Lecture Notes of College of Arts and Sciences Nueva Vizcaya State University Bayombong Campus
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Republic of the Philippines NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES Department of Languages Writing in the Disciplines Second Semester, SY 2015-2016 COURSE OUTLINE
Orientation Week 1 VMGO of the University Week 1
Academic Reading
Week 2 - 3
Academic Writing
Week 3 - 4
Paragraphs and Topic Sentences
Week 4
The Principles of Unity
Week 5
The Principles of Coherence
Week 5
The Principles of Emphasis
Week 6
Planning your Paragraph
Week 6
FIRST TERM EXAMINATIONS
Week 7 – 7 – 8 8
Writing an Essay
Week 8 - 9
Writing a Reaction Paper
Week 9 - 18
Writing a Research Paper
Week 12
SECOND TERM EXAMINATIONS
Week 18
FINAL EXAMINATIONS
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LESSON I ACADEMIC READING
Think of reading as a “treasure hunt”: an active search rather than an attempt to soak up and absorb everything you come across.’ Peter Levin Write Great Essays! (2004. Essays! (2004. p2)
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At the University you will be expected to do a good deal of reading. You will have extensive reading lists which can seem quite intimidating. This is why it is is important to develop an effective reading strategy. A key element of such a strategy is to develop an active reading approach. 1. Active reading
When reading for academic purposes it is useful u seful to ask yourself the following questions:
Why am I reading this?
Do I need to read it all?
Where should I start?
Which parts will be most useful?
How can this text help me?
These questions should help you to start to engage with the material from the outset and become a more focused reader.
2. Different ways of reading
The way we read depends on the material material we are reading and our purpose for reading it. Some of the different approaches to reading include:
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2.1 Skimming – reading to form a general impression of the text. You do not try to read every
word or in too much depth or detail. You can skim the introduction and conclusion to a book, or the opening and closing paragraph to a chapter or article. You can quickly skim through the content page, index or chapter sub-headings. The main purpose when skimming is to get the gist.
2.2 Scanning – looking for a particular piece of information. When you scan you ignore all the
other information and focus on finding what you want. We scan when using a telephone directory. When we scan for information we usually know what we are looking for.
2.3 Critical reading – close and detailed reading of a text. When you read critically you need to
continually analyse, question and evaluate what you are reading. Some useful questions include asking yourself:
What is the main argument?
What evidence does the author use to support and develop this argument?
Is the evidence valid? (Is it up to date/relevant/biased?)
Is the author’s argument similar or different to others you have read?
How does the author’s argument develop this particular area o f study?
Do you agree with the author? (Why? Why not?)
How can you use this information? (E.G. in an essay/report/presentation)
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3. SQ3R
A useful reading strategy to use is known as SQ3R. This stands for Survey, Question, R ead, R ecall, R eview.
3.1 Survey – Quickly skim through the text. This should give you a general idea of what the text
is about and help you to decide whether it is of any use to you.
3.2 Question – Can this text help me? Does it give me any useful information that I can use?
Which part of the assignment can it help me with? Asking qu estions will help you to stay focused on your subject.
If after the first two steps you feel the text is of no use to you move on to another text. If the text is useful to you continue using SQ3R.
3.3 Read – Make a more careful and detailed reading of the text. Still try to remain focused on
your reason for reading this text. Read through the text and make notes of any key/significant points. Use the critical reading questions listed above.
3.4 Recall – Put the text and your notes to one side and try to recall the information you h ave read.
Make a note of any points you are still uncertain about.
3.5 Review – Re-read the text to check your understanding and seek clarification of the points you
were uncertain about.
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SQ3R may seem to make reading a time consuming process. However, with practice this will improve. The most important point about a reading strategy like SQ3R is that it will help you to become a more active reader. It allows you to engage with a text in a way that is meaningful and beneficial to you.
Activity: Read the following text and answer the questions that follow: PORPHYRIA’S LOVER By Robert Browning
So, she was come through wind and rain. Be sure I looked up at her eyes Happy and proud; at last I knew Porphyria worshipped me; surprise Made my heart swell, and still it grew While I debated what to do. That moment she was mine, mine, fair, Perfectly pure and good: I found A thing to do, and all her hair In one long yellow string I wound Three times her little throat around, And strangled her. No pain felt she; I am quite sure she felt no pain. As a shut bud that holds a bee, I warily oped her lids: again Laughed the blue eyes without a stain. And I untightened next the tress About her neck; her cheek once more Blushed bright beneath my burning kiss: I propped her head up as before, Only, this time my shoulder bore Her head, which droops upon it still: The smiling rosy little head, So glad it has its utmost will, That all it scorned at once is fled, And I, its love, am gained instead! Porphyria's love: she guessed not how Her darling one wish would be heard. And thus we sit together now, And all night long we have not stirred, And yet God has not said a word! 6
Illustrate the setting of the story. 2. Describe the mood and tone of the story. 3. Describe the mental and emotional state of the speaker. 4. What could be the possible relationship between the speaker and Porphyria? Identify the lines that made you make that idea. 5. What could possibly make the speaker do what he did? 6. Why did the speaker kiss Porphyria? Identify lines that prove your point. 7. What did the speaker feel after doing the deed? Identify lines that prove your point. 1.
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LESSON II ACADEMIC WRITING
Activity:
A. The class will be divided into groups and each group will be asked to answer the following: 1. What is the text about?What kind of text is it?Who is the writer? 2. What do the four texts have in common? In what way are they similar? How do they differ? 3. Which text gives the least information? The most information?
B. Make a news article about the incident. Choose a reporter to read the news. Text 1
Death occurred from the effect of asphyxia, cerebral anemia and shock. The victim’s hair was used for the constricting ligature. Local marks of the ligature were rapidly discernible; there was some abrasion and a slight ecchymosis in the skin. But I found no obvious lesions in the blood vessels of the neck. Cyanosis of the head was very slight, and there were no pronounced hemorrhages in the galea of the scalp. I should judge that very great compression were effected almost immediately, with compression of the arteries as well as of the veins, and that the superior laryngeal nerve was traumatized with the effect of throwing the victim into profound shock. The lungs revealed cyanosis, congestion, over-aeration, and subpleural petechial hemorrhages.
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Text 2
State of California Orange County TWENTY FIRST JUDICIAL DISTRICT COURT
THE GRAND JURORS of the State of California duly impaneled and sworn, in and for Orange County in the name and b y the authority of the said State upon their oath, find and present: THAT ONE John Doe, late of Orange County, on the 23rd day of January in the year of Our Lord One thousand nine hundred and twenty four with force and arms, In Orange County, afford, and within jurisdiction of the twenty first Judicial District Court of California, did unlawfully, feloniously, with malice aforethought kill and slay one Porphyria Blank by strangulation. Contrary to the form and statutes of the State of California, in cases made and provided and against the peace and dignity of the same.
