparts ඞ kk, ඤ tt, ද pp and ඵ tch. There are several situations in which this may occur. The first situation in which reinforcement occurs is when two of the basic consonants (ඝ k, ඣ t, ථ p and ප ch) occur together in a word (one ending a syllable block and the other starting the next). When this happens, the second consonant will always be pronounced with reinforcement:

30

⹱ↂ receive –ἶ (see 6.3.1)

Reinforcement of ඝ ⹱ἶ

m

Reinforcement of ඣ ⻫╖

m ⻫➢ law school

Reinforcement of ථ ῃ⹻

m ῃデ soup with rice

Reinforcement of ප Ἵ㧻

m

Ἵ㱇 straight away

This kind of reinforcement will also take place when the final consonant of the first syllable is not written asඝ k, ඣ t, ථ p and ප ch but is pronounced as such due to the rules regarding the pronunciation of final consonants (see 1.2.3.1) or simplification of consonant clusters (see 1.2.3.2):

Spelling

Sound change

Reinforcement

㡜㰧

m

㡓㰧

m

↙⹪ῂ┞

m

↉⹪ῂ┞

m ↉ザῂ┞

Spelling


Simplified cluster

㡓㹳

next door flower basket

Reinforcement

╃㌊

m

┻㌊

m

┻㕖

goosebumps

㠜┺

m

㠛┺

m

㠛➆

not exist

Reinforcement does not usually occur after a nasal consonant (i.e. ච n, ත m, ඳ ng). However, the exception to this is when the nasal sound in question occurs at the end of a verb stem and an ending beginning with a plain consonant is added to it:

㔶ἶ

m

㔶ↂ

report –ἶ (see 6.3.1)

┺❂┺Ṗ

m

┺❂➆Ṗ

trim, refine –┺Ṗ (see 6.3.9)

A more complicated variety of reinforcement can occur in noun compounds. This first of all happens in compounds in which the two elements are linked together by the addition of the so-called ‘genitive s’ (㌂㧊㔲㢍), an additional න s written at the bottom of the syllable. Although written as න s, it is never pronounced as such (at least not in the modern language). All that it does is to cause the following plain consonants to become reinforced:

㌂㧝₎

m

㌂㧊⋚

the way between

⺙₎

m

⺆⋚

shipping route

㫛㧝㧻

m

㫛㧊㱇

sheet of paper

䎙⺃

m

䎆ソ

backyard vegetable plot

The ‘genitive s’ can only be written when the first element in the compound ends in a vowel. However, the ‘genitive s’ may be phonologically present in compounds that end in a consonant as well (although Hangul orthography does not allow it to be written). Due to this, other compounds may

31


also see tensing on the second element with no indication at all in the spelling:

㞞⹿

m

㞞ニ

inner room

㞞ὒ

m

㞞↞

opticians; eye clinic

⑞☯㧦

m

⑞⡻㧦

pupil (of eye)

㧶⽊

m

㧶㆖

sleepyhead

ₖ⹻

m

ₖデ

rice rolled in seaweed

ṫṖ

m

ṫ₢

riverside

Non-predictable tensing may also occur in other compounds where there is no etymological evidence of there being a ‘genitive s’:

䞲㧦

m

䞲㰲

Chinese characters

⁖㧦

m

⁖㰲

letters

ⶎ⻫

m

ⶎㄷ

grammar

㌆⽊

m

㌆㆖

stroll

㫆Ị

m

㫆№

condition

㧎₆

m

㧎⋒

popularity

ἆ㩫

m

ἆ㲷

decision

1.3

Korean terms of address

Overview This subchapter provides a thorough overview of the forms that Koreans use to call and refer to each other. An understanding of this is not only essential for comprehending many of the examples given in this book, but is also vital for grasping the way that Koreans relate to each other in day-to-day interactions.

32

Korean terms of address are complicated by the fact that the situations in which you can just call someone by their name are extremely limited. As a general rule of thumb, it is only possible to call someone by their name if they are the same age or younger than you. Otherwise, the name will be replaced by (or supplemented by) a title or kinship term. In this chapter,

the use of names, titles and kinship terms are described in turn, before the way to address someone politely is summarized in the final section.

1.3.1


Korean names

Korean names usually consist of three syllables. The first syllable is the surname (the most common Korean surnames being ₖ Kim, 㧊 Lee and ⹫ Pak), and this is usually followed by a two-syllable given name; for example, ₖ╖㭧, ⏎ⶊ䡚, ₖ㧒㎇, 㧊㔏Ⱒ, ⹫㩫䧂. There are odd exceptions. Sometimes the given name will only contain one syllable, for example, ₖῂ, 䠞㤛. Sometimes the given name contains three syllables or more, although this is not common, for example, ₖ㎎⩞⋮, ⹫㌞⹎⋮. There are some surnames that have two syllables: for example, 䢿⽊, ☛ἶ, ㍶㤆. In Korean, the surname (when it is used) always comes first, the opposite of the English order. Therefore, 㡆㨂䤞’s surname is 㡆, and his given name is 㨂䤞. The following table shows some common Korean surnames:

ₖ

㧊

⹫

㾲

㧻

⋾

䢣

䠞

㍲

⺆

㫆

⏎

㩫

㩚

㧚

㡺

ṫ

㞞

䞲

㕂

㥺

㏷

Korean names rarely occur in isolation but are followed by another element. First of all the title-word 㝾 may be used after both full names and given names (however, it does not generally occur after surnames):

Full name 㝾: ₖ⹒㑮㝾G G Given name 㝾: ⹒㑮㝾 Full name 㝾 is a generic way to call the name of an unknown person for identification purposes. For example, when you are in a crowded waiting room at a doctor’s surgery, this is the form of address that will be used to tell you that it is your turn to go in and see the doctor. Given name 㝾 is a non-intimate form of address that can be used towards acquaintances of similar age. Note that you cannot refer to yourself as . . . 㝾. When you are addressing an intimate of similar or younger age or a child, you do not need to use 㝾. However, when you are calling someone’s given name as a vocative, you can attach the vocative particle, which is 㞚 after a consonant and 㟒 after a vowel (see 3.2.7). This only occurs in combination

33


with non-honorific speech styles (see 4.3) and only tends to occur with Korean (or Korean-sounding) names:

㥶㰚㞚SG㩦㕂 ⲏ㠞㠊f [INTIMATE]

Yujin, have you eaten lunch?

㥶⹎㟒SG⍞ 㰖⁞ 㔲Ṛ 㧞┞f [PLAIN]

Yumi, do you have time now?

In addition, when a given name ending in a consonant appears without the addition of 㝾, 㞚 or another title (see 1.3.2) or kinship term (see 1.3.3), it usually appears with the suffix 㧊. This also only tends to occur with Korean (or Korean-sounding) names:

㥶㰚㧊S ⁎Ợ ⶊ㓾 Ⱖ㧊㟒f [INTIMATE]

Yujin, what do you mean?

㥶㰚㧊Ṗ Ṛ┺ἶ 䟞㠊㣪.

Yujin said she is going.

䣾㰚㧊⯒ Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪.

I met Hyojin.

㡗⹒㧊⓪ ⁎⩝㰖㞠㞚㣪.

YIngmin is not like that.

As can be seen in the final three examples above, 㧊 frequently appears followed by particles (see Chapter 3). The combination –㧊Ṗ (i.e. 㧊 and the subject particle Ṗ (see 3.2.1)) is particularly common and represents the most common way to mark a ‘bare’ given name appearing as a sentence subject.

1.3.2

Korean titles

Although, as discussed in the previous section, full/given name 㝾 represents the most generic way to call someone in Korean, this can only generally be used towards acquaintances of similar age. When you are addressing someone older than or superior to you, you will have to use another title or a kinship term. When addressing an elder or superior, perhaps the most common term of address is ㍶㌳┮. This title literally means ‘esteemed teacher’ and is primarily used towards one’s own teachers and others of the teaching profession. However, it can be used towards adults in general as a respectful form of address and may be considered the closest to referring to someone as Mr. . . . or Sir. ㍶㌳┮ is most polite on its own without an accompanying name. However, it is also possible to use it after a surname or a full name:

34

ₖ㧎䢎㍶㌳┮

Mr. Inho Kim

ₖ ㍶㌳┮

Mr. Kim

㍶㌳┮ cannot be used to talk about yourself – you cannot introduce yourself as . . . ㍶㌳┮. The reason for this is because –┮ is an honorific suffix that pays respect to the person you are talking about (and there is no need to pay respect to yourself).


There are scores of other address terms that are used in Korean society. Like ㍶㌳┮, these are usually composed of a first part such as ㍶㌳ that refers to a position, occupation or societal role and this honorific particle –┮. By including –┮, the term of address becomes suitable for addressing superiors. On the other hand, by dropping –┮, the term becomes appropriate for addressing an equal or inferior. Here are some terms of address in common use in the Korean workplace:

Non-honorific title

Honorific title

䣢㧻

company president

䣢㧻┮

esteemed company president

㌂㧻

company manager

㌂㧻┮

esteemed company manager

㹾㧻

deputy manager

㹾㧻┮ esteemed deputy manager

ὒ㧻

department head

ὒ㧻┮

esteemed department head

㔺㧻

section chief

㔺㧻┮

esteemed section chief

╖Ⰲ

deputy section chief

╖Ⰲ┮

esteemed deputy section chief

You may also sometimes hear Koreans use the English address terms ‘Mr.’ (e.g. ⹎㓺䎆 ṫ), ‘Mrs.’ (e.g. ⹎㎎㓺㩫) and ‘Miss’ (e.g. ⹎㓺 ₖ). However, unlike in English these are not particularly respectful terms and cannot be used towards a status superior. Indeed, ⹎㓺 in particular is probably most frequently used by businessmen towards their (female) secretaries or by doctors, etc. towards their (female) reception staff.

1.3.3

Kinship terms

Due at least in part to the complex hierarchical nature of Korean family relationships, Korean has a list of highly distinctive and extensive kinship terms. The Korean kinship terms are often more specific than in European languages and make extra distinctions based on male/female, older/younger and paternal/maternal. Korean kinship terms can be divided into two groups. The first group has two kinship term sets depending on the gender of the speaker (or person

35


being talked about). For example, whereas a man refers to his father-in-law as 㧻㧎, a woman refers to her father-in-law as 㔲㞚⻚㰖:

A male’s

A female’s

father-in-law

㧻㧎

㔲㞚⻚㰖

mother-in-law

㧻⳾

㔲㠊Ⲏ┞

spouse

㞚⌊/⿖㧎

⋾䘎

brothers/sisters*

䡫㩲 (brothers)

㧦ⰺ (sisters)

older brother

䡫

㡺ザ

older sister

⑚⋮

㠎┞

*These terms most commonly refer to the mutual relationship of being brothers/ sisters. The relationship of being ˄brother and sister˅ is referred to as ⋾ⰺ. Note that 䡫㩲 may in some circumstances be used as a generic term for ‘siblings’.

As can be seen in the above, there are two words that are equivalent to the English ‘wife’. However, the usage of these words is not identical. Whereas ⿖㧎 is an honorific term that can only be used respectfully to refer to another man’s wife, 㞚⌊ is a plain term that can be used to refer to one’s own wife. It is also possible to refer to your own wife as 㰧㌂⧢ (lit. ‘home-person’) or 㢖㧊䝚 (from the English ‘wife’). The second group of kinship terms can be used by both genders:

36

grandparents

㫆⿖⳾

paternal grandfather

䞶㞚⻚㰖

maternal grandfather

㣎䞶㞚⻚㰖

paternal grandmother

䞶Ⲏ┞

maternal grandmother

㣎䞶Ⲏ┞

parents

⿖⳾

father

㞚⻚㰖

mother

㠊Ⲏ┞

dad

㞚ザ

mum

㠚Ⱎ

son

㞚✺

daughter

➎

grandchild(ren)

㏦㭒

grandson

㏦㧦

granddaughter

㏦⎖O➎P

younger sibling

☯㌳

younger brother

⋾☯㌳

younger sister

㡂☯㌳

paternal uncle

䋆㞚⻚㰖 (an older brother of one’s father)


㧧㦖㞚⻚㰖 or 㑯⿖ (a married younger brother of one’s father) ㌒㽢 (an unmarried younger brother of one’s father) ἶ⳾⿖ (the husband of a sister of one’s father) paternal aunt

ἶ⳾ (both older and younger sisters of one’s father) 䋆㠊Ⲏ┞ (the wife of an older brother of one’s father) 㧧㦖㠊Ⲏ┞ or 㑯⳾ (the wife of a married younger brother of one’s father)

maternal uncle

㣎㌒㽢 (both older and younger brothers of one’s mother, regardless of their marital status) 㧊⳾⿖ (the husband of a sister of one’s mother)

maternal aunt

㧊⳾ (both older or younger sisters of one’s mother) 㣎㑯⳾ (the wife of both older and younger brothers of one’s mother)

son-in-law

㌂㥚

daughter-in-law

ⳆⓦⰂ

cousin

㌂㽢

37


Some kinship terms can be made honorific through the addition of –┮ (see 1.3.2). The following list shows the most common occurrences of this alternation. Note that the forms marked with an asterisk show some degree of irregularity between the honorific and non-honorific forms. For some kinship terms, including notably 㠎┞ ‘older sister (of a woman)’ and 㫆䃊 ‘niece/nephew’, there is no honorific form:

Non-honorific

Honorific

grandparents

㫆⿖⳾

㫆⿖⳾┮

grandfather

䞶㞚⻚㰖

䞶㞚⻚┮*

grandmother

䞶Ⲏ┞

䞶Ⲏ┮*

parents

⿖⳾

⿖⳾┮

father

㞚⻚㰖

㞚⻚┮*

mother

㠊Ⲏ┞

㠊Ⲏ┮

older sister (of a man)

⑚⋮

⑚┮*

older brother (of a man)

䡫

䡫┮

older brother (of a woman)

㡺ザ

㡺⧒⻚┮*

younger sibling

☯㌳

㞚㤆┮*

daughter

➎

➆┮*

son

㞚✺

㞚✲┮*

The use of honorific kinship terms is less regular than the use of honorific titles discussed previously. ⿖⳾┮ is the most commonly used of these terms and represents the universal way to refer to either your own parents or those of other people. The other honorific kinship terms are generally only used in formal settings. The honorific terms for ‘daughter’ and ‘son’ (➆┮ and 㞚✲┮) are used for referring to the children of status superiors. In the family, a strict hierarchy is respected whereby younger family members never address older family members by their first name but by a title. This applies to siblings: a man will always address his older brother as 䡫 and his older sister as ⑚⋮ and a woman will use 㡺ザ and 㠎┞ respectively. Even twins born minutes apart will use this system, with the younger twin calling his/her sibling ‘older brother/sister’.

38

In addition to being used within the family, many of these terms can be used ‘fictively’; in other words, they can be applied to relationships outside

the family that have similar age dimensions to the corresponding family relationships. For example, the terms for ‘older brother/sister’ can be used towards intimates of marginally superior age. In addition, 䞶Ⲏ┞ ‘grandmother’ and 䞶㞚⻚㰖 ‘grandfather’ are frequently heard being used as generic ways for addressing elderly people.


Korean also applies something that is called ‘teknonymy’. This is basically a way of referring to someone in relation to their children, in other words, calling someone something that translates as ‘so-and-so’s mum’ or ‘so-and-so’s dad’ (commonly using the name of the eldest child):

⹒㑮㠊Ⲏ┞

Minsu’s mother

⹒㑮㞚⻚㰖

Minsu’s father

⹒㑮㠚Ⱎ

Minsu’s mum

⹒㑮㞚ザ

Minsu’s dad

These expressions are first of all used within the extended family, although only towards those of younger age. Interestingly, the latter two expressions are also frequently used as terms of address between married people with children. In addition, it is possible to use these terms towards casual acquaintances (as long as they are not older than you), particularly when you are a teacher, neighbour, etc. who knows the child.

1.3.4

How to address someone in Korean

The way you address someone in Korean will depend on your relative social status with that person and also on the degree of intimacy. This section provides you with some basic rules of thumb that you should follow.

1.3.4.1

Addressing intimates of similar age

When addressing a friend the same age or younger than you, just using their first name is fine. This can be suffixed by the intimate vocative particle, which is –㞚 after a consonant (e.g. 㡗⹒㞚) and –㟒 after a vowel (e.g. ⹒㑮㟒) (see 3.2.7). Alternatively, for names that end in a consonant, you can also use the suffix –㧊 (e.g. 㡗⹒㧊) (see 1.3.1). Using these suffixes makes the address sound warmer and closer, but make sure you are intimate enough to use them.

39


1.3.4.2

Addressing older intimates

When you are addressing an intimate who is one or more years older than you, it is not usually appropriate to use their name. Instead, you should use the appropriate word for ‘older brother/sister’ (see 1.3.3). However, note that these terms are only appropriate for fairly marginal age differences, perhaps up to ten years. After this point, you will probably have to retain a title used for addressing an age-rank superior (see 1.3.2).

1.3.4.3

Addressing elders and notable superiors

When someone is around ten or more years older than you – or if they are a status superior in your workplace or your teacher/professor – you should always address them by an appropriate title. If you are unsure which title to use, you can use ㍶㌳┮ (lit. ‘teacher’) as a generic respectful form of address. These titles should be used no matter how intimate the relationship may become.

1.3.4.4

Addressing non-intimates and strangers

For non-intimates and strangers, the basic rule of thumb is to maintain titles wherever possible, particularly towards those older than you. When the person is of similar or younger age, it may be appropriate to use their full or first name in combination with –㝾 (see 1.3.1). In encounters with strangers where you do not know their name and are unsure of their relative social position, the application of generic titles is a good strategy. For male blue-collar workers of marriageable age or above, 㞚㩖㝾 (lit. ‘uncle’) may be used. For women, the equivalent is 㞚㭒Ⲏ┞/ 㞚㭢Ⱎ (although be careful not to use this towards younger women). Elderly strangers may be addressed as 䞶㞚⻚㰖 ‘grandfather’ and 䞶Ⲏ┞ ‘grandmother’. Those of university age and below are frequently hailed as 䞯㌳ ‘student’. Outside of this, as previously noted, the use of ㍶㌳┮ ‘teacher’ represents a good form of universal respectful address.

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1.3.4.5

Addressing notable subordinates and children


Children are addressed using their first names. These can be suffixed by –㞚/㟒 or –㧊 (see 1.3.1). Unless you are intimate, preserving a degree of respect in the way you address notable subordinates is a good idea. Otherwise, your speech can easily sound high-handed. For subordinates within the office, a non-honorific title is appropriate (see 1.3.2). For more casual acquaintances, given name 㝾 usually suffices. For addressing an intimate who is younger than you, apply the strategies mentioned above (see 1.3.4.1).

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Chapter 2

Nouns, nominal forms, pronouns and numbers

2.1

Nouns

Overview The current chapter provides important information regarding the grammatical appearance of Korean nouns. Subchapter 2.1.1 considers three points on which Korean nouns differ greatly from their counterparts in English and other European languages: the absence of articles, the limited appearance of number and the lack of importance of gender. Subchapter 2.1.2 then considers an important category of noun that requires further comment: bound nouns. One important feature of Korean nouns not covered in this chapter is the fact that some Korean nouns have a separate ‘honorific’ form. This situation is discussed in the chapter on verbs (for the reason that honorification is more pervasive in verbs than it is for nouns) (see 4.4.3).

2.1.1

Lack of articles, number and gender

Unlike many European languages, Korean does not have articles (such as ‘a/an’ and ‘the’ in English), does not typically mark number (i.e. whether a noun is singular or plural) and does not usually mark gender (as in European languages such as French, German, Spanish and Russian). On these points however, Korean is similar to other East Asian languages such as Chinese and Japanese.

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Although the lack of these categories can sometimes be disorienting to European learners, Korean has ways of expressing these meanings where necessary.

2.1.1.1

Lack of articles

Nouns

Due to the lack of articles, a Korean sentence such as the following can be ambiguous regarding whether the ‘man’ that Yumi met is a specific man (‘the man’) or an unspecified man (‘a man’)

㠊㩲㥶⹎Ṗ ⋾㧦⯒ Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪. Yesterday, Yumi met the man. / Yesterday, Yumi met a man. However, where need be, Korean can use other resources to tell us whether a specific man or an unspecified man is being talked about. For definite reference (‘the man’), ⁎ ‘that’ (or, according to context, 㧊 ‘this’) can be used:

㠊㩲㥶⹎Ṗ ⁎G⋾㧦⯒ Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪. Yesterday, Yumi met the man. For indefinite reference (‘a man’), 䞲 ‘one’ or 㠊⟺ ‘some (kind of)’ can be used:

㠊㩲㥶⹎Ṗ 㠊⟺G⋾㧦⯒ Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪. Yesterday, Yumi met a man.

2.1.1.2

Lack of number

Since Korean nouns are not normally marked for number, it is often unclear (unless there is a clarifying context) whether the speaker is talking about a single item or plural items. In the following sentence, 㺛 could translate as ‘book’ or ‘books’:

㺛㧊㧞㠊㣪.

I’ve got a book. / I’ve got some books.

However, if it is necessary to specify that what is being talked about is not a single item but plural items, Korean does have a grammatical marker that can fulfil this function: the plural marker –✺ (see 3.3.1). The following sentence can only mean that I have ‘books’, not that I have ‘a book’:

㺛✺㧊㧞㠊㣪.

I’ve got some books.

Another way to mark up a noun as plural is to add –Ⱎ┺ (see 3.3.4.1), meaning ‘every’ or ‘each’:

⋮⧒Ⱎ┺ ⰻ㭒 ⰱ㧊 ╂⧒㣪. The taste of beer is different in every country.

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2 Nouns, nominal forms, pronouns and numbers

With –Ⱎ┺, the plurality of the noun can be emphasized by doubling it. This most commonly occurs with the noun 㰧 ‘house’ which becomes 㰧㰧 ‘all houses’:

ἶ㿪㧻SG♲㧻䟃㞚ⰂṖ 㰧㰧Ⱎ┺ Ⱎ╏㠦 Ṗ✳䞿┞┺. The yard of each house is full of jars of hot pepper paste and soybean paste. Another way to make a noun plural is to use a number expression (see 2.4). Note that when one of these number expressions is used, since this makes it obvious that what you are talking about is plural (or singular), the plural marker is not normally used.

2.1.1.3

Lack of gender

Korean does not mark gender on the noun as in French, Russian and other European languages. In addition, the majority of job names and/or work titles are not ‘gendered’ as they tend to be in English. In the following list, whereas the corresponding English expressions are gender-marked, the Korean expressions do not contain such bias:

㏢⹿㑮

fireman

ἓ㺆ὖ

policeman

䕦ⰺ㤦

salesman

䣢㧻

chairman (of the board)

When it is necessary to distinguish that the person being referred to is male or female, the word ⋾㧦 ‘man’ or 㡂㧦 ‘woman’ must be inserted before the noun:

㡂㧦 ἓ㺆ὖ

a female police officer

⋾㧦䕦ⰺ㤦

a male salesperson

In some cases, 㡂㧦 and ⋾㧦 can be shortened to 㡂– and ⋾– and this can be attached as a prefix to the front of the noun:

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⋾䞯㌳

male student

㡂䞯㌳

female student

⋾㍶㌳

male teacher

㡂㍶㌳

female teacher

However, some expressions in Korean do contain a gender bias. Notably, the noun ㌂⧢, originally meaning ‘person’, is typically understood as

meaning ‘man’ in the pronoun-like phrase ⁎ ㌂⧢ ‘that person’, ‘he’. If a woman is being talked about, ⁎ 㡂㧦 ‘that woman’, ‘she’ would normally be applied instead. To make it 100 per cent specific that you are talking about a man, you can also use ⁎ ⋾㧦 ‘that man’.

Nouns

Although not the same as grammatical gender, Korean family terms display a gender distinction different from anything found in English. For some expressions, a different vocabulary item is used depending on whether the family member in question is a relative of a man or of a woman (see 1.3.3).

2.1.2

Bound/dependent nouns

Korean contains a special set of nouns that are known as ‘bound nouns’ or ‘dependent nouns’. Unlike the majority of nouns that are freestanding (‘free/independent nouns’), bound/dependent nouns cannot occur on their own and always require an accompanying element. This element precedes the noun phrase and comprises a modifier (see Chapter 7) (i.e. a word or phrase that is used to elaborate, describe, clarify, identify or delimit). The following sections introduce a few of the more important bound nouns that appear in Korean.

2.1.2.1

ộ ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’

ộ is the most commonly occurring bound noun and has the rough meaning of ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’. It is frequently shortened to ‘Ệ’ in colloquial Korean and may also take on the following abbreviated forms when it is combined with a particle:

Full form

Abbreviated form

ộ subject particle (see 3.2.1)

ộ㧊

Ợ

ộ object particle (see 3.2.2)

ộ㦚

Ỏ

ộ topic particle (see 3.3.2.1)

ộ㦖

Ị

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This bound noun first of all occurs with the demonstratives 㧊 ‘this’, ⁎ ‘that’ and 㩖 ‘that . . . over there’ to create 㧊ộ ‘this (thing)’, ⁎ộ ‘that (thing)’ and 㩖ộ ‘that (thing) over there’:

㧊ộ㧊䝚⧧㓺㢖㧎㧊㠦㣪.

This is French wine.

⁎ộ㧊䢎㭒㢖㧎㧊㠦㣪.

That is Australian wine.

㩖ộ㧊䂶⩞ 㢖㧎㧊㠦㣪.

That one over there is Chilean wine.

ộ may also appear with pronouns used in a possessive meaning (such as ⌊ ‘my’, 㩲 ‘my (humble)’, ⍺ ‘your’) or other terms of address to give possessive meanings corresponding to the English ‘mine’, ‘yours’, etc.:

㧊㔶ⶎ㦖㩲 Ệ㡞㣪.

This newspaper is mine.

㧊⽒䗲㦖 ⌊ Ệ㟒. [INTIMATE]

This pen is mine.

㧊㧷㰖⓪ 㥶⹎ 㝾 Ệ㡞㣪.

This magazine is Yumi’s.

㧊㺛㦖 ᾦ㑮┮ Ệ㡞㣪.

This book is the professor’s.

Furthermore, ộ may occur preceded by the question words 㠊ⓦ ‘which’ or 㠊⟺ ‘what kind of; which’ or ⑚ῂ ‘who’ to give the meanings ‘which (one)’, ‘what kind of; which (one)’ or ‘whose’:

㠊ⓦ ộ㦚㿪㻲䞮㔲Ỷ㠊㣪f

Which one do you recommend?

㠊⟺ ộ㦚 ▪ ㍶䢎䞮㎎㣪f

Which one do you prefer?

㧊㤆㌆㧊 ⑚ῂ Ệ㡞㣪f

Whose is this umbrella?

Finally, and of most importance, ộ occurs preceded by modifier expressions containing a verb. This pattern is covered in detail elsewhere (see 2.2.6, 7.2.1).

2.1.2.2

Ἆ ‘-cum-’

The bound Sino-Korean noun Ἆ (箩) is used to depict addition, combination, concurrence or dual purpose. It can occur first of all between two nouns, behaving similarly to English ‘-cum-’.

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㞚䂾 Ἆ 㩦㕂

breakfast-cum-lunch (brunch)

Ệ㔺 Ἆ 䂾㔺

a living room-cum-bedroom

䘎㰧㧎 Ἆ ⹲䟟㧎

an editor-cum-publisher

Ἆ can also be used for talking about two actions that take place simultaneously (see 7.2.3).

2.1.2.3

Nouns

Ὁ ‘place’

This bound noun has the meaning of ‘place’ and is similar in meaning and usage to ◆ (see 2.1.2.7).

㡂₆Ṗ ⌊Ṗ ㌂⓪ Ὁ㧊㠦㣪.

This is the place where I live.

⹎⋮ 㝾⓪ ⁎ Ὁ㠦㧦㭒 Ṗ㣪.

Mina often goes to that place.

㠊ⓦ Ὁ㠦 ṖⳊ 㫡㦚㰖 ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪.

I don’t know where it would be best to go.

2.1.2.4

ₖ ‘occasion’, ‘chance’

The bound noun ₖ only occurs in the modifying pattern –O㦒Pච/⓪ ₖ㠦 ‘as long as you˅re at it’ (see 7.2.5).

2.1.2.5

╖⪲ ‘in accordance with’

╖⪲ is primarily a particle meaning ‘in accordance with’ or ‘in conformity with’ (see 3.3.6.6). However, ╖⪲ can also be used as a bound noun. In this case, it occurs preceded by modifier clauses (see 7.2.8).

2.1.2.6

▫⿚ ‘thanks to’

▫⿚ is a bound noun that has the meaning of ‘thanks to’ or ‘owing to’ and is normally preceded by another noun or modifier. It appears either followed by the particle 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1) or otherwise by the copula (see 4.1.4).

㧦⍺ ▫⿚㠦㧮 ⏖㞮⍺. [FAMILIAR]

Thanks to you, I had a good time.

⳾⚦ ⿖⳾┮ ▫⿚㧊㠦㣪.

It’s all thanks to my parents.

㡊㕂䧞 ⏎⩻䞮㔶 ▫⿚㧊㰖㣪.

It’s thanks to your hard efforts.

㞚㧊✺ ▫⿚㠦㤦▪Ỏ㓺 ⏎⧮⯒ ┺ ⺆㤶㠊㣪. Thanks to the kids, I have learned all of the ‘Wondergirls’ songs. ⌄㧶㦚㧪 ▫⿚㠦㧊㔲Ṛ₢㰖 Ⱖ⡻Ⱖ⡻ 䞮╋┞┺. Thanks to having taken a nap earlier, I am feeling wide awake now.

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Although ▫⿚ generally behaves as a bound noun that has to be preceded by another noun or a modifying expression, there is one important exception. In the expression ‘thanks to you’, it is possible to omit any address term corresponding to ‘you’ and thus ▫⿚㠦 appears on its own. This occurs particularly frequently in greeting expressions such as the following:

▫⿚㠦㧮 ┺⎖㢪㔋┞┺.

Thanks to you, I had a good trip.

▫⿚㠦㧮㰖⌛┞┺.

Thanks to you, I am doing fine.

2.1.2.7

◆ ‘place’

◆ is a bound noun with the meaning of ‘place’ and occurs preceded either by an adnoun such as ┺⯎ or ➊ ‘other’ (see 10.1) or by a modifying clause (see Chapter 7). This ◆ is frequently followed by a particle such as 㠦 ‘to, in, at’ (see 3.2.4.1) or 㠦㍲ ‘in, at, from’ (see 3.2.4.3). The latter (◆㠦㍲) is regularly contracted to ◆㍲:

Ⲓ ◆㍲㧦☯㹾㏢ⰂṖ ✺⩺㣪. From far away, I can hear the sound of a car. 㡂₆⓪ 㼃㏢⎚✺㧊㡺⓪ ◆Ṗ 㞚┞㠦㣪. This is not a place for young people to come. 䆿㕂㦖 ◆ 䆿 ⋮㣪. Where you plant beans, beans grow. ( you reap what you sow)

2.1.2.8

☯㞞 ‘during’

☯㞞 has the basic meaning of ‘during’. It may appear either preceded by a modifying clause (see 7.2.9) or by a time expression or other noun:

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⹿䞯 ☯㞞

during the school holidays

XW⿚ ☯㞞

for (lit. ‘during’) ten minutes

\⎚ ☯㞞

for (lit. ‘during’) five years

㑮㠛 ☯㞞

during the lesson

2.1.2.9

⚻ ‘may or may not’

Nouns

The bound noun ⚻ appears exclusively in the modifier pattern –O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/ –O㦒Pච ⚻, translating as ‘may or may not’ (see 7.2.10).

2.1.2.10 ❅ ‘as if’ ❅ is a bound noun that occurs in the modifier pattern –O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/–O㦒P ච ❅ (see 7.2.11). It also combines with 䞮– or 㕌– in the pattern –O㦒Pඥ/ –⓪/–O㦒Pච ❅䞮–/❅ 㕌– (see 7.2.12) and features as an integral part of the connective –❅㧊 (see 6.8.1).

2.1.2.11 ➢ ‘when’ ➢ has the basic meaning of ‘time’ or ‘when’ and occurs most commonly with modifying clauses (see 7.2.13). However, ➢ can also be used following nouns that refer to days or periods of time (where it takes on the meaning ‘at/in’):

䋂Ⰲ㓺Ⱎ㓺 ➢ at Christmas / when it is Christmas ⹿䞯 ➢ in the school holidays / when it is the school holidays YWXW ⎚ 㤪✲䅋 ➢ at the time of the 2010 World Cup / when it was the 2010 World Cup As noted in the main entry on –O㦒Pඥ ➢ (see 7.2.13), this bound noun may also occur after nouns where the corresponding English expression would be incomplete without the addition of the verb ‘be’:

䞯㌳ ➢

when I was a student

┺㎅㌊ ➢

when I was five years old

2.1.2.12 ➢ⶎ ‘reason’ ➢ⶎ is a bound noun with the meaning of ‘reason’ which occurs in constructions that link a cause with its effect. It must always be preceded either by a noun or a nominal clause and be followed either by the particle 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1) or by the copula (see 4.1.4):

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㌂㠛 ➢ⶎ㠦㡗ῃ㠦㢪㠊㣪. I came to England because of my business. ⋶㝾 ➢ⶎ㠦 ⹿䞯㧊⼚⪲ 㨂⹎㠜㠞㠊㣪. My vacation wasn’t much fun because of the weather. ⋮ ➢ⶎ㠦 ⁎ ㌂⧢㧊 ⴑ Ṫ㠊㣪. He couldn’t go because of me. A: 㢲㌂⧢㦚㭓㡖㠊fG[INTIMATE]

Why did he commit murder?

B: ⁎Ị ☞ ➢ⶎ㧊㟒HG[INTIMATE]

Because of the money!

Use of ➢ⶎ following a nominal clause is discussed elsewhere (see 2.2.4.2).

2.1.2.13 Ⰲ ‘reasons’ The bound Sino-Korean noun Ⰲ (翓) means ‘grounds’ or ‘reasons’. It is used preceded by a modifying construction in the pattern –O㦒Pඥ Ⰲ 㠜– ‘no way that’ (see 7.2.14).

2.1.2.14 ⶊ⪋ ‘around the time’ ⶊ⪋ is a bound noun that takes on the meaning of ‘around the time’. It must be preceded either by a noun, demonstrative or a modifying clause (see Chapter 7) and is often followed by the particle 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1) or otherwise ⿖䎆 (see 3.3.3.4) or ₢㰖 (see 3.3.3.5).

㩖⎗ ⶊ⪋㠦

around evening time

⁎ ⶊ⪋㠦

at around that time; in those days

YWXW⎚ ⶊ⪋⿖䎆

from around the year 2010

㡂⯚㧊 ⊳⋶ ⶊ⪋

at around the time when summer was ending

䟊㰞 ⶊ⪋㠦

at around the time when the sun was setting

2.1.2.15 ⹪ ‘thing’

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The bound noun ⹪, meaning ‘thing’ or ‘what’, is in essence applied in the same way as certain uses of ộ (see 2.1.2.1). However, the usage is restricted to written language (or to formal speech), as discussed elsewhere (see 7.2.17).

2.1.2.16 ㈦ ‘only’, ‘just’, ‘nothing but’

Nouns

㈦ has the basic meaning of ‘only’, ‘just’, ‘nothing but’. When it appears as a bound noun, it occurs preceded by modifier constructions (see 7.2.21). ㈦ can also function as a particle, as discussed elsewhere (see 3.3.3.2).

2.1.2.17 㑮 ‘case’, ‘circumstance’ The bound noun 㑮 literally means ‘case’, ‘circumstance’; ‘way’, ‘means’. It is used in the modifier pattern –㦚/ඥ 㑮㧞–/㠜–, which is used to express ability (see 7.2.22).

2.1.2.18 㩗 ‘event’ The bound noun 㩗 means ‘event’, ‘act’ ‘or ‘experience’ and appears primarily in the modifier pattern –O㦒Pච/–⓪ 㩗㧊㧞–/㠜– (see 7.2.24).

2.1.2.19 㭚 ‘the way’, ‘the fact’ 㭚 is a bound noun that occurs preceded by a modifying clause and followed by cognitive verbs, most typically 㞢– ‘know’ and ⳾⯊– ‘not know’ (see 7.2.26).

2.1.2.20 㭧/☚㭧 ‘middle’ The Sino-Korean 㭧 (襦) is a bound noun with the meaning of ‘middle’. It may appear followed either by the particle 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1) or by the copula (see 4.1.4) in constructions that translate as ‘in the middle of’ or simply ‘during’. When it is followed by 㠦, it may appear in the alternative form ☚㭧 (纉襦).

㡺⓮ 㡗㠊㑮㠛㭧㠦㍶㌳┮㧊䞥╖⯒ 㢂Ⰲ㔲▪ῆ㣪. Today during English class the teacher got really worked up. 䣢㦮 ☚㭧㠦 ⶎ㧦Ṗ ☚㹿䟞㠊㣪. I received a text message in the middle of the meeting. 㡆㞶㭧㠦㩞╖⪲ 䟊㍲⓪ 㞞 ♮⓪ Ⱖ㧊㧞㧬㞚㣪. There are certain things you should not say while you are dating, you know.

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㰖⁞ 䣢㦮㭧㧊㠦㣪. I’m in the middle of a meeting now. 䐋䢪㭧㧊㠦㣪. He/she is in the middle of a phone call. ( his/her phone is engaged) When 㭧 is followed by 㠦㍲ (see 3.2.4.2) it may take on one more additional function. Namely 㭧㠦㍲ can be used like ‘from’ or ‘between’ in English when discussing what (or who), ‘from’ a given group or range of entities, performs a particular action, has a particular attribute, etc. Note that the final ㍲ (or even the complete 㠦㍲) may be dropped with no change in meaning.

㏢⎖㔲╖ 㭧㠦㍲ ⑚Ṗ 㩲㧒㡞ㄦ㣪f Who is the prettiest from the group ‘Girls Generation’? 㠚Ⱎ 㞚ザ㭧㠦 ⑚Ṗ ▪ 㫡㞚f [INTIMATE] Who do you like best out of your mum and your dad? ☯ⶒ 㭧㠦㍲ Ṗ㧻㡺⧮ ㌂⓪ ☯ⶒ㦖㠊⟺ ☯ⶒ㧎Ṗ㣪f Of all the animals, which is the one that lives the longest? 㭧 also frequently appears in modifier constructions, as discussed elsewhere in this book (see 7.2.27, 7.2.28).

2.1.2.21 㰖 ‘since’ 㰖 is a bound noun that appears preceded by a modifying construction and typically followed by a time expression when discussing the amount of time that has elapsed since an event occurred (see 7.2.29).

2.1.2.22 㴓 ‘side’ 㴓 has the basic meaning of ‘side’ or ‘direction’. Note that some common combinations with 㴓 (such as at the top of the following list) may be written as one word (and are recognized as such):

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⿗/☯/⋾/㍲㴓

the north/east/south/west (side/direction)

㧊㴓

this side/direction

⁎㴓

that side/direction

㩖㴓

that side/direction (over there)

⹮╖ 㴓

the opposite side/direction

┺⯎/➊ 㴓

another side/direction

㠊ⓦ 㴓

which side/direction

㍲㤎㴓

the direction/side of Seoul

Nominal forms

Note that if you want to say ‘in the direction of’, the instrumental particle O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1) must be used (rather than a particle of movement and location (see 3.2.4))

☯㴓㦒⪲ Ṟ₢㣪fG ㍲㴓㦒⪲ Ṟ₢㣪f Shall we go to the east? Or to the west? 㧊㟒₆Ṗ ➊G㴓㦒⪲ 䦮⩂Ṫ㠊㣪. Our chat went off in another direction. ㍲㤎G㴓㦒⪲ Ṗ⓪ ₎㦖䟃㌗ Ⱏ䡖㣪. The road going in the direction of Seoul is always jammed.

2.1.2.23 㺚 ‘just as it is’ The bound noun 㺚 takes on meanings such as ‘just as it is’, ‘as it stands’, ‘with no change’ and ‘in the existing state’. Although it most commonly occurs in the modifier pattern –O㦒Pච 㺚O⪲P (see 7.2.30), it may also be preceded by nouns as in the following examples:

䐋G㺚⪲ ㌒䆆㠊㣪.

I swallowed it whole.

㈢ⰂG㺚⪲ ㆧ㞮㠊㣪.

I pulled it out, roots and all.

ㅞG㺚⪲ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪.

I ate it, bones and all.

㌂ὒ⯒ ℣㰞G㺚 ⲏ㠞㠊㣪.

I ate an apple without peeling it.

2.2

Nominal forms

Overview Nominal forms are used when you want to talk about the act of doing things (i.e. what is normally expressed by using verbs) as if they were nouns. Put another way, nominal forms are grammatical means for converting verbs into noun forms. In English, the most common way to change

53


a verb into a noun is to add –ing (read m reading; eat m eating, etc.). In Korean, there are five separate ways to nominalize a verb phrase: –㧊, –Ṳ/Ợ, –₆, –㦢 and –⓪ ộ. This chapter looks at these forms in turn and also looks at verbal expressions that combine these nominalized forms (and particularly –₆) as an integral part.

2.2.1

Nominal form –㧊

A small number of verbs can be changed into nouns by the addition of –㧊. The resulting forms are relatively fossilized; in other words, they are thought of as separate nouns rather than something derived from verbs (and are listed in dictionaries as such).

Original verb

Nominalized form

ⲏ–

eat

ⲏ㧊

food

⏖–

play

⏖㧊

game

⍩–

wide

⍩㧊

width

₎–

long

₎㧊

length

⏨–

high

⏨㧊

height

₠–

deep

₠㧊

depth

2.2.2

Nominal form –Ṳ /Ợ

An even smaller set of verbs can be changed into nouns by the addition of –Ṳ or –Ợ. The resulting forms are independent nouns which take on meanings that are not always totally predictable from looking at the original verb:

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Original verb

Nominalized form

◄–

(to) cover

◄Ṳ

(a) cover

㰖㤆–

rub out

㰖㤆Ṳ

eraser

㹢–

steam, cook (with water)

㹢Ṳ

Korean stew

㰖–

carry (on the back)

㰖Ợ

frame for carrying heavy items on the back

㰧–

pick

㰧Ợ

tweezers

2.2.3

Nominal forms

Nominal form –₆

The nominal form –₆ most commonly attaches to the base of both processive and descriptive verbs according to the normal patterns of one-shape verb endings (see 4.1.8). However, it is also possible to form nominalizers on past bases (see 4.5.1.1), future bases with –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) and honorific bases with –㔲– (see 4.4.1.1):

Past base

Future base

Honorific base

Ṫ₆

ṖỶ₆

Ṗ㔲₆

going

䟞₆

䞮Ỷ₆

䞮㔲₆

doing

Nominalizer forms on past and future bases are only used with certain sentence patterns with –₆, covered in a separate section (see 2.2.4); the use of the future base is somewhat unusual. In principle, nominal forms with –₆ behave just like other nouns. That is, they occur in the same sentence positions as normal nouns and can be marked with the same particles:

Ὃ⿖䞮₆Ṗ 㨂⹎㧞㠊㣪U

Studying is interesting.

Ὃ⿖䞮₆⯒ 㕁㠊䟊㣪.

I hate studying.

More often, however, what appears in the noun slot is not just the nominal form but a longer sentence-like phrase. Notice that, as in the following examples, sentences with nominalized phrases may contain two subject (or object) particles (see 3.2.1, 3.2.2).

⌊Ṗ ⲏ₆Ṗ 㕁㠊㣪.

I don’t want to eat.

⌊Ṗ 䞯ᾦ 㔳╏㠦㍲ ⲏ₆Ṗ 㕁㠊㣪.

I don’t want to eat at the school cafeteria.

⌊Ṗ 䞯ᾦ 㔳╏㠦㍲㥶⹎⧧ ⹻㦚 ⲏ₆⯒ 㕁㠊䟊㣪. I don’t like eating with Yumi at the school cafeteria. Nominalized phrases with –₆ express events, processes and states of affairs that are situated in time (i.e. that would have a given start and end point). This event, process or state of affairs then becomes the subject or object for another verb form. Verb forms that occur following a –₆ nominalized

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phrase tend to be of certain types. They tend to either be emotive verbs (㕁– ‘hateful’, ‘don’t want to’, 㫡– ‘good’, 㨂⹎㧞– ‘interesting/fun’, etc.), verbs of ease or frequency (㠊⪋– ‘difficult’, 㓓–, ‘easy’, 㧒㚺– ‘customary’, etc.) or verbs that mark temporal boundaries (㔲㧧䞮– ‘start’, ⊳⋮– ‘end’, etc.). Here are some examples of –₆ occurring with these verbs:

ἶ₆Ṗ ⲏ₆Ṗ 㫡㞚㣪.

The meat is good (or easy) to eat.

㧒⽎Ⱖ Ṗ⯊䂮₆Ṗ 㓂㤢㣪.

Teaching Japanese is easy.

⳾✶ ộ㦚 ┺ 㧮䞮₆Ṗ 㠊⩺㤢㣪.

It’s hard to do everything well.

Ṗ㑮Ṗ ⋮㡺₆⯒ ₆┺Ⰲἶ 㧞㠊㣪. We are waiting for the pop singer to appear. There are also verbs that can occur with –₆ followed by the instrumental particle O㦒P⪲, such as 㥶ⳛ䞮– ‘famous’, ㏢ⶎ⋮– ‘be rumoured/talked about/renowned’:

⁎ ⺆㤆⓪ ㎇㰞㧊 ▪⩓₆⪲ 㥶ⳛ䟊㣪. That actor is famous for having a dirty character. 㤆Ⰲ 㞚䕢䔎⓪ ở⳾㟧㧊㞚⯚╋₆⪲ ㏢ⶎ⋲ 㞚䕢䔎㡞㣪. Our apartment is a building that is renowned for having a beautiful exterior.

2.2.4

Sentence patterns with –₆

We now look at some set sentence patterns that combine –₆ as an integral element.

2.2.4.1

–₆ ⋮⯚㧊– ‘depending on’

In this pattern, –₆ is followed by the expression ⋮⯚㧊–, which has the meaning ‘depending on, resting on, being conditional on’. The resulting construction means ‘it depends on how (much)’:

⳾✶ 㧒㦖 ⏎⩻䞮₆G⋮⯚㧊㠦㣪. [The success of ] all work depends on how hard you try. 56

㫡⌦ ⋮㊮⌦⓪ ㌳ṗ䞮₆G⋮⯚㧊㰖㣪. Whether it’s good or bad depends on how you look at it.

☛㧦Ṗ ⹱㞚✺㧊₆G⋮⯚㧊㠦㣪. It depends on the reception by the reader.

Nominal forms

The pattern may also appear with the negative copula 㞚┞–:

ᾦ㥷䞮₆G⋮⯚G㞚┦₢㣪f

Doesn’t that depend on education?

In addition to nominalized expressions with –₆, ⋮⯚㧊– also frequently occurs after normal nouns:

⁎ộ㦖㌂⧢ ⋮⯚㧊㠦㣪.

2.2.4.2

That depends on the person.

–₆ ➢ⶎO㠦P ‘because’

In this pattern, which occurs more commonly in writing and formal speech rather than casual conversation, –₆ is directly followed by the bound noun ➢ⶎ ‘reason’ (see 2.1.2.12) to create a construction expressing cause and effect. ➢ⶎ is then followed either by the particle 㠦 and then another sentence-like clause (i.e. ‘ . . . , so . . .’) or otherwise by the copula (i.e. ‘it’s because’ or ‘the reason is’):

–₆ ➢ⶎ 㠦

䛣ἓ㧊 ⲡ㰖₆G➢ⶎ㠦G㌂⧢✺㧊 Ⱔ㧊㢖㣪. Many people come because the scenery is fantastic.

–₆ ➢ⶎ copula

䛣ἓ㧊 ⲡ㰖₆G➢ⶎ㧊㠦㣪. It’s because the scenery is fantastic.

While –₆ ➢ⶎ㠦 functions as a kind of connective that expresses the cause before the effect, the pattern –₆ ➢ⶎ is used to supply the reason for something that has already been mentioned:

A: ⁎⩆◆ ┺⯎ 㞶✺㦚㢲㧦∎ ➢Ⰲ⓪㰖 ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪. I don’t understand though why he keeps hitting the other kids. B: Ⱖ⪲⓪ 䚲䡚㦚㧮 ⴑ 䞮₆G➢ⶎ㧊㰖㣪. That’s because he can’t express himself verbally. Ⱒ㧒㡂㧦Ṗ ⹮㧻㦚 ⰷἶ ⋾㧦Ṗ ⿖⹮㧻㧊⧒Ⳋ 㠊㌟䞮ἶ 㤆㓺↳㓺⩂㤊㧊㥶⓪ ⶊ㠝㧎Ṗf 䡚㔺ὒ ┺⯊₆G➢ⶎ㧊┺. [PLAIN] And if we imagine that a woman becomes the leader and a man her deputy, why is this an awkward and comical idea? The reason is precisely because it is different from reality. The –₆ ➢ⶎ pattern may be used with any verb and may be preceded by past tense marking (–㞮/㠞₆ ➢ⶎ㠦) and future tense marking with –Ỷ–

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(–Ỷ₆ ➢ⶎ㠦), although the latter is unusual. More commonly, future tense is formed with –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2) (–㦚 ộ㧊₆ ➢ⶎ㠦). Here are examples that show tense marking:

⿞㠊⯒ ⴆ⧦₆G➢ⶎ㠦 ⶎ㩲⯒ Ⱔ㧊 ἀ㠞㠊㣪. Because I didn’t know French, I encountered a lot of problems. 㧊⻞ ἓ₆䂾㼊Ṗ ㌗╏䧞㡺⧮ ṞGộ㧊₆G➢ⶎ㠦㌗╏㑮㦮 Ị㍺㌂㩫Ⰲ⓪ ⿞Ṗ䞒䞿┞┺. Because this economic slump is going to continue for a long time, the liquidation of a large number of construction firms is unavoidable. Similar to the causal connective –㞚/㠊㍲ (see 6.1.1), –₆ ➢ⶎ㠦 cannot be used when the second clause contains a command, proposal, suggestion, invitation or request. In such cases, –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3) is used instead. Although –₆ ➢ⶎ㠦 generally operates in a similar way to –㞚/㠊㍲, note that only –㞚/㠊㍲ and not –₆ ➢ⶎ㠦 can be used with expressions of thanks and apology, and with excuses (see 6.1.1). Note that ➢ⶎ may also appear preceded by simple nouns, as discussed elsewhere (see 2.1.2.12).

2.2.4.3

–₆/Ợ Ⱎ⩾㧊– ‘bound to’

This pattern combines a nominalized form with the noun Ⱎ⩾ and the copula (see 4.1.4). The noun Ⱎ⩾, as an independent noun, originally means ‘preparation’ or ‘arrangement’. When used with a nominalizer, it takes on the meaning of ‘bound to’, ‘doomed to’, ‘expected to’ or ‘normal to’. This pattern is used to indicate that the matter in question comes about as a matter of course according to normal shared common knowledge. Note that in this pattern the –₆ ending of the nominalized form may be replaced by the adverbial ending –Ợ (see 10.2.1.2) with no perceptible change in meaning:

㌂⧢㦖 ⑚ῂ⋮ 㭓₆GⰞ⩾㧊┺. [PLAIN] All people are doomed to die. 㑶㦚 Ⱔ㧊 Ⱎ㔲┺ ⽊Ⳋ 䀾䞮₆GⰞ⩾㧊㠦㣪. If you drink a lot, it is only natural that you get drunk. ⿖⳾⓪ 㧦㔳㠦Ợ ὖ╖䞮₆GⰞ⩾㧊㠦㣪. It is only to be expected that parents are lenient towards their children. 58

㌂⧧㦖㠎㩶Ṗ 㔳₆GⰞ⩾㧊㠦㣪. Love is bound to grow cold over time.

2.2.4.4

Nominal forms

–₆ 㔲㧧䞮– ‘start’

In this pattern, the plain nominal form on –₆ is followed by the verb 㔲㧧䞮– ‘start’. No past or future tense marking is allowed.

゚Ṗ 㡺₆G㔲㧧䟞㠊㣪. It began to rain. 䞲ῃⰦ㦖㠎㩲⿖䎆⺆㤆₆G㔲㧧䟞㠊㣪f When did you start learning Korean? 㠊㩲⿖䎆㑮㡗㦚⺆㤆₆G㔲㧧䟞㠊㣪. Yesterday, I began to learn to swim.

2.2.4.5

–₆ 㕃㌗㧊– ‘it is easy to’

In this pattern, –₆ is followed by the noun 㕃㌗ and the copula (see 4.1.4). The word 㕃㌗ originally means ‘the right thing (for)’ as a noun and ‘right, exactly, perfectly’ as an adverb. The expression is used to connote ease; in other words, that the state of affairs in question comes about ‘easily’, ‘quickly’ or ‘naturally’:

ὒ☚䞲 ┺㧊㠊䔎⓪ Ịṫ㦚䟊䂮₆G㕃㌗㧊㠦㣪. If you over-diet, it is easy to harm your health. ㌳㍶㦖 ▪㤊 ⋶㝾㠦㍲⓪ ㌗䞮₆G㕃㌗㧊㠦㣪. Fish can go off quickly in hot weather. 㣎ῃ 㡂䟟䞶 ➢ ⹪Ṗ㰖㝆₆G㕃㌗㧊㰖㣪. It’s easy to get ripped off when you travel abroad, you see. 㧊⩆ 㦢㔳㦚 ╖㩧䞮Ⳋ 㣫ⲏ₆G㕃㌗㧊㠦㣪. If you treat people to this kind of food, you should expect to be criticized. In sentences such as the above, 㕃㌗㧊– can often be replaced by 㓓– ‘easy’ with little change in meaning. Note that the noun 㕃㌗, although most commonly occurring in the pattern –₆ 㕃㌗㧊–, may occur in other sentences:

䞮㧊䌏 ⋶㝾⪲⓪ 㕃㌗㧊㠦㣪.

This weather is made for hiking.

⍺Ợ⓪ ⁎ ⳾㧦Ṗ 㕃㌗㧊┺. [PLAIN]

That hat was made for you.

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2.2.4.6

–₆ 㥚䞮– ‘in order to’

In this pattern, –₆ is followed by the verb 㥚䞮– (蚾–) whose original meaning is ‘serve, devote oneself’. The expression that is created takes on the meaning of ‘in order to’ or ‘for the sake of’ or simply ‘for’. Tense cannot be marked before –₆. To incorporate this into a sentence, –₆ 㥚䞮– then has to be followed either by the causal connectives –㞚/㠊㍲ (see 6.1.1) or –㞚/㠊 (see 6.1.2) or the modifier form –O㦒Pච (see 7.1.3) to create the following forms:

–₆ 㥚䟊㍲ –₆ 㥚䟊/–₆ 㥚䞮㡂 –₆ 㥚䞲 The first two patterns (–₆ 㥚䟊㍲ and –₆ 㥚䟊/–₆ 㥚䞮㡂) are then followed by a sentence-like clause to create sentences such as the following:

㎎Ἒ䘟䢪⯒ 㧊⬾₆G㥚䟊㍲㡺⧮ 㕎㤢㟒 ♒㣪. In order to achieve world peace, we must struggle for a long time. ⋮⧒⯒ ῂ䞮₆G㥚䞮㡂 ⴎ㦚 ⹪䂲㌂⧢✺㧊㩫Ⱖ 䤢⯃䟊㣪. Those who offered their lives for the sake of the country are truly great. The pattern –₆ 㥚䞲 must be followed directly by a noun. Typically, these are nouns that describe efforts, methods or plans:

X`W[⎚ 㥶㔶䣢⧒⓪ ┾㼊⯒ Ⱒ✺㠊 ⋮⧒⯒Gῂ䞮₆G㥚䞲G䢲☯㦚䟞㠊㣪. In 1904 he founded a group called ‘Yushinhoe’ and engaged in activities aimed at saving the country [from Japanese colonization]. ∞㦚㔺䡚䞮₆G㥚䞲GἚ䣣㦚㎎㤆Ⳋ ∞㧊㧊⬾㠊㰞 Ệ㡞㣪. If you make a plan for realizing your dreams, then your dreams will come true. Finally, note that the verb 㥚䞮– may also appear after regular nouns, which are then usually marked with the object particle 㦚/⯒ (see 3.2.2):

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Ịṫ㦚G㥚䟊㍲ ⋶Ⱎ┺ 㤊☯㦚䟊㣪.

I exercise every day for my health.

Ṗ⋲䞲㧊㤙㦚G㥚䟊 ☞㦚 ⳾㦣㔲┺.

Let’s collect money for our poor neighbours.

2.2.4.7

–₆ 㧒㚺㧊– ‘be apt to’

Nominal forms

Here, –₆ is combined with the noun 㧒㚺 and the copula (see 4.1.4). The resultant pattern indicates that the action in question happens ‘frequently’ or ‘customarily’ or that the person being talked about ‘tends to’ or ‘is apt to’ carry out the behaviour in question. The state of affairs being talked about normally has negative connotations.

⹒䢎⓪ Ệ㰩Ⱖ䞮₆G㧒㚺㧊㰖㣪. Minho is a compulsive liar. 㩖⓪ 㹾Ⲗ⹎⯒ 䞮₆G㧒㚺㡞㣪. I tend to get motion sickness. ⴎ㠦䟊⫃┺⓪ ộ㦚㞢Ⳋ㍲☚ 䒃䞮Ⳋ ὒ㦢䞮₆G㧒㚺㡞㣪. Even though I know it is bad for my health, I tend to drink too much. 㥶⹎⓪ Ịⰳ㯳㧊㕂䟊㍲ ⶒỊ㦚 ⏩ἶ 㡺₆G㧒㚺㡞㣪. Yumi suffers from forgetfulness, so she is apt to forget to bring things.

2.2.4.8

–₆ 㩚 ‘before’

In this pattern, the –₆ is followed by the noun 㩚 (衔) ‘before’. Tense cannot be marked on the verb. –₆ 㩚 may then be rounded off in three different ways: (1) by adding the particle of location 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1), (2) by adding the possessive particle 㦮 (see 3.2.3) or (3) by using the copula (see 4.1.4): 1 –₆ 㩚㠦 2 –₆ 㩚㦮 3 –₆ 㩚㧊㠦㣪 The first pattern (–₆ 㩚㠦) translates as ‘before doing’. It links two actions or states, with the first occurring chronologically before the second:

㧦₆G㩚㠦㧊⯒ ┼㞚㣪. Before going to bed I brush my teeth. 䞯ᾦ㠦 Ṗ₆G㩚㠦㦖䟟㠦 ✺⩖㠊㣪. Before going to school I dropped by the bank. 㧠㠊⻚Ⰲ₆G㩚㠦㰖⁞ 㭒㎎㣪. Give it to me now before you forget.

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The second pattern (–₆ 㩚㦮) translates as ‘of before’ and is always followed directly by a noun:

䟊Ṗ 㰖₆ 㩚㦮㭒⼖䛣ἓ㦚㹣㠞㠊㣪. I took a photo of the surroundings before the sun set. 㔲䠮㦚䂮⯊₆ 㩚㦮 ₊㧻㧊䛖⪎㠊㣪. The nervousness of before taking the exam lifted. The third pattern (–₆ 㩚 followed by the copula) translates as ‘it is/was before’:

⹎⋮Ṗ 䌲㠊⋮₆G㩚㧊㠞㠊㣪. It was before Mina was born. 㔺㠛㧊⧒⓪ Ṳ⎦㧊㌂䣢 ⶎ㩲⪲ ⟶㡺⯊₆G㩚㧊㠞㠊㣪. It was before the concept of unemployment appeared as a social problem. Finally, note that 㩚 may also appear after regular nouns:

㩦㕂㩚㠦䣢㦮Ṗ ⊳⋶ 㡞㩫㧊㠦㣪. The meeting is scheduled to finish before lunch. ἆ䢒㩚㠦㥶䞯㦚 Ṫ㠊㣪. I went to study abroad before marriage.

2.2.4.9

–₆ 㰳㧊㠜– ‘very’

This pattern, which is formed by following the nominalized expression with –㰳㧊㠜–, literally meaning ‘there is no parallel/pair’, has an emphatic meaning that commonly translates as ‘very’, ‘so’, ‘terribly’ or ‘dreadfully’:

⹎㞞䞮₆G㰳㧊G㠜㠊㣪. I’m dreadfully sorry. ⹪┺Ṗ 㞚⯚╋₆G㰳㧊G㠜㠞㠊㣪. The sea is awfully beautiful. 㧎䢎⓪ Y\㌊ ♮㠞㠊☚ 㞚㰗㥶䂮䞮₆G㰳㧊G㠜㠊㣪. Inho is 25, but he’s so childish. 䤚⊞䞲㡾㔺㻮⩒ ⶊ▻₆G㰳㧊G㠜㠞㠊㣪. It’s terribly humid, like a sweltering greenhouse. 62

Nominal forms

2.2.4.10 –₆⋮ 䞮– ‘just’ The pattern –₆⋮ 䞮– combines –₆ with the particle O㧊P⋮ (see 3.3.5.2), here in the meaning of ‘just’. Tense markers do not appear with this pattern. –₆⋮ 䞮– is used to mark a possible course of action that, although not first choice in an ideal world, is perhaps the best available to the person who has to perform it or represents a basic level that may be expected. As in the following examples, the pattern is frequently attached to the auxiliary verb pattern –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– ‘try doing’ (see 5.1.8):

䞲⻞ ⲏ㠊⽊₆⋮G䟊. [INTIMATE] Just try eating it once. [it might not be that bad] 䞲⻞ Ⱒ⋮ ⽊₆⋮G䞮㎎㣪. Just try meeting him once. [and he/she might not be that bad] ⹎⋮⓪ 㤆Ⰲ䞲䎢 ⹻ 䞲⻞㌂㭒₆⋮G䟞㠊f [INTIMATE] Has Mina ever just bought us a meal? ⹪㧊㢂Ⰶ㦚 Ⱒ㪎⽊₆⋮ 䟞㠊㣪f Have you ever just touched a violin? –₆⋮ 䞮– can also be used in angry or sarcastic expressions meaning ‘why don’t you just . . . ?’:

ゾⰂ ⲏ₆⋮ 䟊HG[INTIMATE]

Why don’t you just eat up? [and stop bugging me, etc.]

ゾⰂ ㌂₆⋮ 䟊⧒. [PLAIN]

Why don’t you just go ahead and buy it? [and stop dawdling]

2.2.4.11 –₆⓪ ‘no way’ The pattern –₆⓪ is a combination of –₆ with the topic particle ⓪ (see 3.3.2.1). In honorific speech, this should be followed by –㣪. In nonhonorific speech, –₆⓪ may be abbreviated to –₊. –₆⓪ is used similarly to English expressions ‘No way!’ or ‘What do you mean?’ when the speaker wants to reject an observation made by the interlocutor. To do this, the speaker repeats the verb from the previous sentence and adds this ending:

A: 㥶⹎Ṗ 㩫Ⱖ 㡞㊮㰖㣪f Yumi is really pretty, isn’t she? B: 㡞㊮₆⓪㣪. ⹎⋮Ṗ 䤾㞂 ⋮㞚㣪. No way. Mina is much better.

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A: 㧎䢎Ṗ ⹪⽊㧎Ṗ ⽦. [INTIMATE] Inho seems to be an idiot. B: ⹪⽊㧊₊. 㠒Ⱎ⋮ ⡧⡧䞲◆. [INTIMATE] No way. He is so clever. A: 㠊❪ Ṗf [INTIMATE] Where are you going? B: Ṗ₊. ⌊Ṗ 㠊❪⯒ Ṗf [INTIMATE] There’s no way I’m going anywhere. Where could I go? Frequently, –₆⓪ appears in response to a compliment. By rejecting the compliment, the speaker appears humble:

A: 䞲ῃⰦ ⍞ⶊ 㧮䞮㔲⍺㣪. You speak Korean so well. B: 㧮䞮₆⓪㣪. 㞚㰗㍲䒂⯎Ỏ㣪. Not really. My Korean is still really clumsy. A: 㢖H 䎢┞㓺⯒ 㧮䂮⍺H [INTIMATE] Wow! You play tennis so well! B: 㧮䞮₊. ⺆㤊㰖㠒Ⱎ⋮ 㞞 ♦㠊. [INTIMATE] Not really. I haven’t been learning long.

2.2.4.12 –₆⓪ 䞮– ‘indeed’ –₆⓪ 䞮– combines –₆ with the topic particle ⓪ (see 3.3.2.1) followed by the verb 䞮–. Tense markers do not appear before –₆. This pattern has an emphatic feeling and is used when the speaker realizes, accepts or concedes that a piece of information (often provided by the interlocutor) is indeed correct.

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ọ⓪ Ợ ザ⯊₆⓪G䞮⍺㣪H

(You were right), walking is indeed faster!

ⶒ⪶ ☞㧊㠜㦒Ⳋ 䧮✺₆⓪G䟊㣪.

Of course, if you don’t have money, it is indeed tough.

㧎䢎Ṗ 㹿䞮₆⓪G䟊㣪.

Inho is certainly nice.

In addition to conceding that the information is indeed correct, in some contexts the pattern implies that the information is of limited significance.

For example, the final example may imply, according to context, that Inho is just nice and not particularly talented, good-looking, suitable, etc. Due to the feeling conveyed by this construction, –₆⓪ 䞮– is frequently followed by verbal connectives that can express contrast, namely –㰖Ⱒ (see 6.2.1) and –⓪◆ (see 6.3.10):

Nominal forms

䞲⁖㦚㧓₆⓪G䞮㰖Ⱒ Ⱖ䞮₆Ṗ ⍞ⶊ 㠊⩺㤢㣪. I do read Korean, but speaking is too difficult. ⁎ 㡂㧦⓪ 㡞㊮₊G䞮㰖Ⱒ Ⱎ㦢㝾Ṗ ⋮ザ㣪. She does have a pretty face, but she’s not a nice person. Aside from using the verb 䞮–, the same meaning can also be conveyed by repeating the original verb. This is most common when the main verb is short and when the speaker wants to be particularly emphatic:

㧛㠊⽊┞₢ 㡞㊮₊G㡞ㄦ㣪H Now that I’ve tried it on, it sure is pretty! 䞲⁖㦚㧓₆⓪G㧓㰖Ⱒ ⹲㦢㦖 ⍞ⶊ ⴑ 䟊㣪. He can indeed read Hangul, but his pronunciation is terrible. 㤆Ⰲ ➎㦖㧮 ⲏ₆⓪Gⲏ⓪◆GXYṲ㤪㧎◆☚ `䌂⪲ ⹬㠦㞞 ♒㣪. Our daughter certainly eats well, but she’s 12 months old and only weighs 9kg.

2.2.4.13 –₆O⓪P䄺⎫ ‘far from’ This pattern is a combination of –₆ and the particle O㦖/⓪P䄺⎫ (see 3.3.3.9), with the ⓪ element being optional in casual speech. Tense markers do not appear with this pattern. –₆⓪䄺⎫ takes on meanings such as ‘far from . . .ing’:

㯦ỗ₆⓪䄺⎫ 㞚㭒⿞䇢䟊㣪. Far from being joyful, I feel very displeased. 㭒Ⱖ㠦㓂₆⓪䄺⎫ 㩫㔶㠜㧊㧒䟞㠊㣪. Far from resting over the weekend, I worked hard. 䃃㺂㦚 ✹₆⓪䄺⎫ ∎㰖⧢Ⱒ ✺㦚 Ệ㡞㣪. Instead of hearing praise, he/she will only hear reproaches.

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2.2.4.14 –₆☚ 䞮– ‘also’ The pattern –₆☚ 䞮– combines –₆ with the particle ☚ ‘also, even’ (see 3.3.3.6). Tense markers do not appear with this pattern. In its most basic usage, –₆☚ 䞮– simply means ‘also does/is’ when adding an extra activity or word of description to what was mentioned before.

‖Ṗ Ṛ㰖⩂㤢㣪. Ṗ⊪ 㞚䝚₆☚G䟊㣪 My ear is itchy. And it hurts a bit too. 㠊Ⲏ┞⓪ 㔲㧻㠦㍲㌞㤆㩩ὒ ἶ㌂Ⰲ 㧻㌂⯒ 䟞㠊㣪. ⁎Ⰲἶ 㦖䟟㡜㠦㍲㰖ṧ㦚 ⓮㠊⏩ἶ 䕪₆☚G䟞㠊㣪. Mother sold salt-pickled shrimps and dried bracken shoots at the market. And, at other times, she would also sell wallets on a stall next to the bank. In this pattern, the second thing mentioned (i.e. that occurring marked with –₆☚ 䞮–) is often the less common activity:

䄺䞒⯒ 㭒⪲ Ⱎ㔲㰖Ⱒ ⏏㹾⯒ Ⱎ㔲₆☚G䟊㣪. Although I normally drink coffee, I also drink green tea. 㭒⪲ 㰖䞮㻶㦚㧊㣿䟞㰖Ⱒ ゚Ṗ 㢂 ➢⓪ Ṗ⊪ 䌳㔲⯒ 䌖₆☚G 䟞㠊㣪. Normally, we used the subway, but when it rained, we sometimes took a taxi. –₆☚ 䞮– often occurs twice in a sentence, linked by the verbal connective –ἶ ‘and’ (see 6.3.1). This shows a kind of tandem agreement between noun phrases meaning ‘both . . . and . . .’ (or ‘neither . . . nor . . .’ in negative sentences):

䞲ῃ㦢㔳㦖 ⱋ₆☚ 䞮ἶ 㰲₆☚ 䟊㣪. Korean food is both hot and salty. 䞯㌳ ṯ₆☚ 䞮ἶ ₷䕾 ṯ₆☚ 䟊㣪. He looks like both a student and a gangster. ⁎ 㔳╏㦖㕎₆☚ 䞮ἶ ⰱ㧞₆☚ 䟊㍲㧎₆Ṗ Ⱔ㞚㣪. That restaurant is both cheap and delicious, so it is popular.

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In another and rather different usage, the pattern –₆☚ 䞮– may simply serve as an expression of emphasis, roughly equivalent to English expressions such as ‘really’, ‘certainly’, ‘surely’ or ‘indeed’. Note that this usage of –₆☚ 䞮– tends to go together with emphatic sentence-final endings

such as the exclamatory –⍺ (see 8.5), the plain-style –Oච/⓪P┺ (see 4.3.6) or –㞚/㠊⧒ (see 4.3.6) in its exclamatory function:

㩖㌆㦖㺎䋂₆☚ 䞮⍺㣪H

That mountain is certainly big!

㡺⓮㦖㺎㿻₆☚ 䞮┺H [PLAIN]

It sure is freezing today!

㠒⧮f 㡞㊮₆☚G䟊⧒H [PLAIN]

My, my, what have we here? Aren’t you a pretty one!

Nominal forms

2.2.4.15 –₆Ⱒ 䞮– ‘only’ This pattern combines the nominal form with the particle Ⱒ (see 3.3.3.1) meaning ‘only’ and the verb 䞮–. When the construction occurs with a processive verb, the meaning is ‘he/ she only’ or ‘he/she does nothing but’:

㞚₆Ṗ 㤎₆ⰢG䟊㣪.

The baby does nothing but cry.

╖䞯㌳ ➢ ⏖₆ⰢG䟞㠊㣪.

When I was a student, I did nothing but ‘play’.

⁎⌻ 㧓₆ⰢG䟊HG[INTIMATE]

Just read it!

When the construction occurs with a descriptive verb, it depicts the continuation of a state (with the state often being undesirable or resistant to any attempts to change it).

䞮⬾ 㫛㧒䧮✺₆ⰢG䟞㠊㣪.

I had a tough time all day long.

㞚㰗 ⳾✶ Ợ ⌅㍺₆ⰢG䟊㣪.

Everything still feels unfamiliar.

2.2.4.16 –₆⪲ 䞮– ‘decide to’ In this pattern, the plain nominal form –₆ is marked with the instrumental particle O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1) and followed by the verb 䞮–. The whole pattern –₆⪲ 䞮– usually translates as ‘decide to’ or ‘choose to’. Note that this pattern is restricted to processive verb stems in the plain nominal form.

㡺⓮ 㩖⎗㠦 ⹎⋮⯒ Ⱒ⋮₆⪲G䟞㠊㣪.

I decided to meet Mina this evening.

㡺⓮㦖㰧㠦㧞₆⪲G䟞㠊㣪.

I decided to stay home today.

䣢㌂⯒ ⁎Ⱒ⚦₆⪲G䟞㠊㣪.

I made up my mind to quit my job at the company.

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The nominal form may be negative (see 4.2), translating as ‘decide not to do’:

㡂⯚㠦 ⹎ῃ㠦㞞 Ṗ₆⪲G䟞㠊㣪.

I decided not to go to the USA in the summer.

㑶㦚 Ⱎ㔲㰖㞠₆⪲G䟞㠊㣪.

I made up my mind not to drink.

The verb 䞮– in this pattern can be replaced by other verbs that express ways of choosing or deciding, including ἆ㩫䞮– ‘decide’, ἆ㕂䞮–/㧧㩫䞮– ‘resolve’, 㟓㏣䞮– ‘promise’, ㍶䌳䞮– ‘choose’ and the idiomatic Ⱎ㦢㦚 ⲏ– ‘make up one’s mind’:

╊⺆⯒ ⊠₆⪲G㧧㩫䟞㠊㣪. I have decided to give up smoking. 㭓㦚 ➢₢㰖 ⁎ 㧊㟒₆⯒ 䞮㰖㞠₆⪲G㟓㏣䟞㠊㣪. I promised not to talk about that until the day I die. 㭒㔳㠦䒂㧦䞮₆⪲GⰞ㦢Gⲏ㠞㠊㣪. I made up my mind to invest in stocks.

2.2.4.17 –₆⪲ ♮– ‘supposed to’ This pattern is closely related to –₆⪲ 䞮– (see 2.2.4.16) both in formation and in meaning. The structural difference is that 䞮– is replaced by ♮– ‘become’. This shift connotes a change from active to passive meaning (for wider discussion, see 4.6.1.2). The decision being talked about is thus one that is out of the speaker’s control; in other words, something that has been decided by someone else or that is being imposed on the speaker. The pattern –₆⪲ ♮– then translates as ‘decided that someone do’, ‘supposed to do’, ‘expected to do’, ‘scheduled to do’. Compare the difference in meaning between the sentences on the left using –₆⪲ 䞮– and those on the right using –₆⪲ ♮–:

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–₆⪲G䞮–

–₆⪲G♮–

┺ ṯ㧊 Ṗ₆⪲ 䟞㠊㣪. We decided to all go together.

┺ ṯ㧊 Ṗ₆⪲ ♮㠞㠊㣪. It’s been decided that we’re all going together.

㍲⮮⓪ ⌊㧒⽊⌊₆⪲ 䟞㠊㣪. We have decided to send the documents tomorrow.

㍲⮮⓪ ⌊㧒⽊⌊₆⪲ ♮㠞㠊㣪. It’s been decided to send the documents tomorrow.

As can be seen in the following examples, in the present tense –₆⪲ ♮– most commonly occurs in the –㞚/㠊㧞– form (see 4.5.3.1), which expresses a present state (i.e. the state of ‘being supposed to do something’).

Nominal forms

㍲⮮⓪ ⌊㧒⽊⌊₆⪲ ♮㠊㧞㠊㣪. We are supposed to send the documents tomorrow. ㍲㤎㡃㞴㠦㍲ Ⱒ⋮₆⪲ ♮㠊㧞㠊㣪. We are supposed to meet in front of Seoul station. ⹎⋮⓪ ⌊㧒⼧㤦㠦㧛㤦䞮₆⪲ ♮㠊㧞㠊㣪. Mina is scheduled to go into hospital tomorrow.

2.2.4.18 –₆⯒/₎ ⹪⧒– ‘hope’ In this pattern, –₆ is followed by the object particle ⯒ (see 3.2.2), which can be omitted in casual speech, and the verb ⹪⧒– ‘hope’ to create the expression ‘I hope’. The combination of –₆ and ⯒ is frequently shortened to –₎:

⁎ ㌂⧢㧊 ╖䐋⪏㦒⪲ ╏㍶♮₆⯒G⹪⧣┞┺. I hope that he’ll be elected as president. ⹪⧒– can be replaced with similar verbs of desire, expectation or longing, such as 㤦䞮– ‘desire, want’, ₆╖䞮– ‘expect’, ₆㤦䞮– ‘wish’ and ἶ╖䞮– ‘await eagerly’:

⹎⋮Ṗ ⹎ῃ㦒⪲ Ṗ₎G㤦䟞㠊㣪. Mina wanted to go to the USA. ⿖⳾┮㦖 ⌊Ṗ ㍶㌳┮㧊 ♮₆⯒G₆╖䞮㎾㠊㣪. My parents expected me to be a teacher. ㎎Ἒ ㏢䝚䔎㤾㠊㔲㧻㠦㍲ ╖䞲⹒ῃ ㏢䝚䔎㤾㠊㦮ぢ⧲✲ Ṗ䂮Ṗ ▪㤇 ⏨㞚㰖₎G ἶ╖䞲┺. [PLAIN] We eagerly await the continued rise of Korean software’s brand equity in the global software market. This pattern, particularly with the verb ⹪⧒–, is commonly employed in formulaic expressions that are used to express goodwill towards the hearer. Such expressions are typically employed as closings to e-mails and letters or in greetings cards.

⓮ Ịṫ䞮㔲ἶ 䟟⽋䞮Ợ ㌂㔲₆⯒G⹪⧣┞┺. I hope you always live healthily and happily! ( Take care of yourself and all the best!)

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㿫⽋㧊 Ṗ✳䞲䞲䟊Ṗ ♮₆⯒G₆㤦䞿┞┺. I wish you a New Year full of blessings. –₆⯒ ⹪⧒– also appears in formal requests (particularly on signs or public announcements), such as the following that you may hear on public transport:

⌊Ⰲ㔺 ➢ 㫆㕂䞮㔲₆G⹪⧣┞┺. Please mind your step when you get off. ⌊Ⰲ㔺 ➢⓪ ⚦ἶ ⌊Ⰲ⓪ ⶒỊ㧊㠜⓪㰖 ┺㔲䞲⻞㌊䘊⽊㔲G ₆G⹪⧣┞┺. Please make sure you have all your belongings with you when you get off.

2.2.4.19 –₆㠦 ‘upon, because’ In this pattern, –₆ is immediately followed by the particle of location 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1). This pattern cannot appear with past or future tense marking and is most commonly encountered in written Korean. In spoken Korean, it can be replaced by the clausal connective –₎⧮ (although this is more restricted in meaning; see 6.1.7) or other causal connectives (see 6.1). –₆㠦 expresses causation, with similar English equivalents being ‘upon’, ‘with’, ‘because’. The second clause typically depicts an action (often performed by the speaker himself) and the first clause provides a reason for that action (typically an event outside the speaker’s control):

⁎ ㌂⧢㧊 ₎㦚 ⶑ₆㠦 ⌊Ṗ Ṗ⯊㼦㭒㠞㠊㣪. Upon being asked, I showed him/her the way to go. ゚Ṗ 㡺₆㠦 ⹬㠦 ⋮Ṗ㰖㞠㞮㠊㣪. With it raining, (I) didn’t go out. 䂲ῂṖ 㡾┺₆㠦G⋮⓪ 㰧㠦㍲ ₆┺Ⰲ₆⪲ 䟞㠊㣪. Hearing that my friend was coming, I decided to wait at home. As can be seen in the final example, –₆㠦 may occur after the quotative ending –ච┺ (see 9.2.1) when the first part of the sentence constitutes reported speech (in this instance, my friend saying that he was coming).

2.2.4.20 –₆㠦 ➆⧒ ‘depending on’

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This construction combines the –₆ nominal form with ➆⧒, meaning ‘according to’ or ‘depending on’. It can only occur with processive verbs:

⁎ ㌂⧢㦖⽊₆㠦G➆⧒G╂Ⰲ ⽊㡂㣪. He looks different depending on how you look at him.

Nominal forms

䂮⬢䞮₆㠦G➆⧒G䦟䎆Ṗ ㌳₆㰖㞠⓪ ἓ㤆Ṗ 㧞┺. [PLAIN] Depending on the type of treatment, there are cases where no scar is left. This construction may appear after nouns in addition to nominal forms:

㑒䞧㔋ὖ㦖㎇⼚㠦G➆⧒ ╂⧒㣪.

2.2.5

Shopping habits differ according to sex.

Nominal form –㦢

The nominal form –㦢 operates in the same way as –₆ to convert a verb into a noun form. This form is more common in writing or formal speech and is frequently substituted by –O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ (see 2.2.6) in more casual speech. When attached to a verb stem that ends with a vowel, the form is abbreviated to –ත.

Base

ˀ㦢

consonant base

⹕– believe

⹕㦢 belief

vowel base

㏢㭧䞮– precious

㏢㭧䞾 preciousness

irregular: ථ/෈ verbs

⹟– detestable

⹎㤖 detestableness

irregular: ඣ/ඥ verbs

₾╁– realize

₾╂㦢 realization

irregular: න/ඳ verbs

㰩┺– build, write

㰖㦢 building, writing

In addition to the plain base, nominalizers with –㦢 may also be formed on past bases, future bases with –Ỷ– and honorific bases with –㔲–. As will be discussed below, –㦢 appears with past bases at a particularly high frequency.

Past base

Future base

Honorific base

Ṫ㦢

ṖỶ㦢

Ṗ㕂

going

䟞㦢

䞮Ỷ㦢

䞮㕂

doing

Whereas –₆ designates the existence (or non-existence) of events, processes and states of affairs that are situated in time (i.e. that would have a given

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start and end point), 㦢 is usually employed when what is being talked about is an abstract ‘truth’ (or non-truth) that exists outside of space and time and is not physically ‘real’. 㦢 thus often occurs with descriptive verbs; the addition of 㦢 turns the descriptive verb into an abstract nominalized form, as in the following:

Descriptive verb

Abstract nominalized form

⹕–

believe

m

⹕㦢

belief

㏢㭧䞮–

precious

m

㏢㭧䞾

importance, preciousness

Ⱗ–

clear

m

Ⱗ㦢

clarity

Alternatively, –㦢 can also be used when talking about a past truth (or non-truth) – about something that is asserted to have happened (or to not have happened). –㦢 thus also frequently occurs with processive verbs in the past tense:

Processive verb

Past nominalized form

Ṗ–

m

Ṫ㦢

having gone

㫎㠛䞮–

m

㫎㠛䟞㦢

having graduated

Since nominalized forms constructed with –㦢 express a truth (or nontruth), the verbs that commonly occur after a noun phrase constructed with –㦢 tend to be of a certain kind and quite different from those used with –₆. They commonly include those that denote ‘knowing/recalling/ finding out (a certain truth or non-truth)’, ‘believing (a certain truth or non-truth)’, ‘(a certain truth or non-truth) being (in)visible/(un)clear’, etc. Here is a list of verbs that frequently occur after –㦢:

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㞢–

know/realize

㌳ṗ䞮– think

ⓦ⋒–

feel

₾╁–

realize

⹳䧞–

⹕–

believe

㧠–

forget

⣲⪍䞮– explicit

䔖Ⱂ㠜– true

㌗₆䞮– recall

㧦⧧䞮– boast

㧎㩫䞮– admit

⿖㧎䞮– deny

⿚ⳛ䞮– clear

㯳ⳛ䞮– prove

bring to light

Here are some examples using these verbs:

Nominal forms

⁎ Ⱖ㦚 ΈỢ ⹕㠞㦢㧊⿚ⳛ䟊㣪. It was clear that he/she strongly believed those words. 㦢㞛㦚 ✺㦒┞ ⋮㧊 ⲏ㠞㦢㦚 ₾╁⍺㣪. I realize that I am getting old when I hear that music. ⿞⻫䟟㥚⯒ 㩖㰞⩖㦢㦚㧎㩫䟞㠊㣪. He/she admitted committing criminal acts. ⻫㦚㠊₆㰖㞠㞮㦢㦚㯳ⳛ䟞㠊㣪. I proved that I had not broken the law. –㦢 has one further specific use that is not shared by other nominal forms. It is used in abbreviated sentences in public signs, publications and notes, such as the following:

㧎Ὃ㌟㏢㠜㦢.

No artificial colours.

㞚⯊⹪㧊䔎 ῂ䞾.

Part-time worker wanted.

XW㔲㠦㥶⹎㠦Ợ 㩚䢪㢪㦢.

Phone call from Yumi at 10.

⌊㧒㧒㹣㡺Ỷ㦢.

Will come early tomorrow.

This usage extends to the use of ✲Ⱂ (from ✲Ⰲ–, object honorific verb ‘give’) and 㢂Ⱂ (from 㢂Ⰲ– ‘offer, present’) in letter closings when addressing elders and non-intimates/strangers:

ₖ⹒㑮㢂Ⱂ/✲Ⱂ

2.2.6

Yours sincerely, Kim Minsu

Using –O㦒Pච/⓪Gộ to create nominal forms

Even though Korean has specialized nominal forms, speakers of Korean frequently use another means of turning a verb phrase into a noun, particularly in casual spoken language. This works by using the modifier form (see Chapter 7 for full description), followed by the noun ộ (see 2.1.2.1), which here literally means ‘act, fact’. The pattern thus literally means ‘the act of doing’ or ‘the fact that one does’: For processive verbs in the present tense, the form is –⓪ ộ:

゚Ṗ 㡺⓪Gộ

the fact that it’s raining

㔶ⶎ㦚㧓⓪Gộ

the fact that he’s reading the newspaper

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For processive verbs in the past tense or for all descriptive verbs (regardless of tense), the form is –O㦒Pච ộ:

゚Ṗ 㡾Gộ

the fact that it rained

☞㧊 Ⱔ㦖Gộ

the fact that one has lots of money

The pattern –O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ represents the most natural choice (even in formal speech or writing) when talking about seeing or hearing something or talking about being aware (or not being aware) of an ongoing fact:

゚Ṗ 㡺⓪Gộ㦚⽺㠊㣪.

I saw it raining.

䞲ῃⰦ⪲ 㧊㟒₆䞮⓪Gộ㦚 ✺㠞㠊㣪.

I heard them speaking in Korean.

㞶₆Ṗ 㧦⓪Gộ㦚 ⴆ⧦㠊㣪.

I didn’t know that the child was sleeping.

Otherwise, particularly in casual spoken language, –O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ can replace –₆ or –㦢 in the functions described previously in this chapter (see 2.2.3, 2.2.5). Note however that this does not include specific sentence patterns with –₆ (see 2.2.4). Here are some examples of –O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ replacing –₆ or –㦢 with no alteration in meaning:

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–₆/–㦢

–O㦒Pච/⓪Gộ

䞒㞚⏎ 䂮₆Ṗ 㫡㞚㣪. I like to play the piano.

䞒㞚⏎ 䂮⓪Gộ㧊㫡㞚㣪. I like to play the piano.

Ṗ⯊䂮₆Ṗ 㓂㤢㣪. Teaching is easy.

Ṗ⯊䂮⓪Gộ㧊㓂㤢㣪. Teaching is easy.

㡺₆⯒ ₆┺Ⰲἶ 㧞㠊㣪. We are waiting for him/her to come.

㡺⓪Gộ㦚 ₆┺Ⰲἶ 㧞㠊㣪. We are waiting for him/her to come.

Ệ㰩Ⱖ䟞㦢㦚㧎㩫䟞㠊㣪. I admitted I had lied.

Ệ㰩Ⱖ䞲Gộ㦚㧎㩫䟞㠊㣪. I admitted I had lied.

However, there are some instances in which –O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ provides a different interpretation from the use of –₆ (particularly when sentence subjects are dropped). The interpretation of sentences with –O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ tend to be more focused on the position of the individual speaker; expressions with –₆ express more general truths or things that are not seen from the speaker’s viewpoint:

ˀ₆

ˀO㦒Pච/⓪Gộ

㡺㰫㠊Ṗ ⲏ₆Ṗ 㫡㞚㣪. The squid is good/easy to eat.

㡺㰫㠊 ⲏ⓪Gộ㧊㫡㞚㣪. Eating squid is good/I like eating squid.

㡂₆㍲㑶 Ⱎ㔲₆Ṗ 㫡㞚㣪. Here is good for drinking alcohol.

㡂₆㍲㑶 Ⱎ㔲⓪Gộ㧊㫡㞚㣪. I like drinking alcohol here.

2.3

Pronouns

Pronouns

Overview Pronouns are words that can be used in place of nouns, typically either to avoid repetition or redundancy or when we are unsure of the exact name or identity of the person or thing in question. Pronouns for talking about people (‘personal pronouns’) are typically divided into first-person pronouns (such as ‘I’, ‘we’ in English), secondperson pronouns (‘you’) and third-person pronouns (‘he’, ‘she’, ‘they’). There are also demonstrative pronouns (‘this’, ‘that’, etc.), reflexive pronouns (‘myself’, ‘yourself’, ‘himself’, ‘herself’, etc.) and question pronouns (‘what’, ‘where’, ‘who’, etc.). Although these categories apply well to European languages, the following description will show that they do not always apply so well to Korean. In fact, rather than belonging to a separate grammatical category, Korean pronouns may be better described just as being the same as normal nouns. The reason we treat them as a separate category here is for the convenience of readers and because the choice of these forms can be particularly tricky (and thus requires full explanation). It should be pointed out before we begin that Korean uses a lot fewer pronouns than English. The reason for this is that, when you repeatedly refer to the same person or thing, there is no strict requirement that you have to use a pronoun. First, as Korean is a language in which elements that are obvious from context can be dropped, you may not need to repeat any reference at all. Second, even if you do repeat a reference to the person or thing, repeating the person’s name or the name of the object is usually more acceptable than it is in English. However, when you do need to use a pronoun, choosing which pronoun to use can be very difficult to decide. This is because Korean has a long

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list of pronoun forms and the choice of them tends to rely on your social relationship with the person you are conversing with.

2.3.1 2.3.1.1

Personal pronouns First-person pronouns

Korean has two distinct pronoun forms for the first person: the plain ⋮ ‘I’ (plural: 㤆Ⰲ ‘we’) and the humble (self-lowering) form 㩖 ‘I’ (plural: 㩖䧂 ‘we’). When you are talking to intimates and children in non-honorific speech styles (see 4.3), you should use the plain forms. When you are talking to people older or superior to you in honorific speech styles, you should use the humble forms. Note that both of the pronouns for ‘I’ have different forms when they occur before the subject particle Ṗ (see 3.2.1).

⋮

Ṗ

⌊Ṗ

㩖

Ṗ

㩲Ṗ

Any pronoun can be made possessive by adding the possessive particle 㦮 (see 3.2.3). When this 㦮 combines with ⋮ and 㩖, the resulting form can be contracted. By coincidence, this contracted form is the same as that which occurs when these pronouns precede Ṗ.

⋮㦮

m

⌊

㩖㦮

m

㩲

2.3.1.2

Second-person pronouns

For the second person, there are a number of non-honorific pronoun forms: ⍞ (plural: ⍞䧂O✺P), 㧦⍺ (plural: 㧦⍺✺), ╏㔶 (plural: ╏㔶✺) and 㧦₆ (plural: 㧦₆✺). These forms all have very specific and limited applications: Korean does not have a universal ‘you’ that can be applied politely in all interactions. ⍞ is an intimate pronoun that can be used towards close friends of the same or younger age and towards children. It commonly occurs with either the intimate or the plain speech style (see 4.3.5, 4.3.6): 76

⍞⓪ ⶦ 䞮⌦f [PLAIN]

What are you doing?

When ⍞ comes before the subject particle Ṗ (see 3.2.1), it has the alternative form ⍺ O⍺ṖP. In addition, the possessive formed by combining ⍞ with the possessive particle 㦮, ⍞㦮, is also commonly abbreviated to ⍺. Since many younger speakers pronounce the vowels ව and ඼ the same, ⍺ ‘you, yours’ thus becomes homophonous with ⌊ ‘my, mine’. To avoid this confusion, many younger speakers pronounce (and even write) ⍺ as ┞:

Original form

Contracted form

Pronunciation

⍞Ṗ

⍺Ṗ

┞Ṗ

⍞㦮

⍺

┞

Pronouns

㧦⍺ is a pronoun that is only used non-reciprocally by older adults (of at least 30 years of age) towards younger adults. It most commonly occurs with the familiar speech style (see 4.3.7). The usage of this pronoun and register of speech is becoming more unusual in modern Korean society:

㧊㧒㦖㧦⍺Ṗ 䞮Ợ. [FAMILIAR]

You do this job.

╏㔶 (繐葌) is sometime mistakenly taken to be the closest form to the English ‘you’. However, its usage is in actual fact extremely restricted and great caution should be exercised. In modern Korean, it is most frequently used between spouses – particularly between couples in their forties or above. Otherwise, this pronoun sometimes gets used as a deliberate way of being disrespectful and rude to someone when involved in an argument or confrontation:

╏㔶㧊 ⶪ◆ 㧊⧮⧒ 㩖⧮⧒ 䞮⓪ Ệ㟒H [INTIMATE] Who do you think you are ordering me to do this and do that? 㧦₆ (蟀絘) represents a new second-person pronoun that is most frequently used between young unmarried couples. Originally, this form was a reflexive pronoun (see 2.3.3). It was only very recently that it also started to be used as a second-person pronoun:

㧦₆ 㰖⁞ ⶦ 䟊f

What are you doing now?

In addition to these forms, there are several other expressions that may be used in a similar way to pronouns. An elderly person may be respectfully addressed as 㠊⯊㔶:

㠊⯊㔶㠊❪ 䘎㺄㦒㎎㣪f

Are you feeling unwell?

Elder speakers may address an adult stranger as ╗:

╗㦖㠊❪㠦 Ṗ㎎㣪f

Where are you going?

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When addressing someone of similar age and you are unsure how else to call him/her, you may say ⁎㴓, literally meaning ‘that side’:

⁎㴓㦖㣪f

How about you?

In song lyrics or poetry, you may encounter the rather antiquated ⁎╖:

⋮㦮 ἗㠦 ⁎╖ 㠜⓪ ㎎㌗㧞㦚㑮☚ 㠜Ỷ㬶. There cannot be a world where you are not by my side. When using automated machines or internet sites, you may see the form ‖䞮G (糿谨) as a way of addressing ‘you’. This form was originally an honorific word for ‘to’ used when addressing envelopes to an elder or senior.

‖䞮㦮゚⹖⻞䢎⓪ 㾲㏢䞲 _ Ṳ ⶎ㧦⯒ 䙂䞾䟊㟒䞿┞┺. Your PIN number must consist of at least eight characters. As these descriptions suggest, there are many circumstances in Korean where it is not appropriate to apply any second-person pronoun at all. This particularly applies to interactions with elders, status superiors and non-intimates when you are using the polite and formal speech styles (see 4.3.3, 4.3.4). So, if it is not possible to use any pronoun, what should you do? The first strategy is to retain the addressee’s name or otherwise use a title or kinship term (see 1.3). When you are unsure what term of address would be appropriate, using ㍶㌳┮ (which literally means ‘teacher’) represents a safe choice. The second strategy is just to avoid saying anything at all; it is perfectly possible to form a Korean sentence with the subject and/or object dropped when it is obvious from context who you are talking about.

2.3.1.3

Third-person pronouns

Technically speaking, Korean has no proper third-person pronouns at all. Instead, Korean uses expressions that translate as ‘that person’, ‘that woman’, ‘that thing’, etc. Where appropriate, the word for ‘that’ (⁎) can be replaced by ‘this’ (㧊) or ‘that . . . over there’ (㩖).

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When referring to a human third person, the most generic form is ⁎ ㌂ ⧢ ‘that person’. However, it should be noted that this term is non-honorific. When referring to an elder or status superior, you should replace ㌂⧢ with the honorific ⿚ (see 4.4.3). You could also refer to someone honorifically by using an honorific title such as ㍶㌳┮ ‘teacher’: ⁎ ㍶㌳┮ ‘that teacher’.

It should also be pointed out that ⁎ ㌂⧢ and ⁎ ⿚ may be understood by default to mean ‘he’ rather than ‘she’. When it is necessary to clarify the sex of the person you are talking about, use ⁎ ⋾㧦 ‘that man’ (⁎ ⋾㧦⿚ to be honorific) or ⁎ 㡂㧦 (⁎ 㡂㧦⿚ ‘that woman’ to be honorific).

⁎G㌂⧢㦖 ⍞ⶊ 㧮⋲ 㻯䟊㣪.

He/she is too much of a show-off.

⁎G⿚㦖 ṧ㧦₆ 㺔㞚㡺㎾㠊㣪.

He/she suddenly came to visit me.

⁎G⋾㧦⓪ 㠊⠑Ợ ♮㠞⋮㣪f

What on earth became of him?

⁎G㡂㧦⿚㦖㩲㍶⺆┮㧊㎎㣪.

That woman is my university senior.

Pronouns

There are also different terms that can be used when referring to someone the same age or younger than you, or in other situations when respect is not required. The term ⁎G 㞶 (shortened in speech to Ẫ; plural Ẫ⍺✺), literally meaning ‘that child’, is used not only to refer to children but also by younger speakers to talk about those of the same or younger age. Similarly, you may refer casually to someone of the same or younger age as ⁎G䂲ῂ. Although this literally means ‘that friend’, it does not necessarily connote any intimacy in this usage. One’s own son or someone extremely close may also be referred to as ⁎G⎖㍳ ‘that guy/chap/boy’:

Ẫ⓪ 㑾㓂⓪ ộ☚ Ệ㰩㧊㠦㣪.

When he/she does as much as breathe, it is a lie.

Ẫ⍺✺㦖㢲 ⁎⩂⓪Ệ⌦f [PLAIN]

Why do those guys carry on like that?

⁎G䂲ῂ⓪ 㫡㦖䞯㌳㧊㠦㣪.

He/she is a good student.

⁎G⎖㍳ ⡦ 㕎㤶ῂ⋮H [INTIMATE]

He/she has been fighting again!

In written Korean, particularly in novels translated from English, you may see the forms ⁎ and ⁎⎖ as equivalents to ‘he’ and ‘she’. It should be noted, however, that these are literary devices that were devised to facilitate the translation of pronouns from European languages. They are not used in speech and are rarely used in general writing.

2.3.2

Demonstrative pronouns

Referential terms for non-personal objects are formed using 㧊 ‘this’, ⁎ ‘that’ or 㩖 ‘that over there’, followed by bound nouns ộ ‘thing’, ➢ ‘time’ or Ὁ ‘place’:

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Thing

Time

Place

ˀộ

ˀ➢

ˀὉ

this

㧊

㧊ộ

㧊➢

㧊Ὁ

that

⁎

⁎ộ

⁎➢

⁎Ὁ

that over there

㩖

㩖ộ

㩧➢

㩖Ὁ

Note that ộ may be abbreviated to Ệ (and to Ợ, Ỏ and Ị when it occurs with the subject, object and topic particles respectfully; see Chapter 3). Here are some examples:

㧊Ợ 䞲ῃ 㦢㔳㧊㠦㣪. This is Korean food. ⁎G➢⓪ ╂⧒㣪. That [time, occasion] is different. 㧊GὉ㦖 ⹎ῃ ㏣㦮㧧㦖㍲㤎㧊㠦㣪. This is a ‘little Seoul’ within the USA.

2.3.3

Reflexives and reciprocals

Korean has five reflexive pronouns: 㧦₆, 㧦㔶, 㩖/㰖, ╏㔶 and 㧦㼊. The first four of these are used for people, the fifth is used for objects. 㧦₆ is most often used for reference to a third person (although it can also appear in the second person).

㻮㦢㦒⪲ 㧦₆㦮㢍㦚㰗㩧㌖㠊㣪. He/she bought him/herself clothes for the first time. ⁎ 㡂㧦⓪ 㧦₆Ṗ ⹎㧎㧎㭚㞢㞚㣪. She thinks of herself as beautiful. 㧦㔶 (蟀葌) can be used in the first, second or third person and can also appear alongside 㧦₆ O㧦₆ 㧦㔶P for special emphasis, as in the second example:

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㧦㔶Ⱒ ㌳ṗ䞮㰖 Ⱟ㔲┺

Let’s not just think of ourselves.

㧦₆㧦㔶㠦Ợ Ệ㰩Ⱖ㦚䟊㣪.

He/she is lying to him/herself.

㩖 is a colloquial equivalent of 㧦₆. It is often pronounced (and even written) as [㰖]:

Pronouns

㥶⹎⓪ 㰖Ṗ 䞚㣪䞶 ➢Ⱒ 㡆⧓䞮⓪ Ệ㟒. [INTIMATE] Yumi only contacts me when she needs something for herself. 㢲㰖㌳ṗⰢ 䞮⓪ Ệ㟒f [INTIMATE] Why does he/she only think of him/herself ? Note that when you are referring to someone who you need to talk about in honorifics, 㧦₆, 㧦㔶 and 㩖 should not be used. Traditionally, ╏㔶 may be used in this function, although this is becoming rarer in modern Korean (and is only commonly applied when referring to one’s parents, grandparents or teachers):

䞶㞚⻚㰖⓪ ╏㔶㧊 XWW㌊₢㰖㌂㔺 ộ㧊⧒ἶ 䞮㎾㠊㣪. Grandfather said that he will live to be 100. Rather than using ╏㔶, most Korean speakers prefer to avoid reflexive pronouns when using honorifics. In other words, they just delete the pronoun completely or repeat the original form of address. When talking about inanimate objects, the Korean equivalent of ‘itself’ is 㧦㼊 (蟀誎):

⹿⻫㧦㼊Ṗ ⶎ㩲㡞㣪

The method itself is the problem.

⁎ 㧦㼊㦮 ⶊỢ⪲ 㝆⩂㪢㠊㣪.

It fell of its own weight.

Korean also has one reciprocal pronoun: ㍲⪲, which means ‘each other’ or ‘one another’. For added emphasis, ㍲⪲ can be duplicated to form ㍲⪲㍲⪲:

㥶⹎㢖 ⹎⋮⓪ ㍲⪲ 㕁㠊䟊㣪.

Yumi and Mina hate each other.

㍲⪲㍲⪲ ☚㢖㭒⓪ 䂲ῂ✺㧊㠦㣪.

We are friends who help each other.

2.3.4

Question pronouns

Korean question pronouns (and other question words) are as follows

⑚ῂ

who

㠊❪

where

㠎㩲 when

ⶊ㠝 ⶦ

what

㢲

why

㠒Ⱎ how much

㠊⠑Ợ

how

㠊ⓦ

which

㠊⟺ what kind of

ⶊ㓾

what kind of, what, what on earth

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Here are examples of these in sentences:

㥶⹎ ⋾㧦䂲ῂṖ ⑚ῂ㡞㣪f

Who is Yumi’s boyfriend?

㰖⁞ 㠊❪㠦 Ṗ㎎㣪f

Where are you going now?

㠎㩲㡺㎾㠊㣪f

When did you come?

ⶦ ✲㔲Ỷ㠊㣪f

What would you like to eat?

㢲䞲ῃⰦ㦚⺆㤆㎎㣪f

Why do you learn Korean?

ⰻ㭒Ṗ 㠒Ⱎ㡞㣪f

How much is the beer?

䞲ῃ㠊⯒ 㠊⠑Ợ ⺆㤆㎾㠊㣪f

How did you learn Korean?

㠊ⓦ ⋮⧒㠦㍲㡺㎾㠊㣪f

Which country are you from?

㠊⟺ 㦢㔳㦚㫡㞚䞮㎎㣪f

What kind of food do you like?

ⶊ㓾㡗䢪⯒ ⽊㎾㠊㣪f

What film did you see?

As you can see in these examples, these question pronouns are sometimes followed by particles (see Chapter 3) in the same way that other nouns are. In the case of ⑚ῂ ‘who’, note that when this question pronoun combines with the subject particle Ṗ (see 3.2.1), it contracts to ⑚Ṗ:

⑚Ṗ ⁎⩆ Ⱖ㦚䟞㠊㣪f

Who said that?

It should be noted that, in addition to being used in questions, Korean question pronouns can also be used when making statements. In such cases, rather than meaning ‘who’, ‘when’, ‘where’, etc., they instead take on the meaning of ‘someone’, ‘sometime’, ‘somewhere’, etc. Here are some examples:

⑚Ṗ 㢪㠊㣪.

Someone has come.

㠊❪ Ṗ㍲㧊㟒₆䞮㧦. [PLAIN]

Let’s go somewhere and talk about it.

㠎㩲䞲⻞㩖⎗㧊⋮ 䞾℮ 䞿㔲┺.

Let’s have dinner together sometime.

ⶊ㠝G㫖 ⲏ㠞㦒Ⳋ 㫡Ỷ㠊㣪.

I would like to eat something.

2.4

Numbers and counting

Overview

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Korean is not content with having just one number system but has two separate systems: pure Korean numerals and Sino-Korean numerals. Each

of these has distinct and separate usages. Korean numbers tend not to occur alone but appear in combination with ‘counters’: words that specify the kind of item being counted.

2.4.1


Pure Korean and Sino-Korean numbers

Korean has two parallel sets of numbers. There is one of native origin, often called pure Korean numerals, and another one of Chinese origin, usually called Sino-Korean numerals. As will be explained in more detail below (see 2.4.2), the uses of these two sets of numbers are usually quite distinct. As you will see in the lists below, Sino-Korean numbers are more straightforward than their pure Korean counterparts. Once you have learned one to ten in Sino-Korean, all other numbers up to 99 can be formed just by combining these elements. For example, 20 is literally ‘two-ten’, 30 is ‘three-ten’, etc. In the pure Korean system, however, there are separate words for 20, 30, etc. Note that some of the pure Korean numbers have different forms that are used before counters (see 2.4.2).

Pure Korean numerals

Sino-Korean numerals

1

䞮⋮ 䞲 before counter

㧒

2

⚮ ⚦ before counter

㧊

3

㎡㎎ before counter

㌒

4

⎍ ⍺ before counter

㌂

5

┺㎅

㡺

6

㡂㎅

㥷

7

㧒὇

䂶

8

㡂▵

䕪

9

㞚䢟

ῂ

10

㡊

㕃

11

㡊䞮⋮ 㡊䞲 before counter

㕃㧒

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20

㓺ⶒ 㓺ⶊ before counter

㧊㕃

30

㍲⯎

㌒㕃

40

Ⱎ䦪

㌂㕃

50

㓆

㡺㕃

60

㡞㑲

㥷㕃

70

㧒䦪

䂶㕃

80

㡂✶

䕪㕃

90

㞚䦪

ῂ㕃

100

O㡾P

⺇b 㧒⺇㧊⺇

200 1,000

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O㯞⸚P

㻲b 㧒㻲

10,000

Ⱒb 㧒Ⱒ

100,000

㕃Ⱒ

1,000,000

⺇Ⱒ

10,000,000

㻲Ⱒ

100,000,000

㠋b 㧒㠋

1,000,000,000

㕃㠋

As can be seen, the Sino-Korean system is more developed for the expression of high numbers than the pure Korean system. Indeed, even though the pure Korean system does have words for 100 and 1,000, these are only found in older texts and never appear in modern Korean. Thus, in the present-day language, the pure Korean system can only be used for counting up to 99. For this reason, even when counting things that normally occur with the pure Korean system (see 2.4.2), speakers must switch to the SinoKorean set for quantities of 100 or larger. The other possible alternative is to mix the two systems. For example, when saying the number 121, a speaker may say 100 in the Sino-Korean system and 21 in the pure Korean (i.e. ⺇㓺ⶒ 䞮⋮). In spoken language, the point where speakers switch from the pure Korean system to the Sino-Korean often happens much sooner than 100. Indeed you may frequently hear speakers switch to the Sino-Korean system for quantities of 30 or above, particularly for round numbers.

The two Korean numeral systems differ in the way ordinals (i.e. ‘first’, ‘second’, ‘third’, etc.) are formed. The native ordinals are formed with the suffix –㱎, as in ⚮㱎 ‘second’ and ㎡㱎 ‘third’. The exception is 䞮⋮ ‘one’ because the ordinal ‘first’ is the special form 㼁㱎. From the ten units on, however, 䞲 is used instead of 㼁–, and ⚦ is used for ‘two’ instead of ⚮, as in 㡊䞲O⻞P㱎 ‘eleventh’, 㡊⚦O⻞P㱎 ‘twelfth’, 㓺ⶒ䞲O⻞P㱎 ‘twenty-first’ and 㓺ⶒ⚦O⻞P㱎 ‘twenty-second’. In contrast with this native system, the Sino-Korean ordinals are expressed by attaching the prefix 㩲– to the basic numerals, as in 㩲㧒 ‘first’, 㩲㧊 ‘second’, 㩲㕃㌒ ‘thirteenth’.

2.4.2


Which system to use

The pure Korean numbers are used in the following situations: 1 to count real, tangible things such as potatoes, cars, cups of coffee, books, fish and people 2 to express someone’s age (Sino-Korean is also possible here, but more unusual) 3 to say the hour (o’clock) 4 to count hours, months (also possible in Sino-Korean) and sometimes years (although the Sino-Korean system is more commonly used for the last of these) (see 2.4.4) The Sino-Korean numbers are used in the following situations: 1 to talk about figures, sums and prices 2 to say the minute and the second (and for counting minutes and seconds) 3 to say the date 4 to count weeks, months (also possible in pure Korean), years and days (although, for the latter, there are occasions when pure Korean numbers need to be used) As noted above, Korean numbers often appear, not on their own, but followed by a counter word that marks what is being counted. The following table summarizes the most common counters used in Korean, but does not include counters used for naming and counting periods of time. These are dealt with separately (see 2.4.4).

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Unit being counted

Counter

Number system

Example

objects

Ṳ

㌂ὒ 䞲 Ṳ one apple

cups

㧪

paper; tickets

㧻

Pure Korean numbers

books

ῢ

㺛 ⍺ ῢ four books

boxes; cases

㌗㧦

㌂ὒ ┺㎅㌗㧦 one box of apples

bags

⽟㰖

ὒ㧦䞲⽟㰖 one bag of snack food

bottles

⼧

ⰻ㭒 ⚦ ⼧ two bottles of beer

vehicles; appliances

╖

㧦☯㹾㎎ ╖ three cars ⌟㧻ἶ ⍺ ╖ four refrigerators

buildings

㺚

㰧䞲㺚 one house

animals

ⰞⰂ

ἶ㟧㧊䞲 ⰞⰂ one cat ㌳㍶䞲 ⰞⰂ one fish (to eat)

people

㌂⧢ ⳛ ⿚*

ἶṳ 䞲㌂⧢ one customer 㧒⽎㌂⧢ 䞲 ⳛ one Japanese person ㍶㌳┮ 䞲⿚ one teacher

years of age

㌊

㓺ⶊ ㌊ 20 years old

times

⻞

⚦ ⻞ two times; twice

kinds

Ṗ㰖

㎎ Ṗ㰖 three kinds

floors

䂋

portions

㧎⿚

won

㤦

XWSWWWGOⰢP 㤦 10,000 won

dollars

⿞

XWGO㕃P ⿞ ten dollars

pounds

䕢㤊✲

XWWGO⺇P 䕢㤊✲ 100 pounds

metres

⹎䎆

XSWWWGO㻲P ⹎䎆 1,000 metres

*honorific form (see 4.4.3)

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SinoKorean numbers

䄺䞒 ⚦ 㧪 two cups of coffee 㫛㧊㎎㧻 three sheets of paper

Z O㌒P 䂋 the third floor ⿞ἶ₆ ZGO㌒P 㧎⿚ three portions of pulgogi

As the list above shows, the counter ⿚ can mean either ‘people’ or ‘minutes’ depending on context. However, the ambiguity is also solved by the fact that the two counters go with different number systems.

2.4.3


Sentence patterns with numbers

The examples shown in the previous table all follow the basic sentence pattern of noun-numeral-counter. Although this is the most common sentence pattern that occurs in number constructions, it is by no means the only one. There are actually four different sentence patterns that can occur with numerals: 1 Noun–Numeral:

䞯㌳ ┺㎅㧊㑯㩲⯒ 㞞䟞㠊㣪.

Five students didn’t do their homework.

2 Noun–Numeral–Counter:

䞯㌳ ┺㎅ ⳛ㧊㑯㩲⯒ 㞞䟞㠊㣪.


3 Numeral–Noun:

┺㎅䞯㌳㧊㑯㩲⯒ 㞞䟞㠊㣪.


4 Numeral–Counter–Possessive particle–Noun:

┺㎅ ⳛ㦮䞯㌳㧊㑯㩲⯒ 㞞䟞㠊㣪. Five students didn’t do their homework. The usage and conditions for selecting each of these four patterns are slightly different. As the most widely used pattern in modern Korean, pattern (2) is used with no special restrictions. The use of pattern (1) is more restricted. It is a natural number construction for counting people, but can also be used with many countable nouns in informal or colloquial situations: 䄺䞒 ⚮ ‘two coffees’, ニ䞮⋮ ‘one bread’, etc. Pattern (3) was used extensively in Middle Korean, but now its use has diminished. Pattern (4) is mostly a written rather than a colloquial usage. When you want to form a question that in English would translate as ‘how many . . . ?’ or ‘how much . . . ?’, use the question word ⳝ and combine it with the counter word for the item in question. The following is an abbreviated list of the resulting expressions:

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Item

Question expression

Example

objects

Ṳ

㌂ὒ ⳝGṲ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪f How many apples did you eat?

cups

㧪

㏢㭒 ⳝG㧪 Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪f How many glasses of soju did you drink?

paper; tickets

㧻

₆㹾䚲G ⳝG㧻㌖㠊㣪f How many train tickets did you buy?

books

ῢ

㺛 ⳝGῢ 㧓㠞㠊㣪f How many books did you buy?

animals

ⰞⰂ

ἶ㟧㧊 ⳝGⰞⰂ 㧞㠊㣪f How many cats are there?

people

ⳛ

䞯㌳ ⳝGⳛ 㢪㠊㣪f How many students came?

times

⻞

䞲ῃ㠦 ⳝG⻞ Ṫ㠊㣪f How many times have you been to Korea?

floors

䂋

㌂ⶊ㔺㦖 ⳝG䂋㠦㧞㠊㣪f What floor is the office on?

metres

⹎䎆

㑮㡗㧻㦖 ⳝG⹎䎆㡞㣪f How many metres is the swimming pool?

When asking the date, you can literally ask ‘what month, what day’ it is. Note that the expression for ‘what day’ is written as one word, with the බ shifted to the second syllable: Ⳇ䂶.

ⳝ 㤪 Ⳇ䂶㧊㠦㣪f What is the date? ⳝ 㤪 Ⳇ䂶㠦㧛ῃ䞮㎾㠊㣪f On what date did you enter the country? Ⳇ䂶 can also be used for asking about periods of time (i.e. ‘how many days . . . ?’):

88

Ⳇ䂶O☯㞞P ㍲㤎㠦 Ⲏⶊ⯊㎾㠊㣪f How many days did you stay in Seoul?

When asking ‘how many . . . ?’ questions, the particle –O㧊P⋮ (see 3.3.5.2) is frequently heard following the counter. Addition of this particle gives a feeling of approximation (similar to using ‘about’ in English) and thus works to make the question sound softer:

⿖㧧㣿㦖 ⳝG⎚㧊⋮ Ṟ₢㣪f

How long will the side effects last?

䞮⬾㠦䄺䞒⯒ ⳝG㧪㧊⋮ ✲㔲⋮㣪f

How many cups of coffee do you drink in a day?

2.4.4


Counting and naming periods of time

The occasion when the selection of numeric systems becomes most complicated and where both systems are often used together is in the expression of time.

2.4.4.1

Years

When referring to a certain year, the Sino-Korean numbers are used with the counter for years, ⎚:

YWXWO㧊㻲㕃P⎚

the year 2010

ⳝ ⎚ ㌳㧊㎎㣪f

What year were you born in?

_\O䕪㕃㡺P⎚ ㌳㧊㠦㣪.

I was born in 1985.

When counting years, either the Sino-Korean numbers with ⎚ or the pure Korean numbers with 䟊 can be used. Although both have identical meanings, the Sino-Korean system is more commonly heard these days:

ⳝ䟊

ⳝ⎚

how many years?