District Attorney for the 21st Judicial District of California
Text 3
The dead girl, beautiful and peaceful in death, her scarlet lips slightly parted as though whispering caress to her lover, her blue eyes gentle and unquestioning as a baby, lay in the murderers arms like a child who has been rocked to sleep. Her golden hair falling in profusion about her shoulders all but concealed the cruel welt of red about her throat. The murderer, clutching
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his precious burder to him, like a mother holding an infant, appeared dazed. As the police came in, he rose to meet them, still carrying his precious burden in his arms. The officer almost had to force him to reliquish her. He could not answer questions – could merely clutch her closer to his breast all that remained of the girl he loved better than life, and mutter, “I love her, I love her,” like a man in a dream. A few hours later when I saw him in the sordid surroundings of the 10th Precint Station House, so different from the cozy cottage which had been abode of a tragic love, he was till dry-eyed, though his face wore a ghastly pallor. But when I tried to question him, I became aware of the terrific strain under which he suffered and he showed all the signs of a man on the verge of hysteria. When I tried to draw from him the motive of the pitiful tragedy, he could only reply, his pale boyish face a mask: “I killed her; but God never said a word, a word.” At last he managed pitifully to say, “I killed her so that she would be mine alone for always!” And this is the irony of fate! Separated as the y were by wealth, social position, and all that it implies, it was only in death that they could be united. Who are we to pass judgement on such a love?
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Library or Internet Activity:
Using the table below, define the given academic genres, their use/s and the one who makes use of them. Activity sheet: ACADEMIC GENRES
Names: (Write your names alphabetically) 1. ____________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________ 4. ____________________________________________ 5. ____________________________________________ 6. ____________________________________________ 7. ____________________________________________ Academic Genre
Definition
Use/s
Course/Section: _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ User
Essay
Response papers
Journals
Position papers
Reviews
Laboratory reports
Research reports
Field observations
Proposal papers
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LESSON III PARAGRAPHS AND TOPIC SENTENCES
Well-written sentences are not enough to make your writing clear and understandable. Sentences must be further organized into meaningful units of thought. After sentences, the most basic unit of thought in writing is the paragraph. The indention of the first sentence of a paragraph tells the reader that a new unit of thought follows. Understanding Topic Sentences and Support
A paragraph develops one main idea, which is usually stated in a sentence called the topic sentence. Every other sentence, every fact, example, example, and detail, should support the topic sentence. TOPIC SENTENCES
A good topic sentence captures the general idea of the paragraph better than any other sentence. The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. The topic sentence is usually found at the beginning of a paragraph, where it gives a preview of and direction to the sentences that come after it, as in the following example. Notice that all of the other sentences in the paragraph support the main idea with facts. Example: Controlling the entry of foreign pests is the job of the United States Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, nicknamed APHIS . Some 700 APHIS inspectors work around the clock at 100 ports of entry. In a year’s time, they inspect some sixty four million pieces of baggage carried by air travelers from foreign countries. They also meet 62,000 shipd and inspect roughly five million pieces of seagoing baggage. 12
On the Mexican border, they check more than forty-five million automobiles annually and about 100,000 railroad cars. They also screen some sixty million pieces of mail and examine about four million cargo shipments.
Sometimes, however, the topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph, where it draws a conclusion or functions as a summary. In the following paragraph, the topic sentence, which is at the end, states the conclusion of the preceding ideas and adds a finishing touch. Example: Smoke curled from under the eaves and rose from the roof. Frames shooting from the window arched upward toward the sky. Some of the floors and interior walls thundered downward, spraying sparks and glowing cinders through lower doors and windows. The building could not be saved.
SUPPORT
Supporting information is specific information that helps a reader understand the topic sentence. Whenever you write a paragraph, you must always be sure that there is enough supporting information to develop the topic sentence completely. There are several different kinds of supporting information from which you can choose – examples, details, facts, reasons, and incidents. Frequently a paragraph will use a combination of these different kinds of supporting information. Examples. Because topic sentences usually are rather general statements, they need to be
supported with specific examples. An example is a specific instance of a general idea or
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principle. In some cases, a topic sentence will need only two or three examples; others may need four or more examples to be developed thoroughly. In the following paragraph, examples are used to develop the topic sentence. Notice that each of the examples helps to explain the main idea. Also notice that the last sentence acts as a summary for the paragraph. The German shepherd, a breed of dog that originated in northern Europe, performs many services for people. Once used mainly for herding sheep, German shepherds today help police in tracking and capturing criminals. In addition, these dogs often function as guards in stores, factories, and private houses. As seeing-eye dogs, German shepherds have earned respect for their keen, careful guiding of the blind. Intelligent and versatile, German shepherds remain a popular, useful breed of dog.
Details. In paragraphs that describe a place, person, or action, much of the supporting
information will probably be made up of details. Details are pieces of information that h elp a reader visualize and understand what the writer is describing. In storytelling and descriptive writing, especially, details place the readers in the scene. In the following paragraph, details are used to h elp the reader see what the character sees. Curious to know what this Cutter Gap looked like, I slid out of the bed and hobbled stiffly over to one of the windows. Nothing had prepared me for what met my eyes. Mountain ranges were folded one behind the other, in the foreground snow-covered; behind that, patches of emerald green showing through; on beyond, deeper green. Then the blues began. On the smoky blue of the far summits fluffy white clouds rested like wisps of cotton. I counted the mountain ranges, eleven of them rising up and up toward the vault of sky. The
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Great Smokies... now I understood. That peculiar smoky-blue color and the adjective ‘great’ – so right for these towering height.
Reasons. When a topic sentence presents an opinion that another person might challenge
or question, it will generally be supported with reasons. If the writer fails to support a controversial statement with evidence or reasons, a reader may disregard the opinion. The topic sentence of the following paragraph expresses the writer’s preference for swimming in the lake. The supporting information offers three reasons to help the reader understand and perhaps convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view. Notice that the final sentence wraps up the writer’s reasons. I prefer swimming in a mountain lake to swimming in a pool . The crisp mountain air around a lake invigorates and pleases me. I like a lake’s underwater life, such as minnows and trout, and I enjoy observing the plant life around m e. Most important, a lake usually has no chemicals, such as chlorine, that can smell bad and burn my eyes. Lake water is clean, natural, and more refreshing for swimming.
Activity:
Form five-seven members per group and using a topic from the following list, write a topic sentence. Then make a list of three-five (3-5) of supporting information. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Buying clothes Computer games New technologies Famous television shows Best hobbies
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LESSON IV THE PRINCIPLES OF UNITY
Unity means consistency or oneness. Unity is achieved if all the elements of a sentence are consistent, united or one. Unity is achieved if all the elements of a sentence are consistent.
Consistency of Tense
1. The verb in the adverbial clause generally agrees with the tense of the verb in the main clause. Incorrect: Undot ran to the door to open it when he sees us coming. Correct: Undot ran to the door to open it when he saw us coming. 2. The verb in an adjective clause need not agree in tense with the verb in the main clause in as much as the actions are not necessarily related in time of occurrence. Incorrect: Puyang, who is my classmate in English 2 last summer, is planning to go to the United States. Correct: Puyang, who was my classmate in English 2 last summer, is planning to go to the United States. 3. The verb in a noun clause is generally in the past tense if the verb in the main clause is in the past tense. The verb remains in the present tenses if the idea expressed in the no un clause is a universal truth or a relatively permanent condition. Example: Jose Rizal is our National Hero.