䞲䟊

㧒⎚

one year

⚦䟊

㧊⎚

two years

㎎䟊

㌒⎚

three years

or

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2.4.4.2

Months

To express the names of the months, use the Sino-Korean numbers in combination with 㤪 ‘month’. Note that 㥶㤪 ‘June’ and 㔲㤪 ‘October’ are irregular forms:

㧒㤪

January

㧊㤪

February

㌒㤪

March

㌂㤪

April

㡺㤪

May

㥶㤪

June

䂶㤪

July

䕪㤪

August

ῂ㤪

September

㔲㤪

October

㕃㧒㤪

November

㕃㧊㤪

December

For counting years and months, both number systems can be used, but with different counters. The Sino-Korean system appears with Ṳ㤪 and the pure Korean numbers are accompanied with ╂; both means of expression are commonly heard in spoken Korean. With the pure Korean system note that, for three and four, ㎎ and ⍺ may be replaced by ㍳ and ⍟, particularly in the speech of older generations:

ⳝ╂

ⳝ Ṳ㤪

how many months

䞲╂

㧒 Ṳ㤪

one month

⚦╂

㧊 Ṳ㤪

two months

㎎/㍳ ╂

㌒ Ṳ㤪

three months

⍺/⍟ ╂

㌂ Ṳ㤪

four months

2.4.4.3

or

Weeks

Korean has two expressions that correspond to ‘week’, 㭒Ṛ and 㭒㧒, which can both appear either with the pure Korean or Sino-Korean numerals. However, the most common way to count weeks is to abbreviate 㭒㧒 to 㭒 and use Sino-Korean numbers:

90

ⳝ㭒

how many weeks

㧒㭒

one week

㧊㭒

two weeks

㌒㭒

three weeks

㌂㭒

four weeks

2.4.4.4


Days

When expressing the day of the month, the Sino-Korean system is used in combination with 㧒 followed optionally by ⋶ in colloquial Korean:

㡺㧒O⋶P

the fifth of the month

Without the addition of ⋶, this pattern can also be used to count a duration of days:

㌒㕃㧒

30 days

Although this pattern is used exclusively for counting periods of 30 days or more, other systems exist for smaller numbers. First, for periods under 20 days, there is a special set of vocabulary that can be used instead. The special words for ‘one day’ and ‘two days’ in the following list remain the most common ways to express these periods in Korean. However, although one may sometimes hear the expressions for three, four and ten days, most of the other expressions are fairly rare in the speech of younger Koreans, who prefer instead to use Sino-Korean numbers with 㧒:

䞮⬾

one day

㧊䔖

two days

㌂䦮

three days

⋮䦮

four days

╍㌞

five days

㡕㌞

six days

㧊⩞

seven days

㡂✲⩞

eight days

㞚䦦⩞

nine days

㡊䦮

ten days

㡊䞮⬾

11 days

㡊㧊䔖

12 days

㡊㌂䦮

13 days

㡊 ⋮䦮

14 days

㡊╍㌞

15 days

㡊㡕㌞

16 days

㡊㧊⩞

17 days

㡊㡂✲⩞

18 days

㡊㞚䦦⩞

19 days

In addition, it is also possible to express a date by combining the pure Korean numbers with ⋶. Some speakers, particularly those of older generations, use this to count from 21 to 29 days. However, from 30 days, this means of expression is never used:

㓺ⶊ⋶

20 days

㓺ⶊ䞮⬾

21 days

㓺ⶊ㧊䔖

22 days

㓺ⶊ㌂䦮

23 days

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2.4.4.5

Telling the time

To tell the time in Korean, you use the pure Korean numerals followed by 㔲 which is equivalent to ‘o’clock’:

䞲㔲

one o’clock

㡂㎅㔲

six o’clock

㡊⚦㔲

12 o’clock

To say ‘half past’ you put ⹮ ‘and a half’ after this expression:

䞲㔲⹮

㎎㔲⹮

1:30

3:30

㡊䞲㔲⹮

11:30

A specific number of minutes after the hour is expressed by Sino-Korean numbers with ⿚ ‘minute’ after the expression:

䞲㔲㧊㕃⿚

1:20

㡂㎅㔲㕃㡺⿚

㡊䞲㔲㡺㕃㡺⿚

11:55

6:15

To express the number of minutes before the hour, you use the same expression but add 㩚 ‘before’ at the end:

䞲㔲㕃⿚㩚

ten minutes to one (lit. one o’clock ten minutes before)

┺㎅㔲㕃㡺⿚㩚

quarter to five (lit. five o’clock 15 minutes before)

For ‘am’ and ‘pm’, you use 㡺㩚 ‘am’ and 㡺䤚 ‘pm’ at the beginning of the expression:

㡺㩚㎎㔲

3am

㡺䤚 ⍺ 㔲

4pm

In spoken language, 㞚䂾 ‘in the morning’ or ㌞⼓ ‘in the early morning, in the small hours, at dawn’ are typically used in place of 㡺㩚 ‘am’. Although 㡺䤚 ‘pm’ is used in spoken language, it is only generally applied to mean ‘in the afternoon’. To say ‘in the evening’ or ‘at night’, 㩖⎗ and ⹺ are used instead:

㌞⼓㎎㔲

three o’clock in the morning

㞚䂾㧒὇ 㔲

seven o’clock in the morning

㡺䤚 ⍺ 㔲

four o’clock in the afternoon

㩖⎗ 㧒὇ 㔲

seven o’clock in the evening

⹺ 㞚䢟㔲 ⹮

half past nine in the evening

To say ‘exactly such-and-such a time’, you put 㩫ṗ after the time expression: 92

䞲㔲 ⹮ 㩫ṗO㠦P

(at) exactly 1:30

The word 㔲 means ‘hour’ only in the sense of a point in time, an ‘o’clock’. For length or duration of time, 㔲Ṛ ‘hour’ is used (㔲Ṛ also means ‘time’ in general):

㡂㎅㔲Ṛ 㧒䟞㠊㣪.

I worked (for) six hours.

ⳝ 㔲Ṛ 㧒䟞㠊㣪f

How many hours did you work?

2.4.4.6


Giving the date

Dates are given in Korean by giving the year first (followed by the counter ⎚), then the month (㤪) and finally the day (㧒).

YWWÒ㧊㻲ῂP⎚ XYO㕃㧊P㤪 XWO㕃P㧒

10th December 2009

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Chapter 3

Particles

Overview This chapter looks at a special category of words in Korean: particles (㫆㌂), which are also in some contexts referred to as ‘postpositions’. These particles are attached to the end of nouns (and sometimes other kinds of words) to signal their grammatical function or to add extra meaning. Two kinds of particles are identified and discussed in turn: case particles (ỿ㫆㌂) and special particles (⽊㫆㌂ or 䔏㑮㫆㌂). Case particles are used to express the syntactic role of the noun or noun phrase to which they are attached. Special particles are used only to add to the meaning; for example, they are used for emphasis and focus.

3.1

Defining particles

Korean particles indicate or provide further information regarding the grammatical function of words in a sentence. The use of particles in Korean contrasts with their absence in English, where word order rather than any grammatical marker tells speakers of English how words relate to each other in a sentence. In the following English sentence, for example, we know that Mia is the subject of the sentence because ‘Mia’ comes before the verb and that the ‘snake’ is the object of the sentence because ‘a snake’ comes after the verb. The sentence can only be taken to mean that it was Mia who ate the snake (and not the snake that ate Mia):

Mia ate a snake. 94

In Korean, identifying the grammatical role of words simply through word order is complicated by the fact that word order is relatively flexible

(see 1.1.2.1). Speakers thus rely primarily on particles rather than word order to interpret the grammatical function of different words. To be sure, Korean has a common word order for simplex sentences that is subject – object – verb (see 1.1.2.1). However, with appropriate use of particles, the same meaning can be achieved by putting the object before the subject. Thus, even though the following two sentences have different word orders, due to use of particles they can both only be interpreted as meaning that it was Mia who ate the snake (and not the snake that ate Mia):

⹎㞚Ṗ ⺖㦚 Mia-SUBJECT snake-OBJECT Mia ate the snake.

Case particles

ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. ate

⺖㦚 ⹎㞚Ṗ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. snake-OBJECT Mia-SUBJECT ate Mia ate the snake. ‘Subject’ and ‘object’ are just two of the grammatical roles (or ‘cases’) that particles can signal. Particles are also used to mark possession (like ‘apostrophe s’ or ‘of’ in English), location (like English ‘in’, ‘at’, ‘to’, ‘from’, etc.), means or method (like ‘by’ in English) and a host of other meanings such as ‘and’, ‘only’, ‘even’, ‘every’, ‘about’, ‘like’, etc. Korean particles can be divided into two categories: case particles, which are used to express the grammatical role of the noun or noun phrase to which they are attached, and special particles, which are used to express extra additional meanings. The following sections discuss these two sets of particles in turn.

3.2

Case particles

Case particles mark the syntactic function of nouns appearing in the sentence. This section looks at seven kinds of case particles: subject, object, possessive, movement/location, instrumental, comitative and vocative.

3.2.1

The subject particle 㧊 / Ṗ

The subject particle is one of several ‘two-shape’ particles; in other words, it has two different forms depending on whether it is attached to a noun that ends in a consonant or a noun that ends in a vowel. 㧊 is the form that occurs after a consonant and Ṗ after a vowel. When talking about an elder,

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3 Particles

status superior, etc. who needs to be referred to using honorifics, an alternative subject particle should (or at least can) be used: ℮㍲ (see 4.4.1.3). The words ⋮ ‘I (plain)’, 㩖 ‘I (humble)’, ⍞ ‘you’ and ⑚ῂ ‘who?’ have altered shapes before this particle. They are as follows:

⋮

m

⌊Ṗ

㩖

m

㩲Ṗ

⍞

m

⍺Ṗ (frequently pronounced as [┞Ṗ] in colloquial speech)

⑚ῂ

m

⑚Ṗ

The basic usage of 㧊/Ṗ is to signal that the noun to which it is attached is the grammatical subject of the sentence. In colloquial speech, when the grammatical status of the noun in question as sentence subject is obvious from context, 㧊/Ṗ may frequently be dropped.

ⰞⰂṖ ⰻ㭒⯒ Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪.

Mari drank beer.

䋺㥚Ṗ ⍞ⶊ ゚㕎㣪.

The kiwis are too expensive.

䞲ῃ㠦㡾㰖 X⎚㧊 ♮㠞㠊㣪.

One year has passed since I came to Korea.

However, there are a number of expressions in Korean in which what is marked with the subject particle would not necessarily be considered the subject in English or other languages. Firstly, 㧊/Ṗ appears with the verb ♮– ‘become’ in sentences such as the following:

㦮㌂Ṗ ♮ἶ 㕌㠊㣪.

I want to become a doctor.

Furthermore, the subject particle (and not the object particle) is used when talking about someone (not) having something (with the verbs 㧞– and 㠜–), someone having many of something (Ⱔ–) and someone needing something (䞚㣪䞮–). These constructions literally mean ‘for me, . . . exists/ doesn’t exist’, ‘for me, . . . are plentiful’ and ‘for me, . . . is necessary’ and hence the subject marker is correct. The first noun is marked either by the topic marker (see 3.3.2.1) or by the locative 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4), but see the later discussions.

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㩖⓪ 㧦㩚ỆṖ 㧞㠊㣪.

I have a bicycle. (lit. ‘for me, a bicycle (SUBJECT) exists’)

㩖⓪ 㡺䏶⹪㧊Ṗ 㠜㠊㣪.

I don’t have a motorbike. (lit. ‘for me, a motorbike (SUBJECT) doesn’t exist’)

㥶⹎⓪ 㔶⹲㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪.

Yumi has many shoes. (lit. ‘for Yumi, many shoes (SUBJECT) exist’)

⹒䢎⓪ 㔲Ṛ㧊䞚㣪䟊㣪.

Minho needs time. (lit. ‘for Minho, time (SUBJECT) is needed’)

Case particles

Similarly, in place of sentences such as ‘I like’ or ‘I hate’, Korean frequently uses constructions that translate directly as ‘for me, . . . is good’ or ‘for me, . . . is hateful’. Such constructions result in similar patterns of particle use as above (and in turns of phrase quite distinct to anything found in English):

㩖⓪ 㥶⹎Ṗ 㫡㞚㣪.

I like Yumi. (lit. ‘for me, Yumi (SUBJECT) is good’)

㩖⓪ ⺖㧊㕁㠊㣪.

I hate snakes. (lit. ‘for me, snakes (SUBJECT) are hateful’)

⹎㞚⓪ ╖䞲⹒ῃ㧊 ⍞ⶊ 㧦⧧㓺⩂㤶㠊㣪.

Mia was so proud of Korea. (lit. ‘for Mia, Korea (SUBJECT) was so proud’)

As noted, in the above examples, the first noun is most commonly marked by the topic particle (see 3.3.2.1) (or the locative 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢, see 3.2.4.4). However, with a slightly different nuance, the topic particle can be replaced by the subject particle, resulting in a clause with two apparent subjects. Use of the subject particle works to place more focus on the first noun (resulting in the translations ‘it is . . . who/that’) (see 3.3.2.1):

㥶⹎Ṗ 㔶⹲㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪.

It is Yumi who has many shoes.

㩲Ṗ ⺖㧊㕁㠊㣪.

It is I who hates snakes.

A second circumstance in which these apparent ‘double-subject’ sentences occur is with possessive constructions. Here, the first noun could also be marked with the possessive particle 㦮 (see 3.2.3). Use of the subject particle instead brings the first noun into more focus and results in translations such as ‘it is . . . who/that . . .’:

㥶⹎Ṗ ☯㌳㧊㡞ㄦ㣪.

It is Yumi whose younger sister is pretty.

⹒㑮Ṗ ⑞㧊䄺㣪.

It is Minsu whose eyes are big.

Whether both of the nouns in these kinds of sentences actually constitute grammatical subjects per se is a complex argument that is still being debated by Korean linguists! The most difficult issue connected with use of the subject particle is choosing between this particle and the topic particle, which may, under certain conditions, replace the subject particle (see 3.3.2.1).

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3 Particles

3.2.2

The object particle 㦚 /⯒

The object particle is a two-shape particle: 㦚 is used after a consonant and ⯒ is used after a vowel. In colloquial speech, after a vowel, ⯒ is often abbreviated to just –ඥ, especially in common expressions such as ⋶ ‘me’, and 㧊Ỏ ‘this thing’. Also, in colloquial speech, 㦚/⯒ may frequently be dropped when the status of the noun in question as sentence object is obvious from context. This tends to occur particularly with common noun–verb combinations such as ⹻ ⲏ㠊㣪 ‘eat rice’. In most cases nouns marked by 㦚/⯒ correspond directly to the concept of ‘object’ in English. In colloquial speech, given the fact that 㦚/⯒ can be omitted if the noun’s ‘object-hood’ is clear, inclusion of 㦚/⯒ can work to place extra emphasis on the noun in question:

㏢䕢㠦㞟㞚䎪⩞゚㩚㦚⽺㠊㣪.

I sat on the sofa and watched television.

㞚₆Ṗ 㧶㦚㧮㧦㣪.

The baby sleeps (lit. ‘sleeps a sleep’) well.

㞚㩖㝾Ṗ 䔎⪲䔎㦢㞛㦚㫡㞚䟊㣪.

The man likes ‘trot’ music.

Although the object will most generically appear after the subject, the use of grammatical marking on both means that the word order can change without altering the meaning in any way. Thanks to the use of particles, the following two sentences can both only be interpreted as meaning ‘mother sees baby’ (and never ‘baby sees mother’):

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞶₆⯒ ⽦㣪.

Mother sees baby.

㞶₆⯒ 㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ ⽦㣪.

Mother sees baby.

As previously noted, in spoken Korean, either the subject or object particle may be dropped. If only one particle drops, there is still no problem interpreting the sentence: 㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞶₆ ⽦㣪 and 㠊Ⲏ┞ 㞶₆⯒ ⽦㣪 can only mean ‘mother sees baby’. If both particles are omitted, the sentence could become ambiguous. However, without any marking, the noun phrases in the sentence would usually be interpreted as subject-object order: 㠊Ⲏ┞ 㞶₆ ⽦㣪 normally means ‘mother sees baby’.

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Let us now examine some complications regarding the use of 㦚/⯒, including some usages in which it marks a noun that does not appear to be the actual object as such. As well as marking the sentence object, 㦚/⯒ can also appear as a locative marker where we would more commonly expect

to see 㠦 ‘to/in/at’ (see 3.2.4.1) in the first two examples and 㠦㍲ ‘from’ (see 3.2.4.2) in the last two:

Case particles

ⰞⰂṖ ⼧㤦㦚䢒㧦 Ṫ㠊㣪. Mari went to the hospital alone. 㑮㣪㧒 Ⱎ┺ 㣪Ⰲ 䞯㤦㦚 ┺⎖㣪. I attend cookery school every Wednesday. ⺇䢪㩦㦚 ⋮㢖㍲㔲㧻㦒⪲ Ṫ㠊㣪. After leaving the department store, I went to the market. 䟊Ṗ 㰖㧦㌆㦚 ⌊⩺㢪㠊㣪. When the sun set, we came down from the mountain. In the sentences above, using 㦚/⯒ in place of 㠦 or 㠦㍲ does not result in any important shift in meaning. However, when 㦚/⯒ replaces 㠦㍲ in its ‘dynamic location’ function (see 3.2.4.2), an important change may take place. In the following examples, whereas 㠦㍲ merely depicts that the activity happened in the given place, 㦚/⯒ signals that the subject of the sentence performed the activity right across the given place from start to finish:

㠦㍲

㦚 /⯒

⹒䢎Ṗ 㤊☯㧻㠦㍲ ⥆㠞㠊㣪. Minho went running at the playing field.

⹒䢎Ṗ 㤊☯㧻㦚 ⥆㠞㠊㣪. Minho ran right round the playing field.

⑚⋮Ṗ ṫ㠦㍲䠺㠚㼺㠊㣪. Older sister swam in the river.

⑚⋮Ṗ ṫ㦚䠺㠚㼦 Ị⍲㠊㣪. Older sister swam across the river.

One further use of 㦚/⯒ worth mentioning is before expressions ending in –O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1). These include . . . 㦚/⯒ ⳿㩗㦒⪲ ‘with the purpose/ intention of’, . . . 㦚/⯒ ₆㭖㦒⪲ ‘according to the basis/standard of’, . . . 㦚/⯒ ╖㌗㦒⪲ ‘aimed at’, . . . 㦚/⯒ ⊳㦒⪲ ‘ending with’ and . . . 㦚/⯒ 䏶 ╖⪲ ‘based on’. These expressions are generally formal and/or bookish.

㧊⿚㦚 ⊳㦒⪲ ▪ 㧊㌗ ⹱㰖㞠Ỷ㔋┞┺. Ending with this person, we’re not going to accept any more. 㨂㧒☯䙂㢖 ἆ䢒㦚 ⳿㩗㦒⪲ 㧒⽎㠦㧛ῃ䞮⩺ἶ 䞿┞┺. I’m going to enter Japan with the intention of marrying a Japanese Korean. As a final point, similar to the way that 㧊/Ṗ can appear twice in one clause (see 3.2.1), this can also happen with 㦚/⯒. In informal speech,

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㦚/⯒ can be used where we would normally expect the possessive 㦮 (see 3.2.3) on the first noun in sentences such as the following:

㦮

㦚 /⯒

ṲṖ ⹒㑮㦮 ┺Ⰲ⯒ ⶒ㠞㠊㣪. The dog bit Minsu’s leg.

ṲṖ ⹒㑮⯒ ┺Ⰲ⯒ ⶒ㠞㠊㣪. The dog bit Minsu in the leg.

⹎㞚Ṗ 㥶⹎㦮㢍㦚㧷㞮㠊㣪. Mia grabbed Yumi’s clothes.

⹎㞚Ṗ 㥶⹎⯒ 㢍㦚㧷㞮㠊㣪. Mia grabbed Yumi by her clothes.

As can be appreciated in the different English translations, by marking both nouns with the object marker, the sentences in the second column emphasize that the actions of the dog and of Mia affected Minsu and Yumi, respectively, more directly. Such double use of the object marker can only be employed when the second noun is something such as a body part or piece of clothing that is in a relationship of inalienable possession or contiguity with the first noun (refer to Yeon (2003) for more on double-object and double-subject constructions). Double object constructions may also appear in colloquial speech in sentences such as the following, where the first noun would more normally be marked with 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 ‘to (a person or animal)’. Such usage should be understood as casual usage that does not result in any shift in meaning:

⹒㑮Ṗ Ṳ⯒ ⹻㦚 ⲏ㡖㠊㣪.

3.2.3

Minsu fed the dog.

The possessive particle 㦮

This one-shape particle is most commonly pronounced as [㠦] (although you might occasionally hear [㦮] in careful speech). When 㦮 attaches to the pronouns ⋮ ‘I (plain)’, 㩖 ‘I (humble)’ and ⍞ ‘you’, the resulting construction is frequently abbreviated as follows:

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Pronoun

Full possessive form

Abbreviated possessive form

⋮

⋮㦮

⌊

㩖

㩖㦮

㩲

⍞

⍞㦮

⍺

In its most basic usage, 㦮 operates similarly to ‘apostrophe s’ or ‘of’ in English to indicate possession or alternatively that the noun in front modifies, describes or limits the meaning of the second one. The following

examples illustrate the simple possessive meaning of 㦮 (which translates as ‘apostrophe s’):

⹒䢎㦮㺛㧊㠦㣪f

Is this Minho’s book?

㠊ⓦ ⿚㦮㧷㰖㡞㣪f

Whose (lit. ‘which esteemed person’s’) magazine is it?

㥶⹎㦮㡆䞚㧊㠦㣪, ⹎⋮㦮㡆䞚㧊㠦㣪f

Is it Yumi’s pencil, or is it Mina’s?

Case particles

The following examples show some further usages of 㦮:

㡞㑶㦮㞚⯚┺㤖 the beauty of art

↙㦮䟻₆ the scent of flowers

╖䐋⪏㦮 ⹎ῃ ⹿ⶎ the president’s trip to the USA

㞚䕢䔎㦮㭒㧎 the apartment’s owner

㿫䞮㦮㧪䂮 a party of celebration ( a celebratory party)

㓺㔏㦮 ⋶ teacher’s day

㾲㍶㦮㍶䌳 the choice of the best ( the best choice)

㌂⧧㦮 Ṧ㩫 the feeling of love

XWW 䌂⪲㦮 ⴎⶊỢ a body weight of 100 kilos

㑲⁞㦮⽊㍳ jewellery of pure gold

⌊ 㤪 㦮 ⚦ ⺆ two times (that of ) my salary

䟟㤊㦮㡂㔶 the goddess of luck

It should be noted that, more so than any other particle, 㦮 is liable to be frequently omitted in casual spoken language. You may frequently hear sentences such as the following that have no overt marking of possession:

㥶⹎ 㔶⹲㧊 ⍞ⶊ 㡞ㄦ㣪.

Yumi’s shoes are so pretty.

㞚⌊ ㎇ỿ㦖㠊Ⲏ┞㢖゚㔍䟊㣪.

My wife’s personality is similar to my mother’s.

However, there may be times when the inclusion of 㦮 is required since, without it, ambiguity may occur or an alternative meaning may be produced:

With 㦮

Without 㦮

⹒䢎㦮䡫㧊⿖㰖⩆䟊㣪. ⹒䢎䡫㧊⿖㰖⩆䟊㣪. Minho’s older brother is hardworking. Older brother Minho is hardworking.

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One important difference between English and Korean possessives is that the Korean possessive must always be followed by another noun. Therefore, Korean cannot form sentences such as the English ‘this is John’s’ or ‘this is mine’. To communicate the same meaning, Korean can make use of the unspecific bound/dependent noun ộ ‘the thing, the one’, which can be abbreviated to Ệ in casual speech (see 2.1.2.1). As in the second and third examples that follow, 㦮 may be frequently omitted in this function as well:

⁎ 㺛㧊㍶㌳┮㦮 ộ㧊㠦㣪.

That book is the teacher’s.

⁎ 㧊Ⲫ㧒㭒㏢⓪ ⹒㑮㝾 Ệ㡞㣪.

That e-mail address is Minsu’s.

㧊 Ị ⌊ Ệ㟒H [INTIMATE]

This is mine!

㦮 also appears after other particles such as 㠦 ‘to/in/at’, 㠦㍲ ‘in/at’, ὒ/㢖 ‘and/with’ and O㦒P⪲⿖䎆 ‘from’. The reason for this is that phrases ending in 㠦㍲, ὒ/㢖 and O㦒P⪲⿖䎆 cannot directly modify a noun. Therefore, although you can say ‘we spent a day in Paris’, you cannot say ‘the day in Paris’ without the addition of 㦮 (giving a phrase that literally means ‘the day of in Paris’):

䕢Ⰲ㠦㍲䞮⬾⯒ ⽊⌞㠊㣪. We spent a day in Paris.

䕢Ⰲ㠦㍲㦮䞮⬾⓪ ₎㠞㠊㣪. The day that we spent in Paris was long.

䂲ῂ㢖㦮㟓㏣

a promise to a friend

⹪┺⪲⿖䎆㦮㍶ⶒ

a present from the sea

㥶⩓㠦㍲㦮䞲ῃ䞯

Korean studies in Europe

㍲㟧ὒ㦮㼁Ⱒ⋾

the first meeting with the West

3.2.4

Particles of movement and location

The particles covered in this section mark location in/at a certain place or otherwise movement towards/away from a given location/person.

3.2.4.1

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㠦 ‘to/in/at’

㠦 is a one-shape particle that has two distinct main usages, which we will consider in turn: usage as a particle of movement and usage as a particle of location.

As a particle of movement, 㠦 is used like ‘to’ (or ‘at’ and ‘in’) in English to express movement towards a location or goal. Note that, in this usage (and generally speaking in this usage only), 㠦 can be dropped in colloquial speech.

Case particles

⹎⋮Ṗ 㕇Ṗ䙂⯊㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪. Mina went to Singapore. ⹒㑮Ṗ Ὃ⿖䞮⩂ ☚㍲ὖ㠦G㢪㠊㣪. Minsu came to the library to study. 㤆Ⰲ 㡺ザ⓪ ╖䞯㠦㧛䞯䟞㠊㣪. My brother entered university. 㠊❪㠦 Ṗ㣪f Where are you going? This usage extends to talking about putting something ‘in’ a certain place, adding something to something, or writing or otherwise recording something somewhere, etc. In this usage, 㠦 may sometimes be substituted for 㠦┺OṖP (see 3.2.4.2).

☞㦚㭒Ⲏ┞㠦 ⍹㠞㠊㣪.

I put the money in my pocket.

䞲㰖㠦㧊⯚㦚㗒㠊㣪.

I wrote my name on Korean paper.

䞮✲㠦䕢㧒㦚㩖㧻䟞㠊㣪.

I saved the file onto the hard drive.

⽟䒂㠦㤆䚲⯒ ⿯㠞㠊㣪.

I stuck a stamp on the envelope.

Ⱎ╏㠦㌂ὒ ⋮ⶊ⯒ 㕂㠞㠊㣪.

I planted an apple tree in the yard.

㠦 is also used when talking about giving, sending, reporting, etc. something ‘to’ a non-animate entity (such as a place, institution, etc.). When the referent is human (or animal), 㠦Ợ or 䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4) is used instead.

⹒䢎㍶ⶒ㦚 ⹒䢎㦮㰧㠦⽊⌞㠊㣪. I sent Minho’s present to his house. 㫆㌂ ἆὒ⯒ 䣢㌂㠦⽊ἶ䟞㠊㣪. I reported the survey results to the office. 㞚㧊⯒ 㥶䂮㤦㠦 ⰷỾ ⏩ἶ 㿲⁒䟊㣪. I entrust my children to a kindergarten and go to work. We now move on to consider the use of 㠦 as a marker of location. In this usage, 㠦 operates like ‘in’ or ‘at’ in English when talking about someone/something being somewhere in a static state. Note, however, that

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not 㠦 but 㠦㍲ is used when talking about someone/something performing a dynamic action in a certain place (see 3.2.4.3).

㤆Ⰲ⓪ ᾦ㔺㠦㧞㠊㣪. We’re in the classroom. ⹒䢎Ṗ 䞯ᾦ㠦㠜㠊㣪. Minho’s not at school. 㥶Ⰲ⓪ ⹪┻㠦㞟㞮ἶ 㥶⹎⓪ ㏢䕢㠦 ⑚㤶㠊㣪. Yuri sat on the floor and Yumi lay on the sofa. 㧊⳾⓪ 䃦⋮┺㠦㌊㞚㣪. My (maternal) aunt lives in Canada. Note that ㌊– ‘lives’ may appear with 㠦 as in the last example, but it may also appear with the dynamic marker 㠦㍲ (see 3.2.4.3). 㠦 is also the particle that is used to locate something in time. When you want to say ‘at’ six o’clock, ‘on’ Sunday, ‘in’ May, ‘in 2009’, etc., use 㠦:

]㔲㠦㧒㠊⋮㣪.

I get up at six o’clock.

㤪㣪㧒㠦㓂㠊㣪.

On Monday(s) I take it easy.

㞚䂾㠦㤆㥶⯒ ㌂㣪.

In the morning I buy milk.

YWWZ⎚ ]㤪㠦䞲ῃ㠦㻮㦢 Ṫ㠊㣪.

I first went to Korea in June 2003.

Let us now consider a few more marginal uses of 㠦. First, 㠦 can be used after a noun that constitutes the cause of a certain state or condition. In this usage, 㠦 can often be replaced by –O㦒⪲P (see 3.2.5.1) or ➢ⶎ㠦 (see 2.2.4.2):

⹪⧢㠦 ↙㧊 ┺ ⟾㠊㪢㠊㣪. The flowers were all blown over by the wind. ゚㠦㢍㧊㩬㠞㠊㣪. My clothes got soaked by the rain. 䃒㠦㏦㦚⻶㠞㠊㣪. I cut my finger with the knife.

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⁎ 㡂㧦 ἶ㤊 ⹎㏢㠦 ⌊ Ⱎ㦢㧊 ⏏㞚㣪. My heart melts at her beautiful smile.

Second, 㠦 can be used in expressions such as ‘A is (not) matched/appropriate/ close/comparable, etc. “to” B’ when B is inanimate (㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4) is used for people/animals):

Case particles

⼓㰖⓪ 㧊 ⹿㠦㠊㤎Ⰲ㰖㞠㞚㣪. This wallpaper does not match the room. 㡱⋶㦮㩫䂮⓪ 䡚㔺㠦 ⰴ㰖㞠㞚㣪. Old fashioned politics do not match the reality. ₆㹾Ṗ 㞚ⶊⰂ ゾ⧒㪎☚ ゚䟟₆㠦゚䞶㑮㠜㠊㣪. No matter how fast trains become, they can’t be compared to aeroplanes. Third, 㠦 is used like ‘for’ in English in expressions of quantity and price as follows:

㌂ὒ⓪ ┺㎅ Ṳ㠦 [SWWW㤦㧊㠦㣪. The apples are (selling at) five for 4,000 won. ⺆⓪ 㻲㤦㠦 ⚦ Ṳ㡞㣪. The pears are 1,000 won for four. ὒ㧦⓪ 䞲㌂⧢㠦䞲 Ṳ㝿㧊㠦㣪. The snacks are one for each person. Fourth, 㠦 can be used to say that something is ‘in addition to’ or ‘on top of’ something else:

⹒㑮⓪ 㧮㌳₊ 㠒Ὴ㠦䋺Ṗ 䄺㣪. Minsu has a handsome face and, on top of that, he is tall. 㧦㧻Ⳋ㠦䌫㑮㥷㦚㔲䆆㠊㣪. I ordered black bean noodles and, on top of that, sweet and sour pork. Finally, 㠦 forms an integral part of a large number of common expressions, including . . . 㠦 ὖ䞮㡂 ‘regarding’, . . . 㠦 ╖䟊㍲ ‘about’, . . . 㠦㦮䞮Ⳋ ‘according to’ and . . . 㠦 ➆⧒ ‘in accordance with’:

㡂㑮䒂㠊㠦 ὖ䞮㡂 ⶎ㦮 ✲Ⱃ┞┺. I would like to make enquiries regarding the tour to Yeosu. 㞚㰗䞲ῃ 㡃㌂㠦 ╖䟊㍲ ⳾⯊⓪ Ợ 㩫Ⱖ Ⱔ㞚㣪. There are still many things I don’t know about Korean history. 䐋Ἒ㠦㦮䞮Ⳋ ⹎ῃ ⌊㠦 ^WWSWWWⳛ㦮㦮㌂Ṗ 㧞㔋┞┺. According to the statistics, there are 700,000 doctors in the USA. 㡆⪏㠦 ➆⧒ 㑶㠦䀾䞮⓪ 㩫☚Ṗ ┺⯊┺. [PLAIN] The effects of alcohol differ with age.

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3.2.4.2

㠦┺OṖP ‘in/on’

In colloquial speech, the particle 㠦 is sometimes replaced by 㠦┺OṖP when talking about actions that, generally speaking, involve placing something ‘in’ or ‘on’ something else (or doing something ‘in’ or ‘on’ something else):

㺛㌗㥚㠦┺ ⏩㞚㭒㎎㣪. Please put it on top of the desk for me. ㌂㰚㦖䢞䞒㠦┺Ṗ 㢂⪎㔋┞┺. I uploaded the photo onto my homepage. 䋆 ⌚゚㠦┺Ṗ ㌌㦒㎎㣪. Boil it in a large saucepan. 㠒Ὴ㠦┺ ⹲⧒ ⽺㠊㣪. I tried rubbing it (the cream, etc.) on my face. 㠊₾㠦┺ ⶎ㔶㦚䟞㠊㣪. I had a tattoo on my shoulder. 㧊㫛㧊㠦┺Ṗ 㝆㎎㣪. Write it on this paper. ㏢㭒㠦┺Ṗ ἶ㿪 Ṗ⬾⯒ 䌖 ⲏ㦒Ⳋ Ṧ₆Ṗ ⋮㞚㰞 Ệ㡞㣪. If you mix chilli powder into soju and drink it, your cold will get better. 㠦┺OṖP can also replace 㠦 when the meaning is ‘in addition to’ or ‘on top of’:

⧒Ⳋ㠦┺Ṗ ₖ⹻㧊㠊㤎Ⰺ₢㣪f In addition to ramen, would kimbap go well? 㥶⹎⓪ 㡞㊲㠒Ὴ㠦┺Ṗ 㫡㦖㎇ỿ₢㰖㧞㠊㣪. On top of having a pretty face, Yumi even has a good personality. When this form combines with the question word 㠊❪ ‘where’, you might hear the contracted form 㠊❪┺ or the colloquial 㠊➆:

㠊❪┺ ⏩㦚₢㣪f Where shall I put it? ☞㧊㌳ἒ⓪◆ 㠊➆ 㖾㟒 ♶₢㣪f I’ve come into some money; where should I spend it? 106

3.2.4.3

㠦㍲ ‘from/in/at’

Case particles

㠦㍲ is a one-shape particle which, in colloquial speech, is liable to be abbreviated to ㍲, especially in the expression 㠊❪㍲ ‘from/at where’. 㠦㍲ has two distinct main usages that we will look at in turn: usage as a particle of movement and usage as a particle of location. As a particle of movement, 㠦㍲ is used like ‘from’ in English to express movement away from a given departure point:

㡗ῃ㠦㍲㢪㔋┞┺. I came from the UK. ( I come from the UK) 䣢㌂㠦㍲ ṖⳊ 䞲㔲Ṛ Ỏ⩺㣪. If you go from the office, it takes one hour. ㍲㤎㠦㍲㿲⹲䟞㠊㣪. I departed from Seoul. The place of departure may at times be more metaphorical:

⹒㑮Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦㍲㼃㏢⎚㦒⪲ ㎇㧻䟞㠊㣪. Minsu grew from a child into an adolescent. 㰞䒂㕂㠦㍲ ➢⪎㠊㣪. I hit him/her out of jealousy. 㤆Ⰲ 㧛㧻㠦㍲⽊Ⳋ Ⱔ㧊⿖㫇䟊㣪. If we look at it from our position, it is insufficient. This usage extends to instances where the speaker is talking about ‘from’ one place or time ‘to’ another. The second noun is commonly marked with ₢㰖 (see 3.3.3.5). In this function, ⿖䎆 (see 3.3.3.4) could be used following 㠦㍲ as indicated in brackets. ⿖䎆 could also simply replace 㠦㍲.

㥶⹎Ṗ ⲎⰂ㠦㍲O⿖䎆P ⹲⊳₢㰖㡞ㄦ㣪. Yumi is pretty from head to toe. ㍲㤎㠦㍲O⿖䎆P ⿖㌆₢㰖 ⍺ 㔲Ṛ Ỏ⩺㣪. It takes four hours from Seoul to Busan. 䞲㔲㠦㍲O⿖䎆P ⚦ 㔲₢㰖㩦㕂㔲Ṛ㧊㠦㣪. Lunch time is from one to two o’clock. Furthermore, this pattern with 㠦㍲ is used for talking about extracting or taking something out of or from somewhere:

㭒Ⲏ┞㠦㍲㌂䌫㦚 ℒ⌞㠊㣪. I took some sweets out of my pocket.

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㞾⻪㠦㍲ ⑚⋮ ㌂㰚䞲㧻㦚ユ㠊㣪. I took a photo of my older sister out of the album. 㧎䎆⎍㠦㍲⻶⅞㠊㣪. I copied it from the Internet. 㠦㍲ is also used when talking about ‘receiving’ something ‘from’ a non-animate place or institution. For a human (or animal), 㠦Ợ㍲/䞲䎢㍲ (see 3.2.4.5) is used instead.

䣢㌂㠦㍲㩚䢪Ṗ 㢪㠊㣪. I received a phone call from the office. 䞯ᾦ㠦㍲㧻䞯⁞㦚 ⹱㞮㠊㣪. I received a scholarship from the school. 㧊㺛㠦㍲ Ⱔ㦖㡗䟻㦚 ⹱㞮㠊㣪. I received a lot of influence from this book. We now move on to look at 㠦㍲ as a marker of location. In this usage, 㠦㍲ operates like ‘in’ or ‘at’ in English when talking about someone or something performing a dynamic action in a certain place. This contrasts with the use of 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1), which can only be used when talking about someone or something statically being, sitting, lying, living, etc. in a given place. Compare the following:

㠦

㠦㍲

⹎⋮Ṗ 䞯ᾦ㠦㧞㠊㣪. Mina is at school.

⹎⋮Ṗ 䞯ᾦ㠦㍲ Ὃ⿖䟊㣪. Mina is studying at school.

㥶⹎Ṗ ㏢䕢㠦 ⑚㤶㠊㣪. Yumi lay on the sofa.

㥶⹎Ṗ ㏢䕢㠦㍲㧺㠊㣪. Yumi slept on the sofa.

ỆⰂ㠦㌂⧢✺㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪. On the street, there are lots of people.

ỆⰂ㠦㍲㌂⧢✺㧊㿺㦚䀆㣪. On the street, people are dancing.

With some verbs both 㠦 or 㠦㍲ may be possible, but with subtly different nuances:

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㠦

㠦㍲

⹒㑮Ṗ ⿖㌆㠦㌊㞚㣪. Minsu lives in Busan.

⹒㑮Ṗ ⿖㌆㠦㍲㌊㞚㣪. Minsu lives in Busan.

䞯㌳✺㧊㑶㰧㠦 ⳾㡖㠊㣪. The students gathered at the pub.

䞯㌳✺㧊㑶㰧㠦㍲ ⳾㡖㠊㣪. The students gathered at the pub.

In both of the previous examples, use of 㠦㍲ instead of 㠦 places emphasis on the active qualities of the verbs ‘live’ and ‘gather’. With the first example, in addition to ‘Minsu lives in Busan’, the sentence could perhaps in certain contexts be taken to imply that Busan is the place where he does his business or makes a living.

Case particles

The ‘location’ provided with 㠦㍲ may also be something less tangible, such as an atmosphere or situation:

㫡㦖⿚㥚₆㠦㍲䣢㦮Ṗ 㰚䟟♮㠞㠊㣪. The meeting took place in a good atmosphere. 㧊㌗䢿㠦㍲ Ὃ⿖䞮₆Ṗ 㓓㰖㞠㞚㣪. It’s not easy to study in these circumstances. In addition to marking location per se, 㠦㍲ may sometimes appear to mark the subject of the sentence in place of 㧊/Ṗ (see 3.2.1). This most commonly occurs when discussing the services provided, the decisions made, etc. of a company or by another institution:

㧊゚㣿㦖䣢㌂㠦㍲⿖╊䞿┞┺.

The company will take on the expenses.

㧊⻫㦖 ⋮⧒㠦㍲㩫䟞㠊㣪.

The nation decided the law.

Note that some of the functions of 㠦㍲ can be covered alternatively by –O㦒P⪲⿖䎆 (see 3.2.4.6).

3.2.4.4

㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 ‘to’

㠦Ợ and 䞲䎢 are both one-shape particles that have identical usages, with 䞲䎢 being somewhat more colloquial. Note that the honorific ℮ should (or at least can) be used in place of 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 when the preceding noun is a person who needs to be talked about using honorifics (see 4.4.2.2). In their most basic usage, 㠦Ợ and 䞲䎢 are used when talking about giving, sending, or otherwise conveying something towards a person (or possibly animal):

⹎⋮Ṗ ⹒㑮㠦Ợ ㍶ⶒ㦚㭒㠞㠊㣪.

Mina gave a present to Minsu.

㥶⹎Ṗ ⹎⧒䞲䎢 ⏎⧮⯒ Ṗ⯊㼺㠊㣪. Yumi taught a song to Mira. 䂲ῂ䞲䎢 ⶒ㠊⽺㠊㣪.

I asked (‘to’) a friend.

╃㠦Ợ ⳾㧊⯒ 㭒㠞㠊㣪.

I gave feed to the chickens.

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㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 are also used when talking about moving towards someone:

⹎⋮Ṗ 㥶⹎㠦Ợ ┺Ṗ㢪㠊㣪. Mina came up to Yumi. 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 can also be used in place of the subject particle 㧊/Ṗ (see 3.2.1) or the topic particle 㦖/⓪ (see 3.3.2.1) in constructions containing the verbs of existence 㧞– ‘exist’, 㠜– ‘don’t exist’, or otherwise verbs such as ⋾– ‘left’, Ⱔ– ‘many’, 㩗– ‘few’, ㌳₆– ‘happen’:

⹒䢎㠦Ợ ⁎Ⱒ䞲 ☞㧊㠜㠊㣪. Minho doesn’t have that kind of money. ᾦ㑮┮㧊ア⩺ 㭒㔶㺛㦖㑮⹎㠦Ợ 㧞㠊㣪. The book that the professor lent out is with Yumi. 䡫㠦Ợ  䞲 ⶎ㩲Ṗ ㌳₊ ộ ṯ㞚㣪. Older brother seems to have a problem. In constructions such as these, 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 more commonly replaces the subject or topic particle when the second noun phrase is something specific and concrete rather than something general (for example, in the second sentence we are talking about a specific book rather than just ‘a book’ or books in general). Moving on to some more marginal uses of 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢, these particles are used in expressions such as ‘A is (not) matched/appropriate/close/comparable, etc. “to” B’ when B is a human or animal (㠦 is used for inanimate nouns):

㧊䂮Ⱎ⓪ 㥶⹎㠦Ợ 㠊㤎Ⰲ㰖㞠㞚㣪. This skirt does not suit Yumi. 㞚ザ㦮 ⳾㧦⓪ ⍞㠦Ợ ⍞ⶊ 䄺H [INTIMATE] Dad’s hat is too big for you! 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 is also used when talking about being caught, discovered, deceived, etc. ‘by’ someone:

☚⚧㧊 ἓ㺆㠦Ợ 㧷䡪㠊㣪. The thief was caught by the police. 㥶⹎Ṗ ⹒㑮㠦Ợ ㏣㞮㠊㣪. Yumi was deceived by Minsu. 110

Ṳ㠦Ợ ⶒ⪎㠊㣪. I was bitten by a dog.

Another use of 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 occurs when talking about making somebody do something. This pattern is looked at in more detail under discussions of causatives (see 4.6.2). In such sentences, 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 may be replaced by O㦒P⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ (see 3.2.4.7).

Case particles

㠚ⰞṖ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ 㑯㩲⯒ 䞮Ợ 䟞㠊㣪. Mother made the child do his/her homework. 㠚ⰞṖ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ ⶒ㦚 Ⱎ㔲Ợ 䟞㠊㣪. Mother made the child drink water. As a final note, both 㠦Ợ and 䞲䎢 are commonly used in place of 㠦Ợ ㍲ and 䞲䎢㍲ (particularly in casual colloquial speech) when talking about receiving something ‘from’ a human or animal. These usages are covered under discussions of 㠦Ợ㍲/䞲䎢㍲ (see 3.2.4.5).

3.2.4.5

㠦Ợ㍲/䞲䎢㍲ ‘from’

Whereas 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4) are used for talking about conveying something ‘to’ someone, the addition of ㍲ and the resultant 㠦Ợ㍲ and 䞲䎢㍲ take on the opposite meaning: receiving something ‘from’ a human or animal entity. Confusingly, however, it should be noted that, especially in casual speech, ㍲ is frequently dropped. This results in the same forms being used for ‘to’ and ‘from’. The following could therefore mean ‘to Minho’ or ‘from Minho’:

⹒䢎㠦Ợ

to/from Minho

The addition of a verb (and/or a context), however, always works to eliminate any ambiguity:

⹒䢎㠦Ợ ㍶ⶒ㦚㭒㠞㠊㣪.

I gave a present to Minho.

⹒䢎㠦Ợ ㍶ⶒ㦚 ⹱㞮㠊㣪.

I received a present from Minho.

Here are some further example sentences showing the use of 㠦Ợ㍲ and 䞲䎢㍲:

⋮䞲䎢㠊Ⲏ┞䞲䎢㍲䘎㰖Ṗ 㢪㠊㣪. A letter came from my mother to me. 䞲ῃ㧎䂲ῂ䞲䎢㍲㣫㦚 Ⱔ㧊⺆㤶㠊㣪. I learned a lot of swear words from my Korean friend. 㰗㧻㍶⺆㠦Ợ㍲㿿ἶ⯒ ✺㠞㠊㣪. I received advice from a senior at work.

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3.2.4.6

O㦒P⪲⿖䎆 ‘from’

O㦒P⪲⿖䎆 is a particle with two forms or shapes: O㦒P⪲ is used after a noun that ends in a vowel or the consonant ඥ; 㦒⪲ is used after all other consonants:

After vowels

After ඥ

After other consonants

⹪┺⪲⿖䎆 from the sea

Ⱎ㦚⪲⿖䎆 from villages

㌆㦒⪲⿖䎆 from mountains

This particle can be used in place of 㠦㍲ (with no change in meaning) when talking about movement away ‘from’ a non-human or non-animal entity. Although identical in meaning to 㠦㍲, the feeling is more formal. Indeed, this particle only tends to occur in writing and formal speech.

㌆㦒⪲⿖䎆㔲㤦䞲 ⹪⧢㧊⿞㠊㢪┺. A cool breeze came from the mountains. 㠎┞⪲⿖䎆㡗䟻㦚 Ⱔ㧊 ⹱㞮┺. I received a lot of influence from my big sister. ⁎ ⼧㦖 ⹎ῃ㦒⪲⿖䎆㩚㡒♮㠞┺. That disease spread from the USA. Ṗῂ⯒ 㞶㢚ἂ㦒⪲⿖䎆⽊䢎䞶㑮㧞㠊㣪. You can protect your furniture from your pet dog.

3.2.4.7

O㦒P⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ ‘letting/making (someone do something)’

The pseudo-particle expression O㦒P⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ is composed of the instrumental particle O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1) and the noun 䞮㡂⁞, meaning ‘letting’, ‘making’ or ‘forcing’. O㦒P⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ may be used in place of the particle 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4) when talking about allowing or forcing somebody to do something. This pattern commonly occurs with causative sentences (see 4.6.2) and can more frequently be observed in formal speech or writing.

䞯㌳✺⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ Ὃ⿖⯒ 䞮Ợ 䟞㠊㣪. He/she made the students study. ⁎ 㰗㠛㦖 ⹒㑮⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ 㠎⪶Ἒ⪲ ⋮㍲Ợ 䟞┺. [PLAIN] The job gave Minsu a start in journalism. 112

⁎ 㩚㨗㧊㧎䢎⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ 䘟䢪㭒㦮㧦Ṗ ♮Ợ 䟞┺. [PLAIN] The war made Inho into a pacifist.

3.2.5

Case particles

Instrumental particles

Instrumental particles are used to mark the instrument (tool, means, method, etc.) by which a task is performed. The principal instrumental particle in Korean is O㦒P⪲. We deal with this first, before considering the related particles O㦒P⪲㍲ and O㦒P⪲㖾.

3.2.5.1

O㦒P⪲ ‘by/with/as’

O㦒P⪲ is a particle with two forms or shapes: ⪲ is used after a noun that ends in a vowel or the consonant ඥ; 㦒⪲ is used after all other consonants:

After vowels

After ඥ

After other consonants

㫛㧊⪲ with paper

㡆䞚⪲ with a pencil

㺛㦒⪲ with a book

In its most basic meaning, O㦒P⪲ is used to mark the instrument by which a task is performed. The instrument may be a tool (e.g. write ‘with’ a pencil) or a means or method (e.g. go ‘by’ plane; speak ‘in’ English):

㡆䞚⪲ 䘎㰖⯒ 㗒㠊㣪.

I wrote a letter with a pencil.

㩩Ṗ⧓㦒⪲ ₖ䂮⯒ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪.

I ate kimchi with chopsticks.

゚䟟₆⪲ ṧ㔲┺.

Let’s go by plane.

㡗㠊⪲ Ⱖ䟞㠊㣪.

I spoke in English.

㑮㡗䞶 ➢ 㧛㦒⪲ 㑾㦚㓂㠊㟒䟊㣪.

When you swim, you have to breathe with your mouth.

ₖ ㍶㑮⓪ 䞒⋮⓪ ⏎⩻㦒⪲ ⁞Ⲫ╂㦚 ➚㠊㣪.

Athlete Kim won the gold medal by hard graft.

This usage extends to talking about the material or ingredients from which something is made or composed:

ₖ䂮⓪ ⺆㿪⪲ Ⱒ✺㠊㣪.

Kimchi is made from Chinese leaf.

⋮ⶊ⪲ 㰖㦖㰧㧊㠦㣪.

It’s a house made of wood.

The particle O㦒P⪲ can also be used, similar to ‘as’ or ‘for’ in English, when expressing the function or capacity in which something is being used.

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This extends to discussions of the capacity in which a human referent is performing a certain function:

㧊 ⹿㦚 ᾦ㔺⪲ 㖾㣪.

They use this room as a classroom.

䞯㌳㦒⪲ 䞲ῃ㠦㧞㠊㣪.

He is in Korea as a student.

⹒㑮Ṗ 㥶⹎⯒ 㞶㧎㦒⪲ ㌳ṗ䟊㣪.

Minsu thinks of Yumi as his girlfriend.

O㦒P⪲ can also be applied after adnominal forms with –㩗 (see 10.3.2.4).

㩫㡊㩗㦒⪲ Ὃ⿖䟊㣪.

He/she studies passionately.

⻫⮶㩗㦒⪲ ⽋㧷䟊㣪.

It is legally complicated.

Another use of O㦒P⪲ is when talking about exchanging something ‘for’ something else:

゚㕒 ộ㦚㕒 ộ㦒⪲ ⹪∾㠊㣪. I exchanged an expensive one for a cheap one. Similarly, O㦒P⪲ is also used when discussing a change from one state ‘into’ another (which may include breaking something into two or more pieces):

䋆 ⹪䊊⻢⩞⪲ ⼖䟞㠊㣪. He/she turned into a big cockroach. 㠊Ⰶ ↂⰞṖ ⲡ㰚㽳ṗ㦒⪲ ㎇㧻䟞㠊㣪. The little boy grew up into a handsome man. ⹪㰖⯒ 㡂⩂ Ṟ⧮⪲ 㹸㠞㠊㣪. I tore the trousers into several pieces. One more use of O㦒P⪲ is for expressing the reason for a resultant state or action. This most commonly occurs with names of illnesses, types of accidents, weather conditions, etc. that bring about a negative consequence:

䘦⼧㦒⪲ 㭓㠞㠊㣪. He died of tuberculosis. ᾦ䐋㌂ἶ⪲ 㭓㠞㠊㣪. He died because of a traffic accident. 114

ṧ㧦₆ ⌊Ⰶ ⑞㦒⪲ ᾦ䐋㧊 Ⱎ゚♮㠞㠊㣪. Due to the sudden snowfall, the transport system has become paralysed.

Finally, O㦒P⪲ can be used in place of 㠦 when talking about going/coming ‘to’ a place:

Case particles

㔲Ṛ㧊 ♮Ⳋ 㤆Ⰲ 㰧㦒⪲ 㡺㎎㣪. If you have time, come over to our house. ⹒㑮Ṗ 䢎㭒⪲ 㧊⹒㦚 Ṫ㠊㣪. Minsu emigrated to Australia. 㠊❪⪲ Ṗ㎎㣪f Where are you heading? Although in expressions such as the previous examples both O㦒P⪲ and 㠦 can be used, after expressions ending in 㴓 ‘way, direction, side’ (see 2.1.2.22), only O㦒P⪲ is used:

㡺⯎㴓㦒⪲ Ṗ㎎㣪.

Go to the right.

㧊㴓㦒⪲ 㡺㎎㣪.

Come this way.

3.2.5.2

O㦒P⪲㍲ ‘as’

O㦒P⪲㍲ can be used in place of O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1) when referring to the capacity in which someone (or something) is performing a certain function. Although simple O㦒P⪲ can be used for the same purpose, the addition of ㍲ adds a sense of emphasis or weight and is thus particularly useful when solemnly discussing the duties placed on someone (or on an institution) performing in a certain capacity:

㩖⓪ 㤆Ⰲ 䣢㌂㌂㧻㦒⪲㍲ ⳾✶ 㺛㧚㦚 Ṧ╏䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺. As president of this company, I will take full responsibility. 䒂ⳛ䞮ἶ Ὃ㩫䞲㦖䟟㦒⪲㍲㾲㍶㦚 ┺ 䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺. As a transparent and respected bank, we pledge to do our best.

3.2.5.3

O㦒P⪲㖾 ‘by means of’

O㦒P⪲㖾 can be used in place of O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1) when referring to the instrument (tool, means, method, etc.) by which a task is performed or the materials/ingredients by which something is made or composed. Note, however, that unlike O㦒P⪲, O㦒P⪲㖾 is not used when expressing means of transportation. The addition of 㖾 works to provide emphasis

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or a sense of formality. The resultant expressions tend to sound somewhat bookish:

䞲ῃ ㌂⧢✺㦖㑵Ṗ⧓ὒ 㩩Ṗ⧓㦒⪲㖾㦢㔳㦚 ⲏ⓪┺. [PLAIN] Korean people eat food with a spoon and chopsticks. 㑶䞲㧪㦒⪲㖾䞒⪲⯒ 䛖㠞┺. [PLAIN] I relieved my fatigue with a glass of alcohol. ニ㦖 ⹖Ṗ⬾⪲㖾 Ⱒ✶┺. [PLAIN] Bread is made from wheat flour.

3.2.6

Comitative particles

Comitative particles are grammatical markers that are used to attach two nouns together, similar to ‘and’ or ‘with’ in English. This section covers three such markers: ὒ/㢖, 䞮ἶ and O㧊P⧧.

3.2.6.1

ὒ/㢖 ‘and/with’

ὒ/㢖 is a two-shape particle which is ὒ after consonants and 㢖 after vowels. You may notice that, unlike other two-shape particles, it is the form that starts with a consonant (i.e. ὒ) that follows consonants and the form that starts with a vowel (i.e. 㢖) that follows vowels. In its most basic function, ὒ/㢖 operates like ‘and’ in English to link two or more nouns:

㡆䞚ὒ 㫛㧊⓪ ┺ ⟾㠊㪢㠊㣪. We have run out of pencils and paper. 䡫ὒ ⑚⋮Ṗ 㧞㠊㣪. I have an older brother and an older sister ↙ὒ 㽞䆲Ⱅ㦚⽊⌞㠊㣪. I sent flowers and chocolate. However, ὒ/㢖 can also be used like ‘with’ in English when discussing the people (or possibly animals) with which you perform the activity in question. In this usage, ὒ/㢖 is often followed by ṯ㧊 (or 䞾℮) ‘together’:

㭒Ⱖ㦚㞶㧎ὒ Oṯ㧊P ⽊⌞㠊㣪. I spent the weekend with my boy/girlfriend. 116

㥶⹎Ṗ 㞶㢚ἂὒ Oṯ㧊P ㌊㞚㣪. Yumi lives with her pet dog.

It is also possible to use ὒ/㢖 O䞾℮P to mean ‘together with’:

Case particles

㥶⹎⓪ ⿖⳾┮ὒ O䞾℮P ㌊ἶ 㧞㠊㣪. Yumi lives together with her parents. ╊⺆㢖 O䞾℮P 㑶㦖 Ịṫ㠦䟊⪲㤢㣪. Together with cigarettes, alcohol is harmful to your health. Similar expressions are also possible by using ὒ/㢖 with ṯ㧊 (or Ⱎ㺂Ṗ 㰖⪲ ‘the same’). However, the nuance is somewhat different. Whereas ὒ/㢖䞾℮ merely adds one item onto an item of similar status, ὒ/㢖 ṯ㧊/Ⱎ㺂Ṗ㰖 makes a comparison between the two which may be quite metaphorical:

┺⯎ 䣢㌂㢖 Ⱎ㺂Ṗ㰖⪲ 㡗Ⰲ⯒ 㿪ῂ䞮⓪ ₆㠛㧊㠦㣪. Just like any other company, we are a business that pursues profits. ⹎⋮Ṗ 㡗䢪⺆㤆㢖 ṯ㧊㡞㊮Ợ ㌳ἒ㠊㣪. Mina is pretty looking, just like a film star. In addition to this, ὒ/㢖 is used with other expressions of comparison and contrast such as . . . ὒ/㢖゚ᾦ䞮– ‘compared with’, . . . ὒ/㢖゚㔍䞮– ‘similar to’, . . . 㢖/ὒ ṯ– ‘the same as’, . . . ὒ/㢖 ┺⯊– ‘different from’, etc.:

䞲ῃ㦮䟊ῆ⩻㦖㭒⼖ῃὒ ゚ᾦ䞮Ⳋ 㠊⟺Ṗ㣪f How does Korean naval strength fare if we compare it to neighbouring countries? 㧒⽎ ₆䤚Ṗ 䞲ῃὒ ゚㔍䟊㣪. Japan’s climate is similar to Korea’s. 㡂㧦⓪ ⋾㧦㢖䢫㔺䧞 ╂⧒㣪. Women are certainly different to men. 㢖/ὒ can be followed by other particles including ☚ (see 3.3.3.6) to give the meaning ‘and also’ or ‘also with’, Ⱒ (see 3.3.3.1) to give the meaning ‘and only’ or ‘only with’, and the topic particle ⓪ (see 3.3.2.1), which usually provides a sense of contrast:

㥶⹎Ṗ ⹎⋮㢖☚ 㧮㕎㤢㣪. Yumi fights a lot with Mina too. ₖ䂮㢖Ⱒ ⹻ 䞲 ⁎⯝㦚 ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. I ate a bowl of rice with only kimchi. ⁎ ⺆㤆Ṗ riz㢖⓪ 㧎䎆う㞞䟊㣪. That actor does not do interviews with KBS. [he does interviews with other channels]

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3.2.6.2

䞮ἶ ‘and/with’

䞮ἶ is a one-shape particle that takes on the same basic functions as ὒ/㢖 (see 3.2.6.1). However, whereas ὒ/㢖 is the set form in formal writing or structured speech, 䞮ἶ is the most commonly used form in everyday speech. Just like ὒ/㢖, 䞮ἶ operates like ‘and’ in English to link two or more nouns:

⹒㑮䞮ἶ 㧎䢎⓪ 㔲䠮㠦 ⟾㠊㪢㠊㣪. Minsu and Inho failed the exam. ⰻ㭒䞮ἶ Ⱎ⯎ 㡺㰫㠊⯒ 㭒㎎㣪.

Give me beer and dried squid.

Also like ὒ/㢖, 䞮ἶ can be used like ‘with’ in English when discussing the people (or possibly animals) with which you perform the activity in question. In this usage, 䞮ἶ is often followed by ṯ㧊 (or 䞾℮) ‘together’:

㠎┞䞮ἶ Oṯ㧊P ⳿㣫䌫㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪. I went to the sauna with my older sister. 㞶㢚ἂ䞮ἶ Oṯ㧊P Ṗ₢㤊㌆㦚 ┺⎖ 㢪㠊㣪. I went to a nearby mountain with my pet dog. Also like 㢖/ὒ, 䞮ἶ is used with expressions of comparison and contrast:

⹒㑮䞮ἶ ゚ᾦ䞮Ⳋ 㧎䢎Ṗ ㏪㰗䞲䘎㧊㠦㣪. In comparison with Minsu, Inho is quite honest. ⹎⋮ ㎇ỿ㦖㥶⹎䞮ἶ ゚㔍䟊㣪. Mina’s personality is similar to Yumi’s. 䡫㦖 ⳾✶ Ⳋ㠦㍲ ⋮䞮ἶ ╂⧒㣪. Older brother is different from me in all respects. 䞮ἶ can be followed by other particles, including ☚ (see 3.3.3.6), Ⱒ (see 3.3.3.1) and ⓪ (see 3.3.2.1):

⹎⋮⓪ 㥶⹎䞮ἶ☚ 㡆⧓䟊㣪. Mina keeps in touch with Yumi too. 㥶⹎䞮ἶⰢ ㌂㧊Ṗ 㫡㞚㣪. I only have a good relationship with Yumi.

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㽢⏞㧊⧒ ㍲㤎㌂⧢䞮ἶ⓪ 㞞 ⰴ▪⧒ἶ㣪. As a country bumpkin, I don’t get along with Seoul folk. [I get on well with other people]

3.2.6.3

O㧊P⧧ ‘and/with’

Case particles

O㧊P⧧ is a two-shape particle that takes on the form 㧊⧧ after consonants and ⧧ after vowels. It has the same basic functions as ὒ/㢖 (see 3.2.6.1) and 䞮ἶ (see 3.2.6.2). Like 䞮ἶ, it is more of a spoken form than a written form. Indeed, it tends to sound more casual and colloquial even than 䞮ἶ and should be avoided in more formal or polite speech. Just like ὒ/㢖 and 䞮ἶ, O㧊P⧧ operates like ‘and’ in English to link two or more nouns:

⺇ₖ䂮⧧ 㽳ṗₖ䂮Ṗ 㧞㠊㣪. There is white kimchi and radish kimchi. 㹲㰞⹿㠦㍲ ⹎㞚⧧ 㧎䢎⯒ ⽺㠊. [INTIMATE] I saw Mia and Inho at the sauna. Also like ὒ/㢖 and 䞮ἶ, O㧊P⧧ can be used like ‘with’ in English when discussing the people (or possibly animals) with which you perform the activity in question. In this usage, O㧊P⧧ is often followed by ṯ㧊 (or 䞾℮) ‘together’:

䂲ῂ⧧ Oṯ㧊P 㡗䢪⯒ ⽊⩂ Ṫ㠊㣪. I went to watch a film with my friend. 㞶㢚ἂ㧊⧧ Oṯ㧊P 㧦⓪ Ợ ▪⩂㤢f [INTIMATE] Is it dirty to sleep with your pet dog? Also like 㢖/ὒ and 䞮ἶ, O㧊P⧧ is used with expressions of comparison and contrast:

⹎⋮⓪ 㠎┞⧧ 䋺Ṗ ゚㔍䟊. [INTIMATE] Mina’s height is similar to older sister’s. ⹒㑮䡫㦖㧎䢎䡫㧊⧧ 㢚㩚䧞 ╂⧒. [INTIMATE] Older brother Minsu is completely different from older brother Inho. O㧊P⧧ can be followed by other particles, including ☚ (see 3.3.3.6), Ⱒ (see 3.3.3.1) and ⓪ (see 3.3.2.1):

ἆ䢒䞲䂲ῂ⧧☚ 䂲ῂ 䞶㑮㧞㰖. [INTIMATE] You can still be friends with a friend who is married. 㣪㯞㦢㧎䢎Ṗ 㡂㧦䂲ῂ⧧Ⱒ ⏖㞚. [INTIMATE] These days Inho only hangs out with his girlfriend. 㠚Ⱎ⧧㦖 Ⱖ㧊㞞䐋䟊. [INTIMATE] With my mother, we don’t understand each other.

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3.2.7

The vocative particle 㞚 /㟒

‘Vocatives’ refer to forms (typically names or other forms of address) that are used to identify and attract the attention of the person being addressed. When a name/address form appears as a vocative, it exists outside of the grammatical structure of the sentence and can often be considered optional. For example, in the English sentence ‘John, what are you doing?’, the vocative ‘John’ appears outside of the grammar of the sentence (this is proved by the fact that, even if it is deleted, the sentence is still grammatical). ‘You’ on the other hand is a non-vocative form (and must be maintained for the English sentence to be grammatical). In Korean, when names appear as vocative, they may be marked with the particle 㞚/㟒, with 㞚 appearing after a consonant and 㟒 after a vowel. This form tends to only occur with Korean (or Korean-sounding) names:

㥶㰚㞚S ⍞ 㰖⁞ ⶦ 䞮┞f [INTIMATE]

Yujin, what are you doing?

㥶⹎㟒S ⍞ 㠊❪ Ṗ⓪ Ệ⌦f [PLAIN]

Yumi, where are you going?

As in the examples above, this form can only be used in non-honorific speech (see 4.3) when addressing intimates of similar/younger age or children. In other situations, 㞚/㟒 cannot be used and another form of address has to be maintained (see 1.3). Note that even in non-honorific speech use of 㞚/㟒 is optional to a certain extent. Indeed, 㞚/㟒 could be omitted in both of the examples above, although the resulting sentences would sound colder, less friendly, etc. 㞚/㟒 may also appear with kinship terms (when the relationship in question is close enough to use non-honorific language), particularly in female speech. It may also appear with some other intimate or condescending forms of address or playful uses of derogatory expressions.

㠎┞㟒S 㰖⁞ 㔲Ṛ 㧞㠊f [INTIMATE] Older sister, do you have time now? 㠚Ⱎ㟒S ⽊ἶ 㕌㠊H [INTIMATE] Mum, I miss you! 䞯㌳✺㞚S 㧊Ⰲ 㢖⽦H [INTIMATE] Pupils, come over here! ⹪⽊㟒S 㢲㤎㠊f [INTIMATE] Hey, you fool, why are you crying? 120

㧊ộ㞚S ⶊ㓾 ⁎⩆ 䎆ⶊ┞㠜⓪ ㏢Ⰲ⯒ 䟊H [INTIMATE] Hey you (‘this thing’), why are you talking such rubbish?

Of most importance, remember that this form can only be used when the name appears as a vocative, i.e. outside of the grammatical structure of the sentence. It cannot be used in sentences such as the following:

Special particles

㥶⹎⓪ ⶦ 䞮⓪ Ệ㟒f [INTIMATE] What are you ( Yumi) doing? 㥶⹎ ㌳ṗ㦖㠊➢㣪f [INTIMATE] What are your ( Yumi’s) thoughts?

3.3

Special particles

Rather than marking grammatical roles as such, special particles add extra meaning (or otherwise emphasize or put focus on) the nouns to which they are attached. The current section covers six groups of particles: plural, topic/focus, extent, frequency, approximation/optionality and comparison/ contrast.

3.3.1

The plural particle ✺

The addition of the one-shape particle ✺ works like the addition of –s in English to mark a noun as plural. However, the difference with the English plural marker is that ✺ can be, and in some cases has to be, left out when it is obvious from context that you are talking about plural items (or when the fact that an item is plural or not is of no significance). In sentences such as the following, the plurality present in the verb Ⱔ㞚㣪 ‘are many’ means that addition of ✺ is optional. We know that we are talking about more than one person whether ✺ is added or not.

With ✺

Without ✺

㌂⧢✺㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪 There are lots of people.

㌂⧢㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪 There are lots of people.

When the sentence specifies the actual number of objects we are talking about, ✺ is never used with non-human nouns. Note how this differs from English where plural marking is obligatory in such circumstances.

䄺䞒 ⚦ 㧪㭒㎎㣪.

Give me two cups of coffee, please.

䚲 ⚦ 㧻㦚㌖㠊㣪.

I bought two tickets.

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You may occasionally hear ✺ used in sentences that specify a number when the noun in question is human. Such usage, however, is not obligatory and ✺ is more frequently dropped.

㌂⧢✺ ┺㎅ ⳛ 㢪㠊㣪.

Five students came.

䞯㌳✺ 㡊 ⳛ㦚 Ṗ⯊㼦㣪.

I teach ten students.

However, there are some circumstances under which ✺ is obligatory or where its deletion may lead to a sentence sounding unnatural. First, when the noun in questions is preceded by a demonstrative such as 㧊 ‘this’, ⁎ ‘that’ or 㩖 ‘that . . . over there’, ✺ must always be retained if you are talking about something that is plural. The only exception to this rule is when the number is specified.

⁎ ㌂⧢✺㧊 ὒ㡆㾲㍶㦚 ┺䟞㦚₢㣪f Do you think those people really did their best? 㧊⻞㡂⯚㠦⓪ 㩖㺛✺㦖 Ↄ 㧓㠊⽦㟒㬶. I’ve really got to read those books this summer. Second, without ✺, the ‘default’ understanding of many nouns will be singular and ✺ must be retained in order to produce a clear plural meaning. Sentences such as the following would normally need ✺ in order to be understood as plural:

䂲ῂ✺䞮ἶ ⹺㌞☚⪳ 㑮┺⯒ ⟾㠞㠊㣪. I stayed up all night chatting with my friends. 㤆Ⰲ Ⱎ╏㠦㦖䟟 ⋮ⶊ✺㧊㧞㠊㣪. There are gingko trees in our yard. Finally, note that ✺ differs from the plural markers in many languages in that it can be attached to parts of the sentence other than the noun. Such uses of ✺ typically indicate that the utterance is being addressed to multiple hearers and creates a similar feeling to adding ‘everyone’ or ‘guys’ to the end of an English sentence:

122

㠊㍲✺ 㡺㎎㣪.

Welcome, everyone!

Ⱔ㧊✺ ⲏ㠊. [INTIMATE]

Eat up, guys.

ゾⰂ✺ ἆ㩫䞮㎎㣪.

Make your minds up quickly, everyone.

㯦₆Ⳋ㍲✺ 䞮㎎㣪.

Have a good time doing it, guys.

✺ may also appear in this way when the multiple entities are not the hearers, but the people (or things) being talked about (as in B’s reply in

the following example, where the use of ✺ indicates that two or more friends are in the library).

A: 䂲ῂ✺㧊㠊❪㠦㧞㠊㣪f Where are your friends?

3.3.2

Special particles

B: ☚㍲ὖ㠦✺ 㧞㠊㣪. They’re all in the library.

Particles of topic and focus

Particles of topic and focus work to emphasize or de-emphasize the nouns to which they are attached. The following particles are covered under this section: 㦖/⓪ (the topic particle), O㧊P㟒 ‘if it’s’ and O㧊P㟒Ⱖ⪲ ‘indeed’.

3.3.2.1

The topic particle 㦖/⓪

The topic particle is a two-shape particle that is 㦖 after consonants and ⓪ after vowels. In casual conversation, ⓪ is sometimes abbreviated to ච especially with some common expressions such as ⋲ ‘I’ and 㧊Ị ‘this thing’. 㦖/⓪ may follow other particles including 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1), 㠦㍲ (see 3.2.4.3), 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4), 㠦Ợ㍲/䞲䎢㍲ (see 3.2.4.5) and O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1). However, it cannot occur with the subject particle 㧊/Ṗ (see 3.2.1) or the object particle 㦚/⯒ (see 3.2.2); if 㦖/⓪ is used to mark the subject or object it must replace rather than occur alongside these particles. In the following discussions of this particle, we first look at the underlying function of 㦖/⓪ to ‘topicalize’ the word or phrase to which it is attached. We then consider some specific situations in which a word or phrase needs to be topicalized. Any noun phrase or postpositional phrase can be topicalized by the addition of the topic particle. However, the constituent that most commonly gets marked with the topic particle is the subject of the sentence:

㞚㧊✺㦖㠚Ⱎ䞲䎢㍶ⶒ㦚㭒㠞㠊㣪. The children gave a gift to their mother. Because 㦖/⓪ most frequently occurs after the grammatical subject of the sentence, knowing when to use 㦖/⓪ and when to use 㧊/Ṗ is an important problem for learners of Korean. This question will be dealt with in the following discussions.

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We now look at some examples showing the topic particle being attached to other constituents in the sentence. As can be seen in the following examples, this often (but not always – see below) results in the topicalized element moving to the start of the sentence. As can be seen in the following examples, by marking a certain constituent with 㦖/⓪, it takes on the status of being the main thing that is (already) being talked about: the (pre-)established ‘topic’ of the conversation. The rest of the sentence then provides ‘comment’ (i.e. further information that may not be known to the hearer) regarding the already established topic:

㍶ⶒ㦖㞚㧊✺㧊㠚Ⱎ䞲䎢㭒㠞㠊㣪. (Topic Direct Object) As for the present, the children gave it to their mother. 㠚Ⱎ㠦Ợ⓪ 㞚㧊✺㧊㍶ⶒ㦚㭒㠞㠊㣪. To their mother, the children gave the present.

(Topic Indirect Object)

㠚Ⱎ䞲䎢㍲⓪ 㞚㧊✺㧊㍶ⶒ㦚 ⹱㞮㠊㣪. (Topic Source) From their mother, the children received the present. 㠊㩲⓪ 㥶⹎Ṗ ⹪ナ㠊㣪. Yesterday, Yumi was busy.

(Topic Time)

䞯ᾦ㠦㍲⓪ ㍶㌳┮㧊㡗㠊⯒ Ṗ⯊䂮㎎㣪. (Topic Location) At school, the teacher teaches English. So, the basic rule of thumb for using 㦖/⓪ is that it should appear after something that is the pre-established topic of conversation. For something to be a pre-established topic, it must have been mentioned before. Thus, when choosing whether to mark the subject of the sentence with the subject particle 㧊/Ṗ or the topic particle 㦖/⓪, a deciding factor is often whether the person, object, etc. has already been mentioned in the discourse. When a new person or object first emerges in the discourse, it is frequently (but not always, see discussions below) marked with 㧊/Ṗ to show that it constitutes new information; when it is mentioned again as a preestablished topic, it is marked with 㦖/⓪:

㥶⹎ 㝾Ṗ 㢪㠊㣪. 㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ ⰻ㭒⯒ ㌂ Ṗ㰖ἶ 㢪㠊㣪. Yumi [new information] has come. She (Yumi) [old information] has brought beer.

124

A: 㥶⹎ 㝾Ṗ 㢪㠊㣪. Yumi [new information] has come. B: ⁎⧮㣪f 㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ ⌊㧒㢂㭚㞢㞮⓪◆ . . . Really? I thought Yumi [old information] was coming tomorrow . . .

Similarly, when a speaker repeats another sentence constituent (rather than the subject), this also gets marked with the topic particle:

Special particles

A: ⌊㧒 ⶦ 䟊f [INTIMATE] What are you doing tomorrow? B: ⌊㧒㦖 ⏖㧊Ὃ㤦㠦 Ṗ. [INTIMATE] Tomorrow, I’m going to the amusement park. In the preceding example, ⓪ provides a nuance similar to the English ‘well, if we are talking about tomorrow’. This nuance can be created by moving any constituent of the sentence to the start and marking it with 㦖/⓪. In these kinds of sentences, 㦖/⓪ plays the role of ‘stage setting’; the topic sets the state for what the sentence is going to be about and the rest of the sentence fills the state with further information, questions, etc.:

⿖㌆㠦㍲⓪S ⶦ 䟞㠊㣪f Talking of Busan, what did you do there? ἶ⩺╖䞯ᾦ㠦⓪S ᾦ䢮䞯㌳✺㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪. Talking of Korea University, there are many exchange students. Note that in many of these examples, the word marked with 㦖/⓪ could easily be deleted in natural conversation. In fact, it is common for the topic marker to occur after the part of the sentence that could be most easily left out if you wanted to make your sentence shorter. In line with this, 㦖/⓪ often occurs after words that are not old information as such, but are ‘given’ or obvious and which could be dropped. Remember that Korean is a language where what is obvious can often just be left out (see 1.1.4). For this reason, 㦖/⓪ often appears after ‘I’ when it is obvious that you are talking about yourself:

㩖⓪ 㞚⯊䠾䕆⋮ ㌂⧢㧛┞┺.

I am Argentinian.

As an extension of this, 㦖/⓪ rather than 㧊/Ṗ tends to appear with subjects included in statements of universally acknowledged fact or common sense:

㰖ῂ⓪ ⚻⁖㠊㣪.

The earth is round.

㡂⯚㦖 ▪㤢㣪.

Summer is hot.

It should be stressed that 㦖/⓪ cannot appear after new information being brought up for the first time. This is especially the case when the ‘new’ word or phrase in question constitutes the answer to a question sentence

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containing a question word such as ⶊ㠝, ⑚ῂ, 㠊❪, etc. In the following sentences, 㦖/⓪ cannot usually follow any of the emphasized words:

A: ⌟㧻ἶ㠦 ⶦṖ 㧞㠊㣪f What is there in the fridge?

B: ₖ䂮䞮ἶ Ἒ⧖㧊㧞㠊㣪. There is kimchi and eggs.

A: ⑚Ṗ 䞮㔲Ỷ㠊㣪f Who is going to do it?

B: 㩲Ṗ 䞶Ợ㣪. I will do it.

A: 㠊❪㠦㍲ Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪f Where did you meet?

B: 㰖䞮㻶㡃㠦㍲ Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪. We met at the underground station.

In addition to the ‘old/given’ versus ‘new information’ rule, one further rule seems to govern the use of 㦖/⓪. This particle can also be used for marking up a contrast between two parallel statements (one of which may be implied rather than implicitly stated). When marking up a contrast, the noun marked by 㦖/⓪ does not always need to be moved to the start of the sentence. First of all, we see this contrast function being applied when the speaker marks up a shift from one topic he/she was talking about to a new topic that he/she wants to bring up:

A: ㏢㭒Ṗ 㧞㠊㣪. Do you have soju? B: 㞚┞㣪S 㠜㠊㣪. No, we don’t. A: ⁎⩒S ⰻ㭒⓪ 㧞㠊㣪f Then how about beer, do you have that? In a dialogue such as this, even though ‘beer’ is new information in the final sentence, it is marked with 㦖/⓪ to show a contrast with the other alcoholic drink, soju, mentioned before. Contrast can also be marked up between two topics appearing in the same sentence through repetition of 㦖/⓪:

䡫㦖㦮㌂ἶ ⑚⋮⓪ ㍶㌳㧛┞┺. Older brother is a doctor and older sister is a teacher. 㡗䢪⓪ Ⱔ㧊㞞⽊㰖Ⱒ ✲⧒Ⱎ⓪ 㧦㭒⽦㣪. I don’t watch many films, but I often watch dramas.

126

⌊㧒㦖㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㰖Ⱒ ⌊㧒⳾⩞⓪ 㔲Ṛ㧊㧞㠊㣪. I don’t have time tomorrow, but I have time the day after tomorrow.

Frequently, the comparison is made, not with something that is explicitly stated, but by means of implication. For example, in the following dialogue the answer of the waitress in B may be taken to imply that there are other alcoholic beverages available. The sense that something else is being implied is also increased by the use of the verb ending –⓪◆ (see 6.3.10):

Special particles

A: ⰻ㭒㧞㠊㣪f Do you have beer? B: ⰻ㭒⓪ 㠜⓪◆㣪U We don’t have beer. Similarly, the following sentences may (depending on context) result in implications such as those given in brackets:

☯㌳㦖㞞 Ṫ㠊㣪. Younger brother didn’t go. [but the rest of the family did] 㠎┞⓪ 㡞ㄦ㣪. Your older sister is pretty. [but you’re not] 䏶㣪㧒㠦⓪ 㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㠊㣪. I don’t have time on Sunday. [but another time may be possible] Ṛ䢎㌂㠦Ợ⓪ 㧎㌂ ⴑ 䟞㠊㣪. I didn’t manage to say hello to the nurse. [but I did to the doctor] It is quite possible that the ‘contrastive’ function and the ‘old/given information’ function of 㦖/⓪ may both appear in the same sentence:

⋮⓪ 㡗㠊⓪ ⺆㤶㠊㣪. I [old information] learned English [contrastive – I did not learn another language]. 䂲ῂ⓪ ⹿㠦⓪ 㠜㠊㣪. My friend [old information] is not in the room [contrastive – he is somewhere else]. In addition to the more common functions of 㦖/⓪ already described, this particle may also at times be used to add emphasis to a certain part of the sentence. In this use, 㦖/⓪ may appear attached to some clausal connectives such as –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3) and –┺Ṗ (see 6.3.9):

゚Ṗ 㡺┞₢⓪ 㤆㌆㦚 Ṗ㰖ἶ Ṗ㟒㰖. [INTIMATE] You have to take an umbrella because it’s raining. 㥶⹎Ṗ 䆪䔎⯒ 㧛┺Ṗ⓪ ⻭㠞㠊㣪. Yumi put on her coat then took it off again.

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3.3.2.2

O㧊P㟒 ‘if it’s’

O㧊P㟒 is a two-shape particle: 㧊㟒 follows consonants and 㟒 follows vowels. 㟒 has the function of emphasis: it brings the noun to which it is attached into focus. This can first of all simply take on the meaning of ‘if it’s’ or ‘if it were’:

⧒Ⳋ㧊㟒 ⌊Ṗ 㩲㧒㧮 ⊩㡂. [INTIMATE] If it’s ramen, I can cook it the best! Ⱖ㧊㟒㓓㰖. [INTIMATE] If it’s talk, it’s easy. ( talk is cheap) When used in conversation, in addition to emphasizing the noun to which it is attached, O㧊P㟒 often connotes an expectation that the speaker is going to offer some kind of contrast with the item in question or disagree with the interlocutor regarding its status:

A: ⹒䢎⓪ ☞㧊 Ⱔ㞚. [INTIMATE] Minho has a lot of money. B: ☞㧊㟒 Ⱔ㰖. 䞮㰖Ⱒ 䟟⽋䞮㰖⓪ 㞠㞚. [INTIMATE] Of course he has a lot of money. But he’s not happy. A: 㥶Ⰲ⓪ 㧒⽎Ⱖ 㔺⩻㧊 ╖┾䞮⍺. [INTIMATE] Yuri has a great command of Japanese. B: ╖┾䞮₊ ⶦṖ ╖┾䟊f ⁎ 㩫☚㟒㓓㰖. [INTIMATE] What’s so great about it? That level is easy. A: ⹒䢎Ṗ 㩫Ⱖ 㧮㌳ἒ㠊. [INTIMATE] Minho is so good-looking. B: 㧮㌳₆₆㟒㧮㌳ἒ㰖. ⁒◆ ⍞䞲䎢 ⍞ⶊ ὒ⿚䟊. [INTIMATE] Well of course he’s good-looking. But he’s out of your league. As is shown in the final example, O㧊P㟒 can be attached to nominalized forms with –₆ (see 2.2.3).

3.3.2.3

O㧊P㟒Ⱖ⪲ ‘indeed’

O㧊P㟒Ⱖ⪲ is a two-shape particle: 㧊㟒Ⱖ⪲ follows consonants and 㟒 Ⱖ⪲ follows vowels. O㧊P㟒Ⱖ⪲ takes on meanings such as ‘indeed’, ‘really’ or ‘exactly’: 128

㍲㤎㧊㟒Ⱖ⪲ 㞚⯚┺㤊 ☚㔲㡞㣪. Seoul is indeed a beautiful city.

⿖⳾㟒Ⱖ⪲ Ṗ㧻㫡㦖㦮㌂㡞㣪. It is indeed parents who are the best doctors.

Special particles

㧊㩲㟒Ⱖ⪲ ⹫㰖㎇㧊⿖㌗㦚㫆㕂䞶 ➢㧛┞┺. This is exactly the time when [football player] Park Jisung has to beware of injuries. A: 㞴㦒⪲ 㧮⿖䌗 ✲Ⱃ┞┺. I ask you to please show me kindness (overlook my mistakes, etc.). [set greeting expression] B: 㞚┞㠦㣪, 㩖㟒Ⱖ⪲ 㧮⿖䌗 ✲Ⱃ┞┺. Don’t mention it. It is I who should ask for your kindness.

3.3.3

Particles of extent

The particles treated in this section work to define the extent to which a state of affairs applies.

3.3.3.1

Ⱒ ‘only’

Ⱒ is a one-shape particle with the basic meaning of ‘only’. It can occur after various other particles, including as follows:

㠦 (see 3.2.4.1)

m

㠦Ⱒ

only to, at/in

㠦㍲ (see 3.2.4.3)

m

㠦㍲Ⱒ

only from, at/in

㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4)

m

㠦Ợ/䞲䎢Ⱒ

only to (someone)

㠦Ợ㍲/䞲䎢㍲ (see 3.2.4.5)

m

㠦Ợ㍲/䞲䎢㍲Ⱒ

only from (someone)

O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1)

m

O㦒P⪲Ⱒ

only by means of

Ⱒ can also occur followed by the subject, object and topic particles. However, more commonly, these will just drop:

㧊/Ṗ (see 3.2.1)

m

Ⱒ㧊

only (SUBJECT)

㦚/⯒ (see 3.2.2)

m

Ⱒ㦚

only (OBJECT)

㦖/⓪ (see 3.3.2.1)

m

Ⱒ㦖

only (TOPIC) 129

3 Particles

Let us now look at some examples of Ⱒ functioning as ‘only’ to restrict the meaning of the noun to no more than what is specified:

㧦㧻ⳊⰢ 㧞㠊㣪.

We only have black bean noodles.

㤆㼊ῃ㠦Ⱒ Ṗ㣪.

I’m only going to the post office.

䞲ῃⰦ⪲Ⱒ 䞮㕃㔲㡺.

Speak only in Korean.

㭓㦚 ➢₢㰖 ⍞Ⱒ㦚㌂⧧䞶Ợ. [INTIMATE]

I will love only you until I die.

When Ⱒ is used in sentences with numerical expressions, rather than strictly taking the meaning of ‘only’, Ⱒ can be understood to limit the amount to what is specified, meaning ‘no more’, ‘no less’ or ‘exactly [the number specified]’:

䞲⼧Ⱒ 㭒㎎㣪.

Give me just one bottle.

⚦ 㔲ṚⰢ Ὃ⿖䟞㠊㣪.

I studied for two hours but not longer.

Ⱒ can also be used after the nominalizing suffix –₆ (see 2.2.3):

ⶊ㌂䧞 ☢㞚㡺₆Ⱒ㦚 ⹪⧒㣪. I hope only for his/her safe return. ⿖☯㌆ Ṗỿ㧊 ⌊⩺Ṗ₆Ⱒ㦚 ₆┺⩺㣪. I’m only waiting for a fall in the price of property. A nominalized phrase can be followed by the verb 䞮– ‘do’ to create the expression –₆Ⱒ 䞮TG (see 2.2.4.15). Furthermore, Ⱒ can be attached after various verbal endings. For example, Ⱒ can be attached after the –㟒 verb ending (see 6.5.7) to intensify the meaning of ‘only if’:

ῆ╖㠦 Ṗ㟒Ⱒ 㧊䟊䞶㑮㧞㠊㣪. You will only understand if you join the army. ⽊㿿㩲⓪ ⹮✲㔲 ⲏ㠊㟒Ⱒ 䟊㣪f Will it only do if you eat supplements? ( Do you have to eat supplements?) Ⱒ can also attach after –ἶ in the Korean progressive tense pattern –ἶ 㧞– (see 4.5.3.2):

✹ἶⰢ 㧞㠞㠊㣪. 130

I am just listening.

3.3.3.2

㈦ ‘only’

Special particles

When applied as a one-shape particle, ㈦ has two usage patterns. Firstly, it can be used followed by the copula to mean ‘it is only’. Sentences such as the following have an emphatic effect:

㧊㎎㌗㠦㍲ ⌊Ṗ ㌂⧧䞮⓪ ㌂⧢㦖 ⍞㈦㧊㟒. [INTIMATE] It is only you that I love out of all the people in the world. ⌊Ṗ 䞚㣪䞲 Ị 㔲Ṛ㈦㧊㠦㣪. The only thing I need is time. 㢲䟃㌗㣫㈦㧊㟒f [INTIMATE] Why do we never hear anything except swearing? The pattern may also appear with the negative copula to mean ‘it is not only/just’. ㈦ may be followed by Ⱒ (see 3.3.3.1) for added emphasis:

Ṗἶ 㕌㦖㌂⧢㦖 ⍞㈦Ⱒ㧊㞚┞㟒. [INTIMATE] It’s not just you who wants to go. ⁎Ị 䞲ῃ㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞㟒. 㤪⋾㠦☚ Ⱎ㺂Ṗ㰖㟒. [INTIMATE] That’s not just Korea. It’s exactly the same in Vietnam. The second usage of ㈦ builds on this use with the negative copula. But instead of ending the sentence, the negative copula takes the form 㞚┞⧒ and is followed by a second clause. The sentence as a whole thus means ‘not just . . . but . . . as well’. For emphasis, ㈦ may be followed by Ⱒ (see 3.3.3.1).

䞲ῃ㠊㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞⧒ 㧒⽎㠊☚ 㞢㞚㣪. I don’t just know Korean, but Japanese as well. 䞲ῃ㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞⧒ 䟊㣎㠦㍲☚ 㧎₆ 䙃⹲㧊㠦㣪. This is not just a craze in Korea, but abroad as well.

3.3.3.3

⹬㠦 ‘except for’

The expression ⹬㠦 is not strictly a particle (one way that we know this is because it is always written with a space after the word in front). However, in essence, it operates like a particle in that it adds meaning to the noun that it follows. It also makes sense to consider ⹬㠦 at this juncture as it represents another way (in addition to Ⱒ, see 3.3.3.1) to express the meaning ‘only’.

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⹬㠦 originates from the word ⹬ ‘outside’ and the particle 㠦 ‘in/at’, thus meaning literally ‘on the outside; in the area outside’. Indeed, the expression frequently operates in this original function:

㰧 ⹬㠦 ⋮ⶊ⯒ 㕂㠞㠊㣪. I planted a tree outside my house. However, by extension, ⹬㠦 also metaphorically comes to mean ‘outside of’ or ‘except for’ or ‘only’. It thus restricts the scope of the noun phrase preceding it to no more than what is specified:

⋮ⶊ ⹬㠦㠜㠊㣪. There is nothing outside of/except for a tree. ( There is only a tree) Although the function of ⹬㠦 largely corresponds to that of Ⱒ, there are two crucial differences. First, ⹬㠦 must always appear with a negative verb (which is not the case for Ⱒ). Compare the following sentences:

⹬㠦

Ⱒ

㡆䞚 ⹬㠦㠜㠊㣪. I have nothing but a pencil.

㡆䞚Ⱒ 㧞㠊㣪. I have only a pencil.

㠊㩲 ⹺ 㡗䢪ὖ㠦㩖 ⹬㠦㞞 Ṫ㠊㣪. No one but I went to the movies last night.

㠊㩲 ⹺ 㡗䢪ὖ㠦㩖Ⱒ Ṫ㠊㣪. Only I went to the movies last night.

ἶ₆ ⹬㠦 ⴑ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. I could eat nothing except for meat.

ἶ₆Ⱒ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. I could eat only meat.

Apart from this important grammatical difference, ⹬㠦 also differs in nuance from Ⱒ. Compared to Ⱒ, ⹬㠦 has a stronger negative bias; it indicates that the item, people, amount, etc. in question is somehow less or inferior to what it should normally be. With the inherent negative meaning of the following sentences, ⹬㠦 is much more natural than Ⱒ:

㥶⹎⓪ 㧦₆ ⹬㠦 ⴆ⧒㣪. Yumi doesn’t care about anyone except herself. [she should care more for others] 䞲ῃⰦ 㭧㠦⓪ 㣫 ⹬㠦 ⴆ⧒㣪. In Korean, I only know swearwords. [it would be more normal if I knew other things as well] 132

The difference between ⹬㠦 and Ⱒ is felt most keenly with numerical expressions. With Ⱒ, the expression often has no negative connotation at all and simply applies that the quantity in question is ‘no more’, ‘no less’ or ‘exactly’ the number specified. However, with ⹬㠦, the negative connotation is very strong.

䞮⬾㠦 ⚦ 㔲Ṛ ⹬㠦㞞㧦㣪.

I only sleep for two hours a day.

XWSWWW㤦 ⹬㠦㠜㠊㣪.

I only have 10,000 won.

3.3.3.4

Special particles

⿖䎆 ‘from’

The one-shape particle ⿖䎆 has the basic meaning of ‘from’ and most commonly occurs with time expressions or with numbers that form part of a natural numerical sequence (such as page numbers, question numbers, prices, etc.):

Y 㔲⿖䎆㧒䟊㣪.

I work from two o’clock.

⁎ 㡗䢪⓪ [㤪 X㧒⿖䎆 Ṳ⽟♒㣪.

The movie opens from 1st April.

⁎ ⋾㧦⓪ 㻮㦢⿖䎆㧊㥶㠜㧊㕁㠞㠊㣪.

I hated him from the start for no reason.

]W 㴓⿖䎆㧓㠞㠊㣪

I read from page 60.

Ṗỿ㦖 XWWSWWW㤦⿖䎆㧛┞┺.

The price is from 100,000 won.

⿖䎆 may also occur with objects or more abstract notions, typically when these either have a natural order or when the speaker is attempting to impose an order on them:

ⶊ㓾 Ⱖ⿖䎆䞮⓪ Ợ 㫡㦚₢㣪f Where should I start (from)? (lit. ‘from which words should I say?’) 䞲ῃ㠊 Ὃ⿖䞶 ➢ ┾㠊⿖䎆㣎㤢㟒䞮⋮㣪f When you study Korean, do you have to start from ( by) memorizing vocabulary? When the point of departure is a location rather than a time or number, 㠦㍲ is more commonly applied (see 3.2.4.3). In addition, 㠦㍲ may also combine with ⿖䎆 to form 㠦㍲⿖䎆, which in turn can be abbreviated to ㍲⿖䎆.

⹎ῃ㠦㍲⿖䎆 ₆⯚Ṩ㧊㢂⧦㠊㣪. The price of oil went up starting with the USA. 㠊❪㍲⿖䎆㔲㧧䟊㟒䞶㰖 ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪. I don’t know where I should begin (from).

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3.3.3.5

₢㰖 ‘up until’

The one-shape particle ₢㰖 has the opposite meaning of ⿖䎆 (see 3.3.3.4). With time and numerical expressions, it translates as meaning ‘to’, ‘until’ or ‘by’:

] 㔲₢㰖㧒䟊㣪. I work until six o’clock. X[ 㧒₢㰖 Ⰲ䙂䔎⯒ 㩲㿲䟊㭒㎎㣪. Please hand in your essays by the 14th. 㤆Ⰲ⓪ ⊳₢㰖㕎㤆Ỷ㔋┞┺. We will fight until the end. ⹺ ⓼Ợ₢㰖 Ὃ⿖䟞㠊㣪. We studied until late into the night. Unlike ⿖䎆 (see 3.3.3.4), ₢㰖 is also commonly used when talking about going up to or reaching a certain place:

㰧₢㰖 ZW⿚㸺 Ỏ⩺㣪. It takes about 30 minutes to reach home. 㰖䞮㻶㡃₢㰖 ◆⩺┺ 㭚Ợ㣪. I’ll take you to the underground station. ⿖䎆 frequently occurs in the same sentence as ₢㰖 (or 㠦㍲ with places) to express ‘from . . . to/until’:

⚦ 㔲⿖䎆 ⍺ 㔲₢㰖㌂ⶊ㔺㠦㍲ Ὃ⿖䟊㣪. I studied in the office from two until four. 㻮㦢⿖䎆 ⊳₢㰖㠟䎆Ⰲ㡖㠊㣪. It was rubbish from beginning to end! ㍲㤎㡃㠦㍲ ṫ⋾₢㰖 ZW⿚㸺 Ỏ⩺㣪. It takes about 30 minutes from Seoul Station to Gangnam. In addition to the basic meaning of ‘to/until/by’, ₢㰖 by extension can mean ‘even (as far as)’ or ‘and even’ to express a situation beyond the normal bounds of expectation:

⼧㤦㠦 Ṗ㍲㠧㓺⩞㧊㹣ἶ typ₢㰖㩚⿖㹣㠞㠊㣪 At the hospital, I had an x-ray and even an MRI scan done. 134

⁎ ㌂⧢㦚㥚䟊㍲ ⳿㑾₢㰖 Ỏ 䞚㣪⓪ 㠜㠊㣪. You don’t have to go as far as risking your life for that person.

In this use, ₢㰖 is similar to 㫆㹾 (see 3.3.3.7), Ⱎ㩖 (see 3.3.3.8) and certain uses of ☚ (see 3.3.3.6). However, unlike these other particles, the meaning of ‘even’ conveyed by ₢㰖 is not necessarily negative (as can be seen in the two preceding examples). One more difference is that when the particle appears in positions besides that of subject, it is natural to use ₢㰖 in affirmative constructions and 㫆㹾 in negative constructions. For this reason, ₢㰖 is more natural in the first example that follows and 㫆㹾 in the second:

Special particles

☚⹫㦒⪲ 㰧¢₢㰖S f㫆㹾¤ ⋶⪎㠊㣪. Through gambling he/she even lost the house. 㧊㤙ὒ 㧎㌂¢f₢㰖S 㫆㹾¤ 㞞䟊㣪. He/she doesn’t even greet the neighbours.

3.3.3.6

☚ ‘also’, ‘even’

The one-shape particle ☚ may follow other particles, including the following:

㠦 (see 3.2.4.1)

m

㠦☚

also/even to, at/in

㠦㍲ (see 3.2.4.3)

m

㠦㍲☚

also/even from, at/in

㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4)

m

㠦Ợ/䞲䎢☚

also/even to (someone)

㠦Ợ㍲/䞲䎢㍲ (see 3.2.4.5)

m

㠦Ợ㍲/ 䞲䎢㍲☚

also/even from (someone)

O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1)

m

O㦒P⪲☚

also/even by means of

However, ☚ cannot occur with the subject particle 㧊/Ṗ (see 3.2.1) or the object particle 㦚/⯒ (see 3.2.2); if ☚ is used to mark the subject or object it must replace rather than occur alongside these particles. ☚ can be said to have two basic meanings. First, it can take on the meaning of ‘too’, ‘also’, ‘as well’. Second, it can mean ‘even’ (in the sense of ‘I don’t even have 100 won’). Let’s first of all look at some examples of ☚ appearing in the meaning of ‘too’, ‘also’, ‘as well’. As can be seen in the final example, ☚ may also appear with verbs. The verb in question is nominalized using –₆ and the sentence is rounded off with the verb 䞮– (see 2.2.4.14).

A: ㌂ὒ⯒ ㌂㧦. [PLAIN] B: ⹪⋮⋮☚ ㌂㧦. [PLAIN]

Let’s buy apples. Let’s buy bananas too.

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A: 㩖⓪ ⌟Ⳋ㦚㔲䌂Ợ㣪. B: 㩖☚㣪.

I’ll order iced noodles. Me too.

㧊ộ㦖䞲ῃ㩲䛞㧊㠦㣪. 㩖ộ☚ 䞲ῃ㩲䛞㧊㠦㣪. This is a Korean product. That is a Korean product too. 㠊㩲䙂㧻Ⱎ㹾㠦㍲㑶㦚 Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪. ⏎⧮⹿㠦㍲☚ Ⱎ㎾ἶ㣪. Yesterday I drank alcohol at the drinking stall. And I drank at karaoke too. 㡺⓮ 㧎䢎䞮ἶ 㡗䢪⯒ ⽊ἶ 㩖⎗☚ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. Today I saw a movie with Inho and ate dinner too. Ὃ⿖䞮₆☚ 䟊㣪. I’m studying too. As can be seen in the preceding examples, whereas corresponding English words such as ‘too’ and ‘as well’ tend to occur at the end of the sentence, the Korean ☚ must always be attached to the thing which is being stated in addition. ☚ is also used in negative sentences, where English would use ‘either’ instead:

㧊ộ㦖G㑮㧛䛞㧊G㞚┞㠦㣪UG㩖ộ☚G㑮㧛䛞㧊G㞚┞㠦㣪U This isn’t an import. That isn’t an import either. 㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㠊㍲㤆㼊ῃ㠦 ⴑ Ṫ㠊㣪. 㦖䟟㠦☚ ⴑ Ṫἶ㣪. I was out of time, so I couldn’t go to the post office. I couldn’t go to the bank either. In its ‘too’, ‘also’, ‘as well’ function, ☚ often occurs twice in a sentence. This shows a kind of tandem agreement between noun phrases meaning ‘both . . . and . . .’ (or ‘neither . . . nor . . .’ in negative sentences):

㞚䂾㠦☚ ⹺㠦☚ 㧒䟊㣪. I work both in the morning and at night. 㧎䢎⓪ 䂲ῂ☚G㩗☚G㞚┞㠦㣪U Inho is neither a friend nor an enemy. ☚ may also appear twice in a sentence with two clauses (which are typically linked with –ἶ, see 6.3.1) in the meaning of ‘both . . . and . . . too’ (or ‘neither . . . nor . . . either’ in negative sentences):

䞯㌳☚ 㧞ἶ 㰗㧻㧎☚ 㧞㠊㣪. There are both students and there are workers too. 136

⁎ 㑶㰧㦖㑶 Ṩ☚ 㕎ἶ ⿚㥚₆☚ 㫡㞚㣪. At that pub, the price is both cheap and the atmosphere is good too.

It is also possible to form sentences such as the preceding examples by nominalizing two verbs (descriptive or possessive) using –₆ and rounding off each clause with the verb 䞮– ‘do’ (see 2.2.4.14).

Special particles

Let us now look at ☚ in its second usage, where it takes on the meaning of ‘even’. In this usage ☚ can be replaced or used in combination with the more emphatic 㫆㹾 (see 3.3.3.7):

\SWWW㤦☚ 㠜㠊㣪. I don’t even have 5,000 won. ㎎㌊ ⲏ㦖㞚㧊☚ 㞢㞚㣪. Even a three-year-old child knows that. 䢪㧻㔺㠦 Ṟ 㔲Ṛ☚ 㠜㧊 ⹪ザ㣪. I’m so busy that I don’t even have time to go to the bathroom. 㠊㩲㡺ザṖ 㢂㭚㦖 ∞㠦☚ ⴆ⧦㠊㣪. I never thought even in my dreams that older brother would come yesterday. ☛☚㠦 ṖỢ ♶ 㭚㦖㌗㌗☚ ⴑ 䟞㠊㣪. I never even imagined that I would go to Dokdo. With the inclusion of ☚, the following negative sentences take on the meaning ‘I haven’t/don’t even . . . (yet)’:

㎎㑮☚ 㞞䟞㠊㣪.

I haven’t even had a wash (yet).

㔲㧧☚ 㞞䟞㠊㣪.

I haven’t even started (yet).

To form similar constructions with long negation (see 4.2.2), ☚ is attached after –㰖:

⽊㰖☚ ⴑ 䟞㠊㣪.

I haven’t even seen it.

㰧㠦 Ṗ㰖☚ ⴑ 䟞㠊㣪.

I haven’t even been home.

☚ is also frequently attached to 㞚㰗 ‘still’, ‘yet’, forming 㞚㰗☚ ‘even still’, ‘not even yet’:

⹒㑮Ṗ 㞚㰗☚ ⏖ἶ 㧞㠊㣪.

Minsu is still playing/hanging out/ taking time out.

⁎ 㡂㧦⯒ 㞚㰗☚ ⴑ 㧠㠞㠊㣪.

I still haven’t forgotten her.

☚ frequently co-occurs with 㞚ⶊ to create expressions such as the following:

㞚ⶊ☚ no one at all

㞚ⶊộ☚ nothing at all

㞚ⶊ◆☚ nowhere at all

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3.3.3.7

㫆㹾 ‘even’

㫆㹾 is a one-shape particle, the meaning of which is similar to ‘even’ in English. The nuance is much stronger than ☚ (see 3.3.3.6) but not as strong as Ⱎ㩖 (see 3.3.3.8). In other words, this particle indicates that the state or action of the noun in question is very low on the scale of expectation. The following sentence, for example, implies that Minho is one of the least likely of all people to miss out on a party:

⹒䢎㫆㹾䕢䕆㠦㞞㢪㠊㣪. Even Minho did not come to the party. 㞚䂾☚ ῌἶ 㩦㕂㫆㹾 ⴑ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. I skipped breakfast and could not even eat lunch. 㫆㹾 can optionally be followed by ☚ (see 3.3.3.6) to intensify the feeling of expectations not being met:

㡂㧦䂲ῂ㫆㹾☚ ⌊ Ⱖ㦚㞞 ⹕㠞㠊㣪. Even my girlfriend did not believe what I said. For further emphasis, the expression can be preceded by 㕂㰖㠊:

㕂㰖㠊 ⹎ῃ㫆㹾☚ ⹮╖䞮㰖㞠㞚㣪. Even the USA of all countries is not against it. 㫆㹾 represents the most natural choice (rather than ☚, Ⱎ㩖 or ₢㰖) when talking about not even being able to do, write, remember, etc. the most basic things:

⁎ 㡂㧦㧊⯚㫆㹾☚ ⴆ⧒㣪. I don’t even know her name. 䞲⁖㫆㹾㝎㭚 ⴆ⧒㣪. He/she does not even know how to write Hangul.

3.3.3.8

Ⱎ㩖 ‘even’

Ⱎ㩖 is a one-shape particle with the same basic usage as 㫆㹾 (see 3.3.3.7) and the same basic meaning of ‘even’. However, the difference between Ⱎ 㩖 and 㫆㹾 is that Ⱎ㩖 marks the state or action associated with the noun in question as being an extreme, even outlandish possibility. 138

㹾㌂ἶ⪲ ⿖㧎䞮ἶ 㞚✺Ⱎ㩖㧙㠞㠊㣪. Due to the car accident, he lost his wife and even his son.

⍞Ⱎ㩖 ⋮⯒ ⟶⋮ṖⳊ 㠊⠑Ợ ㌊㞚f [INTIMATE] If even you were to leave me, how should I go on living?

Special particles

グ ➢ⶎ㠦㰧㦚䕪ἶ 㹾Ⱎ㩖䕪㞮㠊㣪. Because of the debt, we sold the house and even the car.

3.3.3.9

O㦖/⓪P䄺⎫ ‘far from’

The special particle O㦖/⓪P䄺⎫ may attach either to a noun or to a verb nominalized by –₆ (see 2.2.3). 䄺⎫ is most commonly preceded by 㦖/⓪: 㦖 after a consonant and ⓪ after a vowel. However, 㦖/⓪ may be dropped in colloquial speech. O㦖/⓪P䄺⎫ takes on meanings such as ‘anything but’, ‘far from’, ‘on the contrary’, ‘let alone’, ‘to say nothing of’. It most often appears in the pattern [h⓪䄺⎫ i☚/㫆㹾/Ⱎ㩖 . . . (negative verb)] meaning, ‘far from A, not even B’.

㧒❇㦖䄺⎫ 㧊❇☚ ⴑ䞮Ỷ㠊㣪. Far from first place, he/she won’t even achieve second place. 䌳㔲⓪䄺⎫ ⻚㓺⯒ 䌖ἶ ┺┦ ☞㫆㹾㠜㠊㣪. I don’t even have enough money to get around by bus let alone a taxi. ⥆₆⓪䄺⎫ ọ㰖☚ ⴑ䞮Ỷ㠊㣪. Far from running, he cannot even walk. 䞮⬾ 㫛㧒 ῃ㑮⓪䄺⎫ ⶒ 䞲 ⳾⁞Ⱎ㩖 ⴑ Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪. I haven’t even had a sip of water all day, to say nothing of a bowl of noodles. O㦖/⓪P䄺⎫ can be replaced (with little change in meaning) by the expression Ⱖ䞶 ộ☚ 㠜ἶ ‘without saying anything of’. However, this expression combines with nouns rather than the nominalizer –₆ (see 2.2.3).

䌳㔲⓪ Ⱖ䞶 ộ☚ 㠜ἶ ⻚㓺䌖ἶ ┺┦ ☞☚ 㠜㠊㣪. I don’t even have enough money to get around by bus, let alone a taxi. To express the meaning ‘to say nothing of’ in a positive sense, the word ⶒ⪶ ‘of course, needless to say’ is used in place of the particle 㫆㹾.

XWSWWW㤦㦖 ⶒ⪶ XWWSWWW㤦☚ ア⩺ 㭚㑮㧞㠊㣪. I’ll lend you 100,000 won, to say nothing of 10,000 won. 139

3 Particles

3.3.4

Particles of frequency

The particles in this section express frequency and/or regularity.

3.3.4.1

Ⱎ┺ ‘every’

Ⱎ┺ is a one-shape particle that does not change form whether it follows a consonant or vowel. The particle has the basic meaning of ‘every’ or ‘each’:

㞚䂾Ⱎ┺ 㔶ⶎ㦚㌂㣪. I buy a paper every morning. 㧒㣪㧒Ⱎ┺ ㍲㩦✺㧊 ⶎ㦚 ╁㞚㣪. Every Sunday the bookstores close. ⿖㌆䟟 ἶ㏣⻚㓺⓪ XW ⿚Ⱎ┺ 㿲⹲䟊㣪. Buses to Busan depart every ten minutes. ㌂⧢Ⱎ┺ ㎇ỿ㧊 ╂⧒㣪. Each person has a different personality. In the following expressions, the nouns ⹺ ‘night’ and ⋶ ‘day’ are repeated, the first occurrence is followed by –㧊Ⳋ (the copula the conditional –Ⳋ, see 6.5.1) and the second by Ⱎ┺. The resulting expression emphasizes the meaning of constant repetition and has a similar ring to English expressions such as ‘night after night’ or ‘each and every day’. Although these expressions most commonly occur with ⹺ ‘night’, ⋶ ‘day’ and other time expressions, they may also occur with other nouns, such as ㌂⧢ ‘person’.

⹺㧊Ⳋ ⹺Ⱎ┺ 㞛ⴓ㦚 ∎㠊㣪. Night after night, I have nightmares. ⋶㧊Ⳋ ⋶Ⱎ┺ 㡺⓪ Ợ 㞚┞㠦㣪. This is not the kind of thing that happens every day. ⋶㧊Ⳋ ⋶Ⱎ┺ can most frequently be heard in the set idiomatic expression above.

3.3.4.2

140

㝿 ‘apiece’

㝿 is a one-shape particle that does not change form whether it is preceded by a noun or a consonant. 㝿 marks regularity or equal distribution.

Although this is something that is not always made explicit in English, the most similar word is ‘apiece’ (as in ‘two biscuits apiece’). Note in the following examples how 㝿 is attached after the word denoting the thing that is being evenly distributed (books, 10,000 won, etc.):

Special particles

䞯㌳✺䞲䎢㺛䞲 ῢ㝿㭒㠞㠊㣪. I gave the students one book apiece. 㞚㧊✺䞲䎢 ὒ㧦䞲⽟䒂㝿㭒㠞㠊㣪. I gave the kids one bag of snacks apiece. ㏢㭒⯒ ⚦ ⼧㝿 Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪. We drank two bottles of soju each. The usage of 㝿 as a marker of even distribution covers the use of ‘per’ (or ‘a/an’) in English in expressions such as ‘eight hours per/a night’, ‘one bottle per/a day’, etc.:

⹺Ⱎ┺ 㡂▵ 㔲Ṛ㝿㧦㣪. I sleep for eight hours a night. ㏢㭒⯒ ⰺ㧒䞲⼧㝿 Ⱎ㔲Ⳋ 㞢䆪㢂㭧☛㧊⧒ ⽒㑮㧞⋮㣪f If you drink one bottle of soju a day, can you see it as alcoholism?

3.3.5

Particles of approximation and optionality

The particles in this section are used to indicate that the noun in question is only approximate or an option.

3.3.5.1

㸺 ‘about’

㸺 is a one-shape particle that does not change form whether it is preceded by a vowel or a consonant. 㸺 means ‘about’, ‘approximately’ or ‘around’ and most commonly occurs with time and/or numerical expressions:

㠊㩲 ⹺ YW ⳛ㸺㢪㠊㣪.

About 20 people came last night.

XY 㔲㸺㠦㧺㠊㣪.

I went to sleep at 12 o’clock.

㧧⎚ 㡂⯚㸺㠦 ⁎ ⋾㧦⯒ 㻮㦢 Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪.

I first met him around summer last year.

ZW╖ 䤚⹮㸺 ♒ ⽊㧊⓪ ⿖⿖Ṗ 㢪㠊㣪.

A couple came that looked like they were in about their late 30s.

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In such sentences, 㸺 often co-occurs with the expression 䞲 (also meaning ‘about’ or ‘approximately’).

䞲 ⚦ 㔲㸺㤆Ⰲ 㰧㠦㢖㣪. He comes to our house at about two o’clock. The particle 㸺 is also sometimes applied in other expressions of approximation that are not time-related or numerical, such as in 㸺 ♒ ⽊㧊– ‘look more or less like’:

㍶㌳┮㸺 ♒ ⽊㧊⓪ ⿚㧊 Ἒ㎾㠊㣪. There was someone who looked more or less like a schoolteacher.

3.3.5.2

O㧊P⋮ ‘about’, ‘or’, ‘just’

O㧊P⋮ is a two-shape particle. It appears as 㧊⋮ when following a consonant and as ⋮ when following a vowel. This particle has four distinct usages that we look at in turn: (1) to create expressions of approximation or generalization, (2) to communicate that a quantity is greater than expected, (3) to mark something as a second-best choice and (4) to express choice (or indifference to choice). In its first usage as a marker of approximation or generalization, O㧊P⋮ works in the same way as 㸺 (see 3.3.5.1) to express the meaning of ‘about’, ‘approximately’ or ‘around’. However, this meaning is only usually available when another word of approximation (such as 䞲 ‘about’, ‘approximately’) is included or when the sentence is a question such as ‘about how many . . . ?’:

ⳝ 㔲Ṛ㧊⋮ Ỏ⩺㣪f

About how many hours does it take?

ⳝ Ṳ⋮ ㌊₢㣪f

About how many should we buy?

䞲 XSWWWⳛ㧊⋮ 㢪㠊㣪.

About 1,000 people came.

Another way in which O㧊P⋮ becomes involved in the marking of generalization is when it is attached to question words. In such cases, the question words lose their interrogative meaning and generalized words such as ‘anyone’, ‘anywhere’, etc. are created:

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⑚ῂ

who?

⑚ῂ⋮

anyone; everyone

ⶊ㠝

what?

ⶊ㠝㧊⋮

anything; everything

㠎㩲

when?

㠎㩲⋮

any time; all the time; always

㠊❪

where?

㠊❪⋮

anywhere; everywhere

㠊❪㍲

where?

㠊❪㍲⋮

[happening] anywhere; everywhere

㠊ⓦộ

which . . . ?

㠊ⓦộ㧊⋮

anything; either [thing]

Special particles

A similar meaning can be obtained by combining –⋮ with the word 㞚 ⶊ, which by itself means ‘anyone, anybody’, and in front of another noun means ‘any, any old’:

㞚ⶊ⋮

anyone

㞚ⶊ◆⋮

any place

㞚ⶊộ㧊⋮

anything

㞚ⶊ◆㍲⋮

[happening at] any place

㞚ⶊ➢⋮

any time

㞚ⶊ 㺛㧊⋮

any book [at all]

In its second function, O㧊P⋮ is used to communicate that a quantity is greater than expected or more than is necessary (similar to English ‘as much as’). In this function, O㧊P⋮ can be thought of as the opposite of ⹬㠦 (see 3.3.3.3), which expresses that the quantity is not as much as what is required or is normally the case. The following examples compare these two markers:

O㧊P⋮

⹬㠦

䞯㌳㡊ⳛ㧊⋮ 㢪㠊㣪. As many as ten students came.

䞯㌳㡊ⳛ ⹬㠦㞞㢪㠊㣪. Only ten students came.

\WSWWW㤦㧊⋮ 㧞㠊㣪. I have as much as 50,000 won.

\WSWWW㤦 ⹬㠦㠜㠊㣪. I only have 50,000 won.

㏢㭒 ⚦ ⼧㧊⋮ Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪. I drank as many as two bottles of soju.

㏢㭒 ⚦ ⼧ ⹬㠦 ⴑ Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪. I could only drink two bottles of soju.

In its third function, O㧊P⋮ marks the noun it follows as a possible option, but one that is not necessarily first choice. In suggestions or invitations, this usually just works to weaken what the speaker is proposing and leaves more options open for the hearer to opt out or propose another plan. This usually translates into English as ‘or something’, etc.:

㡗䢪⋮ ⽒₢㣪f Shall we see a movie or something? 㹾⋮ Ⱎ㔺₢㣪f Shall we drink some tea or something? 㕂㕂䞮Ⳋ ⋾㧦䂲ῂ⧧ ◆㧊䔎⋮ 䞮㰖. [INTIMATE] If you’re bored, why don’t you just go on a date with your boyfriend or something?

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In other examples, what is being marked by O㧊P⋮ is more obviously a second choice rather than what would normally be preferred. This usually translates into English as ‘just’:

䞮㧊䔎Ṗ 㠜㦒Ⳋ 䃊㓺⋮ ㌂㧦. [PLAIN] If there’s no ‘Hite’ (beer), let’s just buy ‘Cass’. ⹻㧊㠜㦒Ⳋ ニ㧊⋮ ⲏ㰖. [INTIMATE] If there’s no rice, let’s just eat bread. With this meaning of ‘just’, O㧊P⋮ can also be used in angry or sarcastic expressions meaning ‘why don’t you just . . .’. As can be seen in the third example, in this function O㧊P⋮ can also be attached to the nominalizing form –₆ (see 2.2.3):

⍺ 㧒㧊⋮ 㔶ἓ 㖾H [INTIMATE] Why don’t you just worry about your own affairs! ( mind your own business) 㝎◆㠜⓪ ㏢Ⰲ䞮㰖 Ⱖἶ ⍺ 㧒㧊⋮ 䟊H [INTIMATE] Stop talking nonsense and just get on with your work! ゾⰂ ⲏ₆⋮ 䟊H [INTIMATE] Why don’t you just eat up! [and stop bugging me, etc.] In its fourth function, O㧊P⋮ is used to express choice between two nouns, in a similar way to ‘or’ in English:

㰖䞮㻶㧊⋮ ⻚㓺⯒ 䌖ἶ Ṗ㎎㣪. Take the underground or a bus. ⹎ῃ㧊⋮ 㥶⩓㠦☚ 㩞㧊㧞ἶ ⿞ᾦ㔶㧦Ṗ 㧞㠊㣪. Even in the USA or Europe there are temples and Buddhists. When –O㧊P⋮ is attached to both nouns, it signals that the speaker is indifferent and that either choice is acceptable:

㌆㧊⋮ ⹪┺⋮ ┺ 㫡㞚㣪. Either the mountains or the sea would be good. 䄺䞒⋮ 㹾⋮ 㞚ⶊỆ⋮ 㭒㎎㣪. Just give me anything, coffee or tea.