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4. In general, the tense form that will indicate the time of the action one wishes to express must be used. Example: Because Valen finished reviewing her lessons, she can watch her favorite show. Consistency of Voice
Consistency of voice may be maintained by using the same voice throughout the sentence. Example:
Active The President of the Philippines vetoed the bill. Passive The bill was vetoed by the President of the Philippines.
Consistency of Subject
Subject refers to the part of a sentence that is spoken of. Consistency of subject ma y be maintained by avoiding necessary shifts of subjects in a sentence. 1. Make the subject of the first verb the subject of the second 2. Recast the sentence to provide subjects that are parallel in idea Inconsistent: Susan was born in Hawaii, but the Philippines is the place where she grew up. Consistent: Susan was born in Hawaii, but she grew up in the Philippines. Inconsistent: The hikers hurried on and soon the campsite was in view. Consistent: The hikers hurried on and soon the y saw the campsite. Consistency of number and person
Be sure that the pronoun agrees in person and number with its antecedent.
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Inconsistent: Everybody rehearsed their part in the play. Consistent: Everybody rehearsed his or her part in the play. Consistency of Tone
Tone means style or manner of expression. Tone may be formal, informal, conversational, humorous, witty, ironical, or sad. Choose the tone appropriate to your purpose and maintain it throughout the sentence. If the tone is formal, do not include colloquialisms or slang expression. Example: The lady’s circle held a shindig in honor of the President. Consistency of Ideas
Maintain consistency of ideas by: 1. Excluding loosely related or irrelevant ideas from the sentence; 2. Avoiding run-on sentences, or too many details which tend to clutter or jumble the sentence; and 3. Using the proper connective to relate the ideas expressed in the sentence. Example: Joanne, the first summa cum laude of this university and at the same time a lover of nature, received a cash award. Consistency of Language
Use the same language throughout the sentence. Avoid the use of foreign terms or phrases which have not been incorporated into the language. If no word can effectively express the meaning of the foreign term, use the foreign term but enclose it in quotation marks or underline it to show italics. Example: Jomar is sacristan mayor.
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Activity:
Before each item, write the kind of inconsistency shown in each of the sentences. Then, rewrite the following sentence to establish sentence unity. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Name: ___________________________________ Date: ___________________________ __________________________1. One has developed their sense of humor if he can laugh at their mistakes.
__________________________2. If Bokyo had been more careful in driving, he will not have met an accident.
__________________________3. Everyone in the class knows how to dance the carinosa.
__________________________4. You should review your lessons because the teacher will give us a test tomorrow.
__________________________5. Dishonest politicians allotted much allowance for themselves and much money spent for the candidacy.
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LESSON IV THE PRINCIPLES OF COHERENCE
Coherence is the quality of sticking together. The sentence elements are so arranged as to show their relationships. Clarity in the sentence depends largely on proper word order. ORDER OF SENTENCE PARTS Order of Adjectives
Opinion-size-shape-condition-age-color-pattern-origin-material-purpose-noun E.g. Ugly small thin dirty old red striped Italian cotton sleeping bag Beautiful long white French silk wedding dress Large broken ancient Greek clay flower vase A. Position of Modifiers in the Sentence 1. One-word modifiers of nouns are placed before the nouns e.g. The young witness took his oath. 2. Phrase and clause modifiers of nouns are placed immediately after the word they modify. e.g. Children, yawning and rubbing their eyes, returned his stare. 3. Phrase modifiers may be placed at the beginning of the sentence provided that the noun/pronoun that follows as the subject is the word modified. e.g. Viewed from outside, the house seemed spacious. 4. Modifiers of verbs may be placed after the verb or after the object complement, if any. e. g.
I still love you. He is extremely careful.
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5. Adverbs of time, manner, and place are placed before the subject if the verb or objects has other modifiers. e.g. Yesterday, I saw the girl who was chose “Miss Universe”. 6. Two phrases or clauses which are parallel in form and modify the same word must both be placed either before or after the word they modify. e.g. Having gone to Europe and having seen how other countries enjoyed freedom, Jose Rizal dreamed of a free Philippines. 7. Only, enough, just may be used as adjectives/adverbs. When used as adjectives, they are placed before the nouns they modify. e.g. Only Jane attended the meeting. 8. When only is used as an adverb it may be placed after the word it modifies. e.g. He came only to inform you of his proposed project. 9. When enough is used as an adverb, it is placed after the word it modifies, followed by an infinitive. e.g. Clarissa was brave enough to tell the truth. B. Dangling Constructions Dangling constructions are present in sentences where modifiers are placed wrongly near words they do not modify or when modifiers are placed without words to describe. In such cases, the sentences are said to “dangle”, “hang’ or swing. Dangling Verbals Participial Phrase:
Dangling:
The lady’s gown glitters, looking at a distance.
Improved:
The lady’s gown glitters as I look at it from a distance.
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Infinitive Phrase:
Dangling:
To succeed in class, constant review was made.
Improved:
To succeed in class, my classmate reviewed constantly.
Gerund Phrase:
Dangling:
For winning the race, a gold medal award was given to Mikee.
Improved:
For winning the race, Mikee was given a gold medal award.
C. Word Order in Direct and Indirect Discourse 1. Direct discourse expressed as a statement should be introduced b y the pronoun that in in indirect discourse. DD: My little boy proudly declared, “The whole is equal to the sum of its parts.” ID: My little boy proudly declared that the whole equal to the sum of its parts. 2. A question answerable by yes or no should be introduced if or whether in indirect discourse. DD: The teacher asked ,”Have you read the works of Dylan Thomas?” ID: The asked me if I had read the works of Dylan Thomas. 3.
A question not answerable by yes or no should be introduced in indirect discourse by whatever word. DD: I asked, “Why are you smiling Yumina?” ID. I asked Yumina why she was crying. c rying.
4. A command or request must be changed chan ged into an infinitive into an indirect discourse. DD: My sister asked, “Please close the door.” ID: My sister asked me to close the door.
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COORDINATION AND PARALLELISM 1. Express parallel elements in the same grammatical form. e.g.
Incorrect:
Roger loves to to swim and hiking.
Correct:
Roger loves swimming and hiking.
2. This parallelism is acceptable when it avoids artificiality. e.g.
Correct:
The soldier walked slowly and with a limp.
3. Sentence elements following correlative conjunctions should have parallel structure. e.g.
Correct:
Justice is for both the rich and the poor.
Activity:
Write C if the statement is COHERENT and correct the sentence if it is not. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Name: _________________________________________ ________________________ _________________ Score: ______________________ _________1. She forgot almost her date. _________2. Melita prepared only the ingredients. _________3. The lawyer intelligent asked questions. _________4. I always have loved you. _________5. After reviewing the paragraph, it was revised. _________6. After giving the test, the students reviewed the items. _________7. Raul is a man who is brilliant and integrity. _________8. Little children want to be loved and noticed. _________9. Mr. Gomez is strict and who is incorruptible. _________10. The Gomez’s are thrifty, honest and they are hardworking.