3.3.6

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Particles of comparison and contrast

The particles covered in this section are used to express a degree of similarity or difference between two or more nouns.

3.3.6.1

㻮⩒ ‘like’

Special particles

㻮⩒ is a one-shape particle that operates in the same way as ‘like’ in English to say that something/someone is like (i.e. the same as or similar to) something/someone else:

㧎䢎⓪ ⋮㻮⩒ 㩫䂮䞯㦚㩚Ὃ䟊㣪. Inho majors in political science like me. ⑚⋮Ṗ 㡗䢪⺆㤆㻮⩒ 㡞ㄦ㣪. Older sister is pretty like a movie actor. 㥶⹎⓪ Ṗ㑮㻮⩒ ⏎⧮⯒ ⿞⩂㣪. Yumi sings like a pop singer. In examples such as the above, 㻮⩒ can be substituted for ṯ㧊 with no perceptible change in meaning (see 3.3.6.2). 㻮⩒ may also occur following –O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ (see 2.2.6), thus linking two clauses:

㞚₢ Ⱖ䞲 ộ㻮⩒ 㰖⁞ ἓ₆☚ 㰖㡃㠦㌊㞚㣪. As I just said, I live in the Gyeongi area. 㧎䢎⓪ Ⱎ䂮 ⳾✶ ộ㦚㞚⓪ ộ㻮⩒ Ⱖ䟊㣪. Inho talks as if he knows everything. 㣎ῃ㠦㍲㌊㞚☚ 䞲ῃ㠦㍲㌂⓪ ộ㻮⩒ ⶎ㧦㭒ἶ ⹱㦚㑮㧞㠊㣪. Even if you live abroad, you can receive and send text messages just as if you live in Korea. Similar sentences to these can be created by using the patterns –❅㧊 (see 6.8.1) or –┺㔲䞒 (see 6.8.2).

3.3.6.2

ṯ㧊 ‘like’

Although the one-shape ṯ㧊 can function as a particle, it can also appear as an independent word: an adverb meaning ‘together’. This adverb is derived from the verb ṯ– meaning ‘the same’. ṯ㧊 operates in the same way as ‘like’ in English (and as 㻮⩒, see 3.3.6.1) to say that something/someone is like (i.e. the same as or similar to) something/someone else:

⹎⋮ 㠒Ὴ㦖㫆ṗṯ㧊㞚⯚┺㤢㣪. Mina’s face is beautiful like a statue.

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⁎ ⋾㧦⓪ 㩖⯒ 㠊Ⰶ㞶ṯ㧊䀾 䟊㣪. He treats me like (I were) a little child. ⹺㧎◆☚ ╖⌄ṯ㧊 ⹳㞚㣪. Even though it’s night, it’s as bright as day. Although this usage of ṯ㧊 is identical to 㻮⩒ (see 3.3.6.1), by reverting to the original verb ṯ– some additional patterns of usage can be evoked. ṯ– can be used as a verb to mean ‘something/someone is like something/ someone else’. The noun should be followed by 㢖/ὒ ‘and’ (see 3.2.6.1), although this is dropped in casual speech:

⹎⋮ 㠒Ὴ㦖㫆ṗOὒP ṯ㞚㣪. Mina’s face is like a statue. This O㢖/ὒP ṯ– can take other verb endings, including conditionals (as in the first sentence) and modifying endings (as in the second):

㩖 ṯ㦒Ⳋ 㧊⩆ ㌂⧢ὒ 䂲ῂ 㞞䟊㣪. If you were like me ( if I were you), I would not be friends with that kind of person. 㩖 ṯ㦖㽞⽊㧦✺☚ 㺛㦚⽊Ⳋ 㧊䟊Ṗ Ṟ₢㣪f Would novices like me be able to understand by looking at a book?

3.3.6.3

Ⱒ䋒 (‘as . . . as’)

Ⱒ䋒 is a one-shape particle that is used to indicate that two things are equal or have reached the same extent. This commonly translates into English as ‘as . . . as’:

㤆Ⰲ 䡫Ⱒ䋒䋺Ṗ 䅎㠊㣪. I have become as tall as my older brother. 㡺⓮㦖㠊㩲Ⱒ䋒 ▻㰖㞠㞚㣪. As for today, (it) is not as hot as yesterday. ₆╖Ⱒ䋒㩦㑮Ṗ 㞞 ⋮㢪㠊㣪. The score didn’t come out to the extent of (my) expectation. Ⱒ䋒 can also be preceded by a modifier clause (see Chapter 7):

146

ἶ⹒䞮ἶ ⏎⩻䞲 Ⱒ䋒 ἆὒṖ ⋮㊮㰖㞠Ợ ⋮㡾 ộ ṯ㞚㣪. The result doesn’t seem too bad compared with the worry and effort.

3.3.6.4

Special particles

⽊┺ ‘more than’

⽊┺ is a one-shape particle used in comparative sentences to mean ‘more than’ or ‘rather than’. Rather than attaching to the noun which is ‘superior’, ‘more’, ‘preferred’, ‘greater’, etc., it attaches to the noun to which this object, person, etc. is being compared. Observe the following sentence pattern:

⩂㔲㞚⓪ 䞲ῃ⽊┺ Russia-TOPIC Korea-THAN Russia is bigger than Korea.

䄺㣪. big

㡂⯚㧊 Ỿ㤎⽊┺ 㫡㞚㣪. Summer is nicer than winter. 㡺⓮㦖㠊㩲⽊┺ 㔲Ṛ㧊 Ⱔ㧊㧞㠊㣪. I have more time today than yesterday. ㌂㰚⽊┺ 㔺ⶒ㧊㡞ㄦ㣪. She is prettier in person than in photographs. ↙⽊┺ 㽞䆲Ⱅ㧊 ⌁㰖㞠㦚₢㣪f Wouldn’t chocolates be better than flowers? The word ▪ ‘more’ can optionally be included in the sentence:

㧧⎚⽊┺ ┾䛣㌟₪㧊 ▪ 㡞ㄦ㣪. The colour of the maples is prettier than last year. To produce the opposite meaning, ‘A is less . . . than B’, insert ▲ ‘less’ instead:

㑮㧛㐶ἶ₆Ṗ 㧧⎚⽊┺ ▲ 䕪⩺㣪. Imported beef is selling less than last year. To intensify the meaning, you can insert 䤾㞂 ‘by far’ (which is sometimes abbreviated to 䤾 in colloquial speech), 䞲䂋 ‘still more’ or 㠚㼃 ‘exceedingly’ (colloquial):

ἶ㏣⻚㓺⽊┺ ₆㹾Ṗ 䤾㞂ゾ⧒㣪. The train is way faster than the express bus. ^㤪⽊┺ _㤪㧊䞲䂋 ▪㤢㪎㣪. It gets even hotter in August than in July. ⺇䢪㩦⽊┺ 㔲㧻㧊㠚㼃㕎㣪. The market is exceedingly cheaper than the department store.

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Extra emphasis can also be created when ⽊┺ is followed by the particle ☚ (see 3.3.3.6) or the particle 㦖/⓪ (see 3.3.2.1):

䢣㹾⽊┺☚ 䄺䞒Ṗ ⲏἶ 㕌㠊㣪. I’d rather have coffee (even more) than tea. ㌆⽊┺☚ ⏨ἶ ⹪┺⽊┺☚ ₠㠊㣪. It is taller even than the mountains and deeper even than the sea. A further construction can be created by preceding ⽊┺ with a modifier clause and ộ (see 7.2.1) to create a construction meaning ‘rather than . . .’. The particle phrase may be followed by 㡺䧞⩺ ‘rather, preferably’:

㡺⓮㦖⻚㓺⯒ ₆┺Ⰲ⓪ ộ⽊┺ O㡺䧞⩺P ⥆㠊 Ṗ⓪ ộ㧊ゾ⧦㠊㣪. Today it was faster to run there than to wait for the bus. ⺇⻞ ✹⓪ ộ⽊┺ 䞲⻞⽊⓪ ộ㧊㫡㞚㣪. It’s better to see a thing once (rather) than hear about it a hundred times. ⁎ ㌂⧢㦖 ⌊Ṗ ㌳ṗ䟞▮ ộ⽊┺ 䋺Ṗ 䅎㠊㣪. He was taller than I thought he would be. 䞲ῃ㠊⓪ 㡞㌗䟞▮ ộ⽊┺ 㠊⩺㤢㣪. Korean is more difficult than I expected. Note that in the final two constructions ㌳ṗ䟞▮ ộ⽊┺ ‘more than I thought’ and 㡞㌗䟞▮ ộ⽊┺ ‘more than I expected’ can be abbreviated to ㌳ṗ⽊┺ and 㡞㌗⽊┺.

3.3.6.5

➆⧒ ‘unusually’

The particle ➆⧒ attaches to time expressions such as 㡺⓮ ‘today’, ⁎⋶ ‘that day’ and 㢂䟊 ‘this year’ to indicate that the state of affairs being talked about applies exclusively to the quoted period of time and is different to the normal state of affairs. When translated into English this is usually rendered as ‘unusually’ or with expressions such as ‘today of all days’.

㡺⓮➆⧒ ⋶㝾Ṗ 㕖㕖䞮⍺㣪. The weather is unusually chilly today. 㠊㩲➆⧒ ⋾䘎㧊㧒㹣 ✺㠊㢪㠊㣪. Yesterday my husband came home unusually early. 148

⁎ ⋶➆⧒ ⴑ 㡺㔶⿚✺㧊 Ⱔ㞮㠊㣪. On that day, unusually, not many people came.

3.3.6.6

Special particles

╖⪲ ‘in accordance with’

╖⪲ is a particle meaning ‘in accordance with’ or ‘in conformity with’:

㍶㌳┮ Ⱖ㝖 ╖⪲ 䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺.

I’ll do as you (‘teacher’) say.

Ⱎ㦢 ╖⪲ 䞮㎎㣪.

Do as you wish.

⁎⌻ 䘎䞮Ợ 㩲 ⓦ⋢ ╖⪲ 㗒㠊㣪.

I just wrote in a carefree way, following my feelings.

╖⪲ can also be used as a bound noun preceded by a modifier clauses (see 7.2.8).

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Chapter 4

Verbs

4.1

Characteristics of Korean verbs

Overview Korean is a language in which a vast number of grammatical functions are achieved by attaching different endings to verbs. Thus, it is of particular importance to understand the underlying qualities of Korean verbs and how they are formed. This section introduces the basic types of Korean verbs, their underlying forms and how you can attach different endings to them.

4.1.1

Types of verbs: Processive and descriptive

Korean has two main categories of verbs: processive verbs and descriptive verbs. Processive verbs correspond to verbs in languages such as English; words that are used to describe an action or a process, such as ⲏ㠊㣪 ‘eat’, Ⱎ㎪㣪 ‘drink’ and Ṗ㣪 ‘go’. Descriptive verbs, however, are different from anything found in English. Basically, they are like adjectives, but instead of having to occur with a verb corresponding to English ‘be’, they are free-standing. The Korean word 㡞ㄦ㣪, therefore, means ‘(be) pretty’, 㿪㤢㣪 means ‘(be) cold’, 㔲 ⊚⩂㤢㣪 means ‘(be) noisy’ and so forth. Descriptive verbs behave exactly the same as processive verbs in many ways and take many of the same endings, etc. 150

However, there are some important differences between the characteristics of processive verbs and descriptive verbs:


1 Processive and descriptive verbs behave differently in the plain speech style (see 4.3.6). Most crucially, in statements, the ending for processive verbs is –ච/⓪┺, whereas in descriptive verbs it is –┺. 2 Unlike processive verbs, descriptive verbs cannot occur with the dynamic modifier –⓪ (see 7.1.2). 3 Unlike processive verbs, descriptive verbs cannot appear in imperative sentences. Therefore, instead of saying 㫆㣿䞮㎎㣪 ‘be quiet!’, you have to say something that literally means ‘do it quietly’: 㫆㣿䧞䞮㎎㣪H 4 Unlike processive verbs, descriptive verbs cannot appear in hortative sentences (i.e. sentences that mean ‘let’s’). Therefore, instead of saying 㫆㣿䞿㔲┺ ‘let’s be quiet’, you have to say something that literally means ‘let’s do it quietly’: 㫆㣿䧞䞿㔲┺H Regarding this point and the previous one, note however that native speakers sometimes make the mistake of saying 㫆㣿䞮㎎㣪 or 㫆㣿䞿㔲┺. 5 Processive and descriptive verbs behave differently in quotations (or ‘reported speech’) (see Chapter 9). There is a small set of verbs that can be either processive or descriptive depending on the context in which they are used: 1 ⌁– has two different meanings: ‘better’ and ‘get better’ or ‘recover’. In the first usage it is descriptive, in the second it is processive. This can be seen by the way that in the first usage it takes the –┺ plain speech style ending and in the second usage it takes –⓪┺:

ⶒ 䞲㧪㧊㟓⽊┺ ⌁┺. A glass of water is better than medicine. ㌳䢲㔋ὖ㦚 ⹪∎Ⳋ ⼧㧊 ⌁⓪┺. If you change your lifestyle, your illness will get better. 2 䋂– has two different meanings: ‘big’ and ‘get bigger’ or ‘grow’. In the first usage it is descriptive, in the second it is processive:

㢖H 㰧㧊㺎䋂┺H

Wow, the house is nice and big!

㢖H 㞚㧊Ṗ 㺎㧮䋆┺H

Wow, the kid is growing nicely! 151

4 Verbs

3 㧞– has two different meanings: ‘exist’ and ‘stay’. In the first usage it is descriptive, in the second it is processive:

⌟㧻ἶ㠦㡺⩢㰖㭒㓺Ṗ 㧞┺. There is juice in the fridge. 㩖⎗ ^㔲㧊䤚㠦⓪ 䟃㌗㰧㠦㧞⓪┺. I am always at home at seven in the evening. However, note that 㧞– in both usages can take the dynamic modifier –⓪ (see 7.1.2):

⌟㧻ἶ㠦㧞⓪ 㡺⩢㰖㭒㓺

the juice that is in the fridge

㰧㠦㧞⓪ ㌂⧢

a person who is at home

G Ἒ㔲–, the honorific equivalent of 㧞–, is also descriptive when it means ‘exist’ and ‘processive’ when it means ‘stay’:

䞶㞚⻚㰖Ṗ 㞞 Ἒ㔲┺.

I don’t have a grandfather.

䞶㞚⻚㰖Ṗ 㞞 Ἒ㔶┺.

Grandfather is not here.

Note however that 㠜–, the negative equivalent of 㧞–, behaves like a descriptive verb:

⋾☯㌳㧊㠜┺.

I don’t have a younger brother. or

Younger brother is not here.

However, like 㧞–, 㠜– can take the dynamic modifier –⓪ (see 7.1.2):

㠜⓪ ⋾☯㌳

the younger brother I don’t have or the younger brother who is not here

4 The negative auxiliary verb 㞠– can behave like a processive or a descriptive verb depending on whether what precedes it is a processive verb (as in the first example) or a descriptive verb (as in the second example):

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㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ Ἒ⧖㦚 ⲏ㰖㞠⓪┺.

Yumi doesn’t eat eggs.

㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ Ợ㦒⯊㰖㞠┺.

Yumi isn’t lazy.

5 When the support verb 䞮– combines with nouns to form processive verbs such as Ὃ⿖䞮– and 㤊☯䞮– (see 4.1.2), it will naturally behave according to the processive verb patterns. However, remember that descriptive verbs that end in –䞮– such as 䞒Ἲ䞮– or ₾⊭䞮– will behave according to the descriptive verb patterns.

4.1.2


Types of verbs: 䞮ˀ verbs

Korean has a set of processive verbs that are formed by combining a noun with the support verb 䞮–. Here are some common examples:

Original noun

Verb

Ὃ⿖ studying

Ὃ⿖䞮– study

㌳ṗ thought

㌳ṗ䞮– think

㔲㧧 the start

㔲㧧䞮– start

㤊☯ exercise

㤊☯䞮– exercise

㭖゚ preparation

㭖゚䞮– prepare

As in these examples, this pattern most commonly occurs with Sino-Korean nouns (i.e. nouns that are combinations of Chinese characters or whose origins are Chinese words). However, it may also occur with words loaned from other languages, typically English, including ✲⧒㧊ぢ䞮– ‘go for a drive’ and 㑒䞧䞮– ‘go shopping’. Processive verbs with 䞮– are normally written as one word. However, the original noun and 䞮– may at times be written as separate verbs with the object particle (see 3.2.2) or alternatively the topic particle (see 3.3.2.1) written after the noun:

Ὃ⿖⯒ 䟞㠊㣪.

I’ve studied.

㭖゚⓪ 䟞㠊㣪.

I’ve done the preparation.

In addition, when you want to use short negation with 㞞 or ⴑ (see 4.2.1), this element always has to come between the noun and 䞮–:

㤊☯㦚㞞䟞㠊㣪.

I didn’t exercise.

㤊☯㦚 ⴑ 䟞㠊㣪.

I couldn’t exercise.

When you want to insert an adverb (such as Ⱔ㧊 ‘many, much’, ゾⰂ ‘quickly’ or 㯦ỗỢ ‘pleasantly’), these elements may come either before the whole verb or between the noun and 䞮– (the latter is considered more natural):

Ⱔ㧊/㯦ỗỢ 㤊☯O㦚P 䟞㠊㣪.

I exercised a lot/happily.

㤊☯㦚 Ⱔ㧊/㯦ỗỢ 䟞㠊㣪.

I exercised a lot/happily.

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4 Verbs

In addition to these processive verbs formed by the addition of 䞮–, note that Korean also has a set of descriptive verbs that end in 䞮–. With these verbs, more caution is required as the part preceding 䞮– is not always an independent noun that can be written separately (such as 䞒Ἲ䞮– ‘tired’ or ₾⊭䞮– ‘clean’). When this is the case, these descriptive verbs always have to occur with 䞮– as one word. Also, it should be noted that, in addition to 䞮–, Korean has a number of other ‘support verbs’ that can follow a noun to change it into a verb phrase. The most common of these other support verbs are listed below. It should be noted that these other support verbs generally have a specific meaning and are much more restricted in their usage than 䞮–.

Support verb

Examples

Ṗ– go

㡂䟟O㦚P Ṗ– go travelling, 㿲㧻O㦚P Ṗ– go on a business trip

*╏䞮– suffer

ṫṚO㦚P ╏䞮– raped, 䡧⹫O㦚P ╏䞮– threatened

*♮– become, be

₆╖♮– expected, ệ㩫♮– worried

*⹱– receive

Ṛ㎃O㦚P ⹱– interfered with, ㌂⧧O㦚P ⹱– loved

***✲Ⰲ– do (for/to superior)

㧎㌂ ✲Ⰲ– greet (a superior), 㩚䢪 ✲Ⰲ– phone (a superior)

**㔲䋺– make

Ὃ⿖O⯒P 㔲䋺– make someone study, 㭒㦮O⯒P 㔲䋺– make someone pay attention

㡺– come

㧊⹒㡺– immigrate, ῂἓ㡺– come sightseeing

*㧛– suffer

䞒䟊O⯒P 㧛– suffer loss, ㌗㻮O⯒P 㧛– suffer injury

*These support verbs are discussed in more detail in the section on passives (see 4.6.1) **This support verb is discussed in more detail in the section on causatives (see 4.6.2.4) ***This support verb is discussed in more detail in the section on object honorifics (see 4.4.2.2)

4.1.3

154

Types of verbs: Negative verbs

Korean has two special verbs that have inherent negative meanings and that are quite different from anything found in English: 㠜– ‘not exist, not

stay, not have, etc.’ and ⳾⯊– ‘not know’. These verbs are the negative counterparts of 㧞– and 㞢– respectively.

Negative sentence

Positive sentence

㥶⹎Ṗ 㧒⽎㠊⯒ ⴆ⧒㣪. Yumi doesn’t know Japanese.

⹎⋮Ṗ 㭧ῃ㠊⯒ 㞢㞚㣪. Mina knows Chinese.

ᾦ㔺㠦䅊䜾䎆Ṗ 㠜㠊㣪. There is no computer in the classroom.

ᾦ㔺㠦䢪⿚㧊㧞㠊㣪. There is a pot plant in the classroom.


Since Korean has these negative verbs, it is not usually possible to use the positive verbs 㧞– ‘exist, have’ and 㞢– ‘know’ with short negation patterns with 㞞 and ⴑ (see 4.2.1). It is, however, possible to use these verbs with ‘long negation’ (see 4.2.2).

4.1.4

Types of verbs: The copula (equational verb)

The copula is a special verb-like form which is used similarly to the English verb ‘be’ in ‘equational sentences’; that is, sentences of the pattern ‘A is B’ (such as ‘this is a pen’, ‘I am a vegetarian’, etc.). The base form (see 4.1.5) of the copula is –㧊–. In the polite style (see 4.3.3), it is rendered as –㧊㠦㣪:

㩖⓪ 㡗ῃ ㌂⧢㧊㠦㣪.

I am British.

㏢㭒⓪ 䞲ῃ 㑶㧊㠦㣪.

Soju is Korean alcohol.

One peculiarity of the copula is that the –㧊– base itself can, in most circumstances, be dropped when the preceding noun ends in a vowel. When this happens, the verb ending appears to be attached directly to the preceding noun:

㡂㧦┺.

She is a woman.

㡂㧦┞₢

because she is a woman –┞₢ connective ending (see 6.1.3)

㡂㧦⍺㣪H Boy, is she a woman!

plain speech style (see 4.3.6)

–⍺ sentence ending (see 8.5)

One time when this cannot always happen is with the formal speech style (see 4.3.4). Here, the –㧊– only tends to drop with some very common nouns such as Ệ ‘thing, fact’, 㩖 ‘I’ and 㠊❪ ‘where’.

⁎ Ị 㩲 ỗ┞┺.

That one’s mine.

㩧┞┺.

It’s me.

ἶ䟻㧊㠊❻┞₢f

Where is your home town?

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With the polite speech style, the form after a vowel is –㡞㣪 (pronounced –㠦㣪):

㧊 ộ㦖㧒⽎㧷㰖㡞㣪.

This is a Japanese magazine.

㧊㺛㦖 ⑚ῂ Ệ㡞㣪f

Whose book is this?

Unlike other verbs, –㧊– always has to be preceded by a noun and can never appear on its own. As can be seen in the examples, in writing, there should be no space between the noun and –㧊–. The negative form of the copula is 㞚┞– (㞚┞㠦㣪 in the polite style). Unlike –㧊–, 㞚┞– is an independent word that may appear on its own and has to be written spaced. The subject particle (see 3.2.1) or the topic particle (see 3.3.2.1) may appear after any preceding noun.

⁎ ㌂⧢㦖䞲ῃ ㌂⧢O㧊P 㞚┞㠦㣪.

He/she is not Korean.

㧊 ộ㦖㩲㺛O㧊P 㞚┞㠦㣪.

This is not my book.

A: 䣢㌂㤦㧊㠦㣪f Are you an office worker?

B: 㞚┞㠦㣪. Ὃⶊ㤦㧊㠦㣪. I’m not. I’m a civil servant.

㞚┞㠦㣪 also represents a very simple and humble way to reject a compliment or to reply to thanks and an apology (similar to ‘It’s nothing’ in English):

A: 䞲ῃⰦ 㧮䞮㔲⍺㣪! Wow, you speak Korean really well!

B: 㞚┞㠦㣪. 㞚㰗 Ⱔ㧊⿖㫇䞿┞┺. Not really. I’m still very lacking.

A: ☚㢖㭒㎪㍲ ἶⰯ㔋┞┺. B: 㞚┞㠦㣪. Thanks for your help. It’s nothing. Note that the copula and negative copula have the variant forms –㧊⧒– and –㞚┞⧒–, which occur with certain verb endings such as –O㞚/㠊)㍲ and –O㞚/㠊)☚:

䦊㧒㧊⧒㍲ ⁎⩆㰖㌂⧢㧊㠜㠊㣪. Because it is a holiday, there are not many people. 䞲ῃ ㌂⧢㧊⧒☚ ₖ䂮⯒ 㧮㞞 ⲏ㠊㣪. Even though I am Korean, I don’t eat much kimchi.

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4.1.5


Verb bases

Korean verbs are composed of bases to which different endings are attached. The way that Korean verbs behave depends on whether they end in a vowel or in a consonant. There are also some groups of irregular verbs that you need to watch out for, as they will behave differently when other endings are attached.

Type of verb

Example verb base

consonant base (ර/ස in base)

⹱–

receive

consonant base (other vowel in base)

ⲏ–

eat

vowel base ending in ර

Ṗ–

go

vowel base ending in ඼

⽊⌊–

send

vowel base ending in ස

㡺–

come

vowel base ending in ෈

㭒–

give

vowel base ending in ා

Ⱎ㔲–

drink

vowel base ending in ෍

㝆–

write


ΐ–

grill


✹–

listen


㰩–

build

irregular: ඥ doubling

⿖⯊–

sing

irregular: ඥ dropping

⏖–

play

irregular: ය dropping

䞮㟭–

white

We now list some of the most common irregular verbs that belong to the categories given:

ඣ/ඥ verbs ọ– walk

✹– listen

ⶑ– ask 157

4 Verbs

න /ඳ verbs ⌁– better/get better

㰩– build

ඥ doubling ┺⯊– different

⳾⯊– not know

⿖⯊– sing; full

ザ⯊– fast

㡺⯊– rise, go up

ඥ dropping Ỏ– make (phone call)

⏖– play, have fun

✺– lift, hold

Ⲗ– far

ⶒ– bite

㌊– live

㞢– know

㡊– open

Ⱖ– desist

䕪– sell

䛖– undo, solve

ථ /෈ verbs Ṗ₳– near

Ṗ⼣– light

ἶⰯ– thankful

ΐ– grill

⑫– lie down

ⱋ– spicy

ⶊỗ– heavy

㓓– easy

㠊⪋– difficult

㯦ỗ– enjoyable

㿻– cold

▻– warm

ය dropping* ⁎⩝– like that

⏎⧭– yellow

ゾṱ– red

㧊⩝– like this

䕢⧭– blue

䞮㟭– white

㠊⠑– a certain way

*Note that due to the limited semantic range of ය dropping verbs, we do not provide examples of them throughout the rest of this book

158

4.1.6

The infinitive form


In order to conjugate Korean verbs, in addition to knowing the base form, it is also useful to know what is called the infinitive form (note that the ‘infinitive’ form of Korean verbs is quite different to the concept in European languages). The basic rule for adding the infinitive is to add either –㞚 or –㠊 to the base. –㞚 is added when the verb base contains the vowels ර or ස; –㠊 is added in all other cases. Note, however, the following irregularities: 1 Vowel bases ending in රand ඼: nothing is added (the infinitive is the same as the base) 2 Vowel bases ending in ස: ස combines with the –㞚 ending to form –හ 3 Vowel bases ending in ෈: ෈ combines with the –㠊 ending to form –෉ 4 Vowel bases ending in ා: ා combines with the –㠊 ending to form –ශ 5 Vowel bases ending in ෍: the final ෍ drops and then –㠊 is added 6 Irregular ථ/෈ verbs: the final ථ drops and is replaced by ෈. This ෈ then combines with the –㠊 ending to form –෉ 7 Irregular ඣ/ඥ verbs: ඣ is replaced by ඥ, then –㠊 is added 8 Irregularන/ඳ verbs: න drops and then –㞚/㠊 is added 9 Irregular ඥ doubling verbs: the ඥ from the second syllable doubles so that it is also included at the end of the first syllable, then the final ෍ drops and –㠊 is added 10 Irregular ඥ dropping verbs: the ඥ is not dropped (as it is with some ‘two-shape’ endings – see below). –㞚/㠊– is added in the same way as a regular verb 11 Irregular ය dropping verbs: the ය drops and the remaining 㞚/㠊 or 㟒 combines with the infinitive ending to become 㞶 or 㟮 respectively

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4

Check out examples of these in the following table:

Verbs

Type of verb

Base

Infinitive


⹱–

⹱㞚

receive

consonant base (other vowel)

ⲏ–

ⲏ㠊

eat


Ṗ–

Ṗ

go


⽊⌊–

⽊⌊

send


㡺–

㢖

come


㭒–

㭮

give


Ⱎ㔲–

Ⱎ㎪

drink


㝆–

㖾

write


ΐ–

ῂ㤢

grill


✹–

✺㠊

listen


㰩–

㰖㠊

build


⿖⯊–

⿞⩂

sing


⏖–

⏖㞚

play


䞮㟭–

䞮㟮

white

The infinitive form is important to know for two reasons: 1 On its own, the bare infinitive is the same as the present tense of the intimate speech style (see 4.3.5). 2 The infinitive form is an important building block for attaching different verb endings, as will be discussed later (see 4.1.8). If you have trouble forming the infinitive form from the base, it may actually be easier just to think of the intimate speech style (see 4.3.5) ending as this will be the same. Alternatively, think of the polite speech style (see 4.3.3) and if you drop the –㣪 off the end, you will be left with the infinitive. 160

4.1.7


The dictionary form

When you look for verbs in the dictionary, you will not find the base form or the infinitive form but what is known as the ‘dictionary form’. The dictionary form is constructed by adding –┺ to the base.

Type of verb

Base

Dictionary form


⹱–

⹱┺

receive

consonant base (other vowel)

ⲏ–

ⲏ┺

eat


Ṗ–

Ṗ┺

go


⽊⌊–

⽊⌊┺

send


㡺–

㡺┺

come


㭒–

㭒┺

give


Ⱎ㔲–

Ⱎ㔲┺

drink


㝆–

㝆┺

write


ΐ–

ΐ┺

grill


✹–

✹┺

listen


㰩–

㰩┺

build


⿖⯊–

⿖⯊┺

sing


⏖–

⏖┺

play


䞮㟭–

䞮㟭┺

white

Note that the dictionary form has no other usage apart from being a way to list verbs in the dictionary!

4.1.8

Attaching verb endings

Through the addition of verb endings, a variety of different functions and meanings can be achieved, including tenses, negatives and honorifics. When these endings are attached to the verb, there are three different types of endings, which are attached to verbs in three separate ways:

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4 Verbs

1 One-shape endings, which attach in a regular fashion to the base and which always have the same form. Examples include the future tense marker –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1), –ἶ ‘and’ (see 6.3.1), –㰖Ⱒ ‘but’ (see 6.2.1) and the dictionary form –┺ (see 4.1.7). 2 Two-shape endings, which attach to the base but change form depending on whether they are attached to a consonant base or a vowel base. When they are attached to a consonant base, the ending has a form beginning in ෍. When they are attached to a vowel base, this ෍ is not needed. Examples include the honorific marker –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1), the causal ending –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3) and the future tense –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2). For discussions of one special case O–ථ┞┺/㔋┞┺P, see later in this section. 3 Endings that incorporate the infinitive form. Examples include the polite speech style –O㞚V㠊P㣪 (see 4.3.3), the causative ending –O㞚/㠊P㍲ (see 6.1.1) and the past tense –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1). The following table demonstrates these three usages using –ἶ ‘and’ as an example of a one-shape ending, the causal ending –O㦒P┞₢ as an example of a two-shape ending and the polite speech style –㞚/㠊㣪 as an example of an ending incorporating the infinitive form. Type of verb

162

Base

One-shape

Two-shape

Infinitive

–ἶ

–O㦒P┞₢

–㞚/㠊㣪

consonant base (ර/ස)

⹱– (receive)

⹱ἶ

⹱㦒┞₢

⹱㞚㣪

consonant base (other)

ⲏ– (eat)

ⲏἶ

ⲏ㦒┞₢

ⲏ㠊㣪


Ṗ– (sleep)

Ṗἶ

Ṗ┞₢

Ṗ㣪


⽊⌊– (send)

⽊⌊ἶ

⽊⌊┞₢

⽊⌊㣪


㡺– (come)

㡺ἶ

㡺┞₢

㢖㣪


㭒– (give)

㭒ἶ

㭒┞₢

㭮㣪


Ⱎ㔲– (drink)

Ⱎ㔲ἶ

Ⱎ㔲┞₢

Ⱎ㎪㣪


㝆– (write)

㝆ἶ

㝆┞₢

㖾㣪


ΐ– (grill)

ΐἶ

ῂ㤆┞₢

ῂ㤢㣪


✹– (listen)

✹ἶ

✺㦒┞₢

✺㠊㣪


㰩– (build)

㰩ἶ

㰖㦒┞₢

㰖㠊㣪


⿖⯊– (sing)

⿖⯊ἶ

⿖⯊┞₢

⿞⩂㣪


⏖– (play)

⏖ἶ

⏎┞₢

⏖㞚㣪


䞮㟭– (white)

䞮㟭ἶ

䞮㟒┞₢

䞮㟮㣪

Note in the table the following behaviours of irregular verbs with twoshape patterns:


1 irregular: ථ/෈ verbs. ථ drops and ෈ is added. This is then followed by the ending without the addition of ෍ 2 irregular: ඣ/ඥ verbs. ඣ is replaced by ඥ and then followed by the ending with the extra ෍ 3 irregular: න/ඳ verbs. න drops, but note that the ending with the extra ෍ is used 4 irregular: ඥ dropping. With the majority of endings, including –(㦒) ┞₢ shown in the table, ඥ is dropped. However, when the verb ending attached starts with ඥ (for example, –O㦒P⩂, used when talking about ‘going somewhere to do something’, see 6.7.1) or ත (for example, –O㦒PⳊ ‘if’, see 6.5.1) the ඥ is retained and the ending is attached directly to the base without the addition of ෍:

⏖⩂

(go to) play

⏖Ⳋ

(if we) play

䕪⩂

(go to) sell

䕪Ⳋ

(if we) sell

㡊⩂

(go to) open

㡊Ⳋ

(if we) open

5 irregular: ය dropping. The ය drops and the ending is added without the addition of ෍ There is one two-shape verb ending that behaves a little differently from the others: the formal speech style (both in its statement form –ථ┞┺/㔋 ┞┺ and its question form –ථ┞₢/㔋┞₢, see 4.3.4). The –ථ┞┺ and –ථ┞₢ endings follow vowels and, with these, irregular verbs behave as they would with any other two-shape ending. However, when the –㔋┞┺ and –㔋┞₢ endings occur after consonants, irregular verbs behave as they more generally would with one-shape endings, producing forms such as the following:


ΐ– (grill)

ΐ㔋┞┺


✹– (listen)

✹㔋┞┺


⌁– (get better)

⌁㔋┞┺

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4.2

Negatives

Overview Korean has two main ways to make a statement or question negative: (1) short negation using 㞞 and ⴑ and (2) long negation using –㰖㞠– and –㰖 ⴑ䞮–. In addition to this, commands and proposals are made negative through using the form –㰖 Ⱖ–. This subchapter considers these patterns in turn and then examines certain expressions that must always contain negative verbs.

4.2.1

Short negatives with 㞞 and ⴑ

To put a verb into the short negative form, you place before it one of the two negative words 㞞 and ⴑ. These two negative words have quite distinct meanings. 㞞 is a neutral negative word that simply means ‘does not’ or ‘is not’. ⴑ, on the other hand, has the meaning of ‘cannot’ and implies lack of ability. Note that due to the fact that it signals lack of ability, ⴑ cannot appear with descriptive verbs, at least not in the short negation pattern (cf. long negation, see 4.2.2). With their distinct nuances, the choice between 㞞 and ⴑ can produce quite different meanings:

164

㞞

ⴑ

䞲ῃ㠊⯒ 㞞⺆㤶㠊㣪. I didn’t learn Korean.

䞲ῃ㠊⯒ ⴑ ⺆㤶㠊㣪. I couldn’t learn Korean. (maybe I wanted to, but I did not have the opportunity, money, ability, etc.)

㑶㦚㞞 Ⱎ㎪㣪. I don’t drink alcohol.

㑶㦚 ⴑ Ⱎ㎪㣪. I can’t drink alcohol. (maybe I am allergic to it, on medication, forbidden on religious grounds, etc.)

As in the preceding examples, ⴑ ‘cannot’ tends to imply that a situation is outside the speaker’s control. With 㞞, on the other hand, the sentences could mean that the speaker deliberately chooses not to perform the actions noted. Because of this, only 㞞 (and not ⴑ) can appear with

expressions of deliberateness, such as 㧒⿖⩂ (‘deliberately’), 㦮☚㩗㦒⪲ (‘intentionally’):

Negatives

㑮㠛㠦㧒⿖⩂ 㞞 Ṫ㠊㣪. I deliberately did not go to class. ⋾䘎ὒ 㧊䢒䞮ἶ 㦮☚㩗㦒⪲ 㞞 Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪. After divorcing my husband, I deliberately did not meet him. With verbal constructions formed from a Sino-Korean noun and the support verb 䞮– (see 4.1.2), 㞞 and ⴑ must always come between the Sino-Korean noun and 䞮–:

㰧㞞㼃㏢O⯒P 㞞䟊㣪.

I don’t clean the house.

㑯㩲O⯒P ⴑ 䟞㠊㣪.

I could not do the homework.

The copula can only be made negative through short negation with 㞞. Note that the resultant form is written as one word: 㞚┞– (see 4.1.4):

⹎ῃ ㌂⧢ 㞚┯┞┺.

I’m not American.

⌊ 㧮ⴑ 㞚┞㟒. [INTIMATE]

It’s not my fault.

4.2.2

Long negatives with –㰖G㞠 – and –㰖Gⴑ䞮 –

Long negatives are formed by attaching –㰖 to the verb base and following this with the negative elements 㞠– or ⴑ䞮–. This can then be followed by tense markers (see 4.5), speech styles (see 4.3) and other verb endings. The –㰖 ending is attached to the verb base according to the normal patterns of one-shape endings (see 4.1.8). Generally speaking, –㰖㞠– and –㰖 ⴑ䞮– can be considered as having equivalent meanings to the short negation patterns with 㞞 and ⴑ respectively:

–㰖G㞠–

–㰖Gⴑ䞮 –

㧶㦚㧦㰖G㞠㞮㠊㣪. I didn’t sleep.

㧶㦚㧦㰖Gⴑ䟞㠊㣪. I couldn’t sleep.

ἆ䢒䞮㰖G㞠㞮ῆ㣪H So you’re not married!

ἆ䢒䞮㰖Gⴑ䟞ῆ㣪. So you couldn’t get married!

However, one difference is that although the short pattern with ⴑ cannot appear with descriptive verbs, the corresponding long pattern with –㰖 ⴑ䞮–

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can. Resulting constructions express a strong negative meaning and often hint at the speaker’s dissatisfaction that certain qualities are missing:

㞚✺㦖 ⡧⡧䞮㰖Gⴑ䟊㣪.

Their son isn’t bright at all.

䋺Ṗ 㧧ἶ, 㠒Ὴ㧊⼚⪲ 㡞㊮㰖Gⴑ䟊㣪.

She’s short and her face is not at all pretty.

ⶒ㧊 ₾⊭䞮㰖Gⴑ䟊㣪.

The water is not at all clean.

One further difference is that long negation allows for the addition of particles (subject, object and topic) after –㰖. This works to place additional emphasis on the verb in question:

㖾⽊㰖⓪ 㞠㞮㰖Ⱒ ὲ㺄㦚 ộ ṯ㞚㣪. I haven’t actually tried using it, but it seems okay. 㦢㔳㦖㩲㧛ⰱ㠦⓪ ⰴ㰖⯒ 㞠㞮㠊㣪. The food did not suit my palate. 㔂Ⰲ䗒Ṗ 㡞㊮₊ 䞲◆ ⿖✲⩓㰖Ṗ ⴑ䞮⍺㣪. The slippers are pretty, but they’re not at all soft. Apart from these differences, –㰖㞠– and –㰖 ⴑ䞮– can generally be used interchangeably with 㞞 and ⴑ respectively. However, whereas the short form is more direct and colloquial, the long form is less direct and more formal and bookish. In addition, with some long descriptive verbs (three or more syllables), short negation sounds clumsy and long negation is preferred:

㞚⯚╋㰖㞠㞚㣪

more common than

㞞㞚⯚┺㤢㣪 not beautiful

₾⊭䞮㰖㞠㞚㣪 more common than 㞞 ₾⊭䟊㣪

not clean

⿖㫇䞮㰖㞠㞚㣪 more common than 㞞⿖㫇䟊㣪

not insufficient

Also, only long negation tends to be used with descriptive verbs and adverbial forms derived through –╋– , –㓺⩓–, –⫃– (see 10.3.2.3) and –㩗– (see 10.3.2.4). Short negatives here would sound very awkward:

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⋾㧦╋㰖㞠㞚㣪

not man-like

㧦㥶⫃㰖㞠㞚㣪

not natural

㌂⧧㓺⩓㰖㞠㞚㣪

not loveable

㡓₆㩗㧊㰖㞠㞚㣪

not bizarre

Finally, the lexically negative verbs 㠜– ‘not exist’ and ⳾⯊– ‘not know’ (see 4.1.3) are only compatible with long negation. The same largely applies to their positive counterparts 㧞– ‘exist’ and 㞢– ‘know’, although the latter may occasionally occur with 㞞 in specific contexts (particularly with –㞚/㠊㭒–, see 5.1.12).

Negatives

Ṗ⓻㎇㧊㠜㰖⓪G㞠㞚㣪. It’s not that there is no possibility. ⍺ Ⱎ㦢㦚 ⳾⯊㰖G㞠㞚. [INTIMATE] It’s not that I don’t know your true feelings. ὖ㕂㧊㧞㰖G㞠㞚㣪. I’m not that interested. 㑮㡗䞮⓪ ⹿⻫㦚㧮㞢㰖Gⴑ䟊㣪. I don’t really know the techniques of swimming.

4.2.3

Negative commands and proposals with –㰖GⰦ–

Although both short negation (see 4.2.1) and long negation with 㞠– or ⴑ䞮– (see 4.2.2) can be used with statements and questions, neither can be applied in commands and proposals. Instead, these sentence types are made negative by using a long negation pattern with the auxiliary verb Ⱖ– ‘desist’. As can be seen in the following examples, Ⱖ– is an ඥ–dropping irregular verb:

✹㰖 Ⱎ㕃㔲㡺H

[FORMAL; subject honorifics]

✹㰖 Ⱎ㎎㣪H

[POLITE; subject honorifics]

✹㰖 Ⱖ㞚㣪H

[POLITE]

✹㰖 Ⱖ㞚H

[INTIMATE]

Don’t listen! ✹㰖 Ⱟ㔲┺.

[FORMAL]

✹㰖 Ⱖ㧦.

[PLAIN]

Let’s not listen. Note that the form of Ⱖ– in polite and intimate style commands is frequently abbreviated to Ⱎ㣪 and Ⱎ respectively in colloquial speech:

㔶ἓ 㝆㰖 Ⱎ㣪.

[POLITE]

Don’t concern yourself with it.

ệ㩫䞮㰖 Ⱎ.

[INTIMATE]

Don’t worry about it.

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With common verbs formed with the support verb 䞮–, the 䞮㰖 element may be omitted in casual speech:

ệ㩫 Ⱎ.

[INTIMATE]

Don’t worry about it.

Although the principal use of Ⱖ– is with commands and proposals, there are other sentence patterns that can also incorporate this form of negation:

㞚㰗䞶₢ Ⱖ₢ ㌳ṗ 㭧㧊㠦㣪. I’m still thinking about whether to do it or not.

(see 5.4.3)

ⲏ㰖 Ⱖ㞚㟒Ỷ㠊㣪. I shouldn’t eat it.

(see 6.5.7.1)

㌂✶㰖 Ⱖ✶㰖㌗ὖ㠜㠊㣪. It doesn’t matter whether you buy it or not.

(see 6.4.2)

⌊Ṗ ṖỆ⋮ ⰦỆ⋮ ㌗ὖ䞮㰖 Ⱎ㎎㣪. Whether I go or not, it has nothing to do with you.

(see 6.4.1)

Ὃ⿖䞮⋮ Ⱎ⋮ 㔲䠮 ἆὒ⓪ ⡧ ṯ㞚㣪. My test results are the same whether I study or not.

(see 6.2.3)

In addition, Ⱖ– may frequently be followed by the additional connective –ἶ (see 6.3.1) to form the pattern –㰖 Ⱖἶ, meaning ‘instead of . . . do . . .’:

₆┺Ⰲ㰖GⰦἶ 㰖⁞ ╏㧻㔲㧧䞿㔲┺. Instead of waiting, let’s start right now. ⽋㌂₆⓪ ㌂㰖GⰦἶ ア⩺ 㝆㎎㣪. Instead of buying a printer, rent one. At times, Ⱖἶ may appear not after a verb but after a noun. In such cases, Ⱖἶ operates as a pseudo-particle to mean ‘rather than’ or ‘except for’:

䄺䞒 Ⱖἶ 䢣㹾㭒㎎㣪. Give me tea rather than coffee. ἆ䢒 Ⱖἶ 㡆㞶Ⱒ 䞮ἶ 㕌㠊㣪. Rather than getting married, I just want to date. 䞲ῃ㠊 Ⱖἶ ┺⯎ 㣎ῃ㠊☚ 䞶㭚㞚㎎㣪f Except for Korean, do you know any other foreign languages? 168

4.2.4

Expressions that require negative verbs

Negatives

Korean contains a large number of expressions that can only be used with verbs in a negative form (or verbs that have a negative meaning). These are sometimes referred to in formal linguistics as ‘negative polarity items’:

⁎Ⰲ/⁎┺㰖 that (much)

⁎Ⰲ 㡞㊮㰖⓪ 㞠㞚㣪. She’s not that pretty.

┺㔲⓪ never again

┺㔲⓪ ⓼㰖㞠Ỷ㔋┞┺. I will never be late again.

☚ⶊ㰖 at all; simply

㧊㺓ⶎ㦖 ☚ⶊ㰖㞞 ╁䡖㣪. This window simply will not close.

☚㩖䧞 at all; simply

㧊ộ㦒⪲⓪ ☚㩖䧞㞞 ♮Ỷ㠊㣪. This simply will not do.

⹬㠦 (see 3.3.3.3) except for; besides

ZW ⿚ ⹬㠦 ⴑ 㧺㠊㣪. I did not sleep except for 30 minutes.

⼚⪲ particularly

⼚⪲ 㿻㰖㞠㞚㣪. It’s not particularly cold.

㩚䡖 at all

Ὃ䙂⓪ 㩚䡖 ⴑ ⓦ⅞㠊㣪. I did not feel any horror at all.

㩞╖ absolutely

㩞╖ ⹕㰖 Ⱎ㎎㣪. Don’t even think of believing that.

㫆⁞☚ not at all

㫆⁞☚ 㡒⩺䞮㰖 Ⱎ㎎㣪. Don’t worry about it at all.

㫖㻮⩒ seldom

㧊㰖⹿㦖㫖㻮⩒ ⑞㧊㞞㢖㣪. It seldom snows in this region.

䐋 at all

㣪㯞㦢 ⹒㑮Ṗ 䐋㡺㰖㞠㞚㣪. These days Minsu does not come at all.

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4.3

Hearer honorifics: Speech styles

Overview This subchapter introduces the concept of ‘honorifics’ and describes the honorific forms you can use to show respect to the hearer – the person you are talking to. These forms can be referred to as ‘hearer honorifics’ but are more commonly referred to as ‘speech styles’ in the case of Korean. Honorific forms used to show respect to people you are talking about – ‘referent honorifics’ – are described in the following subchapter (see 4.4).

4.3.1

Introducing the concept of honorifics

One of the most salient features of the Korean language is the intricate system of honorifics. This system is so pervasive that it is impossible to speak a single sentence in Korean without calculating your relative social status and/or degree of familiarity with the person/people you are talking to (and talking about!) and deciding on the appropriate level of honorification. To be sure, speakers of all languages change the way they speak depending on their relationship with the hearer (and on the formality of the setting). In English, for example, although an immigration officer may ask you the formal ‘What is the purpose of your visit?’, it would sound strange to hear friends talking to each other in this way when they bump into each other in the supermarket! Similarly, although you might address your teacher or a customer as ‘Sir’, it would sound sarcastic to talk to your friend in this way. However, the systematic way in which the grammar of each and every sentence in Korean can be changed to reflect social relationships goes far beyond anything found in European languages. When using this system, you always have to make two separate calculations:

(a) You have to calculate your relationship with the person you are talking to

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Verbs have different endings attached to them, determined by the social relationship between the speakers; this is called hearer honorifics (or speech styles).

(b) You have to calculate your relationship with the person you are talking about


Verbs and other parts of speech add endings or apply special lexical forms to show respect to the person being referred to (often the same person as the person you are talking to, but by no means always). These forms are never used by the speaker to refer to himself or herself. These are called referent honorifics. The current subchapter deals with speech styles. Referent honorifics are dealt with separately in the following subchapter (see 4.4).

4.3.2

The Korean speech styles system

Speech styles are expressed through a system of verb endings that are attached to every single sentence-final verb. Most researchers recognize six different styles, as summarized in the following table: English name Korean of style name

Statement

formal

䞿㑒㼊 –O㓺Pථ┞┺

polite

䟊㣪㼊

semi-formal

䞮㡺㼊 –㡺/㏢

familiar

䞮Ợ㼊 –⍺

intimate

䟊㼊

plain

䟊⧒㼊 –┺

Question

Command

Proposal

–O㓺Pථ┞₢ –O㦒P㕃㔲㡺 –O㦒P㕃㔲┺ –㞚/㠊/㣪

–⋮/–⓪Ṗ

–㡺

–ථ㔲┺

–Ợ

–㎎

–㞚/㠊 –OⓦP⌦

–O㠊P⧒

–㧦

All of these speech styles have quite distinct patterns of use and will be described in detail in the following sections. However, for general purposes, the styles can be divided into three groups: 1 The formal and the polite are ‘honorific styles’ that can be used for addressing superiors and/or strangers/non-intimates. 2 The semi-formal and the familiar are ‘authoritative styles’ that can be used by older adults towards younger adults. These can sound rather power-laden in modern Korean; the use of both these styles is on the wane. 3 The intimate and the plain are ‘non-honorific styles’ that can be used for addressing intimates of similar or inferior age and/or rank.

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4.3.3

The polite style

The polite style represents the most universal of the Korean speech styles in that it can be used both with superiors and with those of similar or younger age (when intimacy is low). This speech style can be heard in a wide range of daily interactions: storekeepers use it reciprocally with customers, strangers use it on the street when asking for and giving directions, and non-intimate casual acquaintances use it reciprocally with each other. However, it can sound too casual if repeatedly used either in formal settings or in interactions with notable status superiors. On such occasions, use of the formal (see 4.3.4) may be preferred. In addition, it may sound too distant for addressing close long-term friends and is over polite for addressing children; here, the intimate style would be more appropriate (see 4.3.5). The polite style comprises the infinitive form of the verb (see 4.1.6) followed by –㣪. The ending is the same regardless of whether you are making a statement, asking a question, making a command or making a proposal. The meaning will be determined both by the speaker’s intonation and by the context.

Base

Infinitive

Polite

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱㞚

⹱㞚㣪

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ

Ṗ㣪

Although these can be used as imperatives, it is unusual to give an order in the polite speech style without also adding the subject honorific marker –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1). When –O㦒P㔲– combines with the polite style, the resultant form is –O㦒P㎎㣪:

㡂₆ 㞟㦒㎎㣪.

Take a seat here, please.

㧶㔲Ⱒ ₆┺Ⰲ㎎㣪.

Wait a moment, please.

When the polite style is attached after the past tense –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) or the future –Ỷ (see 4.5.2.1), it always takes the form 㠊㣪:

172

㠊⠑Ợ 䞮Ⳋ 㫡㦚㰖 ⴆ⧦㠊㣪.

I didn’t know what I should do.

⁎ Ị 㧮 ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪.

I wouldn’t really know that.

The polite style can also occur after other sentence endings (see Chapter 8), including –㰖 (see 8.16) and –⍺ (see 8.5). Here, the form is simply –㣪:

㡺⓮ ⋶㝾Ṗ 㩫Ⱖ 㿻⍺㣪.

Boy, the weather is cold today!

㤆Ⰲ ṫ㞚㰖 ⍞ⶊ ‖㡓㰖㣪f

Our puppy is so cute, isn’t it?


Finally, although the polite style is typically thought of as a verb ending, the –㣪 ending of this style may also appear after nouns or other parts of speech. This first of all occurs when the speaker gives a one-word utterance. In these cases, without the addition of –㣪, such utterances would generally be taken as non-honorific speech. When the word in question ends in a consonant, the form may be pronounced (and written) as –㧊㣪 (as in the final example).

㢲㣪f

Why?

㩖㣪.

Me.

㠊❪㣪f

Where?

䄺䞒㣪.

Coffee.

⑚ῂ㣪f

Who?

゚オ⹻㧊㣪.

Pibimbap.

In honorific speech, you may also hear –㣪 being attached in mid-sentence after the topic marker –⓪ (see 3.3.2.1) or after connective endings, especially –ἶ (see 6.3.1) and –⓪◆ (see 6.3.10). This appears to be more common in the speech of females and, when overused, can sound somewhat childish.

㩲㌳ṗ㠦⓪㣪 ⁎ Ⱖ㦖䞧Ἒ㡞㣪. In my opinion, that’s an excuse. 䡚㨂⿖㌆㧊ἶ㣪 ἶ䟻㦖㞞☯㧊㠦㣪. Now I’m in Busan and my home town is Andong. 䂲ῂṖ 㢪⓪◆㣪 ṯ㧊 Ṗ☚ ♶₢㣪f My friend has come, can we go together?

4.3.4

The formal style

The formal style is used on its own in settings that demand a high level of formality, such as job interviews, formal business meetings, formal speeches and TV news. In such settings, use of the polite style would sound too informal. Otherwise, when speaking honorifically, speakers often mix the formal style with the polite. In such cases, the mixture of formal versus polite will

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depend both on the level of formality and on the age–rank relationship between the speakers. In other words, speakers will tend to mix in a higher frequency of the formal when speaking to a status superior and/or in a structured setting. In addition, the formal is often used in first meetings before the ice has been broken and conversation has moved on to more casual topics. In such cases, repeated use of the polite can sound too casual. On the other hand, when talking casually to a non-intimate who is of similar or younger age, the formal will appear at a lower frequency or even not at all. The formal is also thought to sound masculine (whereas repeated use of the polite sounds feminine). In addition to the influence of age–rank and formality, the formal style also tends to occur in the following circumstances: First, the formal occurs in many set expressions. With these expressions, use of the polite often runs the risk of sounding too informal:

Ṧ㌂䞿┞┺/ἶⰯ㔋┞┺

thank you

㬚㏷䞿┞┺

sorry

Ⱒ⋮㍲ ⹮ṧ㔋┞┺

nice to meet you

㻮㦢⾯Ỷ㔋┞┺

how do you do? (expression used at first meeting)

㧮 ⲏ㠞㔋┞┺

I ate well (expression of thanks used after a meal)

Second, particularly in semi-structured discussions (such as academic debates or TV talk shows), the formal tends to occur with strong expressions of factual information that may be new to the hearer. The polite, on the other hand, tends to accompany expressions of conjecture or common sense, or when the speaker is trying to connect with the audience. One reason why the polite is used for the latter functions is that these require the use of certain sentence endings that are incompatible with the formal style, such as –⍺ (see 8.5) or –㰖 (see 8.16).

174

To make statements in the formal style, you add the ending –ථ┞┺/㔋┞ ┺ (pronounced [ත┞┺], [㔊┞┺]) to the base of the verb, –ථ┞┺ when the base ends in a vowel and –㔋┞┺ when it ends in a consonant. As mentioned previously (see 4.1.8), whereas with –ථ┞┺ irregular verbs behave as they would with any other two-shape ending, with –㔋┞┺ they behave as they more generally would with one-shape endings. –ථ┞┺/ 㔋┞┺ may also be attached after the honorific marker –㔲– (see 4.4.1.1), the

past tense –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1), the future –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) and also the future –ඥ Ệ (see 4.5.2.2):

Consonant base

Vowel base

Present

⹱㔋┞┺

ṧ┞┺G G go

–㔲–

⹱㦒㕃┞┺

Ṗ㕃┞┺

–㞮/㠞–

⹱㞮㔋┞┺

Ṫ㔋┞┺

–Ỷ–

⹱Ỷ㔋┞┺

ṖỶ㔋┞┺

–ඥ Ệ

⹱㦚 ỗ┞┺

Ṟ ỗ┞┺

receive


Formal style questions are made by replacing the final ┺ of the formal statement with ₢, in other words by adding an ending that has the shape –㔋┞₢ (pronounced [–㔊┞₢]) after consonants and the shape –ථ┞₢ (pronounced [–ත┞₢]) after vowels as follows:

Consonant base ⹱㔋┞₢f

Vowel base ṧ┞₢fG G

receive?

go?

Formal style commands are made by adding –O㦒P㔲㡺 to bases ending in consonants and –㔲㡺 to bases ending in vowels. Note, however, that it is practically unheard of to use this ending without the subject honorific marker –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1) preceding it, thus making the combined ending –O㦒P㕃㔲㡺:

Consonant base

Vowel base

⹱㦒㕃㔲㡺G G receive!

Ṗ㕃㔲㡺G G go!

For verbs that have special subject honorific forms (see 4.4.1.2) that include –㔲– in their base, –ථ㔲㡺 is added after –㔲–:

Ἒ㕃㔲㡺

stay!

㭒ⶊ㕃㔲㡺

sleep!

㧷㑮㕃㔲㡺

eat!

Formal style proposals (‘let’s’) are made by adding the ending –㦣㔲┺ to consonant bases and –ථ㔲┺ to vowel bases. It is very often used with the

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subject honorific marker –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1) preceding it, thus making the combined ending –O㦒P㕃㔲┺. Irregular verbs behave according to the normal patterns associated with the addition of two-shape endings (see 4.1.8):

Consonant base ⹱㦣㔲┺/⹱㦒㕃㔲┺

4.3.5

Vowel base receive

ṧ㔲┺/Ṗ㕃㔲┺

go

The intimate style – Panmal style

The intimate style, often referred to as ⹮Ⱖ panmal (lit. ‘half-speech’), is used as the principal non-honorific style when addressing intimates of similar or younger age. It can also be used by adults towards children (regardless of intimacy) and, in some situations, when addressing a non-intimate adult of notably younger age or notably lower rank. Although this style is frequently used in modern Korean, a high degree of caution is required. When misused towards a stranger, non-intimate or someone of higher age or status, it can signal a high degree of disrespect. The intimate style is frequently mixed in speech with the plain style (see 4.3.6). To form the intimate style, simply remove the final –㣪 ending from the polite style (see 4.3.3) (see below for a few exceptions). In the present tense, this means that the intimate style is the same form as the infinitive (see 4.1.6). Given that the polite and the intimate are, respectively, the most commonly occurring honorific and non-honorific styles, it is this addition or omission of –㣪 that most commonly marks the boundary between honorific and non-honorific language and to which Korean speakers are extremely sensitive. Here is a list of examples showing this alternation from the polite to the intimate:

176

Polite

Intimate

consonant base

⹱㞚㣪

⹱㞚

receive

vowel base

Ṗ㣪

Ṗ

go

The rule of just subtracting –㣪 from the polite style to form the intimate also works with the past tense –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) and the future –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1):

Polite

Intimate

–㞮/㠞–

⹱㞮㠊㣪

⹱㞮㠊

–Ỷ–

⹱Ỷ㠊㣪

⹱Ỷ㠊


receive

However, note that the intimate form is slightly different from the [polite minus –㣪] format in the following patterns:

(a) After the referent honorific –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1): Polite

Intimate

⹱㦒㎎㣪

⹱㦒㎪

receive

(b) After the copula –㧊 (and the negative copula 㞚┞–) (see 4.1.4): –㧊㠦㣪

–㧊㟒

㞚┞㠦㣪

–㞚┞㟒

(c) With future expressions using –ඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2) ⹱㦚 Ệ㡞㣪

⹱㦚 Ệ㟒

With sentence endings (see Chapter 8) including –㰖 (see 8.16) and ⍺ (see 8.5), the [polite minus –㣪] rule works, with the result that nothing is added at all:

㧊㦢㞛㦚 ✺㠊⽺㰖f You’ve heard this music, haven’t you? 㠊⧒! 䢞㑒䞧㧊 {}⽊┺ 㨂⹎㧞⍺H Boy, home shopping sure is more interesting than TV!

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4.3.6

The plain style

The plain style has two distinct usages. First, it is used when writing to a general audience in newspapers, textbooks, written announcements, etc. as a matter-of-fact and neutral style. Second, it is used in non-honorific speech when addressing intimates of similar or younger age, usually mixed with the intimate style. Although the intimate and the plain are often mixed in colloquial speech, their usages are not identical. First, the plain style is often felt to be ‘lower’ than the intimate particularly in questions and orders. Thus, repeated use of the plain tends to be more appropriate in cases where the speaker is considerably older than the hearer (such as a father addressing his son). The plain may also be applied when the speaker intentionally wants his/her speech to sound colder. Second, the statement form of the plain style (–┺) tends to occur with information that the speaker has recently and suddenly realized, particularly when this information is mostly relevant to the hearer. Consider the following examples: 1 Two friends are preparing to go swimming in the sea. The friend who tests the temperature of the water first may shout the following exclamation to the other friend, thus not only expressing his/her own surprise, but also warning the other friend that the water is freezing cold!

㹾ṧ┺H

It’s cold!

2 Two friends are waiting for a bus that is taking ages to come. When one friend finally sees the bus arriving, he/she may exclaim:

⻚㓺Ṗ 㡾┺H

The bus is coming!

3 Two friends are looking for a wallet that one of the friends has lost. When one friend finally finds the wallet, he/she may exclaim:

㺔㞮┺H

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I’ve found it!

Third, the statement form of the plain style (–┺) may occur in more general exclamations, even when what is being exclaimed about is not so noteworthy to the hearer. Indeed, these exclamations with –┺ often have the status of soliloquy; in other words, they are uttered as if the speaker is speaking to him/herself. As such utterances are not aimed directly at

the hearer, you may hear them even in a situation where the speaker is talking predominantly in honorific speech styles!

㢖H 㹢ṲṖ ⍞ⶊ ⰱ㧞┺H

Wow, the stew tastes great!

ἓ䂮Ṗ 㭓㧎┺H

This is killer (great) scenery!


Fourth, the plain style is often used when the speaker is boasting. Such utterances tend to be accompanied by a sing-song intonation:

⋮ 㥶⩓㠦 Ṛ┺H

I’m going to Europe!

⁎ ⋾㧦䞲䎢㍶ⶒ㦚 ⹱㞮┺H

I got a present from that guy!

Fifth and finally, the plain style often occurs when the speaker is delivering a common saying or quotation:

㞚⓪ Ợ 䧮㧊┺.

Knowledge is power.

㧧㦖 ἶ㿪Ṗ ⱋ┺.

Small peppers are hot. ( small people are tough)

As well as being an important style to learn in its own right, the plain is also important because it forms the basis for quotations or ‘reported speech’ (see Chapter 9). The plain style is technically the most difficult style to form as there are different endings for statements, questions, proposals and commands and also separate forms for descriptive and processive verbs.

4.3.6.1

Plain style statements

Statements in the plain style have different endings depending on whether the verb is descriptive or processive. For descriptive verbs, add –┺ to the base. This creates a form that is identical to the dictionary form (see 4.1.7):

Base

Plain statement

consonant base

㧧– small

㧧┺

vowel base

㕎– cheap

㕎┺

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As for processive verbs, these are made into plain style statements by an ending which has the shape –ච┺ when attached to vowel bases and –⓪┺ when attached to consonant bases:

Base

Plain statement

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱⓪┺

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṛ┺

With the past tense –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) and the future –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1), –┺ is simply added to all verbs irrespective of whether they are descriptive or processive:

Descriptive

Processive

–㞮/㠞–

㧧㞮┺

⹱㞮┺

–Ỷ–

㕎Ỷ┺

⹱Ỷ┺

However, with the honorific marker –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1), whereas –┺ is used with descriptive verbs, –ච┺ is used with processive verbs:

Descriptive

Processive

㧧㦒㔲┺

⹱㦒㔶┺

ザ⯊㔲┺

⿖⯊㔶┺

The plain style statement form of the copula (see 4.1.4) is –㧊┺. The past form (see 4.5.1.1) is –㧊㠞┺ and the future with –Ỷ– is –㧊Ỷ┺ (see 4.5.2.1). The negative form is 㞚┞┺.

ἆ䢒䞲⿖⿖㠦Ợ 㧚㔶㦖䄺┺⧖ ₆㊾㧊┺U Pregnancy is a great joy to married couples. ⋲ 㧊㩲⿖㧦┺U I am a rich man now. 180

㠊㩲⓪ ⌊ 㡂㧦䂲ῂ ㌳㧒㧊㠞┺U Yesterday was my girlfriend’s birthday.

Ⱎ㦢㧊 ⍩ἶ 㺎㫡㦖㌂⧢㧊Ỷ┺U He/she’s a broad-minded, warm person.


㌂⧢㦖㰦㔏㧊㞚┞┺U People are not animals. As noted previously (see 4.1.1), there is a small number of verbs that may be either processive or descriptive. With these verbs, particular care is needed when applying the plain style, as your choice of the descriptive ending –┺ or the processive ending –ච┺/–⓪┺ will affect the way the sentence is interpreted.

4.3.6.2

Plain style questions

There are three ways to form questions in the plain style: (1) adding –O㦒P⌦ or –ⓦ⌦, (2) adding –┞ and (3) adding –O㦒PචṖ/–⓪Ṗ:

(a) –O㦒P⌦ or –ⓦ⌦ This plain style ending is widely used in colloquial speech, but sounds rather condescending and argumentative. It is most commonly used when the speaker is higher in status or age than the hearer and is sometimes used when the speaker is negatively predisposed in some way towards the information being asked for (refer to Lee, H. 1991: 455):

⍞ 㰖⁞ ⶦ 䞮ⓦ⌦f

What on earth are you doing now?

㑯㩲 ┺ 䟞ⓦ⌦f

Have you done all your homework?

☞ Ṱ㦒⩂ 㢪ⓦ⌦f

Have you come to pay the money back?

The choice between –O㦒P⌦ and –ⓦ⌦ depends on whether the verb is descriptive or processive. Descriptive verbs take the two-shape ending –O㦒P⌦, with –㦒⌦ following a consonant and –⌦ following a vowel:

Base

Plain question

consonant base

㧧– small

㧧㦒⌦

vowel base

㕎– cheap

㕎⌦

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Processive verbs originally use the one-shape ending –ⓦ⌦. This ending is however frequently shortened simply to –⌦ in colloquial speech.

Base

Plain question Full

Contracted

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱ⓦ⌦

⹱⌦

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗⓦ⌦

Ṗ⌦

With the past tense –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) and the future –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1), –ⓦ⌦ is attached to all verbs. However, this is also frequently abbreviated to –⌦ in colloquial language.

–㞮/㠞–

–Ỷ–

Descriptive

Processive

Full form

⹱㞮ⓦ⌦

㧧㞮ⓦ⌦

Abbreviated

⹱㞮⌦

㧧㞮⌦

Full form

⹱Ỷⓦ⌦

㧧Ỷⓦ⌦

Abbreviated

⹱Ỷ⌦

㧧Ỷ⌦

The copula form is –㧊⌦ and 㞚┞⌦ in the negative.

(b) –┞ –┞ is also a form frequently heard in colloquial speech. Although it does not share the occasional negative predisposition of –ⓦ⌦/–O㦒P⌦, its usage presupposes that the interlocutors are either highly intimate or that the speaker is older than the hearer. Indeed, this form is perhaps most commonly heard being used by adults addressing children.

182

Base

Plain question

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱┞f

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ┞f

The same –┞ form may also be attached after the honorific marker –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1), past tense –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1), future with –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) and future with –ඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2). The copula form is –㧊┞ and 㞚┞┞ in the negative.


(c) –O㦒PචṖ/–⓪Ṗ Although the –ⓦ⌦/–O㦒P⌦ and –┞ endings are used in colloquial speech, in writing these are replaced by –O㦒PචṖ/–⓪Ṗ. The two-shape ending –O㦒PචṖ is used for descriptive verbs:

Base

Plain question

consonant base

㧧– small

㧧㦖Ṗf

vowel base

㕎– cheap

㕒Ṗf

The one-shape ending –⓪Ṗ is used for processive verbs:

Base

Plain question

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱⓪Ṗf

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ⓪Ṗf

The copula form is –㧎Ṗ and 㞚┢Ṗ in the negative.

4.3.6.3

Plain style proposals

Plain style proposals are formed by adding the one-shape ending –㧦. This ending is very common in colloquial speech; indeed, it tends to accompany all non-honorific proposals. Remember that only processive verbs occur in proposals:

Base

Plain proposal

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱㧦

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ㧦 183

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4.3.6.4

Plain style commands

Plain style commands have three possible forms: (1) –O㦒P⧒, (2) –㞚/㠊⧒ and (3) –Ệ/⍞⧒.

(a) –O㦒P⧒ This is the original form of the plain style command, but is rarely used in spoken language in modern Korean. –O㦒P⧒ works as a two-shape ending with –㦒⧒ attached after a consonant and –⧒ after a vowel:

Base

Plain command

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱㦒⧒

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ⧒

Negative commands with –㰖 Ⱖ– are rendered as –㰖 Ⱖ⧒ (although this is often pronounced as –㰖 Ⱎ⧒):

⽊㰖 Ⱖ⧒

don’t look

In modern Korean, the –O㦒P⧒ form is most frequently seen in written rather than spoken language. For example, in a textbook or exam you might see an instruction such as the following:

┺㦢 ⁖㦚㤆ⰂⰦ⪲ ⻞㡃䞮⧒U Translate the following passage into ‘our language’ ( Korean). Or on a poster at an anti-American rally, you may see something like this:

⹎ῆ㦚㿪⹿䞮⧒H

Throw out the US Army!

(b) –㞚/㠊⧒ In spoken language, instead of the –O㦒P⧒ form, you will more often hear the –⧒ ending attached to the infinitive form of the verb (see 4.1.6) to form –㞚/㠊⧒:

184

Base

Plain command

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱㞚⧒

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ⧒

Negative commands with –㰖 Ⱖ– are rendered as –㰖 Ⱖ㞚⧒. This, in turn, is frequently abbreviated to –㰖 Ⱎ⧒:

Full form

Abbreviated

⽊㰖 Ⱖ㞚⧒

⽊㰖 Ⱎ⧒


don’t look!

Contrary to previous observations that commands cannot usually occur with descriptive verbs (see 4.1.1), note that –㞚/㠊⧒ may occasionally occur with descriptive verbs. However, in these cases –㞚/㠊⧒ is not functioning as a command but as an exclamatory ending. Exclamations appearing with –㞚/㠊⧒ tend to be strong in nature:

㞚㧊ῂH 㡞ㄦ⧒H My, my! How pretty! 㢖H ⍞ⶊ ⰱ㧞㠊⧒H Wow! Boy, this tastes good! (c) –Ệ/⍞⧒ For a set of five verbs there exists an additional irregular command form that can be used in place of the more common regular form. For the first four verbs, the irregular form involves adding –Ệ⧒ to the verb base, for the fifth verb O㡺–P, –⍞⧒ is added instead. These forms are more frequently used in colloquial language and by older speakers.

Base

Irregular

Regular

Ṗ– go

ṖỆ⧒

Ṗ⧒

㧦– sleep

㧦Ệ⧒

㧦⧒

㧞– be, stay

㧞Ệ⧒

㧞㠊⧒

㞟– sit

㞟Ệ⧒

㞟㞚⧒

㡺– come

㡺⍞⧒

㢖⧒

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4.3.7

The familiar style

This style of speech is used non-reciprocally by older adults to younger adults, most typically among male speakers. The speaker must be in at least his late 30s and the hearer must be of college age or above – this style is never used towards children. The familiar style gives a feeling that the speaker is showing his authority; it also has the character of strong formality. Perhaps for these reasons, usage of this style appears to be decreasing among speakers of Seoul Korean. As in the following examples, this style often occurs with the second-person pronoun 㧦⍺ ‘you’ (see 2.3.1.2). These two elements express similar levels of power and authority.

㧊㧒㦖㧦⍺Ṗ 䞮ỢU

You take this job.

㠊㩲㧦⍺ 㞚⻚┮㦚 Ⱒ⌂⍺U

I met your father yesterday.

Due to the low frequency of this speech style, details regarding the grammatical formation of this style are not included here.

4.3.8

The semi-formal style

Like the familiar style, the semi-formal style can be used by older adults towards those of equal or lower status. However, the semi-formal involves a higher degree of reserve than the familiar. Traditionally, this style was used by a husband towards his wife in combination with the pronoun ╏㔶 ‘you’ (see 2.3.1.2), as in the following example:

╏㔶㦖㞞 ṖỶ㏢f

Aren’t you going?

However, this kind of usage has declined in modern South Korea and only a minority of the population seem to have retained this style. Perhaps the one place where this style can still be regularly seen is in internet language, where people posting messages at times favour this style for its concise nature and authoritative feel (refer to Lee, J. 2004).

4.4

Referent honorifics

Overview

186

The previous chapter discussed the use of speech styles – forms that are used to express your social relationship with the people you are talking

to. This chapter now looks at referent honorifics, which mark the relationship with the people you are talking about; in other words, those who appear in the sentence either as the grammatical subject or the grammatical object. The person you are talking about is sometimes the same as the person you are talking to, as in the following examples:

Referent honorifics

㍶㌳┮, 㠊❪ Ṗ㕃┞₢f Esteemed teacher, where are you going? ㏦┮, 㡂₆ 㞟㦒㕃㔲㡺. Esteemed customer, please take a seat here. In these examples, the teacher and the customer are both the (implied) grammatical subjects of the sentences. Thus, the speaker combines use of the formal speech style (see 4.3.4) with the referent honorific –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1) to form –O㦒P㕃┞₢? and –O㦒P㕃㔲㡺 respectively. This combination of endings shows respect to the teacher and the customer respectively both as the person being talked to and the person being talked about. However, the person being talked about is, of course, often totally different from the person being talked to:

☯㌳S 䞶㞚⻚㰖℮㍲㡺㔶┺U [PLAIN] Younger brother, esteemed grandfather is coming. In this example, the person being talked about is ‘grandfather’, who is shown respect through the use of the referent honorific –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1) and the case marker –℮㍲ (see 4.4.1.3). However, since the hearer is ‘younger brother’, the speaker uses the non-honorific plain speech style (see 4.3.6). The current subchapter looks at forms that are used to show respect towards someone appearing as the subject of the sentence (see 4.4.1) and as the object (see 4.4.2) and then looks at honorific nouns (see 4.4.3). In the final section, we look at how the different parts of the Korean honorifics system fit together (see 4.4.4).

4.4.1

Subject honorifics

Subject honorifics express deference towards the grammatical subject of the sentence. The most common way to do this is to add the subject honorific marker –O㦒P㔲– to the verb base. In addition to this, a few lexical substitutions will be explained.

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4.4.1.1

The subject honorific marker –O㦒P㔲–

Most verbs can be made honorific to express respect for the person appearing as the grammatical subject of the sentence simply by adding the two-shape ending –O㦒P㔲– to the verb base. This creates an honorific base:

Base

Honorific base

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱㦒㔲–

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ㔲–

To this honorific base, a speech style and other endings can be added. As in the second line, the combination of the subject honorific marker and the polite speech style is –O㦒P㎎㣪 (although it is occasionally written and pronounced as –O㦒P㎪㣪P.

Ṗ㕃┞┺

go [subject honorific; FORMAL]

Ṗ㎎㣪 OkṖ㎪㣪P

go [subject honorific; POLITE]

Ṗ㎪

go [subject honorific; INTIMATE]

Ṗ㔶┺

go [subject honorific; PLAIN]

–O㦒P㔲– should be used under the following circumstances. First, it should be included when you are referring to a third person who is older than you or superior to you in social standing, particularly teachers, professors, superiors at work, parents and grandparents. Compare its inclusion in the first example when referring to ‘grandfather’ and its absence in the second example when referring to ‘younger sibling’:

䞶㞚⻚㰖⓪ ⿖㰖⩆䞮㎎㣪U

Grandfather is industrious.

☯㌳㧊⿖㰖⩆䟊㣪U

Younger sibling is industrious.

Second, it should be used when asking a question of someone of superior social standing, an adult stranger or a non-intimate (unless you know they are considerably younger than you) when the question is enquiring about the actions, thoughts, etc. of the hearer (‘what are you doing?’, ‘what do you think?’, etc.):

188

㍶㌳┮SG㠊❪ Ṗ㎎㣪f

Teacher, where are you going?

䞶㞚⻚㰖SG㠊⠑Ợ ㌳ṗ䞮㎎㣪f

Grandfather, what do you think?

Third, it should be used in commands. Here, as long as you are using the polite or formal styles, –O㦒P㔲– is almost always used:

Referent honorifics

㍶㌳┮S 㡂₆ 㞟㦒㎎㣪. Teacher, take a seat here. 䞶㞚⻚㰖SG㤆Ⰲ 㰧㦒⪲ 㡺㎎㣪U Grandfather, come to our house. Although –O㦒P㔲– is originally a subject honorific form, it can sometimes appear in cases where the ‘subjecthood’ of the person being honoured is questionable. This tends to occur when referring to an esteemed person’s body parts, ailments, clothes and possessions. In the following examples, although –O㦒P㔲– is used to show respect to 䞶㞚⻚㰖 ‘grandfather’, it is arguable whether ‘grandfather’ is the true subject of any of these sentences. Indeed, it could be claimed that 㑮㡒 ‘whiskers’, 㫛₆ ‘boil’ and ⹿ ‘room’ are the subjects of the sentences:

䞶㞚⻚㰖℮㍲㑮㡒㧊 Ⱔ㦒㎎㣪U Grandfather has many whiskers. 䞶㞚⻚㰖℮㍲㏦㠦㫛₆Ṗ ⋮㎾㠊㣪. Grandfather has had a boil appear on his hand. 䞶㞚⻚㰖⓪ ⹿㧊䋂㎎㣪. Grandfather’s room is big.

4.4.1.2

Verbs with special subject honorific forms

For a small set of verbs that describe situations involving the human body, just adding –O㦒P㔲– is not enough. For these verbs, the verb base itself has to be substituted for a special honorific verb base. These verb bases all contain –O㦒P㔲– as an integral part:

Non-honorific base

Honorific base

㧦– sleep

㭒ⶊ㔲–

㧞– stay

Ἒ㔲–

ⲏ– eat

㧷㑮㔲–SGO✲㔲ˀP

㭓– die

☢㞚Ṗ㔲–

㞚䝚– ill

䘎㺄㦒㔲–

Ⱖ䞮– speak

Ⱖ㝖䞮㔲–

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A few extra notes are required regarding the forms for ‘stay’, ‘eat’ and ‘sick’: 1 Ἒ㔲– only replaces 㧞– when the intended meaning is ‘somebody stays’. 㧞– can also be used in possessive constructions to mean ‘somebody has’. In these constructions, 㧞– is not replaced but is suffixed with –O㦒P㔲– to form the honorific base 㧞㦒㔲–. Consider the following examples:

䞶㞚⻚㰖⓪ ㍲㤎㠦 Ἒ㎎㣪U

Grandfather is ( stays) in Seoul.

䞶㞚⻚㰖⓪ ☞㧊㧞㦒㎎㣪U

Grandfather has ( possesses) money.

2 In addition to using 㧷㑮㔲– as an honorific form for ‘eat’, speakers also frequently substitute ⲏ– ‘eat’ for the euphemistic ✺– ‘take’. As an ඥ– dropping irregular verb, this becomes ✲㔲– as an honorific base. 3 As well as 䘎㺄㦒㔲– ‘ill’, it is also possible to make the plain verb 㞚䝚– honorific by adding –O㦒P㔲: 㞚䝚㔲–. However, the usages of these two forms are distinct. Generally speaking, 䘎㺄㦒㔲– is more formal and more honorific, and 㞚䝚㔲– is less formal and less honorific. In addition, it could be said that whereas 䘎㺄㦒㔲– is used for discussing illness or pain affecting the body in general (‘ill’, ‘in pain’), 㞚䝚㔲– is only used for talking about an ailment in a particular body part (‘. . . hurts’):

䞶㞚⻚㰖⓪ 㡺⓮ 䘎㺄㦒㎎㣪U

Grandfather is ill today.

䞶㞚⻚㰖⓪ ⲎⰂṖ 㞚䝚㎎㣪U

Grandfather’s head hurts.

These honorific verbs occur in some common greetings and set expressions:

㞞⎫䧞 Ἒ㎎㣪U

goodbye (lit. ‘stay in peace’)

㞞⎫䧞㭒ⶊ㎎㣪U

good night

ⰱ㧞Ợ ✲㎎㣪U

Enjoy your meal.

4.4.1.3

Subject honorific particle –℮㍲

When expressing subject honorification, as well as marking deference on the verb, the subject particle –㧊/Ṗ (see 3.2.1) should also be replaced by the honorific particle –℮㍲:

190

䞶㞚⻚㰖℮㍲㧦☯㹾Ṗ 㠜㦒㎎㣪f Doesn’t your grandfather have a car?

☯㌳㧊㧦☯㹾Ṗ 㠜㠊㣪f Doesn’t your younger brother have a car?

Referent honorifics

℮㍲ can also be followed by the topic particle ⓪ (note that this does not apply to 㧊/Ṗ):

㞚⻚┮℮㍲⓪ ⶊ㠝㦚䞮㎎㣪f

What does your father do?

Although, in theory, –℮㍲ should always be applied in sentences such as the previous example, in everyday speech its inclusion is frequently overlooked. One may often hear teachers, grandparents, etc. talked about without any use of –℮㍲; indeed, in informal conversation, overuse of –℮㍲ may sound like ‘overdone’ honorification (refer to Lee and Ramsey 2000: 242). However, in formal speech and writing, it should always be included. Furthermore, although we may expect that –℮㍲ would appear with honorific terms of address and kinship terms that include –┮ (see 1.3) (and not appear with plain terms), in ordinary conversation such rules of co-occurrence are only loosely followed. In the following, although the first sentence may be the most ‘correct’, all of the following four combinations may be heard in the sentence ‘father helped me’:

㞚⻚┮℮㍲ ☚㢖㭒㎾㠊㣪U

–┮ –℮㍲

㞚⻚㰖℮㍲ ☚㢖㭒㎾㠊㣪U

–℮㍲

㞚⻚┮㧊 ☚㢖㭒㎾㠊㣪U

–┮

㞚⻚㰖Ṗ ☚㢖㭒㎾㠊㣪U

—

4.4.2

Object honorifics

Object honorification is the expression of deference towards the person affected by the action of the verb. In older stages of Korean (in particular, Middle Korean), the verbal suffix –sop– was used in this function; it formed an opposing pair with the subject honorific marker –㔲–. However, this form has now been lost and, in modern Korean, object honorification can only be expressed through lexical substitutions.

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4.4.2.1

Verbs with special object honorific forms

The following verbs have special object honorific forms:

Non-honorific base

Honorific base

㭒– give

✲Ⰲ–

ⶑ– ask

㡂㶯–

⽊– see

⾯–

◆Ⰲ– accompany

⳾㔲–

Ⱖ䞮– speak

Ⱖ㝖✲Ⰲ–

Examples of the usage of these verbs can be found in the following section (see 4.4.2.2). Although this seems to be a very limited set of forms, the object honorific form ✲Ⰲ– has a wider application than simply meaning ‘give’. First, it also replaces 㭒– as an auxiliary verb in benefactive constructions (see 5.1.12). Second, it can replace the support verb 䞮– in 䞮– verbs (see 4.1.2):

Non-honorific

Object honorific

㩚䢪䞮–

call

㩚䢪 ✲Ⰲ–

call (someone esteemed)

㡆⧓䞮–

contact

㡆⧓ ✲Ⰲ–

contact (someone esteemed)

⿖䌗䞮–

request

⿖䌗 ✲Ⰲ–

request (someone esteemed)

㧎㌂䞮–

greet

㧎㌂ ✲Ⰲ–

greet (someone esteemed)

㿫䞮䞮–

congratulate

㿫䞮 ✲Ⰲ–

congratulate (someone esteemed)

4.4.2.2

Object honorific particle –℮

When talking about giving something to, asking, speaking to, contacting, congratulating, etc. a person who needs to be respected, the locative particle –㠦Ợ or –䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4) is replaced by the honorific –℮. Here are some examples of object honorifics showing –℮ and/or the object honorific verbs introduced in the previous section:

192

㧊㺛㦚㍶㌳┮℮ ✲⪎㠊㣪U

I gave this book to my teacher.

⁎⩆ 㧒㦖䞶㞚⻚㰖℮ 㡂㶞㠊⽊㎎㣪U

Ask grandfather things like that.

㡺⓮ ☚㍲ὖ㠦㍲㍶㌳┮㦚⾞㠞㠊㣪UG

I saw the teacher in the library today.

⿖⳾┮㦚 ⳾㔲ἶ Ṫ㠊㣪U

I took my parents.

㌂㧻┮℮ Ⱖ㝖G✲⪎㠊㣪U

I told the boss.

䞶Ⲏ┞℮ 㩚䢪 ✲⪎㠊㣪U

I phoned my grandmother.

䞶㞚⻚㰖℮ 㧎㌂ ✲⪎㠊㣪U

I greeted grandfather.

4.4.3

Referent honorifics

Honorific nouns

Some Korean nouns also have special honorific forms:

Non-honorific

Honorific

㰧 house, home

╗

⋮㧊 age

㡆㎎S 㿮㿪*

⹻ cooked rice, meal

㰚㰖

㌳㧒 birthday

㌳㔶

㧊⯚ name

㎇䞾S 㫊䞾**

Ⱖ speech, word

Ⱖ㝖

㌂⧢ person

⿚

*old-fashioned form

**highly formal form

Whereas the non-honorific forms are used to talk about the house, age, meal, birthday, etc. of someone of similar or subordinate status, the honorific terms are used to talk about the house, age, meal, birthday, etc. of someone esteemed. When these forms are applied in combination with the honorific verbs and particles introduced earlier in this chapter, some basic expressions can be rendered with totally separate lexical sets depending on who you are talking about. In the following examples, whereas the plain 㧊 (subject marker), ⹻ ‘meal’ and ⲏ– ‘eat’ are used for talking about the younger sister, the honorific –℮㍲ (subject marker), 㰚㰖 ‘meal’ and 㧷㑮㔲– ‘eat’ are used for talking about grandfather:

䞶㞚⻚㰖℮㍲㰚㰖⯒ 㧷㑮㕃┞┺U

Grandfather is eating his meal.

㡂☯㌳㧊 ⹻㦚 ⲏ㠊㣪U

Younger sister is eating her meal.

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In addition to the nouns listed above, some titles and kinship terms also have a separate honorific form. These are commonly formed by adding the honorific suffix –┮ and are listed earlier in this book (see 1.3.2, 1.3.3).

4.4.4

Putting the honorifics system together

This subchapter and the previous one have introduced speech styles and different kinds of referent honorifics. We now look at how these different elements work together as an integrated system and provide more information about the contexts where referent honorifics are needed.

(a) When the hearer and referent(s) are different people Speech styles and referent honorifics should be understood as totally independent systems. If you need to signal respect to both the person you are talking to and the person you are talking about, you will use honorific speech styles and referent honorifics:

㍶㌳┮S 䞶㞚⻚㰖℮㍲ ⶦ 䞮㕃┞₢f Teacher, what does your grandfather do? Similarly, if you do not need to signal respect either to the listener or to the hearer then non-honorific speech styles can be used and referent honorifics can be omitted:

⹒䢎㟒S ☯㌳㧊 ⶦ 䞮┞f Minho, what does your little brother do? However, if you need to signal respect only to the hearer, you will have to use an honorific speech style but drop the referent honorifics:

㍶㌳┮S ⹒䢎 ⶦ 䟊㣪f Professor, what does Minho do? And finally, when you only need to show respect to the sentence referent, then you will use referent honorifics but opt for a non-honorific speech style:

⹒䢎㟒S 䞶㞚⻚㰖 ⶦ 䞮㔲┞f [PLAIN] Minho, what does your granddad do? 194

In these cases where the referent and the hearer are different people, referent honorifics are most commonly used when talking about people who are

considered to be of notably high status. This commonly includes your parents, grandparents, teachers, professors, bosses and others of high occupational rank, and elderly people.

Referent honorifics

(b) When the hearer and referent(s) are the same person Hearer and referent honorifics work together to express respect to the hearer/referent. In such cases, it is most common for referent honorifics to occur with honorific speech styles (and for referent honorifics to be omitted with non-honorific speech styles), as in these examples:

㌂㧻┮S 㠊❪ Ṗ㎎㣪f [subject honorifics; POLITE] Boss, where are you going? ⹒㰖㟒S 㠊❪ Ṗf [no subject honorifics; INTIMATE] Minji, where are you going? However, this is not always the case. Although the social factor that exercises most influence over both systems is relative social status (age, rank, etc.), the choice of speech styles displays more connection to the level of intimacy. Thus, in cases when you are talking to (and about) someone who is of equal or inferior social status but with whom you are not intimate, it may be appropriate to use honorific speech styles (to signal the lack of intimacy) but drop the referent honorifics (to signal that you are of equal or superior social standing):

⹒䢎㝾S 㠊❪ Ṗ㣪f

Minho, where are you going?

The opposite pattern of using non-honorific speech styles but referent honorifics is less common. However, this may sometimes be heard by a daughter towards her mother, for example, with the non-honorific style signalling intimacy, but the referent honorific signalling respect for age difference (although this would not normally be considered standard):

㠚ⰞS 㠊❪ Ṗ㎪f

Mum, where are you going?

Regarding the use of honorifics when the hearer and referent are the same entity, it should be noted that there are commonly two circumstances in which this becomes the case. First, the hearer and referent are identical in personal questions that would include ‘you’ in the English translation:

㠊❪ Ṗ㎎㣪f

Where are you going?

㠊⠑Ợ ㌳ṗ䞮㕃┞₢f

What do you think?

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In such cases, referent honorifics are generally included when addressing all status superiors, as well as strangers and many non-intimates. The second common case where the hearer and the referent are the same person is imperatives; in other words, when you are telling someone what to do:

㧊㴓㦒⪲ 㡺㎎㣪U

Come this way please.

㩚䢪⻞䢎⯒ Ṗ⯊㼦㭒㎎㣪U

Please tell me your telephone number.

In imperatives, as long as you are using honorific speech styles, referent honorifics are almost always included. In other words, even if you are talking to a non-intimate of similar or younger age who you normally address in honorific speech styles but without referent honorifics, you would include them when commanding them to do something. The reason for this seems to be that telling someone what to do is always rather sensitive, so speakers want to sound as polite as possible.

4.5

Tense and aspect

Overview This subchapter describes how to form past and future tenses and talk about progressive actions and continuous states. In addition to the simple past tense, we look at what is known as the ‘past-past tense’ and the ‘observed or perceived past tense’. Under future tense, we look at four different forms: –Ỷ–, –O㦒Pඥ Ệ–, –O㦒PඥỢ and –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮–, and we provide some rules of thumb for choosing the most appropriate future expression. The section on progressives describes and contrasts two patterns: –ἶ 㧞– and –㞚/㠊㧞–.

4.5.1

Past tenses

Korean has three past tense forms, which we will look at in turn: the simple past tense with –㞮/㠞–, the past-past with –㞮㠞/㠞㠞– and the observed or perceived past tense with –▪–.

196

4.5.1.1

Tense and aspect

Simple past –㞮/㠞–

The past tense –㞮/㠞– is formed by combining the infinitive form of the verb (see 4.1.6) with ඲. This produces a past base:

Base

Infinitive

Past base

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱㞚

⹱㞮–

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ

Ṫ–

To this past base, a speech style and other endings can be added:

Ṫ㔋┞┺

went [FORMAL]

Ṫ㠊㣪

went [POLITE]

Ṫ㠊

went [INTIMATE]

Ṫ┺

went [PLAIN]

To make honorific forms, add –O㦒P㎾– in place of the present tense honorific marker –O㦒P㔲–. –O㦒P㎾– is a combination of –O㦒P㔲– followed by –㠞– and is attached to the verb in the same way as –O㦒P㔲–. This creates an honorific past base:

Base

Honorific

Honorific past base

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱㦒㔲–

⹱㦒㎾–

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ㔲–

Ṗ㎾–

To this honorific past base, other endings can be added in the normal way:

Ṗ㎾㔋┞┺

went [honorific; FORMAL]

Ṗ㎾㠊㣪

went [honorific; POLITE]

Ṗ㎾㠊

went [honorific; INTIMATE]

Ṗ㎾┺

went [honorific; PLAIN]

The past tense form is generally used in the same way as English to talk about events and states that took place prior to the time of speaking. However, it is worth noting here that there is a group of verbs in Korean

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for which the past tense form can also express a present state. In English, these forms usually translate either into the present progressive tense, present perfect tense or a present tense adjective. In these cases, –㞮/㠞– expresses not the past, but a situation that now exists as a result of something that has happened or changed before the present time.

㔶⧧㧊 ⍞ⶊ ⓯㠞㠊㣪U The bridegroom is too old. (lit. ‘has aged’) 㔶⿖Ṗ 㠊Ⲏ┞⯒ ╄㞮㠊㣪U The bride takes after her father. (lit. ‘has taken after’) ㌂㧻┮㧊㡺⓮☚ ゾṚ 㢖㧊㎪䁶⯒ 㧛㦒㎾㠊㣪U The boss is wearing a red shirt today, too. (lit. ‘has put on’) ⹒㑮Ṗ ἆ䢒䟞㠊㣪U Minsu is married. (lit. ‘has got married’) ⹎⋮Ṗ ☛㧒㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪U Mina has gone to Germany. (lit. ‘went to Germany’) 䞶㞚⻚㰖Ṗ 㡺㎾㠊㣪U Grandfather has come. (lit. ‘came’) 㥶⹎Ṗ ☞㦚 Ⱔ㧊 ⳾㞮㠊㣪U Yumi has made a lot of money. (lit. ‘made’)

4.5.1.2

Past-past –㞮/㠞㠞–

The past-past tense involves attaching the past tense marker twice onto the same verb to give the form –㞮/㠞㠞–. Past-past is frequently used with a set of verbs that in simple past tense are actually used to mark a present state (see 4.5.1.1). Except perhaps if a time expression was inserted, the following simple past sentences would mean that Yumi has gone to Jeju Island (and is there now) and has made a lot of money (and has a lot of money now):

㥶⹎Ṗ 㩲㭒☚㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪. Yumi has gone to Jeju Island. [and is there now] 㥶⹎Ṗ ☞㦚 ⳾㞮㠊㣪. Yumi has made a lot of money. [and still has it now] 198

Thus, if you want to say that that Yumi went to Jeju island (some time in the past but has come back) or that Yumi made a lot of money (but has

either lost the money, or the fact that she made money is not relevant to the present), you will have to use the past-past:

Tense and aspect

㥶⹎Ṗ 㩲㭒☚㠦 Ṫ㠞㠊㣪U Yumi went to Jeju Island. [and has now returned] 㥶⹎Ṗ ☞㦚 ⳾㞮㠞㠊㣪U Yumi made a lot of money. [and has spent it all] Let’s consider one further example. The common way to tell someone that they have a phone call (i.e. that a call has arrived and someone is waiting on the line for them) is to use 㩚䢪㡺– (lit. ‘phone-call come’) in the simple past as in the first example that follows. Here, the implication is that the speaker is telling the boss that he/she should go and answer the phone. In contrast, when the speaker uses past-past, as in the second example, the implication is that the caller is no longer on the line, the speaker is telling the boss that he/she has missed a phone call.

㌂㧻┮S 㩚䢪㢪㔋┞┺U Boss, you’ve got a phone call. (lit. ‘a phone call came’) ㌂㧻┮S 㩚䢪㢪㠞㔋┞┺U Boss, you had a phone call. (lit. ‘a phone call had come’) As well as verbs that in the simple past seem to express a present state, the past-past can occur with other verbs as well. The general implication is that the action or state being talked about has now changed or is seen as ‘removed’ and no longer applicable to the present. In such cases, the use of the past-past tends to be optional. It is used to emphasize that circumstances are changed or to mark the speaker’s standpoint that what is being talked about has no connection to or is felt to be distant from the present. In English, a similar nuance can often be created by using ‘used to’:

㧒⽎㠊⯒ 㩚Ὃ䟞㠞㠊㣪U I used to specialize in Japanese. [but now specialize in something else] 㠊⪎㦚 ➢⓪ 㞚㭒㟓䟞㠞㠊㣪U I used to be very weak when I was young. [but am stronger now] 㡱⋶㠦⓪ ᾦ䣢⯒ ┺⎪㠞㠊㣪. In the past, I used to attend church. [but don’t now] 㡗䢪⯒ 㡞㩚㠦䞲⻞⽺㠞㠊㣪. I saw that movie once a long time ago. [but it feels very disconnected from the present]

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4.5.1.3

Observed or perceived past tense

Korean has a set of observed or perceived verb endings that are used mainly for talking about the past. These endings are used in place of or in addition to the past tense when the speaker wants to communicate that he/she has sensory evidence for what he/she is talking about. This sensory evidence usually comes from something that he/she has either seen or heard (refer to Song 2005). Statements with evidential verb endings can be translated as ‘it has been observed that’, ‘I have sensory evidence to the fact that’ or simply ‘I saw/noticed/realized/felt/heard that’. Questions with observed verb endings mean ‘has it been observed that . . . ?’, ‘does someone have sensory evidence to the effect that . . . ?’ or ‘have you seen/noticed/realized/ felt/heard that . . . ?’ The basic form of this observed tense is –▪–. It primarily occurs in the plain speech style (see 4.3.6), where it is followed by the ending –⧒ in statements and –⌦ in questions.

Base

Observed (plain style) Statement

Question

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱▪⧒

⹱▪⌦f

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ▪⧒

Ṗ▪⌦f

The question form in the plain speech style may also appear as –❪ (as in ⹱❪f, Ṗ❪f and ΐ❪f). The observed tense can also occur with honorific bases (see 4.4.1.1), past bases (see 4.5.1.1) and future bases with –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) (although the use of the future base is generally used to produce an inferential meaning rather than to mark future time per se):

200

Present

Honorific

Past –㞮/㠞–

Future –Ỷ–

Ṗ▪⧒

Ṗ㔲▪⧒

Ṫ▪⧒

ṪỶ▪⧒

The past base with –▪– does not usually occur with descriptive verbs. With processive verbs, it indicates that the action in question had been

completed at or before the time of observation or perception. Compare the following:

–▪–G

–㞮V㠞–G G –▪–

⑞㧊㡺▪⧒U [I saw that] it was snowing.

⑞㧊㢪▪⧒U [I saw that] it had snowed.

㥶⹎Ṗ 䞯ᾦ㠦 Ṗ▪⧒U [I saw] Yumi going to school.

㥶⹎Ṗ 䞯ᾦ㠦 Ṫ▪⧒U [I noticed that] Yumi had already gone to school.

Tense and aspect

–▪– can be followed by the polite speech style ending, and the resultant form is –◆㣪 O–▪– –㠊㣪P. However, this form is not frequently used, perhaps because the –▪– is not salient in this merged form. Instead, speakers find other ways to use –▪– in its original form and still use the polite speech style. One way to do this is to follow –▪– with the –ච◆ ending (see 6.3.10) in statements or by –චṖ (see 8.3) in questions to give the composite forms –▮◆㣪 and –▮Ṗ㣪.

Verb base

–◆㣪

–▮◆㣪

–▮Ṗ㣪f

⹱– receive

⹱◆㣪

⹱▮◆㣪

⹱▮Ṗ㣪f

In the formal style, the observed past tense looks quite different. Instead of ▪, the form is ❪. This ❪ occurs in the same place as the ┞ part of the normal statement and question forms. Put simply, –O㔋P┞┺ and –O㔋P┞₢ change to –O㔋P❪┺ and –O㔋P❪₢ respectfully:

Base

Observed (formal style) Statement

Question

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱㔋❪┺

⹱㔋❪₢f

vowel base

Ṗ– go

ṧ❪┺

ṧ❪₢f

As noted above, the observed or perceived past tense is used when the speaker wants to indicate that he/she has sensory evidence (typically, seen or heard) of what he/she is reporting. Here are examples:

㡜㠦㍲㰖䅲⽊┞₢ ⑚ῂ⽊┺☚ ▪ 㡊㕂䧞 Ὃ⿖䞮▪⧒. [PLAIN] Now that I’ve seen him/her at close quarters, [I noticed that] he/she studies harder than anyone.

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㤆Ⰲ ➎✺㧊 ⁎ 㡗䢪⯒ ⍞ⶊ 㨂⹎㧞Ợ ⽊▮◆㣪. [I saw that] our daughters really enjoyed that movie. A: ᾦ㑮┮㦖 Ἒ㎎㣪f Is the professor here?

B: ☚㍲ὖ㠦 Ἒ㔲▮◆㣪U [I saw that] he was in the library.

㟒╏䤚⽊Ṗ ╖䐋⪏㧊 ♮Ỷ▮◆㣪. [I recall that] it seemed probable that the opposition party candidate would become president. 㣪㯮 ⋶㝾 ⶊ㰖㿻▪⧒. [PLAIN] [I’ve felt that] the weather is really cold these days. ⁎ 䢮㧦Ṗ Ↄ 㭓Ỷ▮◆㣪. [From what I observed], that patient is going to die for sure. An important restriction on the use of this tense is that it cannot usually occur with a first person subject. This is because this tense is used to indicate something that the speaker has observed from a remote standpoint and you are not usually able to do this with your own actions. However, one exception to this is when the speaker is reporting an action that he/she carried out in a dream or without conscious awareness or when the speaker reports observing his/her actions from the outside, as it were (similar to English ‘I found myself’). In such cases, the use of the observed tense places the speaker in a separate, objective position from which he/she has, in a sense, observed him/herself.

㠊㩲 ∞ ㏣㠦㍲ ⌊Ṗ ゚䋺┞⯒ 㧛㠞▪⧒. [PLAIN] In my dream last night I found myself wearing a bikini. 㰖 Ⱖ⪲⓪ 㑶㦚 ⊠㠞┺⓪◆ ⹕㰖⓪ ⴑ 䞮Ỷ▪⧒. [PLAIN] According to him/her, he/she has given up alcohol, but I find myself unable to believe it. Another exception is when the sentence includes a verb expressing feelings or reactions. In such cases, the rule is reversed: the observed tense can only be used when the speaker is expressing his/her own feelings or reactions. The reason why the observed tense cannot be used to describe the feelings of a third person is because such feelings cannot normally be observed from a removed position.

⋮⓪ ⁎ 㡗䢪Ṗ ⍞ⶊ ⶊ㎃▪⧒U I found that movie so scary. 202

㎎㌗㠦㍲㤆Ⰲ 㠚Ⱎ ₖ䂮Ṗ 㩲㧒 ⰱ㧞▪⧒U I find my mum’s kimchi the most delicious in the world.

⁎ 㡂⺆㤆⓪ 㔺㩲⪲ ⽊┞ 㩫Ⱖ 㡞㊮▪⧒U Seeing that actress in the flesh, I found her pretty.

Tense and aspect

⁎Ỏ ㌳ṗ䞮┞₢ Ⱏ 䢪Ṗ ⋮▪⧒U Upon having that thought, I found myself getting angry. As in the final two examples, when the speaker provides information regarding how he/she formed this feeling, this is given in the –O㦒P┞ (see 6.1.4) or –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3) pattern. The –▪⧒ ending of the evidential marker in the plain style is frequently suffixed by another ending, –ἶ, to form –▪⧒ἶ. This, in turn, can be changed into the polite style with the addition of –㣪: ▪⧒ἶ㣪. The addition of –ἶ does not change the basic meaning of the construction: there seems to be little difference between –▪⧒ and –▪⧒ἶ. However, one slight distinction is that whereas –▪⧒ can be used in soliloquy (i.e. when you are talking to yourself), sentences with –▪⧒ἶ are always informative for the hearer. Here are some examples of –▪⧒ἶ:

䌲ῃ ⋶㝾Ṗ ▻▪⧒ἶ. [INTIMATE] I found the Thailand weather to be hot. ⁎ 㔳╏ 㦢㔳㧊 ⰱ㧞▪⧒ἶ. [INTIMATE] (I found that) the food at that restaurant was delicious. 㡞㊲㢍㦚 Ⱔ㧊㧛㦒┞₢ 㩫Ⱖ ₆⿚㫡㞚㰖▪⧒ἶ㣪. On wearing a lot of pretty clothes, I found that my mood really improved. 4.5.2

Future tenses

Korean has several constructions that may correspond to future tense, including (1) –Ỷ–, (2) –O㦒Pඥ Ệ–, (3) –O㦒PඥỢ and (4) –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮–. After describing these constructions, usage of future tense is summarized in the final subsection (see 4.5.2.5).

4.5.2.1

–Ỷ–

Grammatically speaking, the closest thing Korean has to a future tense marker is the one-shape ending –Ỷ–. This creates a future base:

Base

Future base (–Ỷ–)

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱Ỷ–

vowel base

Ṗ– go

ṖỶ– 203

4 Verbs

This base then has to be suffixed with other endings, including at the very least a speech style ending:

ṖỶ㔋┞┺

will go [FORMAL]

ṖỶ㠊㣪

will go [POLITE]

ṖỶ㠊

will go [INTIMATE]

ṖỶ┺

will go [PLAIN]

To make honorific future forms, you simply add –Ỷ– to the honorific base:

Base

Honorific

Future honorific base

consonant base

⹱– receive

⹱㦒㔲–

⹱㦒㔲Ỷ–

vowel base

Ṗ– go

Ṗ㔲–

Ṗ㔲Ỷ–

Although most grammars of Korean refer to –Ỷ– as a ‘future’ marker, this form actually has a variety of different usages that only infrequently seem to correspond to the future tense. Let us consider meanings that seem to correspond to ‘future’ first, before looking at other applications of –Ỷ–. The first kind of expression in which –Ỷ– appears to express future is in formal announcements. Typically occurring with the formal speech style, such announcements tell a large or general audience about forthcoming proceedings or give information regarding what will happen later:

㧶㔲䤚 ₆㹾Ṗ 㿲⹲䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺U The train will depart shortly. ╖䐋⪏℮㍲㧛㧻䞮㔲Ỷ㔋┞┺U The president will now make his entrance. ⌊㧒㦖䦦Ⰲἶ ゚ ⡦⓪ ⑞㧊㡺Ỷ㔋┞┺U Tomorrow will be cloudy with rain or snow. The second occurrence of –Ỷ– that appears to be ‘future’ is when the speaker expresses a promise, offers to perform a task or expresses an intention made either at or just before the time of speaking. In such expressions, using –Ỷ– makes the speaker˅s intention sound definitive, solemn and binding.

204

䄺䞒㑣㞴㠦㍲ ₆┺ⰂỶ㔋┞┺U I’ll wait for you in front of the coffee shop.

⌊㧒 ┺㔲㺔㞚㡺Ỷ㔋┞┺U I will call again tomorrow.

Tense and aspect

⌊㧒₢㰖䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺U I (promise I) will do it by tomorrow. 㞚⻚㰖, ⌊⎚₢㰖 ἆ䢒䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺U Father, (I swear) I will get married by next year. Third, –Ỷ– is used in conjunction with the negative ⴑ (see 4.2.1) when the speaker is expressing something that he/she is unwilling or unable to do in the near future:

㞚 ⑞ⶒ㧊 ⋮㍲ Ⱖ㦚 ⴑ 䞮Ỷ㠊㣪U I’m crying so much that I simply can’t speak. 㑾㧊㹾㍲ ▪ 㧊㌗ ⴑ ṖỶ㠊㣪U I’m out of breath, so I simply can’t go any farther. 㢶㰖 ⁎ 㡂㧦䞲䎢⓪ ἶ⺇ ⴑ 䞮Ỷ㠊㣪U For some reason, I can’t confess my feelings to her. Now let us look at some meanings of –Ỷ– that do not appear to correspond so well to the concept of ‘future’. First, –Ỷ– appears with formal offers and requests that correspond to the English ‘would you (like) . . . ?’:

㦢⬢㑮 ⶮ ✲㔲Ỷ㔋┞₢f What would you like to drink? 㡂₆ 㞟㦒㔲Ỷ㠊㣪f Would you like to sit here? 䋂Ⰲ㓺Ⱎ㓺㢖㌞䟊⯒ 㩖䧂㰧㠦㍲⽊⌊㔲Ỷ㠊㣪f Would you like to spend Christmas and New Year at our house? ⁒ⶊ㔲Ṛ㧊㠊⠑Ợ ♮⓪㰖㞢⩺㭒㔲Ỷ㠊㣪f Would you be so kind as to tell me the working hours? Second, –Ỷ– frequently occurs with inferential expressions that correspond broadly to the English ‘I’ll bet’. In this usage, the subject of the sentence is normally the second or third person (you; he, she, it, they):

㢖! ἶῂⰞṖ ⍞ⶊ ⰱ㧞Ỷ┺H [PLAIN] Wow! Those sweet potatoes look really delicious. 㩫Ⱖ Ἶ䂮Ṗ 㞚䝚㔲Ỷ㠊㣪U That must be a real headache.

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⹎䢪Ṗ 㰧㠦㧞Ỷ㠊㣪U I’ll bet Mihwa is at home. 㡊㕂䧞 ⏎⩻䞮㔲⓪ 㞚✲┮㧊㧦⧧㓺⩂㤆㔲Ỷ㠊㣪U You must be so proud of your hard-working son. The future marker –Ỷ– can also be added to the past base when the inference being made regards a state of affairs from the past:

☯㌳㧊⿖㌆㠦⻢㖾 ☚㹿䟞Ỷ㠊㣪. Little brother must already have arrived in Busan. 㞚⻚㰖⓪ 㰖⁞㸺゚䟟₆⯒ 䌖㎾Ỷ㠊㣪. Father must be on the plane by now. ṧ㧦₆ ⹻㏻㧊䎆㪢㦒┞ 㠒Ⱎ⋮ ╏䢿䟞Ỷ㠊㣪. How shocked you must have been when the rice cooker suddenly blew up. ⌊Ṗ jm⳾◎ ♶ 㭚㌗㌗㧊⋮ 䟞Ỷ㠊㣪f Would I ever even have imagined that I would become a commercial TV model? Finally, –Ỷ– frequently occurs with the verbs of knowing (㞢Ỷ㠊㣪) and not knowing (⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪) when stating whether you are aware or unaware of something. In such expressions, Korean speakers frequently prefer to use –Ỷ– for the added tentativeness that it connotes. ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪 is like the English ‘I wouldn’t know’.

4.5.2.2

–O㦒Pඥ Ệ–

Although the form –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) is often thought of as a future marker, a much more common way to mark future tense in Korean is to add –O㦒Pඥ Ệ–, which behaves as a two-shape ending. This –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– form is composed of the future modifier –O㦒Pඥ followed by the noun ộ ‘thing, fact’, which is typically (but not always) shortened to Ệ. To complete the sentence, this Ệ then has to be followed by the copula form to produce a construction that literally means ‘it is a future thing that’. Since Ệ ends in a vowel, the copula form that follows will drop the –㧊– base part. In the four most common speech styles, this results in the following forms:

206

Ṟ ỗ┞┺

will go [FORMAL]

Ṟ Ệ㡞㣪

will go [POLITE]

Ṟ Ệ㟒

will go [INTIMATE]

Ṟ Ệ┺

will go [PLAIN]

–O㦒Pඥ Ệ– is used to mark a ‘probable future’. In other words, it is used when talking about things that you might do in the future or things that might happen in the future. It is generally not used to talk about definite plans, particularly in the near future. Here are some examples of –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– used to talk about things you will probably do in the future:

Tense and aspect

⌊㧒㰧㼃㏢⯒ 䞶GỆ㡞㣪U I will (probably) clean the house tomorrow. [but don’t have a definite plan] ⌊⎚㠦㹾⯒ ㌊GỆ㡞㣪U I will (probably) buy a car next year. [but don’t have a definite plan] ⌊㧒䌲㤦䞮ἶ 㩦㕂㦚 ⲏ㦚GỆ㡞㣪U I will (probably) have lunch with Taewon tomorrow. [but don’t have a definite appointment] Here are some examples of –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– used to make predictions about things that will probably happen in the future:

⌊㧒㦖゚Ṗ 㢂GỆ㠦㣪U

It will (probably) rain tomorrow.

⹺㠦㿪㤎GỆ㠦㣪U

It will (probably) be cold at night.

In addition to marking probable futures, –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– can also sometimes be used to make inferences about present situations. This is particularly the case when it occurs with the copula:

⿚ⳛ䧞㡂㧦䂲ῂṖ 䞲ῃ㧎㧒GỆ㡞㣪U Clearly, his girlfriend must be Korean. ⁎ộ㧊㥶⹎㦮㰧㧊㞚┦GỆ㡞㣪U That surely wouldn’t be Yumi’s house. 䌲㤦㦖⿖㌆㠦㍲㌊ἶ 㧞㦚GỆ㡞㣪U Taewon is probably living in Busan. 䔖Ⱂ㠜㧊 ┺ Ệ㰩Ⱖ㧒GỆ㠦㣪U Without doubt, it must all be lies. In this inferential usage, the ending –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– can also be added to the past base to mean ‘probably’, ‘must have’:

┾㑲䞲㔺㑮Ṗ 㞚┞㠞㦚GỆ㡞㣪U It couldn’t have been just a simple mistake. 䞲ῃ㦒⪲ ⟶⌂㦚GỆ㡞㣪U He/she must have departed for Korea.

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㡗䢪Ṗ 㰖⁞ ⊳⌂㦚GỆ㡞㣪U The movie must be over by now. 䞲ῃ㠦 XW⎚ ⍮Ợ ㌊㞮㦚GỆ㡞㣪U He/she must have lived in Korea for more than ten years.

4.5.2.3

–O㦒PඥỢ

The form –O㦒PඥỢ is a two-shape ending, with –㦚Ợ following a consonant and –ඥỢ following a vowel. In its bare form, –O㦒PඥỢ is considered to be the intimate speech style (see 4.3.5). It can be changed into the polite style (see 4.3.3) with the addition of –㣪: –O㦒PඥỢ㣪. –O㦒PඥỢ is used only with processive verbs and almost entirely for the first person (I, we). It is used when the speaker is promising or volunteering to perform an action in the immediate future. The action tends to be within the direct control of the speaker and is usually of relevance or benefit to the hearer. This form cannot usually be used for expressing an intention or plan already formed long before the time of speaking. It is used almost entirely to express spontaneously formed intentions.

A: 㧶㔲Ⱒ ₆┺⩺ 㭮. 䢪㧻㔺㠦 Ṫ┺ 㢂ỢU [INTIMATE] Wait a minute. I’ll just pop into the bathroom. B: ⁎⧮U 㡂₆㍲ ₆┺Ⰲἶ 㧞㦚ỢU [INTIMATE] Sure. I’ll be waiting here. A: ⍞ⶊ ▻┺H [PLAIN] It’s so hot. B: ⁎⩝㰖U ⌊Ṗ 㺓ⶎ㦚㡊㠊㭚ỢU [INTIMATE] Right. I’ll open the window for you. A: ⌊Ṗ Ⲓ㩖 ṞỢ㣪U I’ll be on my way. B: ⁎⧮㣪U ⌊㧒㩚䢪䞶Ợ㣪U OK. I’ll phone you tomorrow. A: ⶦ ⲏ㦚⧮㣪f What do you want to eat? B: ⋲ ゚オ⹻㦚 ⲏ㦚Ợ㣪U I’ll eat pibimbap. 208

As you may have noticed, –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) may also be used in a similar way to –O㦒PඥỢ when expressing promises and spontaneous intentions.

The difference is that –Ỷ–, particularly when used with the formal speech style (see 4.3.4), tends to sound more deferential and solemn. For this reason, –Ỷ– is more appropriate when speaking to elders and status superiors, particularly in leave-taking expressions (such as Ⲓ㩖 ṖỶ㔋┞ ┺ ‘I’ll be going first’ or ┺⎖ 㡺Ỷ㔋┞┺ ‘I’ll go and come back’), or when trying to make your promise sound more sincere and binding. However, due to its solemn feel, –Ỷ– is not generally used when expressing your intention to perform small and menial tasks (even when speaking to elders).

4.5.2.4

Tense and aspect

–O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮–

Another means of expressing the future is to attach the two-shape intentive ending –O㦒P⩺ἶ to the verb base. This intentive form is then followed by the verb 䞮– ‘do’ (or optionally ⁎⩂– ‘like that’) to create the ending –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮–. Alternatively, you may just hear the expression with 䞮– dropped (and –㣪 added in the polite speech style):

⌊㧒 ☚㍲ὖ㠦 Ṗ⩺ἶ 䟊㣪U

with 䞮–

⌊㧒 ☚㍲ὖ㠦 Ṗ⩺ἶ ⁎⧮㣪U

with ⁎⩂–

⌊㧒 ☚㍲ὖ㠦 Ṗ⩺ἶU

without 䞮– [INTIMATE]

⌊㧒 ☚㍲ὖ㠦 Ṗ⩺ἶ㣪U

without 䞮– [POLITE]

I’m going to the library tomorrow. Another way to contract –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮– is to omit the ἶ: –O㦒P⩺ 䞮–. In the formal speech style, this can be further abbreviated to –O㦒P⪋┞┺:

⌊㧒 ☚㍲ὖ㠦 Ṗ⩺ 䟊㣪U

contracted form [POLITE]

⌊㧒 ☚㍲ὖ㠦 Ṗ⪋┞┺U

further abbreviated form [FORMAL]

–O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮– expresses an intention formed before the time of speaking. Although the intention may not necessarily be a solid plan, it constitutes something that the speaker has already had in mind.