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LESSON V THE PRINCIPLES OF EMPHASIS
Emphasis enables a writer to stress or underscore a part of a sentence that is considered most important or more important than the other elements. PROPER SUBORDINATION FOR EMPHASIS Techniques of emphasis are simply techniques of subordination turned backwards – backwards – to subordinate an idea is to emphasize another. Make important ideas stand out by putting them in independent clauses. e.g. A child is required to finish the tasks assigned him, and he learns to be trustworthy. Emphatic: A child who is required to finish the tasks assigned him learns to be trustworthy.
When a child is required to finish the tasks assigned him, he learns to be trustworthy. Required to finish the tasks assigned him, a child learns to be trustworthy. THE PERIODIC SENTENCES FOR EMPHASIS Sentences can be classified, according to the arrangement of their divisions of thought, as loose, periodic, or balanced. A loose sentence expresses its main idea first and leaves the modifiers and secondary elements for last. A periodic sentence turns this statement around. It starts with modifiers and secondary elements and serves its main statement for the end. Though loose sentences are natural and effective, they are subject to the ambiguity caused by misplaced modifiers. Although they often fail to show exact logical relationships and, if over-used, become monotonous. e.g.
Loose:
You may find a total stranger in your bedroom, sometimes as early as six 24
in the morning. You are a politician’s wife, more likely than not, if you often find yourself in this situation. Periodic:
Sometimes, as early as six in the morning, you may find a total stranger in your bedroom. If you often find yourself in this situation, you are, more likely than not, a politician’s wife.
MODIFIERS FOR EMPHASIS The accuracy, clarity and emphasis of sentences can be greatly enhanced by the judicious addition of modifiers. However, modifiers piled one top of another are enemies of emphasis; therefore, prune your sentences of excess modifiers. The following a re different ways of achieving emphasis by the use of modifiers: 1. Do not use excess modifiers. e.g.
Weak:
The Filipino cheerfully, instantly and generously helps relatives in need.
Emphatic:
The Filipino cheerfully helps relatives in need.
2. Do not omit modifiers that best convey the meani ng intended. e.g.
Weak:
Family centeredness could be a flaw.
Emphatic:
Extreme family centeredness could be a serious flaw.
3. Add modifiers to improve the accuracy, clarity and emphasis of sentences. e.g.
Weak:
Many times, the Filipino considers that which will benefit his family.
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Emphatic:
Many times, the Filipino considers only that which will benefit his family.
CONCISENESS FOR EMPHASIS A sentence should be contructed as simply and as economically as the thought requires or allows. Complicated and wordy sentences are frequently caused by unnecessary words or phrases. The more concise expression, without sacrificing accuracy, is mo re emphatic. e.g.
Weak:
As an employee, he is very efficient.
Emphatic:
He is a very efficient employee
Activity:
Rewrite the sentences in order to give it more emp hasis. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Name: _________________________________________ Course/Section: _______________ 1. The family is the world’s oldest and toughest institution. It ensures the continuity of social order and transmits cultural values.
2. The family has a great capacity to emphatize with others and is helpful and generous in times of need.
3. He starts projects with full vigor and interest and then abandons them.
4. In order to cope with problems, they seek advice from older people.
5. Without any intention, they sometimes commit mistakes.
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LESSON VI PLANNING YOUR PARAGRAPH
There are certain steps you can follow that can help you plan a paragraph. A. PRE-WRITING The first step in planning a paragraph is finding a topic that is the right size to be covered in a paragraph. The second step involves deciding what you want to say about this topic. The final step is the actual writing of a good topic sentence.
Generating ideas and Choosing a topic
You can find ideas for paragraph topics by examining your interests and experiences. You can use methods such as interviewing yourself, free writing, journal writing, reading and saving, clustering, cueing, and brainstorming to find ideas for topics. Narrowing a topic
You will usually narrow a general topic down into a paragraph topic by thinking of all the subcategories of the general topic.
F in d a sui table paragr aph topic by dividi ng a general topi c in to small er topics.
Dividing a general topic into smaller topics General topic Smaller topics Skateboards Skateboard as a hobby Dangers of skateboarding Best models of skateboards Riding skateboards
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Focusing on a main idea
After you have a suitable paragraph topic, you must focus on the main idea. To do this, think about the people to whom you are writing (that is, your audience). You should also focus on your purpose in writing.
Questions to leading to possible main topics Paragraph topic: Skateboards as a hobby Questions Possible main ideas Why might my audience be interested in the Skateboards were a major trend last year. topic? What might my audience want to learn about A number of amusing things happened my topic? because of the trend. What is the most important thing to tell them Skateboarding is fun but is a waste of time. about the topic? Writing your topic sentence
Once you have selected a main idea that suits both your audience and the purpose you have in mind, you should be ready for your next planning step: writing the topic sentence.
State your main idea in a topic sentence that suits your audience and purpose.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Possible completed topic sentences By far the biggest trend at our school most of last year was skateboarding A skateboard trend swept our school last year During the summer, skateboarding was very popular at our school but interest slackened during the start of the semester Many students at our school had skateboards last year.
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Activity:
Complete the table by writing the following: Criteria for scoring
Content Grammar and Mechanics Organization Total
10 2 3 15 points
Generating a topic. Write a topic that truly interests you. Narrowing a topic. Divide the general topic into smaller topics General topic Smaller topics
Focusing on a main idea. Give possible main ideas to the given questions. Questions Possible main ideas Why might my audience be interested in the topic? What might my audience want to learn about my topic? What is the most important thing to tell them about the topic? Writing your topic sentence. Develop your topic sentence from your main ideas. Possible completed topic sentence
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Brainstorming for support
After you have written your topic sentence, the nex t step in writing a paragraph is gathering enough supporting information to fully explain your main idea. Brainstorm for examples, details, facts, reasons, or incidents that explain your ropic sentence. Questioning to find support for a topic sentence Topic sentence: A skateboard trend swept our school last year Why was it a trend? ____ everyone talked about it ____ students were left out if they didn’t have a skateboard ____ six out of ten students had a skateboard ____ after six months people were bored with them ____ skateboards are easy to maintain What happened when the trend swept the school? ____ skateboard competitions were held on the sidewalks ____ new skateboard clubs started ____ cheerleaders did routines on skateboard games ____ a few students skateboarded while listening to radios
Organizing your support
After you have written a topic sentence and listed supporting information, organize your support for the reader. Eliminate unrelated supporting information. Questioning to find support for a topic sentence Topic sentence: A skateboard trend swept our school last year Why was it a trend? ____ everyone talked about it ____ students were left out if they didn’t have a skateboard ____ six out of ten students had a skateboard ____ after six months people were bored with them _X_ skateboards are easy to maintain What happened when the trend swept the school? ____ skateboard competitions were held on the sidewalks ____ new skateboard clubs started ____ cheerleaders did routines on skateboard games _X_ a few students skateboarded while listening to radios
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Ordering and outlining your supporting information
You should next decide how to present the supporting information so that you will be clear to your readers. Choose the best order to support and outline your paragraph using that order.