㭒㔳㠦䒂㧦䞮⩺ἶG䟊㣪U I intend to invest in stocks. 㞶㧎ὒ ┾⚮㧊㡂䟟㦚 Ṗ⩺G䟊㣪U I plan to go travelling just with my boy/girlfriend.

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⌊⎚㠦☚ 䞲ῃ㠊 Ὃ⿖⯒ Ἒ㏣䞮⩺ἶG䞿┞┺U I intend to continue my Korean language studies next year, too. A: 㑯㩲䟞㠊f [INTIMATE] Have you done your homework?

B: 㞚㰗㞞䟞㠊㣪. 㰖⁞ 䞮⩺ἶ㣪U Not yet. I’m going to do it now.

When the expression is followed by the past tense, it conveys an intention that the speaker held in the past but either abandoned or did not follow through to completion:

⌊Ṗ ⹪⪲ ⁎ 㧊㟒₆⯒ 䞮⩺ἶG⁎⨂㠊㣪U I was just going to talk about that. 䕻ク㑮⯒ Ⱒ✺㠊 ⲏ㦒⩺ἶG䟞㠊㣪U I was going to make p’atpingsu and eat it. ἆ䢒㞞䞮⩺ἶG䟞㠊㣪U I wasn’t planning to get married. This is frequently followed by a verbal connective such as –㰖Ⱒ (see 6.2.1) or –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ (see 6.3.10) and an explanation of why the intention was not fulfilled and/or a description of what the speaker ended up doing instead:

㩖⎗㦚 ⲏ㦒⩺ἶG⁎⨂㰖Ⱒ 㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㠊㍲ ⴑ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪U I was about to eat my dinner, but I couldn’t because there was no time. ἆ䢒㔳㠦 Ṗ⩺ἶG䟞⓪◆G㞚䕢㍲ ⴑ Ṫ㠊㣪U I was going to go to the wedding, but I was ill so I couldn’t. Note that –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮– can be pronounced with an extra ඥ as –O㦒Pඥ⩺ ἶ 䞮– in colloquial speech and may even be written as such.

4.5.2.5

Summary of Korean futures

This section provides a practical summary regarding which future form is most suitable across a variety of different situations. Observations should be taken as a general guide rather than rigid rules – there is a degree of flexibility in the use of all Korean future constructions and usage frequently overlaps.

(a) Talking about a definite plan you have for the future 210

As you may have noticed, none of the forms discussed over the last few pages are specifically used when talking about a definite concrete plan for

the near future. In actual fact, definite future plans are often expressed with no future marking at all but in the present simple tense. If you are going to Korea next month, the plan is set in stone and you have already bought your ticket, etc., the most natural way to express it is as follows:

Tense and aspect

┺㦢 ╂㠦䞲ῃ㠦 Ṗ㣪. I am going to Korea next month. (lit. ‘I go to Korea next month’) (b) Talking about an intention formed before the time of speaking When talking about an intention that does not yet form a definite plan per se, then –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮– is common. You may also use –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– in this function.

(c) Talking about things you will probably do in the future When talking about things you might or will probably do but don’t have a set-in-stone plan, –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– is the most common ending.

(d) Making a promise Both –O㦒PඥỢ and –Ỷ– may be used for this function. However, –Ỷ– sounds more deferential and makes your promise sound more binding.

(e) Volunteering to do something If you want to put your hand up and say ‘I’ll do it’, –O㦒PඥỢ is the most common construction. –Ỷ– is also possible if extra deference or solemnity is required.

(f) Making a prediction about the future When predicting the future (e.g. ‘it will rain tomorrow’), –O㦒Pඥ Ệ is frequently used. –Ỷ– may be used in more formal contexts.

4.5.3

Continuous tense/aspect

Korean has two forms that correspond to the continuous tense. The –㞚/㠊㧞– form is used for talking about continuous states; –ἶ 㧞– is used primarily for talking about continuous actions.

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4.5.3.1

Continuous states with –㞚/㠊㧞–

The –㞚/㠊㧞– pattern is formed by using the infinitive form of the verb (see 4.1.6) and then following this with 㧞–. The pattern can only be used with processive verbs and, then, only with those that are nontransitive (i.e. that do not take an object) and which denote an action with an end point (rather than those which depict an ongoing activity). Possible non-transitive verbs include those formed by making a verb passive (see 4.6.1). The construction has to be followed by a speech style ending and may also be followed by the past tense, future tense and other verb endings. To make the expression honorific, Ἒ㔲– (see 4.4.1.2) is used in place of 㧞–:

㥶⹎Ṗ 㞟㞚㧞㠊㣪U

Yumi is sitting down. [present, POLITE]

㥶⹎Ṗ 㞟㞚㧞㠞㠊㣪U

Yumi was sitting down. [past, POLITE]

㥶⹎Ṗ 㞟㞚㧞Ỷ㠊㣪U

Yumi must be sitting down. [future –Ỷ–, POLITE]

㍶㌳┮㦖㞟㞚 Ἒ㎎㣪U

Teacher is sitting down. [present, honorific, POLITE]

The pattern is used to depict that the person or entity being talked about has moved or been put into a certain place, position or state and that this place, position or state is being maintained. The pattern can most commonly be heard with verbs of body position (sitting, standing, etc.), verbs of being closed or open, verbs that depict that something is included, installed, etc. and also verbs of motion (go, come, etc.).

⁎⌻ 䞒Ἲ䟊㍲ ⑚㤢G㧞㠊㣪U

I’m tired, so I’m just lying down.

㺓ⶎ㧊㡊⩺G㧞⓪ ộ ṯ㞚㣪U

It seems like the window is open.

Ṧ㔲䃊Ⲫ⧒Ṗ Ⱔ㧊㍺䂮♒G㧞㠊㣪U Many CCTV cameras are installed.

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㍲゚㓺⓪ 䙂䞾♒G㧞㠊㣪f

Is service included?

䡫ὒ ⑚⋮Ṗ ┺ ⹎ῃ㠦 ṖG㧞㠊㣪U

Older brother and older sister have both gone to the USA.

⋮⓪ 㰖⁞ 㧒⽎㠦㢖G㧞㠊㣪U

I have now come to Japan.

Note how sentences with Ṗ– ‘go’ or 㡺– ‘come’ translate into English as ‘has come’ or ‘has gone’.

One point to note about this pattern is that it can be used in imperatives, particularly when the speaker is telling the hearer to go to a certain place or adopt a certain position and then stay there:

Tense and aspect

┻䂮ἶ ṖⰢ䧞㞟㞚G㧞㠊⧒. [PLAIN] Just shut up and stay sitting down quietly. ⹿㠦 ṖG㧞㠊⧒. [PLAIN] Go to your room and stay there.

4.5.3.2

Continuous actions with –ἶ 㧞–

The –ἶ 㧞– pattern is formed by attaching the one-shape ending –ἶ to a processive verb base and then 㧞–. The construction is followed by a speech style ending and may also be followed by the past tense, future tense and other verb endings. To make the expression honorific, Ἒ㔲– (see 4.4.1.2) is used in place of 㧞– (the main verb may also be made honorific, particularly in cases where the verb in question has a separate honorific form (see 4.4.1.2)).

㥶⹎Ṗ 㧦ἶG㧞㠊㣪U

Yumi is sleeping. [present, POLITE]

㥶⹎Ṗ 㧦ἶG㧞㠞㠊㣪U

Yumi was sleeping. [past, POLITE]

㥶⹎Ṗ 㧦ἶG㧞Ỷ㠊㣪U

Yumi must be sleeping. [future –Ỷ–, POLITE]

㍶㌳┮㦖㭒ⶊ㔲ἶGἚ㎎㣪U Teacher is sleeping. [present, honorific, POLITE] This form is used essentially in the same way as ‘be . . . ing’ in English to talk about an ongoing, continuous activity.

⹎⋮Ṗ 㰖⁞ 㩖⎗ 㔳㌂⯒ 㭖゚䞮ἶG㧞㠊㣪U Mina is preparing dinner now. ⹒㑮Ṗ ἶ㧻 ⋲ 䎪⩞゚㩚㦚 ἶ䂮ἶG㧞㠊㣪U Minsu is repairing the broken television. ⹎⋮Ṗ ⰻ㭒⯒ Ⱎ㔲ἶG㧞㠞㠊㣪U Mina was drinking beer. ⹒㰖⓪ 㧒䞮ἶ 㧞㰖Ⱒ ⹎䢪⓪ ⏖ἶG㧞㠊㣪U Minji is working, but Mihwa is playing. 㰖⁞ ⿗䞲㠦☚ ⑞㧊㡺ἶG㧞Ỷ⍺㣪U It must be snowing now in North Korea as well.

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There are two possibilities for making negative expressions with –ἶ 㧞–. First, you can use the long negation pattern –㰖㞠– (see 4.2.2) at the end of the expression:

⁎ 䂲ῂ⯒ Ⱒ⋮ἶG㧞㰖G㞠㞚㣪U

I’m not meeting that friend.

Second, you can use the long negation pattern on the main verb:

⁎ 䂲ῂ⯒ Ⱒ⋮㰖G㞠ἶG㧞㠊㣪U

I’m getting along without meeting that friend.

The second pattern has a slightly different nuance to the first. It implies that the subject is getting along or managing to get by without doing the action in question. Although the form –ἶ 㧞– may seem quite similar to the English progressive tense, there are several important differences between the Korean form and its English counterpart. First, whereas in English progressive tense is obligatory when talking about an activity that is going on now, the Korean progressive is usually optional and used only for emphasis. For example, in most circumstances, if someone asks you on the telephone what you are doing now, both of the following answers are possible (note how, in English, the equivalent of the first sentence would not normally be suitable):

⹻㦚 ⲏ㠊㣪.

I eat my meal.

⹻㦚 ⲏἶG㧞㠊㣪U

I’m eating my meal.

Although both sentences above are possible, the interpretation may be slightly different. Whereas the second sentence emphasizes that I am in the middle of eating my meal, the first sentence could also be interpreted as meaning that I am about to eat my meal (but have not actually started yet). It should be noted, however, that the use of –ἶ 㧞– is not always optional, particularly in the past tense. With a certain set of verbs that depict an activity with an end point, use of the simple past tense denotes that this end point has been reached (and therefore cannot have a continuous interpretation). If you want to say that the activity was ongoing and incomplete, you will have to use –ἶ 㧞–:

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Past simple

–ἶG㧞–

㰖ṧ㦚㺔㞮㠊㣪. I found my wallet.

㰖ṧ㦚㺔ἶG㧞㠞㠊㣪. I was looking for my wallet.

Second, whereas in English the progressive tense can have a future reading, this is not the case in Korean. In English, if you say ‘I am going now’ this often actually means that you are about to set off but are not actually on your way yet. However, in Korean, the equivalent progressive construction (㰖⁞ Ṗἶ 㧞㠊㣪) can only be interpreted as meaning that you have left your point of departure and are in the process of going.

Tense and aspect

Third, the Korean progressive can appear with a set of verbs that rarely take the progressive in English. This leads to the creation of constructions such as 㞢ἶ 㧞㠊㣪 ‘I am knowing’, ⳾⯊ἶ 㧞㠊㣪 ‘I am not knowing’, ㌂⧧䞮ἶ 㧞㠊㣪 ‘I am loving/I am in love’, ⹕ἶ 㧞㠊㣪 ‘I am believing’. 㤦䞮ἶ 㧞㠊㣪 ‘I am wanting’, ₆㠋䞮ἶ 㧞㠊㣪 ‘I am remembering’ and ⓦ⋒ἶ 㧞㠊㣪 ‘I am feeling’. Although the English equivalents of these sentences generally sound odd or have restricted usage, these expressions are extremely common in Korean. They are used to emphasize that the knowing, believing, feeling, etc. constitutes a progressive or temporary state of affairs. The phrase 㞢ἶ 㧞㠊㣪 is particularly common and is often used to mean ‘I already know (so you didn’t need to tell me)’. Fourth, unlike in English, the Korean progressive can occur in imperatives (particularly in non-honorific speech styles). In such usages, the English equivalent would generally be expressed with ‘keep’ or ‘stay’ rather than the progressive:

㡂₆㍲ ₆┺ⰂἶG㧞㠊U [INTIMATE] Stay waiting here. 㔲㧻㠦 Ṫ┺ 㢂䎢┞₦ Ὃ⿖䞮ἶG㧞㠊⧒U [PLAIN] I’m going to the market, so keep on studying. Fifth, with verbs of ‘wearing’, the progressive results in ambiguity between two possible meanings. The following sentence could mean that ⹒㑮 is either ‘putting on’ the trousers or ‘wearing’ them:

⹒㑮Ṗ 䞮㟖 ⹪㰖⯒ 㧛ἶG㧞㠊㣪U Minsu is putting on/wearing white trousers. The meaning is usually clarified by context:

⹒㑮Ṗ ⹿㠦㍲䞮㟖 ⹪㰖⯒ 㧛ἶG㧞㠊㣪U Minsu is putting on white trousers in his room. ⹒㑮Ṗ 䞮㟖 ⹪㰖⯒ ⲡ㧞Ợ 㧛ἶG㧞㠊㣪U Minsu is stylishly wearing white trousers.

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Sixth and finally, unlike in English, this pattern cannot be used when talking about standing, sitting or lying somewhere. –㞚/㠊㧞– (see 4.5.3.1) is used instead.

4.6

Derived verbs: Passives, causatives and others

Overview Korean has various processes for forming passive and causative verbal constructions. Passive sentences are constructions in which the ‘patient’ (or recipient) of the action of the verb is promoted to subject (for example, ‘the apple was eaten (by John)’). In active sentences (for example, ‘John ate the apple’), the ‘patient’ (or recipient) appears as the sentence object. The use of a passive sentence normally results from the speaker’s desire to place more focus on the recipient of the action and to de-emphasize (or even omit) the person or entity that is actually performing the action in question. Causative sentences are constructions that depict an agent causing, forcing or simply allowing a patient to perform an action (for example, ‘he made me eat the apple’, ‘he let me eat the apple’). In addition to passives and causatives, the current subchapter also looks at ways that Korean uses related means to transform descriptive verbs into processive verbs.

4.6.1

Passives

Korean has four different ways of making a sentence passive: (1) to derive a passive form by the addition of a verb ending –㧊–/–₆–/–䧞–/–Ⰲ–, (2) to use ♮– as a support verb, (3) to use other support verbs with inherent passive meanings and (4) to apply the pattern –㞚/㠊㰖–.

4.6.1.1

216

Derived passive verbs

For a limited number of verbs, a separate passive verb form can be derived by the addition of a verb ending. This ending has four possible shapes: –㧊–, –₆–, –䧞– and –Ⰲ– (the choice from these four is largely unpredictable). The addition of this ending results in the creation of a new, separate

passive verb that can be found listed in the dictionary as an independent word. The following is a list of the most common verbs that can be made passive in this way:

Basic verb

Derived verb

㧷–

catch

㧷䧞–

caught/get caught

Ỏ–

hang (sth)

ỎⰂ–

(sth) hangs, hung/get hung

ⲏ–

eat

ⲏ䧞–

eaten/get eaten, swallowed up/get swallowed up

⏩–

put

⏩㧊–

put/get put

⹵–

step on

⹵䧞–

stepped on/get stepped on

⽊–

see, look at

⽊㧊–

visible, can be seen

╁–

close (sth)

╁䧞–

(sth) closes, get closed

✹–

listen to, hear

✺Ⰲ–

heard, audible

㡊–

open (sth)

㡊Ⰲ–

(sth) opens, get opened

㕩–

pile, heap (sth)

㕩㧊–

accumulate; get piled up

㕎–

wrap (sth)

㕎㧊–

wrapped, enveloped

䕪–

sell (sth)

䕪Ⰲ–

(sth) sells (well), get sold

㰧–

pick (sth) up

㰧䧞–

get picked up, ‘picks up’

㞏–

chew (sth)

㞏䧞–

(sth) ‘chews’, get chewed

⊠–

snap (sth), cut (sth) off

⊠₆–

get cut off

╊–

put (sth) in a vessel

╊₆–

(sth) fills, put in (a vessel)

㧶⁎–

immerse (sth), steep (sth)

㧶₆–

(sth) sinks, submerges

㧶⁎–

lock (sth), fasten (sth)

㧶₆–

(sth) locks, get fastened

ⶑ–

stick to (sth), stain (sth)

ⶑ䧞–

get smeared, stained

ⶑ–

bury (sth), conceal (sth)

ⶑ䧞–

get buried, concealed


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◄–

cover (sth)

◄䧞–

get covered

ㆧ–

select (sth), extract (sth)

ㆧ䧞–

get picked, extracted, selected

㝆–

write (sth)

㝆㧊–

(sth) ‘writes’, get written

㍴–

mix (sth)

㍴㧊–

get mixed; (sth) mingles, blends

⥾–

open (eyes, ears)

⥾㧊–

(eyes, ears) open, opened, awake

ⶒ–

bite (sth)

ⶒⰂ–

get bitten

⹖–

push (sth)

⹖Ⰲ–

get pushed; back up, accumulate

䛖–

solve (sth); resolve (sth)

䛖Ⰲ–

get resolved, solved, cleared away

㴩–

chase (sth)

㴩₆–

get chased

ヒ㞭–

snatch (sth) away

ヒ㞭₆–

get snatched away

㞞–

hug (sth), embrace (sth)

㞞₆–

get embraced

These passive forms are primarily used in sentences in which the recipient of the action of the verb is made the focus of the sentence (rather than the person or entity performing the action):

㧊 ᾦ㨂⓪ 㣪㯮㧮㞞㝆㡂㣪U This textbook is not used much these days. 䂾㔺㠦㍲☚ ⧒❪㡺Ṗ ✺⩺㣪f The radio can be heard ( you can hear the radio) all the way from your bedroom? 㠊㩲 ⹺㠦㤆Ⰲ 䞯ᾦ㠦 ✺㠊㢪▮ ☚⚧⏞㧊㧷䡪╖㣪U They say the thief that broke into our school last night was caught. 䚲Ṗ ┺ 䕪⩺㍲S ⴑ Ṫ㠊㣪U The tickets were all sold out, so we couldn’t go.

218

⹿⁞ 㰖䞮㻶㠦㍲ ⌊ⰂⳊ㍲ ⹲㦚 ⹵䡪㠊㣪U Somebody stepped on my foot as I was getting off the subway.

When the person or entity performing the action is included, this is marked with 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4) (for people and animals) and 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1) (for inanimate entities), which normally translates as ‘by’ (or ‘with’):


㞞Ṳ㠦G㕎㡂㍲ ⹪┺Ṗ 㧮㞞⽊㧊⓪◆㣪U It’s covered with fog, you can’t see the sea very well. 㞶₆Ṗ 㠊Ⲏ┞ 䛞㠦G㞞Ỿ㍲㧦ἶ 㧞㠊㣪U The baby is sleeping embraced in its mother’s bosom. 㤆Ⰲ ☯㌳㦖 Ṳ䞲䎢Gⶒ⪎㠊㣪U My little brother was bitten by a dog. However, there are some cases in which using 㠦Ợ or 㠦 in this function may result in ambiguity. For example, with the verb 䕪Ⰲ– ‘get sold’, 㠦Ợ in the following example would normally be interpreted as meaning ‘to’ rather than ‘by’:

㣎ῃ㧎㠦ỢG䕪⪎㠊㣪U

It was sold to a foreigner.

Thus, with these kinds of verbs, a different construction 㠦㦮䟊 must be used to produce the meaning ‘by’:

㣎ῃ㧎㠦G㦮䟊G䕪⪎㠊㣪U

It was sold by a foreigner.

In addition to the usages already mentioned, the passive forms are also used to indicate that something happens spontaneously or out of your control:

㺓ⶎ㧊㡊⪎㠊㣪U The window opened. (of its own accord) 㧊 ⶎ㦖㧦☯㩗㦒⪲ 㧶Ỿ㣪U This door locks automatically. 㩚䢪Ṗ ἶ㧻 ⌂⋮ ⽦㣪U 㧦㭒 ⊠Ỿ㣪U The telephone seems to be broken. It keeps cutting out. 㧊⿞ἶ₆⓪ ⍞ⶊ 㰞Ỿ㍲㧮㞞㞏䡖㣪U This pulgogi is so tough it doesn’t chew (it can’t be chewed) easily. The passive form can also occur with the –㞚/㠊㧞– construction (see 4.5.3.1), which signals a continuing state:

ⶎ㧊㡊⩺G㧞㠊㣪U

The door is open.

㌆㥚㠦 ⑞㧊㕩㡂G㧞㠊㣪U

There’s snow piled up on the mountain.

㺛㌗㥚㠦 ⏩㡂G㧞㠊㣪U

It is (placed) on top of the desk.

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4.6.1.2

Passives with ♮–

For 䞮– verbs (see 4.1.2), a passive can be formed by replacing 䞮– with ♮– ‘become’. Here is a list of some common examples of these constructions:

Active verb with 䞮–

Passive with ♮–

₆╖䞮–

expect

₆╖♮–

expected

ệ㩫䞮–

worry

ệ㩫♮–

worried

ὋṲ䞮–

make public

ὋṲ♮–

made public

㌂㣿䞮–

use

㌂㣿♮–

used

㍶㿲䞮–

elect

㍶㿲♮–

elected

㢚㎇䞮–

complete

㢚㎇♮–

completed

㢲ἷ䞮–

distort

㢲ἷ♮–

distorted

㧊䟊䞮–

understand

㧊䟊♮–

understood

䟊ἆ䞮–

solve

䟊ἆ♮–

solved

Here are some examples of these in passive sentences:

ₖ ㍶㌳㧊㔲㧻㦒⪲ ㍶㿲♮㠞㠊㣪U

Mr. Kim was elected mayor.

㌞ Ịⶒ㧊㢚㎇♮㠞㠊㣪U

A new building was completed.

⁎ ⌊㣿㧊㧒⹮㠦Ợ ὋṲ♮㠞㠊㣪U

The content was made public.

As with the passive verbs we have already analysed (see 4.6.1.1), passive constructions with ♮– can also be used with expressions of spontaneity or to convey that something is occurring outside the speaker’s control:

㌊㰳 ₊㧻♮⍺U [INTIMATE] I’m getting a tad nervous. ⹿㠦㍲ Ὃ⿖ṖG㧮G㞞G♮Ⳋ ☚㍲ὖ㠦 Ṗ㟒䟊㣪U If you can’t study (lit. ‘if studying doesn’t go well’) in your room, you have to go to the library. ⁎ 㡗䢪Ṗ Ṗ㧻 ₆╖♮⍺㣪U That film is the one that people are looking forward to. 220

㞚ⶊⰂ 㣿㍲⯒ 䞮⩺ἶ 䟊☚ 㣿㍲ṖG㞞G♒㣪U No matter how much I want to forgive him/her, I simply can’t.

4.6.1.3

Passives with other support verbs

Passive-like constructions can also be made using a number of verbs with inherently passive meanings: ╏䞮–, ⹱– and 㧛–.


The first of these, ╏䞮–, literally means ‘suffer’, ‘undergo’. This verb can be used with Sino-Korean nouns (and occasionally other nouns) that have inherently negative meanings. Common constructions include those in the following list:

Passive with ╏䞮–

Active ṫṚ䞮–

rape

ṫṚ╏䞮–

raped

Ὃỿ䞮–

attack

Ὃỿ╏䞮–

attacked

Ệ㩞䞮–

reject

Ệ㩞╏䞮–

rejected

ⶊ㔲䞮–

ignore

ⶊ㔲╏䞮–

ignored,

look down on

looked down on

ἶ㏢䞮–

sue

ἶ㏢╏䞮–

sued

䂾⨋䞮–

invade

䂾⨋╏䞮–

invaded

⿖㌗䞮–

wound

⿖㌗╏䞮–

wounded

㢫➆㔲䋺–

bully

㢫➆╏䞮–

bullied

㌂₆䂮–

swindle

㌂₆╏䞮–

swindled

㞪㌊䞮–

assassinate

㞪㌊╏䞮–

assassinated

䡧⹫䞮–

threaten

䡧⹫╏䞮–

threatened

Here are some examples of these constructions in sentences:

㩲Ṗ ⹎ῃ㠦㍲㧛ῃ㦚 Ệ㩞G╏䟞㠊㣪U I was refused entry to the USA. 㧎䎆⎍㠦㍲ ⶒỊ㦚㌂┺Ṗ ㌂₆G╏䟞㠊㣪U I got swindled when I was buying goods on the Internet. 㩲Ṗ 㭧䞯ᾦ ┺┦ ➢S 㢫➆G╏䟞㠞㠊㣪U I got bullied when I was at middle school. 㫆㍶㦖㧒⽎䞲䎢䂾⨋G╏䟞㠊㣪U Choson was invaded by Japan.

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The second of these verbs, ⹱– ‘get’, ‘receive’, may occur with nouns that are either negative or positive. Although some negative nouns such as 䡧⹫ ‘threat’ may occur with either ╏䞮– or ⹱–, only the former is used for more extremely negative nouns such as ṫṚ ‘rape’ and 㞪㌊ ‘assassination’.

Passive with ⹱–

Active 䡧⹫䞮–

threaten

䡧⹫⹱–

threatened

Ṛ㎃䞮–

interfere

Ṛ㎃⹱–

interfered with

゚⋲䞮–

criticize

゚⋲⹱–

criticized

㻮⻢䞮–

punish

㻮⻢⹱–

punished

㭒⳿䞮–

pay attention to

㭒⳿⹱–

receive attention

䃃㺂䞮–

praise

䃃㺂⹱–

praised

㫊ἓ䞮–

respect

㫊ἓ⹱–

respected


㩫Ⱖ Ⱔ㦖䃃㺂㦚G⹱㞮㠊㣪U I received really a lot of praise. ⁎ 㡗䢪⓪ Ṳ⽟♮₆☚ 㩚㠦 ᾟ㧻䧞 Ⱔ㦖㭒⳿㦚G⹱㞮㠊㣪U That film was receiving a lot of attention even before it was released. The third of these verbs, 㧛–, literally meaning ‘wear’, ‘suffer’ or just ‘receive’, appears with a more limited set of nouns.

Passive with 㧛–

Active

222

㌗㻮O⯒P 㭒–

inflict an injury

㌗㻮O⯒P 㧛–

suffer an injury; hurt

䞒䟊O⯒P 㭒–

inflict a loss

䞒䟊O⯒P 㧛–

suffer a loss

㦖䡲O⯒P 㭒–

give benefits, grace, blessings, favour

㦖䡲O⯒P 㧛–

receive benefits, grace, blessings, favour


㰖㰚㠦 Ⱔ㦖㌂⧢✺㧊䞒䟊⯒G㧛㠞㠊㣪U Many people suffered damage through the earthquake.


㡞㩚㠦⓪ 㩲Ṗ ㌂㧻┮㦮㦖䡲⯒G㧛㠞㠊㣪U In the past, I received the favours of the boss. ⁎ Ⱖ ➢ⶎ㠦㌗㻮⯒G㧛㦖㌂⧢✺㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪U Many people have been hurt by those words. As a final note, it should be pointed out that two more verbs, – ⰴ– ‘get struck’ and ㏣– ‘get deceived’, have inherently passive meanings (at least in the absence of any suffix or auxiliary).

ₖ ㍶㌳㧊㥶䌚㠦 ⰴ㞮㠊㣪U Mr. Kim got struck by a stray bullet. ⋮䞲䎢㏣㞮㰖f [INTIMATE] You’ve been deceived by me, haven’t you? ( I tricked you, didn’t I?)

4.6.1.4

Passives with –㞚/㠊㰖–

This pattern combines the infinitive form of the verb (see 4.1.6) with the auxiliary verb 㰖–. Although the pattern may occur both with descriptive and processive verbs, in the former case, the use of –㞚/㠊㰖– actually transforms the descriptive verb into a processive verb, a process that is discussed separately below (see 4.6.3.1). In the case of processive verbs, the effect of adding –㞚/㠊㰖– varies according to whether it is attached to an intransitive verb (i.e. a verb that does not take an object) or a transitive verb (a verb that takes an object). When –㞚/㠊㰖– is attached to an intransitive verb, it does not create a passive sentence as we would normally understand it. Rather, it expresses potentiality – that something is possible. This potentiality often goes contrary to speaker expectation (refer to Yeon 2003), as in the following examples:

Without 㰖–

With 㰖–

䔎⩃㧊ク䕦㥚⪲ 㰖⋮Ṫ㠊㣪U The truck went over the ice.

䔎⩃㧊ク䕦㥚⪲ 㰖⋮Ṗ㪢㠊㣪U The truck was able to go over the ice.

㣪㯮 ⹪ザ㍲ ⁏㧻㠦㧮㞞 Ṗ㣪U 㣪㯮 ⹪ザ㍲ ⁏㧻㠦㧮㞞 Ṗ㪎㣪U Because I’m busy these days, Because I’m busy these days, I am I don’t go to the theatre often. not able to go to the theatre often.

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When –㞚/㠊㰖– is attached to a transitive verb, a typical passive construction is created. As in the following active–passive contrasts, the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence:

Active

Passive

⹒䢎Ṗ ⋮ⶊ⪲ 㰧㦚 Ⱒ✺㠞㠊㣪U Minho built a house out of wood.

㰧㧊 ⋮ⶊ⪲ Ⱒ✺㠊㪢㠊㣪U The house was made of wood.

㥶⹎Ṗ 㝆⩞₆⯒ ₎㠦⻚⪎㠊㣪U Yumi dumped rubbish on the street.

㝆⩞₆Ṗ ₎㠦⻚⩺㪢㠊㣪U Rubbish was dumped on the street.

㌂⧢✺㧊 ṫⶒ㦚 Ⱏ㞮㠊㣪U People blocked the river water.

ṫⶒ㧊 Ⱏ㞚㪢㠊㣪U The river water was blocked.

In addition to transitive verbs that take one object, –㰖– can also be attached to verbs that take two objects (i.e. a direct and an indirect object), which are known as ‘ditransitive’ verbs:

Ditransitive active verb

Passive verb

⹳䧞–

make clear

⹳䡖㰖–

become clear

㞢Ⰲ–

inform

㞢⩺㰖–

known

㭒–

give

㭒㠊㰖–

given

The ditransitive verbs ⹳䧞– and 㞢Ⰲ– are verbs derived by the morphological process of causativization (see 4.6.2.1). Here are some examples of these passives in sentences:

㧊㩲㌂㧻┮㦮⽎⧮ 㦮☚⓪ 㿿⿚䧞 ⹳䡖㪢㠊㣪. Now, the boss’s original intention has become sufficiently clear. ⁎ Ṗ㑮Ṗ 䟊㣎㠦☚ Ⱔ㧊㞢⩺㪢㠊㣪. That singer has become well known abroad as well. Ⱔ㦖 ⶎ㩲Ṗ 㤆Ⰲ㠦Ợ 㭒㠊㪢┺. [PLAIN] Many problems were given to us.

4.6.2

224

Causatives

Causatives are sentences that depict an agent causing, forcing or simply allowing or permitting a ‘patient’ to perform an action. Korean causatives

thus cover a wide range of possible English meanings, including ‘he/she made me’, ‘he/she caused me to’ and ‘he/she let me’. Causativization is a process diametrically opposite to the process of passivization that we looked at in the previous section (see 4.6.1). Passivization is ‘intransitivizing’; in other words, it eliminates the propensity for a verb to have an object. For example, whereas the first active sentence here requires an object (‘fish’), the second does not:

⹒䢎Ṗ ἶ₆⯒ 㧷㞮㠊㣪U

Minho caught a fish.

ἶ₆Ṗ 㧷䡪㠊㣪U

The fish got caught.


Causativization, on the other hand, is transitivizing or ditransitivizing; in other words, it changes a verb that does not need an object into a verb that needs an object. Or, it changes a verb that only needs one object into a verb that needs two objects. For example, the first sentence here requires no object, but the second requires an object (fish):

ἶ₆Ṗ 㭓㠞㠊㣪U

The fish died.

⹒䢎Ṗ ἶ₆⯒ 㭓㡖㠊㣪U

Minho killed a fish.

In other cases, whereas the first active sentence here requires only one object (‘fish’), the second requires two (‘fish’ and ‘Minho’):

⹒䢎Ṗ ἶ₆⯒ 㧷㞮㠊㣪U

Minho caught a fish.

㥶⹎Ṗ ⹒䢎㠦Ợ ἶ₆⯒ 㧷Ợ 䟞㠊㣪U

Yumi made Minho catch a fish.

Korean causative verbs are often ambiguous as to whether the causation takes place by force or coercion (A makes B do something) or otherwise simply by permission (A lets B do something). This can usually be clarified by the context. Korean has four ways to form causative constructions, which are discussed in turn in the following subsections.

4.6.2.1

Derived causative verbs

For a limited number of verbs, a separate causative verb form can be derived by the addition of a verb ending. This ending has seven possible shapes: –㧊–, –₆–, –䧞–, –Ⰲ– and –㤆–, –ῂ–, –㿪–. For verbs that take the first four shapes, the causative form is often the same as the derived passive form

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(see 4.6.1.1). However, note that some are different, such as ⲏ㧊– ‘cause to eat’ versus ⲏ䧞– ‘eaten’. Also, note that some of these causative verbs (such as 㭓㧊– ‘cause to die; kill’) do not have derived passive counterparts. Here is a list of some of the most common causative verbs along with the basic verbs from which they derive. Note that two of these verbs have irregular causative forms: 㠜– becomes 㠜㞶– and ⊳⋮– becomes ⊳⌊–.

Basic verb

Derived verb

㞢–

know

㞢Ⰲ–

let (someone) know, inform

㞟–

sit

㞟䧞–

seat (someone)

㧷–

catch

㧷䧞–

have (sth) caught; have (someone) catch

㫗–

narrow

㫗䧞–

make (something) narrow, narrow (sth)

㭓–

dies

㭓㧊–

kill

㠜–

lacking

㠜㞶–

eliminate; get rid of

㧛–

get dressed

㧛䧞–

dress (someone) make (someone) get dressed

226

Ṧ–

bathe, wash

Ṧ₆–

have (someone) bathe or wash

ọ–

walk

ỎⰂ–

have (someone) walk

₾–

wake up

₾㤆–

wake (someone) up

⊳⋮–

(sth) stops

⊳⌊–

stop (sth), finish (sth)

ῌ–

starve

ῌ₆–

allow/make (someone) (to) go hungry

ΐ–

bent

ΐ䧞–

bend (sth)

Ⱎ⯊–

get dry

ⰦⰂ–

dry (sth), make (sth) dry

ⲏ–

eat

ⲏ㧊–

feed, let/make (someone) eat

⋶–

(sth) flies

⋶Ⰲ–

fly (sth); have (sth) fly

⋾–

remain, left

⋾₆–

leave (sth) (remaining behind)

⍩–

wide, broad

⍩䧞–

widen, broaden (sth)

⏖–

play; have fun; relax;

⏖Ⰲ–

let (someone) play; make fun (of )

take (time) off


(someone); give (someone) (time off )

⏨–

high

⏨㧊–

raise (up), elevate

⓼–

late; loose

⓼㿪–

postpone; loosen

㡺⯊–

rise, ascend

㢂Ⰲ–

raise, lift; present, give

キ–

comb (one’s hair)

キ₆–

comb (someone else’s hair)

⻭–

get undressed, take off clothes

⻭₆–

undress (someone else), take off (someone else’s clothes)

⽊–

see, look at

⽊㧊–

show, let (someone) see

㌊–

live

㌊Ⰲ–

make let live; save, revive

㍲–

stand; (a car) stops

㎎㤆–

erect it; stop (a car)

㔶–

put on (shoes, socks)

㔶₆–

put on (someone else’s shoes, socks) make (someone) put on (shoes, socks)

▻–

be hot, warm

▻䧞–

heat (sth), warm (sth) up

䌖–

(sth) burns

䌲㤆–

burn (sth)

䌖–

ride (a horse, bicycle, etc.)

䌲㤆–

give a ride (to somebody), pick up

take (a bus, train, etc.)

(someone), (a bus, etc.) carry (someone)

☢–

(sth) turns

☢Ⰲ–

turn (sth), make/let (sth) go around; pass (sth) around

☡–

sprout/come out

☡ῂ–

stimulate, whet

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As noted previously, making a verb causative changes the transitivity of the verb (i.e. the number of objects that it takes). For some verbs, this increases from zero to one:

㰧㧊 ⍩㠊㣪U The house is wide. ( big)

m

㰧㦚 ⍩䡪㠊㣪U I widened ( extended) the house.

For others, it increases from one to two. In these cases, the indirect object (here, ‘the child’), is marked with 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4):

㞚㧊Ṗ 㟧Ⱖ㦚㔶㠞㠊㣪U m 㞚㧊㠦Ợ 㟧Ⱖ㦚㔶ἒ㠊㣪U The child put on his/her socks. I put on the child’s socks for him/her. I made the child put on his/her socks. Here are further examples of some of these derived verbs in sentences:

㏦┮㦚㔳䌗㦮㌗㍳㠦㞟䡪㠊㣪UG

We sat the guest at the head of the table.

㧟㠊䌫㦚 Ⱒ✲⓪ ⹿⻫㦚㞢⩺ 㭒㎎㣪UG

Please inform (tell) me how to make carp stew.

㦢㔳㦚 ⋾₆㰖 Ⱎ㎎㣪U

Don’t leave any food.

㩬㦖㢍㦚 Ⱖ⪎㠊㣪U

I dried the wet clothes.

Ⱖ㝖 ⏨㧊㎎㣪U

Elevate your speech a bit. ( use honorifics)

Ⱖ㝖 ⌄㿪㎎㣪U

Lower your speech. ( drop the honorifics)

㎎ὖ㤦㦖 ⋾㧦㦮㢍㦚⻭₆ἶ ⴎ㦚㑮㌟䟞㠊㣪U The customs officer stripped the man and searched him. 䞯㌳㦚 ⏖Ⰲἶ 㕌㰖㞠㞚㍲㑯㩲⯒ Ⱔ㧊㭒㠞㠊㣪U I didn’t want to give the students time off, so I gave them a lot of homework. 㦮㌂✺㦖 ⁎ 䢮㧦⯒ ㌊Ⰲ⩺ἶ ⳾✶ ⏎⩻㦚 ┺䟞㠊㣪U The doctors tried everything they could to save that patient. ㌊㧎㦚㩖㰖⯊ἶ ⋮㍲ ⳾✶ 㯳Ệ⯒ 㠜㟊㠊㣪U After committing the murder, he got rid of all the evidence. ṲṖ ⺆䌞㧊 ⋮㍲ ῌỾ㟒G䟞㠊㣪U The dog had a stomach ache, so we had to keep it off its food.

228

As noted previously, in many cases the derived causative form is the same as the derived passive form. In such cases, whether the meaning is passive or causative can only be established in context:

Passive

Causative

⋾㌆㧊 ⋮㠦Ợ ⽊㡂㣪. Namsan mountain is visible to me.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ ⁎Ⱂ㺛㦚⽊㡖㠊㣪. The mother is showing the picture book to the baby.

㞚₆Ṗ 㠊Ⲏ┞㠦Ợ 㠛䡪㠊㣪. The baby was put on its mother’s back.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㥶⹎㠦Ợ 㞚₆⯒ 㠛䡪㠊㣪. The mother put the baby on Yumi’s back.


㥶⹎Ṗ ⹒䢎㠦Ợ 㞞ἒ㠊㣪. 㥶⹎Ṗ ⹒䢎㠦Ợ ↙┺⹲㦚㞞ἒ㠊㣪. Yumi was embraced by Minho. Yumi put the bouquet in Minho’s arms.

4.6.2.2

Causatives with –Ợ 䞮–

The second way to form a causative construction is to add the adverbative form –Ợ (also used for forming adverbs, see 10.2.1.2) and follow this with the verb 䞮–. This pattern can be applied to any verb, including those that can also be made causative through derived means (see 4.6.2.1): As with derived causatives, –Ợ 䞮– increases the transitivity of the verb (i.e. the number of objects that it takes):

No object 㞚㧊Ṗ 㧦㣪. The child sleeps. One object

One object m

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊⯒ 㧦Ợ 䟊㣪. Mother made the child sleep. Two objects

㞚㧊Ṗ 㺛㦚㧓㠊㣪. m 㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ 㺛㦚㧓Ợ 䟊㣪. The child read the book. Mother made/let the child read the book. Like derived causatives, the –Ợ 䞮– construction can be ambiguous regarding whether the causation took place through coercion (A makes B do something) or permission (A lets B do something). However, the –Ợ 䞮– construction has a stronger meaning of causation than the derived forms and thus cannot take on certain specific simple transitive meanings of the

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derived causative verbs, leading to some contrasting readings, as in the following examples:

Derived causative

–ỢG䞮–

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ 㢍㦚㧛䡪㠊㣪. Mother dressed the child.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ 㢍㦚㧛ỢG䟞㠊㣪. Mother made the child put on clothes.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ 㔶⹲㦚㔶ἒ㠊㣪. Mother put the shoes on the child.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ 㔶⹲㦚㔶ỢG䟞㠊㣪. Mother made the child put on shoes.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ ⹻㦚 ⲏ㡖㠊㣪. Mother fed the child.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ ⹻㦚 ⲏỢG䟞㠊㣪. Mother made the child eat.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ 㺛㦚⽊㡖㠊㣪. Mother showed the book to the child.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊㠦Ợ 㺛㦚⽊ỢG䟞㠊㣪. Mother made the child look at the book.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊⯒ ⑫䡪㠊㣪. Mother laid the child down.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊⯒ ⑫ỢG䟞㠊㣪. Mother made the child lie down.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊⯒ 㞟䡪㠊㣪. Mother sat the child down.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊⯒ 㞟ỢG䟞㠊㣪. Mother made the child sit down.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊⯒ 㭓㡖㠊㣪. Mother killed the child.

㠊Ⲏ┞Ṗ 㞚㧊⯒ 㭓ỢG䟞㠊㣪. Mother made the child die.

In addition, idiomatic usages that thrive with certain derived causatives tend not to be available for –Ợ 䞮–. For example, the following usages of the derived transitive 㭓㧊– ‘kill’ cannot be achieved through –Ợ 䞮–:

㡺⓮ ⋶㝾㩫Ⱖ 㭓㧎┺. [PLAIN] [CASUAL/SLANG] It’s killer ( awesome) weather today. 㧊㭓㧒 ⏞㞚H [PLAIN] [CASUAL/SLANG] Damn you, wretch!

230

⳿㏢Ⰲ/㑾/Ṧ㩫/⹲㏢Ⰲ⯒ 㭓㧊ἶ . . . . . . with a subdued voice/bated breath/feelings/suppressed/muffled footsteps

Here are further examples of the –Ợ 䞮– construction in full sentences:

㔲䠮㞴⚦ἶ 㞚㧊⯒ ⴑ ⏖ỢG䟊㟒G䟊㣪. Before an exam, you can’t let the children play.


₆┺Ⰲ㔲ỢG䟊㍲㬚㏷䞿┞┺. I’m sorry to have kept you waiting. 㞚㧊✺㦚㧒㹣㧦ỢG䟞㠊㣪. I made the children go to bed early. ⧒❪㡺⯒ 㫖㧧ỢG䞮㎎㣪. Turn the radio down a little.

4.6.2.3

Causatives with –☚⪳ 䞮–

The causative form –Ợ 䞮– (see 4.6.2.2) can be replaced with the alternative pattern –☚⪳ 䞮– with little change in meaning. The only difference is that –☚⪳ 䞮– appears at a lower frequency than –Ợ 䞮– and also makes the causation sound softer or less direct. Here are some examples:

ᾦ㑮┮℮㍲䞯㌳✺䞲䎢 ᾦ㔺㦚㼃㏢䞮☚⪳ 䞮㎾㠊㣪. The professor made the students clean the classroom. 㥶⹎⓪ ⋮⯒ 㓂☚⪳ 䟞㠊㣪. Yumi let me take a rest. ἶ䟻㠦㍲㡾䂲ῂ⯒ 㤆Ⰲ 㰧㠦㍲ Ⲏⶒ☚⪳ 䟞㠊㣪. I let my friend from my home town sleep at our house. 㞚㧊✺㦚㧒㹣㧦☚⪳ 䟊㟒䟊㣪. You have to make the children go to bed early. –☚⪳ 䞮– (and –☚⪳ on its own) has several other functions that are described elsewhere (see 6.6.3).

4.6.2.4

Causatives with 㔲䋺–

For 䞮– verbs (see 4.1.2), causatives can also be formed by substituting the support verb 䞮– for the verb 㔲䋺–. When used as a main verb, 㔲䋺– has the original meaning of ‘order (food, etc.)’. When used as a support verb, it takes on the meaning of ‘cause’ or ‘make’. Unlike derived causatives or –Ợ 䞮–, causatives with 㔲䋺– do not usually connote permission

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(A lets B do something), but only deliberate coercion. As in the first example, the noun preceding 㔲䋺– may optionally be followed by the object particle:

䞯㌳✺䞲䎢 Ὃ⿖O⯒P 㔲䆆㠊㣪. I made the students study a lot. ῂ⚦┼㧊㠦Ợ ῂ⚦⯒ 㑮㍶㔲䆆㠊㣪. I had my shoes mended by a shoeshine boy. ⁎ ⏞㧊 ⌊ ➎㦚㧚㔶㔲䆆㠊㣪. That wretch got my daughter pregnant. ☯㌳㠦Ợ ⹿ 㼃㏢⯒ 㔲䆆㠊㣪. I made my younger brother/sister clean the room. 䞒Ἲ䞮┞₢ ⰦO㦚P 㔲䋺㰖GⰞH [INTIMATE] I’m tired, so stop making me talk. ( stop trying to talk to me, stop asking me things)

4.6.3

Transforming descriptive verbs into processive verbs

Korean has two processes for transforming descriptive verbs into processive verbs: (1) adding the auxiliary –㰖– and (2) adding the auxiliary –䞮–. Both of these forms are attached to the infinitive form of the verb (see 4.1.6).

4.6.3.1

Forming processive verbs with –㰖–

The addition of the auxiliary verb –㰖– turns a descriptive verb into a processive verb, adding the meaning of ‘becoming’ or ‘getting’:

232

Descriptive verbs

Processive verbs

▻–

warm

▪㤢㰖–

become warm

⏨–

high

⏨㞚㰖–

become high

㣿Ṧ䞮–

brave

㣿Ṧ䟊㰖–

become brave

Here are some examples of these forms in sentences:

㢂㡂⯚㠦⓪ 䂮ⰞṖ ▪ 㰽㞚㰚┺. [PLAIN] This summer, skirts are getting even shorter.


⑞㧊 Ⱔ㧊 ⌊Ⰲἶ 㿪㤢㪢㠊㣪. It’s snowed a lot and it’s become colder. ⁎ 䂲ῂṖ 㞞⽎㌂㧊㠦㡞ㄦ㪢㠊㣪. In the time that I didn’t see her, my friend got prettier. In addition to changing descriptive verbs into processive verbs, –㰖– can also be used to form passives of processive verbs, as discussed previously in this subchapter (see 4.6.1.4).

4.6.3.2

Forming processive verbs with –䞮–

Certain descriptive verbs that are cognitive or emotive in nature and that denote psychological states can be changed into processive (action) verbs with the addition of –䞮–:

Descriptive verbs

Processive verbs

㫡–

good

㫡㞚䞮–

like

㕁–

disliked

㕁㠊䞮–

hate

⿖⩓–

jealous

⿖⩂㤢䞮–

envy

ἶⰯ–

thankful

ἶⰞ㤢䞮–

thankful for

O–ἶP 㕌–

want

O–ἶP 㕌㠊䞮–

(someone else) wants (see 5.3.4)

₆㊮–

glad

₆ㄦ䞮–

(someone else) is glad

㔂䝚–

sad

㔂䗒䞮–

(someone else) is sad

The addition of –䞮– has two distinct functions. First, for verbs such as the first four, –䞮– turns an inner feeling (i.e. being jealous) into an active expression of this feeling (i.e. envying something). When talking about yourself or your immediate interlocutor (i.e. the person you are talking to), both the descriptive verb and the processive verb may be used. Despite the different English translations given above, note that 㫡– ‘good’ and

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㕁– ‘disliked’ in particular are often used to express (at least by extension) the meanings of the corresponding processive verbs: ‘like’ and ‘hate’. Note that whereas the descriptive verb takes the subject particle (see 3.2.1), the processive verb takes an object particle (see 3.2.2):

Descriptive verb

Processive verb

㩖⓪ ╃ἶ₆Ṗ 㫡㞚㣪. For me, chicken is good. ( I like chicken)

㩖⓪ ╃ἶ₆⯒ 㫡㞚䟊㣪. I like chicken.

㩖⓪ 䄺䞒Ṗ 㕁㠊㣪. For me, coffee is disliked. ( I dislike coffee).

㩖⓪ 䄺䞒⯒ 㕁㠊䟊㣪. I dislike coffee.

㩖⓪ 㠎┞Ṗ ⿖⩂㤢㣪. I am jealous of my older sister.

㩖⓪ 㠎┞⯒ ⿖⩂㤢䟊㣪. I envy my older sister.

Although in some cases 㫡㞚㣪/㫡㞚䟊㣪 (and 㕁㠊㣪/㕁㠊䟊㣪) may be fairly interchangeable (at least in the first and second person), it is important to point out cases in which only one of the two may be appropriate. First, although 㫡㞚㣪 ‘good’ may be used by extension to mean ‘like’, the opposite does not apply. In other words, 㫡㞚䟊㣪 ‘like’ cannot be used to mean ‘good’. More importantly, whereas 㫡㞚㣪 is used for talking about more temporary feelings of liking something (i.e. ‘I like this particular chicken that I am eating now’), 㫡㞚䟊㣪 is used when discussing your general likes and preferences (i.e. ‘I like chicken in general’). The second function of these processive verbs is for talking about the psychological states of other people (who are not you and your immediate interlocutor). When talking about other people, the descriptive verb cannot normally be used and the constructions with –䞮– have to be used instead. We thus get contrasts between first/second-person sentences and third-person sentences as shown:

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First/second person

Third person

㩖⓪ 䞲ῃ㠦 ṖἶG㕌㠊㣪. I want to go to Korea.

Ⱎ㧊䋊㦖䞲ῃ㠦 ṖἶG㕌㠊䟊㣪. Michael wants to go to Korea.

⍞ⶊ ⿖⩓㰖㣪f You’re so jealous, aren’t you?

㥶⹎Ṗ ⍞ⶊ ⿖⩂㤢䞮Ỷ㰖㣪f Yumi must be really jealous, right?

Chapter 5

Auxiliary (support) verbs

Overview Auxiliaries are additional verbs or support verbs that are used supplementary to the main verb and which help or support it by supplying extra information regarding the way that the speaker views the event being talked about. Korean auxiliary verbs always occur after the main verb and can be classified according to the form of the verb they follow. The majority of auxiliaries occur after the –O㞚/㠊P infinitive ending (see 5.1). Other auxiliaries occur after –┺ (see 5.2), –ἶ (see 5.3), –ඥ₢ (see 5.4), –⋮/චṖ (see 5.5), –Ợ (see 5.6) and –O㠊㞚P㟒 (see 5.7). The meanings of constructions containing auxiliary verbs are often connected to the original meaning of the verb in question. For example, Ṗ– (originally meaning ‘go’) depicts an action or state progressing away from the current place/time, whereas 㡺– (originally meaning ‘come’) depicts an action or state progressing towards the current place/time. However, note that such connections are not always as transparent.

5.1

Auxiliary verbs with –O㞚/㠊P

This set of constructions is attached after the infinitive form of the verb (see 4.1.6).

5.1.1

–O㞚 /㠊P Ṗ – (ongoing activity ‘away’)

This construction employs Ṗ– (which as a main verb means ‘go’) as an auxiliary verb to communicate that the action or state in question involves

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movement away from the speaker or person being talked about. Rather than physical movement, the construction normally depicts temporal movement; in other words, an ongoing process progressing away from the present (or other given time) and into the future (or, less commonly, the past). With processive verbs, –㞚/㠊 Ṗ– can usually be translated as ‘keep on’, ‘go on’, ‘continue (doing)’. In the case of descriptive verbs the nuance of –㠊/㠊 Ṗ– is better captured by ‘get (to be)’ or ‘grow . . . er (and . . . er)’.

⹎ῃ ἓ㩲Ṗ ⰳ䟊 Ṛ┺U [PLAIN]

The US economy continues to go downhill.

↙㧊 ┺ 䞒㠊 Ṗ㣪U

The flowers have almost reached the state of full bloom.

⻢㖾㌂⧧㧊㔳㠊 Ṗ⋮㣪f

Is our love already cooling off ?

⳾✶ ἶ㌳㦚 ┺ ἀ㠊 ṖⳆ 㞚㧊✺㦚䋺㤶㠊㣪. I brought up my children while undergoing all sorts of hardships. ⓮㠊 Ṗ⓪ 㧎ῂⶎ㩲⓪ 㭧ῃ㦮 Ἶ䂮ỆⰂ┺U [PLAIN] The problem of a continuously increasing population is a nuisance for China.

5.1.2

–O㞚 /㠊P 㡺 – (ongoing activity ‘towards’)

Whereas the use of Ṗ– (‘go’) as an auxiliary verb depicts movement away (from the speaker, person being talked about, present time, etc.) (see 5.1.1), the use of 㡺– (originally meaning ‘come’) depicts movement in the opposite direction. Put simply, this form is used when talking about a process that has continued over a period of time up to the present, or over a period of time leading up to another given reference time. In translating –O㞚/㠊P 㡺– with processive verbs such renderings as ‘has kept on’, ‘has (always or continuously)’ and ‘has been’ will be useful. In the case of descriptive verbs, the usual translation will be ‘getting’ or ‘growing . . . er (and . . . er)’:

⺆Ṗ ἶ䕢㡺⍺㣪H

I’m getting hungry.

⋾䘎ὒ 䞾℮ X^⎚ ☯㞞㔳㥷㩦㦚㤊㡗䟊㢪㠊㣪U She has run a butcher’s shop with her husband for 17 years. ⁎ ⶎ㩲⯒ 䟊ἆ䞮₆ 㥚䟊 Ⱔ㦖 ⏎⩻㦚䟊㢪㔋┞┺U We have continued to exert a lot of effort in order to solve these problems.

236

㌊㞚㡾㎎㤪⽊┺ ㌊㞚Ṟ ㎎㤪㧊 ▪ Ⱔ㞚㣪U The time I will (continue to) live (in the future) is more than the time I have lived (so far).

㩦㕂㔲Ṛ㧊 Ṗ₢㤢㡺┞₢ ゾⰂ ⊳⌛㔲┺U Since lunch time is getting close, let’s finish quickly.

5.1.3


–O㞚 /㠊P ⌊ – (finish, achieve)

When used as a main verb, ⌊– means ‘submit’, ‘present’, ‘despatch’, ‘put forth’, ‘pay’ or ‘draw out’. What all of these meanings have in common is that they involve a movement that creates a final state that is ‘presented’, ‘despatched’, etc. from the movement in question and that is typically final, climactic and represents successfully reaching a given end point. When used as an auxiliary verb, ⌊– retains this meaning of following a process through to the end and reaching a final conclusion or goal derived from the action in question. It depicts the act of doing something through to the end, ‘going all the way’ or simply completing a process properly and thoroughly. The final goal or conclusion is often reached despite certain difficult circumstances, dangers or hardships.

㤆Ⰲ 䟊 ⌞┺H [PLAIN] We did it! [newspaper headline after Korean football team qualified for the football World Cup semi-final] 䐋㯳㧊㕂䟞㰖Ⱒ ἂ◢ ⌞㠊㣪U The pain was severe, but I managed to bear it. 㠊⩺㤊㺛㦚 ⊳₢㰖㧓㠊 ⌞㠊㣪U I read this difficult book right through to the end. ἆῃ 㔲Ἒ⯒ 㺔㞚 ⌞㠊㣪U Finally, I found my watch.

5.1.4

–O㞚 /㠊P ⏩ – (do all the way)

When used as a main verb, ⏩– means ‘set free’, ‘let go’, ‘lay down’, ‘place’ or ‘put’. By extension from this meaning of ‘placing’ and ‘releasing’, when used as an auxiliary verb, the resulting construction –O㞚/㠊P ⏩– means ‘do something and leave it in that state’. This can first of all be used simply to mark specifically that an activity is completed. As can be seen in the following comparison, an action marked with –O㞚/㠊P ⏩– is generally understood as being completed or finished, which is not necessarily the case when the construction is not used:

237


Without –O㞚 /㠊P ⏩–

With –O㞚 /㠊P ⏩–

㑯㩲⯒ 䞮ἶ 㩖⎗㦚 ⲏ㠞㠊㣪U 㑯㩲⯒ 䟊 ⏩ἶ 㩖⎗㦚 ⲏ㠞㠊㣪U I did my homework and ate I finished my homework and then ate dinner. dinner. This same sense of ‘completedness’ is evident in the following examples:

⹿㦚 ₾⊭㧊㩫Ⰲ䟊 ⏩ἶ ⏖⩂ ⋮ṖU [INTIMATE] Tidy your room (completely) and then go out to play. ṲṖ 㔶⹲㦚 ⶒ㠊⦅㠊 ⏩㞮㠊㣪U The dog has (completely) chewed up my shoes. The construction can also be used to stress that the state reached by completing the action is (or should be) maintained:

㺓ⶎ 㫖㡊㠊 ⏩㦒㎎㣪U

Please leave the window open.

㣎㿲䞶 ➢ ⋲⹿㦚 ℒ ⏩㦒㎎㣪U

Turn (leave) off the heating when you leave the room.

As an extension of this meaning, the construction is frequently applied when talking about performing an action now in order to be ready for later events or processes:

Ṩ㧊㡺⯊₆ 㩚㠦 ⹎Ⰲ ㌂ ⏩㦒Ⳋ 㫡Ỷ㠊㣪U I should buy some (and keep it) before the prices go up. ⹻㦚 Ⱔ㧊 ⲏ㠊 ⏩㞚㍲⺆ἶ䝚㰖㞠㞚㣪U As I ate a lot before, I am not hungry. In the next batch of examples, –O㞚/㠊P ⏩– expresses the meaning of completing an activity (often one that is burdensome, unpleasant or that you feel duty-bound to do) simply to get it out the way:

㹾⯒ ἶ㼦 ⏩ἶ ⰻ㭒⯒ Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪U I got repairing the car out the way and then drank a beer. ἆ䢒㦚䟊 ⏩ἶ 㥶䞯㦚 Ṫ㠊㣪U I got married and then went overseas to study.

5.1.5

238

–O㞚 /㠊P ⚦ – (do for future reference)

The verb ⚦– as a main verb means ‘put’, ‘place’, ‘deposit’, ‘store away’ or ‘leave aside’. The core meaning is in some ways similar to ⏩–

(see 5.1.4); however, there is one key difference. Whereas ⏩– denotes ‘releasing’ something from the sphere (of interest or influence) of the speaker, ⚦– specifically connotes putting something in a place that is still within the speaker’s field (refer to Lee, K. 1993: 257).


Due to this specific semantic difference between ⏩– and ⚦–, when used as auxiliary verbs, whereas –O㞚/㠊P ⏩– may simply denote performing an action in order to complete it or get it out of the way, –O㞚/㠊P⚦– specifically indicates that the action is performed for future use or advantage, typically by or on behalf of the speaker:

With –O㞚 /㠊P ⏩ –

With –O㞚 /㠊P ⚦ –

ⶎ㦚㡊㠊 ⏩㞮㠊㣪U I left the door open. (for no specific purpose)

ⶎ㦚㡊㠊 ⚦㠞㠊㣪U I left the door open. (for specific personal future use, e.g. to take something out through the door)

㍲⮮⯒ 㭖゚䟊 ⏩㞮㠊㣪U I finished preparing the documents. (and got it out of the way)

㍲⮮⯒ 㭖゚䟊 ⚦㠞㠊㣪U I finished preparing the documents. (and so I have them for my future personal use)

Here are some further examples:

㩠㠞㦚 ➢ Ὃ⿖⯒ 䟊 ⚦㠊㟒 ♒㣪U Study (for the future) while you are still young. 䞲ῃ㌂⧢✺㦖 ₖ䂮⯒ Ṗ㦚㠦 Ⱒ✺㠊 ⚦㠞┺Ṗ Ỿ㤎 ☯㞞 Ἒ㏣ ⲏ㠊㣪U Koreans make kimchi in the autumn, and eat it throughout the winter. ⌊ Ⱖ㦚㧮 ✺㠊 ⚦㠊⧒U [PLAIN] Pay attention to what I am going to say. (for future use)

5.1.6

–O㞚 /㠊P ╖ – (do repeatedly)

As a main verb, ╖– has the meaning of ‘holding something so that it is in contact with something else’ (e.g. holding a cup to your lips). When used as an auxiliary verb, this meaning is retained to some extent: –O㞚/㠊P ╖– is used to depict the continuous or repetitive occurrence of an action (we can think of this as continuous occurrences of an action being brought

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into contact with each other) (refer to Lee, K. 1993: 255). The repetition depicted is typically to an extreme extent and is viewed negatively:

㞚㧊Ṗ Ἒ㏣䟊㍲㤎㠊 ╖㍲ ⍞ⶊ 㔲⊚⩂㤢㣪U The child just keeps on crying and crying, it’s so noisy. 䞯㌳✺㧊 ⍞ⶊ ⟶✺㠊 ╖㍲㑮㠛㦚䞶㑮㠜㠞㠊㣪U Students kept making a noise, so I couldn’t teach the lesson. 㥶⹎⓪ Ἒ㏣䟊㍲ Ệ㰩Ⱖ㦚䟊 ╪㠊㣪U Yumi just kept on telling lies. 㞚㧊⓪ ㌂䌫㦚 ╂⧒ἶ 㫎⧒ ╪㠊㣪U The children kept pestering me to give them sweets.

5.1.7

–O㞚 /㠊P ⻚Ⰲ– (do completely for regret or relief)

The verb ⻚Ⰲ–, as a main verb, means ‘throw away’, ‘dump’, ‘cast aside’, ‘get rid of’, ‘abandon’ or ‘leave behind’. These meanings are retained to some extent when ⻚Ⰲ– is used as an auxiliary verb in the –O㞚/㠊P ⻚Ⰲ– construction. This pattern is used when talking about finishing a process through to the end so that it is, metaphorically, ‘disposed of’. At times, the completion or ‘disposal’ of the activity in question may be to the regret of the speaker:

㥶⹎Ṗ 㧒㹣 Ṗ ⻚⪎㠊㣪U

(To my regret), Yumi just left early.

㞚㧊㓺䋂Ⱂ㧊 ┺ ⏏㞚⻚⪎㠊㣪U

All of the ice cream melted.

Ὃ䟃㠦 ⓼Ợ ☚㹿䞮⓪ ⹪⧢㠦゚䟟₆⯒ ⏩㼦⻚⪎㠊㣪U Arriving late at the airport, I missed my plane. With some verbs that by nature involve a high degree of regret, –O㞚/㠊P ⻚Ⰲ– may occur particularly frequently. This mainly applies to 㧠– ‘forget’ and 㧙– ‘lose’, which combine with –O㞚/㠊P ⻚Ⰲ– at will, with the subsequent construction frequently being written as one word: 㧠㠊⻚Ⰲ– and 㧙㠊⻚Ⰲ–.

㧠㠊⻚Ⰲ㰖㞠☚⪳ 㑮㻿㠦㩗㠊 ⏩㦒㎎㣪U Please write it down in your planner so that you don’t forget.

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ᾦ䐋䃊✲⯒ 㧙㠊⻚Ⰲ⓪ ⹪⧢㠦䢮㔏䞶㧎㦖 ⹱㰖 ⴑ䟞㠊㣪U Since I lost my travel card, I could not get a discount when I changed buses.

These ‘regretted’ occurrences include times when the speaker recklessly performs an action, often contrary to his/her plan (or quicker than he/she thought possible) or even without being fully conscious of what he/she was doing:


⁎ ☯㞞 ⳾㦖 ☞㦖 ┺ 䞮⬾ Ⱒ㠦㖾⻚⪎㠊㣪U I spent (and wasted) all of the money I had saved in just one day. 䞲㔲Ṛ Ⱒ㠦 ⁎ Ⱔ㦖㑶㦚 Ⱎ㎪⻚⪎㠊㣪U We drank all of that alcohol in just one hour. In addition to completion or ‘disposal’ that is regretted, –O㞚/㠊P ⻚Ⰲ– is also used when talking about an activity performed to the relief of the speaker (or the person being talked about). Here, completing the action to the end (often as quickly as possible or with minimum investment) takes a psychological weight off the mind of the speaker (or the person being talked about):

‖㺄㞚㍲ Ṳ⯒ 䕪㞚⻚⪎㠊㣪U I sold my dog, which had been a nuisance to me. ⁎ ⋾㧦Ṗ ⽊⌎ 䘎㰖⓪ ┺ 㹸㠊⻚⪎㠊㣪U I ripped up the all the letters he sent me. ⁎ ₆㠋㦚㕏㰖㤢⻚Ⰲἶ 㕌㠞㠊㣪U I just wanted to get rid of those memories.

5.1.8

–O㞚 /㠊P ⽊ – (try doing)

When ⽊– is used as a main verb, it means ‘look’ or ‘see’. Used as an auxiliary verb, the meaning becomes more abstract: ‘try [doing something] to see if you can do it’ or ‘sample something to see what it is like’. What this meaning of ‘trying’ shares with the original meaning of ⽊– is the sense of exploration, of seeing (or of experiencing something through another sense) and then establishing its possibility or its character. In the first set of examples that follow, –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– means ‘try or attempt something to see if you can do it’:

ₗ㓺⯒ 䛖ἶ Ỏ㠊⽺㠊㣪U After taking off the plaster cast, I tried to walk. 䞲ῃⰦ⪲ ㍺ⳛ䟊⽺⓪◆ ㍺ⳛ䞶㑮㠜㠞㠊㣪U I attempted explaining in Korean, but I couldn’t.

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Although –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– can be used in this way, it more commonly means ‘try something to sample it and see what it is like’, as in the next set of examples. This includes some common combinations such as ⲏ㠊⽊– ‘try (eating/drinking)’ or ‘taste (something)’ and 㧛㠊⽊– ‘try on’. In this meaning, –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– frequently co-occurs with 䞲⻞, which literally means ‘just once’.

㧊Ệ ⲏ㠊⽦. 㞚㭒 ⰱ㧞㠊U [INTIMATE] Try (eating or drinking) this. It’s really delicious. ㏦┮, 㧊Ệ 䞲⻞㧛㠊⽊㎎㣪U Customer, why don’t you quickly try this on? ⁎ 㡂㧦⯒ 䞲⻞ Ⱒ⋮ ⽒₢㣪f Shall I try meeting that girl? (just once) (to see what she is like) In order to express the opinions formed by having sampled the action in question, –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– can be followed by –┞₢ (see 6.1.3) or –┞ (see 6.1.4). The second clause then is frequently rounded off by –▪ (see 4.5.1.3):

㞢䌫㦚 ⲏ㠊⽊┞₢ ῃⶒ㧊㔲㤦䞮▪⧒ἶ㣪U I tried alt’ang and the broth was spicy and refreshing. ⁎ 㡂㧦⯒ Ⱒ⋮ ⽊┞₢ ㎇ỿ㧊㧊㌗䞮▪⧒U [INTIMATE] I met that girl and I found her personality to be strange. In addition to simply trying something to see what it is like, you might try something to find out or establish a specific state of affairs. Note that in such expressions in English, ‘try’ can normally be omitted:

㤆㼊ῃ㠦 Ṗ ⽺㰖Ⱒ 䘎㰖⓪ 㠜㠞㠊㣪U I tried going ( went) to the post office [to see if there was a letter], but there wasn’t one. ṫ⋾ Ṗ⓪ ⻚㓺⯒ 㠊❪㍲䌖⓪㰖 ⶒ㠊⽺㠊㣪U I tried asking ( asked) where I could take a bus to Gangnam. Note that the verb ⶑ– ‘ask’, due to its intrinsic exploratory meaning, frequently occurs with the –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– construction (as in the last example). With the meaning of ‘sampling’, –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– is often used when asking and answering questions about whether you have ever done something:

㌆⋯㰖⯒ ⲏ㠊⽺㠊㣪f Have you ever eaten live octopus? 242

ṫ⯟㠦 Ṗ ⽺㠊㣪f Have you ever been to Gangneung?

In this meaning, –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– may also occur in combination with the pattern –ච㧒/㩗O㧊P㧞– (see 7.2.24), which more strictly specifies the meaning of ‘have you ever’:

㞞☯ ㏢㭒⯒ Ⱎ㎪⽎㩗㧊㧞㠊㣪f

Have you ever drunk Andong soju?

䞲ῃ ㏢㍺㦚㧓㠊⽎㧒㧊㧞㠊㣪f

Have you ever read a Korean novel?


The –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– construction is also used to make utterances less direct by softening the speaker’s assertion. In imperatives, telling someone to ‘try reading’ or ‘try eating’ is naturally softer and more polite than simply telling them to ‘read’ or ‘eat’. Indeed, the force of imperatives with –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– is perhaps similar to the English ‘why don’t you . . . ?’ or ‘could/would you . . . ?’:

⁎⓮㠦㧶㔲㞟㞚⽊㎎㣪U

Why don’t you sit in the shade for a moment?

㧊㩲䛞 Ↄ 䞲⻞㖾⽊㎎㣪U

Why don’t you give this product a go? (just once)

–O㞚/㠊P ⽊– is also used to soften a speaker’s assertion in greeting expressions and promises with –Ỷ–:

Ⲓ㩖 Ṗ ⽊Ỷ㔋┞┺U

I will try going first. [set leaving expression]

䞲⻞䟊⽊Ỷ㔋┞┺U

I will give it a go.

5.1.9

–O㞚 /㠊P ⽊㧊– (seem)

As a main verb, ⽊㧊– means ‘be visible’ or ‘show’. When used as an auxiliary verb, this meaning of ‘visibility’ extends to making an inference or prediction based on sensory (usually visual) evidence. Only used with descriptive verbs, this pattern typically translates as ‘look’ or ‘seem’:

⁎ộ㧊㩲㧒 ⰱ㧞㠊⽊㡂㣪U That looks to be the most delicious. 㞞㌟㧊㞞㫡㞚⽊㡂㣪U You don’t look well. (lit. ‘Your face colour doesn’t look good’) 㧎䢎⓪ 㹿䟊⽊㧊㰖Ⱒ 㔺㩲⪲ ⁎⩝㰖㞠㞚㣪U Inho looks nice and kind, but really he’s not.

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㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ ZW ㌊㧊 ⍮㠞⓪◆☚ 㞚㰗 ╖䞯㌳ ṯ㧊㩠㠊⽊㡂㣪U Yumi has passed 30, but she still looks young, like a university student. Note that in place of –㞚/㠊⽊㧊–, –Ợ ⽊㧊– (see 5.6.2) may be used with no great difference in meaning.

5.1.10 –O㞚 /㠊P ザ㰖– (lapse into a negative state) When used as a main verb, ザ㰖– means ‘fall’ or ‘lapse into’. By extension, when used as an auxiliary, it denotes deterioration in the state of affairs under discussion. The main verb in this pattern is usually a descriptive verb and also tends to carry a negative implication.

㣪㯮 ᾦ㑮✺㦖㌳ṗ㧊 ⋷㞚ザ㪢㠊㣪U The way that professors think these days has become so old-fashioned. ⹒䢎⓪ Ợ㦚⩂ ザ㪎㍲㎇Ὃ䞮₆ 㠊⩺㤎 Ệ㠦㣪U MInho has got so lazy that there is no way he’ll succeed. ₖ䂮Ṗ 㔲㠊ザ㪎㍲ ⲏ㦚㑮Ṗ 㠜⍺㣪U The kimchi has turned all sour and I cannot eat it. 㖿㠊ザ㰚㩫䂮⓪ ⹪∎㠊㟒䟊㣪U We have to change politics, which has become rotten to the core. ⌊ ⓯㠊ザ㰚㠒Ὴ㧊 ⶦṖ 㡞ㄦf [INTIMATE] What do you think is pretty about my old withered face?

5.1.11 –O㞚 /㠊P 㕩 – (do repeatedly) As a main verb, 㕩– originally means ‘pile up’, ‘heap up’ or ‘put in a pile/ heap’. When used as an auxiliary verb, this meaning of ‘stacking things up’ translates into doing an activity repeatedly and/or continuously, to an extent that is irritable or irksome to the speaker:

㞚㧊Ṗ 㤎㠊㕩㞚㣪U

The child just keeps on crying.

ṲṖ 㰬㠊㕩㞚㣪U

The dog keeps on barking.

ῌ㦖㌂⧢㻮⩒ ⲏ㠊㕩▪┞ ⺆䌞㧊 ⌂㠊㣪U After eating and eating like someone who was starving, he/she got a stomach ache. 244

The usage of –㞚/㠊㕩– is essentially the same as –㞚/㠊 ╖– (see 5.1.6). However, the image that they conjure up is quite different. Whereas

–㞚/㠊㕩– depicts repetition as a process of piling things up one on top of another, –㞚/㠊 ╖– expresses repetition as the linking up of actions one after another (refer to Lee, K. 1993).


5.1.12 –O㞚 /㠊P 㭒 – (perform a favour) The verb 㭒–, as a main verb, originally means ‘give’. When used as an auxiliary verb in the –㞚/㠊㭒– construction, this meaning of ‘giving’ becomes more abstract in that what is given is an action rather than things. Put more simply, this expression is used when talking about doing something (such as a favour) for the benefit of someone else. As can be seen in the first two examples, the person benefiting from the action can be marked with the particle 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 ‘to’ (when the beneficiary actually receives something tangible from the action, such as money) or 㦚㥚䟊 ‘for (the sake of)’ (when the beneficiary receives a favour, but no actual tangible benefit):

㥶⹎⓪ 㧎䢎㠦Ợ ☞㦚ア⩺ 㭒㠞㠊㣪U Yumi lent money to Inho. ㏦┮✺㦖㞞㭒㧎㦚㥚䟊㦢㔳㦚 ┺ ⰱ㧞Ợ ⲏ㠊㭒㠞㠊㣪U The guests hungrily ate all the food for (the sake of ) the hostess. ⽒䗲㦒⪲ 㖾㭒㎎㣪U Please write it for me with a pen. ⌊ 䂲ῂ⯒ ㏢Ṳ 䟊㭚Ợ㣪U I’ll introduce my friend to you. 㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ 㤆Ⰲ 㞚㧊⯒ 㫖⽦㭒ἶ 㧞㠊㣪U Yumi is looking (after) our child for us. Particularly when sentence subjects and/or objects are dropped, the inclusion/ exclusion of –㞚/㠊㭒– can result in sentences taking on quite different interpretations:

Without –O㞚 /㠊P 㭒 –

With –O㞚 /㠊P 㭒 –

㥶⹎䞲䎢 ☞㦚ア⪎㠊㣪U I borrowed some money from Yumi.

㥶⹎䞲䎢 ☞㦚ア⩺ 㭒㠞㠊㣪U I lent Yumi some money.

㟓㦚㌂㎎㣪U Buy some medicine.

㟓㦚㌂㭒㎎㣪U Buy me some medicine.

Ⱖ䟊H [INTIMATE] Speak out!/Say it!

Ⱖ䟊㭮H [INTIMATE] Tell me!

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When the beneficiary of the action is higher in status than the speaker (and, in instances in which the person being talked about is not the hearer, or is higher than the hearer), 㭒– should be replaced by its honorific counterpart ✲Ⰲ– (see 4.4.2.1). The particle 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 will also be substituted for –℮ (see 4.4.2.2):

䞶㞚⻚┮℮ ㍶ⶒ㦚⽊⌊ ✲⪎㠊㣪U I sent my grandfather a present. ㌂㰚㦚⽊㡂 ✲ⰊỢ㣪U

I’ll show you the photos.

⁎ 䂲ῂ⓪ 㺛䞲 ῢ㦚 ⋮䞲䎢㌂㮂ἶSG㠊Ⲏ┞℮ ↙㦚㌂ ✲⪎㠊㣪U My friend bought a book for me and (bought) some flowers for my mother. Since –㞚/㠊㭒– implies ‘benefit’ for the recipient of the action, its usage can take on certain politeness functions. For example, when thanking someone for coming, the following expression is standard as it implies that the hearer’s coming was to the speaker’s benefit (and the expression thus shows deference to the hearer and humbles the self):

㢖㭒㎪㍲ Ṧ㌂䞿┞┺U

Thanks for coming.

5.1.13 –O㞚 /㠊P 䂮㤆 – (do rashly) When applied as a main verb, 䂮㤆– has the meaning of ‘remove’ or ‘clean up’. As an auxiliary verb, this meaning of ‘clean up’ extends to expressing doing something completely (often in one go or in the twinkling of an eye). The action often comes about subconsciously for the speaker or through his/her own rash actions. Alternatively, the speaker may perform the action quickly on purpose, just to get it out of the way:

⹻ 䞲 ⁎⯝㦚 ⑞ ₲㰳䞶㌂㧊㠦 ⲏ㠊䂮㤶㠊㣪U He ate up a bowl of rice in the twinkling of an eye. ⋾☯㌳㧊 ⁎ Ⱔ㦖㑯㩲⯒ ┾㑾㠦䟊䂮㤆ἶ ⏖⩂ ⋮Ṫ㠊㣪U My younger brother finished all that homework off in one go and went out to play. 㧎䢎⓪ ⏎⯚㠦ザ㪎㍲㰧₢㰖䕪㞚䂮㤶㠊㣪U Inho indulged in gambling and even had to sell off his house.

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The meaning of this pattern is similar to –㞚/㠊⻚Ⰲ– (see 5.1.7). However, –㞚/㠊䂮㤆– has stronger nuances than –㞚/㠊⻚Ⰲ– in that the action is performed at lightning speed and is totally completed (without any ‘leftovers’, etc.). Also, the frequency of –㞚/㠊䂮㤆– is much lower than

–㞚/㠊⻚Ⰲ–. It is not particularly productive in that it only commonly occurs with a small selection of verbs (such as 䞮– ‘do’, ⲏ– ‘eat’, 䕪– ‘sell’, Ṟ– ‘change’ and 㰧– ‘pick up’).

5.2

Auxiliary verbs with –┺

Auxiliary verbs with –┺

This set of constructions embellishes either the base or the infinitive form of the verb (see 4.1.6) with –┺ and then follows this with an auxiliary verb.

5.2.1

–┺G⽊ – (after trying doing)

This pattern attaches –┺ to the base of the verb and then follows this with ⽊–. –┺ ⽊– is essentially comparable in meaning to the –㞚/㠊⽊– pattern discussed previously (see 5.1.8). However, with the addition of –┺, the meaning shifts from simply ‘try’ to a more remote ‘after having tried’. The construction is then followed by –┞₢ (see 6.1.3) or –┞ (see 6.1.4) and then the speaker’s feelings or discoveries after having tried the activity in question:

⏎䔎⿗㦒⪲ Ợ㧚㦚䞮┺ ⽊┞₢ ⥾Ệ㤢㪢㠊㣪U After trying playing games on my laptop, it became hot. 䞲ῃ㠊⯒ Ὃ⿖䞮┺ ⽊┞₢ 㧦㔶Ṧ㧊㌳ἒ㠊㣪U After having studied Korean, I’ve gained in confidence. 㧊⧮㩖⧮ Ⱎ㔲┺ ⽊┞₢ 㑶㧊 ⓮㠊⻚⪎㠊㣪U After trying drinking this and that, I’ve ended up being able to drink a lot more. ㌊┺ ⽊┞₢ 䧮✶ 㧒㧊㺎 Ⱔ㞚㣪U After having lived a bit, there are a lot of tough things to overcome.

5.2.2

–O㞚 /㠊P┺ 㭒 – (run an errand)

This pattern attaches –┺ to the infinitive form of the verb and then follows this with 㭒–. It is comparable in meaning to the –㞚/㠊㭒– pattern discussed previously (see 5.1.12). Like –㞚/㠊㭒–, it is used when talking about doing something (such as a favour) for the benefit of someone else. The difference is that, with the inclusion of ┺, the favour involves some kind of shift in space; in other words, going somewhere else in order to

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perform the favour, such as when asking someone to run an errand. Compare the following:

–O㞚 /㠊P 㭒 –

–O㞚 /㠊P┺G㭒 –

ⰻ㭒⯒ ㌂㭮U [INTIMATE] Buy me a beer. [said at the bar or shop]

ⰻ㭒⯒ ㌂┺ 㭮U [INTIMATE] Go and buy me a beer. [from the shops, etc.]

㺛㦚ア⩺ 㭮U [INTIMATE] Lend me your book.

㺛㦚ア⩺┺ 㭮U [INTIMATE] Go and borrow a book for me. [from the library]

䅋㦚㞑㠊㭮U [INTIMATE] Wash this cup for me. [in the sink right here]

䅋㦚㞑㠊┺ 㭮U [INTIMATE] Go [to the kitchen] and wash this cup for me.

As with –㞚/㠊㭒–, 㭒– will be replaced by the honorific ✲Ⰲ– when the person benefiting from the favour is a status superior:

㍶㌳┮, 㰧₢㰖 ⳾㎪┺ ✲ⰊỢ㣪U

Teacher, I will accompany you up to your house.

㩲Ṗ ὒ㧦㌂┺ ✲ⰊỢ㣪U

I will buy the snacks.

5.3

Auxiliary verbs with –ἶ

This set of constructions attaches the one-shape ending –ἶ to the verb base and then follows this with an auxiliary verb.

5.3.1

–ἶG⋮ – (after finishing)

When applied as a main verb, ⋮– means ‘come out’ or ‘break out’. As an extension to this meaning, the –ἶ ⋮– construction is used to indicate that the speaker (or person being talked about) has completed and ‘emerged’, so to speak, from performing the action of the main verb and is now free to perform another action or simply to reap the benefits of the action that has been completed. –ἶ ⋮– thus typically translates as ‘after finishing/ completing’ or ‘after you have’.

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An important point to note is that –ἶ ⋮– rarely completes a sentence. Rather, a connective ending or modifier is attached to –ἶ ⋮– and another clause follows. When this second part of the sentence depicts the action

that is carried out after the first action was finished/completed, the connective ending used is typically –㠊㍲ (see 6.1.1):


㑯㩲⯒ ⊳⌊ἶ ⋮㍲䂲ῂ✺㧊⧧ ⏖㞮㠊㣪U After finishing my homework, I hung out with my friends. 㢫㧊㭓ἶ ⋮㍲ ⋮⧒Ṗ ⹲㩚䟞㠊㣪U The nation developed after the king died. To give a similar meaning, the modifier pattern –㦖/ච┺㦢㠦, ⛺㠦, 䤚㠦 (see 7.2.7) can be used with –ἶ ⋮–:

㰧㼃㏢⯒ 䞮ἶ ⋲ ⛺㠦㩖⎗㦚㭖゚䟞㠊㣪U After finishing the cleaning, I prepared dinner. 㡂㧦䂲ῂ⧧ 䠺㠊㰖ἶ ⋲ 䤚㠦 ⍞ⶊ 㤆㤎䟞㠊㣪U After breaking up with my girlfriend, I was so depressed. When the second action (or state) comes about on condition of the first action being completed, the conditional connective –O㦒PⳊ (see 6.5.1) is used:

䞮⭑⹺ 㧦ἶ ⋮Ⳋ ┺ ⋮㞚㰞 Ệ㡞㣪U If you have a good night’s sleep, you will get better. 㤊☯㦚䞮ἶ ⋮Ⳋ ⁎ ἆὒ ⴎ㧊䔒䔒䟊㪎㣪U If you exercise, your body will become stronger. When the second part of the sentence expresses something that was discovered (or a state which came about, perhaps unexpectedly) on completion of the first action, –┞₢ (see 6.1.3) is used:

⁎ ⪲㎮㦚 ⴎ㠦 ⹪⯊ἶ ⋮┞₢ 䞒⿖Ṗ 㽟㽟䞮ἶ ⿖✲⩂㤢㣪U After applying that lotion on my body, my skin feels moist and soft. 㩖⎗㦚 ⲏἶ ⋮┞₢ ⡦ 㧶㧊㡺⍺㣪U After eating dinner, I feel sleepy again. It should be noted that the expression of completion expressed by –ἶ ⋮– contains none of the connotations of performing the first action in a complete manner, or quickly, recklessly, etc. as expressed by –㠊⻚Ⰲ– (see 5.1.7) or –㠊䂮㤆– (see 5.1.13). –ἶ ⋮– is most similar in meaning to –㦖/ච┺㦢㠦, ⛺㠦, 䤚㠦, which are discussed in the chapter on modifiers (see Chapter 7).

5.3.2

–ἶGⰦ – (end up)

As a main verb, Ⱖ– means ‘cease’, ‘leave off’, ‘stop’, although it only infrequently occurs by itself. When used in an auxiliary construction, the

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meaning of ‘ceasing’ transitions to a meaning similar to English expressions such as ‘end up doing’ or ‘wind up doing’ or simply ‘finally’, ‘at last’ or ‘in the end’.

㞞 Ṗἶ 㕌㠞㰖Ⱒ, 䂲ῂ✺㧊 ┺ ṖỢ ♮㠊㍲ ⋮☚ Ṗἶ Ⱖ㞮㠊㣪U I didn’t want to go, but it turned out that all my friends were going and so I wound up going too. ⹎ῃ㧊 ✲❪㠊㧊⧒䋂⯒ Ὃỿ䞮ἶ Ⱖ㞮㠊㣪U The US finally attacked Iraq. 䢪㧻㰖Ṗ 㠜㠊㍲㫛㧊⯒ 㝆ἶ Ⱖ㞮㠊㣪U I had no toilet tissue, and so ended up using paper. ✲❪㠊㕎㤖㧊⻢㠊㰖ἶ Ⱖ㞮㠊㣪U Eventually there was a fight after all. To emphasize the nuance of ‘wind up’ or ‘end up’, –㟒 can be added after –ἶ to make –ἶ㟒 Ⱖ–:

ἆῃ, ⹺ ㌞ἶ㟒 Ⱖ㞮㠊㣪UG G In the end, we wound up staying up all night.

5.3.3

–ἶG⽊ – (do and then realize)

This construction is similar to –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– ‘try doing’ (see 5.1.8). Unlike –O㞚/㠊P ⽊–, which has a more universal application, –ἶ ⽊– is limited to talking about trying something ‘first’ or ‘for the time being’ and then seeing how things pan out from there:

Ὃ㰲㑶㧊┞ 㤆㍶ Ⱎ㔲ἶ ⽊㧦U [PLAIN] Since this drink is free, let’s just try the stuff first. 㡂䞮䔒㧒┾ 㞚䂾⿖䎆 ⲏἶ ⽛㔲┺U [PLAIN] Anyway, let’s just start by eating breakfast. ⶊ㓾㧒㧎㰖 ⳾⯊㰖Ⱒ Ⲓ㩖㍺ⳛ⿖䎆 ✹ἶ ⽊㰖㣪U I don’t know what’s up, but let’s try listening to the explanation first. –ἶ ⽊– is often followed by a connective ending and then another clause. The most common endings are –┞₢ (see 6.1.3) or –┞ (see 6.1.4), forming the construction –ἶ ⽊┞O₢P–. This construction combines the sense of ‘trying’ conveyed by –ἶ ⽊– and the sense of ‘discovery’ expressed by –┞ to mean ‘now that I’ve given . . . a go, I’ve found that’: 250

㌂㩫㦚 ✹ἶ ⽊┞ ⿞㕣䞮ῆ㣪U Now that I’ve heard the circumstances, I realize it is pitiful.

ἆ䢒䞮ἶ ⽊┞ ㌳ṗ䟞▮ ⋾䘎㧊㞚┞⍺㣪U Now that I’ve gone and got married, my husband isn’t the man I thought he was.


Although –ἶ ⽊– most commonly occurs with processive verbs, it may also appear with descriptive verbs, but with a distinctly different meaning. With descriptive verbs, it indicates that the speaker, if only momentarily, considers the contents expressed by the verb as extremely important or as an expected or ‘given’ state of affairs. In these constructions, –ἶ ⽊– is followed either by –O㞚/㠊P㟒 ♮/䞮– ‘must/have to’ (see 6.5.7.1) or, with a similar nuance, –ඥ 㧒㧊–:

☚㍲ὖ㦖㫆㣿䞮ἶ ⽦㟒 ♒㣪U A library has to be quiet. 㡂㧦⓪ 㡞㊮ἶ ⽒㧒㧊㠦㣪U Women really ought to be pretty.

5.3.4

–ἶG㕌 – (want to do)

Unlike other auxiliary verbs, 㕌– is not used as a main verb and is fairly opaque in meaning in modern Korean. Its original meaning was ‘to think to oneself’ (refer to Kim, M. 2010) and it is used in expressions of desire and inference. The pattern –ἶ 㕌– expresses your want, wish or desire to do something. It can only be used in the first and second person (i.e. when talking about yourself and the person you are talking to):

䞲ῃ㠦 Ṗἶ 㕌㠊㣪U I want to go to Korea. 㠊Ⲏ┞⯒ ⽊ἶ 㕌㠊㣪U I want to see my mother. ( I miss my mother) 㩖⓪ 㥶ⳛ䞲 Ṗ㑮Ṗ ♮ἶ 㕌㠊㣪U I want to become a famous singer. ⁎ 㔶⹲㦖䢞㑒䞧㠦㍲⽺⓪◆ Ↄ Ṭἶ 㕌▪⧒ἶ㣪U I saw those shoes on home shopping and I really want to get them. 䕢䕆㠦 Ṗἶ 㕌㠞⓪◆ 㞚䕢㍲ ⴑ Ṫ㠊㣪U I wanted to go to the party, but I couldn’t because I was ill.

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When talking about a third person (i.e. someone who is not yourself or the person you are talking to), 㕌– is substituted by 㕌㠊䞮–. This is part of a wider process by which descriptive verbs (㕌– behaves as a descriptive verb) change into processive verbs when talking about the emotions or desires of others (see 4.6.3.2):

Talking about self or hearer

Talking about other person

䘎㰖⯒ 㝆ἶ 㕌㠊㣪U I/you/we want to write a letter.

䘎㰖⯒ 㝆ἶ 㕌㠊䟊㣪U He/she/they want(s) to write a letter.

䞲ῃ㠦 Ṗἶ 㕌㠊㣪U I/you/we would like to go to Korea.

䞲ῃ㠦 Ṗἶ 㕌㠊䟊㣪U He/she/they would like to go to Korea.

5.4

Auxiliary verbs with –O㦒Pඥ₢

This pattern uses the pattern –O㦒Pඥ₢ as its base. As a sentence ending, –O㦒Pඥ₢ is used for tentative suggestions (similar to ‘shall I/we . . . ?’) or conjectures (see 8.9). When it is followed by auxiliary verbs, it takes on a range of other meanings, typically involving conjecture or otherwise tentative future plans.

5.4.1

–O㦒Pඥ₢G⽊– (think it might)

This pattern follows –O㦒Pඥ₢ with the verb ⽊– ‘look’, ‘see’. However, unlike in other support verb patterns using ⽊– (see 5.1.8, 5.2.1, 5.3.3), this particular pattern does not contain any sense of ‘seeing’, ‘exploring’ or ‘trying’. Rather, it has two separate specific usages, which we shall consider in turn. First, it is used when the speaker expresses a worry about a possible future negative turn of events. This may then be followed by a second clause that expresses what the speaker is doing in order to prepare for this possibility or simply by an expression of the worry itself. In many ways this pattern works similarly to the English ‘in case’:

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䢪㣪㧒㠦 ⑞㧊㢂₢ ⽦ ệ㩫㧊㠦㣪U

I’m worried in case it snows on Tuesday.

゚Ṗ 㢂₢ ⽦㤆㌆㦚 Ṗ㰖ἶ ⋮㢪㠊㣪U

I bought an umbrella in case it rains.

䔖Ⰺ₢ ⽦㞚ⶊ Ⱖ☚ 㞞䟞㠊㣪U

I didn’t say anything in case I was wrong.

㩫Ệ㧻㦚 ⏩䂶₢ ⽦㧶㦚㞞㧦㣪U

I never sleep [on the bus] in case I miss my stop.

Auxiliary verbs with –O㦒Pඥ₢

Second, this same pattern is used when the speaker is talking about something that he/she is thinking about doing in the future. This typically translates as ‘I think I will’ and is similar in nuance and usage to –ඥ₢ 䞮– (see 5.4.3).

╖䞯ᾦ⯒ 㫎㠛䞮ἶ 䞲ῃ㠦 Ṟ₢ ⽦㣪U I think I’ll go to Korea after I graduate from university. ⌊㧒㡺⧮ṚⰢ㠦䛏㓊₢ ⽦㣪U Tomorrow, I think I’ll take a long overdue rest.

5.4.2

–O㦒Pඥ₢G㕌 – (afraid it might)

This pattern combines –O㦒Pඥ₢ with the auxiliary verb 㕌–, which may express desire or inference. In this pattern, it is used in the second meaning. First, the pattern is used to express conjecture, usually with a negative nuance, similar to the English ‘I’m afraid’:

㡺䤚㠦゚Ṗ 㢂₢ 㕌㠊㣪U

I’m afraid it might rain in the afternoon.

㔶⹲㧊㫖䋊₢ 㕌㠊㣪U

I’m afraid those shoes are going to be a bit too big.

Second, it is used when the speaker is reporting his or her own thoughts in an indirect, tentative or objective manner. In these cases, the verb must always be in the negative. This usage is essentially equivalent to that of –⋮/O㦒PචṖ 㕌– (see 5.5.2):

Ṗ㧻䞚㣪䞲 ộ㦖㧦㔶Ṧ㧊㞚┦₢ 㕌㠊㣪U I think the thing we need the most would be confidence. 㧊ộ㦖 Ṗ㫇 ┾㥚⪲ ⽦☚ 㫡㦖㡗䢪Ṗ 㞚┦₢ 㕌㔋┞┺U I think this would be a good movie even for families. 䢒㧦 ἶ⹒䞮┞₢ ⲎⰂṖ 㞚䕢㍲ ⁖⪲ 㝆Ⳋ 㫆⁞ ⌁㰖㞠㦚₢ 㕌㠊㍲ ⁖㦚㢂Ⱃ┞┺U My head aches from worrying about this problem alone, so I am writing this down, thinking that by doing so it may make things better.

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Third, this pattern can be used when the speaker is talking about something that he/she is thinking about doing in the future in a similar way to –ඥ₢ 䞮– (or –ඥ₢ ⽊–) (see 5.4.3, 5.4.1):

⌊㧒 ⁎⧲✲ 䢎䎪㑮㡗㧻㠦⋮ 䞲⻞ Ṗ ⽒₢ 㕌㠊㣪U I think I might go to the Grand Hotel swimming pool tomorrow. ⁎⌻ ┺⯎ 㡂㧦⯒ Ⱒ⋶₢ 㕌㠊㣪U I think I might just meet another woman.

5.4.3

–O㦒Pඥ₢G䞮 – (think of doing)

This pattern combines –O㦒Pඥ₢ with the auxiliary 䞮– ‘do’. This 䞮– may then take a speech style ending to round off the sentence or be followed by another ending, such as a connective (see Chapter 6). The construction is most commonly used when the speaker is thinking over a proposed course of action and translates as ‘(I am) thinking of (doing so-and-so)’:

䎢┞㓺⯒ 䂶₢ 䟊㣪U I’m thinking of playing tennis. 㥶䞯 Ṟ₢ 䟞㠞⓪◆ ㌳ṗ㦚 ⹪∾㠊㣪U I had been thinking of going overseas to study, but I changed my mind. On occasions, 䞮– may be replaced with verbs of thinking, such as ㌳ṗ䞮– ‘think’, ⰳ㍺㧊– ‘hesitate’, ệ㩫䞮– ‘worry’, ἶ⹒䞮– ‘agonize over’:

䆮䌳䔎⩢㯞⓪ ⿞䘎䟊㍲ ⧒㔳㑮㑶㦚 ⹱㦚₢ ㌳ṗ䞮ἶ 㧞㠊㣪U Because contact lenses are uncomfortable, I am thinking of having laser eye surgery. ⶊ㓾㢍㦚 Ἶ⧒ 㧛㦚₢ ⰳ㍺㧊ἶ 㧞㠊㣪U He/she is hesitating over which clothes to put on. When two different courses of action are being considered, these are listed in succession and –O㦒Pඥ₢ is repeated:

䞮㑯㰧㠦 Ṟ₢ 㤦⭎㦚㠑㦚₢ ệ㩫㧛┞┺U I’m worrying about whether to go to a homestay or get a studio flat. 254

When the speaker is thinking about whether he/she should carry out the proposed course of action or not, the negative verb Ⱖ– ‘desist’ (see 4.2.3)

is used as the second verb, creating the construction –O㦒Pඥ₢ Ⱖ₢ O䞮–P:

䞯ᾦ㠦 Ṟ₢ Ⱖ₢ ㌳ṗ 㭧㧊㠦㣪U

I’m debating whether or not to go to school.

䀾㰗㦚䞶₢ Ⱖ₢ ἶ⹒䞮ἶ 㧞㠊㣪U

I’m agonizing over whether or not to get a job.

Auxiliary verbs with –⋮/O㦒PචṖ

In addition to being used when the speaker is talking about plans of action that he/she is considering, this pattern can also be used when the speaker is reporting conjectures that he/she has made about something that happened in the past:

Ṗ⊪㝿 ἆ䢒㞞䟞▪⧒Ⳋ 㠊➶㦚₢ ㌳ṗ䟊⽦㣪U I sometimes think about what it would have been like if I hadn’t got married. 㞚✺㦚㧙㦖⿖⳾㦮 Ⱎ㦢㧊㠒Ⱎ⋮ 㞚䕶㦚₢ ㌳ṗ䟞㠊㣪U I thought about how much pain the parents who lost their son must have suffered.

5.5

Auxiliary verbs with –⋮/O㦒PචṖ

This set of constructions builds on the verb ending –⋮/O㦒PචṖ (see 8.3). –O㦒PචṖ is used for present tense descriptive verbs and the copula (and, by extension, with the future –ඥ Ệ, as this ends with the copula); –⋮ is used elsewhere (including for descriptive verbs and the copula in past tense or with the future form –Ỷ–). In its original use, –⋮/O㦒PචṖ is applied in constructing tentative questions. When it is followed by an auxiliary verb, patterns that express conjecture are created.

5.5.1

–⋮/O㦒PචṖG⽊ – (look like)

This pattern follows –⋮/O㦒PචṖ with the verb ⽊– ‘look’ or ‘see’. The construction conveys a conjecture made on the back of what the speaker has seen (or heard, or perceived in any other way), typically translating as ‘it looks like’.

⹬㠦゚Ṗ Ⱔ㧊㡺⋮ ⽦㣪UG

It looks like it’s raining a lot outside.

㥶⹎⓪ ┺ⰂṖ 㞚䝞Ṗ ⽦㣪UG

Yumi seems to have hurt her leg.

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⹪⽊㧎Ṗ ⽦㣪UG

He/she seems to be a fool.

㍶㌳┮㦖㡺⓮ 㞞㡺㎾⋮ ⽦㣪UG It looks like the teacher hasn’t come today. As this construction involves a conjecture made on the back of sensory evidence, it is not usually used with first-person subjects. However, when the speaker is talking about himself as if from an external viewpoint, you may hear sentences such as the following:

㩲Ṗ ⍞ⶊ ₆╖⯒ 䟞⋮ ⽦㣪U

It looks like I expected too much.

⌊Ṗ ⲎⰂṖ 㫡㦖Ṗ ⽦㣪U

It looks like I am really clever.

5.5.2

–⋮ /O㦒PචṖG㕌 – (think it might)

The principal usage of this pattern occurs when the speaker is reporting his or her own thoughts in an indirect, tentative or objective manner. In these cases, the verb must always be in the negative. This usage is essentially equivalent to –O㦒Pඥ₢ 㕌– (see 5.4.2):

⁎⌻ ㌒Ἇ㌊䞮㎪☚ ㌗ὖ㠜㰖㞠⋮ 㕌㠊㣪U I don’t think it will matter even if you just cook samgyIpsal. ㌂㔺╖⪲ Ⱖ䞮⓪ ộ㦖 Ệ㰩Ⱖ㦚䞮⓪ ộ⽊┺⓪ 㫡㰖㞠⋮ 㕌▪⧒ἶ㣪U I think it would be better to speak honestly rather than tell a lie. ㍺✳⩻㧊⿖㫇䞮㰖㞠⋮ 㕌㔋┞┺U I think it might be lacking in conviction. In addition, the pattern can be used when the speaker reminisces about the past, typically when reporting regret.

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㢲 ⁎⩝Ợ ἶ⹒䟞⋮ 㕌▪⧒ἶ㣪UG

I wonder now why I worried so much.

⌊Ṗ 㢲㞞 Ṫ⋮ 㕌▪⧒ἶ㣪UG

I wonder why I didn’t go.

5.6

Auxiliary verbs with –Ợ

5.6.1

–ỢG♮– (turn out so that)

Auxiliary verbs with –Ợ

This expression combines the adverbative form –Ợ (see 10.2.1.2) with the auxiliary verb ♮– meaning ‘become’ or ‘come about’. This pattern is used to express a final result that comes about from a change in state, opinion or plan that often goes contrary to the speaker’s original expectations or is outside of the speaker’s control. This commonly translates into English as ‘it turned out that’, ‘things worked out in such a way that’ or ‘I came to understand/realize/believe/etc. that’:

㨂⹎㧞Ợ ♦㠊㣪U

It turned out to be interesting.

⻢㖾 ⋮⶝㧤㧊 ⑚⩝Ợ ♦㠊㣪U

The (tree) leaves have already turned yellow.

ⴑ ṖỢ ♦㠊㣪U

It’s turned out that I can’t go.

⁎ ㌂⧢㦮㧛㧻㦚㧊䟊䞮Ợ ♦㠊㣪U

I got to understand that person’s position.

⌊㧒⿖䎆 ☚㍲ὖ㠦㍲㧒䞮Ợ ♦㠊㣪U I’m to begin working at the library tomorrow. 䣢㌂㧒⪲ 䞲ῃ㠦㡺Ợ ♦㠊㣪U

I got to come to Korea on company business.

Since –Ợ ♮– at times depicts that the way things turned out was outside the speaker’s control, the pattern takes on certain politeness functions. First, it can be used when the speaker wants to make clear that the action he/she took was unavoidable. As in the following examples, this is a particularly useful strategy when apologizing:

㧦∎ 㩚䢪 ✲ⰂỢ ♒㍲㬚㏷䞿┞┺U I would like to apologize for having to phone you so often. 㡺⓮ 㟓㏣㦚㠊₆Ợ ♲ ộ 㕂䧞㬚㏷䞿┞┺U I am sorry for breaking off our engagement today. In addition, the speaker may use this pattern to sound humble. By expressing the result as something outside of his/her control, he/she cannot be taken to be bragging or taking credit for it:

ὒ㧻㦒⪲ 㔏㰚䞮Ợ ♦㠊㣪U It turns out that I’ve been promoted to department head. ῃṖ ╖䚲䕖㍶㑮⪲ ㆧ䧞Ợ ♦㠊㣪U I have been chosen for the national (sports) team.

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5.6.2

–ỢG⽊㧊– (seem)

Featuring the support verb ⽊㧊– ‘be visible, show’, this pattern is essentially identical in meaning to the –㞚/㠊⽊㧊– pattern (see 5.1.9). Like –㞚/㠊⽊㧊–, –Ợ ⽊㧊– is used solely with descriptive verbs to express an inference or prediction based on sensory evidence, which is almost always visual evidence:

䃊⩞⧒㧊㓺Ṗ ⰱ㧞Ợ ⽊㡂㣪U The curry-rice looks delicious. ⹎㠊䃹 ⑞ケ㧊 ⍞ⶊ 㔂䝚ỢG ⽊㡂㣪U Meerkats’ eyes look so sad. 㤊ⳛ㧊 ⍞ⶊ 㞞䌖₳Ợ ⽊㡂㣪U His/her fate seems to be pitiful. 㧛㠊⽊┞₢ 㡞㊮ἶ ⋶㞂䞮Ợ ⽊㡂㣪U Trying it on, it looks so pretty and slim.

5.7

Auxiliary verb with –O㞚/㠊P㟒

5.7.1

–O㞚 /㠊P㟒G♮/䞮 – (must, have to)

This pattern combines –O㞚/㠊P㟒 (see 6.5.7) ‘only if’ with the auxiliary verb ♮– ‘become’ or 䞮– ‘do’. This expresses obligation and most typically translates into English as ‘have to’ or ‘must’. This pattern is explained in more detail in Chapter 6 (see 6.5.7.1).

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Chapter 6

Clausal connectives

Overview This chapter looks at different ways of linking two or more clauses together to form longer sentences by adding connective endings to the verb in the first clause. The chapter classifies these verbal connectives into eight groups according to their primary function: causal, contrastive, additional/sequential, optional, conditional, causative, intentive and comparison. It should, however, be noted that many verbal connectives have other usages that go beyond their primary function; thus, these categories should be applied only as a basic guide. One way in which connective endings tend to differ concerns whether they can be preceded by the past tense –㞮/㠞– and/or future tense with –Ỷ–. Whereas some endings are compatible with these tense markers, others are not. We point out these restrictions where they exist.

6.1

Causal connectives

Causal connectives mark a cause and a result. The cause is expressed in the first clause; the result is expressed in the second. These constructions most typically translate into English as ‘so’ or ‘because’.

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6 Clausal connectives

Other causal constructions Apart from the causal connectives described in this chapter, other constructions that express cause and effect treated elsewhere in this book are as follows: 1 2 3 4

–₆㠦 –₆ ➢ⶎ㠦 –⓪ ⹪⧢㠦 –⓪ 䐋㠦

6.1.1

(see (see (see (see

2.2.4.19) 2.2.4.2) 7.2.18) 7.2.32)

–O㞚 /㠊P㍲

The ending –O㞚/㠊P㍲ is formed on the infinitive form of the verb (see 4.1.6). Note that the –O㞚/㠊P㍲ form of the copula has two variants: –㧊⧒㍲ is more common and considered standard, but you may also encounter –㧊㠊㍲. One important restriction on the use of –O㞚/㠊P㍲ is that tense markers cannot occur before it. Tense can only be marked on the verb at the end of the sentence. Thus, in constructions such as the following it is impossible to say something like *㞚䕶㠊㍲ in the first clause:

㞚䕢㍲ ⴑ Ṫ㠊㣪.

I was ill, so I couldn’t go.

–O㞚/㠊P㍲ can, however, be preceded by the honorific marker –O㦒P㔲– (see 4.4.1.1) to form –O㦒P㎪㍲:

㞚䝚㎪㍲ ⴑ Ṗ㎾㠊㣪.

He/she was ill, so he/she couldn’t go.

Although classified as a causal connective here, –O㞚/㠊P㍲ can express sequence as well as cause. In sentences containing –O㞚/㠊P㍲, the first clause provides an action or situation in which the event or circumstances in the second clause then come to pass. The second clause is therefore either consequential (cause and result) to or merely sequential to the first clause. It is useful to consider these consequential and sequential usages separately.

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As a consequential marker, –O㞚/㠊P㍲ expresses that the event or state in the second clause follows as a natural result of what is expressed in the first clause. The causation should be predictable and fairly undisputable

according to common knowledge (refer to Lukoff and Nam 1982 and Sohn, S. 1992). The expression thus conveys natural consequence rather than something the individual speaker is trying to claim based on his own opinion. When the speaker wishes to express his/her own individual reason (or assert his/her own explanation for why something took place), –O㦒P┞₢ should be used instead (see 6.1.3). Here are some examples of commonsense causation with –O㞚/㠊P㍲:

☞㧊㠜㠊㍲ Ṗ㰖 ⴑ䟊㣪.

I don’t have any money, so I can’t go.

⓼㠊㍲䌳㔲⯒ 䌖ἶ Ṫ㠊㣪.

It was late, so I took a taxi.

ⶒṖṖ ゚㕎㍲㌊₆Ṗ 䧮✺㠊㣪.

Prices are expensive, so life is hard.

Causal connectives

There are two further specific usages of –O㞚/㠊P㍲ that occur as an extension of this consequential meaning. First, –O㞚/㠊P㍲ frequently occurs with 㫡㞚㣪 ‘good’ in the second clause of the sentence. Such sentences literally mean ‘[so-and-so happens], so it’s good’, but a better English translation would be ‘I’m glad (that)’ or ‘It’s a good thing (that)’. For example:

㌞ ⹪㰖⯒ ㌂㍲㫡㞚㣪.

I’m glad I bought new trousers.

㑮㰚㝾Ṗ 㢖㍲㫡㞚㣪.

I’m glad Sujin came.

Second, –O㞚/㠊P㍲ occurs with expressions of thanks and apology. Such sentences literally mean ‘. . . , so thank you’ or ‘. . . , so sorry’ but can be more naturally translated as ‘Thank you for’ ‘I’m sorry (that)’. Consider the following examples:

☚㢖㭒㎪㍲ Ṧ㌂䞿┞┺.

Thank you for helping (me).

⓼㠊㍲㬚㏷䞿┞┺.

Sorry for being late.

As a sequential marker, –O㞚/㠊P㍲ denotes that the second clause takes place in a state or in a position created by the first clause. The events in the two clauses have to be tightly linked. One common case in which this usage occurs is when verbs of direction (such as Ṗ– ‘go’ and 㡺– ‘come’) appear in the first clause and the activity performed at the location reached is included in the second. Such constructions translate into English as ‘go somewhere and do something there’. Consider the following examples:

䙂㧻Ⱎ㹾㠦 Ṗ㍲㏢㭒⯒ Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪. I went to the drinking stall and drank some soju.

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䞯ᾦ㠦㢖㍲ Ὃ⿖⯒ 䟞㠊㣪. I came to school and studied. 㩖㔶䢎❇㦚㰖⋮㍲ ⌊⩺ 㭒㎎㣪. Please drop me off after (passing) the traffic lights. In this sequential use, other verbs may appear with –O㞚/㠊P㍲. First of all, when you are talking about standing, sitting, lying, getting up, etc. and then doing something in that position, –O㞚/㠊P㍲ is the correct connective to use:

㥶⹎Ṗ 㞟㞚㍲䄺䞒⯒ Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪.

Yumi sat down and drank coffee. ( Yumi drank coffee sitting down)

⹒㑮Ṗ ⑚㤢㍲㺛㦚㧓㠞㠊㣪.

Minsu lay down and read a book. ( Minsu read a book lying down)

䞯㌳✺㧊㍲㍲㞶ῃṖ⯒ ⿞⩖㠊㣪. The students stood up and sang the national anthem. 㞚䂾㠦㧒㠊⋮㍲㎎㑮䟞㠊㣪.

I got up in the morning and had a wash.

In addition, when talking about procuring or creating an item and then doing something with that item, –O㞚/㠊P㍲ can be used as in the following examples:

Ⱒ⎚䞚䞮⋮ ㌂㍲㍶㌳┮℮ ✲⪎㠊㣪.

I bought a fountain pen and gave it to the teacher.

⧒Ⳋ㦚 ⊩㡂㍲ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪.

I cooked some noodles and ate them.

㍲⮮⯒ 㧧㎇䟊㍲⽊⌞㠊㣪.

I filled out the documents and sent them.

䋺⽊✲⯒ ἶ㼦㍲㗒㠊㣪.

I fixed the keyboard and used it.

Here are some further examples of constructions where –O㞚/㠊P㍲ takes on a sequential meaning:

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䂲ῂ⯒ Ⱒ⋮㍲㏢㭒⯒ Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪.

I met a friend and drank soju.

ἆ䢒䟊㍲㞚₆⯒ ⌉㞮㠊㣪.

I got married and had a baby.

☞㦚 ⳾㞚㍲㰧㦚㌖㠊㣪.

I made some money and bought a house.

As a final point, –O㞚/㠊P㍲ can also be used as a sentence ending when the second clause is omitted or has previously been expressed. In such circumstances, –㣪 should be attached to the end in order to form the polite speech style (see 4.3.3). Otherwise, the sentence will be interpreted as the intimate style (see 4.3.5):

A: 㢲䕢䕆㠦㞞 Ṫ㠊f [INTIMATE]

Why didn’t you go to the party?

B: ☞㧊㠜㠊㍲. [INTIMATE]

Because I don’t have any money.

Causal connectives

⍞ⶊ ⺆ἶ䕢㣪. 㩦㕂㦚 ⴑ ⲏ㠊㍲㣪. I’m so hungry. Because I didn’t eat lunch.

6.1.2

–㞚 /㠊

–㞚/㠊 is most frequently treated as an abbreviated and slightly more bookish version of –O㞚/㠊P㍲ (see 6.1.1). Although this generally holds true, there are at least two circumstances in which –O㞚/㠊P㍲ cannot be shortened to –㞚/㠊: (1) after the copula (see 4.1.4) and (2) when used at the end of a sentence. In addition, when 㞚/㠊 is attached to an honorific base (see 4.4.1.1), the full form –O㦒P㔲㠊 must be retained. This cannot be contracted to –㎪ as is typically the case when followed by –O㞚/㠊P㍲: –O㦒P㎪㍲:

㢖㭒㔲㠊 Ṧ㌂䞿┞┺. (Full form used with –㞚/㠊) Thank you for coming.

[not 㭒㎪]

㢖㭒㎪㍲ Ṧ㌂䞿┞┺. (Contracted form used with –㞚/㠊㍲) Thank you for coming. Similarly, with the verb 䞮–, the full form 䞮㡂 tends be used. This is not normally shortened to 䟊 as it typically is in other contexts (including when –O㞚/㠊P㍲ is used).

㡊㕂䧞 Ὃ⿖䞮㡂⼖䢎㌂Ṗ ♦㠊㣪. I studied hard and became a lawyer.

6.1.3

[not normally Ὃ⿖䟊]

–O㦒P┞₢

This causative construction is formed by adding the two-shape ending (see 4.1.8) –O㦒P┞₢ to the verb stem: –㦒┞₢ after consonants, –┞₢ after vowels. Unlike –O㞚/㠊P㍲ (see 6.1.1), –O㦒P┞₢ may be preceded

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by tense markers to form –㠞㦒┞₢ (past tense) and –Ỷ㦒┞₢ (future tense):

䞮┞₢

do, so . . . (present)

ⲏ㦒┞₢

eat, so . . . (present)

䟞㦒┞₢

did, so . . . (past)

ⲏ㠞㦒┞₢

ate, so . . . (past)

䞮Ỷ㦒┞₢

will do, so . . . (future)

ⲏỶ㦒┞₢

will eat, so . . . (future)

However, the future forms listed here are rare in modern Korean. More commonly, in place of –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1), the –㦚 Ệ– future form (see 4.5.2.2) is used instead to form –㦚Ệ┞₢:

䞶 Ệ┞₢

will do, so . . . (future)

ⲏ㦚 Ệ┞₢ will eat, so . . . (future)

Another alternative for the future tense is to use the form –O㦒)ඥ䎢┞₢ (see 6.1.5). After the –O㦒P┞₢ ending, it is possible to attach the topic particle 㦖/⓪ (see 3.3.2.1), which is most commonly written and pronounced abbreviated to –O㦒P┞₦. Again, this is something that is not possible with –O㞚/㠊P㍲ (see 6.1.1).

⹬㠦㿪㤆┞₦ 㢍㦚 ➆⦑䞮Ợ 㧛ἶ Ṗ㎎㣪. Since the weather is cold, dress warmly. Looking at the usage of this form, just like –O㞚/㠊P㍲ (see 6.1.1), –O㦒P┞ ₢ also has two distinct usages. In addition to ‘causation’, –O㦒P┞₢ can also be used to mark ‘discovery’. These two usages are explored in turn. As a ‘causation’ connective, –O㦒P┞₢ is used to express a reason for a particular state or action. The reason is expressed in the first clause and the state or action that the reason pertains to is stated in the second clause. Unlike –O㞚/㠊P㍲ which marks natural consequence, –O㦒P┞₢ is used to express a subjective reason that is dependent on the speaker˅s own judgement or justification (refer to Lukoff and Nam 1982 and Sohn, S. 1992). Compare the following two sentences:

ⶒṖṖ ゚㕎㍲㌊₆Ṗ 䧮✺㠊㣪. Prices are expensive, so life is hard. [Life is hard as a natural consequence of prices being expensive] ⶒṖṖ ゚㕎┞₢ ㌊₆Ṗ 䧮✺㠊㣪. Prices are expensive, so life is hard. [In my opinion, the reason why life is hard is because prices are expensive] 264

Due to the fact that –O㞚/㠊P㍲ marks natural consequence and –O㦒P┞₢ marks subjective reasoning, –O㞚/㠊P㍲ represents the more natural choice

in sentences that express a causation that is based on shared common human knowledge regarding the world around us:

Causal connectives

㕇Ṗ䙂⯊⓪ 㩗☚㠦㍲ Ṗ₢㤢㍲ ⋶㝾Ṗ 㧒⎚ ⌊⌊ ▪㤢㣪. Singapore is close to the equator, so (naturally) the weather is hot all year round. Alternatively, when you are expressing something that has no basis in common sense (or seems to go against common sense), –O㦒P┞₢ is the better choice:

⑞㧊㡺┞₢ 䙂⁒䞲 ⓦ⋢㧊 ✺㠊㣪.

It’s snowing, so it feels warm.

☞㧊 Ⱔ㦒┞₢ ệ㩫㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪.

I have a lot of money, so I have many worries.

In addition, when you are making an inference based on conjecture and circumstantial evidence, –O㦒P┞₢ should be used:

⹒䢎Ṗ 㧮㌳ἒ㦒┞₢ 㡂㧦䂲ῂṖ 㧞㦚 ộ ṯ㞚㣪. Minho is good-looking, so he probably has a girlfriend. The most important distinguishing usage that makes the use of –O㦒P┞₢ quite different to –O㞚V㠊P㍲ is that only –O㦒P┞₢ can be used when the second clause of the sentence contains anything other than a simple statement (or possible question), i.e. a command, proposal, suggestion, invitation or request. As the justification for such speech acts is always based on the speaker’s subjective reasoning, only –O㦒P┞₢ is appropriate:

COMMAND:

⓼㠞㦒┞₢ ゾⰂ Ṗ⧒. It’s late, so go quickly.

PROPOSAL:

㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㦒┞₢ ゾⰂ Ṗ㧦. [PLAIN] We don’t have time, so let’s go quickly.

[PLAIN]

SUGGESTION: 㿪㤆┞₢ 㞞㦒⪲ ✺㠊Ṗ㕃㔲┺. It’s cold, so let’s go inside. INVITATION:

⋶㝾Ṗ 㫡㦒┞₢ Ὃ㤦㠦 ṯ㧊 Ṟ₢㣪f The weather’s good, so shall we go to the park together?

REQUEST:

㌂㧻┮㧊㰖⁞ 㞞 Ἒ㔲┞₢ ┺㔲㩚䢪䟊㭒㎎㣪. The boss isn’t here at the moment, so please phone back later.

We now look at the ‘discovery’ function of –O㦒P┞₢. In this function, the first clause contains an action that brings about a realization that is expressed in the second clause. Here, –O㦒P┞₢ cannot be thought of as expressing causation per se, but rather it takes on a sequential meaning

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and most commonly translates into English as ‘when’. This function first of all occurs with verbs of motion (the speaker goes to or enters a place to find something there):

㰧㠦 Ṗ┞₢ 䂲ῂṖ 㢖㧞㠞㠊㣪. When I went home, (I found that) my friend was there. ᾦ㔺㠦 ✺㠊Ṗ┞₢ 䞯㌳✺㧊㧞㠞㠊㣪. When I entered the classroom, (I found that) the students were there. 㩚䢪⯒ 䞮┞₢, ⹱㰖㞠㞮㠊㣪. When I telephoned, they didn’t answer. In addition, this usage occurs when the speaker does or tries something for the first time and either makes a discovery or forms an opinion. Such sentences frequently feature the –㞚/㠊⽊– (see 5.1.8) or –┺ ⽊– (see 5.2.1) patterns in the first clause:

⁎ 㺛㦚㧓㠊⽊┞₢ 㨂⹎㧞▪⧒ἶ㣪. Having read that book, I found it interesting. 㧒⽎㦢㔳㦚 ⲏ㠊⽊┞₢ 㕇Ệ㤶㠊㣪. Having tried (eating) Japanese food, I found it bland. ㍲⪲ 㧊㟒₆⯒ 䞮┺ ⽊┞₢ ṯ㦖 ╖䞯ᾦ ☯㺓㧊㠞㠊㣪 After having had the chance to talk to him, I found we are alumni from the same university. As a final point, –O㦒P┞₢ can also be used as a sentence ending when the second clause is omitted or has previously been expressed. In such circumstances, –㣪 should be attached to the end in order to form the polite speech style (see 4.3.3). Otherwise, the sentence will be interpreted as the intimate style (see 4.3.5):

A: 㢲㧊⩝Ợ ㍲⚦⯊㎎㣪f Why are you in such a hurry? B: 㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㦒┞₢㣪.

Because I don’t have time.

⌊Ṗ 䞶Ợ. ⌊Ṗ 㔲Ṛ㧊㧞㦒┞₢. [INTIMATE] I’ll do it. Because I have time.

6.1.4

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–O㦒P┞

–O㦒P┞ is most frequently treated as an abbreviated and slightly more bookish version of –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3). Although this explanation generally holds, there are a few key differences that are worth listing:

1 Unlike –O㦒P┞₢, –O㦒P┞ cannot occur in sentence-final position. 2 Unlike –O㦒P┞₢, –O㦒P┞ cannot be followed by the topic marker –⓪. 3 –O㦒P┞ tends to be more frequently used in the ‘discovery’ function rather than the ‘causation’ function.

6.1.5

Causal connectives

–O㦒Pඥ䎢┞₢

This is a combination of –O㦒Pඥ䎆, which expresses the speaker’s intention, and the sequential ending of the copula, –㧊┞₢, described in 6.1.3. –O㦒Pඥ䎢┞₢ has two distinct usages. In the first usage, the speaker expresses his/her own volitional action in the first clause, which provides the condition for the hearer performing another action in the second. Put simply, the speaker says ‘since I am going to do A, you can do B’:

㑶㦖 ⌊Ṗ ㌊䎢┞₢ ⍞⓪ 㞞㭒㫖㌂㢖. [INTIMATE] Since I am going to buy the alcohol, you can buy some appetizers. ⌊Ṗ 㰧㦚⽒䎢┞₢ ┺⎖㡺㎎㣪. I’ll be watching the house, so you go out (on your errands). 㫡㦖㌂⧢ ㏢Ṳ䟊 ✲Ⰺ 䎢┞₢ Ⱒ⋮ ⽊㔲Ỷ㠊㣪f I am going to introduce you to somebody nice, so will you meet him/her? In the second usage, the first clause provides a strong future prediction based on the opinion of the speaker. The second clause then provides a suggestion or piece of advice based on the preceding prediction. In other words, the speaker is saying ‘since A is going to happen, you should do B’ or ‘since A is going to happen, let’s do B’, etc.:

⌊㧒゚Ṗ 㢂䎢┞₢ 㡺⓮ Ṗ㎎㣪. Since it’s going to rain tomorrow, go today. ⹮✲㔲㎇Ὃ䞶䎢┞₢ ệ㩫䞮㰖 Ⱎ㎎㣪. Since you’re definitely going to succeed, don’t worry. With this second usage, it is also possible that the first clause may appear in the past tense. In such usages, the first clause is not a future prediction but an inference about a past action or event:

㠊㩲䧮✺㠞㦚䎢┞₢ 㡺⓮㦖㓂㎎㣪. Since you must have had a tough day yesterday, take a rest today. With both uses of –O㦒Pඥ䎢┞₢, the ending can be shortened to –O㦒P ඥ䎢┞ without any notable change in meaning.

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6.1.6

–O㦒P⸖⪲

The causal connective –O㦒P⸖⪲ is composed of the nominalizing ending –㦢 (see 2.2.5) and the instrumental particle –㦒⪲ (see 3.2.5.1). This connective represents a formal register of speech and is normally restricted to formal written language. –O㦒P⸖⪲ can be used to express a wide range of causal meanings, including common-sense causations and personal subjective reasonings. A few examples are given here:

ᾦ䐋㔶䢎⯒ ⶊ㔲䞮㡖㦒⸖⪲ ⻢⁞㦚 ⶒ㠞┺. [PLAIN] I was fined because (I) disregarded a traffic signal. 㿮䟻㦖㩫㩞㧊 ⏨㞮㦒⸖⪲ 䤚㎎㡂㎇㦮 Ệ㤎㧊 ♮㠞┺. [PLAIN] Since Chunhyang was so virtuous, she became a mirror for womanhood in later ages. 㧊 ⶒỊ㦖㑮㧛䛞㧊⸖⪲ ㎎⁞㧊 ⿯⓪┺. [PLAIN] This item attracts tax because it is imported goods. Unlike –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3), –O㦒P⸖⪲ should not normally be used with commands, proposals, suggestions, invitations or requests.

6.1.7

–₎⧮

The one-shape causal connective –₎⧮ is a spoken form used with any verb and indicates cause or reason. In –₎⧮ constructions, the second clause should always contain the speaker’s own volitional and positive action.

⺆Ṗ ⴏ㔲㞚䝚₎⧮ ⼧㤦㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪. I had a terrible stomach ache, so I went to the hospital. ⁎ 㺛㧊㕎₎⧮ 䞲 ῢ ㌖㠊㣪. That book was cheap, so I bought one. 䞯㌳㧊㑯㩲⯒ Ⱎ㼺₎⧮ 㰧㠦 Ṗ⧒ἶ 䟞㠊㣪. Because the student had finished his homework, I told him to go home.

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In addition, when used in questions, –₎⧮ is applied to ask a reason behind a certain action or event. In this case, the pattern –₎⧮ is always preceded directly by a question word. It is used to set up a question about something surprising, puzzling or amazing to the speaker. One way to get at the

flavour of this ending in English is with ‘just . . .’ or by attaching ‘-ever’ to the question word. Here are some examples:

Causal connectives

㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ 㠊❪ Ṫ₎⧮ 㧊⩝Ợ 㞞⽊㡂㣪f Wherever has Yumi gone that she should be so conspicuously absent? ┺⯎ 䅊䜾䎆䞮ἶ ⶦṖ ┺⯊₎⧮ 㧊⩝Ợ ゚㕎㣪f Just what makes it so different from other computers, that it should be so expensive? 㟒, ⍺Ṗ ⶦ₎⧮ ⋮䞲䎢㧊⧮⧒, 㩖⧮⧒ ⳛ⪏䞮┞f [PLAIN] Hey, just who do you think you are, ordering me to do this and do that? ⶊ㓾㧒㧊㧞㠞₎⧮ 㧊⩝Ợ 㑶㦚 Ⱎ㔲ἶ ✺㠊㢪㠊f [INTIMATE] Just what on earth happened for you to come home drunk like this? 㠊㩲 ⳝ 㔲Ṛ 㧺₎⧮ ⁎⩝Ợ 䞮䛞㦚䟊f [INTIMATE] Just how many hours did you sleep yesterday that you are yawning like that? 㣪㯮 ⶮ 䞮₎⧮ 㑯㩲⯒ ⴑ 䟊㣪f What are you doing these days that means you can’t do your homework? In all these examples, –₎⧮ is interchangeable with the expression –₆㠦 (see 2.2.4.19). However, the use of –₎⧮ and the use of –₆㠦 are not totally identical. Whereas –₆㠦 is a bookish connective, –₎⧮ has traditionally been treated as its colloquial counterpart. But in truth, –₆㠦 actually has a less restrictive meaning than –₎⧮. Whereas in statements with –₎⧮ the second clause should always contain the speaker’s own volitional and positive action, this is not a requirement for –₆㠦 (refer to Ahn 2002). Due to this, whereas –₆㠦 can be used in all of the following examples, –₎⧮ is not permissible in the first and sounds awkward in the second:

㞚㧊✺㧊 ⟶✺₆㠦 ⹿㧊㔲⊚⩂㤶㠊㣪. Because the children were making a clamour, the room was noisy.

[–₎⧮ not possible]

㞚㧊✺㧊 ⟶✺₆㠦 ⌊Ṗ Ὃ⿖䞶G㑮㠜㠞㠊㣪. Because the children were making a clamour, I could not study.

[–₎⧮ sounds awkward]

㞚㧊✺㧊 ⟶✺₎⧮/₆㠦 ⌊Ṗ 㞚㧊✺㦚䢒⌊ 㭒㠞㠊㣪. Because the children were making a clamour, I gave them a scolding.

[both possible]

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Whereas the second clause in the second example contains the speaker’s volitional action, the first example contains a state (loudness) and the second a natural effect of that state (being unable to study), both of which are generally incompatible with –₎⧮.

6.1.8

–ⓦ⧒ἶ

The one-shape ending –ⓦ⧒ἶ attaches only to processive verb stems and the subject of the two clauses is always the same. It cannot be followed by commands or propositions. With –ⓦ⧒ἶ, the first clause contains an ongoing continuous action. The second clause then expresses a negative or unexpected consequence of this action, which may occur even after the ongoing action has stopped or while it is still ongoing. Typical translations include ‘what with . . .ing’, ‘on account of the process of . . .ing’ or ‘because of . . .ing’:

㣪㯮㔲䠮 Ὃ⿖䞮ⓦ⧒ἶ 㞚㭒 ⹪ザ㣪. What with studying for exams, I’m very busy. 㩦㕂 ⲏⓦ⧒ἶ ⓼㠞㠊㣪. What with eating lunch and all I was late. 㠊㩲 ⹺㠦 Ὃ⿖䞮ⓦ⧒ἶ ⓼Ợ 㧺㠊㣪. What with studying last night, I went to bed late. Ἶ⧒㍲㌂ⓦ⧒ἶ 㔲Ṛ㧊 Ⱔ㧊 Ỏ⪎㠊㣪. It took a long time to find the right thing. 䞮⬾㫛㧒 ⶦ 䞮ⓦ⧒ἶ 㼃㏢☚ ⴑ䟞㠊㣪f What did you do all day that meant you couldn’t do the cleaning? 㧦☯㹾⯒ ἶ䂮ⓦ⧒ἶ 㧊⻞ ╂ 㤪 㦚 ┺ 㗒㠊㣪. What with repairing the car and everything, I spent all my salary.

6.1.9

–▪┞ and –O㞮 /㠞P▪┞

–▪┞ is a combination of the observed past tense marker –▪ – (see 4.5.1.3) and the ending –O㦒P┞ (see 6.1.4). Although it can be said basically to combine the basic meanings of the two, the end result also has its own specific functions. 270

Generally speaking, –▪┞ is used when a speaker recalls past events and then describes an immediate resultant consequence or discovery. The

translation would be ‘seeing as’, ‘since’ or ‘when’. The subject is usually second or third person.

Causal connectives

⍞ⶊ Ⱔ㧊 ⲏ▪┞ ⺆Ṗ 㞚䝞 ộ ṯ㞚㣪. As he ate too much, he seems to have a stomach ache. 㡊㕂䧞㧒䞮▪┞ ㌂㧻㧊 ♮㠞㠊㣪. Since he worked hard, he became a president of the company. 䞲ῃⰦ㦚㡊㕂䧞 Ὃ⿖䞮▪┞ 㰖⁞㦖䞲ῃⰦ㦚㥶㺓䞮Ợ Ⱖ䟊㣪. Since he studied Korean hard, he now speaks it fluently. In another similar usage, this pattern recollects the contents of the preceding clause as something directly experienced and relates this to the contents of the following clause, which are the result of changes over the course of time.

⑞㧊㡺▪┞ ➆⦑䟊㪢㠊㣪. (I saw) it was snowing and now it’s turned warmer. ⹪⧢㧊⿞▪┞ ゚Ṗ 㡺⍺㣪. (I saw) first the wind and now the rain. 㧊 Ὁ㠦䞯ᾦṖ Ⱔ▪┞SG㰖⁞㦖㥶䦻㠛㏢⪲ ↟ 㺒ῆ㣪. (I saw) there used to be many schools here, but now it is filled with hostess bars. 㠊㩲⓪ ㍶㌳┮㦮 ₆⿚㧊㫡㦒㔲▪┞SG㡺⓮㦖㞞㫡㞚⽊㧊㔲⓪ῆ㣪. Yesterday (I saw) he was in a good mood, but today he looks down. –▪┞ can also appear following the past tense marker (see 4.5.1.1) to form –㠞▪┞. However, the usage and meaning of –㠞▪┞ are quite different from when –▪┞ appears on its own. The main difference is that whereas –▪┞ appears with the second or third person, –㠞▪┞ only takes a firstperson subject. The first clause contains an event and the second clause expresses a direct consequence (usually with a different grammatical subject) that the speaker experienced as a result of this event. The usage is similar to the ‘discovery’ function of –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3).

㠊㩲 ⹺㠦 ⓼Ợ₢㰖 Ὃ⿖䟞▪┞ 䞒Ἲ䟊㣪. Because I studied until late last night, I feel tired. 㑶㦚 ⍞ⶊ Ⱔ㧊 Ⱎ㎾▪┞ ⲎⰂṖ 㞚䕢㣪. I drank too much, so I’ve got a headache. 䞲㺎㓂㠞▪┞ ⴎ㧊 Ṗ㈦䟊㪢㠊㣪. I’ve had a bit of rest so now I feel refreshed.

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䞯ᾦ㠦 Ṫ▪┞ 㞚ⶊ☚ 㠜㠞㠊㣪. When I went to the school, nobody was there. ⌊Ṗ 㿺㦚㿪㠞▪┞ ⳾⚦ 㤙㠞㠊㣪. I danced, then everybody laughed.

6.1.10 –O㦒Pඥ⧒ This two-shape connective ending is similar in meaning to the auxiliary verb pattern –O㦒Pඥ₢ ⽊– (see 5.4.1). The first clause contains a worry that the speaker has about a possible future event. The second clause contains something that should be done to prepare for this possible eventuality. Note however that, unlike the less restricted –O㦒Pඥ₢ ⽊–, the use of –O㦒Pඥ⧒ is limited mainly to cases where a speaker is giving advice either to a close friend or someone younger.

┺䂶⧒ 㫆㕂䟊⧒. [PLAIN] You’re going to hurt yourself; watch out! 䞯ᾦ㠦 ⓼㦚⧒ ゾⰂ 㧒㠊⋮⧒. [PLAIN] Get up quickly or you’ll be late for school. Ṧ₆ ỎⰊ⧒ ⳿☚Ⰲ 䟊⧒. [PLAIN] Put on a scarf or you are going to catch a cold. Note that this pattern may appear as a sentence ending without a second clause. In such cases, the advice has either been previously mentioned or otherwise implied.

㍲⚮⩂⧒. ⓼㦚⧒. [PLAIN]

6.2

Hurry up. You’re going to be late.

Contrastive connectives

Contrastive connectives mark a contrast between two different or contradictory states or events.

6.2.1

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–㰖Ⱒ

–㰖Ⱒ, the most universal and common method of marking contrast in Korean sentences, is a one-shape ending that is attached to the verb base.

–㰖Ⱒ can be preceded both by the past tense marker –㞮/㠞– and by the future tense marker –Ỷ–:

䞮㰖Ⱒ

do, but . . . (present)

ⲏ㰖Ⱒ

䟞㰖Ⱒ

did, but . . . (past)

ⲏ㠞㰖Ⱒ ate, but . . . (past)

䞮Ỷ㰖Ⱒ

will do, but . . . (future)

ⲏỶ㰖Ⱒ will eat, but . . . (future)


eat, but . . . (present)

This ending marks a strong opposition between two contrasting or contradictory states of affairs. This overriding meaning of contrast or contradiction can be broken down into three distinct applications that we deal with in turn. First, when the subject of both clauses is different, a contrast is described between two people, things or states of affairs. To emphasize the strong contrast, both subjects are marked with the topic particle (see 3.3.2.1).

➎㦖 ⡧⡧䞮㰖ⰢSG㞚✺㦖 ⡧⡧䞮㰖㞠㞚㣪. The daughter is bright, but the son is not bright. ⋮㧊⓪ Ⱔ㰖ⰢSGⰞ㦢㦖㞚㰗㩠㠊㣪. I am old, but my heart is still young. ㎇㹾㧊⓪ 㧎㩫䞮㰖Ⱒ ㎇㹾⼚㦖㕁㠊㣪. I recognize gender differences, but I don’t like gender discrimination. In the second usage, the speaker recognizes the existence of a certain state of affairs in the first clause, but then presents a contradictory truth in the second clause that is seen as being of more significance. Here, the subject of the two clauses is often the same.

ₖ䂮⯒ ⲏ㦚㑮㧞㰖Ⱒ ⼚⪲ 㫡㞚䞮㰖㞠㠊㣪. I can eat kimchi, but I don’t like it much. 㡺⓮ 㿻㰖ⰢS 㔲㧻㠦 Ṗ㟒䟊㣪. Today is cold, but I have to go to the market. ┾₆㩗㦒⪲ 䣾ὒṖ 㧞Ỷ㰖ⰢS 㧻₆㩗㧎⿖㧧㣿㧊䋊㑮㧞㠊㣪. In the short term it would be effective, but the long-term side effects could be big. With this second usage, to emphasize the idea that the information in the first clause is true but of limited significance, the verb may be nominalized by –₆ (see 2.2.3), suffixed by the topic particle –⓪ (see 3.3.2.1)

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and followed by the verb 䞮– ‘do’ in the –㰖Ⱒ form (–₆⓪ 䞮㰖Ⱒ). The result is more similar to the English ‘even though’ rather than simply ‘but’:

⹒䢎⯒ 㫡㞚䞮₊ 䞮㰖Ⱒ ἆ䢒㌗╖⪲ ㌳ṗ䞮㰖㞠㞚㣪. Even though I like Minho, I do not think of him as a prospective husband. Third, like the English ‘but’, –㰖Ⱒ is used in expressions such as ‘excuse me, but’ and ‘sorry, but’:

㔺⪖O䞮P㰖Ⱒ ㎇䞾㧊㠊⠑Ợ ♮㎎㣪f

Excuse me, but what’s your name?

㬚㏷䞮㰖Ⱒ 㰞ⶎ䞮⋮ 䟊☚ ♶₢㣪f

Sorry, but can I ask a question?

6.2.2

–O㦒P⋮

The contrastive ending –O㦒P⋮ is a two-shape ending, with –㦒⋮ being used after consonants and –⋮ after vowels. It has several usages, some of which overlap with the usage of –㰖Ⱒ (see 6.2.1). First of all, –O㦒P⋮ can be applied exactly like –㰖Ⱒ to express a contrast between two different people, objects or states of affairs:

Ṩ㦖㫖゚㕎⋮ 㦢㔳 ⰱ㦖㫡㞚㣪. It’s a bit expensive, but the taste is good. Also, –O㦒P⋮ can be applied exactly like –㰖Ⱒ when the speaker recognizes the existence of a certain state of affairs in the first clause, but then presents a contradictory truth in the second clause that is seen as being of more significance.

㠊㩲㑶㰧㠦 Ṫ㦒⋮ 㑶㦖 Ⱎ㔲㰖㞠㞮㠊㣪. I went to a bar yesterday, but I didn’t drink any alcohol. In these usages that overlap with –㰖Ⱒ, –O㦒P⋮ is somewhat more common in written language. However, both forms may be seen and heard in both written and spoken communication.

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–O㦒P⋮ also has some additional usages that are quite distinct from –㰖 Ⱒ. First of all, –O㦒P⋮ can be used twice in the same sentence attached to two predicates of contrasting meaning to give the reading ‘whether . . . or . . .’. The implication of the pattern is that the state of affairs given in the final clause comes about regardless of the two choices given in the first

part of the sentence. In this usage, –O㦒P⋮ functions in a similar way to –Ệ⋮ (see 6.4.1) or –✶㰖 (see 6.4.2).


⁎ ㌂⧢㦖㧦⋮ ₾⋮ 㑶Ⱒ Ⱎ㎪㣪. Whether awake or asleep, he always drinks. 㞟㦒⋮ ㍲⋮ 䠞ⰂṖ 㞚䕢㣪. Whether I sit or stand, my back hurts. 㫡㦒⋮ 㕁㦒⋮ 䟊㟒䟊㣪. You must do it whether you like it or not. To create the meaning ‘whether . . . or not’, use the verb Ⱖ– ‘desist’ for the second verb (see 4.2.3). This contracts to –Ⱎ to create the pattern –⋮ Ⱎ⋮, which is dealt with separately in the following subsection (see 6.2.3). Furthermore, when –O㦒P⋮ is used after clauses containing question words such as ⶊ㠝 ‘what’, 㠊❪ ‘where’, ⑚ῂ ‘who’, 㠎㩲 ‘when’ and 㠊⠑Ợ ‘how’, the implication is that what is expressed in this clause is of no consequence. Such constructions usually translate into English as ‘whoever’, ‘whatever’, ‘wherever’, etc. Here are some examples:

⌊Ṗ 㠊❪ Ṗ⋮ ㌗ὖ䞮㰖 Ⱎ. [INTIMATE] Wherever I go, just mind your own business. ⶮ ⲏ㦒⋮ ㌊㧊㞞㳚㣪. Whatever I eat, I don’t put on weight. Finally, –O㦒P⋮ sometimes occurs in modifying constructions linking two identical descriptive verbs. In such usage, the meaning of –O㦒P⋮ has nothing to do with contrast; it merely works to add emphasis to the adjective in the same way as adding ‘very’, ‘really’ or using a superlative.

䋂⋮ 䋆㬚㧎㧊 ♮ἶ Ⱖ㞮㠊㣪. He/she ended up becoming a really big criminal. 㧧㦒⋮ 㧧㦖䞒䟊☚ 㠜Ợ 䞮⓪ ộ㧊䟟㩫㦮㤦䂯㧊┺. [PLAIN] The principle of administration is to avoid even the smallest damages.

6.2.3

–O㦒P⋮GⰞ⋮

–O㦒P⋮ Ⱎ⋮ is combination of the –O㦒P⋮ form described in the previous section (see 6.2.2) and the verb Ⱖ ‘desist’ (see 4.2.3) also in the –O㦒P⋮ form. The meaning created is ‘whether . . . or not’ and the pattern is used

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when either of two options or possibilities ultimately has no influence on the final result.

䞯㌳✺㦚䢒⌊㭒⋮ Ⱎ⋮, Ⱎ㺂Ṗ㰖㠦㣪. It’s all the same whether or not you give students a hard time. 㔲䠮㦚⽊⋮ Ⱎ⋮, ⁎ 䞯㌳㦖 ⟾㠊㰞 Ệ㠦㣪. The student will probably fail whether he takes the exam or not. ⁎⩆ 䣢㦮⓪ 䞮⋮ Ⱎ⋮ 㡞㣪. It won’t do any good whether or not we hold such a conference.

6.2.4

–O㦒P♮

–O㦒P♮ is a peculiar two-shape contrastive connective that is used primarily in formal writing. The behaviour of this ending is peculiar in that the –㦒♮ variant is only used after the verbs 㧞– ‘exist’ and 㠜– ‘not exist’ as well as the past and future tense markers –㞮/㠞– and –Ỷ–. Otherwise, –♮ is used, even for verb bases ending in a consonant (e.g. ⲏ♮ ‘eat’). –O㦒P♮ can be used in the same way as –㰖Ⱒ to mark a contrast between two states of affairs:

㩲 ⹲䚲⓪ 䞲ῃ㠊⪲ 䞮♮ 㡗㠊⪲ ♲ 㣪㟓ⶎ㦚㭖゚䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺. My presentation will be in Korean, but I will prepare a summary in English. 㦢㔳㦖㧦㭒 ⲏ♮ 㩗Ợ ⲏ⓪ ộ㧊㫡㞚㣪. Eat regularly, but make sure you only eat small amounts. ₆Ṛ㦖㰽㞮㦒♮ Ⱔ㦖 ộ㦚⺆㤶㔋┞┺. The time was short, but I have learned a lot. ⁎ ㍶㑮⓪ 㨂⓻㦖㧞㦒♮ 㨂⓻㦚㌊Ⰲ㰖 ⴑ䞲┺. [PLAIN] That athlete has talent, but he can’t apply it.

6.2.5

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–O㞚 /㠊P☚

The verbal connective –O㞚/㠊P☚ is formed on the infinitive form of the verb and may on occasion be preceded by the past tense marker –㞮/㠞– or the future tense marker –Ỷ–. However, more commonly, tense is only marked on the second clause. The copula may appear in two forms when combined with –O㞚/㠊P☚: –㧊㠊☚ or, more commonly in colloquial speech, –㧊⧒☚. The latter is considered to be standard Korean. In addition to

taking on the main functions of –O㞚/㠊P☚ that are described below, –㧊⧒☚ can function almost like a particle to mean ‘even’ or ‘at least’:


䞮⬾㠦 ⹮G㔲Ṛ㝿㧊⧒☚ 㠊䥮⯒ 㣎㤢㟒 ♒㣪. You should memorize vocabulary even if it’s only for half an hour a day. ┺⯎ ộ㧊㠜㦒┞₢, 㧊ộ㧊⧒☚ 㫡㞚㣪. This one will be all right, since you haven’t got any others. 㩖⓪ ⴑ ṖỶ㠊㣪. 㥶㰚㝾⧒☚ Ṫ┺ 㡺㎎㣪. As I won’t be able to go, at least you go (without me), Yujin. Besides these special usages with the copula, the usage of –O㞚/㠊P☚ is similar to the second function of –㰖Ⱒ (see 6.2.1) and –(㦒)⋮ (see 6.2.2). In other words, the speaker recognizes the existence of a certain state of affairs in the first clause, but then presents a contradictory truth in the second clause that is seen as being of more significance. However, the feeling created by –O㞚/㠊P☚ is stronger or more emphatic than that of –㰖 Ⱒ and –O㦒P⋮. Rather than ‘but’ or ‘though’, the feeling conveyed is more similar to the English ‘even though’.

☞㧊 Ⱔ㰖㞠㞚☚ ⓮ ⶒỊ㦚㌂㣪. Even though I haven’t much money, I’m always buying things. 䙂㧻Ⱎ㹾Ṗ Ⲗ㠊☚ 㧦㭒 Ṗ㣪. Even though the drinking tent is far away, I go there often. ⹪⧢㦖⿞㠊☚ 㿻㰖㞠㞚㣪. Even though it’s windy, it’s not cold. ゚Ṗ 㭒⬿㭒⬿ 㢖㍲㤆㌆㦚 ✺ἶ ⋮Ṗ☚ 㩬㠊㣪. As it’s streaming down with rain, you get wet even if you take an umbrella. Since this pattern can also be used to discuss future or hypothetical situations, its usage also stretches to cover the English ‘even if’:

⌊㧒 ⑞㧊㢖☚ Ṟ Ệ㡞㣪. Even if it snows tomorrow, I’ll go. Ὃ⿖䞮㰖㞠㞚☚ 㔲䠮㦚㧮䂮⯒ 㑮㧞㠊㣪. Even if you don’t study, you can do well in the exam. Some further special usages of –O㞚/㠊P☚ that do not correspond directly to the meaning of ‘contrast’ are dealt with separately in the following subsections.

6.2.5.1

–O㞚/㠊P☚ in permissive constructions

–O㞚/㠊P☚ is commonly employed in sentences where the speaker asks for or gives permission. Most typically, the second clause contains the verb

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♮–, which literally means ‘become’ but here can be understood better as ‘work’, ‘be okay’, ‘be all right’, etc. The construction as a whole thus literally means ‘does it work (for you) / is it okay / is it all right even if I . . . ?’. Commonly, this translates into English as ‘is it all right/okay if . . . ?’ or ‘can I . . . ?’

㡺⓮ ⹺㠦㰧㠦 ⓼Ợ ☢㞚㢖☚ ♒f [INTIMATE]

Is it all right if I come home late tonight?

㡂₆㍲㌂㰚㦚㹣㠊☚ ♒㣪f

Can I take photographs here?

㧊 ⹪㰖⯒ 䞲⻞㧛㠊⽦☚ ♒㣪f

Can I try on these trousers?

In place of ♮–, you can also use 㫡– ‘good’ or ὲ㺄– ‘okay’:

㡺⓮ ㌞㢍㦚㧛㠊☚ 㫡㞚㣪f

May I wear my new clothes today?

⌊㧒㫆⁞ ⓼Ợ 㢖☚ ὲ㺄㞚㣪f

Is it okay if I come slightly late tomorrow?

The ending –Ỷ– may also be used on the final verb. This functions like ‘would’ in English (‘would it be all right . . . ?’) to make the request for permission more tentative and therefore polite:

㩚䢪⯒ ㌂㣿䟊☚ ♮Ỷ㠊㣪f

Would it be all right if I used the phone?

The same construction can be used in statements of permission as well as just requests for permission. To refuse permission, use the expression –O㦒PⳊ 㞞 ♮– (see 6.5.1.5).

6.2.5.2

‘Don’t have to’ with –㰖㞠㞚☚

To say ‘have to’ in Korean, you use the construction –O㞚/㠊P㟒 ♮/䞮– (see 6.5.7.1). However, the negative equivalent, ‘don’t have to’, is formed using a negative permissive construction –㰖㞠㞚☚ ♮–/㫡–/ὲ㺄–, which literally translates as ‘even if you don’t do it, it’s okay’. This normally combines long negation (see 4.2.2) with the –㞚/㠊☚ construction. Here are some examples of this pattern:

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⌊㧒㦖㟒⁒䞮㰖㞠㞚☚ ♒㣪.

You don’t have to work nights tomorrow.

㧊㺛㦚⽊㰖㞠㞚☚ ὲ㺄㞚㣪.

You don’t need to read this book.

⼧㤦゚ ⌊㰖㞠㞚☚ ♒㣪.

You don’t have to pay the hospital fees.

As well as forming this construction using long negation, it is also possible to convey the same meaning using short negation with 㞞 (see 4.2.1):


䞯ᾦ㠦㞞 Ṗ☚ 㫡㞚㣪. You don’t have to go to school. 㑮㑶㞞䟊☚ ♮Ỷ㠊㣪. You don’t have to have an operation. 㡺⓮ 㦖䟟㠦 Ṗ☚ 㫡ἶ 㞞 Ṗ☚ 㫡㞚㣪. It doesn’t matter whether I go to the bank today or not.

6.2.5.3

Idiomatic –O㞚/㠊P☚ expressions

There are a few idiomatic expressions with –O㞚/㠊P☚ that are used as adverbs. These take on a special maximum–minimum meaning:

⓼㠊☚

at the latest [even though it’s late]

㩗㠊☚

at least [even though there are few or it’s small]

Ⱔ㞚☚

at (the) most [even though it’s a lot]

㧒⩂☚

at the earliest [from 㧊⯊– ‘early’]

䄺☚

at the largest

ゾ⧒☚

at the fastest

Ⲗ㠊☚

at the farthest

Ṗ₢㤢☚

at the nearest

Here are some examples of these in sentences:

㩗㠊☚ 䞲 ╂㠦䞲⻞㝿㦖㔲㓺䎲ὒ ◆㧊䎆⯒ ⺇㠛䞮㎎㣪 You should back up your system and data at least once a month. 㧦☯㹾⓪ ゾ⧒☚ 䞲㔲Ṛ㠦䕪㕃 Ⱎ㧒 ⹬㠦 ⴑ Ṗ㣪. At its fastest, your car won’t do over 80 miles an hour. ⓼㠊☚ XW㔲₢㰖⓪ 㰧㠦 ☢㞚Ṗ㟒䟊㣪. We have to return home by ten o’clock at the latest. It should be noted that these same verbs may also occur in normal (i.e. non-idiomatic) constructions with –O㞚/㠊P☚ to take on the more typical meaning of ‘even though/if’. It is only when they are used as adverbs that they adopt the special idiomatic meanings just described.

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6.2.6

–▪⧒☚

–▪⧒☚ is a one-shape ending that may be preceded by the past tense marker (see 4.5.1.1). This construction creates a similar meaning of concession to –O㞚/㠊P☚ (see 6.2.5). However, the concessive meaning is somewhat stronger with the contents of the two clauses often lying in powerful (or even poignant) contradiction to each other. Furthermore, rather than accepting the state of affairs presented in the first clause as fact, the speaker implies that it is perhaps just hypothetical (or that even if it were true, it is of no consequence whatsoever). Suitable translations in English include ‘no matter how’, ‘however many’, etc.:

䞒Ἲ䞮▪⧒☚ ⍺ 㧒㦖㩲╖⪲ 䟊⧒. [PLAIN] No matter how tired you are, do your work properly. 㞚ⶊⰂ Ṗ⋲䞮▪⧒☚ ἆ䆪㫢㩞䞮㰖 Ⱖ㞚⧒. [PLAIN] However poor you may be, never lose hope! ⳝ ⻞㦚 ⶒ㠊⽊▪⧒☚ ⌊ ╖╋㦖 Ⱎ㺂Ṗ㰖㡞㣪. However many times you may ask, my answer will be the same. For added emphasis, the construction frequently occurs preceded by the quotative (see 9.2). This adds the flavour of English expressions such as ‘even supposing that’ or ‘even if we grant that’:

⁎ ㌂⧢㧊㌊㧎㧦⧒OἶP 䞮▪⧒☚ ⋮⓪ ⁎ ㌂⧢㦚㌂⧧䞲┺. [PLAIN] Even if we grant that he is a murderer, I still love him. 㞚ⶊⰂ 㧊Ⲫ㧒㧊䘎䞮┺ἶ 䞮▪⧒☚ 㧊Ⲫ㧒㠦⓪ ⽊⌊⓪ ㌂⧢㦮 Ⱎ㦢㧊 ╊Ỿ㧞㰖㞠㦖 ộ ṯ㞚㣪. No matter how convenient we grant that e-mails are, they don’t seem to contain the emotions of the people sending them.

6.2.7

–ἶ☚

The one-shape connective ending –ἶ☚ is an amalgamation of the additional connective –ἶ (see 6.3.1) and the particle –☚ (see 3.3.3.6). Here, –ἶ takes on a sequential meaning of ‘after’ or ‘then’ and –☚ has the meaning of ‘even’. Thus, as a whole, the construction means ‘even after’. –ἶ☚ cannot be preceded by tense markers.

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Ὃ㰲⪲ 㡗䢪⽊ἶ☚ 䤚䣢䟞㠊㣪. Even after watching the movie for free, I regretted doing so.

ἆ䢒䞮ἶ☚ 㧒㦚 Ἒ㏣䞮ἶ 㕌㠊㣪. Even after I get married, I want to continue working.


䙂☚㭒⯒ ⚦ 㧪 Ⱎ㔲ἶ☚ 㧶㧊㞞㢪㠊㣪. Even after drinking two glasses of wine, I couldn’t sleep. ⹺㠦 ⧒Ⳋ㦚 ⲏἶ☚ 㠒Ὴ㧊㞞⿖㠞㠊㣪. Even after eating ramen at night, my face did not go puffy.

6.2.8

–O㞚 /㠊P㍲⧒☚

The verbal ending –㞚/㠊㍲⧒☚ is a combination of the causal connective –O㞚/㠊P㍲ (see 6.1.1), the variant form of the copula –⧒– (see 4.1.4) and the particle –☚ ‘even’ (see 3.3.3.6). The pattern gives what is usually a hypothetical action in the first clause that the speaker (or person in question) would be prepared to carry out in order to achieve the result in the second clause. The pattern typically translates as ‘even if it means’.

㺛㌊ ☞㧊㠜㦒Ⳋ ア⩺㍲⧒☚ 㧓㠊㟒䟊㣪. Even if I don’t have any money to buy books, I will read them even if it means borrowing them. 䃊✲ グ ⌊㍲⧒☚ Ↄ ㌂ἶ 㕌㠊㣪. I want to buy it even if it means getting into debt on my credit card. ⴎ㦚䕪㞚㍲⧒☚ 㧦㔳✺㦚 ⲏ㧊ἶ ᾦ㥷㔲䅲㟒䟊㣪. Even if it means selling your own body, you have to feed and educate your kids. Ệ㰩Ⱖ㦚䟊㍲⧒☚ ㎇Ὃ䟊㟒䟊㣪. You have to succeed, even if it means lying.

6.2.9

–O㦒Pච✺

The ending –O㦒Pච✺ is constructed on the state/result modifier ending –O㦒Pච (see 7.1.3) followed by ✺. Similar in meaning to –O㞚/㠊P☚ (see 6.2.5), this connective concedes or acknowledges the contents of the first clause but then implies that the conclusion reached in the following clause comes about regardless of the preceding clause. Examples are as follows:

㔲䠮㠦 ⟾㠊㰖ἶ ⋮㍲䤚䣢䞲✺ ⶊ㓾㏢㣿㧊㧞㠊㣪f What’s the use of regretting after failing exams?

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㞚ⶊⰂ ⿖㧦㧎✺ 㠊⠑Ợ ⁎⩝Ợ 䢪⩺䞮Ợ ㌊㑮㧞㦚₢㣪f Even though he is a rich man, how can he live so extravagantly? 䧮㧊㟓䞮┺ 䞲✺ ⍞⽊┺㟒㟓䞮Ỷⓦ⌦f [PLAIN] I may be weak, but I’m sure I’m no weaker than you.

6.2.10 –O㦒Pඥ㰖⧒☚ The two-shape ending –O㦒Pඥ㰖⧒☚ also possesses a concessive meaning, very similar to that of –O㞚/㠊P☚ (see 6.2.5). Common translations are ‘even if’ or ‘even though’:

゚䕦㦚 ⹱㦚㰖⧒☚ 䞶 Ⱖ㦖䟊㟒䟊㣪. Even though we may be criticized, we have to say what we have to say. 㞚ⶊⰂ Ṗ⋲䞶㰖⧒☚ ⋾㦮 ộ㦚䤪䂮Ⳋ 㞞 ♒㣪. Even if you are poor, you mustn’t steal other people’s things. 㞚ⶊⰂ ⹪㊶㰖⧒☚ ⿖⳾┮ ㌳㔶㦚㧠㠊㍲⓪ 㞞 ♒㣪. Even if you are busy, you must not forget your parents’ birthdays.

6.2.11 –O㦒Pඥ㰖㠎㩫 The two-shape ending –O㦒Pඥ㰖㠊㩫 is another variation on constructions expressing concession and is similar in meaning to –O㞚/㠊P☚ (see 6.2.5).

ῌ㠊㭓㦚㰖㠎㩫 ⁎ 䂲ῂ ☚㤖㦖 ⹱ἶ 㕌㰖㞠㞚㣪. Even if we have to starve, I don’t want to accept that friend’s help. ⋮㧊⓪ 㠊Ⰺ㰖㠎㩫㌳ṗ䞮⓪ ộ㦖㠊⯎㓺⩂㤢㣪. Even though he/she is young, his/her way of thinking is like an adult. 㧊⻞㠦 ⁞Ⲫ╂㦖 ⏩㼺㦚㰖㠎㩫㫡㦖 ἓ䠮㦚䟊㍲ ┺䟟㧊㠦㣪. Even though we missed out on the gold medal this time, it was a good experience for us.

6.2.12 –O㦒Pඥⰳ㩫 The two-shape ending –O㦒Pඥⰳ㩫 is another concessive construction similar in meaning to –O㞚/㠊P☚ (see 6.2.5): 282

㦖䡲⓪ ⴑ Ṱ㦚ⰳ㩫⺆⹮㦚䞮Ⳋ 㞞 ♒㣪. Even if you can’t repay the favour, you should not turn against me.

ἶⰯ┺ἶ⓪ ⴑ 䞶ⰳ㩫㢲䢪⯒ ⌊㣪f Even if you can’t say sorry, why are you getting angry?


㞚ⶊⰂ ゚Ṗ Ⱔ㧊㢂 ⰳ㩫㞞 Ṟ 㑮Ṗ 㠜㠊㣪. Even if it rains a lot, not going is not an option.

6.2.13 –Ệ⓮ This one-shape concessive construction is used when the preceding clause contains a natural or obvious fact or a general truth and the speaker inserts his/her (often reproachful) opinion in the following clause. In other words, this pattern is used to spotlight the speaker’s argumentative attitude in the light of an obvious or general truth in the preceding clause.

㌂⧢㠦Ợ⓪ ┺ ⿖⳾Ṗ 㧞Ệ⓮ ⋮Ⱒ ⿖⳾Ṗ 㠜┺. [PLAIN] While all others have parents, I alone have no parents. ⋾䘎㦖㞚⌊⯒ ㌂⧧䟊㟒䞮Ệ⓮SG⁎ ⿖⿖⓪ 䟃㌗㕎㤆₆Ⱒ 䞲┺. [PLAIN] A husband ought to love his wife, but that couple always fight with each other. 㧎㌳㦖ゞ㏦㦒⪲ 㢪┺Ṗ ゞ㏦㦒⪲ Ṗ⓪ ộ㧊Ệ⓮ ⍞ⶊ 㣫㕂㦚⿖Ⰺ 䞚㣪Ṗ 㠜㰖㣪. Life is like coming empty-handed and leaving it empty-handed, and there is no need to be so greedy.

6.2.14 –ⓦ┞ This one-shape ending, which is attached only to processive verbs, indicates that the contents of the second clause are better than or preferable to those of the first clause. The second clause can also be accompanied by adverbs such as 㹾⧒Ⰲ ‘preferably’, ‘rather (than)’. One can add the comparative particle ⽊┺ (see 3.3.6.4) to this pattern with no change in meaning.

㍶㌳┮℮ ⿖䌗 ✲Ⰲⓦ┞ ⌊Ṗ 㓺㓺⪲ 䞮⓪ Ợ ⌁Ỷ㠊㣪. It would be better for me to do it rather than asking the teacher to do it. 㧊⩝Ợ ㌂ⓦ┞⽊┺ O㹾⧒ⰂP 㭓⓪ Ợ 䘎䞮Ỷ㠊㣪. I would rather die than live like this. 㻲ῃ㦮㫛㧊 ♮ⓦ┞ 㹾⧒Ⰲ 㰖㡻㦮㢫㧊 ♮Ỷ㠊㣪. I’d rather be a king in hell than a slave in heaven.

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Another pattern with this ending juxtaposes two contradictory clauses, each ending in –ⓦ┞. These two clauses with –ⓦ┞ are rounded off with a final clause that summarizes the gist of the dispute or issue.

⚦ ㌂⧢㧊 Ṗⓦ┞ 㞞 Ṗⓦ┞ ┺䒂ἶ 㧞㔋┞┺. The two people are having a quarrel about whether or not to go. ὖὧ㰖⪲⓪ ἓ㭒Ṗ 㫡┺ⓦ┞ ㍺㞛㌆㧊㫡┺ⓦ┞ 䞮Ⳋ㍲ Ⱖ㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪. There is a big debate over which is better as a tourist destination, Gyeongju or Seoraksan.

6.2.15 –O㞚 /㠊PG⽺㧦 This construction is built on the –㞚/㠊⽊– auxiliary verb pattern (see 5.1.8), which has the meaning of ‘trying’. Here, it is followed by the past tense marker (see 4.5.1.1) and the ending –㧦. The construction links a first clause, the contents of which the speaker considers to be futile or a waste of time, effort, etc. even trying. This futility is then expressed in the second clause, most frequently with expressions such as ㏢㣿㠜–. Resulting sentences thus take on the meaning ‘it is no use trying’:

㤎㠊⽺㧦 ⶊ㓾㏢㣿㧊㧞Ỷ㠊f [INTIMATE] What’s the use in crying? ⹒䢎㠦Ợ Ⱖ䟊⽺㧦㞚ⶊ ㏢㣿㠜㠊㣪. There’s no use talking to Minho. ゚㕒 Ⲗ䕆゚䌖⹒ ⲏ㠊⽺㧦 Ịṫ㠦㞚ⶊ 䣾ὒ 㠜㠊㣪. Even if you eat expensive vitamins, they are not effective for your health. 㰞䒂䟊⽺㧦 ╂⧒㰖⓪ Ợ ⶦṖ 㧞㠊f [INTIMATE] What difference is getting jealous going to make?

6.3

Additional and sequential connectives

Additional and sequential connectives list two or more actions or events that are either parallel and exist side by side or otherwise are chronological and follow on from each other.

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6.3.1

–ἶ

The one-shape –ἶ is the most common and universal additional/sequential ending. It may be preceded by the past tense (see 4.5.1.1) and the future tense marker –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1). –ἶ operates like ‘and’ in English to link two clauses. The two clauses may be parallel actions or truths or otherwise take place in succession. We will look at these two usages in turn.


The first use of –ἶ is to list parallel actions or states. As can be seen in the second example, in this usage, it is possible to include the past tense marker in both clauses. However, inclusion in the first clause is generally optional; it could be omitted here without any change in meaning.

⹒㑮㝾⓪ 䞲ῃ ㌂⧢㧊ἶSGⰞ㧊䋊㝾⓪ 䢎㭒㌂⧢㧊㠦㣪. Minsu is Korean and Michael is Australian. ⋮䞲䎢⓪ 㺛㦚㭒㠞ἶSG㠊Ⲏ┞䞲䎢⓪ ↙㦚 ✲⪎㠊㣪. He/she gave me a book and also gave my mother some flowers. 㥶⹎⓪ 㦖䟟㠦㧞ἶ ⹎⋮⓪ 㤆㼊ῃ㠦㧞㠊㣪. Yumi is at the bank and Mina is at the post office. The second use of –ἶ is to list actions in their chronological sequence. In this usage, –ἶ would translate into English as ‘and then’. In this usage, past tense does not usually occur in the first clause.

㩖⎗㠦⓪ 㺛㦚㧓ἶ 㧦㣪. In the evenings, I read books and then go to sleep. 㩖⎗㠦⓪ ⳝ 㔲Ṛ㸺 Ὃ⿖䞮ἶ 㧦㣪f How long do you study at night before you go to bed? 䢪㧻䞮ἶ ⲎⰂ⯒ キ㠊㣪. I do my make-up and (after that) comb my hair. 㑯㩲⯒ 䞮ἶ ⏖㞚⧒. [PLAIN] Do your homework and then play. In addition to these two basic meanings, –ἶ can also be used when the first clause creates a state in which the action in the second clause takes place. This results in turns of expression quite different from English:

㢍㦚㧛ἶ 㧦㣪. I put on my clothes and sleep. ( I sleep with my clothes on) ⻚㓺⯒ 䌖ἶ Ṗ㣪. I take the bus and go. ( I travel by bus)

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㥶⹎Ṗ 㞚㧊⯒ 㠛ἶ ⥆㠞㠊㣪. Yumi gave her child a piggyback and ran. ( Yumi ran with her child on her back) ㍲⪲ ⅊㞞ἶ 㤎㠞㠊㣪. They held each other and cried. ( They cried holding each other) 㔶ⶎ㦚 ₪ἶ 㞟㞮㠊㣪. I spread out a newspaper and sat on it. ( I sat on a spread-out newspaper) Negatives can be formed with the –ἶ construction in several ways. Firstly, you can simply add 㞞 or ⴑ before the verb to form short negation (see 4.2.1):

㢍㦚㞞㌂ἶ . . .

doesn’t buy clothes and . . . ( without buying clothes)

Secondly, a long negative can be formed with –㰖㞠ἶ or –㰖 ⴑ䞮ἶ (see 4.2.2):

☞㦚 Ⱔ㧊⻢㰖 ⴑ䞮ἶ

can’t earn much money and . . . ( without earning much money)

In these negative forms, the expression translates as ‘instead of . . .ing’, ‘rather than . . .ing’, ‘without . . .ing’:

㑶㞞 Ⱎ㔲ἶ ⏎⧮⹿㠦㍲ ⏎⧮䞮⓪ ộ㧊䧮✺㠊㣪. It’s hard to sing at karaoke without having drunk alcohol. 㩦㕂㦖㌂ ⲏ㰖 Ⱖἶ Ⱒ✺㠊 ⲏ㧦. [PLAIN] Let’s make lunch rather than buying it. wj⹿ Ṗ㰖Ⱖἶ 㰧㠦㍲ Ợ㧚㦚㯦Ỿ⧒. [PLAIN] I enjoy playing [computer] games at home rather than going to the Internet cafe. If the final verb is a command or proposition, another kind of negative construction is used: –㰖 followed by auxiliary Ⱖ– ‘desist’ (see 4.2.3):

㧦㰖 ⰦἶSG㧒㠊⋮⧒HG[PLAIN] Don’t sleep, get up! 㧊 ₆䣢⯒ ⏩㰖㰖 ⰦἶSG㰖⁞ 㔶㼃䞮㎎㣪. Don’t miss this chance; apply now. 286

⋾㠦Ợ 䘦 ⋒䂮㰖 Ⱖἶ 㧮㌊㧦UG[PLAIN] Let’s live happily without being bothersome to others.

The resulting Ⱖἶ construction can also be used after nouns (in a similar way to a particle) to mean ‘rather than’ or ‘except for’, as previously discussed (see 4.2.3).


ⳛ☯Ⱖἶ 䢣╖⪲ Ṗ㧦. [PLAIN] Let’s go to Hongdae rather than Myeongdong. 㩚䢪Ⱖἶ 㧊Ⲫ㧒⪲ 㡆⧓㭒㎎㣪. Contact me via e-mail rather than phone. Finally, –ἶ can also be used as a sentence ending when the second clause is omitted or has previously been expressed. –ἶ gives the feeling that the utterance is adding additional information to what has already been said. In such circumstances, –㣪 should be attached to the end in order to form the polite speech style (see 4.3.3). Otherwise, the sentence will be interpreted as the intimate style (see 4.3.5):

㰧㧊㞚╊䞮ἶ 㫡㞚㣪. ₾⊭䞮ἶ㣪. The house is cosy and nice. It’s clean, too. A: 㥶⹎Ṗ 㡞㊮㰖fG[INTIMATE] Yumi is pretty, isn’t she? B: 㠊, 㢍☚ 㧮㧛ἶ. [INTIMATE] Yeah, and she dresses well too. 㠊❪ Ṗf 㢍㦚㡞㊮Ợ 㧛ἶ. [INTIMATE] Where are you going? Dressed prettily like this. This use of ἶ is also frequently heard in questions. In such instances, the feeling conveyed is that the question is being tagged onto what has previously been said. This most commonly occurs without –㣪 and the sentence is therefore interpreted as the intimate style (see 4.3.5):

㩦㕂㦖 ⲏ㠞ἶf [INTIMATE]

And you’ve had lunch, as well?

⿖⳾┮㦖㞞⎫䞮㔲ἶf [INTIMATE]

And your parents are well, too?

With a falling rather than a rising intonation, these questions can take on special rhetorical functions. The speaker either points out a difference between the hearer’s previous words and current actions (as in the first example) or says ‘if you do that, whatever am I supposed to do?’ (as in the second):

㞞 Ṛ┺ἶ 䞶 ➢⓪ 㠎㩲ἶf [INTIMATE] I thought you said you weren’t going? ⍺Ṗ 㞞 ṖⳊ ⋲ 㠊⠑Ợ 䞮ἶf [INTIMATE] If you don’t go, whatever am I supposed to do?

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6.3.2

–ἶ㍲

Usage of –ἶ㍲ is comparable to the sequential usage of –ἶ (see 6.3.1). The application of –ἶ㍲ in preference to simple –ἶ emphasizes the fact that the two events are in a chronological relationship, with the second event occurring necessarily after the first event. The second event may also to some extent take place as a result of the first event or in a state created by it:

㥶⹎Ṗ ㏦㦚㞑ἶ㍲ ⹻㦚 ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. Yumi washed her hands and ate her meal. ⹎⋮Ṗ ⹒㑮㠦Ợ 䢪⯒ ⌊ἶ㍲䤚䣢䟞㠊㣪. Mina got angry at Minsu and then regretted it. –ἶ㍲ can also be used when the first clause creates an ongoing state in which the event expressed in the second clause takes place:

䣢㌂⯒ ⁎Ⱒ⚦ἶ㍲ ⏖ἶ 㧞㠊㣪. After quitting the company, I’m taking a break. 㧦☯㹾⯒ ⴆἶ㍲ ἶ䟻㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪. I drove the car and went to my home town. ( I travelled to my home town by car) In addition to this main function, –ἶ㍲ can at times express contrastive sequencing, something similar to the English ‘even after’:

㩦㕂㦚 ⲏἶ㍲㞞 ⲏ㠞┺ἶ 䟞㠊㣪. Even after eating lunch, he said that he hadn’t eaten. ␢ⶒ㦚 ⹱ἶ㍲ ⳾⯊⓪ 㻯䟞㠊㣪. Even after receiving a bribe, he/she pretended not to know about it.

6.3.3

–ἶG⋮ –

This construction, which means ‘after having (done something)’ or ‘after having finished/completed doing something’ or ‘after being through with’ is covered in the auxiliary verbs chapter (see 5.3.1).

6.3.4

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–O㞚 /㠊PGṖ㰖ἶ

This ending combines the infinitive form of the main verb with the verb Ṗ㰖–. This is then rounded off with the –ἶ ending (see 6.3.1).

In its original usage, the verb Ṗ㰖– means ‘have’, ‘hold’, ‘carry’, ‘possess’ and frequently occurs with the continuous tense (see 4.5.3.2), as in the following example:


㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ ㌂㰚₆⯒ ⓮ Ṗ㰖ἶ 㧞㠊㣪. Yumi is always carrying a camera. The Ṗ㰖ἶ form can also behave like a particle to mean ‘with’ or ‘by means of’:

ἶ㟧㧊Ṗ 㮦⯒ Ṗ㰖ἶ ⏖㞚㣪. The cat is playing with a mouse. ⁎ ㌂⧢ Ṗ㰖ἶ ⏖Ⰲ㰖 Ⱎ㎎㣪. Don’t make fun of (lit. ‘with’) him. 䞲 ╂㠦 \WⰢ㤦 Ṗ㰖ἶ 㠊⠑Ợ ㌊㞚㣪f How can you live on (lit. ‘with’) 500,000 won a month? Furthermore, Ṗ㰖– can be followed by Ṗ– ‘go’ and 㡺– ‘come’ to form the compounds Ṗ㰖ἶ Ṗ– ‘take (something somewhere)’ and Ṗ㰖ἶ 㡺– ‘bring (something somewhere)’:

㩖⓪ ⌊⽋㧊⧧ Ỿ㤎㧶⹪⯒ Ṗ㰖ἶ Ṫ㠊㣪. I took thermal underwear and a winter jacket with me. We now turn our attention specifically to the pattern –O㞚/㠊P Ṗ㰖ἶ. This pattern can first of all occur followed by Ṗ– ‘go’ and 㡺– ‘come’ as in the previous example. With the addition of an extra verb, this pattern is used when talking about creating or procuring an item and then taking or bringing it somewhere.

ₖ⹻㦚 Ⱒ✺㠊 Ṗ㰖ἶ 㢂Ợ㣪. I’ll make some kimbap and bring it along. 㞚㧊㓺䋂Ⱂ㦚㌂ Ṗ㰖ἶ Ṫ㠊㣪. He/she bought some ice cream and took it along with him/her. However, when the pattern is followed by verbs other than Ṗ–/㡺– or their compounds, it takes on a quite different meaning. Basically, the meaning is close to that of –O㞚/㠊P㍲ (see 6.1.1), but the feeling is generally more colloquial. In the same way as –O㞚/㠊P㍲, the first clause provides an action or situation in which the event or circumstances in the second clause then come to pass. The second clause is therefore either consequential to or merely sequential to the first clause.

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In consequential constructions, the contents of the second clause take place as a natural consequence of the contents of the first clause:

㑶㠦䀾䟊 Ṗ㰖ἶ ἶ㌳䟞㠊㣪. I got drunk, so I had a hard time. 㤆㥶⯒ 㘵㞚 Ṗ㰖ἶ 㢍㧊 ┺ 㩬㠞㠊㣪. I spilt the milk, so my clothes got completely wet. In sequential constructions, the contents of the second clause take place not only after that of the first clause but, more importantly, in a state created by the event mentioned in the first clause. Most typically, the first clause refers to the creation, procurement or change in state of an object and the second clause refers to how this newly created/procured/changed item is then put to use:

☞㦚 ⳾㞚 Ṗ㰖ἶ 㩚㎎Ἒ 㡂䟟䟞㠊㣪. I made some money and then used it to travel the world. ⶒἶ₆⯒ 㧷㞚 Ṗ㰖ἶ 㹢Ṳ⯒ ⊩㡖㠊㣪. I caught a fish and made a stew with it. 䞲ῃ㠊⯒ Ὃ⿖䟊 Ṗ㰖ἶ 䞲ῃ 䣢㌂㠦䀾㰗䟞㠊㣪. I studied Korean and then used it to get employed at a Korean company.

6.3.5

–Ệ┞㢖

This one-shape ending links two parallel statements, which are generally closely connected to the same content matter. The second clause typically adds further information or support for the claim made in the first clause. In examples such as the following, –Ệ┞㢖 can typically be substituted by –ἶ (see 6.3.1), which has a far higher frequency.

㥶⹎⓪ 㠒Ὴ☚ 㡞㊮Ệ┞㢖 Ⱎ㦢㝾☚ 㫡㞚㣪. Yumi has a pretty face and also a warm heart. ⲎⰂ☚ 㞚䝚Ệ┞㢖㏣㧊䎆㪎㣪. My head hurts and my stomach is going to explode. ⹒䢎⓪ ⏎⯚☚ 㞞䞮Ệ┞㢖㑶 ╊⺆☚ 㞞䟊㣪. Minho doesn’t gamble and he doesn’t drink or smoke. ⁎ 㔳╏㦖 ▪⩓Ệ┞㢖⿞䂲㩞䟊㣪. That restaurant is dirty and the staff are unkind. 290

The –Ệ┞㢖 construction may also occur with expressions such as ┺㔲 Ⱖ䞮– or Ệ❃ ṫ㫆䞮–, with the meaning of ‘reiterate’, ‘emphasize’, etc.

Here, –Ệ┞㢖 can be replaced with the higher frequency –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ (see 6.3.10) with little change in meaning.

┺㔲 Ⱖ䞮Ệ┞㢖㧊⻞ ╖㍶㦖䡗ⳛ㧊㠞㔋┞┺. To reiterate, this presidential election was revolutionary.


Ệ❃ ṫ㫆䞮Ệ┞㢖 ⌊㧒㦖㩞╖⪲ ⓼㦒㔲Ⳋ 㞞 ♿┞┺. To emphasize one more time, you simply cannot be late tomorrow.

6.3.6

–O㦒PⳊ㍲

The ending –O㦒PⳊ㍲ is a two-shape ending that cannot be preceded by tense markers. This form functions to link two consecutive actions that are being performed at the same time. This typically translates into English as ‘while’:

⋮⓪ 㞚䂾 ⲏ㦒Ⳋ㍲㔶ⶎ㦚㧓㠊㣪. I read the paper while I eat breakfast. 㦢㞛㦚 ✺㦒Ⳋ㍲ ἶ䟻㦚㌳ṗ䟞㠊㣪. I was thinking of home while listening to music. ₆㹾⯒ 䌖ἶ 㡺Ⳋ㍲ Ὃ⿖⯒ 䟞㠊㣪. I studied while I was coming on the train. This expression also frequently occurs with descriptive verbs while listing complementary features that pertain to the same person, object, etc.:

⁎ ₆㹾⓪ ザ⯊Ⳋ㍲㫡㞚㣪.

The train is fast and nice, too.

㭧ῃ 㦢㔳㦖㕎Ⳋ㍲ ⰱ㧊㫡㞚㣪. Chinese food is cheap and delicious. The one important difference between this expression and the English ‘while’ is that the subject of the two clauses must always be the same. When you are talking about two different actions being performed simultaneously by two different people, you must use the modifier pattern –O㦒Pච ☯㞞 (see 7.2.9) instead. By addition of the particle ☚ (see 3.3.3.6) to form –O㦒PⳊ㍲☚, the meaning is altered to ‘even while’:

㡺ザ⓪ ⓮ ⏖Ⳋ㍲☚ Ὃ⿖⯒ 㧮䟊㣪. My brother, even while always playing, studies well. ⹒㑮⓪ ☞㧊 Ⱔ㦒Ⳋ㍲☚ 㧮㝆㰖㞠㞚㣪. Minsu, even while having a lot of money, doesn’t spend much.

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This composite pattern is similar in meaning to –O㞚/㠊P☚ (see 6.2.5). However, there are two important differences. Firstly, although with –O㞚/㠊P☚ the subject of both clauses may be different, with –O㦒PⳊ㍲☚ they must always be the same. Secondly, with –O㦒PⳊ㍲☚, the two clauses tend to contain actions that are ongoing in nature.

6.3.7

–O㦒PⳆ

The ending –O㦒PⳆ is a two-shape ending that may be preceded by the past tense (see 4.5.1.1) and the future –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1). –O㦒PⳆ is often taken as being a bookish form of –O㦒PⳊ㍲ (see 6.3.6) and rarely occurs in spoken language. Certainly, –O㦒PⳆ can replace –O㦒PⳊ㍲ when describing two simultaneous actions:

㞚䂾㔳㌂⯒ 䞮Ⳇ 㺛㦚⽺┺. [PLAIN] I read a book while I ate breakfast. ṫ㦮⯒ ✺㦒Ⳇ 㭧㣪䞲 ⌊㣿㦚㩗㠞┺. [PLAIN] I took notes while listening to the lecture. When describing simultaneous actions, –O㦒PⳆ is restricted in the same way as –O㦒PⳊ㍲ to situations in which the same person is performing the two simultaneous actions. However, the use of –O㦒PⳆ in formal writing is more widespread than the use of –O㦒PⳊ㍲ in colloquial speech and the function is broader. –O㦒PⳆ is frequently used simply like ‘and’ to list complementary features or actions. Here, usage is most similar to that of –ἶ (see 6.3.1):

䞯ᾦ㠦⓪ 㑮㡗㧻㧊㠜㦒Ⳇ 㤊☯㧻☚ 㠜┺. [PLAIN] At school, there is no swimming pool or sports field. Ṗ㦚㦖㍶㍶䞮Ⳇ 㡂⯚㦖 ▻┺. [PLAIN] It’s cool in autumn and it’s hot in summer. ╖⿖⿚㦖䣢㌂㤦㧊Ⳇ 㧒⿖⓪ ╖䞯㌳㧊┺. [PLAIN] The majority are office workers and the minority are university students. As can be seen in these examples, in this second usage the subjects of the two clauses may be the same or different.

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6.3.8

–㧦OⰞ㧦P

The pattern –㧦OⰞ㧦P is a one-shape ending that cannot be preceded by tense markers. It most frequently occurs with processive verbs. The Ⱎ㧦 element is in fact optional, but frequently occurs in spoken language to add emphasis.


With the –㧦OⰞ㧦P pattern, the event stated in the second clause occurs instantaneously after the event in the first clause is completed, identical to the use of ‘as soon as’ in English:

⌊Ṗ 㩫Ệ㧻㠦㡺㧦Ⱎ㧦 ₆㹾Ṗ ⟶⌂㠊㣪. The train left as soon as I got to the station. ⑫㧦Ⱎ㧦㧶㧊 ✺㠞㠊㣪. I fell asleep as soon as I lay down. 㡺ザṖ 䌚゚䟟₆Ṗ ⟶⋮㧦Ⱎ㧦 ⑞ⶒ㧊 ⌂㠊㣪. Tears came to my eyes as soon as the plane took off with my big brother aboard. ⁎ ㏢㍺㺛㦚㧓₆ 㔲㧧䞮㧦Ⱎ㧦⿞㧊 ℒ㪢㠊㣪. The light went off as soon as I started reading the novel. Although, as noted above, the inclusion of Ⱎ㧦 is optional, –㧦Ⱎ㧦 and –㧦 on its own are not absolutely identical in usage. First, when the second clause contains a command, proposal, suggestion, invitation or request, Ⱎ㧦 is no longer optional and must be included:

㰧㠦 ☚㹿䞮㧦Ⱎ㧦 ⹻㦚 ⲏ㧦. [PLAIN] Let’s eat lunch as soon as we arrive home. 䣢㌂⯒ ⋮㍲㧦Ⱎ㧦䌳㔲⯒ 䌖⧒. [PLAIN] Grab a taxi as soon as you get out of the office. 㫎㠛䞮㧦Ⱎ㧦 ἆ䢒䞶₢㣪f Shall we get married as soon as we graduate? Second, when Ⱎ㧦 is dropped, the immediacy of the expression is lost. Rather than strictly meaning ‘as soon as’, the nuance is often closer to ‘when’ or ‘upon (doing)’. In the first example that follows, for instance, the reminiscing is not something that necessarily took place instantaneously as the speaker heard the song and thus the omission of –Ⱎ㧦 is preferable:

⁎ ⏎⧮⯒ ✹㧦㡱⋶ ㌳ṗ㧊 ⌂㰖㣪. Upon hearing that song I was reminded of days gone by. 㡂⯚㧊 ♮㧦㍶䛣₆Ṗ 㧮䕪⩺㣪. Now it is summer, electric fans are selling well.

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6.3.9

–┺OṖP

The ending –┺OṖP is a one-shape ending that occurs most frequently with processive verbs and may be preceded by past tense marking. Although the full form of this ending is –┺OṖP, there are some usage patterns in which this shortens to –┺, as we shall see later. –┺OṖP has the underlying meaning of ‘transition’. The construction as a whole depicts transition from one action performed in the first clause to a new action or state taking place in the second. Without past tense marking on the first clause, –┺OṖP indicates the interruption of one action and transition to a new and superseding action.

䞲㔲Ṛ ☯㞞㤎┺Ṗ 㧺㠊㣪. I cried for an hour and then fell asleep. 䞮⓮㧊 Ⱗ┺Ṗ ṧ㧦₆ 䦦⩺㪢㠊㣪. The sky was clear and then clouded over. 㫖 ▪ ⏖┺Ṗ Ṗ. [INTIMATE] Hang out with me a bit more and then go. ( stay a bit longer) With verbs that have a natural end point or goal (such as ‘come (somewhere)’, ‘go (somewhere)’, ‘make (something)’, ‘prepare (something)’), the use of –┺OṖP indicates that the first action is still in progress and not yet completed when the second action takes place. This leads to translations in English such as ‘while (doing)’ or ‘in the course of (doing)’ or even ‘was (doing), but’:

㔲㧻㠦 Ṗ┺Ṗ 㤆㼊ῃ㠦 ✺⩖㠊㣪. I stopped off at the post office on the way to the market. 䢞䗮㧊㰖 Ⱒ✺┺Ṗ 䙂₆䟞㠊㣪. I gave up in the course of making a homepage. 㞚㩖㝾Ṗ 㑮⹫㦚䕪┺Ṗ ┺ ⴑ 䕪㞮㠊㣪. The man was selling watermelons, but didn’t sell them all. 㭖゚⯒ 䞮㔲┺Ṗ 㰞ⶎ㧊㧞㦒㔲Ⳋ 㠎㩲✶㰖㩚䢪䞮㎎㣪. If, in the course of getting ready, you should have any questions, call me any time. 294

Included in this usage are descriptions of unexpected events, particularly accidents. The first clause expresses what the person was doing when the

accident took place and the second clause provides the specifics of the mishap.

⥆㠊 Ṗ┺Ṗ ⍮㠊㪢㠊㣪.

I fell down while I was running.

㟒㺚⯒ 㗆┺Ṗ ㏦Ṗ⧓㦚⻶㠞㠊㣪.

I cut my finger while I was chopping vegetables.

㓺䋺⯒ 䌖┺Ṗ ┺Ⰲ⯒ ┺㼺㠊㣪.

I hurt my leg while I was skiing.


When past tense marking is added to –┺OṖP, the resulting –㠞┺Ṗ undergoes an important change in meaning. Instead of being ongoing or unfinished, the first action is now taken as being completed. The completed action then transitions into a superseding action expressed in the second clause. Compare the meanings of the following two sentences, the first without past tense marking and the second with it added:

㔲㧻㠦 Ṗ┺Ṗ 㤆㼊ῃ㠦 ✺⩖㠊㣪. I stopped off at the post office on the way to the market. ( while I was going to the market) 㔲㧻㠦 Ṫ┺Ṗ 㤆㼊ῃ㠦 ✺⩖㠊㣪. I went to the market (first), and then dropped by the post office. In many cases, the content of the second clause is an unexpected consequence that comes about after the completion of the first action:

㏢㭒⯒ Ⱎ㎾┺Ṗ 䞚⯚㧊 ⊠Ỿ⻚⪎㠊㣪. I drank soju and then passed out. Ⱖ㺎ἂ㦚䟞┺Ṗ 㟒┾ ⰴ㞮㠊㣪. I made an uncalled-for remark and was scolded for it. With the past tense marker, the two verbs frequently depict reversible actions such as buy–sell, put on–take off, etc.:

㌞䅊䜾䎆⯒ ㌖┺Ṗ 䕪㞮㠊㣪. I bought a new computer but then sold it (again). 㟧Ⱖ㦚㔶㠞┺Ṗ ⻭㠞㠊㣪. I put on socks and then took them off (again). This use of reversible actions occurs most frequently with the verbs Ṗ– ‘go’ and 㡺– ‘come’ and other similar verbs of motion. In Korean, to emphasize that you are going somewhere and coming back, it is common to express this with Ṫ┺ 㡺– ‘go and come (back)’:

╖㌂ὖ㠦 Ṫ┺ 㢪㠊㣪.

I’ve been to the embassy. ( I went to the embassy and then came back)

㍲㩦㠦 Ṫ┺ 㢂Ợ㣪.

I’ll go to the bookstore and then come back.

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Sentences similar to the last example are frequently used in leave taking, with the final verb taking future tense marking either with –ඥỢ (see 4.5.2.3) or, for an extra level of deference, –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) typically followed by the formal speech style (see 4.3.4). In fact such expressions work even without specifying where you are actually going:

Ṫ┺ 㢂Ợ㣪. [CASUAL-POLITE]

I’m off (and I’ll be back).

Ṫ┺ 㡺Ỷ㔋┞┺. [FORMAL]

I’m off (and I’ll be back).

With reversible actions –┺OṖP can be included after each action and the sentence can then be rounded off by the verbs 䞮– ‘do’ or ⁎⩂– ‘be like that’, depicting a repetitive transition back and forth.

㩖䞶Ⲏ┞⓪ 㡆㎎Ṗ Ⱔ㦒㎪㍲㩫㔶㧊㢪┺ Ṫ┺ 䟊㣪. That granny is old, so sometimes she’s with it, and sometimes she’s not. 㧊䞮⋮Ṗ ⓮ 㞚䕶┺ ὲ㺄㞮┺ 䟊㣪. One of my teeth is always aching off and on. ⿞㦚㧦∎ 䆆┺Ṗ Ω┺Ṗ 䞮㰖 Ⱎ㎎㣪. Stop turning the lights on and off! 㞚㧊✺㧊㧒㠊⌂┺ 㞟㞮┺ 䟊㣪. The children keep standing up and sitting down repeatedly. –┺OṖP can also be preceded by the intentive marker –O㦒P⩺ (see 6.7.2). The resulting construction depicts an intention that was either disrupted or was subsequently changed to another plan:

Ὃ㤦㠦 Ṗ⩺┺Ṗ ゚Ṗ 㢖㍲ ⴑ Ṫ㠊㣪. I was going to go the park, but it rained so I didn’t go. 㩚䢪䞮⩺┺Ṗ 㧊Ⲫ㧒㦚㗒㠊㣪. I was going to phone, but I e-mailed (instead). Also, –┺OṖP frequently follows the pattern –ඥ₢ 䞮– ‘think of doing’ (see 5.4.3). The resultant construction indicates that the speaker was thinking of performing a certain action but then changed his/her mind.

ₖ䂮㹢Ṳ⯒ ⲏ㦚₢ 䞮┺Ṗ ♲㧻㹢Ṳ⯒ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. I was thinking of eating kimchi stew, but ate soybean paste stew (instead). 㥶⹎⯒ Ⱒ⋶₢ 䞮┺Ṗ Ⱒ⋮㰖㞠㞮㠊㣪. I was thinking of meeting Yumi, but (in the end) I didn’t meet her. 296

We now turn to consider another pattern of usage with –┺OṖP: use after the infinitive form rather than the verb stem and with the Ṗ normally

dropped. This pattern marks a transition to a new action that is a logical continuation from an already completed action. One common occurrence of this usage is with the support (auxiliary) verb 㭒– (originally meaning ‘give’). This pattern is used when talking about going somewhere to do something (such as a favour) for the benefit of someone else and is discussed in more detail in the chapter on auxiliary (support) verbs (see 5.1.12).


㏦㡞㰚㝾㦮㕎㧎㫖㠑㠊┺ 㭒㎎㣪. Can you get me Son Yejin’s autograph? ⶒ 㫖 Ṭ┺ 㭒㎎㣪. Go and get me some water. This usage also commonly occurs with the verb ⽊– ‘to see’. As discussed in the chapter on auxiliary (support) verbs (see 5.1.8), this pattern is frequently used when talking about the feelings experienced or discoveries made upon doing something. However, it can also be used in the following expressions that translate as ‘look . . . wards’:

⌊⩺┺ ⽦㣪

look downwards

㢂⩺┺ ⽦㣪

look upwards

☢㞚┺ ⽦㣪

look backwards, turn around and look

⌊┺ ⽦㣪

look out(wards)

6.3.10 –O㦒Pච /⓪◆ The connective ending –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ is one of the most frequently used connectives in Korean and has a host of interrelated usages that could correspond to most or even all of the different connective patterns dealt with in this chapter. Its inclusion under ‘additional’ connectives is for purposes of convenience; ‘addition’ is just one of several meanings that –⓪◆ can take on. For processive verbs, –⓪◆ is added to the base; for descriptive verbs –O㦒Pච◆ is used instead. When the past marker –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) or the future –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) is included, –⓪◆ is always used irrespective of what kind of verb it is attached to. For future tense, in addition to –Ỷ⓪◆ (i.e. –Ỷ– –⓪◆), it is also possible to use –O㦒Pඥ Ị◆ (a fusion of –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2) and –ච◆). For the existential verbs 㧞– ‘exist’ and 㠜– ‘not exist’, the –⓪◆ form is used, giving the forms 㧞⓪◆ and 㠜⓪◆.

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The underlying usage of –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ can be summarized as follows. The first clause provides background information that the speaker then elaborates on or uses as a basis for what he/she states in the second clause. The contents of this second clause may either be simply additional to what is stated in the first clause or they may be consequential or even contradictory to it (however, it must always be logically related). Thus, when translated into English, –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ constructions can be rendered using connective terms as diverse as ‘and’, ‘so’ and ‘but’. Confusing as this may sound, the use of –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ can be quite easily understood if we examine some specific usages in turn. One common time when –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ occurs in conversation is when the speaker needs to provide background information to the hearer regarding the main business that he/she wants to talk about. Although the important information is included in the second clause, the first clause provides background information that is useful to the hearer in understanding the situation. In the first example that follows, for instance, the important information that the speaker wishes to convey is that he/she has come to see the professor. However, he/she first uses the –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ clause to provide some background information (in this case, identifying who he/she is):

㩖⓪ 䞲ῃ 䞯㌳㧎◆, ₖ⹒㑮 ᾦ㑮┮㦚⾞⩂ 㢪㠊㣪. I’m a Korean student and I’ve come to see Professor Kim Minsu. ⋮ ⌊㧒㍲㤎㠦 Ṗ⓪◆, ⶦ ⿖䌗䞶 ộ 㠜⌦f [PLAIN] I’m going to Seoul tomorrow; do you need anything? 㧊㹾⓪ 㣎㩲㹾㧎◆ 㫖゚㕎㣪. This is a foreign car; it’s rather expensive. XY㔲Ṗ ⍮㠞⓪◆ 㥶⹎Ṗ 㞚㰗☚ 㞞㢪㠊㣪. It’s gone 12 o’clock and Yumi still hasn’t come. In sentences such as the last two, the background information provided in the first clause often gives rise to certain inferences on the part of the hearer. To be more specific, the first clause in the third sentence implies that foreign cars are likely to be expensive and the first clause in the fourth sentence implies that 12 o’clock is very late and that Yumi really ought to have come by now.

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One specific context in which the speaker may need to provide this kind of background information is when he/she wants to make it clear to the

hearer how he/she has come by the information he/she is stating or claiming in the second clause:

㩲Ṗ 㰗㩧䢫㧎䟞⓪◆ Ṗỿ㧊㢂⧒Ṫ▪⧒ἶ㣪. I checked myself, and the price has gone up.


㧒₆㡞⽊⯒ ⽺⓪◆ ⌊㧒゚Ṗ 㡾╖㣪. I saw the forecast; they say it’s going to rain tomorrow. Background information is also required when performing commands, proposals, suggestions, invitations and requests. When telling or suggesting to someone that they do something, for example, the speaker often needs to provide a bit of background information to justify the command, suggestion, etc. This information can be conveyed in the –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ clause:

_㔲Ṗ ♮㠞⓪◆ ゾⰂ 䞯ᾦ㠦 Ṗ⧒. [COMMAND, PLAIN] It’s eight o’clock; go to school quickly. ╋╋䞲◆ ⹬㦒⪲ Ṗ㧦. [PROPOSAL, PLAIN] It’s stuffy in here; let’s go outside. 䧮✲㔲Ỷ⓪◆ 㫖㓂ἶ Ṗ㎎㣪. [SUGGESTION] You must be exhausted; have a rest and then go. 㔲⌊㠦 Ṗ⓪◆ ṯ㧊 Ṟ₢㣪f [INVITATION] I’m going into town; would you like to go with me? 㡂₆Ṗ 㔲⊚⩂㤊◆ 㫖 ▪ 䋂Ợ Ⱖ㝖䟊㭒㕃㔲㡺. [REQUEST] It’s noisy here; please speak a bit louder. With some constructions of this kind, some similarity can be noted between the use of –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ and that of the causal connective –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3). However, the connotations of using one or the other are quite different. As can be seen in the English translations in the following examples, whereas with –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ the first clause is just framed as relevant background information, with –┞₢ the clause becomes a direct reason for the speech act performed in the second clause:

⋶㝾Ṗ 㫡㦖◆ Ὃ㤦㠦 Ṟ₢㣪f The weather’s nice; how about going to the park? ⋶㝾Ṗ 㫡㦒┞₢ Ὃ㤦㠦 Ṟ₢㣪f The weather’s nice, so how about going to the park?. What initially appears to be a somewhat separate usage of –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ is to link two clauses that express contrastive meanings. Here, the usage appears to be most similar to contrastive connectives such as –㰖Ⱒ (see 6.2.1). However, the feeling of contrast is not as forceful as that provoked

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by –㰖Ⱒ. Rather than wanting to provide a direct contrast between the contents of the two clauses, the speaker is merely evoking the first state of affairs as relevant background information that happens to be in contrast to the main state or event expressed in the second clause:

㠊㩲⓪ ⋶㝾Ṗ 㫡㞮⓪◆ 㡺⓮㦖゚Ṗ 㢖㣪. The weather was good yesterday, but it’s raining today. Ⱔ㧊 ⲏ㠞⓪◆ 㞚㰗☚ ⺆Ṗ ἶ䕢㣪. I ate a lot, but I’m still hungry. Ỿ㤎㧊㢪⓪◆ ₖ㧻㦚㞚㰗㞞䟞㠊㣪. Autumn has come, but I haven’t made the winter kimchi yet. This contrastive meaning of –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ is also available when the speaker questions whether the hearer is really doing something given the background information stated in the first clause:

⑞㧊㡺⓪◆ Ṗ┞f [PLAIN]

It’s snowing; are you (still) going?

㏣㧊㫡㰖㞠㦖◆ 㑶㦚 Ⱎ㔲┞f [PLAIN]

You have a stomach ache and you’re drinking alcohol?

In order to emphasize the feeling of contrast or contradiction conveyed by contrastive uses of –⓪◆, ☚ can be added to form –O㦒Pච/⓪◆☚. Similar to the –O㞚/㠊P☚ construction (see 6.2.5), ☚ has a similar meaning to ‘although’:

゚Ṗ 㡺⓪◆☚ 㺔㞚㢖㭒㎪㍲ ἶⰯ㔋┞┺. Thank you for coming to see me in spite of the rain. 㡗ⶎὒ⯒ 㫎㠛䟞⓪◆☚ 㡗㠊 ⴑ 䟊㣪. Even though he graduated from an English department, he can’t speak English. This usage can be taken as an abbreviation of the expression –O㦒Pච/ ⓪◆☚ ⿞ῂ䞮ἶ ‘disregarding the circumstance that’:

㿪㤊◆☚ O⿞ῂ䞮ἶP ⋮Ṗ㍲ ⏖ἶ 㕌㠊㣪? You want to go out and play in spite of the cold? 㡊㕂䧞 Ὃ⿖䟞⓪◆☚ O⿞ῂ䞮ἶP 㔲䠮㠦 ⟾㠊㪢㠊㣪. I failed the exam even though I studied hard.

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In addition to occurring as a connective ending, –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ frequently appears as a sentence ending as well. To make such an ending compatible with the polite speech style –㣪 is tacked on the end: –O㦒Pච/⓪◆㣪. In such cases, the omission of the second clause generally communicates the fact that the speaker could elaborate if asked to, has more to say on the topic or is leaving it to the hearer to draw their own conclusions.

One specific situation in which –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ may appear in sentence-final position is when providing a polite but negative response to a question, typically one that is misguided (refer to King and Yeon 2002: 181):

A: 㧒⽎㌂⧢㧊㎎㣪f Are you Japanese?

B: 㞚┢◆㣪. 㭧ῃ ㌂⧢㧎◆㣪. I’m afraid not. I’m Chinese. [Why? Are you looking for a Japanese person?]

A: ₖ ὒ㧻┮ Ἒ㎎㣪f Is section chief Kim here?

B: 㰖⁞ 㞞 Ἒ㔲⓪◆㣪. I’m afraid not. [but would you like me to elaborate?]


Another extension of this circumstantial meaning of –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ is polite exclamations. Such usages usually give rise to certain inferences on the part of the hearer. Examples of possible inferences from the following examples are given in brackets:

⑞㧊 Ⱔ㧊㢪⓪◆㣪H My, we’ve had a lot of snow! [we might have to stay home today] 㡺⓮㦖 ⋶㧊㺎㿪㤊◆㣪H My, what a cold day it is! [we’ll have to take the baby back in] ⰱ㧊㫡㦖◆㣪H My, it tastes great! [and you were telling me it doesn’t look good] ⁎ ㏢ⶎ ✺㠊⽎㧒㧊㠜⓪◆㣪H I’ve never heard that rumour before! [are you sure?] At times –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ may operate in a mode somewhere between a sentence connector and a sentence ending. Applying a special suspensive intonation, the speaker pauses after the first clause and hesitates before continuing. The function of –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ here is to signal to the hearer that the speaker still hasn’t finished, warning him/her not to jump in yet (refer to King and Yeon 2002: 183). When speaking politely, –㣪 may either be included or omitted in this usage:

㡺⓮㦖 ╖┾䧞 ⹪㊲◆ . . . ┺㦢㠦 Ṗ⓪ Ợ ▪ ⌁㰖㞠㦚₢㣪f I’m very busy today . . . wouldn’t it be better to go next time? ⌊㧒゚Ṗ 㡾┺⓪◆ . . . ⁎⧮☚ 㡺㔲⋮㣪f They say it’s going to rain tomorrow . . . despite this, are you going to come? 㧻㦚⽊⩂ Ṗ⓪◆ . . . ⶦ ㌂┺ ✲Ⰺ₢㣪f I’m going grocery-shopping . . . do you want me to get anything for you?

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6.3.11 –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ This two-shape ending is a combination of –O㦒Pඥ 䎆 (which originally expressed future tense) and the copula –㧊 plus the ending –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ (see 6.3.10). The expression basically follows the same usage patterns as –O㦒Pච/⓪◆, with the addition of –O㦒Pඥ 䎆 providing the sense that the content of the first clause is a conjecture rather than a fact.

⹪㊮㔺䎦◆ 㔶ἓ㖾㭒㎪㍲ ἶⰯ㔋┞┺. I guess you must be busy, so thanks for taking the time. 㞚䝢䎦◆ 㧮㺎㦒㔲⍺㣪. It must hurt a lot, but you are putting up with it well. ⿚ⳛ 䢒㧦 Ṫ㦚䎦◆ ㌂㰚㦖 ⑚Ṗ 㹣㠊㭒㠞㠊㣪f I’m sure you went alone, so who took the photo? ┺⯎ 㺛☚ Ⱔ㞮㦚䎦◆ 㢲䞮䞚㧊㺛㦚㍶䌳䟞㦚₢㣪f There must have been many other books, so why on earth did he/she choose this one?

6.4

Optional connectives

Optional connectives are used to list two or more choices or possibilities.

6.4.1

–Ệ⋮

–Ệ⋮ is a one-shape ending that may be preceded by past and future tense markers. In its most basic usage, this ending is used to list two or more alternative actions or states and can be translated as ‘(either . . . ) or’ in English.

㭒Ⱖ㠪 ❇㌆㦚 ṖỆ⋮ Ἶ䝚⯒ 㼦㣪. At the weekends I either go hiking or play golf. 㧊Ⲫ㧒㦚㝆Ệ⋮ 㩚䢪⯒ 䞮㎎㣪. Write me an e-mail or give me a call. 302

⌊Ṗ 㠜㦚 ➢ ㏦┮㧊㺔㞚㡺Ệ⋮ 㩚䢪Ṗ 㡺Ⳋ 㩗㠊 ⚦㎎㣪. If any guest calls or drops by while I’m out, please make a note of it.

It is also possible to attach –Ệ⋮ to both verbs and then to follow the final verb with 䞮– ‘do’:


⌊㧒㡗䢪⯒ ⽊Ệ⋮ ⏎⧮⹿㠦 ṖỆ⋮ 䞮㧦. [PLAIN] Tomorrow let’s either watch a film or go to karaoke. ₠Ệ⋮ ⶒ㌊㧊㎎Ệ⋮ 䞮Ⳋ 㹾⧒Ⰲ ⺆⯒ 䌖㎎㣪. Get on the boat if the water is deep or the current is strong. In addition, this pattern can be used with a pair of verbs of opposite meaning (attached to both verbs, and often followed by –Ṛ㠦) to bring about the meaning ‘whether . . . or . . .’. The implication is that the choice between these two or more predicates is irrelevant or of no consequence and that, rather, the content of the following clause is what is truly important. In this case, the –Ệ⋮ can be shortened to –Ị.

⋶㝾㟒㿻Ệ⋮ O㿻ỊP ▻Ệ⋮ O▻ỊP Ṛ㠦㡞㩫㔲Ṛ㠦 ⟶⋮㧦. [PLAIN] Whether the weather is hot or cold, let’s leave at the regular time. ⌊Ṗ ἆ䢒㦚䞮Ệ⋮ O䞮ỊP 㧊䢒㦚䞮Ệ⋮ O䞮ỊP ⍞䞮ἶ⓪ ㌗ὖ 㠜⓪ 㧒㧊┺. [PLAIN] Whether I get married or I get divorced, it’s nothing to do with you. To create the meaning ‘whether . . . or not’, use the verb Ⱖ– ‘desist’ for the second verb (see 4.2.3):

⁎ ㍶㌳┮㦖䞯㌳✺㧊 ✹Ệ⋮ O✹ỊP ⰦỆ⋮ OⰦỊP 䢒㧦Ⱒ 㟮₆䞮㎎㣪. Whether the students listen or not, that teacher just goes on talking on his/her own. Finally, –Ệ⋮ (again followed optionally by –Ṛ㠦) is used after clauses containing question words such as ⶊ㠝 ‘what’, 㠊❪ ‘where’, ⑚ῂ ‘who’, 㠎㩲 ‘when’ and 㠊⠑Ợ ‘how’ to imply that what is expressed in this clause is of no consequence. Such constructions usually translate into English as ‘whoever’, ‘whatever’, ‘wherever’, etc.:

⌊Ṗ ⑚ῂ⯒ Ⱒ⋮Ệ⋮ Ṛ㠦㌗ὖ䞮㰖 Ⱎ⧒H [PLAIN] Whoever I meet, it’s no concern of yours! ⹒㑮Ṗ 㠊❪ ṖỆ⋮ Ṛ㠦㧎₆Ṗ Ⱔ㞚㣪. Wherever Minsu goes, he is popular.

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6.4.2

–✶㰖

–✶㰖 is a one-shape ending that has the same basic functions as –Ệ⋮ (see 6.4.1). Just like –Ệ⋮, in its most basic function, –✶㰖 operates to link two possibilities. In this usage, it will generally translate as ‘or’ in English:

㧊⻞㡂⯚㠦 ⹎ῃ㠦 Ṗ✶㰖䃊⋮┺㠦 Ṟ Ệ㡞㣪. This summer, we are going to go to the USA or to Canada. 䞲ῃ 㦢㔳㦖⽊䐋 ⱋ✶㰖㰲㣪. Korean food is usually spicy or salty. Again in a similar way to –Ệ⋮ (see 6.4.1), this pattern can be used with a pair of verbs of opposite meaning (attached to both verbs), to bring about the meaning ‘whether . . . or . . .’. In this case, the ending –㰖 can be optionally omitted.

㧦☯㹾Ṗ ゚㕎✶㰖㕎✶㰖㡺⓮㦖㌂㟒䟊㣪. Whether it is expensive or cheap, we have to buy the car today. 㕁✶ 㫡✶ ㍺⋶㧊┞₢ ἶ䟻㠦 Ṗ㟒䟊㣪. Whether you like it or not, because it is Lunar New Year, you have to go to your home town. To create the meaning ‘whether . . . or not’, insert 㞞 before the second verb or use the verb Ⱖ– ‘desist’ instead (see 4.2.3):

゚Ṗ 㡺✶ 㞞㡺✶ 㡞㩫╖⪲ Ṟ Ệ㡞㣪. Whether it rains or not, we are going to go as planned. 㡺✶㰖 Ⱖ✶㰖 Ⱎ㦢╖⪲ 䞮㎎㣪. Whether you come or not, it’s up to you. Next, and again just like –Ệ⋮ (see 6.4.1), –✶㰖 is used after clauses containing question words such as ⶊ㠝 ‘what’, 㠊❪ ‘where’, ⑚ῂ ‘who’, 㠎㩲 ‘when’ and 㠊⠑Ợ ‘how’:

⌊Ṗ ⑚ῂ⯒ Ⱒ⋮✶㰖㌗ὖ䞮㰖 Ⱎ. [INTIMATE] Whoever I meet, just mind your own business. ⶮ ⲏ✶㰖㧮㞏㠊㍲ ⲏ㠊. [INTIMATE] Whatever you eat, just make sure you chew it well. 304

Finally, –✶㰖 has one additional function. Especially in non-honorific speech (or in the polite style (see 4.3.3)), –✶㰖 can sometimes appear as

a sentence-final ending. Sentences ending in –✶㰖 offer advice to the hearer, with this ending framing the advice as just one possible alternative that the hearer may choose from. This translates into English as ‘you could just’:


䞒Ἲ䞮Ⳋ ⁎⌻ Ⲓ㩖㧦✶㰖. [INTIMATE] If you’re tired, you could just go to bed first. 䎪⩞゚㩚㦚 ἶ䂶㑮㠜㦒Ⳋ ⁎⌻ ⻚Ⰲ✶㰖㣪. If you can’t fix the television, you could just throw it away.

6.4.3

–O㦒Pච/⓪㰖 in oblique questions

The oblique question ending –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖 is an ending with separate patterns for processive and descriptive verbs. For processive verbs, simply add the one-shape –⓪㰖; for descriptive verbs, add the two-shape –O㦒Pච㰖 instead. When the past marker –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) or the future –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) is included, –⓪㰖 is always used irrespective of what kind of verb it is attached to. For the future tense, in addition to –Ỷ⓪㰖 (i.e. –Ỷ– –⓪㰖), it is also possible to use –O㦒Pඥ Ị㰖 (a fusion of –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2) and –ච㰖):

Processive

Descriptive

present

ⲏ⓪㰖

past

ⲏ㠞⓪㰖

㡞ㄺ⓪㰖

–Ỷ–

ⲏỶ⓪㰖

㡞㊮Ỷ⓪㰖

–O㦒Pඥ Ệ

ⲏ㦚 Ị㰖

㡞㊶ Ị㰖

eat

㡞㊲㰖

pretty

The –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖 pattern is used for forming what is known as ‘oblique questions’. These are question-like elements that are then embedded within a larger sentence. The larger sentence is rounded off with a cognitive verb such as 㞢– ‘know’, ⳾⯊– ‘don’t know’, ₆㠋䞮– ‘remember’, ㌳ṗ⋮– ‘recall’, 㧠– ‘forget’ or ῗ⁞䞮– ‘wonder’ or otherwise with a verb of telling or asking such as Ṗ⯊䂮– ‘tell’ or ⶑ– ‘ask’. Note that in English, the oblique question element is a complement clause introduced by a question word: ‘whether’, ‘where’, ‘who’, ‘which’, etc.

㥶⹎Ṗ Ὃ⿖䞮⓪㰖

whether Yumi is studying

⑚Ṗ Ṗ⓪㰖

who is going

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㠊❪Ṗ 㞚䝞㰖

where it hurts

㠊ⓦ 㞚㧊Ṗ 㩲㧒 ⡧⡧䞲㰖

which child is the brightest

ⶦṖ ⶪ㰖

what is what

This is how these example oblique questions could be embedded into longer sentences:

㰖⁞ 㥶⹎Ṗ Ὃ⿖䞮⓪㰖㞢㞚㣪f

Do you know whether Yumi is studying now?

⑚Ṗ Ṗ⓪㰖 ῗ⁞䞮⍺㣪.

I wonder who is going.

㠊❪Ṗ 㞚䝞㰖 ⶒ㠊⽊㎎㣪.

Ask where it hurts.

㠊ⓦ 㞚㧊Ṗ 㩲㧒 ⡧⡧䞲㰖 ₆㠋䟊㣪

I remember which child is the brightest.

ⶦṖ ⶪ㰖 ⳾⯊Ỷ㔋┞┺.

I don’t know what is what.

When an oblique question is given with verbs of asking, the sentence essentially means the same as a quoted question (see 9.2.2):

ˀO㦒PචV⓪㰖

Quoted question

㔲Ṛ㧊㧞⓪㰖 ⶒ㠞㠊㣪. I asked if he/she had time.

㔲Ṛ㧊㧞OⓦP⌦ἶ ⶒ㠞㠊㣪. I asked if he/she had time.

㠎㩲 Ṗ⓪㰖 ⶒ㠊⽊㧦. [PLAIN] Let’s ask him/her when he/she is going.

㠎㩲 ṖOⓦP⌦ἶ ⶒ㠊⽊㧦. [PLAIN] Let’s ask him/her when he/she is going.

At times, an oblique question ending with –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖 may appear two or more times in the same sentence. This translates as ‘whether . . . or . . .’ or ‘whether . . . or not’:

㧊Ợ 㑶㧎㰖 ⶒ㧎㰖 ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪. I don’t know whether this is water or alcohol. ゚Ṗ 㡺⓪㰖㞞㡺⓪㰖䞲⻞ ⌊┺ ⽊㎎㣪. Take a look to see whether it’s raining or not.

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㡊㕂䧞㧒䞮⓪㰖㞞䞮⓪㰖Ṗ ⶎ㩲㡞㣪. The question is whether he/she is working hard or not.

Oblique questions can also be used as complete sentences as a way to ask an indirect question. This kind of question tends to occur in formal speech followed by the politeness marker –㣪 and is commonly used in television interviews (as in the first example) and in formal greeting expressions (second and third examples):


⿖㧎ὒ ἆ䢒䞮㔲Ỷ┺⓪ ἆ㕂㦚㠎㩲䞮㎾⓪㰖㣪f When did you resolve to marry your wife? ᾦ㑮┮ ⁎ ☯㞞 Ịṫ䞮㎾⓪㰖㣪f Professor, have you been in good health during that time? 㯦Ệ㤊㿪㍳⽊⌊㎾⓪㰖㣪f Have you had a nice ChusIk?

6.4.4

–O㦒Pඥ㰖 in oblique questions

The oblique question ending –O㦒Pඥ㰖 is a two-shape ending that uses the same form for processive and descriptive verbs. It may occur with the past tense marker –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) but not with the future tense. The use of –O㦒Pඥ㰖 is essentially the same as –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖 (see 6.4.3): it works to embed an oblique question within a sentence. However, unlike –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖, –O㦒Pඥ㰖 contains a feeling of conjecture. In other words, the contents of the question are not a fact that can be verified, but merely a guess, opinion or subjective viewpoint.

⁎ ㌂⧢㧊㠊⟺ 㦢㔳㦚㫡㞚䞶㰖㩚䡖 ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪. I have no idea what kind of food he would like. ὒ㡆㥶⹎Ṗ ⶦ⧒ἶ 䟞㦚㰖 ῗ⁞䟊㣪. I wonder what Yumi might have said. ⍺Ṗ ⋮⧒Ⳋ 㠊⠑Ợ 䟞㦚㰖 Ⱖ䟊⽦. [INTIMATE] Tell me what you would have done if you had been me. In the same way as –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖, –O㦒Pඥ㰖 may also appear twice in the same sentence to present two possible alternatives:

㩖㡂㧦Ṗ 䞲ῃ ㌂⧢㧒㰖㞚┦㰖㠊⠑Ợ 㞢㞚㣪f How can you tell if that woman might be Korean or not? One particular usage of –O㦒Pඥ㰖 occurs when the pattern is followed by the particle –☚ ‘also, even’ (see 3.3.3.6) and then the verb ⳾⯊– ‘not know’. Literally meaning, ‘I don’t know whether even’, the pattern is used

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idiomatically to express a possibility in a similar way to how English speakers may use a word such as ‘might’:

㔲㧻㠦㍲⓪ ゚㕖㰖☚ ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪. It might be expensive at the market. ⋲ 㠊㲢Ⳋ ἆ䢒䞶㰖☚ ⴆ⧒㣪. I might perhaps get married. ⍞ⶊ ₊㧻♒㍲㝆⩂㰞㰖☚ ⴆ⧒㣪. Because I’m so nervous, I might collapse. 㤪  㢂⩺╂⧒ἶ 䞮Ⳋ 䟊ἶ䞶㰖☚ ⴆ⧒㣪. If I ask for a pay rise, I might get fired. –O㦒Pඥ㰖 may also be used sentence-finally, followed by –㣪 in the polite speech style (see 4.3.3). Sentences such as these are typically used when the speaker is in a state of doubt over an issue or course of action

㠊⠑Ợ 䞮Ⳋ 㫡㦚㰖㣪f What might be the best thing to do? ㍶㌳┮㧊㠊❪ Ṗ㎾㦚㰖f [INTIMATE] Where might teacher have gone?

6.4.5

–O㦒Pඥ⧓GⰦ⧓GO䞮ˀP

In this pattern, the two-shape ending –O㦒Pඥ⧓ is attached to the main verb. This is then followed by the negative verb Ⱖ– ‘desist’ (see 4.2.3) and a repetition of the same –O㦒Pඥ⧓ ending. This can then be followed by another clause or, frequently, just by the verb 䞮–. The pattern expresses incompletion; that something is on the verge of happening or is almost happening but ultimately has failed to come to fruition.

⋶㝾⓪ ゚Ṗ 㢂⧓ Ⱖ⧓ 䞮⍺㣪S The weather keeps looking like it’s going to rain. [without it actually raining yet] 㧶㧊 ✺⧓ Ⱖ⧓ 䞶 ➢ ⹬㠦㍲㏢ⰂṖ ✺⩺㍲ ⃒㠊㣪. Just as I was about to fall asleep, I heard a sound from outside and woke up. 㡆㧎✺㧊 ✺Ⰺ⧓ Ⱖ⧓ 䞲㧧㦖㏢Ⰲ⪲ ㏣㌃㡖㠊㣪. The lovers were whispering in a quiet voice that could barely be heard.

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⁎ 㡂⺆㤆⓪ 㠟▿㧊Ṗ ⽊㧒⧓ Ⱖ⧓ 䞲 ✲⩞㓺⪲ 㧊⳿㦚 ⊢㠞㠊㣪. The actress attracted attention by wearing a dress that almost revealed her behind.

6.5

Conditional connectives


Conditional connectives combine a condition expressed in the first clause that must be satisfied in order for the state of affairs in the second clause to come into effect.

6.5.1

–O㦒PⳊ

–O㦒PⳊ is a two-shape ending: it is attached to consonant bases as –㦒Ⳋ and to vowel bases as –Ⳋ. It may be preceded by past and future tense markers. As in the following examples, –O㦒PⳊ has the basic meaning of ‘if’:

㡺⓮ 㡺䤚㠦 ⋶㧊㫡㦒ⳊSGὋ㤦㠦 Ṗ⩺ἶ 䟊㣪. If it’s nice this afternoon, I’m thinking of going to the park. 㡺⓮ 㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㦒Ⳋ ⌊㧒 Ⱒ⋮㣪. If you don’t have time today, let’s meet tomorrow. ⰺ㤊㦢㔳㦚 ⲏ㦒Ⳋ ⺆Ṗ 㞚䕢㣪. If I eat spicy food, I get a stomach ache. The use of –O㦒PⳊ is not strictly limited to conditional situations as is the case with English ‘if’. As well as occurring with situations that are hypothetical, –O㦒PⳊ can also occur with situations that are certain to take place. In such examples, –O㦒PⳊ tends to translate better as ‘when’ rather than ‘if’:

⽚㧊㡺Ⳋ ↙㦚⽊⩂ ⋮Ṟ Ệ㡞㣪. When spring comes, I’m going to go out and see the flowers. ⁎⌻ ]㔲 ♮Ⳋ 䑊⁒䟊⻚Ⰺ₢ ㌳ṗ 㭧㧊㠦㣪. When it gets to six o’clock, I’m thinking of just going home (from work). In other examples, –O㦒PⳊ may translate as ‘given that’ or ‘seeing as’:

䡫㧊Ⳋ 䡫╋Ợ 䟟☯䟊㟒 ♒㣪. Seeing as you are the older brother, you have to act as such. ⋶Ⱎ┺ 䞮⬾㠦 XW⿚㧊Ⳋ 㓓Ợ 㣿☞ ⻢㧊⓪ 䞶㑮㧞㠊㣪. Given just ten minutes a day, you can earn some extra cash. With the addition of past tense marking, the resultant construction –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ displays some different patterns of usage. Firstly, it can simply be used when talking about a past event or situation. This frequently occurs

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when the speaker is expressing his/her regret that a certain state of affairs failed to materialize; in such cases, the sentence-final verb is often marked with –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ (see 8.11) or –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2) preceded by past tense marking:

㫆⁞Ⱒ 㧒㹣 Ṫ㦒Ⳋ Ⱒ⋶ 㑮㧞㠞㦚䎦◆/㧞㠞㦚 Ệ㡞㣪. If I had just gone a little earlier, I could have met him/her. 䋺Ṗ 㫖 ▪ 䅎㦒Ⳋ ⳾◎㧊 ♶ 㑮㧞㠞㦚䎦◆/㧞㠞㦚 Ệ㡞㣪. If I had only been a little taller, I could have become a model. In sentences such as these, –O㞮/㠞P▪⧒Ⳋ (see 6.5.5) is frequently used instead. In addition, –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ can be used when expressing regret that a desired present situation differs from reality. In such cases, –O㞮/㠞P▪⧒Ⳋ (see 6.5.5) cannot be used instead.

䞲ῃⰦ㦚㧮䟞㦒Ⳋ 㤦㧊㠜Ỷ㠊㣪. If I could only speak Korean well, I would have nothing else to wish for. There are a number of special uses for the conditional that lead to English translations quite different from word-for-word versions of the Korean. These are discussed in the following subsections.

6.5.1.1

–O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡–

An –O㦒PⳊ sentence ending with 㫡– ‘good’ literally means ‘if . . . happens, it would be good’. In practice, this is used to express a hope or wish (‘I wish’; ‘I hope’). In the case of wishes that differ from present reality (or hopes that are somewhat far-fetched), the addition of the past tense marker is common, producing the construction –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡–. As in the following examples, –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡– is most commonly followed by the ending –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1). Otherwise, to provide a tinge of regret, –O㦒P⩾Ⱒ (see 8.12) may be used instead:

㠊㍲ ⹿䞯㧊㡺Ⳋ 㫡Ỷ㠊㣪. I hope the vacation will come soon. 㠒Ὴ㦖㫖 ▪ 㧧㞮㦒Ⳋ 㫡Ỷ㠊㣪. I wish my face were a little bit smaller. 310

㰧㧊㫆⁞Ⱒ ▪ ⍩㠞㦒Ⳋ 㫡㦒⩾Ⱒ. I wish the house were a little bit bigger.

–O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡Ỷ– is also employed like the English ‘shall’ in sentences such as the following:

ⶊ㓾 ṖỢ㠦 ṖⳊ 㫡Ỷ㠊㣪f

Which store shall we go to?

㠎㩲䞮Ⳋ 㫡Ỷ㠊㣪f

When shall we do it?


These sentences can also express mild obligation:

Ὃ⿖⯒ 㫖 ▪ 䞮Ⳋ 㫡Ỷ㠊㣪.

You should study a little more.

With the addition of 㠒Ⱎ⋮ ‘how’, –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡Ỷ– comes to mean ‘how wonderful it would be if’. In this pattern, in place of –Ỷ–, –O㦒Pඥ₢ (see 8.9) may be used instead.

㔲Ṛ㧊 Ⱔ㧊㧞㠞㦒Ⳋ 㠒Ⱎ⋮ 㫡Ỷ㠊㣪. How wonderful it would be if we had a lot of time! ゚Ṗ 㡺㰖㞠㞮㦒Ⳋ 㠒Ⱎ⋮ 㫡㦚₢㣪f How wonderful it would be if it doesn’t rain!

6.5.1.2

–O㦒PⳊ ἶⰯỶ–

A conditional verb in –O㦒PⳊ followed by the future form ἶⰯỶ㠊㣪 means literally ‘if you do so-and-so, I would be grateful’. This is a polite way of requesting that someone do something:

㧒㹣㫖㡺㔲Ⳋ ἶⰯỶ㠊㣪. I’d appreciate it if you’d come a little early. ザ⯎ ╋⼖㭒㔲Ⳋ ἶⰯỶ㔋┞┺. I would be grateful for your quick reply. [to letter, e-mail, etc.] 㡆⧓㻮⯒ ⋾Ỿ ⏩㦒㔲Ⳋ ἶⰯỶ㔋┞┺. I would be grateful if you could leave your contact details.

6.5.1.3

–O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 䞮–

–O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 䞮– has a similar flavour to –O㦒PⳊ ἶⰯỶ– (see 6.5.1.2). It is a formal way of asking someone to do something, normally corresponding to English patterns such as ‘I should be grateful if’:

㫖 ▪ 㡊㕂䧞㧒䟊㭒㎾㦒Ⳋ 䞿┞┺. I should be grateful if you would work a bit harder. ┺㔲䞲⻞㖾㭒㎾㦒Ⳋ 䟊㣪. I should be grateful if you would write it one more time.

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6.5.1.4

–O㦒PⳊ ♮–

Here –O㦒PⳊ is followed by the verb ♮–, which literally means ‘become’, but here can be understood better as ‘work’, ‘okay’, ‘all right’, etc. The construction as a whole thus literally means ‘if you . . . , it is okay/is all right/will do’. In practice, the construction is used when talking about satisfying a minimum requirement and commonly translates into English as ‘be enough/sufficient’.

㠒ⰞⳊ ♒㣪f ^ 㧊㩫☚Ⳋ ♒㣪. How much will do? ^ This much will do. 㔲䠮㦚⽊₆ 㩚㠦㧊㺛Ⱒ㦚㧓㦒Ⳋ ♒㣪. Before you take the exam, it will be sufficient just to read this book. ┺⯎ ㌂⧢ ệ㩫䞮㰖 Ⱖἶ ⍞Ⱒ 䀾㰗䞮Ⳋ ♒. [INTIMATE] Don’t worry about other people; it’s enough if you just get a job. The expression is also used when talking and asking about the requirements regarding how to do something:

㡾⧒㧎㦒⪲ 䞮⩺Ⳋ 㠊⠑Ợ 䞮Ⳋ ♮⋮㣪f If I want to do it online, what do I need to do?

6.5.1.5

–O㦒PⳊ 㞞 ♮–

Here, –O㦒PⳊ ♮– (see 6.5.1.4) is made negative by the addition of 㞞 (see 4.2.1). The resultant construction literally means ‘if you . . . , it is not okay/ is not all right/will not do’. This expression is used when denying someone permission or when telling someone what they should/must not do:

⍞ⶊ ⓼Ợ 㧒㠊⋮Ⳋ 㞞 ♒. [INTIMATE] You shouldn’t get up too late. ⓼Ợ₢㰖䎢⩞゚㪒㦚⽊Ⳋ 㞞 ♒. [INTIMATE] You are not allowed to watch TV until late. 㟓㏣㦚㧠Ệ⋮ 㠊₆Ⳋ 㞞 ♒㣪. You must not forget or break your promise. 䦷㡆㧦✺㦚 ⍞ⶊ 㬚㧎䀾 䞮Ⳋ 㞞 ♒㣪. You should not treat smokers like criminals. 312

To express the opposite meaning, in other words to grant permission, use the expression –㞚/㠊☚ ♮– (see 6.2.5.1).

6.5.1.6

–㰖㞠㦒Ⳋ 㞞 ♮– / 㞞 . . . Ⳋ 㞞 ♮–


In this pattern, a negative is added before the –O㦒PⳊ 㞞 ♮– construction discussed in the previous subsection (see 6.5.1.5). The negative may be formed either through long negation (see 4.2.2) or short negation (see 4.2.1). The resultant construction literally means ‘if you don’t . . . , it is not okay/is not all right/will not do’. Basically, this is a convoluted way of saying that you have to or must do something.

Long negation

Short negation

Ὃ⿖䞮㰖㞠㦒Ⳋ 㞞♒㣪. Ὃ⿖⯒ 㞞䞮Ⳋ 㞞 ♒㣪. You ought to study. ( If you don’t study, it won’t do) 䡫㦮 Ⱖ㦚 ✹㰖㞠㦒ⳊG㞞 ♒㣪.

䡫㦮 Ⱖ㦚㞞 ✺㦒Ⳋ 㞞 ♒㣪. You must do as older brother says. ( You must listen to older brother’s words) 㠦⍞㰖䣾㥾㦚 ⏨㧊㰖G㞠㦒Ⳋ 㞞 ♲┺. We have to raise energy efficiency.

㠦⍞㰖䣾㥾㦚㞞 ⏨㧊Ⳋ 㞞 ♲┺. [PLAIN]

The obligation this construction expresses is stronger than the more generic obligation construction –O㞚/㠊P㟒 ♮/䞮– (see 6.5.7.1) or expressions of hope or wishes with –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡Ỷ– (see 6.5.1.1).

6.5.2

–┺Ⳋ /ˀ⧒Ⳋ

This construction sees the conditional form –O㦒PⳊ preceded by quotation patterns (see 9.2). It literally means ‘if you say that’, ‘if it is said that’, ‘if it is true that’ or ‘if it is the case that’. This construction is first of all used when the speaker quotes a previous statement (typically made by the hearer) in the conditional sentence:

A: 㧎䢎Ṗ 㢂 ộ ṯ㞚. [INTIMATE] I think Minho is coming. B: 㧎䢎Ṗ 㡾┺Ⳋ 㢲㩚䢪☚ 㞞䟞㠊f [INTIMATE] If (you say) he is coming, why hasn’t he even phoned?

313


A: ⹎⋮Ṗ ἆ䢒䞲╖㣪. They say that Mina is getting married. B: 㩫Ⱖ㧊㣪f ⹎⋮Ṗ ἆ䢒䞲┺Ⳋ 䋆㍶ⶒ㦚㭖゚䟊㟒Ỷ⍺㣪. Really? If (it’s true that) Mina is getting married, we’ll have to get a big present ready for her. However, the pattern can also be used with other hypothetical conditionals. The use of the quotative gives the sense that what is being expressed in the first half of the sentence is merely being taken as a hypothesis that may not necessarily turn out to be true:

㌂⧢㠦Ợ 䞲 Ṗ㰖 ⳿䚲Ṗ 㧞┺Ⳋ ⁎Ị ㌂⧧㧒 Ệ㡞㣪 If it is true that humans only have one goal, then that (goal) must be love. ⿗䞲㧊䟋ⶊ₆Ṗ 㧞┺Ⳋ 㧒⽎㠦䋆㥚䡧㧊 ♒㣪. If (it is true that) North Korea has nuclear missiles, it is a big threat to Japan. In some circumstances, the speakers choice of –┺Ⳋ/–⧒Ⳋ over the simple –O㦒PⳊ may signal that the speaker doubts the truth of a certain state of affairs. Compare the following:

–O㦒PⳊ

–┺Ⳋ/ˀ⧒Ⳋ

⹎⋮Ṗ 㡺Ⳋ 㧊㧒㦚䞶㑮㧞㠊㣪. If/when Mina comes, we can do this job.

⹎⋮Ṗ 㡾┺Ⳋ 㧊㧒㦚䞶㑮㧞㠊㣪. If Mina really comes, we can do this job.

6.5.3

–O㦒P⩺Ⳋ

This ending contains –O㦒P⩺ (see 6.7.1), which expresses intention, followed by the conditional –O㦒PⳊ. The pattern translates as ‘if you intend to’ or ‘if you want to’:

⿞㠊⯒ ⺆㤆⩺Ⳋ 䝚⧧㓺㠦 Ṗ㟒 ♒㣪. If you want to learn French, you have to go to France. ㌊㦚ヒ⩺Ⳋ ⏏㹾⯒ Ⱎ㎪⧒. [PLAIN] If you want to lose weight, drink green tea. 㡂䟟゚㣿㦚㞚⋒⩺Ⳋ 㹲㰞⹿㠦㍲㧦⧒. [PLAIN] If you want to save on travel expenses, sleep at the sauna. 314

Note that this ending can be pronounced with an extra ඥ as [–O㦒Pඥ⩺Ⳋ] in colloquial speech and may even be written as such.

6.5.4

–┺OṖPG⽊Ⳋ


This pattern combines the auxiliary verb pattern –┺ ⽊– ‘after trying doing’ (see 5.2.1) with the conditional –O㦒PⳊ. The meaning is basically: ‘if you do something for a while, then’ or ‘if one does something over a period of time [and then steps back to reflect on it]’. Here are some examples:

㶟 Ṗ┺ ⽊Ⳋ 㡺⯎ 㴓㠦㧞㠊㣪. If you carry straight on [for a while], it’s on the right. 㧦∎ Ⱒ⋮┺ ⽊Ⳋ 㞢Ợ ♶ Ệ㡞㣪. If you meet him frequently, you’ll come to realize it. ㌂㠛㦚䞮┺Ṗ ⽊Ⳋ ⁎⩊ ➢Ṗ ┺ 㧞㠊㣪. If you try doing business for a while, there are plenty of times like that. 㡂⩂ ⻞ ✹┺ ⽊Ⳋ ⶊ㓾㏢Ⰲ㧎㰖 ✺㦚㑮㧞㦚 Ệ㡞㣪. If you listen to it several times, you’ll be able to make out what they’re saying.