The final step in planning a paragraph is preparing an outline. Begin by putting your topic sentence at the top of the page. Then using the order you have chosen, set up your supporting information in a modified outline. Add a concluding sentence to the outline if you think one would be helpful. Topic sentence A skateboard trend swept our school last year Supporting sentences 1. Skateboards suddenly appeared during the summer 2. Students felt left out if they didn’t have a skateboard 3. Seven out of ten students purchased a skateboard during the summer 4. Cheerleaders used them in routines at games 5. Clubs formed during the semester 6. Competitions were organized 7. Everyone got tired of skateboards during the first semester Concluding Sentence Finally, like all true crazes, skateboard disappeared from school life almost as quickly as they had disappeared.
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Activity:
Select one of the general topics listed below. Then follow the steps in writing a topic sentence, find support and to create a good outline. Criteria for scoring
Content Organization Total 1. 2. 3. 4.
8 7 15 points
Your favorite food A career that interests you The funniest movie you ever saw The first day of school
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LESSON VII WRITING AN ESSAY
An essay is composed of a group of related paragraphs that work together to present one main point. Once you understand the basic structure of an essay, you can adapt the form to fit different topics and assignments. The Parts of an essay
An essay has three parts: (1) an introduction, which presents the main point of the essay; (2) the body, which consists of two or more paragraphs that support or explain the essay’s main point; and (3) a conclusion, which summarizes the main point and brings the essay to a close.
Opening remarks (Thesis statement) Supporting paragraph 1 Supporting paragraph 2 Supporting paragraph 3 Closing Remarks (Reminder of the thesis statement)
The thesis statement: It is the idea explained and supported in the essay
The Introduction
The introduction is a vital part of an essay. It indicates the purpose of an essay, telling whether the essay will be expository or persuasive. The most significant function of an introduction, however, is to present the thesis statement.
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The introduction indicates the essay’s purpose and presents the main point in a thesis statement.
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) has recently outlawed factory ships, but whaled remain in danger of extinction. Whales will survive only if the IWC declares a worldwide moratorium on hunting whales and if pirate whalers are stopped.
In addition to presenting the main point, the thesis statement can also break down the main point into smaller points, which are called subtopics.
Thesis statement Children should not be encouraged to believe in Santa Claus because Santa fosters commercialism and selfishness.
Examination of thesis statements Purpose To persuade
Stated subtopics 1. Commercialism 2. Selfishness
The Body
Each paragraph in the body should support the thesis statement with examples, details, facts, reasons, or incidents. The supporting information should be organized by means of subtopics. The body of an essay develops the thesis statement, treating one subtopic at a time. Orders for subtopics in the body of an essay Orders Sample topics Chronological (Subtopics arranged in a time How to clean a fish tank sequence) Spatial (Subtopics arranged by location or Some places to visit in Nueva Vizcaya position) Order of importance (Subtopics arranged The need to tighten security at NVSU from least important to most important or vice versa) Developmental (Subtopics of equal emphasis Three of the best sites for photography in arranged logically) Nueva Vizcaya
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The Conclusion
The conclusion is usually a short, separate paragraph at the end of the essay. It generally begins with a reminder of the thesis statement. The conclusion should leave the reader feeling that the topic has been covered thoroughly. The conclusion refers back to the thesis statement and brings the essay to a close.
Only by ending all hunting of whales can whales be preserved. If the killing of whales continues unchecked, the noble animals described in Melville’s Moby Dick will soon become as legendary as Moby Dick himself.
Activity:
Write an essay about the topic to be given by your teacher. Criteria for scoring
Content Focus Conventions Organization Style Total
10 5 5 5 5 30 points
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LESSON VIII WRITING A REACTION PAPER
Writing good response papers is more demanding than it might appear at first. It is not simply a matter of reading the text, understanding it, and ex pressing an opinion about it. You must allow yourself enough time to be clear about what each text says and how t he texts all relate to one another. In other words, response papers require you to synthesize the intellectual work of others — that is, bring it together into an integrated whole. In preparing to write response papers, therefore, it is crucial that you allow yourself not just enough time to do the readings but enough to digest what you have read and to put the results together into a unified account. Questions to Ask Consider texts individually:
What is the main problem or issue that the author/film is addressing?
What is the author/films’s central claim, argument, or point?
What assumptions does the author/film make?
What evidence does the author/film present?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the text/movie?
What are possible counterarguments to the text /film’s claims?
Why are the problem(s) and the argument(s) interesting or important? Consider
texts/scenes collectively: How do they relate to one another? Do the you agree? Disagree? Address different aspects
of an issue? Formulate a problem in different ways?
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Actions to Take
Explain the key terms, main arguments, and assumptions of each text. Do your best to
characterize each text/scenes’ arguments fairly and accurately. Evaluate the evidence that each text/scene presents: point out strengths and weaknesses,
both internal to the text and in relation to the others. For example, if one text/scene makes an argument based on an assumption that another text either confirms or refutes, then you can use the latter text to evaluate the plausibility of the claim made by the former. Explain how the texts/scenes relate to and “speak” to one another. Synthesize them if you
can, and if you cannot, explain what the barriers preventing such a synthesis are. Consider both sides of issues at stake. If all the texts/scenes are on one side of an issue,
consider the other side. If the texts/scenes fall on both sides of an issue, consider where agreements and disagreements lie and what each side’s strengths and weaknesses are. Include your own voice by weighing arguments, evaluating evidence, and raising critical
questions. If there seems to be something important that none of the authors addresses, point it out and state what you think its significance is. Try to be as specific as possible. Be careful to do all parts of the assignment. Accord each text the weight it deserves.
Don’t forget to synthesize your account by showing how the texts relate to one another. The authors are in a figurative, if not literal, “conversation” with one another, and you must be able to recognize and explain what is going on in that conversation. Keep an eye out for authors/films’ omissions, and raise counterarguments when you
detect authors/filmmakers’ arguments are weak.
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Activity:
Write a reaction paper about the movie to be shown by your teacher. Criteria for scoring
Content Purpose Use of Reference Conventions Total
10 8 7 5 30 points
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LESSON IX WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER
Research is key to progress. It is believed that there can be no progress without research. Almost everything including technologies enjoyed today is a product of research. In government, in education, in trade and commerce, and in all types and kinds of industries, research is vital and essential to development. The Meaning of Research
The word research is derived from the prefix re- which means repeat or redo, and the root word search, which means to find or look for. From the etymology of the word, research literally means to repeatedly look for something which had been in existence before. Other Definitions of Research
It is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among phenomena. Research is simply the systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic or problem. (Aquino, 1986) Research is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. (Treece and Treece) The Purposes of Research
1. To discover new facts about a phenomena; 2. To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and information; 3. To discover previously unrecognized substances and elements; 4. To provide basis for decision making in business, industry, education, government, and other undertakings; 39
5. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity; 6. To find answers to queries by means of scientific method; 7. To acquire a deeper and better understanding about a phenomenon; 8. To verify or expand existing knowledge; 9. To improve the educational practices for raising quality of school produ cts; 10. To promote health and prolong life which is evident in nutritional, pharmaceutical, and medical researches; and 11. To make work, communication, and travel faster, easier and more comfortable. Characteristics of a Good Research
1. Systematic. It is systematic as there are interrelated steps or procedures a researcher has to observe in solving a problem. 2. Objective. It is not based on guesswork. This is because empirical data have to be gathered by the researcher before making any conclusion or proposing any solution to an identified difficulty or problem. 3. Empirical. All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all observers. Generalizations are drawn by the researcher upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from the real life experiences and o bservations. 4. Comprehensive. If a researcher is serious about understanding a phenomenon, he has to examine and analyze all its aspects or angles before making a generalization or conclusion. 5. Critical. This means that procedures employed by the researcher must withstand critical scrutiny by other researchers. 6. Rigorous. Procedures to be followed in solving a problem shou ld be relevant, appropriate, justified, and strictly observed.
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7. Valid. Whenever a researcher formulates conclusions, these are based on actual findings. 8. Verifiable. Other researchers can check on the correctness of its results by replicating the study based on the methods and procedures employed by the researcher. Types of Research
1. Descriptive Research. This type of research endeavors to describe s ystematically, factually, accurately and objectively a situation, problem or phenomenon. It is seeks to describe “what is”. 2. Correlational/Associational Research. In this type of research, the investigator tries to probe the significance of relationship between two or more factors or characteristics. 3. Explanatory Research. In this type of inquiry, the researcher seeks to clarify how and why a relationship exists between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon. 4. Exploratory Research. This kind of study is undertaken when the investigator is after probing or exploring areas where little is known about the research problem. 5. Experimental Research. In this type of research, the researcher probes into the cause of an effect by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatments or conditions. 6. Historical Research. The researcher attempts to reconstruct the past objectively and accurately or to explain an incident that happened in the past with the use of data taken from the past.
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Idea-generating Phase Problem definition Phase Procedure-design Phase Data-collection Phase Data-anaysis Phase Interpretation Phase Communication Phase The Research Process Parts of a Research Paper
1. Title page 2. Introduction 3. Methodology 4. Conclusions 5. References Activity:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Describe/define the following research terms and concepts: Objective Verifiable Valid Empirical Comprehensive
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Writing the Research Problem
The research problem shows that someone would like to research on or perhaps, that which a person finds unsatisfactory or unsettling; a difficulty of some sort, o r a state of affairs that needs to be changed. The choice of a problem is often, if not, always difficult. The difficulty of choosing a problem is sometimes premeditated by lack of understanding of the nature of research and systematic problem-solving activity. Criteria for Choosing the Research Problem
1. External a. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication b. Importance in the field c. Availability of data d. Choice of method e. Funding support or sponsorship f.
Facilities and equipment
g. Ethical considerations 2. Internal a. Interest/experience of the researcher b. Training c. Cost d. Time
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Elements of a Research Problem
1. Purpose. This answers the question WHY? Why is there an investigation, inquiry of study? 2. Subject Matter. This answers the question WHAT? What is to be investigated? 3. Place or locale. This answers the question WHERE? Where is the study to be conducted? 4. Period or time. This answers the question WHEN? When is the study to be carried out? 5. Population or universe. This answers the question WHO? Or FROM WHOM? Who are the respondents? From whome are the data to be gathered?
Purpose
To determine the status of
Subject Matter
The teaching of Mathematics
Place or locale
National High schools in Metro Manila
Period or time
SY 2015-2016
Population/Universe
The respondents are implied to teachers or pupils or both
Title
The Teaching of Mathematics in National High schools in Metro Manil during SY 2015-2016
Activity:
With your groupmates, think of a topic and supply the elements of a research problem. Purpose: Subject Matter: Place or locale: Period or time: Population or universe:
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Writing the Introduction
An introduction is the first paragraph of a written research paper, or the first thing you say in an oral presentation, or the first thing people see, hear, or experience about your project. It has two parts: 1. A general introduction to the topic you will b e discussing 2. Your Thesis Statement Without an introduction it is sometimes very difficult for your audience to figure out what you are trying to say. There needs to be a thread of an idea that they will follow through your paper or presentation. The introduction gives the reader the beginning of the piece of thread so they can follow it. Start with a couple of sentences that introduce your topic to your reader. You do not have to give too much detailed information; save that for the body of your paper. Make these sentences as interesting as you can. Through them, you can hook a reader and get them very interested in the line of thinking you are going to develop in your project. Then state your thesis, which may be done in one or more sentences. The length of your introduction depends on the length and complexity of your project, but generally it should not exceed one page unless it is a very long project or a book. The average length of an introduction is one half a page. The Scope and Limitation
The scope and limitations of the study set the boundaries of the investigation. This discusses the variables included in the investigation and the justification why they were included. Likewise, it cites the variables which were excluded from the study and the reason for their exclusion. 45
The Significance of the Study
This explains and discusses any of the following: 1. The intended or target beneficiaries of the study 2. The specific benefit each of the intended clients/end-users may get out of the result of the investigation 3. The contribution of the study to a body of knowledge
Introduction
The melamine controversy that erupted during the last quarter of year 2008 brought people’s attention back to the debates between breastfeeding and the use of breast milk substitutes like commercial infant formula. This wasn’t the first time that infant formula had caused illnesses and even deaths to infants worldwide - hence the continuous campaign of World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF along with other breastfeeding advocates,
for
mothers
to
breastfeed
their
children
at
least
until
6
months
of
age.
Infant feeding practices refer generally to meet the nutritional and immunological needs of the baby. A study of infant feeding practices was carried out on a sample of 100 mother and infant pairs. The results revealed that only 20% of mothers in the study currently exclusively breastfeed their babies. It also shows that socio-economic factors like mother’s work status, marital status and educational attainment had direct bearing on these practices. Employed mothers tend to cease from breastfeeding their babies and eventually stop and just resort to formula feeding as they go back to work. The study also showed that mothers who are married and living with their partners are more likely to breastfeed their infants than single mothers. Those with higher educational attainment resort more to formula feeding and mixed feeding than those with lower educational attainment. Health care professionals influence mothers the most when it comes to infant feeding decisions.
Sample Introduction
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Writing the Methodology
Research design is the plan and structure of the investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme of program of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do until the final analysis of the data. This part is the core of your paper as it is a proof that you use the scientific method. ØThrough this section, your study’s validity is judged. So, it is v ery important. ØYour methodology answers two main questions: 1. How did you collect or generate the data? 2. How did you analyze the data? ØWhile writing this section, be direct and precise. Write it in the past tense. ØInclude enough information so that: 1. Others could repeat the experiment and evaluate whether the results are reproducible. 2. The audience can judge whether the results and conclusions are valid. ØThe explanation of the collection and the analysis of your data is very important because; 1. readers need to know the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure instead of others. 2. readers need to know that the collection or the generation of the data is valid in the field of study. ØDiscuss the anticipated problems in the process of the data collection and the steps you took to prevent them. ØPresent the rationale for why you chose sp ecific experimental procedures. ØProvide sufficient information of the whole process so that others could r eplicate your study.