6.5.5

–O㞮 /㠞P▪⧒Ⳋ

This pattern is formed by adding the conditional ending –O㦒PⳊ to the observed past tense –▪⧒– (see 4.5.1.3). This is always preceded by a verb in the past tense. The pattern is used exclusively for talking about past events that are hypothetical or did not take place. Although this may also be communicated simply by using a past tense conditional (see 4.5.1.1), the application of –㞮/㠞▪⧒Ⳋ places more emphasis on the speaker’s feeling of regret. The second clause usually contains the ending –㦚䎦◆ (see 8.11) or –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2) preceded by the past tense.

㧦☯㹾⯒ 䌖ἶ 㢪▪⧒Ⳋ, 㔲Ṛ㧊㫖 ▪ 㧞㠞㦚 Ệ㡞㣪. If we had taken a cab (here), we would have had a little more time. 㡺⓮ 㡺䤚㠦゚Ṗ 㢪▪⧒Ⳋ, Ὃ㤦㠦 Ṗ㰖 Ⱖ⧒ἶ 䟞㦚䎦◆. [INTIMATE] If it had rained this afternoon, I would have told them not to go to the park. 㰖⁞ 㞢ἶ 㧞⓪ Ỏ ⁎➢☚ 㞢㞮▪⧒Ⳋ ╖䞯ᾦ㠦㍲ Ὃ⿖⯒ 㡊㕂䧞䟞㦚䎦◆㣪. If I had known then what I know now, I would have studied harder at university.

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6.5.6

–Ệ✶

The conditional ending –Ệ✶ is similar in meaning to –O㦒PⳊ (see 6.5.1). However, the usage of –Ệ✶ is different to –O㦒PⳊ in that the second clause is usually a command, proposition or promise.

☞㧊 ⳾㧦⧒Ệ✶ ⋮䞲䎢 Ⱖ 䟊. [PLAIN] If you don’t have enough money, tell me. 䧮✺Ệ✶ 㓂㠞┺ 䞮㎎㣪. If it is hard, rest a little and then do it. 㢍㧊㞞 ⰴỆ✶ 㠎㩲✶㰖 ⹪∎⩂ 㡺㎎㣪. If the clothes don’t fit, come and change them any time. After –Ệ✶, the second clause may also contain a future proposition or conjecture, typically featuring –Ỷ– or –O㦒PඥỆ㠦㣪:

゚Ṗ ⁎䂮Ệ✶ Ỏ㠊 Ṟ Ệ㠦㣪f If it stops raining, will we go on foot? 㞚㧊✺㧊 ╖䞯ᾦ㠦 ṖỆ✶ 㧊㌂⯒ 䞮Ỷ㠊㣪. If the kids enter university, I guess we’ll move. In addition to having a more restrictive usage than –O㦒PⳊ (see 6.5.1), –Ệ✶ also includes a higher degree of certainty than –O㦒PⳊ that the contents of the first clause will actually take place. Thus, in sentences such as the final example above, the speaker is actually fairly confident that his/her kids will go to university. –Ệ✶ can also appear as a sentence-final ending. Since in such cases the usage and meaning is quite distinct, this is discussed separately in the ‘Sentence endings’ chapter (see 8.2).

6.5.7

–O㞚 /㠊P㟒

The verbal connective –O㞚/㠊P㟒 is formed on the infinitive form of the verb. This connective is most commonly heard when it forms the basis for the modal expression –㞚/㠊㟒 ♮–/䞮– ‘must do, have to do’. This expression is dealt with separately (see 6.5.7.1).

316

Otherwise, –O㞚/㠊P㟒 creates a strong condition similar to ‘only if’ in English. This form indicates that the action stated in the first clause is necessary for the action in the second clause to be realized.


Ὃ⿖⯒ 㡊㕂䧞䟊㟒䞿ỿ䞶㑮㧞㠊㣪. You can only pass the exam if you study hard. ⲏ㠊⽦㟒 ⰱ㦚㞢㰖㣪. You have to try it to know what it tastes like. 㧦Ⰲ㠦㞟㞚㟒 ✍ ㌂⧢㧊⽒㑮㧞㠊㣪. You have to sit down for the people [behind] to see. 㞚㧊⯒ ₎⩂ ⽦㟒⿖⳾㦮㦖䡲⯒ 㞢㞚㣪. You have to raise a child to know your debt to your parents. –O㞚/㠊P㟒 may sometimes appear followed by 㠒Ⱎ⋮ ‘how (much)’ and the same verb repeated. In these cases, the expression connotes that the speaker accepts the truth in question, but still questions the extent to which it may really be the case. This is similar to ‘even if we grant that it is [adjective], how [adjective] can it really be?’:

䧮✺㠊㟒㠒Ⱎ⋮ 䧮✺Ỷ㠊. [INTIMATE] Even granted that it is hard, how hard can it really be? ゚㕎㟒㠒Ⱎ⋮ ゚㕎Ỷ㠊㣪. Even granted that it is cheap, how cheap can it really be?

6.5.7.1

–O㞚/㠊P㟒 ♮/䞮–

This pattern combines the –O㞚/㠊P㟒 (see 6.5.7) meaning ‘only if’ and then the auxiliary verb ♮– ‘become’ or 䞮– ‘do’. Literally, this expression means ‘only if you do . . . , will it do’. In practice, this expresses obligation and most typically translates into English as ‘have to’ or ‘must’:

⌊㧒₢㰖㑯㩲⯒ ⌊㟒 ♒㣪. I have to hand in my homework by tomorrow. 㺛㧚㦚㪎㟒 ♒㣪. You have to take responsibility. ⓼㠊㍲㧦☯㹾⯒ 䌖ἶ Ṗ㟒 ♒㣪. It’s late, so I’ll have to go by car. ㌂㧻┮㧊 ⁎ 䣢㦮㠦㺎㡂䞮㎪㟒䟊㣪. The company president has to participate in that meeting.

317


When this construction is applied to a verb in the past tense, it translates as ‘should have done’. This normally indicates obligations that one has failed to meet, or paths of behaviour that would have been better than the one actually taken:

㠊㩲 ⹺㠦㑯㩲⯒ 䟞㠊㟒 ♦㰖Ⱒ, ㏦┮㧊㢖㍲ ⴑ䟞㠊㣪. I should have done my homework last night, but a guest came, so I couldn’t. 㰚㧧 Ⱖ㦚䟞㠊㟒䟞㠊. [INTIMATE] You had to say something earlier. In spoken language some constructions that combine –㞚/㠊㟒 ♮/䞮– with other verb endings can be contracted. Namely, when –㞚/㠊㟒 ♮/䞮– is followed by the ending –㰖– (see 8.16) indicating shared knowledge or with –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1) expressing future tense or conjecture, the ♮/䞮 element can be dropped and the resulting construction can be written as one word:

Full form

Contracted form

Ṗ㟒䞮㰖㣪

m

Ṗ㟒㰖㣪

Ṗ㟒䞮Ỷ㠊㣪

m

Ṗ㟒Ỷ㠊㣪


ゾⰂ Ṗ㟒Ỷ㠊㣪.

I’ll have to hurry along.

⌊㧒 ┺㔲㢖⽦㟒Ỷ㠊㣪.

Guess I’ll have to come again tomorrow.

╊⺆⯒ ⊠㠊㟒㰖㣪.

I have to stop smoking, you know.

Ⱖ㦖㫆㕂䟊㟒㰖. [INTIMATE] You have to watch what you say, you know.

6.5.8

–O㞚 /㠊P㍲㟒

–O㞚/㠊P㍲㟒 is a combination of the causal connective –O㞚/㠊P㍲ (see 6.1.1) with the –㟒 ending from –O㞚/㠊P㟒 (see 6.5.7). Combining the sequential meaning of –O㞚/㠊P㍲ with the meaning of ‘only’ provided by –㟒, this ending means ‘only upon’ or ‘only after’:

⋮㧊Ṗ ✺㠊㍲㟒⿖⳾┮㦮 Ⱖ㝖㦚㧊䟊䞮Ợ ♮㠞㠊㣪. Only after becoming older have I come to understand the words of my parents. ⹺㧊 ⓼㠊㍲㟒゚⪲㏢ ⹒䢎Ṗ ☢㞚㢪㠊㣪. Only after the night had become late did Minho come back. ( Minho didn’t come back until late at night) 318

YW㎎₆㠦 ✺㠊㢖㍲㟒 ╖䞯 ᾦ㥷㧊㔲㧧♮㠞㠊㣪. Only when the twentieth century came did university education start.

6.5.9

Causative connectives

–O㦒PⳊ . . . –O㦒Pඥ㑮⪳

This pattern is formed by repeating the same verb twice in succession. The first occurrence of the verb is followed by the conditional ending –O㦒PⳊ (see 6.5.1); the second occurrence is followed by the ending –O㦒Pඥ㑮⪳. The first occurrence of the verb (i.e. the occurrence with –O㦒PⳊ) can usually be dropped, particularly in set expressions (see the following examples). This pattern is used in expressions with a similar structure to English expressions such as ‘the bigger the better’ or ‘the more the merrier’:

䋂Ⳋ 䋊㑮⪳ 㫡㞚㣪.

The bigger the better.

⁎ 㧊㟒₆⓪ ✺㦒Ⳋ ✺㦚㑮⪳ 㨂⹎㧞㠊㣪. The more I hear that story, the more interesting it is. ☞㦖 Ⱔ㦒Ⳋ Ⱔ㦚㑮⪳ 㝆⓪ ộ㧊㠦㣪. The more money you have, the more you spend. ⁎ 㧦☯㹾⓪ ⽊Ⳋ ⽒㑮⪳ ㌂ἶ 㕌㠊㣪. The more I look at that car, the more I want to buy it. Two set expressions that occur with this pattern are ⋮㧊⯒ ⲏ㦚㑮⪳ ‘as you get old’ and 㔲Ṛ㧊 Ṟ㑮⪳ ‘as time goes by’. With these set expressions, the first verb is more commonly dropped.

㔲Ṛ㧊 Ṟ㑮⪳ 㡗ῃ㧊㫡㞚㪎㣪.

As time goes by, I come to like England.

⋮㧊⯒ ⲏ㦚㑮⪳ ⤇⤇䟊㪎㣪.

The older I get, the fatter I get.

In the expression 㔲Ṛ㧊 Ṟ㑮⪳ ‘as time goes by’, 㔲Ṛ ‘time’ may also be dropped without any change in meaning. Ṟ㑮⪳ also frequently appears preceded by other nouns to express something going by or continuing:

Ὃ⿖Ṗ Ṟ㑮⪳ 㠊⩺㤢㪎㣪. The more we study, the more difficult it gets. 㞚䝚Ṗ┞㓺䌚㦮㌗䢿㧊 Ṟ㑮⪳ 㥚䠮䟊㰖ἶ 㧞┺. [PLAIN] The more the Afghanistan situation goes on, the more dangerous it gets.

6.6


Causative connectives link an action in the first clause that causes, forces, makes or permits the state of affairs in the second clause to take place. One additional expression of similar meaning, –O㦒Pඥ 㩫☚⪲ is dealt with elsewhere under modifier clauses (see 7.2.25).

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6.6.1

–Ợ

This ending –Ợ, which is a one-shape ending that cannot be preceded by tense markers, is dealt with elsewhere under discussions of adverbs (see 10.2.1.2). When preceded by a descriptive verb, the resultant construction forms adverbs such as ⰱ㧞Ợ ‘deliciously’, 㨂⹎㧞Ợ ‘interestingly’ and 㡞㊮Ợ ‘prettily’:

㥶⹎Ṗ 㡞㊮Ợ 㤙㠞㠊㣪 Yumi smiled prettily. However, when –Ợ is attached to processive verbs, the resultant construction takes on quite a different meaning: ‘so that’ or ‘in a manner that’:

⳾⚦Ṗ ✹Ợ 䋆㏢Ⰲ⪲ Ⱖ䟞㠊㣪. I spoke in a loud voice so that everyone could hear. ⳿㧊䎆㰖Ợ ⏎⧮⯒ ⿞⩖㠊㣪. I sang so that my throat exploded. ( I sang until I was hoarse) ⿖⳾┮℮㍲䘎㞞䧞 Ἒ㔲Ợ 㤆Ⰲ✺㧊㔶ἓ㦚㖾㟒䟊㣪. We have to take pains so that our parents are comfortable. In casual speech, the clause containing –Ợ may sometimes be postponed until the end of the sentence:

䋆 ⁖㝾⪲ 㝆㎎㣪, ⳾⚦Ṗ 㧮⽊Ợ. Write in large letters, so everyone can see. In addition, in sentence-final position, –Ợ can adopt some additional functions. First, it is used in a similar way to the ending –O㦒P⩺OἶP (see 6.7.2) when enquiring about the intentions of the hearer:

⁎ ☞㦚 ┺ 㠊❪㠦㝆Ợf [INTIMATE] How are you intending to spend all that money? 㢲⻢㖾䆪䔎⯒ 㧛㦒㎎㣪f 㰧㠦 Ṗ㔲Ợ㣪f Why are you putting your coat on already? Are you intending to go home?

320

Second, the ending is used at the end of conditional question sentences (see 6.5). In such conditionals, satisfying the condition stated in the first clause would naturally lead to the content of the second clause taking place. However, in reality, failure or inability to satisfy the condition has

led to the second state of events failing to take place. In such circumstances, –Ợ communicates a feeling of sarcasm:


⌊Ṗ 䎢┞㓺⯒ ⁎⩝Ợ 㧮㼺㦒Ⳋ 䎢┞㓺㍶㑮Ṗ ♮㠞Ợf [INTIMATE] If I had played tennis that well, would I have become a tennis player? ⹎⋮Ṗ Ⱎ㦢㠦 ✲⓪ ㌂⧢㧊㧞㦒Ⳋ ⻢㖾 ἆ䢒䟞Ợf [INTIMATE] If Mina had someone she liked, would she have already got married?

6.6.2

–Ợ⊪

This ending combines –Ợ (see 6.6.1) with the intensifier –⊪. The addition of –⊪ adds extra emphasis to the need for the hearer (or person being referred to) to take utmost care to perform the action in the first clause as specified in order for the contents of the second clause to take place:

⿖⳾┮㧊㞞㕂䞮Ợ⊪ 㧮 Ⱖ㝖 ✲⪎㠊㣪. I explained everything to my parents well so that they would feel at ease. ✍ 㧒㧊㠜Ợ⊪ 㧮㻮Ⰲ䞮㎎㣪. Manage the matter carefully so there will be no trouble later. ┺㔲 ἶ㧻⋮⓪ 㧒㧊㠜Ợ⊪ 㧮 ἶ㼦㭒㎎㣪. Please repair it perfectly so that it will not get broken again.

6.6.3

–☚⪳

The one-shape connective –☚⪳ cannot be preceded by tense markers. It has three different usages. First, in its most basic usage it is similar to –Ợ (see 6.6.1), –Ợ⊪ (see 6.6.2) and –O㦒Pඥ㩫☚⪲ (see 7.2.25) in expressing the meaning ‘so as to’, ‘so that’, ‘in a manner that’, etc.:

㧠㠊⻚Ⰲ㰖㞠☚⪳ ⽋㔋㦚 Ⱔ㧊䞮㎎㣪. Please revise a lot so that you won’t forget (what you have studied). ⹿㼃ṳ㧊 ✺㦚㑮㧞☚⪳ 㧒⿖⩂ 䋂Ợ Ⱖ䟞㠊㣪. I intentionally spoke in a loud voice so that the audience could hear me. 㞴㦒⪲ ⓼㰖㞠☚⪳ ⏎⩻䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺ I will try not to be late in future.

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Second, it is used with expressions related to time to show that an action continued ‘until’ a certain time. It is particularly used when this time is late or the action continues longer than what may more often be the case.

㠊㩲 ⹺ ⓼☚⪳ Ὃ⿖䟞㠊㣪.

I studied until late last night.

䟊Ṗ ⥾☚⪳ 㧺㠊㣪.

I slept until sunrise.

⹺㌞☚⪳ 㧊㟒₆䟞㠊㣪

We stayed up all night talking.

Finally, –☚⪳ can be followed by the verb –䞮 ‘do’ to form the expression –☚⪳ 䞮– . This expression is first of all used to mean something similar to ‘make sure’ in orders (‘make sure you’), proposals (‘let’s make sure we’) and promises (‘I will make sure I’):

㦢㭒⯒ ㌒ṖO䞮P☚⪳ 䞮㎎㣪. Make sure you avoid alcohol. 䌳㔲㠦㍲ ⌊Ⰺ ➢ Ṳ㧎㏢㰖䛞㧮㺯₆☚⪳ 䞿㔲┺. Let’s make sure we take all our personal belongings when we get out of taxis. 㞴㦒⪲ 㫆㕂䞮☚⪳ 䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺. I will make sure I am more careful in future. –☚⪳ 䞮– can also be used in causatives (see 4.6.2.3).

6.7

Intentive connectives

Intentive connectives express an intention in the first clause that is made possible by performing the action stated in the second clause of the sentence. Refer to Chapter 4 for more discussion of ways to express intentions (see 4.5.2).

6.7.1

322

–O㦒P⩂

–O㦒P⩂ is a two-shape ending that only occurs with processive verbs and cannot be preceded by tense marking. In the first clause, the speaker states an action that he/she (or the referent of the sentence) intends to perform. The second clause states where the speaker (or the referent of the sentence) went/came to perform the said action. As such, the second clause can only contain Ṗ– ‘go’, 㡺– ‘come’ or compound verbs derived from them:

㡃㦒⪲ 䂲ῂ⯒ Ⱒ⋮⩂ Ṫ㠊㣪. He’s gone to the station to meet a friend.

Intentive connectives

㩦㕂 ⲏ㦒⩂ 㔳╏㠦 Ṗ㣪. I’m going to the cafeteria to eat lunch. ⏖⩂ 㡺㎎㣪. Come over to play. ( have fun, hang out, relax) 䘎㰖⯒ 㝆⩂ 㥚䂋㦒⪲ 㢂⧒Ṫ㠊㣪. He’s gone upstairs to write a letter. Note that –O㦒P⩂ cannot be used when you are talking about doing something else apart from going or coming in order to perform an action. If you want to use other verbs, you will have to use another intentive connective: –O㦒P⩺OἶP (see 6.7.2) or –₆ 㥚䞮– (see 2.2.4.6).

6.7.2

–O㦒P⩺OἶP

This intentive ending is a two-shape ending, with –O㦒P⩺OἶP attached to verb stems that end in a consonant and –⩺OἶP attached to vowels. The ἶ element is optional. One of the most common occurrences of –O㦒P⩺OἶPG is with 䞮– ‘do’ (or optionally ⁎⩂–) in the second clause to create –O㦒P⩺OἶP 䞮: an expression of future intention dealt with elsewhere (see 4.5.2.4). Let us examine the other uses of –O㦒P⩺OἶP as a verbal connective. In the first clause, the speaker states an action that he/she (or the referent of the sentence) intends/intended or desires/desired to perform. The second clause states an action that the speaker (or the referent of the sentence) is undertaking in order to perform the said action. Unlike –O㦒P⩂ (see 6.7.1), this second clause may contain any processive verb

㩖⓪ 䞲ῃ㠦 Ṗ⩺ἶ 㰖⁞ 䞲ῃⰦ㦚 Ὃ⿖䞮ἶ 㧞㠊㣪. I’m learning Korean with the intention of going to Korea. 䌳㔲⯒ 㧷㦒⩺ἶ [W⿚ ₆┺⪎㠊㣪. I waited 40 minutes to get a taxi. 㡂㎅㔲㠦㧒㠊⋮⩺ἶ 㧒㹣㧺㠊㣪. I went to bed early intending to get up at six o’clock. In colloquial speech, the clause containing –O㦒P⩺OἶP may often be postponed to the end of the sentence (or may appear on its own):

㤊☯ ₆ῂ⯒ 㢲㌖㠊㣪f ㌊㦚ヒ⩺ἶf [INTIMATE] Why did you buy the exercise equipment? To lose weight?

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In sentence-final position, –O㦒P⩺OἶP may take on one further function in casual speech. It is used to express extreme doubt on the part of the speaker that the content of the sentence is possible in reality (similar to English ‘Could . . . really?’). The clause frequently contains the adverb ㍺Ⱎ, which intensifies the expression of disbelief:

㍺Ⱎ 䢒㧦㍲㌒Ἇ㌊ XW㧎⿚㧊⋮ ⲏ㦒⩺ἶf [INTIMATE] Could someone really eat ten portions of pork belly on their own? ㍺Ⱎ ☯㌳㧊㠎┞⽊┺ 䋺Ṗ 䋂⩺ἶf [INTIMATE] Could the little sister really be taller than the older sister? In place of the –ἶ part of –O㦒P⩺OἶP, it is also possible to include other connective endings. First, when expressing a past intention that was then abandoned or not followed to completion, the transitional marker –┺OṖPG can be attached (see 6.3.9):

䢒㧦 Ṗ⩺┺Ṗ 䂲ῂ䞮ἶ ṯ㧊 Ṫ㠊㣪. I was going to go alone, but I went together with my friend. 㟧㭒⯒ Ⱎ㔲⩺┺Ṗ ⍞ⶊ ゚㕎㍲㏢㭒⯒ Ⱎ㎾㠊㣪. I was going to drink whisky, but it was so expensive that I drank soju. Second, when the first clause contains a hypothetical situation, –O㦒P⩺ can be followed by the conditional endings –O㦒PⳊ (see 6.5.1) (or –Ệ✶ (see 6.5.6)). The resultant construction means ‘if you intend to’ and is discussed elsewhere (see 6.5.3): Third, –㦒⩺ can also occur followed by the suppositional expression –⋮ ⽊– (see 5.5.1) to express conjecture about a future situation:

⌊㧒゚Ṗ 㡺⩺⋮ ⽦㣪.

It looks like it’s going to rain tomorrow.

Fourth, –㦒⩺ can be followed by the causal connectives –O㦒P┞ (see 6.1.4) and –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3). This expresses causation based on something that is going to occur in the future:

⌊㧒䕢䕆⯒ 䞮⩺┞₢ 㢖㧎㦚 Ṗ㰖ἶ 㡺㎎㣪. Since (we are) going to have a party tomorrow, bring wine with you. Note that –㦒⩺ can be pronounced with an extra ඥ as [–O㦒Pඥ⩺] in colloquial speech and may even be written as such.

6.7.3

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–ἶ㧦

–ἶ㧦 is a one-shape connective ending that has the same basic function as the more common –O㦒P⩺OἶP (see 6.7.2). It is used to link an action

in the first clause that the speaker is carrying out in order to achieve a goal stated in the second clause. In comparison with –O㦒P⩺OἶP, –ἶ㧦 occurs more frequently in formal speech or writing.

Comparison connectives

ₖ ㌂㧻┮㦚 Ⱒ⋮ ⾯ἶ㧦㡂₆₢㰖㢪㔋┞┺. I’ve come all this way to meet President Kim. ⳝ Ṗ㰖㡂㶯ἶ㧦㧊⩝Ợ Ⲫ㧒㦚 ✲Ⱃ┞┺. I’m writing this e-mail in order to ask you a few things. ㌞⪲㤊 ⳾㔋㦒⪲ ┺㔲 Ệ❃⋮ἶ㧦㡊㕂䧞 ⏎⩻䞮ἶ 㧞㔋┞┺. I’m trying hard to turn over a new leaf. –ἶ㧦 frequently occurs simply with 䞮– ‘do’ in the second clause to create a sentence expressing future intention: ‘I intend to’. The resulting construction is basically a more formal version of future tense –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮– (see 4.5.2.4).

㧊⻞ ⹲䚲㠦㍲⓪ ⁎ Ṳ⎦㦚 Ṛ┾䧞㍺ⳛ䞮ἶ㧦䞿┞┺. In this presentation, I intend to briefly explain that concept. 㧊㧦Ⰲ⯒ ア⩺㍲㩖㦮㧛㧻㦚 Ⱖ㝖✲Ⰲἶ㧦䞿┞┺. I intend to take advantage of this opportunity to explain our position.

6.8


In what we call ‘comparison’ connectives, a comparison is made between two states of affairs. Frequently, whereas the contents of the second clause are factual, the contents of the first clause are figurative or hypothetical.

6.8.1

–❅㧊

This connective ending takes on the meaning ‘as if’ or ‘just as’. It is used first when comparing one thing to another in a figurative way:

➖㦚゚㡺❅㧊䦮⩺㣪. He/she is dripping with sweat as if it were raining. ῂ⯚㦖㿺㦚㿪❅㧊㤖㰗㡖㠊㣪. The clouds moved just like they were dancing. ⋮㦮㧦㥶Ṗ ㏢㭧䞮❅㧊 ⋾㦮㧦㥶☚ ⡧ṯ㧊㏢㭧䟊㣪. Just as my own freedom is precious, so is the freedom of other people.

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The construction is also frequently used in expressions such as ‘as you know’, ‘as I just said’ or ‘as you see’.

┺ 㧮㞚㔲❅㧊 ┺㦢 ╖䣢⓪ ⿖㌆㠦㍲㡊Ⰺ 㡞㩫㧛┞┺. As you all know, the next convention is planned to be held in Busan. 㞚₢ Ⱖ㝖 ✲⪎❅㧊䞯ᾦⰞ┺ ┺ ┺⯛┞┺. As I just said, it is different in every school. In these examples, –❅㧊 can be replaced by –┺㔲䞒 (see 6.8.2).

6.8.2

–┺㔲䞒

This one-shape ending –┺㔲䞒 is similar in meaning to –❅㧊 (see 6.8.1); in other words, it normally translates as ‘(just) as’. However, the usage is much more restricted. –┺㔲䞒 is generally only used with verbs that are connected to perception, such as 㞢– ‘know’, ⽊– ‘see’, ✹– ‘hear’, ⓦ⋒– ‘feel’ and 㰦㧧䞮– ‘guess’:

㞚㔲┺㔲䞒 ⌊㧒 Ὃ㔳 ₆㧦䣢ἂ Ṭ㦚 ỗ┞┺. As you know, we will have an official press conference tomorrow. ⽊㔲┺㔲䞒 ῂ䡫⽊┺ 䤾㞂 ▪ ㎎⩾♮㠞㔋┞┺. As you can see, it is much more stylish than the old model. ✺㦒㎾┺㔲䞒䣢㦮Ṗ ⌊㧒 `㔲⿖䎆㔲㧧♿┞┺. As you have heard, the meeting starts tomorrow at 9 o’clock. 㡂⩂⿚✺㧊㧊⹎ ⓦ⋒㔲┺㔲䞒㌞䟊㠦⓪ Ⱔ㦖⼖䢪Ṗ 㡞㌗♿┞┺. As you may already have sensed, the New Year is expected to bring many changes. This construction is similar, in meaning, to using –O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ (see 2.2.6) followed by the particle 㻮⩒ (see 3.3.6.1), which is a more common choice in casual speech:

⌊Ṗ 㞚₢ Ⱖ䞲 ộ㻮⩒ ⋮☚ 㻮㦢㠦⓪ 㞞 ⹕㠞㠊㣪. As I just said, even I didn’t believe it at first. Although –┺㔲䞒 is most commonly used with verbs of perception, it may occasionally occur with other verbs. On these occasions, the sentence takes on a figurative meaning:

㏢Ⰲ⯒ 㰖⯊Ⳇ ⋶┺㔲䞒 ⥆㠞㠊㣪. Screaming loudly, he/she ran as if he/she were flying. 326

Ệ㦮㕎㤆┺㔲䞒㏢Ⰲ䂮⓪ ⳿㏢Ⰲ⪲ ⏎⧮⯒ ⿞⩖㠊㣪. He/she sang in a screeching voice as if he/she were fighting.

Figurative uses of –┺㔲䞒 may at times be followed simply by 䞮– ‘do’. In such instances, the whole sentence or clause takes on the meaning ‘it is as if’ or ‘practically’.


㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ ☚㍲ὖ㠦㍲㌊┺㔲䞒䞮⍺㣪. Yumi practically lives in the library. 㣪㯮㦖 ⋶Ⱎ┺ ゚Ṗ 㡺┺㔲䞒䞮⍺㣪. These days, it is as if it rains every day.

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Chapter 7

Modifiers

Overview Modifiers refer to words or phrases that are used to modify (i.e. elaborate, describe, clarify, identify, delimit) a noun or noun-like phrase. In English, modifiers typically include the use of adjectives before the noun (pink sweater, pretty girl) or relative clauses that follow the noun (the sweater that I wore yesterday, the girl who bought me lunch). In Korean since adjectives also operate as verbs (‘descriptive verbs’), the process of forming modifiers follows just one pattern. Verbs, both descriptive and processive, are placed before the noun and are put into a special modifier form. The current chapter describes the formation of various modifier forms and then analyses sentence patterns in which they appear as an integral part.

7.1

Modifying forms

Korean has four basic modifying forms, which differ in terms of tense: 1 2 3 4

the the the the

future/prospective modifier dynamic modifier state/result modifier retrospective modifier

–O㦒Pඥ –⓪ –O㦒Pච –▮

It is also possible to combine the future/prospective modifier and the retrospective modifier with the past tense marker 㞮/㠞 to create two more possibilities: 328

5 the past retrospective modifier 6 the past prospective modifier

–O㞮V㠞P▮ –O㞮V㠞P㦚

Except for the dynamic modifier –⓪, all of these forms can occur with either descriptive or processive verbs:

Form

Descriptive verb

Processive verbs

1

–O㦒Pඥ

㕖ộ thing that will be cheap

ⲏ㦚 ộ thing I will eat/thing to eat

2

–⓪

–

ⲏ⓪ ộ thing I am eating

3

–O㦒Pච

㕒ộ cheap thing

ⲏ㦖 ộ thing I have eaten

4

–▮

㕎▮ ộ thing that was cheap

ⲏ▮ ộ thing I was eating

5

–O㞮V㠞P▮

㕢▮ ộ thing that used to be cheap

ⲏ㠞▮ ộ thing I ate before/ thing I used to eat

Modifying forms

Over the following sections, the structure and usage of these forms are described in turn.

7.1.1

Future/prospective modifier –O㦒Pඥ

The future/prospective modifier is a two-shape verb ending, with –㦚 attached to verb bases that end in a consonant and –ඥ attached to those that end in a vowel. Although this form can be attached to descriptive verbs, this usually only occurs in certain specific constructions (see 7.2). Future/prospective modifiers are used when the content of a modifying expression depicts a state of affairs that will take place in the future (i.e. when talking about something that will be worn, read, hot, far, etc.):

⌊Ṗ 㕂㦚 ↙

the flowers that I’m going to plant

Ὃ⿖⯒ 䞶䞯ᾦ

the school where you are going to study

㫎㠛䞶 ⋶

the day we’ll graduate

㡗㠊⯒ Ṗ⯊䂶㌂⧢

a person who is going to teach English (or: a person whom (I) am going to teach English to)

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7 Modifiers

Here are some examples of these in full sentences:

⌊Ṗ 㕂㦚 ↙㦖㡂⯚㧊 ♮Ⳋ 䞚 Ệ㡞㣪. The flowers that I’m going to plant will bloom in the summer. Ὃ⿖䞶䞯ᾦ⓪ ⹪⪲ 㧊 Ὁ㧊㠦㣪. The school where you are going to study is this place right here. 㫎㠛䞶 ⋶㧊 Ṗ₢㤢㰖⍺㣪H The day we’ll graduate is getting closer! 㡗㠊⯒ Ṗ⯊䂶㌂⧢㦖䞲ῃ ㌂⧢㧊㠦㣪. The person who is going to teach English is Korean. (or: The person whom (I) am going to teach English to is Korean) When followed by ㌂⧢ ‘person’ or ⿚ ‘person (honorific)’, the future modifier construction may also translate as ‘people who want to’ or ‘people who plan to’:

㩖⎗㠦䄺䞒 ✲㔺⿚㦖㡂₆ 㡺㎎㣪. People who are planning to drink coffee this evening, please come this way. In some contexts, the prospective modifier can also translate as ‘to’ (‘thing to eat’, ‘person to meet’, etc):

ⲏ㦚 ộ㧊㠜㠊㣪.

We haven’t got anything to eat.

Ⱒ⋶ ㌂⧢㧊㧞㠊㣪.

I have someone to meet.

㞚䕢䔎㧚╖䞮㔺⿚㦚㺔㔋┞┺.

I’m looking for someone [a tenant] to rent an apartment.

7.1.2

Dynamic modifier –⓪

The one-shape ending –⓪ is used to denote a dynamic ongoing action and thus cannot appear with descriptive verbs or the copula. It connotes an action that is in progress, ongoing, currently taking place, or happening habitually (something that is (being) worn, read, etc.):

330

ⲏ⓪ ㌂⧢

the person who is eating

㧮䕪Ⰲ⓪ 㧦☯㹾

the car which is selling well

⋾㧦Ṗ 䞮⓪ Ⱖ

what the man says

Ṗ㫇✺㧊 ┺┞⓪ ᾦ䣢

the church that my family attend


Modifying forms

⹻㦚ゾⰂ ⲏ⓪ ㌂⧢㦚㕁㠊䟊㣪. I hate people who eat quickly. 㾲⁒㠦 Ṗ㧻㧮䕪Ⰲ⓪ 㧦☯㹾㹾㫛㦖 ⶊ㠝㧎Ṗ㣪f Which make of car do you reckon is selling the best these days? ⁎ ⋾㧦Ṗ 䞮⓪ Ⱖ㦚 ⹕㰖 Ⱖἶ 䞮⓪ 䟟☯㦚⽊㎎㣪. Instead of listening to what that man says, take a look at how he behaves. Ṗ㫇✺㧊 ┺┞⓪ ᾦ䣢㠦 Ṗἶ 㕌㠊㣪. I want to go to the church that my family attend. Although –⓪ cannot occur with descriptive verbs, it can occur with the existential verbs 㧞– ‘exist’ and 㠜– ‘not exist’. Note that 㧞⓪ and 㠜⓪ are frequently used in cases where no such expression is required in English or when English uses ‘with’ or ‘without’ instead:

䟊⼖Ṗ ⹪⪲ 㡜㠦㧞⓪ 㔳╏㠦㍲㩦㕂㦚 ⲏ㠞㠊㣪U We ate lunch at a restaurant (which is) right next to the coast. 㔏㣿㹾㠜⓪ ㍲㤎 ỆⰂ⓪ 㠊⟺ ⳾㔋㧊㠞㦚₢㣪f What would the Seoul streets have looked like without any private cars? This usage extends to the following descriptive verb constructions that include 㧞–/㠜– as an integral part:

–㧞┺

–㠜┺

ⰱ㧞⓪

ⰱ㠜⓪

tasty/not tasty

㨂⹎㧞⓪

㨂⹎㠜⓪

interesting, fun/boring

ⲡ㧞⓪

ⲡ㠜⓪

stylish/not stylish

7.1.3

State/result modifier –O㦒Pච

The state/result modifier is a two-shape verb ending, with –㦖 attached to verb bases that end in a consonant and –ච attached to those that end in a vowel. The –O㦒Pච modifier depicts a state or a result that still has present consequences. From this underlying meaning, the meaning and usage of –O㦒Pච is quite distinct depending on whether it occurs with descriptive verbs (or the copula) or with processive verbs.

331

7 Modifiers

With descriptive verbs (or the copula), it connotes a present or ongoing state:

⍩㦖㰧

house which is wide ( large)/a large house

㠊⩺㤊䞲ῃ㠊 ⶎ⻫

difficult Korean grammar

㦖䟟㤦㧎 ₖ㥶⹎

the Kim Yumi who is a banker

゚⻫㞚┢ ゚⻫

a secret which is not a secret

Here are some examples of these in full sentences:

⍩㦖㰧㦒⪲ 㧊㌂⯒ Ṗἶ 㕌㠊㣪. I want to move to a large house. 㠊⩺㤊䞲ῃ㠊 ⶎ⻫㦚㠊⠑Ợ ┺ ⺆㤎㑮㧞㦚₢㣪f How can I ever learn all this difficult Korean grammar? 㦖䟟㤦㧎 ₖ㥶⹎ 㝾Ṗ 㺔㞚㡺㎾㠊㣪. The Kim Yumi who is a banker has come. 㩖㦮゚⻫㞚┢ ゚⻫㦚 ὋṲ䟊⽛┞┺. We are going to make public the secret which is not a secret. With processive action verbs, on the other hand, –O㦒Pච connotes an action that has taken place in the past. This past action generally has relevance to a current state of affairs. This is particularly the case for verbs which when used in the past tense tend to communicate a present state (see 4.5.1.1) such as in the following examples. ἆ䢒䞲㌂⧢ thus means ‘a person who has got married’ (and is therefore married now) rather than simply ‘a person who got married (some time in the past)’:

ἆ䢒䞲㌂⧢

a person who has got married ( a married person)

㑮㡗⽋㦚㧛㦖㡂㧦 a woman who has put on a swimming costume ( a woman who is wearing a swimming costume) 㧮㧋㦖 ἶ₆

meat that has been well done ( well-done meat)

㖿㦖㧊

a tooth that has decayed ( a decayed tooth)


332

㧒㹣 ἆ䢒䞲㌂⧢ὒ ⓼Ợ ἆ䢒䞲㌂⧢ 㭧㠊ⓦ 㴓㧊 ▪ 䤚䣢䞮₆ 㓂㤢㣪f Between a man who got married early and a man who got married late, who is more likely to regret it?

㑮㡗⽋㦚㧛㦖㡂㧦✺㧊 Ⱔ㞮㠊㣪. There were many women wearing swimming costumes.

Modifying forms

㧮㧋㦖 ἶ₆⯒ ῂ㤊 ₖ䂮㢖䞾℮ ⰱ㧞Ợ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. I enjoyed eating the meat that was well done with fried kimchi. 㖿㦖㧊 ➢ⶎ㠦 ⹺㠦㰚䐋㩲⯒ Ⱔ㧊 ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. I took a lot of painkillers at night because of my decayed tooth. With other verbs as well, the meaning of –O㦒Pච tends to have present significance. ⲏ㦖 ἶ₆ more commonly means ‘the meat I have eaten (and is still in my stomach!)’ rather than simply ‘the meat I ate (at some time in the past)’. Likewise, ⲏ㦖㌂⧢ more commonly means ‘the person who has eaten (and is therefore not hungry now)’ rather than simply ‘the person who ate (at some time in the past)’.

ⲏ㦖㌂⧢

person who has eaten (or: who ate)

㝊䘎㰖

the letter which I have written (or: I wrote)

㭓㦖㌂⧢

a person who has died (or: who died); a dead person

⺆㤊 ộ

thing that I have learned (or: that I learned)


㰖⁞ 㩦㕂㦚 ⲏ㦖㌂⧢☚ 㧞Ỷ㰖Ⱒ 㩖⓪ 㞚㰗 ⴑ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. There must be many people who have eaten lunch by now, but I haven’t yet. ㏦㦒⪲ ⁖㦚㝊䘎㰖⯒ ⹱⓪ ộ㦖㺎㯦Ệ㤊㧒㧊㠦㣪. It is really nice to receive a letter that has been written by hand. 㭓㦖㌂⧢㧊㌆㌂⧢ὒ ㏢䐋䞶㑮㧞㠊㣪f Can a dead person communicate with the living? 㞚㧊Ṗ ㌳₊ 䤚⺆㤊 ộ㧊 Ⱔ㞮㠊㣪. There are many things I have learned since I had a child.

7.1.4

The retrospective modifier –▮

The one-shape modifier –▮ can occur with both processive and descriptive verbs. With processive verbs, it connotes an action or a state that was previously taking place and that was progressive in nature rather than finished or completed. This most typically translates in English into ‘which has been’ or ‘which was being’.

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㔶ⶎ㦚㧓▮ ㌂⧢

the person who was reading a newspaper

㡺⨁☯㞞 Ⱒ⋮ἶ 㕌▮ ㌂⧢

a person who I had wanted to meet for a long time

㠊㩲 Ⱎ㔲▮ 㑶

the alcohol we were drinking yesterday [but didn’t finish]

㌊▮ 㰧

the house where we were living/where we used to live

Here are some more examples of these in sentences:

㔶ⶎ㦚㧓▮ ㌂⧢㦖䋆㏢Ⰲ⪲ 㤙㠞㠊㣪. The person who was reading a newspaper laughed in a loud voice. 㡺⨁☯㞞 Ⱒ⋮ἶ 㕌▮ ㌂⧢㧊㡺⓮ 㢪㠊㣪. Someone I’ve been wanting to see for a long time has come today. 㠊㩲 Ⱎ㔲▮ 㑶㧊㫖 ⋾㞮㠊㣪. There is some of the booze left which we were drinking yesterday. 㡂₆⓪ 䞲ῃ 㻮㦢㢪㦚 ➢ ㌊▮ 㰧㧊㠦㣪. This is the house where we lived when we first came to Korea. When used with descriptive verbs, –▮ indicates a situation that continued for a period of time but has now changed:

㥶ⳛ䞮▮ Ṗ㑮

the singer who used to be famous

㿻▮ ⋶㝾

the weather that used to be cold

⺇Ⱒ㧻㧦㧊▮ ₖ ㌂㧻

President Kim, who used to be a millionaire

㞩▮ 㧊

the tooth that was hurting


㥶ⳛ䞮▮ Ṗ㑮Ṗ 㰖⁞㦖 ⓯㠞㠊㣪. The singer who used to be famous is old now. 㠊㩲₢㰖☚ 㿻▮ ⋶㝾Ṗ ➆⦑䟊㪢㠊㣪. The weather that was cold until yesterday became warm. ⳝ ⎚ 㩚₢㰖☚ ⺇Ⱒ㧻㧦㧊▮ ₖ ㌂㧻㧊 Ệ㰖Ṗ ♦㠊㣪. President Kim, who was a millionaire until just few years ago, became a beggar. 334

㞩▮ 㧊⯒ ㆧ㞮㠊㣪. I had the tooth pulled that had been hurting me.

7.1.5

The past retrospective modifier –O㞮 /㠞P▮

Modifying forms

–O㞮/㠞P▮, which combines the past tense marker with the retrospective modifier –▮, depicts an action or a past state that is completed, that no longer applies or that is simply felt to be remote. With descriptive verbs (or the copula), it connotes a previous state that used to be the case in the distant past or a state that has now been altered:

㡱⋶㠦㥶ⳛ䟞▮ ἓ₆ ἶ❇䞯ᾦ

Kyonggi High School, which used to be famous in earlier days

䞯㌳㧊㠞▮ 㔲㩞

the days when I was a student

₎㠞▮ ⲎⰂ

hair that had been long

ⰱ㧞㠞▮ 㧦㧻Ⳋ 㰧

a black bean noodle restaurant that had been tasty


㡱⋶㠦㥶ⳛ䟞▮ ἓ₆ ἶ❇䞯ᾦṖ 㧊㧦Ⰲ㠦㧞㠞㠊㣪. Kyonggi High School, which used to be famous in earlier days, was on this spot. 䞯㌳㧊㠞▮ 㔲㩞㦚㌳ṗ䞮ἶ 㧞㠞㠊㣪. I was thinking of the days when I was a student. ₎㠞▮ ⲎⰂ⯒ 㧦⯊ἶ 㹣㦖㌂㰚㧊㠦㣪. This is a photo I took after cutting my hair which had been long. ⰱ㧞㠞▮ 㧦㧻Ⳋ 㰧㦖 ┺ 㠊❪⪲ ㌂⧒㪢⋮㣪f Where have all the tasty black bean noodle restaurants disappeared to? With processive action verbs, –O㞮/㠞P▮ can take on two different meanings. First, with verbs which when used in the past tense tend to communicate a present state (see 4.5.1.1), –O㞮/㠞P▮ can be used to denote a past state that no longer applies:

ἆ䢒䟞▮ ㌂⧢

a person who was married (but not anymore)

㔶㠞▮ 䞮㧊䧦

the shoes that I wore (but then took off )

⊠㠞▮ ╊⺆

the cigarettes that I had given up (but have now gone back to)

㭓㠞▮ 㡞㑮

Jesus, who had been dead (but was then resurrected)

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㩚㌂㔺䞲⻞ ἆ䢒䟞▮ ㌂⧢㧊ἶ 䢒㧦㌊ἶ 㧞㠊㣪. Actually, I am someone who used to be married and now lives alone. 㠊㩲㔶㠞▮ 䞮㧊䧦㦚 ⡦ 㔶㠞㠊㣪. I put on again the high heels that I had worn yesterday. ⊠㠞▮ ╊⺆⯒ ┺㔲䞒㤢㣪. I have now gone back to smoking the cigarettes that I had given up. 㭓㠞▮ 㡞㑮Ṗ Z㧒㱎㞚䂾㠦⿖䢲䟞┺. [PLAIN] Jesus, who had been dead, was resurrected on the morning of the third day. Second, the use of –O㞮/㠞P▮ can simply imply that the action in question represents a remote past. If the main verb is in the past tense, the modifier clause with –O㞮/㠞P▮ usually implies that the action in this clause took place before that in the main clause. Here are some examples:

㠊㩲㢪▮ ㌂⧢㧊 ⡦ 㢪㠊㣪. That person who came yesterday is here again. ⁎ ㌂⧢㧊㡱⋶㠦䕢䕆㠦 Ṗ㍲ Ⱒ⌂▮ ㌂⧢ 㞚┞㠦㣪f Isn’t that the person we met at that party a long time ago? ‖㔶㦚㴩₆ 㥚䟊㫆㌗✺㧊 ⲏ㠞▮ 㦢㔳㦖 ⶊ㠝㧊㧞⋮㣪f What was the food that our ancestors ate to drive out spirits? 㧎⮮Ṗ 㻮㦢㦒⪲ Ⱎ㎾▮ 㑶㧊䙂☚㭒㡖㠊㣪. The alcohol that the human race first drank was wine.

7.1.6

The past prospective modifier –O㞮 /㠞P㦚

–O㞮/㠞P㦚 combines the past tense marker with the prospective modifier –㦚. Use is limited to certain modifying expressions, notably modifier ộ (see 7.2.1), modifier ộ ṯ– (see 7.2.2), –O㦒Pඥ ➢ (see 7.2.13), –O㦒Pඥ ㄪ䞮– (see 7.2.20) and –O㦒Pඥ㭚㞢–/⳾⯊– (see 7.2.26).

7.2

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Sentence patterns with modifier clauses

Korean contains a number of common sentence patterns that use modifying forms as essential building blocks.

7.2.1

Modifier ộ ‘the fact that’

This pattern combines any modifier form with the bound noun ộ ‘thing’, ‘fact’ (which is frequently abbreviated to Ệ) (see 2.1.2.1):


゚Ṗ 㡺⓪ ộ the fact that it’s raining 㔶ⶎ㦚㧓⓪ ộ the fact that he’s reading the newspaper The pattern is widely used in the same way as a nominal construction to change a verb phrase into a noun phrase. This noun phrase then becomes a constituent of a matrix sentence:

䞒㞚⏎ 䂮⓪ ộ㧊㫡㞚㣪. I like to play the piano. ゚Ṗ 㡺⓪ ộ㦚⽊ἶ 㧞㠊㣪. I’m watching it rain. This usage is discussed in more detail elsewhere (see 2.2.6). The pattern –⓪ ộ may also be followed by the verb 㠊⟶– ‘how about’ in expressions of suggestion or advice. The pattern translates as ‘how about . . . ?’ or ‘why don’t you try . . . ?’

╊⺆⓪ ⊠㦒㔲⓪ ộ㧊㠊➢㣪f Why don’t you try giving up smoking? 㡗䢪⯒ ⽊⩂ Ṗ⓪ ộ㧊㠊➢㣪f How about going to watch a movie? Furthermore, the pattern frequently appears followed by the copula to produce an expression that literally means ‘it is the fact that’. This expression is primarily used in equational sentences, when stating that a noun A ‘equates to’ a noun B (with the second noun being a nominalized verbal expression using modifier ộ).

╖㭧⳿㣫䌫㧊 Ṗ㰖ἶ 㧞⓪ 㧻㩦㦖㌂㤆⋮ 㔲㍺㧊㧞⓪ ộ㧊┺. [PLAIN] The main advantage that public bathhouses possess is the fact that they have a sauna. 㩫Ⱖ 㤦䞮⓪ ộ㦖 ⳾⚦Ṗ 㞞㕎㤆ἶ 䟟⽋䞮Ợ ㌂⓪ ộ㧊㠦㣪. What I really want is for everyone not to fight and to live happily.

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This usage extends to the pattern . . . 㞚┞⧒ . . . –⓪ ộ㧊– meaning ‘A is not B but C’:

㠎㠊⯒ ⺆㤆⓪ ộ㦖㠎㠊㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞⧒ ⶎ䢪₢㰖⺆㤆⓪ ộ㧊㠦㣪. Learning a language is not just learning a language but also learning the culture. 㧦㔶㦮䟟⽋㦖 ┺⯎ ㌂⧢㧊 Ⱒ✲⓪ ộ㧊㞚┞⧒ ⌊Ṗ Ⱒ✲⓪ ộ㧊┺U [PLAIN] My own happiness is not something that is made by other people, but something I make myself. Besides sentences such as these, –⓪ ộ plus the copula frequently occurs in sentences where it adds nothing to the actual meaning and could be deleted. In these cases, the use of the structure has the general function of making the assertion of the speaker more emphatic:

➆⧒㍲ ⹎ῃ㦮 ἓ₆ 䂾㼊Ṗ ☯㞚㔲㞚 ῃṖ 㩚⹮㦒⪲ 䕢 ♮㠞▮ ộ㧊┺. [PLAIN] Thus, it was the case that the US financial stagnation spread to all of the Asian countries. 㓓Ợ Ⱖ䞮㧦Ⳋ 㡾⧒㧎䄺ⷺ┞䕆⯒ 㧊㣿䞮⓪ Ⱎ䅖䕛㦖䋂Ợ ㎇Ὃ䞲 ộ㧊┺. [PLAIN] To put things in simple terms, it is a fact that marketing which has taken advantage of online communities has been a big success. In formal speech or writing (as in the previous examples), as well as making the language sound more emphatic, this modifier also makes the claims of the speaker or writer sound more like an objective fact rather than a subjective claim (similar to the addition of ‘it is the case that’ or ‘it is a fact that’ in English). Notice that, as in the examples above, it frequently appears with expressions of reiteration such as ➆⧒㍲ ‘thus’, 㯟 ‘that is to say’ and 㓓Ợ Ⱖ䞮㧦Ⳋ ‘put simply’. In more colloquial language, use of this pattern also has an emphatic function, but typically without the subjective nuance available in more formal language. In expressions such as the following, modifier ộ emphasizes that the speaker has performed or is performing the action in question.

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A: 㑯㩲䟞㠊f [INTIMATE] Have you done your homework?

B: 㰖⁞ 䞮⓪ Ệ㟒. [INTIMATE] I’m doing it now.

A: 㡺⓮ 䡫㦚 Ⱒ⋮f [INTIMATE] Are you meeting older brother today?

B: 㠊㩲 Ⱒ⋲ Ệ㟒. [INTIMATE] I met him yesterday.

Usage in informal language extends to questions that have an incredulous edge similar in nuance to ‘what on earth . . . ?’ or ‘what do you think . . . ?’ in English.


ⶦ 䞮⓪ Ệ㟒f 㔲⊚⩂㤢. [INTIMATE] What do you think you’re doing? It’s noisy. 㧊㔲Ṛ㠦㠊❪ Ṗ⓪ Ệ㟒f [INTIMATE] Where on earth are you going at this time?

7.2.2

Modifier ộGṯ– ‘it seems that’

This expression combines a verb in any of the six modifier forms, the bound noun ộ ‘thing’, ‘fact’ (see 2.1.2.1) and the verb ṯ– ‘the same, similar, like’. Put together, the expression means ‘it seems that’ or ‘it looks/ sounds like’.

future/prospective modifier

゚Ṗ 㢂 ộ ṯ㞚㣪

it seems that it will rain

dynamic modifier

゚Ṗ 㡺⓪ ộ ṯ㞚㣪

it seems that it is raining

state/result modifier

゚Ṗ 㡾 ộ ṯ㞚㣪

it seems that it has rained

retrospective modifier

゚Ṗ 㡺▮ ộ ṯ㞚㣪

it seems that it was raining

past retrospective modifier

゚Ṗ 㢪▮ ộ ṯ㞚㣪

it seems that it had rained

past prospective modifier

゚Ṗ 㢪㦚 ộ ṯ㞚㣪

it seems that it would have rained

This pattern is extremely popular in spoken Korean. In addition to being used in the original meaning of ‘it seems like’, it is also used when speakers of English would say ‘I think’. Some speakers will use it just to sound vague in situations where there is absolutely no doubt or question of seeming or appearing. For example, while coughing and sniffling, a speaker may say Ṧ₆ ỎⰆ ộ ṯ㞚㣪 ‘I (seem to) have caught a cold’ (refer to King and Yeon 2002: 166).

⁎ 㡗䢪Ṗ 㨂⹎㧞㦚 ộ ṯ㞚㣪. It seems that the movie will be interesting. Ịⰳ㯳㧊㕂䟊㰖⓪ ộ ṯ㞚㣪. My forgetfulness seems to be getting worse.

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㡺⓮㦖 ₆⿚㧊㫡㦖 ộ ṯ㞚㣪. Today he/she seems to be in a good mood. 㩖⓪ ⿞㡺㰫㠊Ṗ ▪ ⰱ㧞▮ ộ ṯ㞚㣪. For me, the pulgogi with squid seemed to taste better. 㥶⹎Ṗ ⁎➢⿖䎆㞚䝚₆ 㔲㧧䟞▮ ộ ṯ㞚㣪. It seems that Yumi had started to be ill from that time. 㫖 ▪ 㡆㔋䞶㔲Ṛ㦚㭒㎾㦒Ⳋ 㫡㞮㦚 ộ ṯ㞚㣪. I think it would have been better if you had given us more time to practise. In addition to being preceded by modifying constructions, it should be noted that ṯ– can occur following nouns as well:

㡂⯚ ṯ㞚㣪.

It feels like summer.

⁎ ㏢⎖⓪ 㻲㌂ ṯ㞚㣪.

That girl is like an angel.

7.2.3

–O㦒PඥGἎ ‘with the combined purpose of’

This pattern is used when listing two or more joint purposes for performing a single action. The first action appears with the connective –ἶ ‘and’ (see 6.3.1) and the second appears with the prospective modifier followed by Ἆ (see 2.1.2.2). This pattern can only appear with processive verbs.

⹪⧢☚ 㚂ἶ 䂲ῂ☚ Ⱒ⋶ Ἆ ⿖㌆㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪. I went to Busan to enjoy the breeze and see my friends, too. 䃋䎢㧒☚ Ⱎ㔲ἶ 㫡㦖㦢㞛☚ ✺㦚 Ἆ 㨂㯞 ⹪㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪. We went to a jazz bar to drink cocktails and listen to nice music. This pattern also appears in an extended form as –O㦚Pඥ Ἆ. . . . O㦒Pඥ Ἆ O䟊㍲P:

㏦㧦☚ ⽒ Ἆ ➎☚ Ⱒ⋶ Ἆ 䟊㍲㢪㠊㣪. I’ve come to see my daughter and see my grandson at the same time. ῂἓ☚ 䞶 Ἆ ₆⿚㩚䢮☚ 䞶 Ἆ 䟊㍲㡂䟟㦚 ⟶⋮⩺ἶ 䟊㣪. I am planning to go on a trip so as to combine some sightseeing with a change of pace. 340

7.2.4

–O㦒PඥGἚ䣣㧊– ‘plan to’

This pattern employs the prospective modifier followed by the noun Ἒ䣣 (篯赸) ‘plan’ and the copula (see 4.1.4). It is used to talk about future plans and intentions.


㧒㭒㧒㠦 ⚦ ⻞㝿 Ⱒ⋮㍲ Ὃ⿖䞶 Ἒ䣣㧊㠦㣪. I plan to meet him/her twice a week and study. 㔲㤪 ╂㠦 ╖㌂┮㧊㤆Ⰲ 䞯ᾦ⯒ ⹿ⶎ䞶 Ἒ䣣㧛┞┺. The ambassador is planning to visit our school in October. ⌊⎚㠦㧒⽎㠦 Ṟ ➢, Ṗ㫇㦚 ◆Ⰲἶ Ṟ Ἒ䣣㧊㠦㣪. Next year when I go to Japan, I plan to take my family. In addition to Ἒ䣣 ‘plan’, similar constructions can be made with the following nouns: 㡞㩫 ‘plan, intention’, ㌳ṗ ‘thought, idea’, 㧧㩫 ‘decision, intention’, ㎞ ‘calculation’, ‘plan’ and Ⱎ㦢 ‘heart, mind’:

㠎㩲㸺 ⟶⋶ 㡞㩫㧊㠦㣪f

When do you plan to leave?

㫎㠛䞲䤚㠦 ☯㟧㠦㍲㧒䞶㌳ṗ㧊㠦㣪.

I plan to work in the Far East after graduating.

䞲ῃⰦ㦚㡊㕂䧞⺆㤎㧧㩫㧊㠦㣪.

I plan to study Korean very hard.

⌊㧒⿖䎆㧒㠦䂮㭧䞶 Ⱎ㦢㧊㠦㣪.

I intend to concentrate on my work from tomorrow.

㞴㦒⪲ 㠊⠑Ợ 䞶㎞㧊㠦㣪f

What are you planning to do from now on?

7.2.5

–O㦒Pච/⓪Gₖ㠦 ‘as long as you’re at it’

This pattern is composed of the dynamic modifier –⓪ or the state/result modifier –O㦒Pච, the bound noun –ₖ (see 2.1.2.4) and the particle 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1). It expresses the meaning ‘seeing as’ or ‘while’:

㔲⌊㠦 ⋮㡾 ₖ㠦㑶㧊⋮ Ⱎ㔲㰖㣪. Seeing as we’ve [already] come downtown, what about having a drink? 䞲ῃ㠦 Ṗ⓪ ₖ㠦㡊䦮㩫☚ Ⲏⶊ⯒ ㌳ṗ㧊㠦㣪. Seeing as I have to go to Korea, I’m thinking of staying ten days. A: 㔲㧻㠦㧶₦ Ṫ┺ 㢂Ợ㣪.

I’m just off to the market briefly.

B: Ṗ⓪ ₖ㠦 ὒ㧒㫖㌂㢖㣪.

While you’re at it, buy some fruit.

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–O㦒Pච/⓪ ₖ㠦 is frequently preceded by the adverb 㧊㢫, which we can translate as ‘anyway’, ‘anyhow’:

㧊㢫㩚䢪䞲 ₖ㠦䞮⋮Ⱒ ⶒ㠊⽊㧦. [PLAIN] While I’ve got you on the line anyway, let me ask you a question.

7.2.6

–⓪ /▮G₎O㠦P ‘on the way to’

This expression combines the word ₎ ‘road’ or ‘street’ with a modifying clause either containing the dynamic modifier –⓪ or occasionally the retrospective modifier –▮. With the dynamic modifier –⓪, the pattern means ‘on the way to/from’:

㤆㼊ῃ㠦 Ṗ⓪ ₎㧊㠦㣪. I’m on my way to the post office. ₆㹾㡃㠦 Ṗ⓪ ₎㠦㧊䘎㰖⯒ ⿖㼦㭒㔺⧮㣪f Would you mind posting this letter for me on your way to the railway station? ᾦ䣢㠦㍲ ☢㞚㡺⓪ ₎㠦㥶⹎⯒ Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪. I met Yumi on my way back from church. In the past tense, –⓪ ₎㠦 can be replaced with –▮ ₎㠦 with little change in meaning:

㰧㠦 Ṗ▮ ₎㠦 ╊⺆䞮⋮ ㌊₢ 䞮ἶ ✍㭒Ⲏ┞ 㰖ṧ㦚㺔⓪◆ 㠜▪⧒ἶ㣪. On the way home, it occurred to me to buy some cigarettes, but when I looked in my pocket for my wallet, I realized it wasn’t there. Ὃ䟃㠦 ⋮Ṗ▮ ₎㠦 ᾦ䐋㌂ἶ⯒ ╏䟞㠊㣪. On the way out to the airport, I had a traffic accident.

7.2.7

ˀO㦒Pච┺㦢 /⛺ /䤚㠦 ‘after’

This pattern combines the state/result modifier on a processive verb with any of three expressions that mean ‘after’: ┺㦢㠦, ⛺㠦 or 䤚㠦 (趒–). The expression links two activities, the second occurring chronologically after the first:

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㡗䢪Ṗ ⊳⋲ 䤚㠦㑶 Ⱎ㔲⩂ 㑶㰧㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪. After the movie finished, we went to a bar to drink.

㦢㞛㦚 ┺ ✺㦖 ⛺㠦㔶ⶎ㦚㧓㠞㠊㣪. After listening to the music, I read the newspaper. 㩦㕂㦚 ⲏ㦖 ┺㦢㠦 ☚㍲ὖ㠦 Ṫ㠊㣪. After I ate lunch, I went to the library.


Note that the pattern with the opposite meaning, –₆ 㩚㠦 ‘before’, is formed on a nominalized form rather than a modifier (see 2.2.4.8).

7.2.8

–⓪ /O㦒PචG╖⪲ ‘in accordance with’

In this pattern, the dynamic or state/result modifier is followed by the bound noun ╖⪲ (see 2.1.2.5). This results in two main patterns of usage. First, the pattern is used similarly to English expressions such as ‘in accordance with’, ‘in conformity with’ or simply ‘as’:

ⓦ⋖ ╖⪲ 㧊㟒₆ 䟊⽊㎎㣪. Speak as you feel. ⁎ ㌂⧢㧊䞮ἶ 㕌㦖 ╖⪲ 䞮Ợ 䟞㠊㣪. I let him do as he liked. ᾦ㑮┮℮㍲ Ⱖ㝖䞮㔶 ╖⪲ 䟞㠊㣪. I did as the professor told me. Second, the pattern is used in a similar way to –㧦 OⰞ㧦P (see 6.3.8) to express the meaning ‘as soon as’:

㞢㞚⽊⓪ ╖⪲ 㩖䞲䎢㧊㟒₆䟊㭒㎎㣪. Tell me as soon as you find out. 㑮㠛㔲Ṛ㧊 ⊳⋮⓪ ╖⪲ Ἵ ☢㞚㡺㎎㣪. Come right home as soon as school is over. ₆䣢Ṗ ╕⓪ ╖⪲ 㺔㞚⾯Ỷ㔋┞┺. I will visit you as soon as an opportunity arises. Note that ╖⪲ can also be used directly after nouns (see 2.1.2.5).

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7.2.9

ˀ⓪G☯㞞 /㌂㧊㠦 ‘while’

This expression typically applies the dynamic modifier followed by ☯㞞 ‘during’ (see 2.1.2.8), or ㌂㧊 ‘interval’. Unlike one other pattern that translates as ‘while’ –O㦒PⳊ㍲ (see 6.3.6), these patterns typically include different subjects in each of the two clauses. Whereas ☯㞞 is used for longer ongoing activities, ㌂㧊 normally occurs with an activity that occupies a shorter time interval:

Ὃ⿖䞮⓪ ☯㞞㠦 ☚⚧㧊 ✺㠊㢪㠊㣪. While I was studying, a burglar came in. ⋾✺㧊 ⏎⓪ ☯㞞㠦㤆Ⰲ⓪ 㧒䟞㠊㣪. While others were playing, we worked. 㞚⻚㰖℮㍲ ⳿㣫䞮㔲⓪ ㌂㧊㠦㏦┮㧊㢪㠊㣪. While my father was bathing, a guest came. 㠚ⰞṖ 㞞⽊⓪ ㌂㧊㠦䡫㧊 ⋾☯㌳㦚 ➢⪎㠊㣪. While mum wasn’t watching, older brother hit younger brother. Occasionally ☯㞞 or ㌂㧊㠦 may occur after the state/result modifier –O㦒Pච. This happens with processive verbs which, when used in the –O㦒Pච form, connote a present resultant state. It is particularly common with the verbs Ṗ– ‘go’ and 㡺– ‘come’ (and compound verbs based on these):

䞯ᾦ㠦 Ṛ ㌂㧊㠦䂲ῂṖ 㰧㠦㢪㠊㣪. While we were away at school, my friend came to my house. ㌂㧻┮㧊 ⋮Ṛ ㌂㧊㠦㞚ⶊ 㧒☚ 㞞䟞㠊㣪. While the boss was out, I didn’t do anything. 㡆㡞㧎㧊 ⳾㧦⯒ 㧶㔲⻭㦖㌂㧊㠦㌂㰚 ₆㧦Ṗ ㌂㰚㦚㹣㠞㠊㣪. While the celebrity had his/her hat off, the photographer took a picture. 㧦Ⰲ⯒ ゚㤊 ☯㞞㠦㭧㣪䞲㩚䢪⯒ ⏩㼺㠊㣪. While I was away from my post, I missed an important telephone call. It should be pointed out that ☯㞞 and ㌂㧊 can also be used directly after nouns:

Z 㧒 ☯㞞 ₆┺⪎㠊㣪. I waited for three days. 344

㓂⓪ 㔲Ṛ ㌂㧊㠦䢎ニ㦚䞮⋮㝿 ⋮⑚㠊 ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. During break time, we shared and ate hoppang.

7.2.10 –O㦒Pඥ /⓪ /O㦒PචG⚻ ‘may or may not’ This pattern combines the prospective, dynamic or state/result modifiers with the bound noun ⚻ (see 2.1.2.9). The pattern appears twice in the same sentence to show an alternation or vague choice between one of two or more contradictory but equally likely states of affairs. The second is usually followed by the negative Ⱖ– ‘desist’ (see 4.2.3).


㧒㦚䞮⓪ ⚻ Ⱎ⓪ ⚻ Ợ㦒⯚㦚䞒㤆ἶ 㧞㠊㣪. He is being lazy; you can’t tell if he is working or not. Ⱖ㦚䞶 ⚻ Ⱖ ⚻ 䞮┺Ṗ 㧛㦚 ┺ⶒἶ Ⱖ㞮㠊㣪. He was on the verge of saying something, but ended up keeping his mouth shut. ⑞㧊㢂 ⚻ Ⱖ ⚻ 䞮⍺㣪. It may snow or it may not.

7.2.11 –O㦒Pඥ /⓪ /O㦒PචG❅ ‘just like’ Here, a modifier is followed by the bound noun ❅ (see 2.1.2.10) and then by another clause. The construction takes on the meaning ‘as if’ or ‘just like’:

㰧㦖㞚ⶊ☚ 㠜⓪ ❅ 㫆㣿䟞㠊㣪. The house is quiet, as if no one is there. 㡺⧲ 䂲ῂ⯒ Ⱒ⋲ ❅ ⹮Ṗ㤶㠊㣪. I was happy as if I was meeting a long-lost friend. ⺆Ṗ 䎆㰞 ❅ Ⱔ㧊 ⲏ㠞㠊㣪.

I ate until my stomach felt like bursting.

The pattern may at times occur twice (on the second occasion with a negative verbal expression) to express uncertainty:

㌳ṗ㧊 ⋶ ❅ Ⱖ ❅ 䞮⍺㣪.

It’s on the tip of my tongue.

䢪㧻㦚䞲 ❅ 㞞䞲 ❅ 㡞ㄺ㠊㣪. She was pretty, whether she was wearing make-up or not. A similar meaning can be conveyed by combining a modifier pattern ộ (see 7.2.1) with the particle 㻮⩒ (see 3.3.6.1), ὒ/㢖 ṯ㧊 or ὒ/㢖゚㔍䞮Ợ. ❅ also forms an integral part of the patterns –O㦒Pඥ/⓪/O㦒Pච ❅䞮/❅ 㕌ˀ (see 7.2.12) and –❅㧊 (see 6.8.1).

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7.2.12 –O㦒Pඥ /⓪ /O㦒PචG❅䞮 /❅㕌– ‘seem like’ In this pattern, a modifying form is followed by ❅䞮– or ❅㕌–. The pattern is used when the speaker is making a conjecture about a present, past or future state of affairs and is similar in meaning to the modifier ộ ṯ– pattern (see 7.2.2) or –O㦒Pඥ/⓪/O㦒Pච ⳾㟧㧊– (see 7.2.16).

⹒䢎㠦Ợ 㞞㫡㦖㧒㧊㧞⓪ ❅䟊㣪. It sounds like something is up with Minho. ⳾✶ 䕢㧒㧊㌃㩲♲ ❅䟊㣪. It looks like all of the files have been erased. 㧊 ⶎ㩲㠦 ╖䟊㍲㞚ⶊộ☚ ⳾⯊㔲⓪ ❅ 㕌㔋┞┺. It seems like you don’t know anything about this problem. 㹿ṗ䞮㔶 ❅ 㕌㔋┞┺. It appears that you have misunderstood.

7.2.13 –O㦒PඥG➢ ‘when’ This pattern combines the prospective modifier form with the bound noun ➢ (see 2.1.2.11), which means ‘when’:

⹻㦚 ⲏ㦚 ➢ ㏢Ⰲ ⌊㰖 Ⱎ⧒. [PLAIN] Don’t make a sound when you eat. 㩖⓪ ₆⿚㧊 ⋮㊶ ➢ ⏎⧮⹿㠦 Ṗ㍲ ⳿㧊䎆㰖☚⪳ ⏎⧮⯒ ⿞⩂㣪. When I’m in a bad mood, I go to karaoke and sing until I am hoarse. 㠊⪎㦚 ➢ 㩲 ∞㦖 Ⱒ䢪ṖṖ ♮⓪ Ệ㡖㠊㣪. When I was young, my dream was to become a cartoonist. 㰧㠦 ☚㹿䟞㦚 ➢ 㞚ⶊ☚ 㠜㠞㠊㣪. When I arrived home, there was no one there. The expression can also be followed by Ⱎ┺ ‘every’ to mean ‘every time when’ or ‘whenever’:

㔲Ṛ㧊㧞㦚 ➢Ⱎ┺ 䔞䔞㧊䞶㑮㧞㠊㣪. You can do it little by little whenever you have time. 346

⁎ Ⓤ㓺⯒ ⽒ ➢Ⱎ┺ ⑞ⶒ㧊 ⋮㣪U Every time I see that news, tears come to my eyes.

➢ is sometimes replaced by 㩗 with no alteration in meaning:

㠊⪎㦚㩗㠦䞲ῃ㦚 ⟶⌂㠊㣪.

I left Korea when I was young.


Finally, note that ➢ can also be used following nouns (see 2.1.2.11). This includes expressions such as the following which would require the verb ‘be’ in English:

䞯㌳ ➢

when I was a student

┺㎅㌊ ➢

when I was 5 years old

㔲䠮 ➢

when we have exams

䋂Ⰲ㓺Ⱎ㓺 ➢

when it is Christmas/at Christmas

㧻Ⱎ ➢

when it is the monsoon season/in the monsoon season

7.2.14 –O㦒PඥGⰂG㠜– ‘no way that’ This pattern combines the prospective or past prospective modifier with the bound noun Ⰲ (see 2.1.2.13) and the negative existential verb 㠜–. The resultant pattern takes on the meaning ‘there is no way that’ or ‘it is not possible that’:

㻲Ⱒ㠦H ⁎⩆ 㰩㦚䟞㦚 Ⰲ 㠜㠊. [INTIMATE] God forbid! There’s no way that he/she would have behaved like that. 䞲ῃ ㌂⧢㧒 Ⰲ 㠜㠊㣪. There’s no way that he/she could be Korean. ⁎ ㌂㔺㦖 ┾ 䞲 ⳛ☚ ⿖㩫䞶 Ⰲ 㠜㠊㣪. It’s impossible that even one person could deny that fact. 㠜– may on occasion be substituted for verbs or expressions with similarly negative meanings:

⍺Ṗ ⁎ộ㦚 ⳾⯒ Ⰲ Ⱒⶊ䞮┺. [PLAIN] It’s utterly impossible that you could not know that. In questions, in other words when you are asking ‘is there any way that . . . ?’, 㧞– is used in place of 㠜–:

䟎✲䙆㧊䎆㰞 ⰂṖ 㧞㠊f [INTIMATE] Is it really possible that a mobile phone could explode? ( be connected) 䟊ἆ㺛㧊㠜㦚 ⰂṖ 㧞㠊f [INTIMATE] Could it really be that there is no solution? ( there must be a solution)

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7.2.15 –O㦒PඥGⰢ䞮 – ‘worth’ This pattern combines the prospective modifier with Ⱒ䞮–. The expression takes on the meaning ‘worth’:

⁎ 㡗䢪⓪ 䞲⻞㸺⽒ Ⱒ䟊㣪.

That film is worth seeing once.

㧎㌳㦖㌊㞚⽒ Ⱒ䟊㣪.

Life is worth living.

⹕㦚 Ⱒ䞲㡂㧦┞₢ ⶦ✶㰖㟮₆䞮㎎㣪. She is trustworthy so you can tell her anything. ⁎ 㡂㧦㦮㣿Ṧ䞲䟟☯㦖䃃㺂䞶 Ⱒ䟊㣪. That woman’s brave deeds are worth praising.

7.2.16 –O㦒Pඥ /⓪ /O㦒PචG⳾㟧㧊– ‘seem like’ This pattern combines a modifying form with the Sino-Korean noun ⳾㟧 (聩蓛), which literally means ‘shape’ or ‘form’, followed by the copula (see 4.1.4). It is used when the speaker is making a conjecture and is similar in meaning to the modifier ộ ṯ– pattern (see 7.2.2) or –O㦒Pඥ/⓪/O㦒P ච❅䞮– (see 7.2.12).

゚Ṗ 㢂 ⳾㟧㧊┺. [PLAIN] It looks like it’s going to rain. ⁎ ㍶㌳┮㧊㧮 Ṗ⯊䂮㔲⓪ ⳾㟧㧊㠦㣪. It seems like that teacher teaches well. 㰧㰧Ⱎ┺ 㧪䂮Ṗ ⻢㠊㰖⓪ ⳾㟧㧊㠦㣪. It sounds like they are having a party at each and every house. 㧊㩲㡾 Ỏ ⽊┞ 㠊㩲 ⓼Ợ₢㰖㑶㦚 Ⱎ㔶 ⳾㟧㧊㰖㣪. Seeing he/she is arriving now, it seems like he/she must have been drinking until late last night.

7.2.17 –O㦒PඥG⹪㠦O⓪ /㟒P ‘rather . . . than’

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This construction combines the prospective modifier, the bound noun ⹪ (see 2.1.2.15), the particle 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1), and optionally the particle ⓪ (see 3.3.2.1) or 㟒 (see 3.3.2.2). The expression connects two clauses, each expressing two possible courses of action. The speaker rejects the course of action expressed in the first clause and opts for the one in

the second clause. Although the choice in the second clause would not be the speaker’s first choice of action, at least it is preferable to the choice in the first clause.


ῆ╖ Ṟ ⹪㠦O⓪/㟒P 㹾⧒Ⰲ 㭓ἶ 㕌㠊㣪. I would rather die than join the army. 㫡㞚䞮㰖㞠⓪ 㡂㧦⯒ Ⱒ⋶ ⹪㠦O⓪/㟒P ⁎⌻ 䢒㧦㍲䋂Ⰲ㓺Ⱎ㓺⯒ ⽊⌊⓪ ộ㧊 ▪ 㫡⍺㣪. Rather than meeting a woman who I don’t particularly like, I would spend Christmas alone. 㨂㑮䞶 ⹪㠦O⓪/㟒P ⋮ 㧒㹣 ☞㦚⻢⩂ ┺┦ Ệ㡞㣪. Rather than retaking my last year at high school, I would go out and earn some money. 䢫㔺䧞 Z]㌊㠦 ἆ䢒䞶 ⹪㠦O⓪/㟒P YZ㌊㠦䞮⓪ Ợ ⌁㰖㣪. It’s certainly better to marry at 23 than at 36.

7.2.18 –O㦒Pච/⓪G⹪⧢㠦 ‘because of’ This pattern combines the dynamic or state/result modifier form with the expression ⹪⧢㠦 ‘as a result’. The expression depicts a reason or cause in the first clause with a result or effect in the second clause. The content of the first clause is generally an unexpected event. The content of the second clause is an adverse or negative consequence of this:

⑞㧊㡺⓪ ⹪⧢㠦 ᾦ䐋㧊 Ⱏ䡪㠊㣪. Because it was snowing, the traffic was jammed. ⋶㝾Ṗ 㿪㤊 ⹪⧢㠦 Ṧ₆㠦 Ỏ⪎㠊㣪. Because the weather was cold, I caught a cold. 㞚㧊✺㧊 ⟶✲⓪ ⹪⧢㠦㫆⁞☚ 㧮㑮㠜㠞㠊㣪. I could not sleep at all because the children made a noise. 㑶㠦 Ⱒ䀾䞲 ⹪⧢㠦㑶Ṩ㦚 ┺ ⌞㠊㣪. In his drunken state, he paid for all the alcohol. Note that unlike the comparative expression –₆ ➢ⶎ㠦 (see 2.2.4.2), –㦖/⓪ ⹪⧢㠦 cannot be followed simply by the copula.

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7.2.19 –O㦒Pච/⓪G⹮ⳊO㠦P ‘on the other hand’ This pattern combines a modifying form with the Sino-Korean noun ⹮Ⳋ (胮聋), literally meaning ‘other side’, followed optionally by the particle 㠦. The construction takes on the meaning ‘but on the other hand’ or ‘but at the same time’ and is used to directly juxtapose two contrasting states of affairs. The expression is most commonly encountered in writing or formal speech.

㧊㟓㦖㟓䣾Ṗ ザ⯎ ⹮Ⳋ ⿖㧧㣿㧊㧞㠊㣪. The effects of this medicine are swift; but at the same time, it has some side effects. 㑮㿲㦖㯳Ṗ䞮⓪ ⹮Ⳋ 㑮㧛㦖 Ṧ㏢䞮ἶ 㧞┺. [PLAIN] Exports are increasing; but on the other hand, imports are decreasing. 䞲ῃ ㌂⧢✺㧊 ╖㼊⪲ 㡗㠊⯒ 㧓ἶ 㝆₆⓪ 㧮䞮⓪ ⹮Ⳋ㠦 ✹ἶ Ⱖ䞮₆ ⿖⿚㦖 ⰺ㤆㟓䞮┺. [PLAIN] Koreans generally read and write English well; but on the other hand, (they) are weak when it comes to speaking and listening. Note that ⹮Ⳋ㠦 may also appear at the start of a sentence preceded optionally by ⁎ ‘that’:

䞒㝾OwjP⓪ Ṟ㑮⪳ Ṗỿ ἓ㨗㧊㕂䟊㰚┺. ⁎ ⹮Ⳋ㠦 ⰻOtP㦖 ἓ㨗㧊 Ệ㦮㠜⓪ ㌗䌲㧊₆ ➢ⶎ㠦 Ṗỿ㦚 ⌊Ⰺ 㧊㥶Ṗ 㠜┺. [PLAIN] As time goes by, competition for PCs is getting stronger. But on the other hand, since the ‘Mac’ is in the position of having virtually no competition, there is no reason for the price to fall.

7.2.20 –O㦒PඥGㄪ䞮 – ‘nearly’ This pattern, which combines the prospective modifier with the verb ㄪ䞮–, means ‘almost does’, ‘barely escapes doing’, or ‘is on the verge of’. The pattern most often occurs in the past, with the implication that the thing that was almost done or did not happen, was avoided at the last minute. This pattern often goes with the adverb 䞮Ⱎ䎆Ⳋ ‘nearly’, ‘almost’.

㞚㧊Ṗ ⶒ㠦ザ㪎㭓㦚ㄪ䟞㠊㣪. The child nearly drowned. 350

⁎ ㌂⧢㦖⿖㧦Ṗ ♶ ㄪ䟞㠊㣪.

He just missed being a rich man.

⁎ 㡂㧦⓪ 䞮Ⱎ䎆Ⳋ ṫ㠦ザ㰞ㄪ䟞㠊㣪.

She nearly fell into the river.

䞮Ⱎ䎆Ⳋ 㧦☯㹾䞮ἶ ⿖➀䂶ㄪ䟞㠊㣪.

I nearly collided with the car.


Although this pattern commonly translates as ‘nearly’ or ‘almost’, it cannot be used in place of all English expressions that employ these words. Specifically, the use of –O㦒Pඥ ㄪ䞮– is limited to talking about events that ‘nearly’ or ‘almost’ occurred but were averted at the last minute. It cannot be used when talking about a process that has started and has ‘nearly’ or ‘almost’ been finished or to say that ‘nearly’ or ‘almost’ all of a certain thing are or behave in a certain way. Here, Ệ㦮 ┺ ‘almost all’ is used instead:

Ệ㦮 ┺ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪.

I’ve eaten almost everything. ( I’ve almost finished eating)

✲❪㠊 Ệ㦮 ┺ 㢪㠊㣪.

At last we have nearly come the full way. ( we’re nearly there)

⁎ Ṧ☛ 㡗䢪⓪ Ệ㦮 ┺ 㨂⹎㧞㠊㣪.

Almost all that director’s films are interesting.

7.2.21 –O㦒PඥG㈦ ‘only’ This expression combines the prospective modifier –O㦒Pඥ with the bound noun ㈦ ‘only’ (see 2.1.2.16). Note that ㈦ can also be used after nouns as a particle (see 3.3.3.2). The pattern can then be completed in three possible ways. First, –O㦒Pඥ ㈦ can appear followed just by the copula to mean ‘only’, ‘just’ or ‘it is only’:

⁎㩖 ⌊ 䞶㧒㦚䞶㈦㧊㠦㣪. I did only what I had to do. 㧒⎚㠦䞲⚦ ⻞ Ⱒ⋶ ㈦㧊㠦㣪. I only meet him/her once or twice a year. 䐋ἚⰢ㦚 ⹕㦚㈦㧊㠦㣪. It is only statistics that I believe. 351

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The pattern may also appear with the negative copula to mean ‘it is not only/just’. In this usage, ㈦ may be followed by Ⱒ (see 3.3.3.1) for added emphasis:

⑞㧊 Ⱔ㧊㢪㦚㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞㠞㠊㣪. It wasn’t just that it snowed a lot. 㠊⿖✺㦖 ⹪⧢㠦㦮㫊䞶㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞㠞┺. [PLAIN] The fishermen did not rely only on the wind. The second usage of ㈦ builds on this use with the negative copula. But instead of ending the sentence, the negative copula takes the form 㞚┞⧒ and is followed by a second clause, meaning ‘not just . . . but . . . as well’. For extra emphasis, ㈦ may be followed by Ⱒ (see 3.3.3.1) to form ㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞⧒.

Ὃ⿖⯒ 㧮䞶㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞⧒ Ⱎ㦢㝾☚ 㫡㞚㣪. He/she does not only study hard but is kind-hearted as well. ┾㑲䧞 ⏎⧮Ⱒ 㧮䞶㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞⧒ ⁎ ⽋㧷䞲 Ṧ㩫㻮Ⰲ⓪ 㩫Ⱖ 䌗㤪䟊㣪 He/she does not just simply sing well but he/she expresses complex emotions outstandingly. ⁎ 㩫䂮㧎㦖 ⶊ⓻䞶㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞⧒ ⿖䕾䟊㣪. That politician is not just untalented but is corrupt as well. Third, ㈦ may also be followed by ▪⩂. The resulting sentence pattern ㈦▪⩂ operates exactly the same as ㈦Ⱒ 㞚┞⧒, the only difference being is that it feels somewhat more colloquial.

䞲ῃ㠊⯒ 䞶㈦▪⩂ 㧒⽎㠊☚ 䟊㣪. He/she not only speaks Korean but Japanese as well. ₤㞚㭚㈦▪⩂ Ṗ⊪ ►☚ 㭮㣪. They not only give discounts but also give you a bit extra for free as well.

7.2.22 –O㦒PඥG㑮G㧞/㠜– ‘can/cannot’ This pattern combines the prospective modifier –O㦒Pඥ with the bound noun 㑮 (see 2.1.2.17), meaning ‘case’, ‘circumstance’, ‘way’, ‘means’, and the existential verbs 㧞– ‘exist’ or 㠜– ‘not exist’. 㑮 may be followed by the subject or topic particle.

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With 㧞– ‘exist’, the pattern translates as ‘can’; with 㠜– ‘not exist’, the pattern translates as ‘cannot’. This meaning of ‘can’ and ‘cannot’ takes on

a number of different usages. First, it can be used for talking about general abilities (being able to, knowing how to do something). However, it should be noted that, for this usage, the pattern –O㦒Pඥ 㭚㞢/⳾⯊– (see 7.2.26) is more commonly used. In addition, for ‘cannot’, short negation with ⴑ (see 4.2.1) is also more common.

䞲⁖㦚㝎㑮㧞㠊㣪.

I can write Korean.

㑮㡗㦖䞶㑮㧞⓪◆ 䎢┞㓺⓪ ⴑ 㼦㣪.

I can swim, but I can’t play tennis.

ₖ䂮⯒ 㧮 ╊⁖ 㑮㧞㠊㣪.

I can make kimchi well.


Second, –O㦒Pඥ 㑮㧞/㠜– is used when talking about an ability that is situated in time (as in the first two examples that follow) or under certain conditions or restrictions (as in the remaining two examples):

㡺⓮㦖㟓㏣㧊㧞㠊㍲ Ṟ 㑮㠜㠊㣪. I cannot go today because I have other plans. 㤪㣪㧒₢㰖㩲㿲䞶㑮㧞㦚₢㣪f Will you be able to hand it in by Monday? ☞㧊㠜㠊㍲ Ṟ 㑮㠜㠊㣪. I can’t go, as I have no money. 㣒㏦㦒⪲ 䎢┞㓺⯒ 䂶㑮㧞㠊㣪f Can you play tennis with your left hand? Third, the negative pattern –O㦒Pඥ 㑮㠜– can be used for expressing prohibition: ‘you are not allowed to’. However, this meaning is more typically expressed with –O㦒PⳊ 㞞 ♮– (see 6.5.1.5).

⹎㑶ὖ㠦㍲㌂㰚㦚㹣㦚㑮㠜㔋┞┺. You cannot take photos in the gallery. 㧊 Ὁ㠦㍲⓪ 㭒㹾䞶㑮㠜㔋┞┺. You cannot park here. Fourth, the pattern can be used when discussing a possibility:

┺㦢㭒 ⑞㧊㢂㑮Ṗ 㧞╖㣪. They say that it could snow next week. ⶒ㧊 ⥾Ệ㤎㑮㧞㦒┞ 㫆㕂䞮㔲₆ ⹪⧣┞┺. As the water may be hot, please be careful. A: ⁎⩊ 㑮Ṗ 㧞㠊f [INTIMATE]

Can that be possible?

B: Ⱖ☚ 㞞 ♒. ⁎⩊ 㑮Ṗ 㠜㠊. [INTIMATE] No way! That can’t be so.

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In this usage, to express the given possibility as being only one of two or more eventualities, 㑮 is followed by the particle ☚ ‘also’, ‘even’ (see 3.3.3.6). This gives the meaning ‘can also’:

㡗ῃ 㡂⯚ ⋶㝾Ṗ ➆⦑䞶㑮☚ 㧞㠊㣪. The British summer weather can be warm as well. YWXZ㧊Ⳋ ⿗⁏ 㡂⯚ ク㌆㧊㌂⧒㰞㑮☚ 㧞㠊㣪. The summer polar icecap could even disappear by 2013. Fifth and finally, to express a lack of choice or an eventuality outside one’s control, ⹬㠦 ‘except for’ can be inserted into the negative pattern –O㦒Pඥ 㑮㠜–. The resulting construction means ‘can/could do/be nothing but’:

㻮㦢㧊⧒㍲䧮✺ 㑮⹬㠦㠜㠊㣪. Because it’s the first time, it can’t be anything but hard. ₎㧊 Ⱏ䧞Ⳋ 㫖 ⓼㦚㑮 ⹬㠦㠜㠊㣪. If there is a traffic jam, you cannot be anything else but late. ἆῃ 㟒╏㧊 ☯㦮䞶㑮⹬㠦㠜㠞㠊㣪. In the end, the opposition party could do nothing else but agree.

7.2.23 –O㦒Pච/⓪G㧊㌗O㠦O⓪PP ‘since’; ‘unless’ This pattern combines a modifying form with the Sino-Korean noun 㧊㌗ (蝋芟), which literally means ‘more than’ and ‘above’, followed optionally by the particles 㠦 (see 3.2.4.1) and ⓪ (see 3.3.2.1). The pattern takes on quite different meanings depending on whether it appears with a positive or a negative verb. When the verb is positive, the pattern takes on the meaning of ‘since . . . has already happened, we have no choice but to’:

㟓㏣䞲㧊㌗㰖䅲㟒䟊㣪. Since I have made a promise, I have to keep it. 㡂₆₢㰖㡾㧊㌗, 㧊㩲 ☢㧊䌂㑮㠜㠊㣪. Since we have come this far, we can’t go back. 㤆Ⰲ☚ ἆ䢒䞲㧊㌗㞚₆⯒ Ṭἶ 㕌㦖 Ⱎ㦢㦚 ṬỢ ♮㠞㠊㣪. Now that we are married, we have come to want a baby. 354

㧊⹎ Ἒ㟓㦚䞲㧊㌗㠊㲪㑮㠜㠊㣪. Since we have already made a contract, there is nothing that can be done.

When the verb is negative, the pattern states a sole condition in the first clause that would have to be met in order for the contents of the second clause to come into being. This generally translates into English as ‘unless’:


㞚㭒 ⓼㰖㞠㦖㧊㌗ Ↄ 㞚䂾㦚 ⲏἶ ⋮Ṗ㣪. Unless I am very late, I always eat breakfast. 㩖 ṯ㦒Ⳋ ⹎䂮㰖㞠㦖㧊㌗ ἆ䢒㞞䞮Ỷ㠊㣪. If I were you, unless I was crazy, I would not get married. 㑮㑶䟞┺ἶ Ⱖ 䞮㰖㞠⓪ 㧊㌗㑮㑶䟞⓪㰖㞢㑮㠜㠊㣪. Unless he/she told you about the operation, you would never know. 㠚㼃⋮Ợ ⏎⩻㦚㞞䞮⓪ 㧊㌗䞲ῃ ㌂⧢㻮⩒ Ⱖ䞮⓪ ộ㦖 Ệ㦮⿞Ṗ⓻䟊㣪. Unless you put in a great deal of effort, it is almost impossible to speak just like a Korean.

7.2.24 –O㦒Pච/⓪G㧒/㩗㧊G㧞/㠜– ‘ever/never’ This sentence pattern combines the dynamic modifier –⓪ or the state/result modifier –O㦒Pච with the words 㧒 or 㩗 (both meaning ‘event’, ‘act’, ‘experience’) and the existential verb 㧞– ‘exist’ or 㠜– ‘not exist’. With the state/result modifier –O㦒Pච, the pattern is used to talk about whether you have ever had the experience in question. It is frequently preceded by –㞚/㠊⽊– (see 5.1.8) with the literal meaning of ‘try’, as can be seen in the following examples. In this usage, 㩗 is more common than 㧒, although both may be used.

䞲ῃ㠦 Ṗ ⽎㩗㧊㧞㠊㣪f

Have you ever gone/been to Korea?

ⰟỎⰂ⯒ Ⱎ㎪⽎㩗㧊㧞㠊㣪.

I have tried makkIli.

╃⹲㦚 ⲏ㠊⽎㧒㧊㠜㠊㣪.

I have never eaten chicken feet.

With the dynamic modifier –⓪, the pattern is used to talk about whether you ever do something or experience something in your daily life. In this usage, it is 㧒 that is more common, although 㩗 may also be used.

⁏㧻㠦 Ṗ⓪ 㧒㧊㧞㠊㣪f

Do you ever go to the theatre?

⋮㭧㠦䤚䣢䞮⓪ 㧒㧊㧞㠊㣪.

I sometimes regret things later.

䙂₆䞮⓪ 㧒㧊㠜㠊㣪.

I never give up.

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7.2.25 –O㦒PඥG㩫☚⪲ ‘to the extent that’ This pattern combines the prospective modifier with the Sino-Korean noun 㩫☚ (袰繱) ‘extent’ and the instrumental particle –⪲. It is used for expressing the extent to which a state of affairs applies and commonly translates in English in constructions such as ‘so . . . that’ (e.g. ‘so short that’ or ‘so much that’):

☯㌳㦖㠟▿㧊Ṗ ⽊㧒㩫☚⪲ 㰽㦖䂮Ⱎ⯒ 㧛ἶ 㧞㠞㠊㣪. My younger sister was wearing a skirt so short that you could almost see her bottom. 㤆Ⰲ ㌂㧻┮㦖 ⰺ㧒㞚䂾 \㔲㠦㧒㠊⋶ 㩫☚⪲ ⿖㰖⩆䞮㎎㣪. Our company president is so hard-working that he gets up every morning at five o’clock. ⺆↓㧊ザ㰞㩫☚⪲ 㨂⹎㧞Ợ 㤙㠞㠊㣪. We laughed so much that our belly-buttons almost fell out. [idiomatic expression] Note that a similar meaning can be expressed with the pattern –☚⪳ (see 6.6.3).

7.2.26 –O㦒Pඥ/⓪/O㦒PචG㭚G㞢 /⳾⯊ – ‘think/know’ This pattern combines a modifier with the bound noun 㭚 (see 2.1.2.19), followed by the verbs 㞢– ‘know’ or ⳾⯊– ‘not know’. The resulting pattern has three distinct usages. First, with 㞢– ‘know’, the pattern is used when talking about something that you presumed or thought but now realize to be incorrect, or when talking about the inaccurate presumptions of others:

Prospective:

ⴑ 㡺㔺㭚㞢㞮㠊㣪. I thought you wouldn’t be able to come.

Past prospective: 䞲ῃ 䕖㦖㪢㦚㭚㞢㞮㠊㣪. I thought the Korean team would have lost.

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Dynamic:

㧦⓪ 㭚㞢㞮㠊㣪. I thought you were sleeping.

State/result:

⁎ ㌂⧢㧊䞲ῃ㠦 Ṛ 㭚㞢㞮㠊㣪. I thought he had gone to Korea.

G

⌊Ṗ ⹪⽊㧎㭚㞢㞚f [INTIMATE] Do you think I’m stupid?

In addition to talking about presumptions that you later realize to be incorrect, the pattern can also appear when talking about knowledge that you believe to be true but choose to ignore:


╏⁒㧊 ⴎ㠦㫡㦖㭚㞢㰖Ⱒ ⲏ₆ 㕁㠊㣪. I know that carrots are good for my health, but I don’t like eating them. 㡊㕂䧞 Ὃ⿖䟊㟒䞮⓪ 㭚㞢㞮㰖Ⱒ 㾲㍶㦚 ┺䞮㰖 ⴑ䟞㠊㣪. I knew I had to study hard, but I was unable to try my hardest. Second, with ⳾⯊– ‘not know’, the pattern is used when talking about something that you were not aware of, but have now realized to be the case:

Prospective: ✺䌂㭚 ⴆ⧦㠊㣪. I didn’t realize that we would get found out. Dynamic:

㑮┺ ⟾Ⳋ㍲ ⲏⓦ⧒ἶ 㔲Ṛ Ṗ⓪ 㭚 ⴆ⧦㠊㣪. Busy chatting and eating, I didn’t notice the time passing.

State/result: ☛Ṧ㠦 ỎⰆ 㭚 ⴆ⧦㠊㣪. I didn’t know that I had caught the flu. ⁎ ㌂⧢㦖㧦㔳㧊 ‖䞲㭚 ⴆ⧒㣪. He doesn’t know how precious children are. Third, when used in the present tense with the prospective modifier, the pattern can be used for discussing abilities (‘know how to’ or ‘don’t know how to’):

䞲ῃ 㦢㔳㦚 Ⱒ✺ 㭚㞚㎎㣪f Do you know how to make Korean food? 㓺䋺⯒ 䌞㭚㞢㞚㣪.

I know how to ski.

㩖⓪ 㤊㩚㦚䞶㭚 ⴆ⧒㣪.

I don’t know how to drive.

7.2.27 –⓪G㭧㠦/☚㭧㠦 ‘in the middle of’ The dynamic modifier followed by the bound nouns 㭧 (襦) or ☚㭧 (纉襦) (both meaning ‘middle’ (see 2.1.2.20)) indicate that you were in the middle of doing one action when a second action took place:

㞚₆Ṗ ⲎⰂ⯒ Ṧ₆⓪ 㭧㠦㧶✺㠞㠊㣪. While I was in the middle of washing the baby’s hair, the baby fell asleep. 㑮㠛㦚 Ṗ⯊䂮⓪ ☚㭧㠦㩚䢪Ṗ 㢪㠊㣪. While I was teaching, I got a phone call. Note that 㭧㠦/☚㭧㠦 may appear preceded simply by a noun (see 2.1.2.21).

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7.2.28 –⓪G㭧㧊– ‘be in the middle of’ This pattern combines the prospective modifier with 㭧 ‘middle’ as in the previous pattern (see 7.2.27). However, on this occasion, 㭧 is followed by the copula and the pattern as a whole means ‘in the middle of . . .ing’ or ‘I am . . .ing’. The usage is fairly similar to the continuous tense with –ἶ 㧞– (see 4.5.3.2).

㰖⁞ 㩦㕂㦚 ⲏ⓪ 㭧㧊㠦㣪.

I’m in the middle of eating lunch.

㌳ṗ 䞮⓪ 㭧㧊㠦㣪.

I’m thinking about it.

㌊₢ Ⱖ₢ ⰳ㍺㧊⓪ 㭧㧊㠦㣪.

I’m wavering about whether to buy it or not.

㧓㠊⽊⩺ἶ ⏎⩻䞮⓪ 㭧㧛┞┺. I’m trying to read it. With sentences such as the last example that contain –⩺ἶG (see 4.5.2.4) with the meaning of ‘trying’, this can be shortened to ⩺⓪ 㭧:

䈶䋺⯒ Ⱒ✺⩺⓪ 㭧㧊㠦㣪.

I’m trying to make cookies.

To emphasize the meaning of continuity, –⓪ 㭧㧊– may appear preceded by –ἶ 㧞– (see 4.5.3.2):

㧦⬢⯒ ⳾㦒ἶ 㧞⓪ 㭧㧊㠦㣪. I’m in the middle of collecting data. 㢍㦚 ┺Ⰲἶ 㧞⓪ 㭧㧊㠦㣪.

I’m in the middle of doing the ironing.

Note that 㭧㧊– may appear preceded simply by a noun (see 2.1.2.21).

7.2.29 –O㦒PචG㰖 ‘since’ This construction is built on the past modifier –O㦒Pච, which is followed by 㰖 (see 2.1.2.21). This is then followed by a time expression and then either the copula –㧊– or one of the following verbs: ♮– ‘become’ or ⍮– ‘exceed’. The expression as a whole translates as ‘it is (has been/has been more than) a certain period of time since’:

䞲ῃ㠦㡾㰖 Y ⎚㧊 ♦㠊㣪. It’s been two years since I came to Korea. ⿖㌆㠦 Ṗ ⽎㰖Ṗ 㺎㡺⧮ ♦㠊㣪. It’s a very long time since I’ve been to Busan. 358

㭧ῃⰦ 䟊⽎㰖Ṗ ⻢㖾 XW ⎚㧊 ⍮㠞㠊㣪. It’s been more than ten years now since I’ve tried speaking Chinese.

As can be seen in the final example, 㰖 can be followed by the subject particle (see 3.2.1) and also by the topic particle (see 3.3.2.1).


Notice that a negative modifier clause in this construction actually refers to the same situation as if the clause were affirmative; the situation is just viewed differently:

㧎䢎⯒ Ⱒ⋲ 㰖Ṗ 䞲 ╂㧊 ♦㠊㣪. It’s been one month since I met Inho. ( I haven’t met Inho for one month) 㧎䢎⯒ ⴑ Ⱒ⋲ 㰖䞲 ╂㧊 ♦㠊㣪. It’s been one month that I haven’t met Inho. ( I haven’t met Inho for one month)

7.2.30 –O㦒PචG㺚O⪲PG ‘as it is’ This pattern combines a processive verb in the state/result modifier form with the bound noun 㺚 (see 2.1.2.23), which can be optionally followed by the instrumental particle –O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1). The pattern indicates that the person being talked about performed the action in the second part of the sentence in the state created by the content of the first part of the sentence. This state is typically not the normal state in which the action in question is performed or goes contrary to expectation. In addition to translations such as ‘just as it is’ and ‘as it stands’, it may frequently be rendered in English in constructions including ‘with/without’.

㔶⹲☚ 㔶㰖㞠㦖㺚 ╂⩺⋮Ṫ㠊㣪. I dashed out without even putting my shoes on. 㧎㌂☚ ⴑ 䞲㺚㢪㠊㣪. I came without even having said goodbye. 㞞ἓ㦚㝊㺚 ⳿㣫䌫㠦 ✺㠊Ṫ㠊㣪. I went into the sauna with my glasses on. ㌆㺚 ⶑ㠞㠊㣪. They buried him alive. ⿞㦚䅶㺚㧦㣪. He sleeps with the light on. ῂ⚦⯒ 㔶㦖㺚 ✺㠊㡺Ⳋ 㞞 ♒㣪. You mustn’t enter the room with your shoes on. 359

7 Modifiers

7.2.31 –⓪G㻯䞮 – ‘pretend’ Here, a modifying form is followed by the expression 㻯䞮–, which has the meaning of ‘pretend’:

㞚⓪ 䂲ῂ㡖㰖Ⱒ ⳾⯊⓪ 㻯䟞㠊㣪. He/she was someone I knew, but I pretended I didn’t. 㧊䟊䞮⓪ 㻯䞮㰖 ⰞH [INTIMATE] Don’t pretend you understand. ⻚㓺㠦㍲㧦⓪ 㻯䞮Ⳋ㍲䞶Ⲏ┞㠦Ợ 㧦Ⰲ⯒ 㟧⽊㞞䟞㠊㣪. I didn’t give up my seat on the bus to a grandmother, pretending to be asleep. 㡞㊲㻯䟊⽺㧦㞚ⶊ ㏢㣿㠜㠊㣪. There’s no point pretending to be pretty. The pattern may also be used when talking about someone putting on an air (or, frequently, when telling them not to act in that way):

㧮⋲ 㻯䞮㰖 Ⱎ⧒. [PLAIN]

Don’t be so stuck up.

⡧⡧䞲㻯䞮㰖 Ⱎ⧒. [PLAIN]

Don’t be a smart alec.

㹿䞲㻯䞮㰖 Ⱎ. [INTIMATE]

Stop being so kind.

In addition to ‘pretence’, this pattern may also express making (or not making) a sign (that you have heard, seen something, etc.):

⁎⓪ ⌊ Ⱖ㦚 ✺㦖㻯☚ 㞞䟞㠊㣪. He acted like he didn’t even hear me. 㡂㧦䂲ῂ䞮ἶ ṯ㧊㧞⓪ Ệ ṯ㞚㍲㞚⓪ 㻯 ⴑ 䟞㠊㣪. As you seemed to be with your girlfriend, I couldn’t show that I knew you. On occasions the 䞮 part of the construction may be dropped and replaced by other phrases:

⳾⯊⓪ 㻯㔂㲣㰖⋮㼺㠊㣪. I passed by, pretending not to know him/her. 㧮⋲ 㻯 ⁎Ⱒ 䟊⧒. [PLAIN] Stop being so stuck up. Note that 㻯 may be replaced by 㼊 with no perceptible change in meaning: 360

₎㠦㍲ ⋮⯒ ⴑ ⽎㼊䟞㠊㣪. He/she pretended not to see me on the street.

7.2.32 –O㦒Pච/⓪G䐋㠦 ‘because of’ This pattern consists of the dynamic or state/result modifier followed by 䐋㠦 ‘as a consequence’. Similar to –⓪ ⹪⧢㠦 (see 7.2.18), it is used when talking about a causation process that is outside of the speaker’s deliberate control. However, whereas –⓪ ⹪⧢㠦 is preferred when the cause in the first clause is a sudden incident leading to the result in the second clause, –⓪ 䐋㠦 is more suitable when talking about somebody putting you in a state of confusion owing to which an adverse or negative consequence came about:


⋾䘎㧊 ⍞ⶊ ㍲⚦⯊⓪ 䐋㠦㡊㐶⯒ 㰧㠦┺Ṗ ⚦ἶ 㢪㠊㣪. With my husband being in such a hurry, we left the keys at home. ㌂⧢✺㧊 ⍞ⶊ ⟶✲⓪ 䐋㠦㩫㔶㦚㹾Ⰺ 㑮Ṗ 㠜㠞㠊㣪. With the people making such an uproar, I was unable to pull myself together. Note that 䐋㠦 can also be used after nouns:

㩚㨗䐋㠦㌂⧢㧊 Ⱔ㧊㭓㠞┺. [PLAIN] Many people died in the ravages of war.

7.2.33 –O㦒Pච/⓪G䞲 – ‘as much as’ In this pattern, a modifying form is followed by the Sino-Korean noun 䞲 (豇), which literally means ‘limits’, ‘bounds’ or ‘end’. The pattern translates as ‘as much as’ or ‘as long as’. It appears most frequently with the descriptive verb Ṗ⓻䞮– ‘be possible’ in the construction Ṗ⓻䞲䞲 meaning ‘as . . . as possible’, or with expressions of similar meaning:

Ṗ⓻䞲䞲ゾⰂ 䕿㓺⪲ ⽊⌊㭒㎎㣪. Please send it to me by fax as soon as possible. 䧮㧊 ╕⓪ 䞲 Ἒ㏣ ⏎⩻䞮Ỷ㔋┞┺. I will keep trying to the best of my ability. 㼊⩻㧊 ♮⓪ 䞲 ⋮㠦Ợ 㦖䑊⓪ 㠜㔋┞┺. As long as I am physically healthy, I won’t think about retiring. 㩲Ṗ 㞚⓪ 䞲 ☯ἓ㠦㍲㩲㧒 ⰱ㧞⓪ 䣵㰧㧊㠦㣪. As far as I know, it is the most delicious raw fish restaurant in Tokyo. 361

Chapter 8

Sentence endings

This chapter examines verb endings that operate as sentence endings. These endings are used to round-off a sentence and do not need to be followed by any other element. When left in their bare form, all of these sentence endings will be interpreted as being the non-honorific intimate speech style (see 4.3.5). To make the sentence honorific (and suitable for use when addressing superiors, elders, non-intimates and strangers), –㣪 (the polite speech style ending, see 4.3.3) should be added. These sentence endings cannot occur with any other style, such as the formal (see 4.3.4) and the plain (see 4.3.6).

Other sentence endings in this book Many other patterns covered elsewhere in this book may occur at the end of sentences, including nominative patterns such as –₆⋮ 䞮– (see 2.2.4.10) and quotation patterns such as –┾Ⱖ㧊– (see 9.4.6). However, two things make the patterns in this chapter different from those covered elsewhere. First and most important, endings covered in this chapter can generally only occur at the end of sentences and never elsewhere. Second, unlike the vast majority of endings covered elsewhere, the endings we look at in this chapter can end a sentence without the addition of another element (although –㣪 will be required to make the sentence polite).

362

Note that a number of the causal connectives covered in Chapter 6 may also at times work as sentence endings without the addition of another element, including the following:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

–O㞚/㠊P㍲ (see 6.1.1) –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3) –O㦒Pඥ⧒ (see 6.1.10) –ἶG (see 6.3.1) –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ (see 6.3.10) –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ (see 6.3.11) –Ệ✶ (see 6.5.6)

Sentence endings

In the cases of –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ and –Ệ✶, these endings have quite separate functions when they occur at the end rather than the middle of the sentence. For this reason, we provide separate sections for them in this chapter. For the other endings in the list above, use of them in sentence-final position is covered under the main entry in Chapter 6.

8.1

–ἶⰦἶ ‘of course’

–ἶⰦἶ originates from the additional one-shape connective pattern –ἶ (see 6.3.1), followed by the negative verb Ⱖ– ‘desist’, followed again by the –ἶ pattern. The form is used, normally in an affirmative response to a question, to emphasize that the statement is true, natural or a ‘given’.

A: ⹫ ㌂㧻┮㦚㧮㞚㎎㣪f Do you know President Pak? B: 㞢ἶⰦἶ㣪. 㞚㭒 Ṗ₢㤊㌂㧊㠦㣪. Of course I know him. We are very close. A: 㧊㺛㦖 ┺ ⽊ἶ ⋮㍲ Ↄ ☢⩺ 㭮. [INTIMATE] You have to give this book back to me when you have looked at it. B: ☢⩺㭒ἶⰦἶ. ệ㩫䞮㰖 ⰞH [INTIMATE] Of course I will give it back. Don’t worry. A: 㦢㔳㧊 ┺ ⰱ㧞㰖㣪f The food is all delicious, isn’t it? B: ⰱ㧞ἶⰦἶ㣪. 㧊㔳╏㧊゚㕎㧬㞚㣪. Of course it is. This restaurant is expensive, you know.

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Instead of repeating the main verb, the speaker may also use the verb ⁎⩝– ‘do like that’:

A: ἓ䂮Ṗ 㩫Ⱖ 㞚⯚╋ῆ㣪H B: ⁎⩝ἶⰦἶ㣪.

The view is really beautiful! Of course it is!

–┺Ⱎ┺ may replace –ἶⰦἶ with little difference in meaning.

A: ₆㠋䞮㎎㣪f B: ₆㠋䞮┺Ⱎ┺㣪.

8.2

Do you remember? Of course I remember!

–Ệ✶ ‘it’s because’, ‘you see’

–Ệ✶ is a one-shape ending that may occur preceded by the past tense (see 4.5.1.1) and the future tense marker –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1). In its most basic usage, –Ệ✶ is used when adding an explanation for something you said in the previous sentence. Typical translations are ‘it’s because’ or ‘you see’.

⋮⓪ ⏎⧮⹿㠦㞞 Ṗ㣪. ⏎⧮⯒ 㕁㠊䞮Ệ✶㣪. I don’t go to karaoke. I don’t like singing, you see. 㡺⓮ 䞯ᾦ㠦㞞 Ṗ㣪. Ὃ䦊㧒㧊Ệ✶㣪. I’m not going to school today. It’s a holiday, you see. ⁎⩒ 㧮 ♦⍺㣪. 㟓㏣㦚䀾㏢䞮⩺ἶ 㩚䢪䟞Ệ✶㣪. It has turned out well, then. I was just ringing up to cancel the appointment, you see. At times, the second sentence, rather than giving a reason per se, may simply explain to the hearer where the speaker has gleaned the information from (as in the first example that follows), or clarify that something is correct according to the speaker’s own experience (as in the second example).

㡺⓮ ゚Ṗ 㢂 Ệ㟒. ⋲ 㠊㩲㧒₆㡞⽊⯒ ⽺Ệ✶. [INTIMATE] It’s going to rain today. I saw the weather forecast yesterday, you see.

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㤆Ⰲ ⋮⧒㦮 ἓ㤆⽊☚ 㧦⬢⯒ ⽊Ⳋ Ⱎ㟓㎇㰚䐋㩲⯒ ⍞ⶊ 㩗Ợ 㝆⓪ Ợ ⶎ㩲Ṗ ♮₆☚ 䞿┞┺. Ⱔ㧊㞞㝆Ệ✶㣪. (Medical doctor): In our country’s case, according to the reported information, using clinical pain killers too rarely actually becomes a problem. We don’t use a lot [according to my own experience], you see.

However, sentences with –Ệ✶ often occur when you have no preceding sentence that needs to be explained or clarified. In such cases, the speaker is providing justification for his actions, or possibly referring to something that he/she has said some time in the past:

Sentence endings

A: 㢲 ⲏ㠊⽊㰖☚ 㞠ἶ ⰱ㠜┺ἶ ⁎⩂⓪ Ệ㟒f [INTIMATE] Why are you saying it doesn’t taste good when you haven’t even tried it? B: ⋲ 㤦⧮ 㧊⩆ 㦢㔳㕁Ệ✶. [INTIMATE] I’ve always hated this kind of food, you see. A: ㍺Ệ㰖㞞䟊f [INTIMATE] You’re not going to wash the dishes. B: ⋲ 㠊㩲䟞Ệ✶. 㡺⓮ ⍺Ṗ 䟊. [INTIMATE] I did it yesterday, you know. You do it today. A: 㫆ₛ ṯ㧊䞮㰖. [INTIMATE] Why don’t you go jogging with me? B: ♦㠊. ⋲ 㡺⓮ 㤊☯ ⻢㖾䟞Ệ✶. [INTIMATE] Forget it. I’ve already exercised today. –Ệ✶ can also appear as a connective ending (see 6.1).

8.3

–⋮/O㦒PචṖf (dubitative questions)

This pattern has two distinct forms: –⋮ and –O㦒PචṖ. The choice of pattern will depend on whether you are dealing with a descriptive or a processive verb and on the inclusion/exclusion of tense markers. The two-shape –O㦒PචṖ is used predominantly with descriptive verbs and the copula. It does not normally appear with tense markers:

㧧㦖 ἶ㿪Ṗ ⰺ㤊Ṗ㣪f

Are small chillies hot?

㢍㧊 ⍞ⶊ 㧧㦖Ṗf

Are these clothes too small?

㺛㧎Ṗ㣪f

Is it a book?

Occasionally, you may also hear speakers using –O㦒PචṖ with processive verbs. In this case, the form becomes –⓪Ṗ㣪.

ⲏ⓪Ṗ㣪f

Is he/she eating?

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–⋮ is the more common choice for processive verbs. This ending behaves as a one-shape pattern:

㦢㞛㯦Ỿ ✹⋮㣪f

Do you enjoy listening to music?

–⋮ may also be used with the past tense –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) and the future –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1). In such cases, it may occur with either processive or descriptive verbs:

ⲏ㠞⋮f

ate?

㡞ㄺ⋮f

was pretty?

ⲏỶ⋮f

will eat?

㡞㊮Ỷ⋮f

will be pretty?

Note however that the future with –ඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2) appears not with –⋮ but with –O㦒PචṖ. The reason for this is that this form is based on the copula.

ⲏ㦚 ỊṖf

will eat?

Although 㧞– ‘exist’ and 㠜– ‘not exist’ behave like processive verbs and therefore take –⋮, with the honorific Ἒ㔲–, you may hear either –⋮ or –චṖ (the latter is more common):

㌂㧻┮℮㍲⓪ Ἒ㔲⋮㣪f

Is the president here?

㌂㧻┮℮㍲⓪ Ἒ㔶Ṗ㣪f

Is the president here?

This ending is used when asking a question in order to make the speaker’s attitude sound more doubtful or dubious. This first of all works to make the question softer (and therefore generally politer), something like adding ‘I wonder’ to a question in English:

㩖 ₆㠋⋮㔲⋮㣪f

Do you remember me, by any chance?

㥶⹎Ṗ 㰖⁞ 㧞⋮㣪f

Is Yumi there now, I wonder?

ⳝ 㔲㠦㢂 ỊṖ㣪f

I wonder what time he/she will come.

In addition to polite questions, the form may also occur when the speaker is ruminating about a puzzling question that has been bugging him or her. These types of questions may be addressed directly to the hearer, or they may be soliloquy (i.e. spoken as if talking to yourself):

₆㌂㠦 ❇㧻䞮⓪ ㌂⧢ 㧊⯚㦚 Ṗⳛ㦒⪲ 䞶 ➢ 㠊⠑Ợ 㧊⯚㦚㰩⋮㣪f When they give someone a false name in a newspaper article, I wonder how they make them up? 366

⌊ 㞞ἓ 㠊❪┺ ⚦㠞⋮f [INTIMATE] Where did I put my glasses, I wonder?

8.4

–O⓪Pῆ, –O⓪Pῂ⋮, –O⓪PῂⰢ/ῂⲒ (exclamations)

Sentence endings

This sentence ending has three possible variants which are, in general order of frequency, –O⓪Pῆ, –⓪ῂ⋮ and –O⓪PῂⰢ/ῂⲒ. Only the first and third of these can be followed by the polite ending –㣪. In general, whereas –O⓪Pῆ goes with the intimate style, –O⓪Pῂ⋮ goes with the plain style and –O⓪PῂⰢ/ῂⲒ with the familiar style. The ⓪ element is required for processive verbs in the present tense and may be attached either to the verb stem or after the honorific –㔲– (see 4.4.1.1):

Ṗ⓪ῆ㣪H

You’re going! [NON-HONORIFIC]

Ṗ㔲⓪ῆ㣪H

You’re going! [HONORIFIC]

When the verb is descriptive, ⓪ is not required:

㡞㊮ῆ㣪H

She’s pretty! [NON-HONORIFIC]

㡞㊮㔲ῆ㣪H

She’s pretty! [HONORIFIC]

–O⓪Pῆ and the other variants can also appear after the past tense (see 4.5.1.1) and the future tense marker –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1):

䧮✺㠞ῆ㣪H

You had a hard time!

ⰱ㧞Ỷῆ㣪H

It must be delicious!

This ending is applied when the speaker becomes aware of something for the first time (by seeing, hearing about it, etc.) and wishes to express a spontaneous emotional reaction to it, or an exclamation, usually including a degree of surprise. In English, this is often done with an exclamation such as ‘ah’, ‘my’, ‘gosh’, etc. or just by using a dramatic intonation:

ₖ㥶⹎ 㝾㧊㔲ῆ㣪H ⹮ṧ㔋┞┺.

Ah, so you’re Kim Yumi!! Pleased to meet you!

㢪ῂ⋮H [PLAIN]

Wow, you’re here!

㡂₆ ㌊₆Ṗ 㩫Ⱖ 㫡ῆ㣪.

My, living here is really good!

䞲ῃⰦ㦚㺎㧮䞮㔲⓪ῆ㣪.

Boy, you sure speak Korean well!

゚Ṗ 㢪ῂⲒH [FAMILIAR]

Oh, so it’s rained!