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You can do this by: 1. Giving a completely accurate description of the data collection equipments and the techniques. 2. Explaining how you collected the data and analysed them. Specifically; a- Present the basic demographic profile of the sample population like age, gender, and the racial composition of the sample. When animals are the subjects of a study, you list their species, weight, strain, sex, and age. b- Explain how you gathered the samples/ subjects by answering these questions: 1. Did you use any randomization techniques? 2. How did you prepare the samples? c- Explain how you made the measurements by answering this question. 1. What calculations did you make? d- Describe the materials and equipments that you used in the research. e- Describe the statistical techniques that you used upon the data. The order of the methods section should flow like this: 1. Describing the samples/ participants. 2. Describing the materials you used in the study 3. Explaining how you prepared the materials 4. Describing the research design 5. Explaining how you made measurements and what calculations you performed 6. Stating which statistical tests you did to analyze the data.
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Sources of Data
Data are classified according to source as follows: 1. Primary Data. Primary data are those gathered from primary sources. a. Individual person b. Organized group or organizations such as associations, fraternities, schools, communities, etc. c. Established practices such as marriages, rites, etc. 2. Secondary Data. Secondary data are those gathered from secondary sources. a. Books b. Articles published in journals, magazines, newspaper, etc. c. Unpublished theses and dissertations d. Monographs and manuscripts e. Any verbal or written data Research Techniques in Generating Data
1. Questionnaire a. Open-ended questionnaire – one whose options of the items are not given or are not arranged. Ex. How do you assess K-12? ____________________________ b. Closed-ended questionnaire – the options are given or enumerated and the respondents simply check or encircle his answers. Ex. How do you assess K-12? a. Excellent
c. Poor
b. Very Good
d. Needs Improvement
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2. Interview a. Structured interview – the questions are stated specifically in a fixed list (called an interview guide) and the interviewer asks the questions verbatim in the order in which they are listed. b. Unstructured interview – this is more flexible and open since the interviewer does not need to follow the order in which they are listed. 3. Observation a. Unstructured observation – a non-selective method of observation which does not impose a structure on the situation but instead attempts to provide an analysis of the situation. b. Structured observation – in this method, the researcher knows the aspects of group activity which is relevant to his purpose thus, he develops a specific plan for making and recording observations before he begins collecting data. Sampling Designs and Techniques
PROBABILITY SAMPLING 1. Random Sampling. Each person in the universe has an equal probability of being chosen for the sample and every collection of persons of the same size has an equal probability of becoming the actual sample. Simple Random Sampling =sampling without replacement 2. Systematic Sampling. A sample constructed by selecting every nth element in the sampling frame. Systematic sampling is more practical in that it is less work and thus provides more information per dollar. It also may reduce error. (The more complex the method, the greater opportunity for error.)
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3. Stratified Random Sampling. Is obtained by separating the pop ulation elements into overlapping groups, called strata, and then selecting a simple random sample from within each stratum. Example: Rank order: full professor, associate professor, etc. After this is done a random or systematic sample is drawn within ea ch group. 4. Cluster Sampling. A simple random sample'in which each sampling unit is a collection or cluster, or elements. For example, an investigator wishing to study students might first sample groups or clusters of students such as classes or dormitories, and then select the fmal sample ofstudents from among clusters. Also called area sampling. Advantage: saves time and money. Disadvantage: error. NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING Usually can not claim that a sample is representative. Much less complicated, less expensive and can be done at the spur ofthe moment. Can take advantage of whoever is available. 1. Convenience Sampling. The investigator chooses the closest live persons as respondents. "Captive audience" sampling. (E.g., using a class ofintro to psych students). 2. Quota Sampling. Equivalent to a stratified sample with the ad ded requirement that each stratum is generally represented in the sample in the same proportion as in the entire population. (Example: 60% democrats and 40% republicans - select a sample ofthe two 3. Dimensional Sampling. A multidimensional fonn ofquota sampling. One has to specifY all dimensions (variables) or interest on the population and then to make sure that every combination of these dimensions are represented by at least o ne case. This method is
51
designed for studies in which only a small sample is d esired so that each case drawn can be studied in more detain than is possible in a large-scale study .. 4. Purposive Sampling. The researcher uses his or her own judgment about which respondents to choose, and picks those who best meets the purposes ofthe study. 5. Snowball Sampling. Has achieved increased use in recent years; particularly by researchers conducting observational research and in community studies. Conducted in stages. In the 1 st stage a few persons havin g the requisite characteristics are identified and interviewed. These persons are used as informants to identifY others who qualify for inclusion in the sample. The second stage involves interviewing these persons who in tum lead to still more persons who can be interviewed in the 3rd stage, etc. The term "snowball" stems from the analogy of a snowball, which begins small but becomes bigger and bigger and rolls downhill. Also called "chain referral sampling." particularly useful in deviant studies and subcultures (drug addicts, etc.). STATISTICAL TOOLS Finding the Mean
The mean of a set of values is the sum of the values divided by the number of values. It is also called the average. Example: Find the mean of 19, 13, 15, 25, and 18 19 + 13 + 15 + 25 + 18 5
=
90 = 18 5
When the mean is known and you must find a missing value, some simple rules of algebra must be applied. Example: Cory has received the following grades this term: 75, 87, 90, 88, 79. If he wishes to earn an 85 average, what must he score on his final test? Set up the problem like this: 75 + 87 + 90 + 88 + 79 + s = 85 6 52
To solve: 1. Add the known values. 419 + s = 85 6 2. Next, we want to try to isolate the unknown (s) on one side of the equation. To do this we must use inverse operations to eliminate the numbers on the side of the equation with the unknown (this means we do the opposite of what is being done). Start with the 6. Since we are dividing the expression 419 + s by the 6, we must now multiply it by 6. NOTE: Whatever you do to one side of the equation, you must do to the other side of the equation as well. Therefore, I will multiply the 85 by 6 too. 6 x
419 + s = 85 x 6 6
I can cancel the 6s on the left side of the equation. This leaves you with the equation: 419 + s = 510 Now we must eliminate the 419 from the side of the equation with the unknown. Since we are adding 419 to s, we will subtract it from both sides of the eq uation. 419 + s = 510 – 419 - 419 0 This leaves us with:
s = 91
Answer: The student will need to score a 91 on his last test to earn an average of 85 for the term. Finding the Median
The median refers to the midpoint in a series of numbers. To find the median, arrange the numbers in order from smallest to largest. If there is an odd number of values, the middle value is the median. If there is an even number of values, the average of the two middle values is the median. Example #1: Find the median of 19, 29, 36, 15, and 20 In order: 15, 19, 20, 29, 36 since there are 5 values (odd number), 20 is the median (middle number) Example #2: Find the median of 67, 28, 92, 37, 81, 75 53
In order: 28, 37, 67, 75, 81, 92 since there are 6 values (even number), we must average those two middle numbers to get the median value Average: 67 + 75 2
=
142 2
=
71 is the median value
Finding the Mode
The mode of a set of values is the value that occurs most often. A set of values may have more than one mode or no mode. Example #1: Find the mode of 15, 21, 26, 25, 21, 23, 28, 21 The mode is 21 since it occurs three times and the other values occur only once. Example #2: Find the mode of 12, 15, 18, 26, 15, 9, 12, 27 The modes are 12 and 15 since both occur twice. Example #3: Find the mode of 4, 8, 15, 21, 23 There is no mode since all the values occur the same number of times.
Methodology
Type of Research The type of research that will be used in this study is qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The discipline investigates the “why” and “how” of decision making. Besides this, the researcher will also examine the phenomenon through observations in numerical representations and through statistical analysis. Along with questionnaires that will be given out to respondents for the statistical representation of the findings in the study, interviews with the respondents and a few experts in this field will also be conducted. Sampling Method The research sampling method that will be used in this study is random sampling to obtain a more scientific result that could be used to represent the entirety of the population. A list of all health care facilities (maternity and lying-in clinics, public and private hospitals, health centers) was acquired from the Las Piñas City Hall. From 20 barangays, 3 will be picked through random sampling. The health care facilities and institutions in these three barangays will then be the target sources of respondents of the researcher. The health care facilities
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and institutions will be contacted to obtain a verbal consent to administer the questionnaire to mothers at their places. A letter of consent will also be sent to them along with a sample copy of the questionnaire that will be used, as well as the protocol of the researcher. A letter was also addressed to the City Health Officer to obtain endorsement and consent to conduct a research in selected barangays and distribute questionnaires to the mothers in the vicinity. Data collection was conducted throughout the facilities‟ and health centers‟ operating hours from Mondays through Sundays in order to include both working and non-working mothers. Respondents The respondents in this research will all be coming from one single location - Las Piñas City, specifically the randomly selected barangays of Pamplona I, CAA/BF International and Pamplona III. The researcher chose Las Piñas City because of the socio-economic conditions present in the area that is relevant to the study and also as it fits the time frame and resources of the researcher. The randomly sampled respondents will be asked by the researcher for consent and approval to answer the questionnaire until the desired number of respondents which is 100 is reached. The opinion of experts will also be sought in this research to provide explanations regarding the respondents‟ infant feeding behaviors and practices. Questionnaire The questionnaire requires information about the socio-economic and demographic background of the mother. It also has questions related to previous infant feeding practices and the birth of her youngest infant and also regarding the baby’s general health and age. Statements that are perceived to be factors that influence mothers‟ infant feeding decisions were presented. The description of the type of infant formula given by formula and mixed feeding mothers will also be asked in the material.
Sample Methodology
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Writing the Conclusion
In academic writing, a well-crafted conclusion can p rovide the final word on the value of your analysis, research, or paper. Complete your conclusions with conviction! Conclusions show readers the value of your completely d eveloped argument or thoroughly answered question. Consider the conclusion from the reader's perspective. At the end of a paper, a reader wants to know how to benefit from the work you accomplished in your paper. Here are ways to think about the purpose of a conclusion : 1. To connect the paper's findings to a larger context, such as the wider conversation about an issue as it is presented in a course or in other published writing. 2. To suggest the implications of your findings or the importance of the topic. 3. To ask questions or suggest ideas for further research. 4. To revisit your main idea or research question with new insight. Should you summarize?
Consider what readers can keep track of in their heads. If your paper is long or complex, some summary of your key points will remind readers of the ground you've covered. If your paper is short, your readers may not need a summary. In any paper, you'll want to push beyond mere summary to suggest the implications or applications of your work. How do you start drafting a conclusion?
Effective conclusions take the paper beyond summary and demonstrate a further appreciation of the paper's argument and its significance: why it works, why it is meaningful, and why it is valuable. To get started, you might ask yourself these questions: 1. How do the ideas in your paper connect to what you have discussed in class, or to what scholars have written in their treatment of your topic?
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2. What new ideas have you added to the conversation? What ideas do you critique? 3. What are the limitations of your data, methods, or results? 4. What are the consequences of the strongest idea that comes out of your paper? 5. How can you return to the question or situation you describe in your introduction?
Conclusion
Majority of the mothers formula feed their child and only a minority exclusively breastfeeds their children, especially as per recommendation of the World Health Organization. While majority of the mothers in this study showed a positive attitude towards breastfeeding, most of them decided only to formula feed due to the reasons of insufficient milk supply and work. Based on the results of the study, the educational attainment, work status, marital status, and seminars in the barangay the respondents are part of, about breastfeeding, are the significant factors that affect the infant feeding decision of mothers in Las Piñas City. Majority of the mothers that served as respondents in this study fall under the age range of 17-30 years old. More than half of them were also college graduates while a significant number are undergraduates and have only reached until high school. Most of the mothers are housewives and the others remaining have full-time jobs, part-time jobs and self-employed. A few of them are still students. While majority of them were married, a lot were still in a status of live-in and are single. More than half of the mothers did not have previous children before the current one. Majority of the respondents also have an annual gross household income that does not exceed P50,000. Among the several information sources namely, media through televisions/radios and printed/published materials, the social support system comprised of the mother’s family, friends and other relatives and health institutions, the mothers who give their babies infant formula are influenced the most by health care institutions through health professionals and other health care personnel. They influence the mothers in deciding to feed the baby with formula and in choosing, as well, which brand of formula is best for their babies. Mothers trust their baby’s doctor because of their expertise in the said field hence this kind of relation
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is achieved. Mothers were overall not concerned about the possible side effects of breastfeeding as a few were only worried as shown in the data presented. It can be concluded that numerous internal as well as external factors influence a mother in making infant feeding decisions, and a greater fraction of these is socio-economic in nature.
Sample Conclusion
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Citing Sources in APA format
1. From an online periodical Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article.Title of Online Periodical, volume number (issue number if available). Retrieved from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved from
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving
2. From a database Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article.Title of Journal, volume number, page range. Retrieved from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3), 120-125. Retrieved from http://www.articlehomepage.com/full/url/
3. From a newspaper article Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper . Retrieved from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry handbook linked to drug industry. The New York Times. Retrieved
from http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/06/psychiatry-handbook-linked-todrug-industry/?_r=0
4. From electronic books De Huff, E. W. (n.d.). Taytay’s tales: Traditional Pueblo
Indian tales. Retrieved
from http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay/taytay.html Davis, J. (n.d.). Familiar birdsongs of the Northwest.
Available from
http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio? inkey=1-9780931686108-0
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5. From online encyclopedias and dictionaries Feminism. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica online. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/724633/feminism
6. From online lecture notes or presentation slides Hallam, A. Duality in consumer theory [PDF document]. Retrieved from Lecture Notes Online Web site: http://www.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ501/Hallam/ index.html
7. From a web log J Dean. (2008, May 7). When the self emerges: Is that me in the mirror? [Web log comment]. Retrieved from http://www.spring.org.uk/the1sttransport Psychology Video Blog #3 [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqM90eQi5-M
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