⁎ 㡂㧦Ṗ 㩫Ⱖ 㞚⯚╋ῂⰢ. [FAMILIAR]

Boy, she sure is pretty! 367

8 Sentence endings

Although –O⓪Pῆ most commonly occurs with information that is perceived at around the time of speaking, it may occasionally occur when narrating a past event and conveying a perception made at that time:

㠊㩲㑶㰧㠦 Ṫ⓪◆ 㡺⧮ṚⰢ㠦 ⁎ 䂲ῂ⯒ ⽺ῂⰢH I went to the pub last night and, oh, I saw that friend for the first time in ages!

8.5

–⍺ (mild exclamations)

–⍺ operates as a one-shape ending which may occur preceded by the past tense –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) and the future tense marker –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1). The –⍺ ending is similar in usage and meaning to –O⓪Pῆ (see 8.4). In other words, this ending is applied when the speaker wishes to express a spontaneous emotional reaction or exclamation, usually including a degree of surprise.

㧊䄺䞒Ṗ 㰚䞮⍺㣪H

My, this coffee sure is strong!

㞚㧊ῂS 㔺㑮⯒ 䟞⍺㣪H

Oh dear, I’ve really committed a blunder.

㍺䌫㌂㟒 ♮Ỷ⍺㣪H

Oh dear, we’ll have to buy some more sugar.

䞲ῃⰦ 㧮䞮㔲⍺㣪H

My, you sure speak Korean well!

Although this basic usage is similar to –O⓪Pῆ, two subtle differences can be pointed out. Firstly, whereas with –O⓪Pῆ the contents of the sentence may be a conjecture on the part of the speaker, with –⍺ the information always tends to be factually true. If a doctor were to utter the following two sentences, the first with –O⓪Pῆ may just be an initial observation based on the symptoms described by the patient. The second –⍺ would be more likely to occur after the blood pressure had been tested and the fact of the matter had been ascertained:

ἶ䡞㞫㧊ῆ㣪.

Ah, you must have high blood pressure.

ἶ䡞㞫㧊⍺㣪.

Ah, it turns out you have high blood pressure.

The second difference is that –⍺ tends to be used more when the information goes against the expectation of the speaker. In the following, the second sentence with –⍺ more explicitly states that the speaker did not expect that the hearer would have met ‘that guy’ (perhaps because she had said before that she did not like him, etc.):

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㠊㩲 ⁎ ⋾㧦⯒ Ⱒ⌂ῆH [INTIMATE]

Ah, so you met that guy yesterday!

㠊㩲 ⁎ ⋾㧦⯒ Ⱒ⌂⍺H [INTIMATE]

Ah, so you did meet that guy yesterday (after all)!

8.6

Sentence endings

–╊ (disapproval)

–╊ is a colloquial verb ending that only occurs in non-honorific speech (it cannot combine with the polite –㣪 ending). It is used primarily with question words and occurs when the speaker is expressing disapproval about the state of affairs under discussion. Resulting sentences are generally translated using ‘what on earth . . . ?’, ‘who the hell . . . ?’ and so forth:

⑚Ṗ 㧊⩝Ợ 䟞╊f

Who on earth did this?

㧊 Ⱔ㦖㑶㦚㠊⠑Ợ ┺ Ⱎ㔶╊f

How on earth are we going to drink so much booze?

ⶦṖ ⁎⩝Ợ 㤆㔋╊f

What on earth do you think is so funny?

8.7

–O㦒PඥỎ (inferences, regrets)

–O㦒PඥỎ is a two-shape ending that has its origins in the combination of –O㦒Pඥ Ệ (see 4.5.2.2) with the object particle 㦚/⯒ (see 3.2.2). The pattern is used first of all when the speaker expresses an inference, guess or conjecture. The content of this inference is typically contrary to the beliefs or expectations of the hearer. –O㦒PඥỎ is used by the speaker as a soft and indirect means to disagree with the interlocutor.

A: ⹒㑮ṖG㰖⁞Gἶ❇䞯㌳㧊㰖㣪f Minsu is a high school student, isn’t he? B: ⁖㗚. 㞚㰗㭧䞯㌳㧒Ỏ㣪. I’m not sure. I reckon he’s still a middle school student. A: ⁎ 㡂㧦Ṗ ⹒䢎㡂㧦䂲ῂ㧎Ṗ ⽊┺. [PLAIN] That woman must be Minho’s girlfriend. B: 㞚┦Ỏ. ⹒䢎㡂㧦䂲ῂṖ 䤾㞂㡞㊶Ỏ. [INTIMATE] I don’t think so. Minho’s girlfriend must be much prettier. In addition to inferences that go against the beliefs of the hearer per se, –O㦒PඥỎ may also appear when the speaker simply wants to make the conjecture sound tentative:

⹎㞚⓪ 㠊⪎㦚 ➢☚ 㡞ㄺ㦚Ỏ㣪. Mia must have been pretty when she was young as well. 㡞㩚㠦㧊 Ὁ㧊 ⁏㧻㧊㠞㦚Ỏ. [INTIMATE] I reckon this was a theatre in the past.

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The second usage of –O㦒PඥỎ is for talking, with a sense of regret, about things that the speaker him/herself failed to do or chose not to do in the past. Such sentences typically translate as ‘should have’. Although such expressions always connote a past state of affairs, application of the past tense marker –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) tends to be optional:

⁎ ☞㦚 ⁎⌻ ⹱㦚 Ỏ. [INTIMATE] We should have just taken the money. ⰱ㧞㠊⽊㧎┺! ⋮☚ ⁎ Ỏ⪲ 㔲䌂 Ỏ. That looks tasty. I should have ordered that too! Note that, rather than ending a sentence, –O㦒PඥỎ (in both the ‘inference’ function and the ‘regret’ function) may at times be followed by a quoting verb (see 9.2.6).

㡺⧮ ⽒㑮㠜㦚Ỏ ㌳ṗ䞮┞ ⍞ⶊ 㔂䗒㪢㠊㣪. I became sad thinking I might not see him/her for a long time. 㩖☚ 䆪䔎㧛㦚Ỏ 䤚䣢䞮ἶ 㧞㠊㣪. I am regretting not wearing a coat. In the ‘regret’ function, –O㦒PඥỎ may also be followed by ⁎⩝– ‘do like that’ without any vast change in meaning from the original form:

㌂⧧䞲┺ἶ Ⱖ䞶 Ỏ ⁎⨂㰖. [INTIMATE] I should have told him/her I loved him/her. 㹾⧒Ⰲ 㞚✺ ἆ䢒㔳 ➢ 㿫㦮⁞㦚 ⹱㦚Ỏ ⁎⨂㠊㣪. At our son’s wedding, we should just have accepted monetary gifts.

8.8

–O㦒PඥỢ (promise-like futures)

–O㦒PඥỢ is a two-shape ending that is used when the speaker wants to express promises and spontaneous intentions. This pattern is discussed in depth in Chapter 4 (see 4.5.2.3).

8.9

–O㦒Pඥ₢f (suggestions and tentative questions)

–O㦒Pඥ₢ operates as a two-shape ending: –ඥ₢ is attached after a vowel and –㦚₢ after a consonant. 370

–O㦒Pඥ₢ has two specific separate usages. In the first usage, it is used in the first person (i.e. with ‘I’ or ‘we’) to mean ‘Shall I . . . ?’ or ‘Shall we . . . ?’. Here are some examples where it translates as ‘Shall I . . . ?’:

㩲Ṗ ⶎ㦚 ╁㦚₢㣪f

Shall I close the door?

⌊Ṗ 㠎㩲䞲⻞ ✺⯒₢㣪f

Shall I drop by sometime?

㧊㍲⮮⓪ 㠊❪┺ ⏩㦚₢㣪f

Where shall I put these documents?

Sentence endings

This usage as ‘Shall I . . . ?’ frequently features the verb 㭒– ‘give’ (and its object honorific counterpart ✲Ⰲ–) either as a main verb or as an auxiliary verb (see 5.1.12). This results in sentences where the speaker is offering to give something to the hearer or to do something for him/her.

㏢㭒㭚₢f [INTIMATE]

Shall I get you some soju?

㌂㰚㦚⽊㡂㭚₢f [INTIMATE]

Shall I show you the photos?

㩲Ṗ ☚㢖 ✲Ⰺ₢㣪f

Shall I help you?

Sentences such as these also appear in service industry talk, where the waiter/waitress, sales assistant, etc. is asking the customer what he/she would like:

ⰻ㭒⓪ ⳝ ⼧ ✲Ⰺ₢㣪f

How many bottles of beer can I get you?

ⱋỢ 䟊 ✲Ⰺ₢㣪f

Would you like it (made) spicy?

In the next set of examples, –O㦒Pඥ₢ translates as ‘Shall we . . . ?’. This is used when making an informal suggestion. Note that these sentences do not normally take honorifics and are thus not normally used to address an elder or superior.

㿺㿲₢㣪f

Shall we dance?

ⰻ㭒䞲㧪 Ⱎ㔲⩂ Ṟ₢㣪f

Shall we go for a beer?

㭒Ⱖ㠦㤆Ⰲ 㡗䢪⋮ 䞲⻞⽒₢㣪f

Shall we watch a movie or something at the weekend?

With the ‘Shall I . . . ?’ or ‘Shall we . . . ?’ constructions, a negative can be expressed by using the pattern –㰖 Ⱖ– ‘desist’ (see 4.2.3):

㌊ヒ㰖 Ⱖ₢f [INTIMATE] Shall I not lose weight? 㧊 ⶎ㩲⓪ ▪ 㧊㌗㧊㟒₆䞮㰖 Ⱖ₢f [INTIMATE] Shall we not talk about this problem anymore?

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To offer two possible alternatives, simply repeat the whole sentence pattern:

㏢㭒㭚₢f ⰻ㭒㭚₢f [INTIMATE] Shall I get you some soju? Or some beer? Of the two alternatives, one may be positive and the other may be negative. Such constructions translate as ‘Shall we . . . or not?’.

㏢㭒㭚₢f 㭒㰖 Ⱖ₢f [INTIMATE] Shall I get you some soju or not? However, the meaning of ‘Shall I . . . ?’, ‘Shall we . . . ?’ only applies to situations where –O㦒Pඥ₢ occurs in a first-person sentence. When –O㦒Pඥ₢ occurs with the third person (i.e. with ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’, etc.), it takes on a quite different meaning: it is used to make a supposition or guess (‘I wonder if . . . ?’) or to ask the hearer for his/her supposition regarding an as yet unknown matter (‘Do you reckon/suppose . . . ?’):

⌊㧒㿪㤎₢㣪f Do you suppose it will be cold tomorrow? 㰖⁞ ṖⳊ ⍞ⶊ ⓼㦚₢f [INTIMATE] If I go now, I wonder if it will be too late? ゚䟟㭧S 㔏ⶊ㤦㦖㠊❪㍲㓊₢㣪f During a flight, where do you reckon the flight attendants rest? ㍲㤎㠦㍲ ṫ⯟₢㰖⻚㓺⪲ 㠒Ⱎ⋮ ỎⰊ₢㣪f How long do you reckon it will take to go from Seoul to Gangneung by bus? In this second meaning, –O㦒Pඥ₢ is sometimes used with the past tense:

⻢㖾㢪㦚₢㣪f Do you suppose he/she’s already come? ⁎Ⱂ ㏣㡂㧎㦖 ὒ㡆㧦㔶㦮 ⹎㏢Ⱒ䋒䟟⽋䟞㦚₢㣪f Do you reckon the woman in the picture was really as happy as her smile suggests? In this second usage, the negative is not formed by using the –㰖 Ⱖ– pattern. Instead, short negation and long negation patterns are used (see 4.2):

䘟⹲㧊Ⳋ ῆ╖ 㞞 Ṟ₢㣪f I wonder if you don’t have to do military service if you are flat-footed? 372

㥶⹎⓪ 㢲䢒㧎㔶ἶ⯒ 䞮㰖㞠㞮㦚₢㣪f Why do you reckon Yumi didn’t register her marriage?

Although this second meaning most commonly occurs in the third person, it might at times also occur with a first-person subject. This happens when the speaker is trying to make sense of actions that he/she carried out while he/she was not in his right senses or that he/she no longer understands. Such sentences are often soliloquy:

Sentence endings

⌊Ṗ 㢲㧊⩆ 㺛㦚㧓㦚₢f [INTIMATE] Why am I reading this book? 㠊㩲㢲㑶㦚 ⁎⩝Ợ Ⱎ㎾㦚₢f [INTIMATE] Why did we drink so much alcohol last night? –O㦒Pඥ₢ can also be followed by a number of support verbs to form constructions with quite different meanings (see 5.4).

8.10

–O㦒Pඥ⧮ ‘feel like (doing)’

This construction is a two-shape verb ending: –ඥ⧮ is used after a vowel and –㦚⧮ after a consonant. It appears only with processive verbs and cannot be preceded by tense markers. –O㦒Pඥ⧮ can be used in the first person (i.e. ‘I’, ‘we’) or the second person (i.e. ‘you’) to express a desire, wish, preference, mild intention or inclination. This generally translates as ‘want (to do something)’, ‘feel like (doing something)’ and so forth.

A: ⶦ ⲏ㦚⧮f [INTIMATE] B: ⋲ ゚オ⹻㦚 ⲏ㦚⧮. [INTIMATE]

What do you want to eat? I want to eat pibimpap.

A: 㿺㿲⧮f [INTIMATE] B: 㕁㠊. 㞞㿲⧮. [INTIMATE]

Would you like to dance? I don’t want to. I’d rather not.

⍞ ⋮⧧ ㌂„⧮f [INTIMATE] Do you want to be my girl/boyfriend? ⍞䧂⋒Ⰲ Ṫ┺ 㢖. 㤆Ⰲ⓪ 㡂₆ 㧞㦚⧮. [INTIMATE] You guys go. We’d rather just stay here. This form is generally informal and colloquial. However, it can at times be heard with the honorific –㔲–, included in polite offers such as the following:

➆⦑䞲㹾䞲㧪 ✲㔺⧮㣪f

Would you like a nice warm cup of tea?

㡂₆ 㞟㦒㔺⧮㣪f

Would you like to take a seat here?

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8.11

–O㦒PඥG䎦◆ ‘I’m afraid’

This pattern is primarily a connective ending and was discussed previously in the verbal connectives chapter (see 6.3.11). However, when it appears in sentence-final position it takes on some quite different meanings, which is why we discuss it again here. First, the pattern is used for making predictions, typically about the future. These predictions tend to be negative in content (and may translate into English as ‘I’m afraid’):

⌊㧒 ⋶㝾Ṗ 㿪㤎䎦◆㣪.

I’m afraid it will be cold tomorrow.

⁞㣪㧒㦖 ⍞ⶊ ⹪㊶䎦◆㣪.

I’m afraid Friday is going to be too busy.

㠚㼃 ⶊỆ㤎䎦◆. [INTIMATE]

I’m afraid it will be very heavy.

For a prediction that refers to the past, –㞮/㠞– (see 4.5.1.1) is added:

㓂㤊㧒㧊㞚┞㠞㦚䎦◆. [INTIMATE]

That couldn’t have been easy.

㌗㻮Ṗ Ⱔ㞮㦚䎦◆. [INTIMATE]

You must have hurt a lot.

Second, the pattern is used for hypothetical sentences. These may be about the present or future, but are more often about the past, with –O㦒Pඥ 䎦◆ adding a sense of regret. The clause ending in –㞮/㠞㦚䎦◆ is commonly preceded by a conditional clause with –O㦒PⳊ (see 6.5.1):

⌊Ṗ ⹒䢎㝾㦮㭒㏢⯒ 㞢㞮㠞┺Ⳋ 㡓㍲⯒ 䞲㧻⽊⌞㦚䎦◆. [INTIMATE] If I had known Minho’s address, I would have sent him a postcard. ㌂㤊✲Ṗ 㫡㦖 ⁏㧻㠦㍲⽺㦒Ⳋ ὲ㺄㞮㦚䎦◆. [INTIMATE] [The film] would have been OK if we had watched it at a theatre with decent sound. 䕢䕆㠦 Ṟ 㑮㧞㠞▪⧒Ⳋ 㫡㞮㦚䎦◆. [INTIMATE] It would have been good if I had been able to go to the party. ( I wish I had been able to go to the party) In sentences such as these, –O㦒Pඥ 䎦◆ may be replaced by –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2) with little change in meaning. In some cases, –O㦒P⩾Ⱎ⓪/ O㦒P⩾Ⱒ (see 8.12) may also be possible. 374

8.12

–O㦒P⩾Ⱎ⓪/O㦒P⩾Ⱒ ‘should, must’

Sentence endings

The two-shape ending –O㦒P⩾Ⱎ⓪ (and it’s more common abbreviated version –O㦒P⩾Ⱒ) is used when the speaker is making a conjecture. The conjecture normally pertains to the expected state of affairs; as to how something really should be! It is similar in meaning to certain usages of –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– (see 4.5.2.2) or –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1).

䞮㑯㌳䢲㦚䞮Ⳋ Ṗ⊪ 㰧㌳ṗ㧊 ⋮⩾Ⱒ. [INTIMATE] I suppose if you live in a boarding house you must sometimes think of home. ╖䞯㌳㧊Ⳋ 㞶㧎☚ 㧞㦒⩾Ⱒ. [INTIMATE] If you are a university student, you really should have a boy/girlfriend. 㟓㦚 ⁎ 㩫☚ ⲏ㠞㦒┞ ⋮㦒⩾Ⱒ. [INTIMATE] If you have taken that much medicine, you should have got better. Sentences such as these may then be followed by another clause that contradicts the expectation:

䞮㑯㌳䢲㦚䞮Ⳋ Ṗ⊪ 㰧㌳ṗ㧊 ⋮⩾Ⱒ ⍞⓪ 㢲㞞 ⋮f [INTIMATE] I suppose if you live in a boarding house you must sometimes think of home; but why is it that you don’t? ╖䞯㌳㧊Ⳋ 㞶㧎☚ 㧞㦒⩾Ⱒ ⍞⓪ 㠜┺ἶf [INTIMATE] If you are a university student, you really should have a boy/girlfriend; but you are telling me you don’t? 㟓㦚 ⁎ 㩫☚ ⲏ㠞㦒┞ ⋮㦒⩾Ⱒ 㞚㰗☚ 㞚䝚┞f [PLAIN] If you have taken that much medicine, you should have got better; but are you still ill? Similar to –O㦒Pඥ 䎦◆ (see 8.11), –O㦒P⩾Ⱎ⓪ may also appear in hypothetical sentences (typically including the conditional –O㦒PⳊ (see 6.5.1)). In such constructions, –O㦒P⩾Ⱎ⓪ most frequently appears with the descriptive verb 㫡– ‘good’ to produce sentences meaning ‘wouldn’t it be good if’ or ‘I wish/hope’:

⳾✶ 㧒㧊㏢㤦╖⪲ ♮㠞㦒Ⳋ 㫡㦒⩾Ⱒ. [INTIMATE] I hope everything goes as you wish. ⋮☚ ⁎⩝Ợ 㫖䞲Ṗ䟞㦒Ⳋ 㫡㦒⩾Ⱒ. [INTIMATE] I wish I too was not so busy.

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8.13

–O㦒P⪊/O㦒P⩺ⶊ⋮ (granting permission; orders)

–O㦒P⪊ and –O㦒P⩺ⶊ⋮ are attached only to processive verbs and are used when granting permission, giving orders or making suggestions. These forms never take the polite –㣪 ending and are therefore only appropriate for use towards intimates and/or status subordinates. These endings have a soft and friendly feel.

⁎ 㧒㧊 ⁎⩝Ợ 䞮ἶ 㕌㦒Ⳋ 䞲⻞䟊⽊⪊. [INTIMATE] If you want to do it like that, then just go ahead and give it a try. 㫖㓂㠞┺ Ṗ⪊. [INTIMATE] Have a rest before you go. 㢂䟊⓪ Ὃ⿖㫖㡊㕂䧞䞮⩺ⶊ⋮. [INTIMATE] You really should study hard this year.

8.14

–O㦒PⰞ (promise-like futures)

This two-shape ending is used when the speaker is expressing a promise and/or a decision made at or just before the time of speaking. Essentially, this is identical to the use of –ඥỢ (see 4.5.2.3) and certain usages of –Ỷ– (see 4.5.2.1). The difference is that –O㦒PⰞ is only used by older (or superior) speakers addressing younger (or subordinate) interlocutors. –O㦒PⰞ never appears followed by the polite –㣪 ending (see 4.3.3) and is therefore intrinsically non-honorific.

䞲ῃ㠦㡺Ⳋ ⰱ㧞⓪ Ệ Ⱔ㧊㌂㭒Ⱎ. [INTIMATE] If you come to Korea, I’ll buy you a lot of delicious things to eat. 㰖⁞ 㧛ⰱ㧊㠜㠊. ⋮㭧㠦 ⲏ㦒Ⱎ. [INTIMATE] I don’t have any appetite now. I’ll eat later. 㰖㡻㦮 ⶎ 㞴㠦㍲ ₆┺ⰂⰞH [INTIMATE] I’ll be waiting for you at the gates of hell! 㺛㧮㧓㦒Ⱎ. ἶⰯ┺. [INTIMATE] I’ll enjoy reading this book. Thanks.

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8.15

– 㧬㞚 ‘you know’

Sentence endings

This one-shape ending originates from an abbreviation of the long negation pattern –㰖㞠– (see 4.2.2). It may occur with the past tense and future tenses (with either –Ỷ– or –ඥ Ệ). –㧬㞚 is used when the speaker provides information that he/she believes the interlocutor to already be aware of and thus seeks his/her confirmation and/or agreement. Essentially, this is similar to some uses of –㰖 (see 8.16). However, –㧬㞚 is much more emphatic than –㰖 and contains a stronger expectation that the hearer is aware of (or really should be aware of) the information being conveyed. The feeling is best translated into English with expressions such as ‘(don’t) you know’ or ‘can’t you see’:

A: 㧊㦢㔳㧊㢲㧊⩝Ợ ⰱ㠜㦚₢㣪f Why do you suppose this food is so tasteless? B: 㡗ῃ 㦢㔳㧊㧬㞚㣪H But it’s British food, you know. A: ⁎ 㡂㧦 Ⱎ㦢㠦㞞 ✺㠊f [INTIMATE] You don’t like that girl? B: 㦧. ⴑ ㌳ἒ㧬㞚. [INTIMATE] She’s ugly, you see. ὲ㺄㞚, ┺㦢㠦 ▪ 㧮䞮Ⳋ ♮㧬㞚H [INTIMATE] It’s okay. If you do well next time, you’ll be fine, you know. As this expression supposes that the hearer is aware of the information being conveyed, it often occurs with common sayings or expressions of general truths:

ⶊ㏢㔳㧊䧂㏢㔳㧊㧬㞚㣪. No news is good news, of course. ἆ䢒㦖䟊☚ 䤚䣢, 㞞䟊☚ 䤚䣢⧒⓪ Ⱖ㧊㧞㧬㞚㣪. They say that, with marriage, whether you do it or not, you live to regret it, you know.

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When said with an aggressive or exasperated tone, the pattern indicates that the speaker is annoyed by the interlocutor. This might first of all take place when the interlocutor has forgotten or appears to be unaware of something that he/she really should know.

A: ゾⰂ 㢖H [INTIMATE] Hurry up! B: ⌊ ┺ⰂṖ 㞚䝚㧬㞚H [INTIMATE] My leg’s hurting, you know! A: 㑯㩲㞞䟊f [INTIMATE] You’re not going to do my homework? B: ⋲ ⻢㖾䟞㧬㞚H [INTIMATE] I’ve already done it, don’t you know. This may also happen when the speaker feels that he/she is being incessantly pestered by the interlocutor:

Ị✲Ⰲ㰖 Ⱖ⧒ ⁎⨂㧬㞚H [INTIMATE] I told you not to bug me! Ṗ₆ 㕁┺ἶ 䟞⓪◆ 㢲㧦∎ Ṗ⧒⓪ Ệ㟒f 㕁┺㧬㞚H [INTIMATE] I told you I didn’t want to go, so why do you keep telling me to go? I said I didn’t want to! Finally, this usage may occur when the speaker is asked a stupid question to which the answer is too obvious.

A: 㢲 ἆ䢒䟞㠊f [INTIMATE] Why did you get married? B: ㌂⧧䞮㧬㞚H [INTIMATE] It’s because I love him/her, stupid! A: 㤆Ⰲ 䞲ῃⰦ 㔲䠮㠎㩲䟊f [INTIMATE] When do we have our Korean exam? B: ⍞ 㰚㰲 ⴆ⧒f ⌊㧒㧊㧬㞚H [INTIMATE] You really don’t know? It’s tomorrow, stupid.

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8.16

Sentence endings

– 㰖 (tag questions)

The one-shape ending –㰖 may be preceded by tense markers. When it is followed by the polite ending –㣪, the combination is sometimes pronounced and even written (in casual writing) as –㬶. When a speaker uses –㰖, the underlying meaning is that the speaker is confident that the content of his/her utterance is true, right or plausible and that he/she expects the hearer to agree with him/her. In practice, this results in a number of different usages depending on the context and intonation. First, when the sentence is said with a rising intonation, the speaker is usually inviting the confirmation of the hearer. The meaning is therefore similar to a tag-question (‘don’t you’, ‘isn’t it’, ‘didn’t he’, ‘can’t she’, etc. in English, ‘innit’ in some urban dialects of British English, ‘n’est pas’ in French):

⁎ 㺛㦖㩫Ⱖ 㨂⹎㧞㰖㣪f

That book’s interesting, isn’t it?

㠊㩲 Ⱔ㧊䧮✺㠞㰖f [INTIMATE]

You had a hard time yesterday, didn’t you?

䞲ῃ ㌂⧢㧊㔲㰖㣪f

You’re Korean, aren’t you?

⌊㧒㤆Ⰲ 㰧㠦㢂 Ệ㰖f [INTIMATE] You’re going to come to our house tomorrow, aren’t you? Second, when the sentence is said with a falling intonation, the speaker indicates that the listener should know or be aware of the content of the remark. English translations such as ‘as you might expect’, ‘as you know’, ‘of course’ may convey this tone. Unlike in the previous examples, the speaker is not asking for the hearer’s confirmation and is taking the truth of his/her utterance as a given.

䞲ῃ㦖㡂⯚㠦 ⋶㝾Ṗ ▻㰖㣪. Korea is hot in summer, as you know. 㥶⹎Ṗ 㠊㩲㞚䕶㰖㣪. Yumi was ill yesterday, you know. ⑚ῂ⋮ 㔺㑮䞮㰖. [INTIMATE] Everyone makes mistakes, you know. ㍶㌳┮㧊㔲┞₢ 䟃㌗㩦㕂 Ṩ㦚 ⌊㔲㰖㣪. As he/she is the teacher, he/she always treats us to lunch, as you might expect.

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This usage may also be applied in response to a yes/no question to emphasize ‘of course I have done what you are asking’:

A: ㍺Ệ㰖䟞㠊f [INTIMATE] Have you washed the dishes? B: ⁎⩒, 䟞㰖. [INTIMATE] Of course I’ve done it. This usage also commonly appears in stock expressions that include the meaning of ‘of course’ in their semantics:

ⶒ⪶㧊㰖㣪.

Of course.

╏㡆䞮㰖㣪.

That goes without saying.

This includes the expression –₆ Ⱎ⩾㧊– (see 2.2.4.3):

⑚ῂ⋮ 㔺㑮䞮₆ Ⱎ⩾㧊㰖㣪. Of course, it’s to be expected that anyone can make a mistake. Third, –㰖 can appear in sentences with a first-person subject (i.e. ‘I’, ‘we’) when the speaker is making an offer to the hearer or is volunteering to do something. In such cases, the addition of –㰖 makes the sentence sound softer and friendlier:

㩲Ṗ 㖾 ✲Ⰲ㰖㣪.

Let me write it for you.

㩲Ṗ O☞㦚P ⌊㰖㣪H

I’ll pay! (or: Let me pay!)

Fourth, –㰖 can also be used in imperative sentences, with the underlying meaning ‘I am telling you what to do and I expect you to comply with my request’. However, in practice these kinds of commands generally convey a tone of friendly urging (rather than the normal feeling of demanding that imperatives may often convey). Common translations include ‘how about . . . ?’ or ‘why don’t you . . . ?’:

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䞲㧪 ▪ 䞮㰖. [INTIMATE]

How about another drink?

Ⱎ㦢╖⪲ 䞮㰖. [INTIMATE]

Just do what you like.

䄺䞒䞲㧪 ✲㔲㰖㣪.

How would you like a cup of coffee?

These imperative sentences with honorifics and –㰖 are often used in proposals that include the participation of the speaker as well, where English would use ‘let’s’. Although Korean also has a proposal type ending –ථ㔲┺ ‘let’s’, this ending is not normally used towards status superiors. Instead, it is politer to use –㰖 together with the honorific marker –㔲–:

Sentence endings

Ṗ₢㤊㌆㠦 ❇㌆㧊⋮ ṯ㧊 Ṗ㔲㰖㣪. Let’s go hiking together on a nearby mountain. ┺㦢㭒㠦㩦㕂㧊⋮ ṯ㧊䞮㔲㰖㣪. Let’s have lunch together sometime next week. Fifth, when –㰖 is used in question sentences that contain a question word (㠒Ⱎ ‘how much’, ⳝ ‘how many’, ⑚ῂ ‘who’, etc.), it acts to make the question sound softer and/or more friendly:

㩖Ệ 㠒Ⱎ㰖㣪f

How much is it?

㰖⁞ ⳝ 㔲㰖㣪f

What time is it?

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Chapter 9

Quotations

Overview Quotations (also known as ‘reported speech’) are used when repeating or relaying what someone else said (or, at times, when reiterating your own words, reporting things that are commonly said or believed, reporting the thoughts of yourself/others, etc.). There are two ways to report what someone has said: a direct quotation, which gives the exact words spoken, and an indirect quotation, which gives the words in a changed style. In Korean, the second of these methods is particularly complex in that different verb endings are required depending on whether the phrase that was said was a simple statement, a question, a command or a proposal. In addition, in colloquial speech, a variety of abbreviated reduced quotation forms are used, each with their specific discourse functions.

9.1

Direct quotations

Direct quotes are used when you want to relay the actual words or thoughts in their original form. To do this, simply say or write the original phrase in its entirety, follow this with ⧒ἶ or 䞮ἶ and then round off the sentence with a quoting verb such as Ⱖ䞮– ‘say’, ⶑ– ‘ask’, etc. As is the case with other quotation patterns, 䞮– ‘do’ (or ⁎⩝– ‘do like that’ in casual speech) is frequently used in place of a specific quoting verb.

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Actual words

Reported in direct quotations

ˈ⌊㧒₢㰖㑯㩲⯒ 䞮㎎㣪.ˉ

㍶㌳┮㦖 ˈ⌊㧒₢㰖㑯㩲⯒ 䞮㎎㣪ˉ ⧒ἶGⰦ㝖䞮㎾㠊㣪. The teacher said, ‘Do your homework by tomorrow.’

‘Do your homework by tomorrow.’ ˈ⋶㝾Ṗ ⍞ⶊ 㫡┺.ˉ ‘The weather’s so good.’

Indirect quotations

⹒䢎Ṗ ˈ⋶㝾Ṗ ⍞ⶊ 㫡┺ˉ ⧒ἶ 䟞㠊㣪. Minho said, ‘The weather’s so good.’

Here are some further examples:

㔶ⶎ₆㧦Ṗ ˈ㡗ῃ㠦㢲㡺㎾㔋┞₢fˉ 䞮ἶGⶒ㠞㠊㣪. The newspaper reporter asked, ‘Why did you come to the UK?’ ⁎ ➢ 㧎䢎Ṗ ˈṧ㔲┺ˉ ⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. At that moment, Inho said, ‘Let’s go!’ ˈỊṫ㦚㺯Ỿ㟒㰖ˉ 䞮ἶG㌳ṗ䞮₆ 㔲㧧䟞㠊㣪. I started thinking, ‘I have to look after my health.’ When reporting noises that are expressed through onomatopoeic words, note that only –䞮ἶ (and not –⧒ἶ) is used:

㼁㑮䌟㧊 ˈↂ⋒㡺Hˉ 䞮ἶG⳿㼃㦚Gㆧ㞮┺. [PLAIN] The first cock cried, ‘Cock-a-doodle-do!’

9.2

Indirect quotations

Indirect quotations are also used when reporting what someone said. But instead of keeping the quotation in its original form (and with quotation marks), you alter the phrase and incorporate it directly into the structure of the sentence (without quotation marks). To take an example from English, a direct quotation such as:

Tom said, ‘I am going home.’ can alternatively be expressed as an indirect quotation as follows:

Tom said he was going home.

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Korean expresses indirect quotations by attaching the verb ending –ἶ onto the end of the plain style (see 4.3.6) and then following this with a quoting verb:

Ṛ┺ἶ goes-[PLAIN]-ἶ He said he was going.

Ⱖ䟞㠊㣪 said

As well as quoting verbs with specific meanings, such as Ⱖ䞮– ‘say’ and ⶒ㠊⽊– ‘ask’, you can also just use the generic verbs 䞮– ‘do’ and ⁎ ⩝– ‘do like that’. A complete list of quoting verbs is provided later in this chapter (see 9.2.6). As indirect quotations use the plain speech style ((see 4.3.6) as an integral building-block, it is important to have a good grasp of the plain speech style before reading this subchapter.

9.2.1

Quoted statements

Statements can be quoted indirectly by attaching the plain speech style statement ending –Oච/⓪P┺ to the phrase being quoted, following this immediately with –ἶ and then using a quoting verb. As with other quotation patterns, 䞮– ‘do’ (or ⁎⩝– ‘do like that’) is frequently used in place of a specific quoting verb. The resulting pattern thus looks like this: –Oච/⓪P┺ἶ 䞮–.

Actual words

Reported in indirect quotations

ˈ㰧㠦 Ṗ㣪.ˉ ‘I’m going home.’

⹒䢎⓪ 㰧㠦 Ṛ┺ἶG䟞㠊㣪. Minho said he’s going home.

ˈ㥶⹎Ṗ 㡞ㄦ㣪.ˉ ‘Yumi is pretty.’

⹒䢎⓪ 㥶⹎Ṗ 㡞㊮┺ἶG䟞㠊㣪. Minho said that Yumi was pretty.

As in these examples, the person doing the ‘saying’ normally comes at the start of the sentence. However, when the quotation is very long, it is sometimes easier to put it between –ἶ and 䞮–:

㡺⓮ ⋶㧊㫡㞚㍲㌆㠦 Ṛ┺ἶ ⹒䢎Ṗ Ⱖ䟞㠊㣪. Minho said that we’ll go to the mountain since the weather’s so nice today.

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As in the example ⹒䢎⓪ 㥶⹎Ṗ 㡞㊮┺ἶ 䟞㠊㣪, when the subject of the ‘quoted part’ is different to the subject of the ‘saying part’, the former

(i.e. Yumi) is marked with the subject particle and the latter (i.e. Minho) is typically marked with the topic particle (or otherwise also with the subject particle).

Indirect quotations

Although quoted statements normally follow the plain style statement ending, there is one important exception: the copula –㧊– (and its negative counterpart 㞚┞–) (see 4.1.4). Although in the plain style the copula is –㧊┺ (and 㞚┞┺ in the negative), in reported speech it becomes –㧊⧒ (and 㞚┞⧒).

Actual words


ˈ⋾䘎㦖䞲ῃ ㌂⧢㧊㠦㣪.ˉ ‘My husband is Korean.’

⋾䘎㦖䞲ῃ ㌂⧢㧊⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. She said that her husband was Korean.

ˈ゚㕒 ộ 㞚┞㠦㣪.ˉ ‘It’s not an expensive one.’

゚㕒 ộ 㞚┞⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He said it wasn’t an expensive one.

Since the plain speech style can occur after the past tense marker, future expressions with –Ỷ– and the honorific marker, phrases involving all of these forms can be reported in the same way:

past tense:

㰧㦚㌖┺ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He/she said he/she had bought a house.

future with –Ỷ–:

⌊㧒㡺Ỷ┺ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He/she said he/she will come tomorrow.

honorific:

㞚⻚┮㦖㡺⓮ ⴑ Ṗ㔶┺ἶG䞮㎾㠊㣪. Father said he can’t come today.

Quotes for future time can also be reported using the –O㦒Pඥ Ệ– pattern (see 4.5.2.2). Since this pattern is built on the copula, this becomes –Ệ⧒ἶ in reported speech (or –ộ㧊⧒ἶ in its full form).

㡺⓮ 㩖⎗㠦 ⓼Ợ 㢂GỆ⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He/she said he/she would come late tonight. In addition to reporting something that somebody said, you can also report something that you have heard with the verb ✹– ‘hear’:

⁎ ㌂⧢㧊䞲ῃⰦ Ὃ⿖⯒ 㧮䞲┺ἶG✺㠞㠊㣪. I heard he was studying Korean hard. Here are some further examples:

Ὃ㤦㠦㍲㌆㺛䞮ἶ 㕌┺ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He/she said he/she’d like to take a walk in the park.

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㩚䢪䞮㔲Ỷ┺ἶG⁎⨂㠊㣪f Did you say you were going to make a telephone call? 㩲Ṗ ⌊㧒㺔㞚⾯Ỷ┺ἶG㩚䟊G㭒㎎㣪. Please tell him/her that I will go and visit him/her tomorrow.

9.2.2

Quoted questions

For quoted questions, use the –ⓦ⌦ question form of the plain speech style in the case of processive verbs and the –O㦒P⌦ question form in the case of descriptive verbs, and then follow this with –ἶ and a quoting verb. In colloquial speech, the ⓦ and 㦒 elements are frequently deleted giving a colloquial one-shape question form –⌦. Note, however, that –ⓦ⌦ or –O㦒P⌦ is still regarded as standard in written Korean.

Actual words


ˈ⹻㦚 ⲏ㠊㣪fˉ ‘Are you eating?’

⹻㦚 ⲏOⓦP⌦ἶG䟞㠊㣪. I asked if they were eating.

ˈ㥶⹎Ṗ 㠊❪ 㧞㠊㣪fˉ

⹒䢎⓪ 㩖㠦Ợ 㥶⹎Ṗ 㠊❪ 㧞OⓦP⌦ἶ ⶒ㠞㠊㣪. Minho asked me where Yumi was.

‘Where is Yumi?’ ˈ⋶㝾Ṗ 㫡㞚㣪fˉ ‘Is the weather nice?’

⹒䢎Ṗ 㩖䞲䎢 ⋶㝾Ṗ 㫡O㦒P⌦ἶ ⶒ㠞㠊㣪. Minho asked me if the weather was nice.

As with other patterns of indirect reported speech, –ⓦ⌦ἶ 䞮– can occur after the past tense marker, future expressions with –Ỷ– and the honorific marker:

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past tense:

㠎㩲㢪OⓦP⌦ἶGⶒ㠞㠊㣪. He/she asked me when I had come.

future with –Ỷ–:

⌊㧒 Ṗ㔲ỶOⓦP⌦ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He/she asked if I would come tomorrow.

honorific:

㡂☯㌳㦖㞚⻚┮℮㍲㔲Ṛ㧊 ♮㔲OⓦP⌦ἶ ⶒ㠞㠊㣪. Younger sister asked if father had time.

To report the question and subsequent answer (or reaction) within the same sentence, –▪┞ (see 6.1.9) is attached to the quoting verb:

Indirect quotations

㩲Ṗ 㡂㧦䂲ῂ㠦Ợ ㌂⧧䞮⌦ἶGⶒ㠊⽺▪┞ ⳾⯎┺ἶ ╖╋䟞㠊㣪. I asked my girlfriend if she loved me and she answered that she didn’t know. 㥶⹎㠦Ợ ⳝ ㌊㧊⌦ἶGⶒ㠊⽺▪┞SGṧ㧦₆ 䢪⯒ ⌞㠊㣪. When I asked Yumi how old she was, she suddenly got angry. Here are more examples:

㦮㌂䞲䎢⼧㧊㡺⧮ ṖỶⓦ⌦ἶGⶒ㠊G⽊㎎㣪. Ask the doctor if the illness will last long. ㍶㌳㧊 ⋮䞲䎢㢲㫖㧒㹣 Ṗ㰖 ⴑ 䟞ⓦ⌦ἶGⰦ䟞㠊㣪. The teacher asked me why I couldn’t go there a little earlier. ㌂䣢㧦Ṗ 㡆㡞㧎㠦Ợ 㠊⠑Ợ ⁎⩝Ợ 㡞㊮⌦ἶGἚ㏣G㰞ⶎ䟞㠊㣪. The host kept asking the celebrity how it could be that she was so pretty.

9.2.3

Quoted proposals

Proposals can be quoted by attaching –ἶ 䞮– to the plain style proposal ending –㧦:

Actual words


ˈṧ㔲┺!ˉ ‘Let’s go!’

Ṗ㧦ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He/she suggested we go.

ˈ㡗䢪⯒ ṯ㧊⽊㧦Hˉ ‘Let’s watch the film together!’

⹒䢎⓪ 㡗䢪⯒ ṯ㧊⽊㧦ἶG䟞㠊㣪. Minho suggested watching the film together.

Since proposals cannot occur in the past or future, –㞮/㠞– (past tense marker) and –Ỷ– (future tense marker) never appear in this construction. Here are more examples of quoted proposals.

⹒䢎⓪ 㧎䢎㠦Ợ ㌂㠛㦚 ṯ㧊䞮㧦ἶG䟞㠊㣪. Minho suggested to Inho that they go into business together. 䑊⁒ ₎㠦䙂㧻Ⱎ㹾㠦 Ṗ㍲㏢㭒䞲㧪䞮㧦ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He/she suggested that we go to the drinking stall for a drink of soju on the way home.

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⏎⧮⹿㠦 ✺⯊㧦ἶ, ⏎⧮ 䞲⻞⿖⯊㧦ἶG㫎⧦㠞㠊㣪. He/she pestered me by suggesting that we go to karaoke and that we sing a song. 㡂㧦䂲ῂ㠦Ợ ἆ䢒䞮㧦ἶG䟞⓪◆ 㡂㧦䂲ῂ⓪ 㧻⋲㧎㭚㞢㞮㠊㣪 I suggested to my girlfriend that we get married, but she thought I was joking.

9.2.4

Quoted commands

Commands can be quoted by adding –ἶ and a quoting verb to the –O㦒P⧒ command form of the plain speech style. Note that –O㦒P⧒ is used and not the colloquial variant –㞚/㠊⧒ (see 4.3.6.4).

Actual words


ˈゾⰂ ⲏ㠊Hˉ ‘Eat up quickly!’

ゾⰂ ⲏ㦒⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He/she told me to eat quickly.

ˈ㡂₆㍲ ⌊Ⰲ㎎㣪.ˉ

㤊㩚₆㌂Ṗ 㩖㠦Ợ 㡂₆㍲ ⌊Ⰲ⧒ἶ G 䟞㠊㣪. The driver told me to get off here.

‘Get off here.’

As in the final example, the person towards whom the command is directed is marked with the particle 㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 (see 3.2.4.4). You might also hear –▪⩂ being used in place of these, although this usage is generally restricted to those of equal or lower status. When the person receiving the command is an elder or notable superior, the honorific particle –℮ should be used instead:

䞶㞚⻚㰖℮ 䘎䧞㓂㔲⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. I told grandfather to rest comfortably. As commands cannot take future and past tense, this pattern does not occur with the tense markers –㞮/㠞– and –Ỷ–. However, as shown in the previous example, it may appear with the honorific marker –㔲–. Here are some further examples:

㠊Ⲏ┞⓪ ⋮▪⩂ 㡺⓮ 㞚䂾㧒㹣㧒㠊⋮⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. Mother told me to get up early this morning. ㍶㌳┮℮㍲⓪ 㡗㠊⯒ 䞮㰖 Ⱖἶ 䞲ῃⰦ㦚䞮⧒ἶG䞮㎾㠊㣪. The teacher told us to speak Korean instead of English.

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⌊Ṗ 㤊☯䢪㔶㦒⧒ἶG䟞㧬㞚. 㠚ⰞṖ Ⱖ䞶 ➢ ✺㠞㠊㟒㰖. [PLAIN] I told you to wear your trainers, didn’t I? You have to listen to your mother when she’s speaking.

Note that commands featuring 㭒– ‘give’ (as a main verb or an auxiliary verb) undergo special transformations (see 9.2.5).

9.2.5

Indirect quotations

The verb 㭒 – in quoted commands

Special care is needed when dealing with the verb 㭒– ‘give’ in indirect quoted commands, both when it appears as a main verb and as an auxiliary verb in the construction –㞚/㠊㭒– (see 5.1.12) (which is used when talking about performing an action for the benefit of someone else). In quoted commands, 㭒– is frequently replaced by ╂⧒–. However, for this to take place, an important condition has to be met: the person making the command must be the same as the person who stands to benefit from the action being commanded.

Actual words


ˈ⁎ 㺛㦚㭒㎎㣪.ˉ ‘Please give me that book.’

⁎ 㺛㦚 ╂⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. He/she told me to give him/her that book.

ˈₖ䂮㹢Ṳ 䞮⋮ 㭒㎎㣪Uˉ ‘One kimchi stew, please.’

ₖ䂮㹢Ṳ 䞮⋮ ╂⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. I asked the waiter to give me one kimchi stew.

ˈ⌊㧒 ₢㰖㩚䢪䟊㭒㎎㣪Uˉ

⹒䢎⓪ ⌊㧒₢㰖㩚䢪䟊 ╂⧒ἶG 䟞㠊㣪. Minho told me to give him a call by tomorrow.

‘Give me a call by tomorrow.’ ˈ㥶⹎㟒, 㩦㕂㌂㭮Uˉ ‘Yumi, (why don’t you) buy me lunch?’

⹒䢎⓪ 㥶⹎㠦Ợ 㩦㕂㦚㌂ ╂⧒ἶ 䟞㠊㣪. Minho told (asked, suggested to) Yumi to buy him lunch.

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In cases where the person to whom the command (or request) is being addressed is a notable superior, etc. and would typically be addressed in honorifics, the special form 㭒㕃㌂ should be used instead:

Actual words


ˈ㌂㧻┮, ☚㹿䞮㔲⓪ ╖⪲ 㩚䢪䟊㭒㕃㔲㡺.ˉ ‘Boss, please phone me as as you arrive.’

㌂㧻┮℮ ☚㹿䞮㔲⓪ ╖⪲ 㩚䢪䟊㭒㕃㌂OἶP⿖䌗G✲⪎㠊㣪. I requested that the manager phone me as soon as he arrived.

ˈᾦ㑮┮, 㿪㻲㍲㫖㖾㭒㕃㔲㡺.ˉG ‘Professor, please write a reference for me.’

ᾦ㑮┮℮ 㿪㻲㍲⯒ 㫖㖾G㭒㕃㌂OἶP⿖䌗G✲⪎㠊㣪. I requested that the professor write a reference for me.

In cases where the person benefiting from the action is a different person to the one making the command, 㭒– is maintained in the form 㭒⧒ἶ:

Actual words


ˈ㧎䢎㠦Ợ ☞ 㫖㭒㎎㣪.ˉ

⹒䢎Ṗ 㧎䢎㠦Ợ ☞ 㫖㭒⧒ἶ 䟞㠊㣪. Minho told me to give some money to Inho.

‘Give some money to Inho.’ ˈ㥶⹎㟒, 㑮⹎㠦Ợ ⟷㦚 Ṭ┺ 㭮⧒.ˉ ‘Yumi, take these rice cakes to Sumi (for me).’

9.2.6

⹒䢎⓪ 㥶⹎㠦Ợ 㑮⹎䞲䎢 ⟷㦚 Ṭ┺ 㭒⧒ἶG䟞㠊㣪. Minho told Yumi to take some rice cakes to Sumi.

Quoting verbs

As we have seen in this section, a variety of verbs can be used in reported speech. The most common verbs you will hear are summarized in the following table (refer to Choo and Kwak 2008):

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1. Generic verbs

Examples

䞮– do

㞞 Ṛ┺ἶ 䟞㠊㣪. He/she said he/she is not going.

⁎⩝– do like that

⑚Ṗ ⏣╊䞲┺ἶ ⁎⧮㣪f Who said I’m joking?

2. Saying-type verbs

Examples

ἓἶ䞮– warn

⁎ 㟓㦖㞛㡗䟻㦚 ⋒䂲┺ἶ ἓἶ䟞㠊㣪. I warned him that the medicine had adverse effects.

⏎⧮⯒ 䞮– repeatedly ask; beg

☞㦚 ╂⧒ἶ ⏎⧮⯒ 䟞㠊㣪. He/she kept begging me to give him/her money.

Ⱖ䞮– say

㔲Ṛ㧊㠜┺ἶ Ⱖ䟞㠊㣪. He/she said he/she did not have time.

ⱏ㎎䞮– swear

⋮Ⱒ㦚㌂⧧䞲┺ἶ ⱏ㎎䞮㰖㞠㞮㠊f Didn’t you swear to love only me?

ⳛ⪏䞮– order

ゾⰂ Ṗ⧒ἶ ⳛ⪏䟞㠊㣪. He/she told me to go quickly.

ⶑ– ask

䢪㧻㔺㧊㠊❪⌦ἶ ⶒ㠊⽺㠊㣪. He/she asked where the toilet was.

⿖䌗䞮– request

☚㢖 ╂⧒ἶ ⿖䌗䟞㠊㣪. He/she asked me to help.

㍺ⳛ䞮– explain

㦮㌂⓪ ὖ㩞㡒㠦䣾ὒṖ 㧞┺ἶ ㍺ⳛ䟞㠊㣪. The doctor explained that it was effective for arthritis.

㤆₆– insist

Ⱔ㧊㞞 ⲏ㠞┺ἶ 㤆ἒ㠊㣪. I insisted that I hadn’t eaten a lot.

㨂㽟䞮– push

ゾⰂ ⲏ㦒⧒ἶ 㨂㽟䟞㠊㣪. He/she pressed me to eat quickly.

㭒㧻䞮– claim

㰖㤦㩲☚⯒ Ⱎ⩾䟊㟒䞲┺ἶ 㭒㧻䟞㠊㣪. He/she claimed that we had to set up a system of support.

䃃㺂䞮– compliment

䞲ῃⰦ㦚㧮䞲┺ἶ 䃃㺂䟞㠊㣪. I complimented him on speaking Korean well.

Indirect quotations

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3. Thinking-type verbs

Examples

ἆ⪶ ⌊Ⰲ– conclude

Ṗ⓻㎇㧊 ⰺ㤆㩗┺ἶ ἆ⪶ ⌊⪎㠊㣪. They concluded that the possibility was very small.

⹕– believe

㌂㰚㠦㹣䧞Ⳋ 㡗䢒㦚ュ₊┺ἶ ⹕㠊㣪. They believe that if you have your photo taken, your soul will be taken away.

⽊– view

㫡㦖 ₆䣢⧒ἶ ⽦㟒㰖㣪. You have to look on it as a good opportunity.

㌳ṗ䞮– think

㡺⧮ 㩚⿖䎆㺎 ὲ㺄㦖㡂㧦⧒ἶ ㌳ṗ䟞㠊㣪. From a long time ago, I thought she was a good woman.

㡞䁷䞮– expect

㢂 Ỿ㤎㦖䘟⎚⽊┺ ➆⦑䞶 Ệ⧒ἶ 㡞䁷䞮ἶ 㧞ῆ㣪. They are predicting that this winter will be warmer than an average year.

䢫㔶䞮– believe; sure

㡆⧓䞶㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㠞㦚 Ệ⧒ἶ 䢫㔶䟊㣪. I’m sure (it was the case) that he/she did not have time to contact you.

4. Hearing verbs

Examples

✹– hear

⁎ 㡂⺆㤆Ṗ ㎇䡫㑮㑶㦚䟞┺ἶ ✺㠞㠊㣪. I heard that that actress has had plastic surgery.

㏢ⶎ㦚 ✹– hear a rumour

㣪㯮 ┺⯎ ⋾㧦⯒ Ⱒ⋲┺⓪ ㏢ⶎ㦚 ✺㠞㠊㣪. I heard a rumour that she is meeting another man these days.

Quotations may also be followed by a clause expressing a means of communication (such as letter, e-mail, etc.):

⁎ 䂲ῂ㠦Ợ ⍞ⶊ ἶⰯ┺ἶGⲪ㧒㦚G⽊⌞㠊㣪. I sent an e-mail saying thank you to my friend.

392

⌊Ṗ ἶ❇䞯ᾦ ➢ 㡆㡞㧎䞲䎢㌂⧧䞲┺ἶG䘎㰖⯒G⽊⌎ 㩗㧊㧞㠊㣪. When I was a high school student, I once sent a letter to a celebrity saying that I loved him/her.

⌊ ゚㍲Ṗ 㡺⓮ 㞚䂾㞚䝚┺ἶG㩚䢪䟞㠊㣪. This morning my secretary phoned in sick. Quotations may also be followed by longer clauses that represent the actions of the person in question, with the preceding quoted clause expressing the thinking or spoken justification that lies behind the action:

Reduced indirect quotations in reported speech

⍺䕪㠦㧦㤦⽟㌂䞮⩂ Ṛ┺ἶG☞㦚G⳾㦒ἶG㧞㠊㣪. He/she is saving money, saying he/she is going to Nepal to do voluntary work. 㩲Ṗ 䣢㌂⯒ ⁎Ⱒ⚦ἶ 㥶䞯GṚ┺ἶG㡗㠊⯒GὋ⿖䞮ἶG㧞㠊㣪. I quit my job and am now studying English, thinking about going to study overseas. ☚╖㼊㠊❪ ペ㌊㧊㧞㦒㔲┺ἶG┺㧊㠊䔎⯒G䞮㔲⓪GỆ㡞㣪f Where do you think you have any fat to lose, going on a diet?

9.3


In colloquial speech, the full quotation forms outlined in the previous section are often reduced to the following abbreviated forms:

Full form

Abbreviated form 1

Abbreviated form 2

statements:

–Oච/⓪P┺ἶ 䞮–

–Oච/⓪P┺ἶ

–Oච/⓪P╖

copula statements:

–㧊⧒ἶ 䞮–

–㧊⧒ἶ

–㧊⧮

questions:

–ⓦ⌦/O㦒P⌦ἶ 䞮–

–⌦ἶ

–⍂

proposals:

–㧦ἶ 䞮–

–㧦ἶ

–㨂

commands:

–O㦒P⧒ἶ 䞮–

–O㦒P⧒ἶ

–O㦒P⧮

commands with 㭒–:

╂⧒ἶ 䞮–

╂⧒ἶ

╂⧮

The following discussions look at the first column of abbreviated forms first and then the second. Rather than always acting as direct substitutions for the full forms, these abbreviated forms take on their own specific functions and nuances.

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9.3.1

–┺ἶ, –⌦ἶ, –⧒ἶ, –㧦ἶ

This first set of reduced forms simply involves leaving off the quoting verb at the end. When speaking in non-honorific speech styles (see 4.3), the sentence can then simply end. When speaking in honorific speech styles, –㣪 should be attached to the end.

Actual words


ˈ⌊㧒㞞 Ṗ㣪.ˉ ‘I’m not going tomorrow.’

⌊㧒㞞 Ṛ┺ἶ㣪. I said I’m not going tomorrow.

ˈ⹒䢎㝾 Ệ㡞㣪.ˉ ‘It’s Minho’s.’

⹒䢎㝾 Ệ⧒ἶ㣪. I said it’s Minho’s.

ˈ㠎㩲㢖㣪fˉ ‘When are you going?’

㠎㩲㡺⌦ἶ㣪f I asked when you were going.

ˈゾⰂ Ⱎ㕃㔲┺.ˉ ‘Let’s drink up quickly.’

ゾⰂ Ⱎ㔲㧦ἶ㣪. I said let’s drink up quickly.

ˈ⌊㧒㧒㹣㡺㎎㣪.ˉ ‘Come early tomorrow.’

⌊㧒㧒㹣㡺㔲⧒ἶ㣪. I said come early tomorrow.

This form of reported speech is perhaps most commonly heard when the speaker repeats something he/she has previously said when the interlocutor fails to hear or heed his/her words, as can be seen in the following example:

A: 䏶㣪㧒㠦㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㠊. [INTIMATE]

I don’t have time on Saturday.

B: ⶦ⧒ἶf 㧮㞞 ✺⩺. [INTIMATE]

What? I can’t hear what you are saying.

A: 䏶㣪㧒㠦㔲Ṛ㧊㠜┺ἶ. [INTIMATE]

I said I don’t have time on Saturday.

In addition to simply repeating what you said, you may use this strategy to clarify what you mean:

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A: 㢲㩚䢪䟞㠊㣪f

Why are you phoning me?

B: ⶒ㠊⽒ Ệ 㧞㠊㍲㣪.

Because I have something to ask.

A: 㰖⁞ ㌞⼓ Y㔲㧎◆ 㢲㩚䢪䟞⌦ἶ㣪.

I mean, why are you phoning me at 2am?

These reduced forms are also used when you want to check or take issue with something that someone else has said that sounds suspect or surprising:

ⶦ⧒ἶf ⁎ 㡞㊲㡂㧦⧧ 䠺㠊㪢┺ἶf 㩲㩫㔶㧊┞f [INTIMATE/PLAIN] What? You said you broke up with that pretty girl? Are you in your right mind?


㧊Ệ ┺ Ⱎ㔲⧒ἶf ⹎㼺㠊f [INTIMATE] You’re telling me to drink all this? Are you crazy? ἆ䢒䟞⌦ἶf ⁎ Ỏ 㢲㞢ἶ 㕌┞f [INTIMATE] Am I married? Why do you want to know that? These forms are also used to indicate that you hold a different opinion either from the person you are talking to or from a third person. Here, the quoted form is generally accompanied by a question word (typically ⶦ ‘what?’ or 㠊❪ ‘where?’) and the usage tends to be sarcastic:

⁎ ⋾㧦㠊❪Ṗ ⁎⩝Ợ ⲡ㧞┺ἶ. [INTIMATE] What do you think is so cool about that guy? A: 㧊㦢㞛 ⍞ⶊ Ⱎ㦢㠦 ✺㠊. [INTIMATE] I really like this music. B: ⁎⧮f ⶦṖ 㫡┺ἶ. [INTIMATE] Really? What’s so great about it? These forms are also used together with 㠒Ⱎ⋮ ‘how (much/many)’ when boasting with pride:

㤆Ⰲ ⋮⧒ ㍶㑮✺㦖㠒Ⱎ⋮ 㡊㕂䧞㕎㤶┺ἶH [INTIMATE] How hard our country’s players/athletes fought! 㤆Ⰲ 㞚✺㦖㠒Ⱎ⋮ ⡧⡧䞮┺ἶ! [INTIMATE] How clever my son is!

9.3.2

–╖, –⍂, –⧮, –㨂

This second set of reduced forms involves reducing the full quotation forms of –┺ἶ 䞮–, –⌦ἶ 䞮–, –⧒ἶ 䞮– and –㧦ἶ 䞮– to –╖, –⍂, –⧮ and –㨂 respectively. When speaking in non-honorific speech styles (see 4.3), the sentence can then simply end. When speaking in honorific speech styles, –㣪 should be attached to the end. The past tense marker can also be added to make the forms –╪㠊, –⍖㠊, –⨂㠊 and –㨖㠊.

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Actual words


ˈ⌊㧒㞞 Ṗ㣪.ˉ ‘I’m not going tomorrow.’

⌊㧒㞞 Ṛ╖㣪. They say he/she isn’t going tomorrow.

ˈ⹒䢎㝾 Ệ㡞㣪.ˉ ‘It’s Minho’s.’

⹒䢎㝾 Ệ⧮㣪. They say it’s Minho’s.

ˈ㠎㩲㢖㣪fˉ ‘When are you coming?’

㠎㩲㡺⍂㣪. They are asking when you are coming.

ˈゾⰂ Ⱎ㕃㔲┺.ˉ ‘Let’s drink up quickly.’

ゾⰂ Ⱎ㔲㨂㣪. They are suggesting we drink up quickly.

ˈ⌊㧒㧒㹣㡺㎎㣪.ˉ ‘Come early tomorrow.’

⌊㧒㧒㹣㡺㔲⧮㣪. They are telling us we should come early tomorrow.

The –╖ form is frequently used when reporting hearsay: things that have been heard (often from an unspecified speaker) or that are generally ‘said’ and believed. In English, this typically translates as ‘they say’, ‘it is said’ or ‘I’ve heard that’. Note that the long form can also be used for this, but less commonly so in colloquial speech.

㧊㦢㔳㦖 Ịṫ㠦㫡╖㣪. They say this food is good for your health. ἆ䢒㦖㞞䟞㰖Ⱒ 㡂㧦䂲ῂṖ 㧞╖㣪. He’s not married but I’ve heard that he has a girlfriend. ⌊㧒㦖㿻ἶ ゚Ṗ Ⱔ㧊㡾╖㣪. I’ve heard it’s going to be cold and will rain a lot tomorrow. These reduced forms can also be used in colloquial speech in place of the full forms when reporting what is said by a specific individual:

䞶㞚⻚㰖℮㍲㡺⓮ 㡺㔶╪㠊㣪. Grandfather said he is coming today. ㌂⧢✺㦖 ⋮䞲䎢㢲 ἆ䢒㦚㞞䟞⍖㠊㣪. People asked me why I wasn’t married. ㌂⧧┞ ヒ⩺ἶ 䞮⓪◆ 䋆⼧㤦㦒⪲ Ṗ⧮㣪. I’m going to have my wisdom tooth pulled out and I was told to go to a big hospital. 396

⋾㧦䂲ῂṖ 㧦∎ 㰚㰖䞮Ợ ἆ䢒䞮㨂㣪. My boyfriend keeps seriously proposing that we get married.

With the –⧮ form for commands, you may hear –⧒㎪ (a combination of –⧒ and –㔲– (see 4.4.1.1)) when the person whose words are being quoted is a status superior:

Special patterns with indirect quotations

㠚ⰞṖ 䆲⧒ Ⱔ㧊 ⲏ㰖 Ⱖ⧒ἶ 㩚䟊 ╂⧒㎪. [INTIMATE] Mum told me to tell you not to drink too much cola. 㠊Ⲏ┮℮㍲㩚䢪䞮㎾⓪◆, 㧊⻞㭒Ⱖ㧊㩲㌂⧒ἶ ⓼㰖 Ⱖἶ 㡺⧒㎪. [INTIMATE] Mum phoned and she said this weekend we are performing a sacrifice so don’t be late. Although this reduced form of speech is –╖, –⍂, –⧮ and –㨂 with the polite and intimate speech styles, these reductions look somewhat different in other speech styles (see 4.3). The following chart shows verb endings for each style with the verb Ṗ– ‘go’.

Intimate

Polite

Plain

Formal

Ṛ╖

Ṛ╖㣪

Ṛ┾┺

Ṛ╋┞┺

Ṗ⍂

Ṗ⍂㣪

Ṗ〉┺

Ṗ⌷┞┺

Ṗ⧮

Ṗ⧮㣪

Ṗ⧖┺

Ṗ⧣┞┺

Ṗ㨂

Ṗ㨂㣪

Ṗ㧪┺

Ṗ㧷┞┺

9.4


This section analyses some common grammatical patterns that incorporate elements of reported speech (typically –┺/⌦/㧦/⧒) in their structure.

9.4.1

–┺ /⌦ /㧦 /⧒┞O₢P ‘upon telling’; ‘I told you’

This structure combines quotation patterns with the causation endings –O㦒P┞₢ (see 6.1.3) or the abbreviated –O㦒P┞ (see 6.1.4). The pattern can first of all be used to link two clauses when a quoted phrase (in the first clause) is expressed as the reason for a state of affairs (in the second clause):

⹎⋮⓪ 㡞㊮┺┞₢ 㫡㞚䞮▪⧒ἶ㣪. On telling Mina she was pretty, she really liked it.

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9 Quotations

㡂☯㌳㧊㧞┺┞₢ ┺✺ ㏢Ṳ䟊 ╂⧒ἶ 䟞㠊㣪. On mentioning that I had a little sister, everyone asked me to introduce them to her. Second, generally with the abbreviated form –O㦒P┞, the second clause may contain the response or reaction of the speaker to something that the interlocutor has said or something that he/she has heard from a third party:

⋾㧦䂲ῂṖ 㧊⩝Ợ 㧮㌳ἒ┺┞ ⿖⩓⍺㣪. On hearing that your boyfriend is so good-looking, I’m feeling jealous. 㨂⹎ 㠜㦚㭚㞢㞮⓪◆ 㨂⹎㧞㠞┺┞ ┺䟟㧊⍺㣪. I thought you weren’t going to enjoy it, so I’m relieved to hear you had a good time. Third, typically with the longer form –O㦒P┞₢, the pattern may appear at the end of a sentence to repeat, clarify or reiterate something previously said. Although this can also be done by using the first abbreviated quotation pattern (see 9.3.1), using –┺/⌦/㧦/⧒┞₢ makes the utterance sound more emphatic and often shows the speaker’s frustration or anger that the interlocutor is not listening to him/her:

㞟㞚H 㞟㦒⧒ἶH 㞟㦒⧒┞₢H 㢲 Ⱖ㦚㞞 ✺㠊. [INTIMATE] Sit down! Sit down! I told you to sit down! Why don’t you listen to me? Ṗ₆ 㕁㦖 Ợ 㞚┞⧒ ⹪㊮┺┞₢. [INTIMATE] It’s not that I don’t want to go. I’ve told you that I’m busy. 㢲 ╖╋ 㞞䟊f ὖ㕂㠜⌦┞₢. [INTIMATE] Why aren’t you answering? I asked you if you are not interested. ⶦ 䟊f ゾⰂ Ṗ㧦┞₢. [INTIMATE] What are you doing? Let’s get going quickly. Fourth, with the shorter form –O㦒P┞, the structure may be used when asking the interlocutor what another person said or to confirm what he/she has said:

Ⱎ㧊䋊㦖䞲ῃ㦢㔳㧊 ⰱ㧞┺┞f [INTIMATE] Did Michael say that Korean food tasted good? ⹎⋮Ṗ ⑚ῂ⧧ ṯ㧊 Ṛ┺┞f [INTIMATE] Who did Mina say she was going with? 398

9.4.2

–┺ /⧒Ⳋ ‘if you say that’

This structure combines quotation patterns with the conditional –O㦒PⳊ ending and is discussed elsewhere (see 6.5.1).

9.4.3


–┺ /⧒Ⳋ㍲ ‘I heard . . . , right?’

This pattern combines reported speech with the –O㦒PⳊ㍲ ending (see 6.3.6), which is originally used like ‘while’ in English to depict two actions carried out at the same time and by the same person. –┺/⧒Ⳋ㍲ may also appear in the contracted form –┺/⧒Ⳇ. This pattern can be used both at the end of a sentence and followed by another clause. When used at the end of a sentence, it indicates that the speaker wants to confirm information that he/she has heard from somewhere else:

➎㦚 ⌉㦒㎾┺Ⳋ㍲㣪f

I heard you had a daughter, right?

㣪㯮䞲ῃ Ṗ㦚 ⋶㝾Ṗ 㫡┺Ⳋ㍲㣪f

I heard that the Korean autumn weather is good these days, right?

㠊㩲 Ⱔ㧊㞚䕶┺Ⳋ㍲f [INTIMATE]

I heard you were really ill yesterday, right?

When used followed by a clause, the second clause depicts an action that accompanies the words of the speaker reported in the first clause:

⹒䢎⓪ 㥶⹎㠦Ợ 㧮ⴑ㧊㧞┺Ⳋ㍲ Ⲓ㩖㌂ὒ䞮㰖㞠Ỷ╖㣪. Saying that Yumi was to blame, Minho will not apologize first. ⹒䢎⓪ ⹎㞞䞮┺Ⳋ㍲㥶⹎㠦Ợ ㍶ⶒ㦚㭒㠞㠊㣪. Saying sorry, Minho gave Yumi a present.

9.4.4

–┺ /⧒⓪◆ ‘I heard’

This pattern combines reported speech with the ending –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ (see 6.3.10). This pattern is used when the speaker quotes either something that he/she has heard or otherwise a popular saying and/or common knowledge in the first clause and then makes a command, proposal, invitation, request, etc. based on this in the second:

⌊㧒 ⋶㝾Ṗ 㫡┺⓪◆ Ὃ㤦㠦 ⏖⩂ ṧ㔲┺. They say the weather is good tomorrow; let’s go to the park.

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9 Quotations

⿖㧎ὒ ➎✺ ⿚Ṗ㔲䋺ἶ 䢒㧦㌂㔶┺⓪◆ Ịṫ 㫆㕂䞮㎎㣪. I heard you are living apart from your wife and daughter; please take care of your health. 㔲㧧㧊 ⹮㧊⧒⓪◆ ゾⰂ 㔲㧧䞮㧦. [PLAIN] They say that ‘starting is half ’; let’s start. At times, the construction may appear without a second clause. In such cases, by ending the sentence with –┺⓪◆, the speaker expects the hearer to infer for him/herself what is being commanded, proposed, etc. For example, the first sentence that follows may imply that since it is going to rain, we should just stay at home. And the second may imply that since the film is boring, we should watch a different one or go and do something else instead.

⌊㧒゚Ṗ 㡾┺⓪◆. [INTIMATE]

They say it’s going to rain tomorrow . . .

⁎ 㡗䢪Ṗ 㨂⹎㠜┺⓪◆. [INTIMATE]

I heard that the film is boring . . .

In order to express or emphasize contrast between the quoted information given in the first clause and the contents of the second clause –☚ can be added to the end of the construction to give –⧒/┺⓪◆☚:

☞㧊㠜┺⓪◆☚ 䂲ῂṖ Ἒ㏣㩦㕂㌂ ╂⧮㣪. Even though I said I didn’t have any money, my friend keeps asking me to buy him/her lunch.

9.4.5

–㧊⧒⓪ ‘a . . . called . . .’

This construction involves the copula –㧊–, the quotation element ⧒ and the dynamic modifying form –⓪ (see 7.1.2). It is a contraction of . . . 㧊⧒ἶ 䞮⓪ . . . ‘a(n) . . . called . . .’ (as in ‘a man called Bill’), but this longer form is only rarely heard.

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ₖ㥶⹎⧒⓪ ⺆㤆⯒ Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪.

I met an actress called Kim Yumi.

㞚⯊⹪㧊䔎⧒⓪ Ⱖ㦖㤦⧮ ☛㧒Ⱖ㧊㠦㣪.

The word ‘arbeit’ is originally German.

ṫ⯟㧊⧒⓪ ☚㔲⓪ ṫ㤦☚㠦㧞㠊㣪f

Is the city called Gangneung in Gangwondo?

In colloquial speech, –㧊⧒⓪ is often contracted even further to –㧊⧖:

㠊㩲 ₖ㥶⹎⧖ ㌂⧢㧊㺔㞚㢪㠊㣪. Somebody called Kim Yumi came to visit you yesterday.


ἓ䧂╖㠦㍲䢣⯟ Ṗ⓪ ₎㠦 ⚦⿖㌂⧧㧊⧖ 㔳╏㧊㧞㠊㣪. By Kyunghee University, on the road towards Hongneung, there is a restaurant called ‘Tofu Love’.

9.4.6

–┾ /〉 /㧪 /⧖GⰦ㧊– ‘I mean’

This expression combines a quotative with the dynamic modifying form –⓪ (see 7.1.2). This is contracted to –┾/〉/㧪/⧖ and followed by the word Ⱖ ‘words, speech, what is said’ and the copula. Put together, it translates as ‘I mean’, ‘Do you mean . . . ?’, ‘What I mean is’ or ‘I’m telling you’, etc. It is used when the speaker wants to specify or amplify exactly what he/she means or to clarify what the speaker has said.

ṖỶ┺ἶ 㟓㏣䟞┾GⰦ㧊㠦㣪. What I mean is that I’ve promised to go. ⁎⩝Ợ Ⱒ⋮ ⽊㰖☚ ⴑ䞮ἶ Ṫ┾GⰦ㧊㟒f [INTIMATE] You mean you left without even meeting him/her? ☚╖㼊 ⶦ 䞮⩂ 㡂₆⯒ 㢪〉GⰦ㧊㟒f [INTIMATE] What I mean is what on earth did you come here for? 㤆Ⰲ 䠺㠊㰖㧪GⰦ㧊㟒f [INTIMATE] Are you trying to say that we should break up? The pattern can be made honorific by replacing the plain Ⱖ with the honorific Ⱖ㝖 (see 4.4.3):

ⳝ 㻲Ⱒ ⳛ㦚 ῆ╖㠦⽊⌊ἶ☚ 㞚㰗☚ ⿖㫇䞮┾GⰦ㝖㧛┞₢f Do you mean that even if we send a few more thousand men into the army it still won’t be enough? ⁎⩝Ợ 䞮₆Ṗ Ἲ⧖䞮┾GⰦ㝖㧛┞┺. I mean that will be a bit difficult.

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Chapter 10

Other word classes

Overview This chapter looks at two remaining word classes not yet covered in this book: adnouns and adverbs. We will also look at prefixes and suffixes in this chapter.

10.1

Adnouns

Just as an adverb (see 10.2) functions to modify a following verb, adnouns are forms that work to modify a following noun. They are bound forms that cannot be used independently. The word ‘adnoun’ is not normally used in descriptions of English grammar; in English there is no single set of words that directly corresponds. Korean adnouns most commonly correspond to English adjectives, or else to demonstratives (‘this’, ‘that’, etc.). However, Korean adnouns are very different to typical Korean adjectives. As described elsewhere (see 4.1.1), Korean adjectives typically function the same as verbs; indeed, in this book we refer to them as ‘descriptive verbs’. However, adnouns that are descriptive in meaning have none of the properties of Korean verbs. Unlike verbs, they cannot take different endings, have one ‘frozen’ form and always have to be followed directly by a noun. Here are the most common Korean adnouns:

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┺⯎ other

➊ other

㡂ⓦ ordinary, usual

㥂

ṗ each

⼚

⳾✶ all

㡾 all

Ṭ㦖 assorted

㡾Ṭ all sorts

㩚 all

㌞

new

䠢

old

㡱 ancient

㑲

pure

ⰾ

the very

⋶ raw

a certain, some

Adnouns

different, special

┺⯎ ὒ⳿㦚 ✺㦒㎎㣪f Are you taking any other subjects? ⋮⓪ 㢚㩚䧞 ➊ ㎎㌗㠦㍲㧦⧦㠊㣪. I grew up in a completely different world. 㢂䟊⓪ 㡂ⓦ 䟊㢖 ╂⧒㣪. This year is different from ordinary years. 㥂 ⌅㍶㌂⧢㧊 ⶎ ⹬㠦㧞㠊㣪. Some unknown man is outside the door. ṗ 䢮㧦Ⱎ┺ [\⿚㝿⺆╏♒㣪. Each patient is allotted 45 minutes. ⼚ Ⱖ㝖 ┺ 䞮㕃┞┺. Don’t mention it. (lit. ‘you are saying all these special things’) ⳾✶ 䢎䎪㧊㧊⹎ ┺ 㡞㟓㧊 ♦㠊㣪. All of the hotels are already booked up. ⁎ ㍶㑮⓪ 㡾 ῃ⹒㦮㌂⧧㦚 ⹱㞮㠊㣪. That athlete received the love of the whole nation. Ṭ㦖 ἶ㌳㦚 ἀ㠞㠊㣪. I suffered all kinds of hardships. 㡾Ṭ 㑮┾ὒ ⹿⻫㦚 ┺ 㗒㠊㣪 I tried every kind of means and method. ⁎ ⋶㦖㩚㌳㞶㠦㍲㩲㧒䟟⽋䞲 ⋶㧊㠞㠊㣪. That was the happiest day of my whole life. ㌞㹾⯒ ㌖㠊㣪.

I bought a new car.

䠢㢍㦚㧛㠞㠊㣪.

I wore old clothes.

㡱䂲ῂ⯒ Ⱒ⌂㠊㣪.

I met an old friend.

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10 Other word classes

㞚⯚┺㤊㑲㤆ⰂⰦ ┾㠊✺㧊 Ⱔ㞚㣪. There are many beautiful pure Korean words. 㢲 ⰾ 㞴㠦㞟㦒㎎㣪f Why do you sit at the very front? ⋶ Ἒ⧖㦚 ⲏ㦒Ⳋ 㩫Ⱖ ⏎⧮⯒ 㧮䞮⋮㣪f Can you really sing well if you eat raw eggs? In addition to descriptive adnouns, there are also demonstrative adnouns. Note that Korean has two words that correspond to ‘that’. The first (⁎) is used to refer to something in the immediate vicinity of the hearer. The second (㩖) is used to index something that is far from the hearer (and also far from the speaker).

㧊

this

⁎

that

㩖

that (over there)

㧊 ⳾㧦⓪ 㩲 Ệ㡞㣪.

This hat is mine.

⁎ ⹪㰖⓪ 㧮㠊㤎⩺㣪.

Those trousers really suit you well.

㩖㌂⧢㦖㩲䂲ῂ㡞㣪.

That person over there is my friend.

What is different from English demonstratives is that while English demonstratives can be used independently, as in ‘I like this’, the Korean demonstrative adnouns must be followed by a noun. To say a sentence such as ‘I like this’, the demonstrative adnoun has to be followed by the dependent noun ộ ‘thing’ (see 2.1.2.1). The sentence would thus literally translate as ‘I like this thing’:

㧊 ộ (or 㧊 Ệ in colloquial language) this (thing) ⁎ ộ (or 㧊 Ệ in colloquial language) that (thing) 㩖 ộ (or 㧊 Ệ in colloquial language) that (thing over there) When you are referring to a place rather than an object, Ὁ ‘place’ is used instead of ộ:

㧊 Ὁ (or 㡂₆ in colloquial language) here ⁎ Ὁ (or Ệ₆ in colloquial language) there 㩖 Ὁ (or 㩖₆ in colloquial language) over there Korean also has adnouns that operate as question words:

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㠊ⓦ

which

㠊⟺

what kind of

ⶊ㓾

what (which)

㥂

what kind of, what on earth, (why)


㠊ⓦ 㡃㠦㍲ Ṟ㞚䌖㣪f

At which station do we have to change?

㠊⟺ 㦢㔳㦚㫡㞚䞮㎎㣪f

What kind of food do you like?

㧊Ợ ⶊ㓾 ⌚㌞㡞㣪f

What is this smell?

ṧ㧦₆ 㥂㧒⽎㠊⯒ ⺆㤆┞f [PLAIN]

What’s going on with you learning Japanese all of a sudden?

Adverbs

More information on Korean question words can be found elsewhere (see 2.3.4).

10.2

Adverbs

Adverbs are commonly thought of as forms that modify verbs (or verb phrases), including both processive and descriptive verbs. However, certain adverbs may in fact modify any constituent of the sentence (except for nouns) or even entire sentences. In this section, we look at Korean adverbs according to two different categorizations. In the first section (10.2.1), we describe adverbs according to their grammatical properties. In the second section (10.2.2), we look at adverbs according to their semantics or meanings.

10.2.1 Grammatical classification of adverbs The current section introduces the major classes of Korean adverbs according to their different grammatical functions.

10.2.1.1 Proper adverbs Proper adverbs are forms that are not derived from any other word class and function solely as adverbs. Some typical examples are listed here:

⓮S 䟃㌗S 㠎㩲⋮

always

Ṗ⊪

sometimes

㧊⹎S ⻢㖾

already

⹪⪲S 㯟㔲S Ἵ

immediately

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Ⲓ㩖

first, before, in advance

㞚㭒S ⰺ㤆S 䗓

very

▪

more

▲

less, not enough

㫖S 㫆⁞

a little

㞚Ⱎ

probably

ⶒἶ₆⓪ 㢲䟃㌗ ⑞㦚 ⥾ἶ 㧞⋮㣪f

Why do fish always have their eyes open?

⋮⓪ 䞯㌳✺⪲⿖䎆 Ṗ⊪ 㧊Ⲫ㧒㦚 ⹱㞚㣪.

I sometimes receive e-mails from my students.

⻢㖾㧠㠊⻚⪎㠊㣪f

Have you already forgotten?

䟟⽋䞲㏢㔳㦚 ✹ἶ ⹪⪲ ╂⩺㢪㠊㣪.

On hearing the happy news, I immediately came running.

Ⲓ㩖 ⲏ㠊⽦☚ ♒㣪f

Can I taste it first?

㥶⹎ 㝾⓪ 㞚㭒㡞ㄦ㣪.

Yumi is very pretty.

䞲⻞Ⱒ ▪ ₆䣢⯒ 㭒㎎㣪.

Please give me one more chance.

㧊㓺䎢㧊䋂Ṗ ▲ 㧋㠞㠊㣪.

The steak is undercooked.

ₖ䂮㫆⁞ ▪ 㭒㎎㣪.

Give me a little more kimchi please.

㞚Ⱎ ㌂㔺㧒 Ệ㡞㣪.

It will probably turn out to be true.

Some adverbs (such as ⼚⪲S 㩚䡖S 䐋S ☚㩖䧞) are special in that they always have to occur with a negative verb phrase, as discussed elsewhere (see 4.2.4).

10.2.1.2 Derived adverbs Derived adverbs are those formed from other word classes, typically from descriptive verbs.

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A limited set of descriptive verbs can be transformed into adverbs by adding the suffix –㧊 (or –䧞) to the verb base. The subsequent adverbs tend to represent frozen forms that can be found in the dictionary under separate entries.

Adverbs

–㧊a Ⱔ–

many

Ⱔ㧊

many, much, a lot

⏨–

high

⏨㧊

highly

ṯ–

together, the same

ṯ㧊

alike, altogether

Έ–

become hard, firm

Έ㧊

firmly, obstinately

⹪㊮–

busy

⹪㋦

busily

ザ⯊–

fast

ゾⰂ

fast

὇–

beautiful

ἶ㧊

beautifully, well

₾⊭䞮–

clean

₾⊭㧊

cleanly

㫆㣿䞮–

quiet

㫆㣿䧞

quietly

⿖㰖⩆䞮–

diligent

⿖㰖⩆䧞

diligently

㝎㝎䞮–

lonely

㝎㝎䧞

lonely, cheerlessly

⍟⍟䞮–

ample, sufficient

⍟⍟䧞

amply

ⶊ▮䞮–

generous

ⶊ▮䧞

generously

–䧞a

An even smaller set of adverbs are derived etymologically from verbs (both descriptive and processive) by the derivational suffix –㡺/㤆. These adverbs are frozen forms that are listed in dictionaries as separate words. Indeed, for adverbs ending in –㡺/㤆, most native speakers are unaware of the original etymology.

⍮–

exceed

⍞ⶊ

too much, excessively, so

㧼–

frequent

㧦㭒

often

☢–

turns

☚⪲

(over) again

⺃–

very close

⹪䒂

near (by)

⍞ⶊ ⶊ㍲㤢㍲ Ⱖ 䞲 Ⱎ❪☚ ⴑ 䟞㠊㣪.

I was so scared that I couldn’t say a word.

䎪⩞゚㩚㦖㠒Ⱎ⋮ 㧦㭒⽊㎎㣪f How often do you watch television?

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㢪▮ ₎㦚 ☚⪲ Ṫ㠊㣪.

He/she went back the way he/she had come.

㔲Ṛ㧊 ⹪䒂 ┺Ṗ㢪㠊㣪.

The time has come close.

All other descriptive verbs (i.e. those that cannot take the endings –㧊/–䧞 or –㡺 /㤆) can be transformed into adverbial forms by the addition of the one-shape ending –Ợ. Here are some common instances:

⓼–

late

⓼Ợ

late

㧊⩝–

like this

㧊⩝Ợ

like this, in this way

⁎⩝–

like that

⁎⩝Ợ

like that, in that way

䋂–

big

䋂Ợ

in a big way, out loud

㨂⹎㧞–

interesting, fun

㨂⹎㧞Ợ in a fun way, with amusement

㕎–

cheap

㕎Ợ

cheaply

㿻–

cold

㿻Ợ

in a cold way

⓼Ợ 㢪㠊㣪.

He/she came late.

㧊⩝Ợ ⓼㦒Ⳋ 㠊⠑Ợ 䟊㣪f

If you are late like this, what are we supposed to do?

㢍㦚 ⁎⩝Ợ 㧛㦒Ⳋ 㿻㰖㞠㞚㣪f

Aren’t you cold if you dress like that?

㫖 ▪ 䋂Ợ Ⱖ㝖䟊㭒㎎㣪.

Please speak a little louder.

㧊㺛㦚㨂⹎㧞Ợ 㧓㠞㠊㣪.

I enjoyed reading this book.

⁎ ṖỢ㠦㍲䢪㧻䛞㦚㕎Ợ 䕪㞚㣪. They sell cosmetics cheaply at that store. 㰖⋲ ⹺㠦㿻Ợ 㭒ⶊ㎾㰖㣪f

Did you feel cold while sleeping last night?

Note that the form –Ợ can also be attached to processive verbs. In such cases, what is formed is not an adverb but a causative connective meaning ‘so that’ (see 6.6.1). In addition, –Ợ forms an integral part of the causative construction –Ợ 䞮– (see 4.6.2.2).

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Korean also has resources for changing some nouns into adverbs. First, some nouns can be transformed into adverbs by the addition of the instrumental particle O㦒P⪲ (see 3.2.5.1):

ṫ㩲

force

ṫ㩲⪲

by force

ở

outside

ở㦒⪲

outwardly, on the outside

⋶

day

⋶⪲

day by day

㏣

inside

㏣㦒⪲

inwardly, on the inside

㞴

front

㞴㦒⪲

going forward, from now on

㰚㔺

honesty, truth

㰚㔺⪲

honestly, truthfully

㰚㕂

sincerity

㰚㕂㦒⪲ sincerely

Adverbs

⋮㧊 Ⱔ㦖 ⋾㧦㢖 ṫ㩲⪲ ἆ䢒䟞㠊㣪. She was forced to marry an older man. ở㦒⪲⓪ 㧦㔶㧞㠊⽊㡖㠊㣪. He/she looked confident on the outside. ᾦ䐋⋲㧊 ⋶⪲ 㕂䟊㰖⓪ ộ ṯ㞚㣪. The traffic problems seem to get worse day by day. ㏣㦒⪲⓪ 㽞㫆䟞㠊㣪. He/she was anxious on the inside. 㞴㦒⪲ 㡊㕂䧞䞶 ộ㦚 ⱏ㎎䞿┞┺. I swear to do my best from now on. ⹎⋮ 㝾⓪ 㰚㔺⪲ 㞚⯚┺㤊㡂㧦㡞㣪. Mina is truly a beautiful woman. ㎇㤦㠦㰚㕂㦒⪲ Ṧ㌂ ✲Ⱃ┞┺. We are really thankful for your support. In addition, some nouns can be made into adverbs by the addition of the suffixes –℥ and –㌗O芟P. The first of these means ‘to the best of’ or ‘until’ and the second means ‘from the viewpoint of’ or ‘for the sake of’:

–℥ ⓻⩻

ability

⓻⩻℥

to the best of one’s ability

Ⱎ㦢

heart

Ⱎ㦢℥

to one’s heart’s content

㎇㦮

sincerity

㎇㦮℥

with all one’s heart, sincerely

㣫㕂

desire, greed

㣫㕂℥

as much as one desires

㰖⁞

now

㰖⁞℥

until now 409


–㌗O芟P ỿ㔳

formality

ỿ㔳㌗

for formality’s sake

ᾦ㥷

education

ᾦ㥷㌗

from the perspective of education

㌂㩫

circumstances

㌂㩫㌗

owing to circumstances

㟧㕂

conscience

㟧㕂㌗

for conscience’s sake

㡃㌂

history

㡃㌂㌗

in history

㡞㦮

courtesy

㡞㦮㌗

as a matter of courtesy

㧊⪶

theory

㧊⪶㌗

in theory

㩞㹾

procedure

㩞㹾㌗

for the sake of procedure

㼊Ⳋ

‘face’

㼊Ⳋ㌗

save ‘face’

䡫㔳

form

䡫㔳㌗

for form’s sake

䘎㦮

convenience

䘎㦮㌗

for convenience


㩖☚ 㩲 ⓻⩻℥ ☚㢖 ✲Ⰺ℮㣪. I will also help you to the best of my ability. Ⱎ㦢℥ ✲㔲ἶ Ṗ㎎㣪. Please eat as much as you want before you go. 㫖▪ ㎇㦮℥ ⳾㔲Ỷ㔋┞┺. We promise to serve you even better. 㣫㕂℥ ⲏ㠞㠊㣪. I ate as much as I desired. 㰖⁞℥ 㞚ⶊ⩆ 䣾ὒṖ 㠜㠞㠊㣪. It has not been effective up until now. ᾦ㥷㌗㠊Ⰶ㧊✺㠦Ợ 㫡㰖㞠㞚㣪. From the perspective of education, it is not good for children. ㌂㩫㌗ ⁎⩆ 㑮┾㧊㣿⋿♒㣪. Owing to circumstances, such measures may be warranted. 410

㡃㌂㌗㥶⧮Ṗ 㠜㠊㣪. It is unparalleled in history.

㧊⪶㌗䌲㟧㥚㠦㍲ Ỏ㦚㑮㧞㠊㣪. In theory, you could walk on the sun.

Adverbs

㩞㹾㌗ ỿ㔳㌗⿖⯎ Ệ㡞㣪. I’ve called you here for the sake of procedure and formality. 㼊Ⳋ㌗ Ệ㰩Ⱖ㦚䟞㠊㣪. I lied to save face. 䡫㔳㌗ ⳝ Ṗ㰖㰞ⶎ㦚䟊㟒䞿┞┺. I have to ask a few questions for form’s sake. 䘎㦮㌗ ⍺ ⁎⭏㦒⪲ ⋮⑚㠞㠊㣪. For convenience, I have divided it into four groups. Finally, some nouns are also used as adverbs without any change in shape.

Time and place nouns: 㡺⓮

today

⌊㧒

tomorrow

㠊㩲

yesterday

㰖⁞

now

㡂₆

here

㩖₆

there

⽊䐋

usually, normally

╖Ṳ

generally

Discourse nouns: ㌂㔺

in fact

㡺⓮ 㭧㣪䞲㟓㏣㧊㧞㠊㣪.

I have an important appointment today.

㰖⁞ 䟊☚ ♒㣪f

Can I do it now?

㌂㔺 ⶊ㓾 Ⱖ㧎㰖 ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪.

In fact I don’t know what it means.

⽊䐋㞚䂾 ⹻㦚㞞 ⲏ㠊㣪.

I don’t usually eat breakfast.

㭒Ⱖ㠦 ╖Ṳ 㣎㔳䟊㣪.

I usually eat out at weekends.

10.2.1.3 Sentence adverbs Other adverbs that we have looked at in this section tend to modify specific constituents of the sentence. Sentence adverbs, however, modify the meaning of the whole sentence. Adverbs that belong to this set typically occur at the start (or near the start) of the sentence.

411


Here are some common examples.

㞚ⰞO☚P

perhaps

㩲⹲S ⿖❪*

please, I implore you, I beg you, for goodness sake

⹮✲㔲

without fail

₆㠊㧊

by all means

ⶒ⪶

of course

╏㡆䧞

naturally

⽊䐋

normally

㌂㔺㦖S 㔺㦖

in fact

䢫㔺䧞

certainly

䢏㔲

by any chance

ὒ㡆

really, indeed

Ⱒ㧒S Ⱒ㟓

hypothetically, suppose [appears in conditional sentences]

㍺Ⱎ

on no account, really

┺䟟䧞

fortunately

㧊㢫O㧊ⳊP

as long as

㡃㔲

as expected, as ever

䞮Ⱎ䎆Ⳋ

almost

*㩲⹲ and ⿖❪ do not commonly occur in polite requests in the same way as English ‘please’ (for example, ‘Please can I have some more coffee’).

412

㞚Ⱎ ⌟㧻ἶ㠦㧞㦚 Ệ㡞㣪.

It might perhaps be in the refrigerator.

㩲⹲ 㣿㍲䟊㭒㎎㣪.

I implore you to forgive me.

⌊㧒㦖 ⹮✲㔲㧊₆Ỷ㔋┞┺.

We will win tomorrow without fail.

₆㠊㧊㎇Ὃ䞶 Ệ㡞㣪.

I will succeed by all means.

ⶒ⪶ ṖỶ㔋┞┺.

Of course I will go.

╏㡆䧞 Ⱎ㭧 ⋮Ṗ㣪.

Naturally I will be there to meet you.

⽊䐋 ]㔲㠦䑊⁒䟊㣪.

I normally finish work at 6 o’clock.

㩖㌂㔺㦖 ╖䞯㌳㧊㞚┞㠦㣪. In actual fact, I am not a university student.

䢫㔺䧞䣾ὒṖ 㧞㠞㠊㣪.

It certainly was effective.

䢏㔲㩲䟎✲䙆㦚⽺㠊㣪f

Have you seen my mobile by any chance?

ὒ㡆㌂㔺㧒₢㣪f

Could that really be true?

Ⱒ㧒㔲Ṛ㧊㠜㦒Ⳋ ⌊㧒⽛㔲┺.

If you don’t have time, let’s meet tomorrow.

㍺Ⱎ ⁎Ỏ ⹕⓪ Ị 㞚┞Ỷ㰖f [INTIMATE]

You don’t really believe that?

┺䟟䧞゚Ṗ ⁎㼺⍺㣪.

Luckily it has stopped raining.

㧊㢫㝆㔲⓪ ₖ㠦㭒㏢☚ 㖾㭒㎎㣪.

While you’re at it, write your address, too.

㡃㔲 ⡦ ⓼㠞⍺㣪.

As expected, late again!

䞮Ⱎ䎆Ⳋ ⍮㠊㰞ㄪ䟞㠊㣪.

I nearly fell down.

Adverbs

10.2.1.4 Conjunctive adverbs This set of adjectives marks the relationship between the sentence in which they appear and the one that precedes it.

⁎Ⰲἶ

and

⁎⩂⋮

but

⁎⩆◆

but, and

⁎⩝㰖Ⱒ

however, though

⁎⩂┞₢

so

⁎⧮㍲

so, therefore

⁎⩂Ⳋ

then

⁎⩂⸖⪲S ἶ⪲S ➆⧒㍲

therefore

⁎⩒㠦☚ ⿞ῂ䞮ἶ

nevertheless

㯟

thus, that is, in other words

㞚┞Ⳋ

otherwise

䢏㦖

alternatively

413

10

㡺䧞⩺

rather

Other word classes

▪ῂ⋮

moreover

㢲⌦䞮Ⳋ

‘if you ask why’ [way of introducing a ‘because’ sentence]

As can be seen, the formation of most of these conjunctive adverbs is based on adding a clausal connective (see Chapter 6) to the verb ⁎⩝– ‘do like that, do in that way’.

10.2.2 Semantic classification of adverbs This section provides some useful lists of common Korean adverbs according to their semantics (i.e. what they mean). The classification given is not designed to be absolute or exhaustive.

10.2.2.1 Time adverbs The following is a list of common time adverbs that appear in Korean.

Past-time adverbs 㠊㩲

yesterday

㠠⁎㩲

the day before yesterday

㧧⎚

last year

Present-time adverbs

414

㡺⓮

today

㣪㯞㦢S ⹪㟒䦦⪲

nowadays

㰖⁞

now

㧊㩲S 㧎㩲

now [contrastive meaning], from now on

䡚㨂

at present

⁞⎚S 㢂䟊

this year

Adverbs

Future-time adverbs ⌊㧒

tomorrow

O⌊㧒P ⳾⩞

day after tomorrow

⌊⎚

next year

㧻㹾

in the future

㞴㦒⪲

from now on

㧊➆Ṗ [from 㧞– ┺Ṗ (see 6.3.9)]

after a while, shortly

Completion ṩS Ⱏ

just

⁞⹿S ⹿⁞

just now

㞚₢

a (little) while ago

㞚㰗O☚P

yet, not yet

㧊⹎S ⻢㖾

already

Repetition and continuity 䞲⻞

once

䞲⻞☚

not even once

㫛㫛S Ἵ㧮S 䦪䧞S ゞ⻞䧞

often

╖Ṳ

usually

Ṗ⊪

occasionally

➢➢⪲

now and then

㧦㭒

often

ⰺ⎚

every year

ⰺ╂S ⰺ㤪

every month

ⰺ㭒

every week

415

10

ⰺ㧒

every day

Other word classes

ⰺ⻞

every time

㧦∎OⰢPSG㨂㹾SG⡦┺㔲SGỆ❃SG㡆㔶

repetitively

㧶₦SG㧶㔲

for a short time

╏⿚Ṛ

for a while, for the time being

㡺⧮SG㡺⧮☚⪳

for a long time

⌊⌊

throughout

Ἒ㏣

continuously

㭚Ἵ

constantly

㭚₆㹾Ợ

incessantly

⓮SG䟃㌗SG⏎㌗SG䟃㔲SG㠎㩲⋮

always

₎㧊SG㡗㡗SG㡗ῂ䧞SG㡗㤦䧞SGⰞ⌻

forever

⹺⌄

day and night

⹺㌞O☚⪳P

all night long

䞮⬾ 㫛㧒

all day long

㹾㹾

gradually

Time-order

416

⹎ⰂSG㩚㠦SG㞴㍲

in advance, before

㻮㦢O㠦P

to begin with

Ⲓ㩖

first of all

゚⪲㏢

initially

┺㦢

next

㧒㹣

early

⓼Ợ

late

Ⱎ㰖Ⱏ㦒⪲

last of all

✲❪㠊SGⰞ䂾⌊

at last

Adverbs

Other ㌞⪲

newly

㠒⯎

at once

Ἵ

soon, immediately

㯟㔲

instantly, immediately

Note that some of these words, in addition to being used as adverbs, can also be used as nouns. In other words, they can appear in sentences as subjects and objects:

⌊㧒㧊㿪㤎₢㣪f

Do you suppose tomorrow [SUBJECT] will be cold?

⌊⎚㦚 ₆┺Ⱃ㔲┺.

Let’s wait for next year [OBJECT].

10.2.2.2 Degree adverbs Degree adverbs are used to (de-)intensify a quality that is being described. In general, Korean degree adverbs can be used only with descriptive verbs and not with processive verbs. Therefore, although it is possible to use the degree adverb 㞚㭒 ‘very’ in sentences such as 㥶⹎Ṗ 㞚㭒㡞ㄦ㣪 ‘Yumi is very pretty’, it is not possible to use 㞚㭒 with processive verbs such as Ὃ⿖䟊㣪 ‘study’ or ⲏ㠊㣪 ‘eat’ (the same applies to ‘very’ in English).

Ṗ㧻S 㩲㧒S 㾲ἶ

most

⍞ⶊ

so, too, overly, to excess

ⴏ㔲SG㞚㭒SGⰺ㤆SGG ⶊ㻯SG㕂䧞SG╖┾䧞

very (much)

㰖⁏䧞

extremely

▪㤇

all the more

㺎

really, truly

↺

relatively, fairly well

䤾㞂

by far more, overwhelmingly

▪

more

417

10

▲

less

Other word classes

┺

all

Ỿ㤆

hardly

㫆⁞

a little

㟓Ṛ

slightly

⼚⪲*

not particularly

㩚䡖S 㫆⁞☚*

totally not

Ệ㦮*

almost

⁎Ⰲ*

not so much

*These adverbs always have to appear with a negative phrase (see 4.2.4).

10.2.2.3 Manner adverbs Manner adverbs function to describe the manner in which an action is performed. In direct contrast to degree adverbs (see 10.2.2.2), manner adverbs only tend to occur with processive verbs. Therefore, although it is possible to use the manner adverb 㧮 ‘well’ in sentences such as 㥶⹎Ṗ ⹻㦚㧮 ⲏ㠊㣪 ‘Yumi eats well’, it is not possible to use 㧮 with descriptive verbs such as 㡞ㄦ㣪 ‘pretty’ or ⲣ㼃䟊㣪 ‘stupid’ (the same applies to ‘well’ in English). Here are a few of the most common examples:

418

㠊⠑Ợ

somehow, one way or another

㧮

well

䞾⿖⪲

recklessly

ṗṗ

each, respectively

㍲⪲

mutually, together

ⰞῂS Ⱏ

carelessly, at random

䢒㧦

alone

㰗㩧O㩗P

directly, personally

Ṛ㩧O㩗P

indirectly

㧒⿖⩂

on purpose, intentionally

ṖⰢ䧞

silently

Ṗ₢㧊

nearly

╂Ⰲ

differently

⹪⪲

just, directly, straight away

ゾⰂ

quickly

㻲㻲䧞

slowly

Ⱔ㧊

a lot

䘎O㞞P䧞

comfortably

Adverbs

Although the manner adverb 㧮 is described as meaning ‘well’, this adverb can actually take on a variety of meanings depending on the context. In addition to meaning ‘well’ (as in the first three examples that follow), it can mean ‘easily’ (as in the fourth), ‘exactly’ (fifth example), ‘safely/in good shape’ (sixth example) and ‘often/frequently’ or ‘enjoy’ (seventh and eighth examples). The extension to the meaning of ‘enjoy’ appears to come from the fact that if you do something well or frequently, you probably also enjoy doing it as well. At times, without a supporting context, it may be unclear whether 㧮 is being used to mean ‘well’ or simply ‘often’ or ‘enjoy’.

䞲ῃⰦ 㩫Ⱖ 㧮䞮㔲⍺㣪.

You speak Korean very well.

㞚⻚┮℮㍲⓪ 㧮 Ἒ㎎㣪f

Is your father well?

┺䟟䧞 ┺ 㧮 ♦㠊㣪.

Luckily, everything turned out well.

㌳ṗ㧊㧮㞞 ⋮㣪.

The thought doesn’t come to mind easily. ( I can’t remember)

㧮 ⳾⯊Ỷ㠊㣪.

I’m afraid I don’t know exactly.

⽊⌊㭒㔶䘎㰖㧮 ⹱㞮㠊㣪.

I received the letter you sent me in good shape/safely.

䞲ῃ㦢㔳㦚㧮 ⲏ㠊㣪.

I eat Korean food often. / I enjoy eating Korean food.

㥶⹎⓪ 䞯ᾦ㠦㧮 ┺⎖㣪f

Does Yumi go to school regularly? [Is Yumi doing well at school? Does Yumi like going to school?] 419


10.2.2.4 Onomatopoeic/mimetic adverbs Korean has a richly developed system of onomatopoeia (words that imitate sounds; in Korean, 㦮㎇㠊) and mimetics (words that imitate movements; in Korean, 㦮䌲㠊). English, of course, also has many onomatopoeic words such as ‘ding-dong’ and ‘splish-splash’. However, English has very few mimetic words, although you can find some isolated examples, such as ‘helter-skelter’. In English, different types of movement are usually elaborated by using a different verb (for example, in place of a basic verb such as ‘walk’, you might choose ‘stagger’, ‘scurry’, ‘waddle’ and so forth). In Korean, onomatopoeic and mimetic words constitute a subclass of adverb. These adverbs may then be followed by a verb that depicts the general action. In the following examples, the general verb Ỏ㠞㠊㣪 ‘walked’ is given four different meanings by the addition of different mimetic words:

㞚₆Ṗ 㞚㧻㞚㧻 Ỏ㠞㠊㣪. The baby toddled along. 㡺Ⰲ㻮⩒ ⛺⤇⛺⤇ Ỏ㠞㠊㣪. He/she waddled like a duck. Ⱎ⬾ 㥚⯒ ㌊⁞㌊⁞ Ỏ㠞㠊㣪. I walked on tiptoe on the floor. ⿖㠢㦒⪲ ゚䔖゚䔖 Ỏ㠞㠊㣪. He/she staggered into the kitchen. Onomatopoeiac and mimetic words may also combine with 䞮– to form 䞮– verbs (see 4.1.2) or with other verbs that take on a similar function, namely ╖– and ỆⰂ–:

⟷㧊㴚ₙ㴚ₙ䞮⍺㣪H The rice cake is chewy! ⁎Ⱒ 㫛㞢ỆⰂἶ 㑯㩲䟊⧒H [PLAIN] Stop chattering and do your homework. ₾㧧₾㧧 ╖㔲⍺H [INTIMATE] You’re picking at your food!

420

One common use of onomatopoeic words is for describing the sounds of animals:

Animal

Korean onomatopoeic word

English equivalent

dog

ⲣⲣ

bow-wow

cat

㟒㢏

meow

mouse

㹣㹣

squeak

bird cow

㱏㱏㦢ⰺ

cheep moo

pig

∖∖

oink oink

rooster

ↂ⋒㡺

cock-a-doodle-do

lion, tiger, etc.

㠊䦻S 㦒⯊⩗

roar

Adverbs

Onomatopoeic and mimetic words can be used for describing a whole range of other sounds and movements. The following is a list of some of the most common onomatopoeic/mimetic words (refer to Choo and Kwak 2008: 150–66 for a more complete list). As can be seen, although some of these correspond to English onomatopoeic words, often there is no direct equivalent in English.

⹪㌃⹪㌃ crunchy

₲シO₲シP flashing, flickering, with a flash, suddenly

⹮㰳⹮㰳 glittering

䙃㔶䙃㔶 soft and light

➆⯊⯟ ring [sound of telephone bell]

❿☯ ding-dong

ニニ toot, toot

✲⯊⩗O✲⯊⩗P snore

䈾䈾 [sleep] deeply

∖⟷ gulp

㏣┻O㏣┻P with a whisper

㭧㠒O㭧㠒P with a mumble

㠟㠟 [cry] bitterly

䦧䦧 boo-hoo

ↂ⯊⯋ with a rumble

㕿㕿 [wind blows] hard

⻢⻢ tremblingly

クク round and round

㫎㫎 with a murmuring [sound of a stream]

⚦⁒⚦⁒ pit-a-pat [beating of the heart]

421


㭒⬿㭒⬿ streaming down [with rain]

㭚㭚 streaming [sweat, tears, blood, runny nose]

㤎䒗⿞䒗 bumpily

䗧䗧 [snow, cry] heavily

⊚▫O⊚▫P with a nod

⿖㔂⿖㔂 drizzle [with rain]

ㄻ⁡ tightly shut [mouth]

㌊⁞㌊⁞ tiptoeing

㤆ⶒ㶞ⶒ with hesitation, shilly-shally

Ṛ㰞Ṛ㰞 tickling, tingling

㞢㙃╂㙃 jumbled, motley

㠊㰞㠊㰞 giddily

Ⱖ⧧Ⱖ⧧ soft, tender

⡧⡧ knock, knock

㻶䄻 with a click Here are some examples of these in sentences:

422

䈶䋺Ṗ ⹪㌃⹪㌃䞮ἶ ⰱ㧞㠊㣪.

The cookie is crunchy and delicious.

⿞ケ㧊 ₲シ ỆⰂἶ 㧞㠊㣪.

The light is flashing.

⹮㰳⹮㰳㧧㦖⼚ . . .

‘Twinkle, twinkle, little star . . .’

䂾╖Ṗ 䛏㔶䛏㔶䞮⍺㣪H

The bed is nice and soft!

㔲ἚṖ ➆⯊⯟ 䞮ἶ `㔲⯒ 㞢⪎㠊㣪.

The clock struck nine.

䡫㧊 ✲⯊⩗✲⯊⩗ 䆪⯒ Ἶ㞮㠊㣪.

Older brother was snoring loudly.

㎎㌗ ⳾⯊ἶ 䈾䈾㧦ἶ 㧞㠊㣪.

He/she is sleeping deeply, oblivious of everything.

䞲㧛㠦 ∖⟷ ㌒䆆㠊㣪.

He/she swallowed it down in one gulp.

䢒㧹Ⱖ⪲ 㭧㠒Ệ⪎㠊㣪.

He/she mumbled to him/herself.

⳿㧊㞚䝚☚⪳ 㠟㠟㤎㠞㠊㣪.

I cried bitterly until my throat hurt.

⺆㠦㍲ ↂ⯊⯋ ㏢ⰂṖ ⋮㣪.

A rumbling sound is coming from his/her stomach.

⋮ⶊ ㌂㧊⪲ ⹪⧢㧊㕿㕿⿞㠞㠊㣪.

The wind howled through the trees.

㿪㥚㍲⻢⻢ ⟾㠞㠊㣪.

I shivered with cold.

ⲎⰂṖ クク ☚⍺㣪H

My head is spinning round and round!

㔲⌝ⶒ㧊㫎㫎䦦⯊ἶ 㧞㠊㣪.

The brook is murmuring along.

⁎ 㡂㧦⯒ ⽒ ➢Ⱎ┺ Ṗ㔊㧊 ⚦⁒Ệ⩺㣪.

My heart leaps every time I see that woman.

゚Ṗ 㭒⬿㭒⬿ ⌊Ⰲἶ 㧞㠊㣪.

It’s streaming down with rain.

➖㧊㭚㭚䦮⩂㣪.

I am streaming with sweat.

₎㧊 ⍞ⶊ 㤎䒗⿞䒗䟞㠊㣪.

The road was too bumpy.

⑞㧊䗧䗧 ⌊⪎㠊㣪.

It snowed hard.

ἶṲ⯒ ⊚▫⊚▫ 䟞㠊㣪.

He/she nodded his/her head.

゚Ṗ ⿖㔂⿖㔂 ⌊Ⰲἶ 㧞㠊㣪.

It’s drizzling with rain.

㧛☚ ㄻ⁡ ⴑ䟞㠊㣪.

I didn’t say a word.

㌊⁞㌊⁞ Ἒ┾㦚㢂⧒Ṫ㠊㣪.

I tiptoed up the stairs.

ⶦ⧒ἶ Ⱖ䟊㟒䞶㰖 ⴆ⧒㍲㤆ⶒ㶞ⶒ䞮ἶ 㧞㠞㠊㣪.

I was shilly-shallying not knowing what to say.

‖Ṗ Ṛ㰞Ṛ㰞䞮⍺㣪H

My ears are tingling! [usually taken as a sign that someone must be talking about you]

ⶦṖ ⶪ㰖㞢㙃╂㙃䞮⍺㣪.

I can’t work out what’s what.

ⲎⰂṖ 㠊㰞㠊㰞䞮⍺㣪.

My head is spinning.

⹮㭓㧊 Ⱖ⧧Ⱖ⧧䞮⍺㣪.

The dough is so soft.

⑚ῆṖṖ 㺓ⶎ㦚 ⡧⡧ ⚦✲Ⰲ⓪ ㏢ⰂṖ ✺⪎㠊㣪.

I heard someone knocking on the window.

ⶎ㧊㻶䄻 ╁䧞⓪ ㏢ⰂṖ ✺⪎㠊㣪.

I heard the door shut with a click.

As you may have noticed from the examples already given, Korean onomatopoeia and mimetics are structurally characterized by reduplication. In other words, the same element repeats itself, typically twice. Quite frequently, there may be two or three different versions of the same onomatopoeic word that either differ only in the vowel sound (as in the first

Adverbs

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set that follows) or only in alternation between basic, aspirated and tensed consonants (as in the second set). The alternation in vowel or consonant sounds results in subtle shifts of meaning:

Set 1: Vowel alternation 㫎㫎/㭚㭚/㰞㰞

trickling/streaming/dribbling

Ṛ✺Ṛ✺/Ị✺Ị✺

swaying gently/wobbling

⹿⁖⹿⁖/⻯⁖⻯⁖

[smiling] sweetly/radiantly

㌆✺㌆✺/㍶✺㍶✺

[blowing] gently/softly

㺆㺆/㻶㻶

brimmingly/overflowingly

㌊⁞㌊⁞/㔂⁞㔂⁞

stealthily and catlike/quietly, furtively

⺛⁖⺛⁖/ク⁖ク⁖

turning round and round/spinning

㌳⁖㌳⁖/㕇⁖㕇⁖

[smiling] affably/gently

ↂ⿞ↂ⿞/∎⿞∎⿞

winding in tight curves/winding back and forth

㴒⁖㴒⁖/㶞⁖㶞⁖

finely wrinkled/crumpled

㏢⁒㏢⁒/㑮⁒㑮⁒

whispering in a low voice/murmuring

⳾⧓⳾⧓/ⶊ⩃ⶊ⩃

puffing/billowing

⽊㔂⽊㔂/⿖㔂⿖㔂

[raining] in a light mist/slowly in small drops

䙃㔶䙃㔶/䛏㔶䛏㔶

(e.g. small cushion) soft/(e.g. big futon) soft

䙗╏/䛣▿

with a plop/with a dull splash

Set 2: Consonant alternation

424

⺛⺛/ョョ

round and round in large circles/in violent circles

㌳⁡㌳⁡/㕿⁡㕿⁡

[smiling] sweetly/brightly

㑯▫㑯▫/㚻▫㚻▫

[whispering] secretly/slyly

㫛㞢㫛㞢/㴧㞢㴧㞢

babbling/rattling on

⿖㍳⿖㍳/䛎㍳䛎㍳

slightly swollen/grossly swollen

㰞⁞㰞⁞/㹪⊪㹪⊪

shufflingly/dragging

ớ㭧ớ㭧/℧㿿℧㿿

jumping lazily/jumping energetically, in great leaps

In the case of vowel alternation, it is commonly the case that those containing what are sometimes referred to as ‘dark vowels’ (namely, 㠊, 㠦, 㡂, 㡞, 㤆, 㤢, 㥚, 㥶, 㤾) connote largeness, heaviness, slowness, dullness and depth. On the other hand, those containing so-called ‘bright vowels’ (㞚, 㞶, 㟒, 㟮, 㡺, 㣎, 㣪, 㢖, 㢲) give a feeling of smallness, lightness, thinness, speed and gentleness. As a general rule, whereas those containing the dark vowels are often negative in character, those containing the bright vowels have more positive connotations. The vowels 㦒 and 㧊 are generally classified as neutral vowels in this respect.

Prefixes and suffixes

In the case of consonant alternation, replacing a plain consonant with one that is aspirated or reinforced generally expresses emphasis or greater degree. Using a reinforced consonant sounds strong or intense, while an aspirated consonant connotes violence or harshness. One other form of alternation that can occur in the creation of onomatopoeic/mimetic words is the addition of different ‘extenders’ onto an initial base. For example, building on the base 㩞ඝ–, a Korean speaker can form several different mimetic words all with the meaning of ‘click’:

㩞ệ

㩞Ệ▫

㩞ớ

㩞Ệ▿

㩞⁎⩗

Although the basic meaning is the same, the nuances are subtly different. The use of ඝ in final position in the first two words gives the feeling of sharpness or abruptness. In contrast, the use of ඳ in the third, fourth and fifth words connotes a metallic or reverberating quality. The longer twosyllable endings (second, fourth and fifth words) also suggest a more prolonged action (refer to Garrigues 1995: 363).

10.3


Prefixes are elements that are attached to the front of words to alter their meaning. Suffixes have the same function, but are attached at the end of words instead.

10.3.1 Prefixes Korean has a number of prefixes that can be attached to the front of nouns and /or verbs and thus create new meanings. In the following tables, the first shows prefixes of Sino-Korean origin and the second shows prefixes of pure Korean origin (refer to Lee and Ramsey 2000: 117, Choo and O’Grady 1996, Choo and Kwak 2010 and Ryzhkov 2009: 75–101).

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Note that some of the Sino-Korean elements in the first list may appear in other compounds where they cannot be considered to be ‘prefixes’ as such.

Prefixes of Sino-Korean origin Prefix

ἶO簙P high

⋾O綸P– male

┺O縘P– multi-

╖O繗P– big

☯O纩P– same

ⱏO耼P– fierce

ⶊO肚P– without

⹮O胮P– anti-

⹮O胭P– half

⽎O膩P– main

⿖O臀P– subsidiary 426

Examples Original word

Derived word

䡞㞫 blood pressure

ἶ䡞㞫 high blood pressure

㏢✳ income

ἶ㏢✳ high income

☯㌳ younger sibling

⋾☯㌳ younger brother

䞯㌳ student

⋾䞯㌳ male student

⳿㩗 purpose

┺⳿㩗 multipurpose

ⶎ䢪 culture

┺ⶎ䢪 multicultural

☚㔲 city

╖☚㔲 big city

Ṗ㫇 family

╖Ṗ㫇 big family

㔲╖ era

☯㔲╖ same era

㠛㧦 tradesman

☯㠛㧦 business partner

Ὃỿ attack

ⱏὋỿ fierce attack

㡆㔋 practice

ⱏ㡆㔋 rigorous practice

㫆Ị condition

ⶊ㫆Ị unconditional

㹾⼚ discrimination

ⶊ㹾⼚ indiscriminate

㌂䣢㩗 social

⹮㌂䣢㩗 antisocial

㧧㣿 reaction

⹮㧧㣿 counteraction

㎎₆ century

⹮㎎₆ half a century

㧦☯ automatic

⹮㧦☯ semi-automatic

Ⱎ㦢 heart; intention

⽎Ⱎ㦢 true intention

⽊₆ example

⽎⽊₆ main example, model

㌂㧻 president (of company)

⿖㌂㧻 vice president (of company)

㧧㣿 effect

⿖㧧㣿 side effect

⿖/⿞O膻P– not

゚O舭P– not

㌳O苇P– live, living 㔲O萑P– in-laws (husband’s side) 㔶O萿P– new

㞛O葹P– bad

㟧O蓐P– both

㡂O蔑P– female

㡃O蔰P– counter

㣎O蘑P– outside; mother’s side

㨂O蠅P– again

㩖O蠛P– low

㩚O衔P – former

㧦㡆 natural

⿖㧦㡆 unnatural

‶䡫 balance

⿞‶䡫 imbalance

䡚㔺 realistic

゚䡚㔺 unrealistic

Ὃ㔳 formal

゚Ὃ㔳 informal

⹿㏷ broadcast

㌳⹿㏷ live broadcast

㰖㡻 hell

㌳㰖㡻 living hell

⿖⳾ parents

㔲⿖⳾ husband’s parents

㰧 home

㔲㰧 husband’s family’s home

₆⪳ record

㔶₆⪳ new record

☚㔲 town, city

㔶☚㔲 new town

㡗䟻 influence

㞛㡗䟻 bad influence

㑲䢮 cycle

㞛㑲䢮 vicious cycle

㴓 side

㟧㴓 both sides

䕪 arm

㟧䕪 both arms

㰗㤦 employee

㡂㰗㤦 female employee

䞯㌳ student

㡂䞯㌳ female student

⹿䟻 direction

㡃⹿䟻 opposite direction

䣾ὒ affect

㡃䣾ὒ adverse affect

䞶Ⲏ┞ grandmother

㣎䞶Ⲏ┞ maternal grandmother

䞶㞚⻚㰖 grandfather

㣎䞶㞚⻚㰖 maternal grandfather

Ṳ⹲ development

㨂Ṳ⹲ redevelopment

䘟Ṗ assessment

㨂䘟Ṗ reassessment

䡞㞫 blood pressure

㩖䡞㞫 low blood pressure

㏢✳ income

㩖㏢✳ low income

⋾䘎 husband

㩚⋾䘎 former husband

╖䐋⪏ president

㩚╖䐋⪏ former president


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㩫O袢P– regular, full 㽳O誺P– overall, total 㾲O諁P– most

䡚O販P– present

ᾦ㑮 professor

㩫ᾦ㑮 full professor

䣢㤦 member

㩫䣢㤦 regular member

Ὃỿ attack

㽳Ὃỿ full-scale attack

㍶Ệ election

㽳㍶Ệ general election

㻾┾ cutting edge

㾲㻾┾ spearhead

㤆㍶ priority

㾲㤆㍶ highest priority

╖䐋⪏ president

䡚╖䐋⪏ current president

㌗䌲 circumstances

䡚㌗䌲 present circumstances

Prefixes of pure Korean origin Prefix

Original word

Derived word

ỆⲎ– greedily

㧷/㮦– grab

ỆⲎ㧷/㮦– grab greedily

ῆ– excess

㏢Ⰲ sound, words

ῆ㏢Ⰲ unnecessary remark

▽– additional

㔶 shoes

▽㔶 overshoes

㧊 tooth

▽┞ snaggletooth

ⶑ– ask

♮ⶑ– ask again, ask back

㞏– chew

♮㞏– chew over and over

⹖– push

✺㧊⹖– push hard

䅲– drink off

✺㧊䅲– guzzle down

㞚✺ son

Ⱕ㞚✺ eldest son

➎ daughter

Ⱕ➎ eldest daughter

㏦ hand

ⰾ㏦ empty-handed

⹲ foot

ⰾ⹲ barefoot

⹿ room

ゞ⹿ empty room

Ⱖ words, language

ゞⰦ empty words

♮– again, in reverse

✺㧊– hard, profusely

Ⱕ– eldest

ⰾ– bare

ゞ– empty 428

Examples

キ– slanted

㑮– male

㞪– female

㡕– stealthily

㡺⯎– right

㣎– only

㣒– left

㰩– roughly

㻮– excessively, roughly

䂮– upward

䛡– unripe

䠱– fruitless

䥮– round-and-round

╖– touch

キ╖– insinuate, allude

⋮Ṗ– go out

キ⋮Ṗ– go wide

Ṳ dog

㑮䃦 dog

╃ chicken

㑮䌟 rooster

Ṳ dog

㞪䃦 bitch (female dog)

╃ chicken

㞪䌟 (female) chicken

⽊– see

㡕⽊– spy on

✹– listen

㡕✹ – eavesdrop

㏦ hand

㡺⯎㏦ right hand

㴓 side

㡺⯎㴓 right side; the right

㞚✺ son

㣎㞚✺ only son

➎ daughter

㣎➎ only daughter

㏦ hand

㣒㏦ left hand

㴓 side

㣒㴓 left side; the left

⑚⯊– press

㰩⑚⯊– squash

⹵– stand on

㰩⹵– trample

ⲏ– eat

㻮ⲏ– devour, eat greedily

⍹– put, insert

㻮⍹– shove in, stuff

㏵– soar

䂮㏵– rise up suddenly

⥾– open (eyes)

䂮⥾– lift up (eyes)

ἶ㿪 chilli

䛡ἶ㿪 unripe chilli

㌂⧧ love

䛡㌂⧧ puppy love

㑮ἶ effort

䠱㑮ἶ wasted effort

㏢Ⰲ sounds, words

䠱㏢Ⰲ empty words

⋶Ⰲ– flap in the wind

䥮⋶Ⰲ– flap in the wind

㩩– stir

䥮㩩– stir, swing round and round


429


10.3.2 Suffixes Unlike prefixes, which simply change the meaning of the word, suffixes in some cases actually change the grammatical category of the words to which they are attached. In turn, we look at suffixes that result in the derivation (i.e. creation; transformation) of nouns, adverbs, verbs and adnominal forms.

10.3.2.1 Noun-deriving suffixes Noun-deriving suffixes may be attached either to a verb base or simply to another noun. We look first at suffixes that are attached to a verb base and which result in the derivation of a noun. These processes are discussed in more detail elsewhere (see 2.2):

Suffix

–㧊

–㦢

–Ṳ/–Ợ

430

Example Original verb

Derived noun

⍩– wide

⍩㧊 width

₠– deep

₠㧊 depth

⏖– play

⏖㧊 game

㤙– laugh

㤙㦢 laughter

㤎– cry

㤎㦢 crying

₆㊮– happy

₆㊾ happiness

◄– (to) cover

◄Ṳ (a) cover

㰖㤆– erase

㰖㤆Ṳ eraser

㰧– pick

㰧Ợ tweezers

In the next set, a suffix is added to a noun (or, in some isolated cases, a verb stem or modifier form). This produces a new noun with a different usage. The first list contains suffixes of pure Korean origin:


Suffixes of pure Korean origin Suffix

–Ṗ⧓ long slender object –Ṧ material

–ỆⰂ material, object

–∎⩂₆ person

–− person

–⚻㧊 person

–⺛㧊 person

–⽊ person

–㠊䂮 worth

–㧊 person

Example Original noun

Derived noun

㏦ hand

㏦Ṗ⧓ finger

⹲ foot

⹲Ṗ⧓ toe

㢍 clothes

㢍Ṧ material (for clothes)

㔶⧧ groom

㔶⧧Ṧ good husband material

㧒 work

㧒ỆⰂ piece of work

㧦⧧ pride

㧦⧧ỆⰂ source of pride

㧶 sleep

㧶∎⩂₆ sleepyhead

㣫㕂 greed

㣫㕂∎⩂₆ greedy person

㧻㌂ trade

㧻㌂− tradesman

㑶 alcohol

㑶− (heavy) drinker

⹪⧢ fickleness

⹪⧢⚻㧊 womaniser

‖㡒 affection

‖㡒⚻㧊 child loved by all

Ợ㦒⯚ laziness

Ợ㦒⯚⺛㧊 lazybones

Ṗ⋲ poverty

Ṗ⋲⺛㧊 poor person

㧶 sleep

㧶⽊ sleepyhead

㤎– cry

㤎⽊ cry baby

䎎 hair

䎎⽊ hairy person

Ṩ price

Ṩ㠊䂮 monetary value

\SWWW 㤦 5,000 won

\SWWW 㤦㠊䂮 5,000 won worth

ⲣ㼃䞮– foolish

ⲣ㼃㧊 fool

㩠– young

㩠㦖㧊 youngster

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10

–㨗㧊 person

Other word classes

–㰞 action

–㰲Ⰲ worth

–㱎 entirely, as it is

–䒂㎇㧊 covered with

Ệ㰩Ⱖ lie

Ệ㰩Ⱖ㨗㧊 liar

ỗ fear

ỗ㨗㧊 coward

Ṗ㥚 scissors

Ṗ㥚㰞 using scissors, cutting

☚⚧ thief

☚⚧㰞 thieving

\WSWWW 㤦 50,000 won

\WSWWW 㤦㰲Ⰲ 㰖䘦 50,000 won banknote

XWSWWW㤦 10,000 won

XWSWWW㤦㰲Ⰲ ゚オ⹻ pibimpap costing 10,000 won

⼧ bottle

⼧㱎 from the bottle

℣㰞 peel

℣㰞㱎 peel and all

➖ sweat

➖䒂㎇㧊 covered with sweat

Ệ㰩Ⱖ a lie

Ệ㰩Ⱖ䒂㎇㧊 full of lies

The next list contains suffixes of Sino-Korean origin. Note that these Sino-Korean elements may appear in other words where they cannot be considered suffixes as such.

Suffixes of Sino-Korean origin Suffix

–ṖO竖P specialist

–ṖO竡P street

–ṦO笚P feeling

–ṳO筝P guest 432


Derived noun

㩚ⶎ speciality, expertise

㩚ⶎṖ expert

㩫䂮 politics

㩫䂮Ṗ politician

㭒䌳 housing

㭒䌳Ṗ residential area

㔳╏ restaurant

㔳╏Ṗ row of restaurants

ỆⰂ distance

ỆⰂṦ feeling of distance

⺆㔶 betrayal

⺆㔶Ṧ feeling of betrayal

㡂䟟 travelling

㡂䟟ṳ tourist

⹿ⶎ visit

⹿ⶎṳ visitor

㞚䂾 ^㔲 7 in the morning

㞚䂾 ^ 㔲ἓ about 7 in the morning

㑮㣪㧒 Wednesday

㑮㣪㧒ἓ about Wednesday

㡆㡞 entertainment, celebrity

㡆㡞Ἒ the entertainment world

㡗䢪 films

㡗䢪Ἒ the film world

㠎㠊䞯 linguistics

㠎㠊䞯ὒ linguistics department

㩫㔶 psychiatry

㩫㔶ὒ department of psychiatry

ἓ㺆 police

ἓ㺆ὖ police officer

㔲䠮 exam

㔲䠮ὖ examiner

–ῢO糨P ticket, coupon

㌗䛞 gift

㌗䛞ῢ gift voucher

䌧㔏 boarding

䌧㔏ῢ boarding pass

–ῢO糮P rights, authority

㭒☚ leading

㭒☚ῢ leadership

㏢㥶 owner

㏢㥶ῢ ownership

–⁞O紼P money

₆⿖ donating

₆⿖⁞ donation

Ἒ㟓 contract

Ἒ㟓⁞ down-payment

Ἒ㌆ calculation

Ἒ㌆₆ calculator

゚䟟 aviation

゚䟟₆ aeroplane

㩫㑮 pure water

㩫㑮₆ water purifier

㏢䢪 extinguishing fire

㏢䢪₆ fire extinguisher

㩫㔶 psychiatry

㩫㔶⩻ mental strength

㠊䥮 vocabulary

㠊䥮⩻ (one’s) vocabulary

䐋䢪 talking on the phone

䐋䢪⬢ call charge

㑮㠛 class

㑮㠛⬢ class fee

–ἓO篘P around

–ἚO篨P world, circles

–ὒO籄P department

–ὖO籒P an official

–₆O絣P machine

–₆O絎P device

–⩻O缩P power

–⬢O羌P fee


433

10

⏎⧮ song

⏎⧮⹿ karaoke parlour

wjO䞒㝾P personal computer

wj⹿ internet cafe

㌊㧎 murder

㌊㧎⻪ murderer

㩫䂮 politics

㩫䂮⻪ political offender

ῃṖ nation

ῃṖ⼚ division based on country

㌟₪ colour

㌟₪⼚ division according to colour

㧚㔶 pregnancy

㧚㔶⽋ maternity dress

㑮㡗 swimming

㑮㡗⽋ swimming costume

㣎ⶊ foreign affairs

㣎ⶊ⿖ Ministry of Foreign Affairs

ᾦ㥷 education

ᾦ㥷⿖ Ministry of Education

㌳䢲 living

㌳䢲゚ cost of living

㟧㥷 child-rearing

㟧㥷゚ child-rearing costs

㿲䕦 publishing

㿲䕦㌂ publishers

㔶ⶎ newspaper

㔶ⶎ㌂ newspaper company

⹎㣿 beauty

⹎㣿㌂ beautician

㧊⹲ barbering

㧊⹲㌂ barber

–㌂O艐P scholar, qualified person

゚䟟 aviation

゚䟟㌂ aviator

䣢Ἒ accounting

䣢Ἒ㌂ accountant

–㌳O苇P student; birth

㥶䞯 studying abroad

㥶䞯㌳ overseas student

㫎㠛 graduation

㫎㠛㌳ graduate student

Ἒ㟓 contract

Ἒ㟓㍲ contract (document)

⽊ἶ reporting

⽊ἶ㍲ (a) report

–⹿O脗P room

Other word classes

–⻪O腜P criminal

–⼚O腳P division

–⽋O膞P clothes

–⿖O臠P section; ministry

–゚O舫P cost

–㌂O艧P company

–㌂O艗P professional

–㍲O苗P document

434

㤊㩚 driving

㤊㩚㍳ driver’s seat

⹿㼃 attendance

⹿㼃㍳ seats for audience

–㎇O茴P nature, quality

㔶ク credence

㔶ク㎇ credibility

㧒ὖ consistence

㧒ὖ㎇ consistency

–㎎O荇P tax

㨂㌆ property

㨂㌆㎎ property tax

⿖Ṗ additional

⿖Ṗ㎎ value-added tax (VAT)

㰧 house

㰧㎎ house rent

⹿ room

⹿㎎ room rent

䢮㩚 foreign exchange

䢮㩚㏢ foreign exchange bureau

⽊Ị public health

⽊Ị㏢ public health centre

–㑮O莝P skilled worker

㤊㩚 driving

㤊㩚㑮 driver

㏢⹿ fire-fighting

㏢⹿㑮 fire-fighter

–㔳O萫P style; ceremony

䞲ῃ Korea

䞲ῃ㔳 Korean-style

ἆ䢒 marriage

ἆ䢒㔳 wedding

–㔺O葑P room

㔺䠮 experiment

㔺䠮㔺 laboratory

㑮㑶 operation

㑮㑶㔺 operating theatre

䟟㤊 luck

䟟㤊㞚 lucky person

ⶎ㩲 problem

ⶎ㩲㞚 problem child

䞲ῃ Korea

䞲ῃ㠊 Korean

⳾ῃ motherland

⳾ῃ㠊 mother tongue

–㤦O蚗P employee; member

㦖䟟 bank

㦖䟟㤦 bank worker

䕦ⰺ sales

䕦ⰺ㤦 salesperson

–㤦O蚭P institution

ἶ㞚 orphan

ἶ㞚㤦 orphanage

㟧⪲ taking care of the elderly

㟧⪲㤦 care home

–㍳O苫P seat

–㎎O荋P rent

–㏢O荓P place

–㞚O葥P child

–㠊O蓳P language


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–㣿O虑P use

Other word classes

–㧎O蝸P person

–㧦O螿P person

–㧻O蟣P place

–㰖O襽P land

–䂮O謔P fool

–㽞O誏P beginning

–䌫O譨P hot water, soup

–䕦O讫P edition

–䘎O评P side

–䛞O谎P goods

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㔶㌂ gentleman

㔶㌂㣿 for (the use of ) gentlemen

㡂䟟 travel

㡂䟟㣿 for (use while) travelling

䡚╖ modernity

䡚╖㧎 modern person

㰗㧻 job, office, company

㰗㧻㧎 company worker

₆㑶 skill

₆㑶㧦 technician

ὒ䞯 science

ὒ䞯㧦 scientist

㿫ῂ football

㿫ῂ㧻 football ground

ἓ₆ sports game

ἓ₆㧻 stadium

㥶㩗 remains, ruins

㥶㩗㰖 historical site

Ệ㭒 residence

Ệ㭒㰖 place of residence

㦢 tone

㦢䂮 person who is tone-deaf

₎ street

₎䂮 person with no sense of direction

䞯₆ semester

䞯₆㽞 early in the semester

⎚ year

㡆㽞 early in the year

╖㭧 public

╖㭧䌫 public bathhouse

Ṟ゚ ribs

Ṟ゚䌫 beef-rib soup

⻞㡃 translation

⻞㡃䕦 translated edition

䞲ῃ Korea

䞲ῃ䕦 Korean edition

㤆Ⰲ our

㤆Ⰲ䘎 our side

㌗╖ counterpart

㌗╖䘎 other side

㑮㧛 importing

㑮㧛䛞 imported goods

㭧ἶ second-hand

㭧ἶ䛞 second-hand goods

–䞯O谷P studies

–䡫O賉P type, model

–䡫O賊P shape, form

–䢪O货P picture

–䢪O财P –ization

–䣢O赬P meeting

㠎㠊 language

㠎㠊䞯 linguistics

䞲ῃ Korea

䞲ῃ䞯 Korean studies

䡞㞷 blood

䡞㞷䡫 blood type

YWXW ⎚ the year 2010

YWXW ⎚䡫 the 2010 model

Ἒ⧖ egg

Ἒ⧖䡫 egg-shaped

䌖㤦 oval

䌖㤦䡫 oval-shaped

㑮㺚 watercolours

㑮㺚䢪 watercolour painting

䛣ἓ landscape

䛣ἓ䢪 landscape painting

㎎Ἒ world

㎎Ἒ䢪 globalization

䡚╖ modernity

䡚╖䢪 modernization

㦢㞛 music

㦢㞛䣢 concert

☯㺓 students

☯㺓䣢 students association


10.3.2.2 Adverb-deriving suffixes Adverbs can be derived from verbs by adding the suffixes –㧊/–䧞, –㡺/㤆 and –Ợ. These processes were described at greater length previously in this chapter (see 10.2.1.2). Adverbs can also be derived from some nouns by the addition of the suffixes –℥ and –㌗ (see 10.2.1.2).

10.3.2.3 Verb-deriving suffixes A number of derivation processes take place to create new sets of verbs. As we saw in Chapter 4 (see 4.6.1.1), passive verbs can be formed with the addition of –㧊–/–₆–/–䧞–/–Ⰲ–. Also as discussed in detail in Chapter 4 (see 4.6.2.1), causative verbs can be derived by adding the suffixes –㧊–, –₆–, –䧞–, –Ⰲ– and –㤆–, –ῂ–, –㿪–. A further phenomenon previously discussed in Chapter 4 (see 4.6.3) is that processive verbs can be formed from descriptive verbs by the addition of –㰖– or –䞮–. 437


We now turn our attention to processes by which descriptive verbs are formed by adding suffixes to nouns. Six different suffixes can perform this function: –Ἇ–, –╋–, –ⰴ–, –㓺⩓–, –⫃– and –㰖–.

Suffix

–Ἇ–

–╋–

–ⰴ–


Derived descriptive verb

⑞ⶒ tears

⑞ⶒἏ– touching; bring tears to your eyes

䧮 strength

䧮Ἇ– strenuous

䦻 fun

䦻Ἇ– full of fun

⋾㧦 man

⋾㧦╋– manly

㌂⧢ person

㌂⧢╋– humane

㔶㌂ gentleman

㔶㌂╋– gentlemanly

㠊⯎ adult

㠊⯎╋– adult-like

䞯㧦 scholar

䞯㧦╋– scholarly

㧋㌊ humour

㧋㌊ⰴ– humorous

⹿㩫 rashness

⹿㩫ⰴ– rash

–㓺⩓– ┺㩫 affection

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┺㩫㓺⩓– warm-hearted

Ⱒ㫇 satisfaction

Ⱒ㫇㓺⩓– satisfactory

⼖▫ caprice

⼖▫㓺⩓– capricious

⿖╊ burden

⿖╊㓺⩓– burdensome

㌂⧧ love

㌂⧧㓺⩓– loveable

㔶゚ mystery

㔶゚㓺⩓– mysterious

㡗ὧ glory

㡗ὧ㓺⩓– glorious

㧋㌊ humour

㧋㌊㓺⩓– humorous

㦮㕂 doubt

㦮㕂㓺⩓– dubious, suspicious

㧦⧧ boasting

㧦⧧㓺⩓– proud, feel proud of

㧦㡆 nature

㧦㡆㓺⩓– natural

㩫㎇ devotion

㩫㎇㓺⩓– devoted

㫆㕂 care

㫆㕂㓺⩓– careful

㽢 countryside

㽢㓺⩓– countrified, old-fashioned, untrendy

–⫃–

–㰖–

㔂₆ wisdom, sense 㔂₆⫃– wise, sensible 㔶゚ mystery

㔶゚⫃– mysterious

㧦㥶 freedom

㧦㥶⫃– free

㰖䡲 wisdom, sagacity

㰖䡲⫃– wise, sagacious

䘟䢪 peace

䘟䢪⫃– peaceful

䟻₆ fragrance

䟻₆⫃– fragrant

Ṩ price

Ṩ㰖– pricey

₆⯚ oil

₆⯚㰖– oily, fertile

㠎▫ hill

㠎▫㰖– hilly


Some descriptive verbs may be formed either by adding –㓺⩓– or simply by using 䞮–. In the following examples, note that the form with 䞮– may have a different meaning from the form with –㓺⩓–.

Original noun

Form with 䞮–

Form with –㓺⩓–

Ⱒ㫇 satisfaction

Ⱒ㫇䞮– satisfied

Ⱒ㫇㓺⩓– satisfactory

⿖╊ burden

⿖╊䞮– feel burdened

⿖╊㓺⩓– burdensome

㌂⧧ love

㌂⧧䞮– love

㌂⧧㓺⩓– loveable

㦮㕂 doubt

㦮㕂䞮– doubt

㦮㕂㓺⩓– dubious

㧦⧧ boasting

㧦⧧䞮– boast

㧦⧧㓺⩓– proud

㫆㕂 care

㫆㕂䞮– act carefully

㫆㕂㓺⩓– careful

㺓䞒 embarrassing

㺓䞒䞮– embarrassed

㺓䞒㓺⩓– embarrassing

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10.3.2.4 Adnominal suffix –㩗 The Sino-Korean suffix –㩗O蠿P can be added to nouns to produce adnominal forms:

ṳὖ objectivity

ṳὖ㩗– objective

Ὃ㔳 formality

Ὃ㔳㩗– official, formal

⁏┾ extremity

⁏┾㩗– extreme

₆Ἒ machine

₆Ἒ㩗– mechanical

Ṳ㧎 (an) individual

Ṳ㧎㩗– personal, individual

㌗㠛 commerce

㌗㠛㩗– commercial

㎎Ἒ (the) world

㎎Ἒ㩗– international

㏢⁏ passivity, negativity

㏢⁏㩗– passive, negative

㕂Ⰲ psychology

㕂Ⰲ㩗– psychological

㡃㌂ history

㡃㌂㩗– historical

㡓₆ bizarreness

㡓₆㩗– bizarre

㧒⹿ one side

㧒⹿㩗– one-sided

㰗㍶ (a) straight line

㰗㍶㩗– straightforward

㭒ὖ subjectivity

㭒ὖ㩗– subjective

㿪㌗ abstractness

㿪㌗㩗– abstract

㿿☯ impulsiveness

㿿☯㩗– impulsive

䡚㔺 reality

䡚㔺㩗– realistic

䡫㔳 form

䡫㔳㩗– for form’s sake

The forms ending in –㩗– are then completed by the copula to make a descriptive verb or modifier form:

㥶⹎⓪ 㩫Ⱖ 㡓₆㩗㧊㠦㣪.

Yumi is really bizarre.

㡃㌂㩗㧎㌂Ị㧊⧒ἶ 䞶㑮㧞㠊㣪.

You could say it is a historical event.

–㩗– may also be further derived to form an adverb. In such cases, the copula is not required: –㦒⪲ can be attached directly to –㩗–:

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ṳὖ㩗㦒⪲ ㌳ṗ䟊⽊㎎㣪.

Please think objectively.

䡫㔳㩗㦒⪲ Ỗ㌂⯒ 䟞㠊㣪.

They carried out an inspection for form’s sake.

╖䐋⪏㧊 Ὃ㔳㩗㦒⪲ ㌂ὒ䟞㠊㣪.

The president made a formal apology.


active: the opposite of passive. adjective: a class of word that describes (or modifies, limits, quantifies or specifies). Simple examples in English would include ‘tall’, ‘pretty’ and ‘arrogant’. adnominal (form): a word form that modifies a noun or noun phrase. adnoun: bound forms that cannot be used independently and that modify a following noun. adverb: commonly thought of as forms that modify verbs (or verb phrases). However, certain adverbs may in fact modify any constituent of the sentence (except for nouns) or even entire sentences. adverbative (form): a form used for creating adverbs. agent: a word that identifies the entity that does an action. For example, in the sentence ‘John ate the apple’, ‘John’ is the agent. article: a grammatical element that is used to indicate the degree of definiteness. In English, there are two articles: the definite article ‘the’ and the indefinite article ‘a/an’. Korean does not have articles. aspirated: a consonant can be described as aspirated when it is pronounced accompanied by a strong puff of air. auxiliary (verb): additional verbs or support verbs that are used supplementary to the main verb and which ‘help’ or ‘support’ it by supplying extra information regarding the way the speaker views the event being talked about. (verb) base: the underlying basic part of a verb to which endings can be added. bound noun: also known as a dependent noun, these are noun forms that cannot occur on their own and that always require an accompanying element. 441


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case: the grammatical role of a noun in a phrase, clause or sentence, such as subject, object, indirect object, etc. case particles: forms that are used in Korean to express the grammatical role of the noun or noun phrase to which they are attached. causative: constructions that depict an agent causing, forcing or simply allowing a patient to perform an action (for example; ‘He made me eat the apple’, ‘He let me eat the apple’). clausal connective: a device used to link two (or more) clauses. In Korean, this is achieved by using verb endings. clause: a pair or group of words that consist of, at the bare minimum, a subject and a verb (although in Korean the subject may be dropped rather than explicitly included). comitative case, comitative particle: grammatical markers that are used to attach two nouns together. They work in a similar way to words such as ‘and’ and ‘with’. complement: a word or phrase that adds to the meaning of a sentence and makes it complete. Without it, the sentence may not be properly formed. constituent: a component part (or grammatical unit) in a sentence. It may be a single word or otherwise a group of words that together serve the same grammatical function. copula: a verb (or verb-like) form with little independent meaning that is used to link the subject of the sentence to another noun phrase (or, in other languages such as English, to an adjective). Korean copula sentences normally work to equate a subject ‘A’ to another noun phrase ‘B’ to give constructions that translate as ‘A is B’. counter: a word that is used to specify the nature of what is being counted, including English words such as ‘loaves’ in ‘two loaves of bread’ and ‘cups’ in ‘three cups of coffee’. definite article: a grammatical element that indicates definiteness, such as ‘the’ in English, ‘le/la/l’/les’ in French or ‘der/die/das’ in German. dependent noun: see bound noun. derive, derivation: creation of new words by adding a prefix or suffix. descriptive verb: term used in Korean linguistics to refer to verbs that describe (or modify, limit, quantify or specify). The function of Korean descriptive verbs basically corresponds to English adjectives. However, instead of having to occur with a verb corresponding to English ‘be’, they are free-standing in their own right, just like other verbs. ditransitive: a verb that take two objects (i.e. a direct and an indirect object) is described as ‘ditransitive’. An example is ‘give’ in the sentence ‘I gave John an apple’.

equational verb: another term that we use for the Korean copula. first person: ‘I’ or ‘we’. gender: a property of some languages (such as French and German) where every noun is assigned a gender, often with no direct relation to its meaning. Korean does not have gender. genitive (case): also known as the possessive (case), the genitive is a grammatical element that marks possession (such as the use of ’s in English sentences, e.g. ‘Mike’s sandwich’). hearer honorifics: grammatical or vocabulary items that ‘honour’ (i.e. show respect) towards the person hearing the sentence, also known in Korean as speech styles. honorifics: grammatical or vocabulary items that ‘honour’ (i.e. show respect) either to the hearer (in the case of hearer honorifics) or to the people you are talking about (in the case of referent honorifics). hortative: a sentence form such as ‘Let’s’ in English that works to urge the hearer to follow a course of action. We also refer to these simply as ‘proposals’. humble: a form that ‘lowers’ the speaker and places him/her ‘below’ the hearer or referent (and therefore, by extension, ‘raises’ and shows respect to the hearer/referent). imperative: a sentence form used to command or order someone to do something (such as ‘Go away!’ or ‘Come here!’). indefinite article: a grammatical element that indicates a lack of definiteness, such as ‘a/an’ in English, ‘un/une/des’ in French or ‘ein/ eine’ in German. instrumental case, instrumental particle: instrumental particles are used to mark the ‘instrument’ (tool, means, method, etc.) by which a task is performed. interrogative: a question; a sentence that constitutes a question. intransitive: a verb that does not take an object. Examples in English include ‘cough’, ‘fall’ and ‘rise’. kinship terms: terms of address used to call or refer to family members, such as ‘mother’ and ‘father’. locative case: the grammatical role that represents the location of where an action is taking place. In this book, we include locative particles under ‘particles of location’. logographic (writing system): a writing system where each symbol represents a word or morpheme rather than a sound. The best-known example is Chinese characters. mimetics: words that imitate movements, such as ‘helter-skelter’ in English.


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modifier; modify: a word or phrase that adds to the meaning of a following noun, typically by elaborating, describing, clarifying, identifying or delimiting a noun or noun phrase. In English, modifiers typically include the use of adjectives before the noun (pink sweater, pretty girl, tall building) or relative clauses that follow the noun (the sweater that I wore yesterday, the girl who bought me lunch, the building where I work). Unlike a complement, a modifier is an optional element. Even if it is omitted, the sentence will still be grammatical. morpheme: the smallest linguistic unit that has meaning. Some words, such as ‘touch’ may just have one morpheme – you cannot break them into smaller meaningful chunks. However, a word such as ‘untouchable’ has three morphemes: ‘un–’, ‘touch’ and ‘–able’. nominal form: are used when you want to talk about the act of doing things (i.e. what is normally expressed by using verbs) as if they were nouns. Put another way, nominal forms are grammatical means for converting verbs into noun forms. noun: a word that is used to name a person, place, thing, quality or action. Simple examples in English include ‘man’, ‘apple’ and ‘perseverance’. noun phrase: a phrase where the most important or ‘head’ word is a noun and which functions as a noun in the sentence. Examples include ‘the red apple’ (head noun apple), ‘the girl with long hair’ (head noun girl) and ‘the things that you said’ (head noun things). object: the person or thing that has the action of the verb performed upon it or is affected by the action of the verb. In the sentence, ‘Bill ate cake’, ‘cake’ is the object of the sentence and ‘Bill’ is the subject. Some sentences, such as ‘I gave John an apple’ may contain two objects. In the example sentence, ‘apple’ can be referred to as the direct object and ‘John’ as the indirect object. oblique questions: question-like elements that are embedded within a larger sentence. An English example would be ‘when he will go’ in ‘I don’t know when he will go’. one-shape: one-shape particles and one-shape verb endings have one uniform form or ‘shape’ that is used irrespective of whether they follow a consonant or a vowel. onomatopoeia: words that imitate sounds, such as ‘ding-dong’ in English. ordinal (number): ‘first’, ‘second’, ‘third’, etc. particles: elements that attach to the end of nouns (and sometimes other kinds of words) to signal their grammatical function or to add extra meaning. passive: constructions in which the patient (or recipient) of the action of the verb is promoted to subject (for example, ‘the apple was eaten

(by John)’). In active sentences (for example, ‘John ate the apple’), the patient (or recipient) appears as the sentence object. patient: the entity which is affected by the action of the verb. For example, in ‘John ate the apple’, ‘the apple’ is the patient. phonemic (writing system): a writing system where each symbol represents a ‘phoneme’ (a meaningful unit of sound). The Korean script Hangul can be considered a phonemic writing system. phonology; phonological: speech sounds or, more specifically, the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in language. plain: a word or form that is not honorific or not humble. possessive (case): also known as the genitive (case), grammatical elements that mark possession (such as the use of ’s in English sentences, e.g. ‘Mike’s sandwich’). postposition: elements that are equivalent to English prepositions such as ‘in’, ‘for’ and ‘with’ but which appear after the noun rather than before it. In Korean, postpositions form a subset of particles. prefix: elements that are attached at the front of a word stem to alter its meaning. For example, in ‘undo’, ‘un–’ is a prefix. preposition: words such as ‘in’, ‘for’ and ‘with’. See postposition. processive verb: this is a term used in Korean linguistics to refer to verbs that describe an action or process. This basically corresponds to what are simply referred to just as ‘verbs’ in English and other languages. Korean requires the addition of ‘processive’ to distinguish processive verbs from descriptive verbs. pronoun: words (such as ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’, ‘they’, ‘we’, ‘I’) that can be used in place of nouns, typically either to avoid repetition or redundancy or when we are unsure of the exact name or identity of the person or thing in question. pure Korean: a word that is of Korean origin and not Sino-Korean or a word loaned from another language. reflexive pronoun: a pronoun that is preceded by the noun or pronoun to which it refers within the same clause (‘myself’, ‘yourself’, ‘himself’, ‘herself’, etc.), although the original noun/pronoun may be dropped in Korean. referent: the person or thing being referred to by a noun. referent honorifics: grammatical or vocabulary items that ‘honour’ (i.e. show respect) towards the person you are talking about, in other words, who appears as a referent in the sentence. This person may either be the same person as the hearer or somebody else. relative clause: a clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase, for example ‘the sweater that I wore yesterday’, ‘the girl who bought me lunch’, ‘the building where I work’.


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reported speech: quotations, which are used when repeating or relaying what someone else said (or, at times, when reiterating your own words, reporting things that are commonly said or believed, reporting the thoughts of yourself/others, etc.). second person: ‘you’. semantics: the meaning of a word/phrase; the study of linguistic meaning. Sino-Korean: a word that is formed from Chinese morphemes and which can be written in Chinese characters (although, in contemporary Korean, this only occurs in very formal writing). stem: the minimum form of a word to which other elements such as prefixes and suffixes can be attached. SOV: subject–object–verb, the basic word order of Korean. speech styles: see hearer honorifics. subject: the person or thing who is performing the action of the verb (or allotted the attributes given by the verb). In the sentence, ‘Bill ate cake’, ‘Bill’ is the subject of the sentence and ‘cake’ is the object. suffix: elements that are attached at the end of a word stem to alter its meaning. For example, in ‘untouchable’, ‘–able’ is a suffix. support verb: has two possible meanings: (1) it can refer to a verb with little independent meaning that combines with a noun to change it into a verb (in Korean, this verb is most commonly 䞮–); (2) it can also be used to refer to an auxiliary verb. teknonymy: the practice of addressing or referring to someone in relation to their children, for example, referring to someone not by their own name but as ‘Jessica’s mother’ or ‘Sid’s father’. tense: the quality in a language to mark the time at which a state or action expressed by a verb took place. third person: ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’. topic; topic particle: in basic terms, a simple sentence is composed of two elements: the topic or theme (i.e. what is being talked about) and the comment or ‘rheme’ (i.e. what the speaker is saying about the topic). Although this topic–comment dichotomy is generally accepted, the meaning of ‘topic’ in linguistics is difficult to define and a matter of great controversy. In Korean, the topic particle has the basic function of marking something as the (pre-established) topic of conversation. transitive: a verb that takes an object. An example is ‘bite’ in ‘the cat bit me’. two-shape: two-shape particles and two-shape verb endings have two different forms or ‘shapes’, one which follows a consonant and one which follows a vowel.

verb: a word that is used to convey an action (eat, sleep, murder) or a state of being (exist, lie). verb phrase: a phrase that includes a verb and sometimes other elements to provide information about the subject of the sentence. In the sentence ‘Mary gave Peter a present’, for example, ‘Mary’ is the subject and ‘gave Peter a present’ is the verb phrase. vocative (case): grammatical elements that mark the person being addressed by the sentence. In the English sentence ‘Barry, I love you’, ‘Barry’ is a vocative expression (although English does not have grammatical elements that mark vocative case). voiced: a consonant is considered ‘voiced’ when it is pronounced with voice sounds in the vocal cords. In English, for example, g is ‘voiced’ and k is ‘unvoiced’. WH-questions: questions seeking information that in English would contain ‘question words’ that typically start with wh- such as ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘who’ and ‘where’ (note however exceptions such as ‘how’). Wh-questions contrast with yes-no questions (such as ‘Did you read that book?’) where there is no question word and where the answer being sought is ‘yes’ or ‘no’ rather than a piece of information.


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The current section lists works that were referred to in the compilation of this book. We begin by listing works that we recommend readers to consult if they require further information about the Korean language. We then list other works that are referenced in this book.

General descriptions of Korean Lee Ik-sop and S. Robert Ramsey (2000). The Korean Language. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Sohn Ho-Min (1999). The Korean Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Song Jae Jung (2005). The Korean Language: Structure, Use and Context. London: Routledge.

Descriptions of Korean grammar for linguists Yeon Jaehoon (2003). Korean Grammatical Constructions: Their Form and Meaning. London: Saffron Books. Martin, Samuel (1992). A Reference Grammar of Korean: A Complete Guide to the Grammar and History of the Korean Language. Rutland, VT: Tuttle.

Descriptions of Korean grammar (and other aspects) for language learners 448

Choo Miho and Hye-Young Kwak (2008). Using Korean: A Guide to Contemporary Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kim-Renaud, Young-Key (2008). Korean: An Essential Grammar. London: Routledge. Lee Keedong (1993). A Korean Grammar on Semantic Pragmatic Principles. Seoul: Hankook Munhwasa.


Grammar ‘dictionaries’ for language learners (written in Korean) Kungnipkukiwon [The National Institute of the Korean Language] (2005). Oegugin-Jl wiha-n hangukI munpIp 2 [Korean Grammar for Foreigners 2]. Seoul: Communication Books. Paek Pong-ja (1999). HangukI munpIp sajIn [Korean Grammar Dictionary]. Seoul: Yonsei University Press.

Grammar-based textbooks and self-study workbooks Byon, Andrew Sangpil (2008). Basic Korean: A Grammar and Workbook. New York: Routledge. Byon, Andrew Sangpil (2009). Intermediate Korean: A Grammar and Workbook. New York: Routledge. King, Ross and Jaehoon Yeon (2009). Elementary Korean (2nd Edition). North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle. King, Ross and Jaehoon Yeon (2002). Continuing Korean. Rutland, VT: Tuttle.

Korean vocabulary Choo Miho and William O’Grady (1996). Handbook of Korean Vocabulary: A Resource for Word Recognition and Comprehension. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Korean phonetics, phonology and pronunciation Choo Miho and William O’Grady (2003). The Sounds of Korean: A Pronunciation Guide. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

449


Korean sociolinguistics Sohn Ho-Min (ed.) (2006). Korean Language in Culture and Society. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Further works referred to in this book Ahn Joo-hoh (2002). Hangugi kyoyuk-esi-ji wonin yingyilimi-e taehayi [On Korean Causal Connectives]. HangugI kyoyuk [ Journal of Korean Language Education] 13/2: 159–80. Garrigues, Stephen (1995). Mimetic parallels in Korean and Japanese. Studies in Language 19/2: 359 ff. Kim, Minju (2010). The historical development of Korean siph- ‘to think’ into markers of desire, inference, and similarity. Journal of Pragmatics 42/4: 1000–16. Lee Hyo-sang (1991). Tense, Aspect and Modality: A Discourse Pragmatic Analysis of Verbal Affixes in Korean from a Typological Perspective. PhD dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles. Lee Jung-bok (2004). Intheneys thongsin ene kyengepep-uy thukseng-kwa sayong cenlyak [Characteristics and Strategies of the Korean Honorifics in Internet Communication Language]. Enekwahak yenkwu [ Journal of Linguistic Science] 30, 221–54. Lukoff, F. and Nam Ki-Shim (1982). Constructions in –nikka and –isi as Logical Formations. In The Linguistic Society of Korea (ed.), Linguistics in the Morning Calm. Seoul: Hanshin. Ryzhkov, Andrii (2009). Derivation of expressive verbs in Korean: morphostylistic aspects. In Proceedings of the 6th Korean Studies Graduate Students’ Convention in Europe. Moscow: Moscow State University Institute of Asian and African Studies. Sohn, Sung-ock (1992). Speaker-oriented and event-oriented causals: A comparative analysis of –nikka and –ese. Korean Linguistics 7: 73–83. Song, Jaemog (2005). ‘A Typological Analysis of the Korean Evidential Marker ‘-te’.’ In Yeon, J. (ed.), Studies in Korean Morpho-Syntax. London: Saffron Books.

450


Korean pattern

Function/English equivalent

Section

Page

Ṗ/㧊 Ṗ Ṗ Ṗ Ṗ– Ṗ

subject particle ‘look like’ ‘think it might’ plain style question, written form ongoing activity ‘away’ sentence ending – dubitative interrogative ‘with’, ‘by means of’ additional connective – ‘and’ particle of comparison – ‘like’ nominal form ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’ optional connective – ‘or’ contrastive connective – ‘but’, ‘while’ additional connective – ‘and’ conditional connective – ‘if’ sentence ending – ‘it’s because’, ‘you see’ plain style command ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’ O㦖/⓪P sentence ending – inferences, regrets ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’ way of creating nominal forms ‘the fact that’ ‘it seems that’ nominal form deriving ending ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’ O㧊/ṖP familiar speech style causative connective – ‘so that’ future tense

3.2.1 5.5.1 5.5.2 4.3.6.2 5.1.1 8.3

95 255 256 183 235 365

m6.3.4 6.3.4 3.3.6.2 2.2.2 2.1.2.1 6.4.1 6.2.13

289 288 145 54 45 302 283

6.3.5 6.5.6 8.2

290 316 364

4.3.6.4 2.1.2.1 8.7

184 45 369

2.1.2.1 2.2.6 7.2.1 7.2.2 2.2.2 2.1.2.1 4.3.7 6.6.1 4.5.2.3

45 73 337 339 54 45 186 320 208

m–⋮/චṖ ⽊– m–⋮/චṖ 㕌– m–O㦒PචṖ m–O㞚/㠊P Ṗ– m–O㦒PචṖf

Ṗ㰖ἶ Ṗ㰖ἶ m–O㞚/㠊P Ṗ㰖ἶ ṯ㧊 –Ṳ/–Ợ Ệ m ộ –Ệ⋮ –Ệ⓮ –Ệ┞㢖 –Ệ✶ –Ệ✶ –Ệ⧒ Ị Ỏ ộ ộ ộ ộ ṯ– –Ợ Ợ –Ợ –Ợ Ợ

m ộ m–O㦒PඥỎ

m–O㦒Pච/⓪ ộ mmodifierộ mmodifierộ ṯ– mộ

m–O㦒PඥỢ

451


–Ợ –Ợ ♮– –Ợ/₆ Ⱎ⩾㧊– –Ợ ⽊㧊– –Ợ 䞮– –Ợ⊪ –Ỷ– Ἆ Ἆ m–O㦒Pඥ Ἆ –Ἇ– –ἶ –ἶ ⋮– –ἶ Ⱖ– –ἶ ⽊– –ἶ 㕌– –ἶ㟒 Ⱖ– –ἶ 㧞– –ἶ☚ –ἶⰦἶ –ἶ㍲ –ἶ㧦 Ὁ ὒ/㢖 ὒ/㢖 O䞾℮/ṯ㧊/Ⱎ㺂Ṗ㰖P ὒ/㢖 ṯ– ὒ/㢖 ┺⯊– ὒ/㢖゚ᾦ䞮– ὒ/㢖゚㔍䞮– –ῂ– –ῂ⋮ –ῂⰢ/ῂⲒ –ῆ ⁎ộ ⁎ ㌂⧢

452

–₆ –₆– –₆– –₆ ⋮⯚㧊 –₆ ➢ⶎ㠦 –₆/Ợ Ⱎ⩾㧊– –₆ 㔲㧧䞮– –₆ 㕃㌗㧊– –₆ 㥚䞮– –₆ 㧒㚺㧊–

adverb deriving ending ‘turn out so that’ ‘be bound to’ auxiliary verb – ‘seem’ causative causative connective – ‘so that’ future tense ‘-cum-’ ‘with the combined purpose of’ descriptive verb deriving ending additional connective – ‘and’ auxiliary verb – ‘after finishing’ auxiliary verb – ‘end up’ ‘do and then realize’ auxiliary verb – ‘want to do’ auxiliary verb – ‘end up’ continuous actions contrastive connective – ‘even after’ ‘of course’ additional connective – ‘and’ intentive connective – ‘with the intention of’ ‘place’ comitative particle – ‘and/with’ ‘together with’ ‘the same as’ ‘different from’ ‘compared with’ ‘similar to’ causative verb deriving ending sentence ending – exclamations sentence ending – exclamations sentence ending – exclamations ‘that thing’ – demonstrative pronoun ‘that person’ – third-person pronoun nominal form passive verb deriving ending causative verb deriving ending ‘depending on’ ‘because’ ‘bound to’ ‘start’ ‘it is easy to’ ‘in order to’ ‘be apt to’

10.2.1.2 5.6.1 2.2.4.3 5.6.2 4.6.2.2 6.6.2 4.5.2.1 2.1.2.2 7.2.3 10.3.2.3 6.3.1 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 m5.3.2 4.5.3.2 6.2.7

408 257 58 258 229 321 203 46 340 438 285 248 249 250 251 249 213 280

8.1 6.3.2 6.7.3

363 288 324

2.1.2.3 3.2.6.1 m3.2.6.1 m3.2.6.1 m3.2.6.1 m3.2.6.1 m3.2.6.1 4.6.2.1 8.4 8.4 8.4 m2.3.2

47 116 117 117 117 117 117 225 367 367 367 79

m2.3.1.3

78

2.2.3 4.6.1.1 4.6.2.1 2.2.4.1 2.2.4.2 2.2.4.3 2.2.4.4 2.2.4.5 2.2.4.6 2.2.4.7

55 216 225 56 57 58 59 59 60 61

–₆ 㩚 –₆ 㰳㧊㠜– –₆⋮ 䞮– –₆⓪ –₆⓪ 䞮– –₆O⓪P䄺⎫ –₆☚ 䞮– –₆Ⱒ 䞮– –₆⪲ 䞮– –₆⪲ ♮– –₆⯒/₎ ⹪⧒– –₆㠦 –₆㠦 ➆⧒– ₎O㠦P m–⓪ ₎O㠦P –₎⧮ ₖ ₖ m–⓪ ₖ㠦 ₢f m–O㦒Pඥ₢f ₢㰖 –℥ –℮ –℮㍲ ⋮ ⋮

m O㧊P⋮

⋮ m–ἶ ⋮– ⋮ m–O㦒P⋮ ⋮ m–O㦒P⋮ Ⱎ⋮ –⋮f/–O㦒PචṖf –⋮/චṖ ⽊– –⋮/චṖ 㕌– ⋮⯚ m–₆ ⋮⯚㧊 ⌊– m–O㞚/㠊P ⌊– –⌦ m–O㦒P⌦, –ⓦ⌦ –⌦ἶ 䞮– –⌦┞O₢P –〉┺ –⌷┞┺ –〉 Ⱖ㧊– –⍖㠊O㣪P ⍞ –⍞⧒

m–Ệ/⍞⧒

‘before’ ‘very’ ‘just’ ‘no way’ ‘indeed’ ‘far from’ ‘also’ ‘only’ ‘decide to’ ‘be supposed to’ ‘hope’ ‘upon’, ‘because’ ‘depending on’ ‘on the way to’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ ‘occasion, chance’ [bound noun] ‘as long as you’re at it’ sentence ending – suggestions, tentative questions particle of extent – ‘up until’ adverb deriving ending indirect object honorific particle subject honorific particle

2.2.4.8 2.2.4.9 2.2.4.10 2.2.4.11 2.2.4.12 2.2.4.13 2.2.4.14 2.2.4.15 2.2.4.16 2.2.4.17 2.2.4.18 2.2.4.19 2.2.4.20 7.2.6 6.1.7 2.1.2.4 7.2.5 8.9

61 62 63 63 64 65 66 67 67 68 69 70 70 342 268 47 341 370

3.3.3.5 10.2.1.2 4.4.2.2 4.4.1.3

134 409 192 190

first-person pronoun particle of approximation/ optionality – ‘about /or/just’ ‘after finishing’ contrastive connective – ‘but’ ‘whether or not’ sentence ending – dubitative interrogative ‘look like’ ‘think it might’ ‘depending’ ‘finish, achieve’ plain style question quoted question ‘upon telling’; ‘I told you’ quotation question – reduced plain style quotation question – reduced formal style ‘I mean’ quotation question – reduced past tense second-person pronoun plain style command

m2.3.1.1 3.3.5.1

76 141

5.3.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 8.3

248 274 275 365

5.5.1 5.5.2 2.2.4.1 5.1.3 4.3.6.2 9.2.2 9.4.1 m9.3.2

255 256 56 237 181 386 397 397

m9.3.2

397

9.4.6 m9.3.2

401 395

m2.3.1.2 4.3.6.4

76 184


453


–⍺ –⍺ ⏩– m–O㞚/㠊P ⏩– ⑚ῂ⋮ –ⓦ⌦ –ⓦ⌦ἶ 䞮– –ⓦ┞ –ⓦ⧒ἶ ⓪/㦖 –⓪ O⓪/㦖P䄺⎫ –⓪ ₎O㠦P –⓪ ₖ㠦 –⓪ ╖⪲ –⓪◆☚ –⓪◆☚ ⿞ῂ䞮ἶ –⓪ ☯㞞/㌂㧊㠦 –⓪ ⚻ –⓪ ❅ –⓪ ❅䞮–/❅㕌– –⓪ ⳾㟧㧊– –⓪ ⹪⧢㠦 –⓪ ⹮ⳊO㠦P –⓪㧊㌗O㠦O⓪P –⓪ 㧒/㩗㧊㧞–/㠜– –⓪ 㭚㞢–/⳾⯊– –⓪ 㭧㠦/☚㭧㠦 –⓪ 㭧㧊– –⓪ 㻯䞮– –⓪ 㼊 –⓪ 䐋㠦 –⓪ 䞲– –⓪Ṗ –O⓪Pῂ⋮ –O⓪PῂⰢ/ῂⲒ –O⓪Pῆ –⓪┺ –Oච/–⓪P┺ἶ 䞮– –⓪╖ –⓪╪㠊

454

–⓪◆

m–O㦒Pච/⓪◆

–⓪㰖 –┞

m––O㦒Pච/⓪㰖

familiar speech style sentence ending – mild exclamations ‘do all the way’ ‘anyone’, ‘everyone’ plain style question, processive verbs quoted question contrastive connective – ‘rather than’ causal connective – ‘what with’, ‘because of’ topic particle dynamic modifier particle of extent – ‘far from’ ‘on the way to’ ‘as long as you’re at it’ ‘in accordance with’ ‘although’ ‘in spite of’ ‘while’ ‘may or may not’ ‘just like’ ‘seem like’ ‘seem like’ ‘because of’ ‘on the other hand’ ‘since’; ‘unless’ ‘ever/never’ ‘think /know’ ‘in the middle of’ ‘be in the middle of’ ‘pretend’ ‘pretend’ ‘because of’ ‘as much as’ plain style question, written form sentence ending – exclamations sentence ending – exclamations sentence ending – exclamations plain style statement, processive verbs quoted statement quotation statement – reduced quotation statement – reduced past tense additional connective – background information oblique questions – ‘whether’ plain style question

4.3.7 8.5 5.1.4 m3.3.5.2 4.3.6.2 9.2.2 6.2.14

186 368 237 142 182 386 283

6.1.8

270

3.3.2.1 7.1.2 3.3.3.9 7.2.6 7.2.5 7.2.8 m6.3.10 m6.3.10 7.2.9 7.2.10 7.2.11 7.2.12 7.2.16 7.2.18 7.2.19 7.2.23 7.2.24 7.2.26 7.2.27 7.2.28 7.2.31 m7.2.31 7.2.32 7.2.33 4.3.6.2 8.4 8.4 8.4 4.3.6.2

123 330 139 342 341 343 300 300 344 345 345 346 348 349 350 354 355 356 357 358 360 360 361 361 183 367 367 367 179

9.2.1 m9.3.2 m9.3.2

384 395 395

6.3.10

297

6.4.3 4.3.6.2

305 181

–┞ –┞₢ –┮

m–O㦒P┞ m–O㦒P┞₢

–┺ –┺ –┺

m–ච┺; –⓪┺

–┺ ⽊– –┺ 㭒– –┺OṖP –┺OṖP ⽊Ⳋ –┺ἶ 䞮– m–Oච/–⓪PG ┺ἶ 䞮– –┺⓪◆ –┺┞O₢P ┺Ⱎ┺ –┺Ⳇ –┺Ⳋ㍲ –┺㔲䞒 –┺Ⳋ ┺㦢㠦 m–O㦒Pච┺㦢㠦 –┾ Ⱖ㧊– –┾┺ –╂⧒ἶ 䞮– –╂⧒ἶ 䞮– –╂⧮ –╊ –╋– –╋┞┺ ╏㔶 ╏㔶 ╏䞮– ╖– –╖ –╪㠊

m–O㞚/㠊P ╖– m–ච/–⓪╖ m–ච/–⓪–╪㠊

╖⪲ ╖⪲ ╖⪲ m–O㦒Pච╖⪲ –╪㠊O㣪P

causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ honorific suffix for titles

6.1.4 6.1.3 m1.3.2

266 263 34

dictionary form plain style statement, descriptive verbs plain style statement, processive verbs ‘after trying doing’ ‘run an errand’ additional connective – ‘and then’ ‘if . . . and then’ quoted statement

4.1.7 4.3.6.1

161 179

4.3.6.1

179

5.2.1 5.2.2 6.3.9 6.5.4 9.2.1

247 247 294 315 384

9.4.4 9.4.1 m8.1 m9.4.3 9.4.3 6.8.2 6.5.2 7.2.7 9.4.6 m9.3.2

399 397 364 399 399 326 313 342 401 397

9.3.1

394

9.2.5 9.3.2

389 395

8.6 10.3.2.3 m9.3.2

369 438 397

m2.3.1.2 m2.3.3 4.6.1.3 5.1.6 m9.3.2 m9.3.2

77 81 221 239 395 395

2.1.2.5 3.3.6.6

47 149

7.2.8 m9.3.2

343 395

quote as background information ‘upon telling’; ‘I told you’ ‘of course’ ‘I heard . . . , right?’ ‘I heard . . . , right?’ ‘just as’ ‘if you say that’ ‘after’ ‘I mean’ quotation statement – reduced plain style quoted commands with 㭒– – reduced quoted commands with 㭒– quoted commands with 㭒– – reduced sentence ending – disapproval descriptive verb deriving ending quotation statement – reduced formal style second-person pronoun reflexive pronoun passive deriving support verb ‘do repeatedly’ quotation statement – reduced quotation statement – reduced past tense ‘in accordance with’ [bound noun] particle of comparison – ‘in accordance with’ ‘in accordance with’ quotation statement – reduced past tense


455


–▪ –▪┞ –▪⧒ –▪⧒ἶ –▪⧒☚ –▪⧒Ⳋ ▪⩂ ▫⿚ –▮ –▮◆㣪 –▮Ṗ㣪 –▮ ₎O㠦P ◆ –◆㣪 ☚ ☚

m–O㞚/㠊P☚

☚

m–㧊⧒☚

☚ m–O㞚/㠊P☚ ♮– –☚⪳ –☚⪳ 䞮– ☚㭧 ☚㭧 m–⓪ ☚㭧㠦 ☯㞞 ☯㞞 m–⓪ ☯㞞 ♮– ♮– m–Ợ ♮– ♮– m–O㞚/㠊P㟒䞮–/♮– ♮– m–O㦒P♮ ⚦– m–O㞚/㠊P ⚦– ⚻ ⚻ m–O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/ –O㦒Pච ⚻ ⛺㠦 m–O㦒Pච⛺㠦 –✶㰖 ✺ ✺ m–O㦒Pච✺ ❅ ❅

456

m–O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/ –O㦒Pච ❅

observed/perceived past tense causal connective – ‘seeing as’, ‘since’ observed/perceived past tense, plain style observed/perceived past tense contrastive connective – ‘even though’ conditional connective – ‘if’ ‘to’ ‘thanks to’ [bound noun] retrospective modifier observed/perceived past tense, polite style observed/perceived past tense, polite style ‘on the way to’ ‘place’ [bound noun] observed/perceived past tense, polite style particle of extent – ‘also, even’ contrastive connective – ‘even though’ copula –O㞚V㠊P☚; ‘even’ or ‘at least’ ‘be allowed to’ causative connective – ‘so that’ causative ‘make sure’ ‘middle’ [bound noun] ‘in the middle of’ ‘during’ [bound noun] ‘while’ passive deriving support verb ‘turn out so that’ ‘must, have to’ contrastive connective – ‘but’ ‘do for future reference’ ‘may or may not’ [bound noun] ‘may or may not’ ‘after’ optional connective – ‘or’ plural particle contrastive connective – ‘even though’ ‘as if’ [bound noun] ‘just like’

4.5.1.3 6.1.9 4.5.1.3

200 270 200

4.5.1.3 6.2.6

203 280

6.5.5 m9.2.4 2.1.2.6 7.1.4 4.5.1.3

315 388 47 333 201

4.5.1.3

201

7.2.6 2.1.2.7 4.5.1.3

342 48 201

3.3.3.6 6.2.5

135 276

m6.2.5

276

6.2.5.1 6.6.3 4.6.2.3 m6.6.3 2.1.2.20 7.2.27 2.1.2.8 7.2.9 4.6.1.2 5.6.1 5.7.1 6.2.4 5.1.5 2.1.2.9 7.2.10

277 321 231 321 51 357 48 344 220 257 258 276 238 49 345

7.2.7 6.4.2 3.3.1 6.2.9

342 304 121 281

2.1.2.10 7.2.11

49 345

❅ –❅㧊 –❪

m–⓪ ❅䞮–/❅㕌–

‘seem like’ comparison connective – ‘as if’ observed/perceived past tense, plain style

7.2.12 6.8.1 4.5.1.3

346 325 200

➆⧒ ➆⧒ ➢ ➢ ➢ⶎ ➢ⶎ

m–₆㠦 ➆⧒–

‘depending on’ particle of comparison – ‘unusually’ ‘when’ [bound noun] ‘when’ ‘reason’ [bound noun] ‘because’

2.2.4.20 3.3.6.5 2.1.2.11 7.2.13 2.1.2.12 2.2.4.2

70 148 49 346 49 57

plain style command ‘if you say that’ ‘I heard . . . , right?’ quoted command – reduced form direct quotation quoted command quote as background information – ‘I heard’ ‘upon telling’; ‘I told you’ ‘I heard’ quotation command – reduced honorific ‘I mean’ quotation command – reduced plain style quotation command – reduced formal style comitative particle – ‘and/with’ sentence ending – ‘feel like’ quoted command – reduced form quotation command – reduced past tense intentive connective – ‘[go come] to [do]’ intentive connective – ‘with the intention of’ future tense ‘if you intend to’ granting permission; orders sentence ending – ‘should, must’ sentence ending – ‘should, must’

4.3.6.4 6.5.2 m9.4.3 9.3.1 9.1 9.2.4 9.4.4

184 313 399 394 382 388 399

9.4.1 9.4.3 m9.3.2

397 399 397

9.4.6 m9.3.2

401 397

m9.3.2

397

3.2.6.3 8.10 9.3.2 m9.3.2

119 373 395 395

6.7.1

322

6.7.2

323

4.5.2.4 6.5.3 8.13 8.12 8.12

209 314 376 375 375

granting permission; orders instrumental particle ‘by/with/as’ particle of movement – ‘from’ instrumental particle – ‘as’

8.13 3.2.5.1 3.2.4.6 3.2.5.2

376 113 112 115

m–O㦒Pඥ ➢ m–₆ ➢ⶎ㠦

–⧒ m–O㦒P⧒, –㞚/㠊⧒ –⧒Ⳋ –⧒Ⳋ㍲ –⧒ἶ –⧒ἶ 䞮– –⧒ἶ 䞮– –⧒⓪◆ –⧒┞O₢P –⧒Ⳋ㍲ –⧒㎪ –⧖ Ⱖ㧊– –⧖┺ –⧣┞┺ ⧧ ⧮ –⧮ –⨂㠊

mO㧊P⧧ m–O㦒Pඥ⧮

–⩂

m–O㦒P⩂

–⩺ἶ

m–O㦒P⩺ἶ

–⩺ἶ 䞮– m–O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮– –⩺Ⳋ m–O㦒P⩺Ⳋ –⩺ⶊ⋮ m–O㦒P⩺ⶊ⋮ –O㦒P⩾Ⱎ⓪/–O㦒P⩾Ⱒ ⩾Ⱎ⓪/⩾Ⱒ m–O㦒P⩾ⰞG ⓪/–O㦒P⩾Ⱒ –⪊ m–O㦒P⪊ ⪲ mO㦒P⪲ ⪲⿖䎆 mO㦒P⪲⿖䎆 ⪲ mO㦒P⪲㍲


457


⪲ mO㦒P⪲㖾 ⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ mO㦒P⪲䞮㡂⁞ –⫃– ⯒/㦚 –Ⰲ– –Ⰲ– Ⰲ Ⰲ 㠜– m–O㦒Pඥ Ⰲ 㠜– –ඥ 㰖 ⳾⯊– m –O㦒Pඥ㰖 ⳾⯊– Ⱎ

m–O㦒PⰞ

Ⱎ⋮ Ⱎ┺ Ⱎ⩾ Ⱎ㩖 Ⱒ Ⱒ䋒 Ⱒ䞮– Ⱖ– Ⱖἶ Ⱖἶ Ⱖ⧓

m–O㦒P⋮ Ⱎ⋮ m–₆/Ợ Ⱎ⩾㧊–

m–O㦒Pඥ Ⱒ䞮– m–ἶ Ⱖ–

m㰖 Ⱖἶ m–O㦒Pඥ⧓ Ⱖ⧓ O䞮–P Ⱖ䞶 ộ☚ 㠜ἶ –ⰴ– –ⰳ㩫 m–O㦒Pඥⰳ㩫 –Ⳇ m–O㦒PⳆ –Ⳋ m–O㦒PⳊ –Ⳋ ἶⰯỶ– m–O㦒PⳊ ἶⰯỶ– –Ⳋ ♮– m–O㦒PⳊ ♮– –Ⳋ 㞞 ♮– m–O㦒PⳊ 㞞 ♮– –Ⳋ㍲ m–O㦒PⳊ㍲ –O㦒PⳊ㍲☚ m–O㦒PⳊ㍲☚ ⳾⯊– m–⓪ 㭚 ⳾⯊– ⳾㟧㧊– m–O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/– O㦒Pච ⳾㟧㧊– ⴑ ⶊ⪋ ⶊ㠝㧊⋮ –⸖⪲ m–O㦒P⸖⪲

458

instrumental particle – ‘by’ ‘letting /making (someone do something)’ descriptive verb deriving ending object particle passive verb deriving ending causative verb deriving ending ‘reasons’ [bound noun] ‘no way that’ ‘might’

3.2.5.3 3.2.4.7

115 112

10.3.2.3 3.2.2 4.6.1.1 4.6.2.1 2.1.2.13 7.2.14 m6.4.4

439 98 216 225 50 347 307

8.14

376

6.2.3 3.3.4.1 2.2.4.3 3.3.3.8 3.3.3.1 3.3.6.3 7.2.15 5.3.2 m4.2.3 m4.2.3 6.4.5

275 140 58 138 129 146 348 249 168 169 308

‘without saying anything of’ descriptive verb deriving ending contrastive connective – ‘even though’ additional connective – ‘while’ conditional connective – ‘if’ ‘would be grateful if’

m3.3.3.9 10.3.2.3 6.2.12

139 438 282

6.3.7 6.5.1 6.5.1.2

292 309 311

‘be enough/sufficient’ ‘not allowed’

6.5.1.4 6.5.1.5

312 312

additional connective – ‘while’ ‘even while’

6.3.6 m6.3.6

291 291

‘think/know’ ‘seem like’

7.2.26 7.2.16

356 348

short negative ‘around the time’ [bound noun] ‘anything; everything’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’

4.2.1 2.1.2.14 m3.3.5.2 6.1.6

164 50 142 268

sentence ending – promise-like futures ‘whether or not’ particle of frequency – ‘every’ ‘be bound to’ particle of extent – ‘even’ particle of extent – ‘only’ particle of comparison – ‘as . . . as’ ‘worth’ ‘end up’ ‘rather than’ ‘instead of’ ‘on the verge of’

–ථ┞┺ –ථ┞₢ –ථ❪┺

–ථ㔲┺ ⹪ ⹪ m–O㦒Pඥ ⹪㠦O⓪/㟒P ⹪⧒– m–₆⯒/₎ ⹪⧒– ⹪⧢㠦 m–O㦒Pච/⓪ ⹪⧢㠦 ⹬㠦 ⹮Ⳋ㠦 m–O㦒Pච/⓪ ⹮Ⳋ㠦 ⹱– ⻚Ⰲ– m–O㞚/㠊P ⻚Ⰲ– ⽊– m–O㞚/㠊P ⽊– ⽊– m––┺ ⽊– ⽊– m–ἶ ⽊– ⽊– m–O㦒Pඥ₢ ⽊– ⽊– m–⋮/චṖ ⽊– ⽊㧊– m–O㞚/㠊P ⽊㧊– ⽊㧊– m–Ợ ⽊㧊– ⽊┺ ⿖䎆⿖䎆 mO㦒P⪲⿖䎆

formal speech style statement formal speech style question observed/perceived past tense, formal style observed/perceived past tense, formal style formal speech style proposal ‘thing’ [bound noun] ‘rather . . . than’ ‘hope’ ‘because of’ particle of extent – ‘except for’ ‘because of’ passive deriving support verb ‘do completely for regret or relief’ ‘try doing’ ‘after trying doing’ ‘do and then realize’ ‘think it might’ ‘look like’ ‘seem’ ‘seem’ particle of comparison ‘more than’ particle of extent – ‘from’ particle of movement – ‘from’

ザ㰖– ㄪ䞮– ㈦㈦㈦

m–O㞚/㠊P ザ㰖– mO㦒Pඥ ㄪ䞮–

㌂㧊㠦 –㌗㍲㍲⧒☚

m–⓪ ㌂㧊㠦

㍲㟒㍲⪲ –㎎㣪 –㏢㑮㑮㑮⪳

m–O㞚/㠊P㍲㟒

–ථ❪₢

–㓺⩓– –㔋┞┺ –㔋┞₢

m–O㦒Pඥ ㈦

m–O㞚/㠊P㍲ m–O㞚/㠊P㍲⧒☚

m–O㦒P㎎㣪

m–㦚/ඥ 㑮㧞–/㠜– m–O㦒PⳊ . . . –O㦒Pඥ㑮⪳

4.3.4 4.3.4 4.5.1.3

173 173 173

4.5.1.3

173

4.3.4 2.1.2.15 7.2.17 2.2.4.18 7.2.18 3.3.3.3 7.2.19 4.6.1.2 5.1.7 5.1.8 5.2.1 5.3.3 5.4.1 5.5.1 5.1.9 5.6.2 3.3.6.4 3.3.3.4 3.2.4.6

173 50 348 69 349 131 350 220 240 241 247 250 252 255 243 258 147 133 112

‘lapse into a negative state’ ‘nearly’ ‘only, just, nothing but’ [bound noun] particle of extent – ‘only’ ‘only’

5.1.10 7.2.20 2.1.2.16 3.3.3.2 7.2.21

244 350 51 131 351

‘while’ adverb deriving ending causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ contrastive connective – ‘even if it means’ ‘only after’ ‘each other’ – reciprocal pronoun polite speech style honorific semiformal speech style ‘case, circumstance’ [bound noun] ‘can/cannot’ ‘the more the’

7.2.9 10.2.1.2 6.1.1 6.2.8

344 410 260 281

6.5.8 m2.3.3 4.3.3 4.3.8 2.1.2.17 7.2.22 6.5.9

318 81 172 186 51 352 319

descriptive verb deriving ending formal speech style statement formal speech style question

10.3.2.3 4.3.4 4.3.4

438 173 173


459


–㔋❪┺ –㔋❪₢ 㔲㧧 –㔲– –㔲㡺㔲䋺– 㕃㌗ –㕃㔲㡺

m–₆ 㔲㧧䞮– m–O㦒P㔲– m–O㦒P㔲㡺 m–₆ 㕃㌗㧊– m–O㦒P㕃㔲㡺

㕌– 㕌– 㕌–

m–ἶ 㕌– m–O㦒Pඥ₢ 㕌– m–⋮/චṖ 㕌–

㕩– 㝾㝿

m–O㞚/㠊P 㕩–

㞚/㟒 –㞚/㠊 –㞚/㠊 –㞚/㠊 –O㞚/㠊P Ṗ– –O㞚/㠊P Ṗ㰖ἶ –O㞚/㠊P ⽺㧦 –O㞚/㠊P 㡺– –O㞚/㠊P ⌊– –O㞚/㠊P ⏩– –O㞚/㠊P ⚦– –O㞚/㠊P ╖– –O㞚/㠊P ⻚Ⰲ– –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– –O㞚/㠊P ⽊㧊– –O㞚/㠊P ザ㰖– –O㞚/㠊P 㕩– –㞚/㠊㧞– –O㞚/㠊P 㭒– –㞚/㠊㰖– –O㞚/㠊P 䂮㤆– –O㞚/㠊P☚ –O㞚/㠊P☚ ♮– –O㞚/㠊P㍲ –O㞚/㠊P㍲⧒☚

460

–O㞚/㠊P㍲㟒

observed/perceived past tense, formal style observed/perceived past tense, formal style ‘start’ subject honorific marker formal speech style command causative deriving support verb ‘it is easy to’ formal speech style command (honorific) ‘want to do’ ‘afraid it might’ ‘think it might’

4.5.1.3

201

4.5.1.3

201

2.2.4.4 4.4.1.1 4.3.4 4.6.2.4 2.2.4.5 4.3.4

59 188 173 231 59 173

5.3.4 5.4.2 5.5.2

251 253 256

‘do repeatedly’ title-word particle of frequency – ‘apiece’

5.1.11 m1.3.1 3.3.4.2

244 33 140

vocative particle infinitive form intimate panmal style causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ ongoing activity ‘away’ additional connective – ‘and’, ‘so’ contrastive connective – ‘even though’ ongoing activity ‘towards’ ‘finish, achieve’ ‘do all the way’ ‘do for future reference’ ‘do repeatedly’ ‘do completely for regret or relief’ ‘try doing’ ‘seem’ ‘lapse into a negative state’ ‘do repeatedly’ continuous states ‘perform a favour’ passive deriving verb ending ‘do rashly’ contrastive connective – ‘even though’ ‘be allowed to’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ contrastive connective – ‘even if it means’ ‘only after’

3.2.7 4.1.6 4.3.5 6.1.2 5.1.1 6.3.4 6.2.15

120 159 176 263 235 288 284

5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 5.1.6 5.1.7 5.1.8 5.1.9 5.1.10 5.1.11 4.5.3.1 5.1.12 4.6.1.4 5.1.13 6.2.5

236 237 237 238 239 240 241 243 244 244 212 245 223 246 276

6.2.5.1 6.1.1 6.2.8

277 260 281

6.5.8

318

–O㞚/㠊P㟒 –O㞚/㠊P㟒䞮–/♮– –㞚/㠊㣪㞚┞– 㞞㞞 . . . Ⳋ 㞞 ♮– 㞢– m–⓪ 㭚㞢– –㞮/㠞– –㞮/㠞㠞– –O㞮/㠞P▪┞ –O㞮/㠞P▪⧒Ⳋ –O㞮/㠞P▮ –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡– –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 䞮– –O㞮/㠞P㦚㟒/㞚㟒 mO㧊P㟒 –㟒䞮–/♮– m–O㞚/㠊P㟒䞮–/♮– 㟒Ⱖἶ m O㧊P㟒Ⱖἶ 㠊❪⋮ 㠊❪㍲⋮ 㠎㩲⋮ 㠦㠦Ợ 㠦Ợ㍲㠦 ὖ䞮㡂㠦 ╖䟊㍲㠦┺Ṗ 㠦 ➆⧒ 㠦㦮䞮Ⳋ 㠦㍲ –㡺㡺– –㡺㢖/ὒ –㣪 –㤆– –㤆㤆Ⰲ 㥚䞮– –O㦒Pච –O㦒Pච –O㦒Pච –O㦒Pච –O㦒Pච

m–O㞚/㠊P 㡺–

m–㞚/㠊㣪

m–₆ 㥚䞮– ộ ₖ㠦 ┺㦢㠦, ⛺㠦, 䤚㠦 ╖⪲

conditional connective – ‘only if’ ‘must’, ‘have to’ polite speech style negative copula short negative ‘have to’ ‘think /know’ simple past tense past-past tense causal connective – ‘seeing as’, ‘since’ conditional connective – ‘if’ past retrospective modifier ‘hope’, ‘wish’ ‘should be grateful if’ past prospective modifier vocative particle particle of focus – ‘if it’s’ ‘must, have to’

6.5.7 6.5.7.1 4.3.3 4.1.4 4.2.1 6.5.1.6 7.2.26 4.5.1.1 4.5.1.2 6.1.9 6.5.5 7.1.5 6.5.1.1 6.5.1.3 7.1.5 3.2.7 3.3.2.2 5.7.1

316 317 172 155 164 313 356 197 198 270 315 335 310 311 335 120 128 258

particle of focus ‘indeed’ ‘anywhere’ ‘[happening] anywhere’ ‘any time’ particle of movement and location – ‘to/in/at’ particle of movement – ‘to’ particle of movement – ‘from’ ‘regarding’ ‘about’ particle of movement – ‘in/on’ ‘in accordance with’ ‘according to’ particle of movement and location – ‘from/in/at’ semi-formal speech style ongoing activity ‘towards’ adverb deriving ending comitative particle – ‘and/with’ polite speech style causative verb deriving ending adverb deriving ending plural first-person pronoun ‘in order to’ state/result modifier way of creating nominal forms ‘as long as you’re at it’ ‘after’ ‘in accordance with’

3.3.2.3 m3.3.5.2 m3.3.5.2 m3.3.5.2 3.2.4.1

128 142 142 142 102

3.2.4.4 3.2.4.5 m3.2.4.1 m3.2.4.1 3.2.4.2 m3.2.4.1 m3.2.4.1 3.2.4.3

109 111 105 105 106 105 105 107

4.3.8 5.1.2 10.2.1.2 3.2.6.1 4.3.3 4.6.2.1 10.2.1.2 m2.3.1.1 2.2.4.6 7.1.3 2.2.6 7.2.5 7.2.7 7.2.8

186 236 407 116 172 225 407 76 60 331 73 341 342 343


461


–O㦒Pච ⚻ –O㦒Pච ❅ –O㦒Pච ❅䞮–/❅㕌– –O㦒Pච ⳾㟧㧊– –O㦒PචG⹪⧢㠦 –O㦒Pච ⹮ⳊO㠦P –O㦒Pච 㧊㌗O㠦O⓪PP –O㦒Pච 㧒/㩗㧊㧞–/㠜– –O㦒Pච 㭚㞢–/⳾⯊– –O㦒Pච 㰖 –O㦒Pච 㺚O⪲P –O㦒Pච 䐋㠦 –O㦒Pච 䞲– –O㦒PචṖ –O㦒PචṖf –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ –O㦒Pච/⓪◆☚ –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖 –O㦒Pච✺

462

–O㦒P⋮ –O㦒P⋮ Ⱎ⋮ –O㦒P⌦ –O㦒P⌦ἶ 䞮– –O㦒P┞ –O㦒P┞₢ –O㦒P♮ –O㦒Pඥ –O㦒Pඥ Ệ –O㦒PඥỢ –O㦒Pඥ Ἆ –O㦒Pඥ Ἒ䣣 –O㦒Pඥ ⚻ –O㦒Pඥ ❅ –O㦒Pඥ ❅䞮–/❅㕌– –O㦒Pඥ ➢ –O㦒PඥⰂ 㠜– –O㦒Pඥ Ⱎ㦢 –O㦒Pඥ Ⱒ䞮– –O㦒Pඥ ⳾㟧㧊– –O㦒Pඥ ⹪㠦O⓪/㟒P –O㦒Pඥ ㄪ䞮– –O㦒Pඥ ㈦ –O㦒Pඥ ㌳ṗ –O㦒Pඥ ㎞ –O㦒Pඥ 㑮㧞–/㠜–

‘may or may not’ ‘just like’ ‘seem like’ ‘seem like’ ‘because of’ ‘on the other hand’ ‘since’; ‘unless’ ‘ever/never’ ‘think /know’ ‘since’ ‘as it is’ ‘because of’ ‘as much as’ plain style question, written form sentence ending – dubitative interrogative additional connective – background information ‘even though’ oblique questions – ‘whether’ contrastive connective – ‘even though’ contrastive connective – ‘but’ ‘whether or not’ plain style question, descriptive verbs quoted question causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ contrastive connective – ‘but’ future/prospective modifier future tense future tense ‘with the combined purpose of’ ‘plan to’ ‘may or may not’ ‘just like’ ‘seem like’ ‘when’ ‘no way that’ ‘have a mind to’ ‘worth’ ‘seem like’ ‘rather . . . than’ ‘nearly’ ‘only’ ‘thinking of’ ‘plan to’ ‘can/cannot’

7.2.10 7.2.11 7.2.12 7.2.16 7.2.18 7.2.19 7.2.23 7.2.24 7.2.26 7.2.29 7.2.30 7.2.32 7.2.33 4.3.6.2 8.3

345 345 346 348 349 350 354 355 356 358 359 361 361 183 365

6.3.10

297

m6.3.10 6.4.3 6.2.9

297 305 281

6.2.2 6.2.3 4.3.6.2 9.2.2 6.1.4 6.1.3 6.2.4 7.1.1 4.5.2.2 4.5.2.3 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.10 7.2.11 7.2.12 7.2.13 7.2.14 m7.2.4 7.2.15 7.2.16 7.2.17 7.2.20 7.2.21 m7.2.4 m7.2.4 7.2.22

274 275 181 386 266 263 276 329 206 208 340 341 345 345 346 346 347 341 348 348 348 350 351 341 341 352

–O㦒Pඥ 㡞㩫 –O㦒Pඥ 㧧㩫 –O㦒Pඥ 㩗㠦 –O㦒Pඥ 㩫☚⪲ –O㦒Pඥ 㭚㞢–/⳾⯊– –O㦒PඥỎ –O㦒Pඥ₢f –O㦒Pඥ₢ ⽊– –O㦒Pඥ₢ 㕌– –O㦒Pඥ₢ 䞮– –O㦒Pඥ⧒ –O㦒Pඥ⧓ Ⱖ⧓ O䞮–P –O㦒Pඥ⧮ –O㦒Pඥ㰖 –O㦒Pඥ㰖☚ ⳾⯊– –O㦒Pඥ㰖㠎㩫 –O㦒Pඥ㰖⧒☚ –O㦒Pඥⰳ㩫 –O㦒Pඥ㑮⪳ m–O㦒PⳊ . . . –O㦒Pඥ㑮⪳ –O㦒Pඥ䎢┞₢ –O㦒Pඥ䎢┞ –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ –O㦒P⧒ –O㦒P⧒ἶ –O㦒P⧒ἶ 䞮– –O㦒P⧮ –O㦒P⨂㠊 –O㦒P⩂ –O㦒P⩺ἶ –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮– –O㦒P⩺Ⳋ –O㦒P⩺ⶊ⋮ –O㦒P⩾Ⱎ⓪/–O㦒P⩾Ⱒ –O㦒P⪊ O㦒P⪲ O㦒P⪲ O㦒P⪲⿖䎆

‘plan to’ ‘intend to’ ‘when’ [bound noun] ‘to the extent that’ ‘think /know’ sentence ending – inferences, regrets suggestions, tentative questions ‘think it might’ ‘afraid it might’ ‘think of doing’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ ‘on the verge of’ sentence ending – ‘feel like’ oblique questions – ‘whether’ ‘might’ contrastive connective – ‘even though’ contrastive connective – ‘even though’ contrastive connective – ‘even though’ ‘the more the . . .’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ additional connective – background information sentence ending – ‘I’m afraid’ plain style command quoted command – reduced form quoted command quoted command – reduced form quotation command – reduced past tense intentive connective – ‘[go/come] to [do]’ intentive connective – ‘with the intention of’ future tense ‘if you intend to’ granting permission; orders sentence ending – ‘should, must’ granting permission; orders instrumental particle – ‘by/with/as’ instrumental particle used to derive adverbs particle of movement – ‘from’

m7.2.4 m7.2.4 m7.2.13 7.2.25 7.2.26 8.7

341 341 346 356 356 369

8.9 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 6.1.10 6.4.5 8.10 6.4.4 m6.4.4 6.2.11

370 252 253 254 272 308 373 307 307 282

6.2.10

282

6.2.12

282

6.5.9

319

6.1.5 m6.1.5 6.3.11

267 267 302

8.11 4.3.6.4 9.3.1 9.2.4 9.3.2 m9.3.2

374 184 394 388 395 395

6.7.1

322

6.7.2

323

4.5.2.4 6.5.3 8.13 8.12 8.13 3.2.5.1 10.2.1.2

209 314 376 375 376 113 406

3.2.4.6

408


463


O㦒P⪲㍲ O㦒P⪲㖾 O㦒P⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ –O㦒PⰞ –O㦒PⳆ –O㦒PⳊ –O㦒PⳊ ἶⰯỶ– –O㦒PⳊ ♮– –O㦒PⳊ 㞞 ♮– –O㦒PⳊ . . . –O㦒Pඥ㑮⪳ –O㦒PⳊ㍲ –O㦒PⳊ㍲☚ –O㦒P⸖⪲ –O㦒P㎎㣪 –O㦒P㔲– –O㦒P㔲㡺 –O㦒P㕃㔲㡺㦖/⓪ O㦖/⓪P䄺⎫ 㦚/⯒ –㦢 –㦣㔲┺ 㦮㧊/Ṗ –㧊 –㧊– –㧊 –㧊– –㧊– –㧊 –㧊Ṗ 㧊ộ O㧊P⋮ –㧊⧒⓪ 㧊⧒☚

464

O㧊P⧧ 㧊㌗ m–⓪㧊㌗O㠦O⓪PP O㧊P㟒 O㧊P㟒Ⱖἶ 㧒 m–⓪ 㧒㧊㧞–/㠜–

instrumental particle – ‘as’ instrumental particle – ‘by means of’ ‘letting/making (someone do something)’ sentence ending – promise-like futures additional connective – ‘while’ conditional connective – ‘if’ ‘would be grateful if’ ‘be enough/sufficient’ ‘not allowed’ ‘the more the’ additional connective – ‘while’ ‘even while’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ polite speech style honorific subject honorific marker formal speech style command formal speech style command (honorific) topic particle particle of extent – ‘far from’ object particle nominal form formal speech style proposal possessive particle subject particle nominal form copula adverb deriving ending passive verb deriving ending causative verb deriving ending suffix attaching to given names suffix attaching to given names subject particle ‘this thing’ – demonstrative pronoun particle of approximation/ optionality – ‘about /or/just’ ‘a . . . called . . .’ copula –O㞚/㠊P☚; ‘even’ or ‘at least’ comitative particle – ‘and/with’ ‘since’; ‘unless’ particle of focus – ‘if it’s’ particle of focus – ‘indeed’ ‘ever/never’

3.2.5.2 3.2.5.3

115 115

3.2.4.7

112

8.14

376

6.3.7 6.5.1 6.5.1.2 6.5.1.4 6.5.1.5 6.5.9 6.3.6 m6.3.6 6.1.6 4.3.3 4.4.1.1 4.3.4 4.3.4

292 309 311 312 312 319 291 291 268 172 188 173 173

3.3.2.1 3.3.3.9 3.2.2 2.2.5 4.3.4 3.2.3 3.2.1 2.2.1 4.1.4 10.2.1.2 4.6.1.1 4.6.2.1 1.3.1 m1.3.1

123 139 98 71 173 100 95 54 155 406 216 225 34 34

m2.3.2

79

3.3.5.2

142

9.4.5 m6.2.5

400 276

3.2.6.3 7.2.23 3.3.2.2 3.3.2.3 7.2.24

119 354 128 128 355

㧒㚺㧊– m–₆ 㧒㚺㧊– 㧛–

‘be apt to’ passive deriving support verb

2.2.4.7 4.6.1.2

61 222

–㧦 –㧦 –㧦ἶ –㧦ἶ 䞮– 㧦₆ 㧦₆ 㧦⍺ –㧦┞O₢P –㧦Ⱎ㧦㧦㔶㧦㼊 –㧪 Ⱖ㧊– –㧪┺

plain style proposal ‘upon doing’ quoted proposal – reduced form quoted proposal second-person pronoun reflexive pronoun second-person pronoun ‘upon telling’; ‘I told you’ additional connective – ‘as soon as’ reflexive pronoun reflexive pronoun ‘I mean’ quotation proposal – reduced plain style sentence ending – ‘you know’ quotation proposal – reduced formal style quoted proposal – reduced form quotation proposal – reduced past tense humble first-person pronoun reflexive pronoun ‘that thing over there’ – demonstrative pronoun humble plural first-person pronoun ‘event’ [bound noun] adnominal suffix ‘ever/never’ ‘before’ ‘to the extent that’ particle of extent – ‘even’ ‘run an errand’ ‘perform a favour’ ‘the way, the fact’ [bound noun] ‘middle’ [bound noun] ‘in the middle of’ ‘be in the middle of’ ‘since’ [bound noun] reflexive pronoun processive verb deriving ending ‘since’ sentence ending – tag questions descriptive verb deriving ending long negative ‘don’t have to’

4.3.6.3 m6.3.8 9.3.1 9.2.3 m2.3.1.2 m2.3.3 m2.3.1.2 9.4.1 6.3.8 m2.3.3 m2.3.3 9.4.6 m9.3.2

183 293 394 387 77 80 77 397 293 80 80 401 397

8.15 m9.3.2

377 397

9.3.2 m9.3.2

395 395

m2.3.1.1 m2.3.3 m2.3.2

76 80 79

m2.3.1.1 2.1.2.18 10.3.2.4 7.2.24 2.2.4.8 7.2.25 3.3.3.7 5.2.2 5.1.12 2.1.2.19 2.1.2.20 7.2.27 7.2.28 2.1.2.21 m2.3.3 4.6.3.1 7.2.29 8.16 10.3.2.3 4.2.2 6.2.5.2

76 51 440 355 61 356 138 247 245 51 51 357 358 52 80 232 358 379 439 165 278

–㧬㞚 –㧷┞┺ –㨂 –㨖㠊㩖㩖㩖ộ 㩖䧂㩗 –㩗㩗 m–⓪㩗㧊㧞–/㠜– 㩚 m–₆ 㩚㩫☚⪲ m–O㦒Pඥ 㩫☚⪲ 㫆㹾㭒– m–┺ 㭒– 㭒– m–O㞚/㠊P 㭒– 㭚㭧/☚㭧㭧 m–⓪ 㭧㠦㭧 m–⓪ 㭧㧊– 㰖㰖 m㩖 –㰖– 㰖 m–O㦒Pච 㰖 –㰖 –㰖– –㰖㞠– –㰖㞠㞚☚ ♮–


465


–㰖㞠㦒Ⳋ 㞞 ♮– –㰖 Ⱖ– –㰖 ⴑ䞮– –㰖⧒☚ m–O㦒Pඥ㰖⧒☚

‘have to’ negative commands and proposals long negative contrastive connective – ‘even though’ contrastive connective – ‘but’ contrastive connective – ‘even though’

6.5.1.6 4.2.3 4.2.2 6.2.10

313 167 165 282

6.2.1 6.2.11

272 282

㰳㧊㠜– m–₆ 㰳㧊㠜– 㴓㸺

‘very’ ‘side’ [bound noun] particle of approximation – ‘about’

2.2.4.9 2.1.2.22 3.3.5.1

62 52 141

㺚㺚㻮⩒ 㻯䞮– 㼊 –㿪– 䂮㤆–

m–O㞚/㠊P 䂮㤆–

‘just as it is’ [bound noun] ‘as it is’ particle of comparison – ‘like’ ‘pretend’ ‘pretend’ causative verb deriving ending ‘do rashly’

2.1.2.23 7.2.30 3.3.6.1 7.2.31 m7.2.31 4.6.2.1 5.1.13

53 359 145 360 360 225 246

m–₆O⓪P䄺⎫ mO⓪/㦖P䄺⎫

‘far from’ particle of extent – ‘far from’

2.2.4.13 3.3.3.9

65 139

causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ causal connective – ‘so’, ‘because’ additional connective – background information sentence ending – ‘I’m afraid’ ‘because of’

6.1.5 m6.1.5 6.3.11

267 267 302

8.11 7.2.32

374 361

support verb processive verb deriving ‘think of doing’ ‘must, have to’ comitative particle – ‘and/with’ direct quotation particle of movement – ‘to’ ‘as much as’ particle of movement – ‘to’ particle of movement – ‘from’ ‘after’ passive verb deriving ending causative verb deriving ending adverb deriving ending

4.1.2 4.6.3.2 5.4.3 5.7.1 3.2.6.2 9.1 3.2.4.7 7.2.33 3.2.4.4 3.2.4.5 7.2.7 4.6.1.1 4.6.2.1 10.2.1.2

153 233 254 258 118 382 112 361 109 111 342 216 225 406

–㰖Ⱒ –㰖㠎㩫 m–O㦒Pඥ㰖㠎㩫

䄺⎫ 䄺⎫

m–O㦒Pච 㺚O⪲P m–⓪ 㻯䞮– m–⓪ 㼊

䎢┞₢ m–O㦒Pඥ䎢┞₢ 䎢┞ m–O㦒Pඥ䎢┞ 䎦◆ m–O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ 䎦◆ 䐋㠦

m–O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ m–⓪/– O㦒Pච 䐋㠦

䞮– 䞮– 䞮– m–O㦒Pඥ₢ 䞮– 䞮– m–O㞚/㠊P㟒䞮–/♮– 䞮ἶ –䞮ἶ 䞮– 䞮㡂⁞ mO㦒P⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ 䞲– m–O㦒Pච/⓪ 䞲– 䞲䎢䞲䎢㍲䤚㠦 m–O㦒Pච䤚㠦 –䧞– –䧞– –䧞

466


English pattern

Korean equivalent

Section

Page

‘about’ [particle]

㸺 O㧊P⋮ –⓪/–O㦒Pච ╖⪲ –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ –O㦒Pඥ₢ 㕌– –O㦒Pච┺㦢㠦SG ⛺㠦SG 䤚㠦 –O㞚/㠊P㍲㟒 –ἶ ⋮– –┺ ⽊– –O㞚/㠊P ⏩– –O㞚/㠊P☚ –O㦒PⳊ 㞞 ♮– –₆☚ 䞮– ☚ ὒ/㢖SG 䞮ἶSG O㧊P⧧ –ἶ –ἶ㍲ –O㞚/㠊P Ṗ㰖ἶ –Ệ┞㢖 –┺OṖP 㝿 –₆ 㧒㚺㧊– ⶊ⪋ Ⱒ䋒 ❅S –❅㧊

3.3.5.1 3.3.5.2 7.2.8 8.11 5.4.2 7.2.7 6.5.8 5.3.1 5.2.1 5.1.4 6.2.5.1 6.5.1.5 2.2.4.14 3.3.3.6 3.2.6 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.9 3.3.4.2 2.2.4.7 2.1.2.14 3.3.6.3 2.1.2.10, 6.8.1 2.1.2.23 7.2.30 7.2.5 7.2.33 6.3.8 3.2.4.1

141 142 343 374 253 342 318 248 247 237 277 312 66 135 116 285 288 288 290 294 140 61 50 146 325

‘[in] accordance with’ ‘[I’m] afraid’ ‘afraid it might’ ‘after’ ‘[only] after’ ‘after finishing’ ‘after trying doing’ ‘[do] all the way’ ‘allowed to’ ‘[not] allowed to’ ‘also [is, does]’ ‘also’ [particle] ‘and’ [comitative particle] ‘and’ [additional connective]

‘and then’ ‘apiece’ [particle] ‘apt to’ ‘around the time’ ‘as . . . as’ [particle] ‘as if’ [bound noun], [comparison connective] ‘as it is’ ‘as ‘as ‘as ‘at

long as you’re at it’ much as’ soon as’ [static]’

㺚 –O㦒Pච 㺚O⪲P –O㦒Pච/⓪ ₖ㠦 –O㦒Pච/⓪ 䞲– –㧦Ⱎ㧦㠦

53 359 341 361 293 102

467


‘at [dynamic]’ background information connective ‘because’ [causal connectives]

‘[it’s] because’ ‘because of’ ‘before’ ‘bound to’ ‘but’

‘by means of’ ‘. . . called . . .’ ‘can/cannot’ ‘case’, ‘circumstance’ causative

causative [particle] ‘[with the] combined purpose of’ ‘[do] completely for regret /relief’ continuous tense -cum‘decide to’ ‘depending on’ derivational derivational derivational derivational

468

suffix: adnominal form suffix: adverbs suffix: causative verbs suffix: descriptive verbs

derivational suffix: nominal form

㠦㍲ –O㦒Pච/⓪◆ –O㦒Pඥ䎦◆ –₆ ➢ⶎ– –₆㠦 –O㞚/㠊P㍲ –㞚/㠊 –O㦒P┞₢ –O㦒P┞ –O㦒Pඥ䎢┞₢ –O㦒P⸖⪲ –₎⧮ –ⓦ⧒ἶ –▪┞ –O㦒Pඥ⧒ –O㦒Pච/⓪ ⹪⧢㠦 –O㦒Pච/⓪ 㧊㌗O㠦O⓪PP –O㦒Pච/–⓪ 䐋㠦 –Ệ✶ ➢ⶎ –₆ 㩚– –₆ Ⱎ⩾㧊– –㰖Ⱒ –O㦒P⋮ –O㦒P♮ –Ệ⓮ O㦒P⪲㖾 –㧊⧒⓪ –O㦒Pඥ 㑮㧞–/㠜– 㑮 –㧊/₆/䧞/Ⰲ/㤆/ῂ/㿪– –Ợ 䞮– –☚⪳ 䞮– 㔲䋺– O㦒P⪲ 䞮㡂⁞ –O㦒Pඥ Ἆ –O㞚/㠊P ⻚Ⰲ– –㞚/㠊㧞–S –ἶ 㧞– Ἆ –₆⪲ 䞮– –₆ ⋮⯚㧊– –₆㠦 ➆⧒ –㩗 –㧊S –䧞S –㡺/㤆S –Ợ –㧊/₆/䧞/Ⰲ/㤆/ῂ/㿪– –Ἇ–S –╋–S –ⰴ–S –㓺⩓–S –⫃–S –㰖– –㧊S –Ṳ/ỢS –₆S –㦢S –⓪ ộ.

3.2.4.3 6.3.10 6.3.11 2.2.4.2 2.2.4.19 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.1.6 6.1.7 6.1.8 6.1.9 6.1.10 7.2.18 7.2.23 7.2.32 8.2 2.1.2.12 2.2.4.8 2.2.4.3 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.4 6.2.13 3.2.5.3 9.4.5 7.2.22 2.1.2.17 4.6.2.1 4.6.2.2 4.6.2.3 4.6.2.4 3.2.4.7 7.2.3 5.1.7 4.5.3.2 2.1.2.2 2.2.4.16 2.2.4.1 2.2.4.2 10.3.2.4 10.2.1.2 4.6.2.1 10.3.2.3

107 297 302 57 70 260 263 263 266 267 268 268 270 270 272 349 354 361 364 47 61 58 272 274 276 283 115 400 352 51 225 229 231 231 112 340 240 213 46 67 56 57 440 406 225 437

2.2.1

54

derivational suffix: passive verbs derivational suffix: processive verbs

disapproval ‘don’t have to’ dubitative questions ‘during’ ‘each other’ ‘easy to’ ‘end up’ ‘even’ [particle]

‘even [is, does]’ ‘even after’ ‘even if it means’ ‘event’ ‘even though’

‘ever’ ‘every’ [particle] ‘except for’ [particle] exclamations

‘[to the] extent that’ familiar speech style ‘far from [being, doing]’ ‘far from’ [particle] [perform a] favour ‘feel like’ ‘finish [doing]’ ‘[do] for future reference’ formal speech style

‘from’ [location, object] ‘from’ [time, location] ‘from’ [human, animal]

–㧊–/–₆–/–䧞–/–Ⰲ– –㰖–

4.6.1.1 4.6.3.1

216 232

–䞮–

4.6.3.2

233

–╊ –㰖㞠㞚☚ –⋮f/–O㦒PචṖf ☯㞞㍲⪲ –₆ 㕃㌗㧊– –ἶ Ⱖ– ☚ 㫆㹾 Ⱎ㩖㧊⧒☚ –₆☚ 䞮– –ἶ☚ –O㞚/㠊P㍲⧒☚ 㩗 –O㞚/㠊P☚ –▪⧒☚ –O㦒Pච✺ –O㦒Pඥ㰖⧒☚ –O㦒Pඥ㰖㠎㩫 –O㦒Pඥⰳ㩫 –O㞚/㠊P ⽺㧦 –O㦒Pච/–⓪ 㧒/㩗㧊㧞–/㠜– Ⱎ┺ ⹬㠦 –O⓪PῆS –O⓪Pῂ⋮S –O⓪PῂⰢ/ῂⲒ –⍺ –O㦒Pඥ 㩫☚⪲ –ỢS –⍺ –₆O⓪P䄺⎫ O㦖/⓪P䄺⎫ –O㞚/㠊P 㭒– –O㦒Pඥ⧮ –O㞚/㠊P ⌊ –O㞚/㠊P ⚦– –ථ┞┺/㔋┞┺ –ථ┞₢/㔋┞₢ –O㦒P㕃㔲㡺㠦㍲ O㦒P⪲⿖䎆⿖䎆㠦Ợ㍲/䞲䎢㍲

8.6 6.2.5.2 8.3 2.1.2.8 2.3.3 2.2.4.5 5.3.2 3.3.3.6 3.3.3.7 3.3.3.8 m6.2.5 2.2.4.14 6.2.7 6.2.8 2.1.2.18 6.2.5 6.2.6 6.2.9 6.2.10 6.2.11 6.2.12 6.2.15 7.2.24 3.3.4.1 3.3.3.3 8.4

369 278 365 48 80 59 249 135 138 138 276 66 280 281 51 276 280 281 282 282 282 284 355 140 131 367

8.5 7.2.25 4.3.7 2.2.4.13 3.3.3.9 5.1.12 8.10 5.1.3 5.1.5 4.3.4

368 356 186 65 139 245 373 237 238 173

3.2.4.3 3.2.4.6 3.3.3.4 3.2.4.5

107 112 133 111


469


future tenses

‘[should be] grateful if’ ‘[would be] grateful if’ ‘have to’ ‘he’ ‘I heard’ ‘[I] heard . . . , right?’ ‘him/herself’ ‘hope’ ‘I’ ‘if’ [conditional connective]

‘[only] if’ ‘if . . . [and then]’ ‘if it’s’ [focus particle] ‘if you intend to’ ‘if you say that’ ‘in’ ‘in accordance with’ ‘in order to’ ‘in the middle of’ ‘in the middle of [doing]’ ‘[be] in the middle of’ ‘indeed [does, is]’ ‘indeed’ [focus particle] –ing mnominal form instrumental particle

intimate speech style [with the] intention of [go/come with the] intention of ‘itself’ ‘just [do something]’ ‘just’ [particle] ‘just as’ [comparison connective] ‘just as it is’ ‘know how to’

470

‘lapse [into a negative state]’

–Ỷ–S –O㦒Pඥ Ệ–S –O㦒PඥỢS –O㦒P⩺ἶ 䞮– –O㦒PⰞ –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 䞮– –O㦒PⳊ ἶⰯỶ– –㰖㞠㦒Ⳋ 㞞 ♮– –O㞚/㠊P㟒䞮–/♮– ⁎ ㌂⧢S ⁎ ⋾㧦 –┺/⧒⓪◆ –⧒Ⳋ㍲㧦₆S 㧦㔶S 㩖/㰖S ╏㔶 –₆⯒/₎ ⹪⧒– –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡– ⋮S 㩖 –O㦒PⳊ –O㞮/㠞P▪⧒Ⳋ –Ệ✶ –O㞚/㠊P㟒 –┺OṖP ⽊Ⳋ O㧊P㟒 –O㦒P⩺Ⳋ –┺Ⳋ/⧒Ⳋ 㠦 ╖⪲ –₆ 㥚䞮– 㭧/☚㭧 –⓪ 㭧/☚㭧 –⓪ 㭧㧊– –₆⓪ 䞮– O㧊P㟒Ⱖ⪲ –㧊S –Ṳ/ỢS –₆S –㦢S –⓪ ộ. O㦒P⪲ O㦒P⪲㍲ O㦒P⪲㖾 –㞚/㠊 –O㦒P⩺ἶ –ἶ㧦 –O㦒P⩂ 㧦㼊 –₆⋮ 䞮– O㧊P⋮ –┺㔲䞒㺚 –O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/–O㦒Pච 㭚㞢–/⳾⯊– –O㞚/㠊P ザ㰖–

4.5.2

203

8.14 6.5.1.3 6.5.1.2 6.5.1.6 6.5.7.1 2.3.1.3 9.4.4 9.4.3 2.3.3 2.2.4.18 6.5.1.1 2.3.1.1 6.5.1 6.5.5 6.5.6 6.5.7 6.5.4 3.3.2.2 6.5.3 6.5.2 3.2.4.1 2.1.2.5, 3.3.6.6 2.2.4.6 2.1.2.20 7.2.27 7.2.28 2.2.4.12 3.3.2.3 2.2.1

376 311 311 313 317 78 399 399 80 69 310 76 309 315 316 316 315 128 314 313 102 149 60 51 357 358 64 128 54

3.2.5.1 3.2.5.2 3.2.5.3 4.3.5 6.7.2 6.7.3 6.7.1 2.3.3 2.2.4.10 3.3.5.2 6.8.2 2.1.2.23 7.2.26

113 115 115 176 323 324 322 80 63 142 326 53 356

5.1.10

244

‘letting/making (someone do something)’ ‘like’ [particle] ‘[just] like’ ‘look like’ ‘may or may not’ ‘[I] mean’ ‘middle’ modifier endings ‘more than’ [particle] ‘[the] more the’ ‘nearly’ negatives ‘no way’ ‘no way that’ nominal form object particle oblique questions observed/perceived past tense ‘occasion’, ‘chance’ ‘of course’ ‘[place something] on’ ‘on the other hand’ ‘on the verge of’ ‘on the way to’ ongoing activity ‘away’ ongoing activity ‘towards’ ‘only [is, does]’ ‘only’ [particle] ‘[be] only’ ‘only’, ‘just’, ‘nothing but’ ‘or’ [particle] ‘or’ [optional connective] panmal [mintimate speech style] passives

past tense past-past tense ‘per’ [particle] ‘place’

O㦒P⪲ 䞮㡂⁞

3.2.4.7

112

㻮⩒ ṯ㧊 –O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/–O㦒Pච ❅ –⋮/චṖ ⽊– –O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/–O㦒Pච ⚻ –┾/〉/㧪/⧖Ⱖ㧊– 㭧/☚㭧 –O㦒PඥS –⓪S –O㦒PචS –▮ ⽊┺ –O㦒PⳊ . . . –O㦒Pඥ㑮⪳ –O㦒Pඥ ㄪ䞮– 㞞S ⴑS –㰖㞠–S –㰖 ⴑ䞮–S –㰖 Ⱖ– –₆⓪ –O㦒Pඥ Ⰲ 㠜– –㧊S –Ṳ/ỢS –₆S –㦢S –⓪ ộ. 㦚/⯒ –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖 –O㦒Pඥ㰖 –▪– ₖ –ἶ Ⱖἶ 㠦┺OṖP –O㦒Pච/⓪ ⹮ⳊO㠦P

3.3.6.1 3.3.6.2 7.2.11 5.5.1 7.2.10 9.4.6 2.1.2.20 7.1 3.3.6.4 6.5.9 7.2.20 4.2

145 145 345 255 345 401 51 328 147 319 350 164

2.2.4.11 7.2.14 2.2.1 3.2.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 4.5.1.3 2.1.2.4 8.1 3.2.4.2 7.2.19

63 347 54 98 305 307 200 47 363 106 350

–O㦒Pඥ⧓ Ⱖ⧓ O䞮–P –⓪/▮ ₎O㠦P –O㞚/㠊P Ṗ– –O㞚/㠊P 㡺– –₆☚ 䞮– Ⱒ ㈦ –O㦒Pඥ㈦㈦ O㧊P⋮ –Ệ⋮ –✶㰖 –㞚/㠊 –㧊–/–₆–/–䧞–/–Ⰲ– ♮– ╏䞮–S 㧛–S ⹱– –㞚/㠊㰖 –㞮/㠞– –㞮㠞/㠞㠞– 㝿 Ὁ

6.4.5 7.2.6 5.1.1 5.1.2 2.2.4.15 3.3.3.1 3.3.3.2 7.2.21 2.1.2.16 3.3.5.2 6.4.1 6.4.2 4.3.5 4.6.1.1 4.6.1.2 4.6.1.3 4.6.1.4 4.5.1.1 4.5.1.2 3.3.4.2 2.1.2.3

308 342 235 236 67 129 131 351 51 142 302 304 176 216 220 221 223 197 198 140 47


471


‘place’ plain speech style

‘plan to’ plural particle polite speech style possessive particle ‘pretend to’ quotations – direct quotations – indirect quotation as background information ‘[do] rashly’ ‘rather than’ ‘rather . . . than’ ‘[do and then] realize’ ‘reason’ ‘reasons’ regret relative clausesmmodifier endings ‘[do] repeatedly’ reported speech – direct reported speech – indirect ‘run an errand’ ‘. . .’s’ [mpossessive particle] ‘–s’ mplural particle ‘seem [to be]’ ‘seem like’

‘[it] seems that’ semi-formal speech style ‘she’ should, must ‘side’ ‘since’ ‘[time] . . . since’ ‘so that’ [causative connective]

472

‘start’

◆ –┺S –ච┺S –⓪┺ –O㦒P⌦S –ⓦ⌦S –┞ –O㦒PචṖ/–⓪Ṗ –㧦 –O㦒P⧒S –㞚/㠊⧒ –O㦒Pඥ Ἒ䣣 ✺ –O㞚/㠊P㣪㦮 –⓪ 㻯䞮– 䞮ἶS ⧒ἶ –┺ἶS –⌦ἶS –㧦ἶS –⧒ἶ –┺/⧒⓪◆

2.1.2.7 4.3.6

48 178

7.2.4 3.3.1 4.3.3 3.2.3 7.2.31 9.1 9.2–9.3 9.4.4

341 121 172 100 360 382 383 399

–O㞚/㠊P 䂮㤆– –ⓦ┞ –O㦒Pඥ ⹪㠦O⓪/㟒P –ἶ ⽊– ➢ⶎ Ⰲ –O㦒PඥỎ –O㦒PඥS –⓪S –O㦒PචS –▮

5.1.13 6.2.14 7.2.17 5.3.3 2.1.2.12 2.1.2.13 8.7 7.1

246 283 348 250 49 50 369 328

–O㞚/㠊P ╖– –O㞚/㠊P 㕩– 䞮ἶS ⧒ἶ –┺ἶS –⌦ἶS –㧦ἶS –⧒ἶ –┺ 㭒– 㦮 ✺ –O㞚/㠊P ⽊㧊– –Ợ ⽊㧊– –O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/–O㦒Pච ❅䞮–/❅ 㕌– –O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/– O㦒Pච ⳾㟧㧊– modifier ộ ṯ– 㡺S ㏢ ⁎ 㡂㧦 –O㦒P⩾Ⱎ⓪/–O㦒P⩾Ⱒ 㴓㰖 –O㦒Pච 㰖 –Ợ –Ợ⊪ –☚⪳ –₆ 㔲㧧䞮–

5.1.6 5.1.11 9.1 9.2–9.3 5.2.2 3.2.3 3.3.1 5.1.9 5.6.2 7.2.12

239 244 382 383 247 100 121 243 258 346

7.2.16

348

7.2.2 4.3.8 2.3.1.3 8.12 2.1.2.22 2.1.2.21 7.2.29 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 2.2.4.4

339 186 78 375 52 52 358 320 321 321 59

subject honorific particle subject honorific verb ending subject particle ‘[be] sufficient’ suggestions ‘supposed to’ tag questions ‘thanks to’ ‘the fact that’ ‘thing’ ‘thing’, ‘object’ or ‘affair’ ‘think it might’ ‘think of doing’ ‘[I] thought [but was mistaken]’ ‘to’ [location, object] ‘to’ [human, animal] ‘to’ [human] – honorific ‘[I] told you’ topic particle ‘try [doing]’ ‘turn out so that’ ‘unless’ ‘until’ ‘unusually’ [particle] ‘upon telling’ ‘very’ vocative particle ‘want to’ ‘the way’, ‘the fact’ ‘we’ ‘what with’ ‘when’ ‘whether’ moblique questions ‘whether or not’ ‘while’

‘wish’ ‘with’ [minstrumental particle] ‘worth [doing]’ ‘you’ ‘you know’ ‘you see’

℮㍲ –O㦒P㔲– 㧊/Ṗ –O㦒PⳊ ♮– –O㦒Pඥ₢f –₆⪲ ♮– –㰖 ▫⿚ modifier ộ ⹪ ộ –O㦒Pඥ₢ ⽊– –⋮/චṖ 㕌– –O㦒Pඥ₢ 䞮– –O㦒Pඥ/–⓪/–O㦒Pච 㭚㞢– /⳾⯊– 㠦㠦Ợ/䞲䎢 ℮ –⧒┞O₢P 㦖/⓪ –O㞚/㠊P ⽊– –Ợ ♮– –O㦒Pච/⓪ 㧊㌗O㠦O⓪PP ₢㰖 ➆⧒ –⧒┞O₢P –₆ 㰳㧊㠜– 㞚/㟒 –ἶ 㕌– 㭚㤆ⰂS 㩖䧂 –ⓦ⧒ἶ ➢ –O㦒Pඥ ➢ –O㦒Pච/⓪㰖 –O㦒Pඥ㰖 –O㦒P⋮ Ⱎ⋮ –O㦒PⳊ㍲ –O㦒PⳆ –⓪ ☯㞞/㌂㧊㠦 –O㞮/㠞P㦒Ⳋ 㫡– O㦒P⪲ –O㦒Pඥ Ⱒ䞮– ⍞S 㧦⍺S ╏㔶S 㧦₆ –㧬㞚 –Ệ✶

4.4.1.3 4.4.1.1 3.2.1 6.5.1.4 8.9 2.2.4.17 8.16 2.1.2.6 7.2.1 2.1.2.15 2.1.2.1 5.4.1 5.5.2 5.4.3 7.2.26

190 188 95 312 370 68 379 47 337 50 45 252 256 254 356

3.2.4.1 3.2.4.4 4.4.2.2 9.4.1 3.3.2.1 5.1.8 5.6.1 7.2.23 3.3.3.5 3.3.6.5 9.4.1 2.2.4.9 3.2.7 5.3.4 2.1.2.19 2.3.1.1 6.1.8 2.1.2.11 7.2.13 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.2.3 6.3.6 6.3.7 7.2.9 6.5.1.1 3.2.5.1 7.2.15 2.3.1.2 8.15 8.2

102 109 192 397 123 241 257 354 134 148 397 62 120 251 51 76 270 49 346 305 307 275 291 292 344 310 113 348 76 377 364


473

General index

474

adnominal form 440 adnouns 402 adverbs 405 conjunctive adverbs 413 degree adverbs 417 derived adverbs 406 manner adverbs 418 onomatopoeic/mimetic adverbs 420 proper adverbs 405 sentence adverbs 411 time adverbs 414 Altaic hypothesis 1 articles, lack of 1, 43 aspiration 29 assimilation 26 auxiliary verbs 235 bases, verb 157 bases, vowels 157 bases, consonants 157 bound/dependent nouns 45 case particles 95 comitative particles 116 instrumental particles 113 object particle 98 particles of movement and location 102 possessive particle 100 subject particle 95 vocative particle 120 causal connectives 259 causatives 224 Chinese characters 8 clausal connectives 259 additional and sequential 284 causal 259 causative 319 comparison 325 conditional 309 contrastive 272 intentive 322 optional 302 comitative particles 116

commands 171 in formal speech style 175 in plain speech style 184 in quotations 388, 394, 395 negative commands 167 use of honorifics in 196 comparison, particles of 144 complements, position of 5 compliments, responding to 156 conditional connectives 309 consonants 9 aspirated consonants 18 basic consonants 15 tensed consonants 19 consonant bases 157 continuous tense 211 continuous actions 213 continuous states 212 counters 85 demonstrative pronouns 79 dependent nouns 45 derivation adnominal forms 440 adverbs 405 causative verbs 225 descriptive verbs 437 nouns 430 passive verbs 216 processive verbs 232 descriptive verbs 150, 232 dictionary form 161 dictionary order 9 direct quotations 382 ditransitivizing 225 elliptical language 7, 78 exclamations 178, 185, 367, 368 familiar style 186 first-person pronouns 76 formal style 173 future tense 203 gender, lack of 1, 35, 44 genitive [see possessive]

‘genitive s’ interrogatives

31 5, 171, 175, 181, 365, 370 interrogative word order 5 intimate style 176 Hangul 8 dictionary order 9 letter names 9 pronunciation guide 12 hearer honorifics 170 familiar style 186 formal style 173 intimate style 176 plain style 178 polite style 172 semi-formal style 186 honorifics 170 hearer honorifics (speech styles) 170 honorific kinship terms 38 honorific nouns 193 honorific titles 35 referent honorifics 186 hoping, expression of 310 hortative [see proposals] imperatives [see commands] indirect quotations 383 chu– in quoted commands 389 quoted commands 388 quoted proposals 387 quoted questions 386 quoted statements 384 reduced indirect quotations 393 special patterns with indirect quotations 397 inferential expressions 205, 207, 243, 255, 265, 339, 346, 348, 369 infinitive form 159 instrumental particles 113 intentions, expression of 204, 322, 376 interrogatives [see questions] irregular verbs 157, 161 kinship terms 35 letter names 9 location, particles of 102 locatives [see location, particles of ] long negatives 165 mimetics 420 modifiers 328 dynamic modifier 330 future/prospective modifier 329 past prospective modifier 336 past retrospective modifier 335 retrospective modifier 333 sentence patterns with modifier clauses 336 state/result modifier 331 movement and location, particles of 102 nasal assimilation 24 negative polarity items 169

negatives 164 expressions that require negative verbs 169 long negatives 165 negative commands and proposals 167 short negatives 165 negative verbs 154 nominal forms 53 North Korea 1, 8 nouns 42 bound/dependent nouns 45 lack of articles 43 lack of gender 44 lack of number 43 number, lack of 43 numbers and counting 82 counting and naming periods of time 89 pure Korean and Sino-Korean numbers 83 sentence patterns with numbers 87 object honorifics 191 object honorific particle 192 verbs with special object honorific forms 189 object particle 98 obligation, expressing lack of 278 obligation, expression of 313, 317 oblique questions 305 one-shape verb endings 162 onomatopoeic/mimetic adverbs 420 ordinal numbers 85 palatalisation 27 panmal style [see intimate style] 176 particles 94 case particles 95 special particles 121 passives 216 past tense 196 observed or perceived past tense 200 past-past 198 simple past 197 permission, denial of 312, 352 permission, expression of 277, 352 plain style 178 plural particle 121 polite style 172 possessive particle 100 postpositions 4, 94 predicting 203, 210 prefixes 425 processive verbs 150, 232 promising 203, 208, 210, 376 pronouns 75 demonstrative pronouns 79 first-person pronouns 76 question pronouns 81 reflexives and reciprocals 80 second-person pronouns 76 third-person pronouns 78

General index

475

General index

476

pronunciation pronunciation changes aspiration assimilation between r and n assimilation of r to n h reduction n addition nasal assimilation palatalisation of t and t˅ reinforcement re-syllabification simplification of consonant clusters syllable-final consonants proposals in formal speech style in plain speech style in quotations 387, negative proposals use of honorifics in pure Korean numbers question pronouns questions dubitative questions in formal speech style in plain speech style in quotations 386, tentative questions quotations direct quotations indirect quotations quoting verbs reduced indirect quotations reciprocals referent honorifics object honorifics subject honorifics reflexive pronouns regret, expression of reinforcement reported speech [see quotations] re-syllabification Romanization script second-person pronouns Sejong, King semi-formal style sentence endings dubitative interrogatives exclamations 367, tag questions short negatives Sino-Korean numbers special particles particles of approximation and optionality particles of comparison and contrast particles of extent

12 20 29 26 26 29 28 24 27 30 23 22 20 175 183 393 167 175 83 81 365 175 181 393 370 382 382 383 390 393 80 186 191 187 80 369 30 23 8 8 76 8 186 362 365 368 379 165 83 121 141 144 129

particles of frequency particles of topic and focus plural particle speech styles [see hearer honorifics] statements in formal speech style in plain speech style in quotations 384, subject honorifics subject honorific marker subject honorific particle verbs with special subject honorific forms subject particle suffixes adnominal suffix adverb-deriving suffixes noun-deriving suffixes verb-deriving suffixes suggestions support verbs tag questions teknonymy tense and aspect continuous tense future tenses past tenses terms of address kinship terms names titles third-person pronouns titles topic particle transitivizing two-shape verb endings verbs attaching verb endings copula dictionary form ha– verbs infinitive form negative verbs processive and descriptive verbs verb bases vocative particle voicing volunteering 208, vowel bases vowels compound vowel 㦮 simple vowels W-vowels Y-vowels wishing, expression of word classes word order

140 123 121 173 179 393 187 188 190 189 95 430 440 437 430 437 370 153 379 39 196 211 203 196 32 35 33 34 78 34 123 225 162 150 161 155 161 153 159 154 150 157 120 17 210 157 12 14 12 13 13 310 2 3

[Yeon, Jaehoon; Brown, Lucien] Korean a Comprehen(Book4You)

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