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TARIQ^RAMADAN W H A T I BELIEVE
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Wcslcm MusUiii.': and the Fuliirc of Islam
what I Believe
Tariq Ramadan
OXTORD VrNIVERSlTY
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Contents
Acknowledgments Introduction
ix
I
1.
T h e Early Years
8
2.
A M u s l i r a , and a'•"Contro\'ersial h i t u l k c t u a r
3.
Several Fronts, T w o Universes, O n e Discourse
4.
interacting Crises
5.
Swift Evolutions, Silent Revolutions
6.
Multiple Identities: First an American
20
24 30
(a European, an Australian), or a Muslim?
B
17
35
7.
W e s t e r n Islam: Religion and Culture
41
8.
"Culfurar Muslims, Reformists, Literalists, and So On
9.
Advances
10.
Challenges
11.
T h e Issue of W o m e n
12.
T h e Sense of Belonging and the "Post-Integration" Approach
13.
Sociopolitical Issues, t h e Media
46
51 56 62
74
67
viii
Contents
U-
T h e Roots of E u r o p e . . . and of the West
15.
Reform and the Seven "Cs"
16.
T h e West and Its Mirror: A N e w "We"
17-
Criticisms and Oppositions Conclusion
85
96
Acknowledgments ng
Appendix II: Manifesto for a N e w "We" 135
Index
140
90
112
Appendix I: Thierry
Notes
So
123
This b o o k w o u l d n o t have b e e n w r i t t e n w i t h o u t t h e insistence of A n d r e a R o m a n o , w h o pressed m e to w r i t e a s h o r t text p r e s e n t i n g the s u b s t a n c e of m y t h o u g h t b e y o n d c o n t r o versy a n d polemics, I a m grateful for his proposal a n d insistence. T h e r e are so m a n y w o m e n and m e n I should t h a n k h e r e for t h e i r love, their friendship, a n d their presence, as w e l l as their constructive criticism. W h e t h e r in t h e Muslim majority countries of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa o r in t h e M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s of C a n a d a , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Australia, N e w Zealand, Mauritius, S o u t h Africa, a n d E u r o p e ; I have l e a r n e d so m u c h f r o m 'ulamâ, intellectuals, leaders, and organization m a n a g e r s , as well as ordinary, a n o n y m o u s , sincere, d e v o t e d w o m e n and men, Books can never replace h u m a n beings: 1 t h a n k e a c h of you, w i t h o u t n a m i n g a n y o n e so t h a t n o o n e is forgotten, for y o u r p r e s e n c e a n d for y o u r gifts, so i m p o r t a n t and so different in n a t u r e . I have learned so m u c h in t h e West, from m y training, m y readings, m y c o m m i t m e n t , a n d , above all, so m a n y e n c o u n ters. H e r e again, it w o u l d b e impossible t o express m y gratit u d e nominally. B u t let m e simply recall a few first n a m e s ,
w h o m a y r e c o g n i z e t h e m s e l v e s : Alain, C a t h e r i n e , C y n t h i a , D i a n a , Dick, François, Françoise, H a n , J a m e e l , J e a n , Joellyn, J o h n , M a r j o l e i n , Melissa, Michel, M o n i q u e , Peter, P i e r r e , R i c h a r d . . . t h e r e are so m a n y others. In Switzerland, in G e n e v a , there is a m o t h e r w h o loves and w h o prays. H e r p r e s e n c e is light and protection. T h e r e is also a large family, b r o t h e r s , a sister, nieces a n d n e p h e w s . Najma, Moussa, Sami, M a r y a m , a n d Iman, always. M y h e a r t loves y o u and t h a n k s you, L o n d o n , J u n e 2009
W h a t I Believe
Introduction
T H I S BOOK IS A WORK OF CLARIFICATION, a deliberately acces-
sible p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e basic ideas I have b e e n defending for m o r e t h a n t w e n t y years. It is i n t e n d e d for those w h o have litrie time t o spare; ordinary citizens, politicians, journalists, p e r h a p s s o m e social workers o r teachers w h o may be in a bit of a h u r r y b u t w h o w a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d and possibly t o check things o u t . R a t h e r t h a n e n t e r i n g m y n a m e in a w e b search e n g i n e (and c o m i n g u p w i t h t h e m i l l i o n links t h a t m a i n l y r e p o r t w h a t others have written a b o u t m e ) or being content with t h e so-called free virtual encyclopedias t h a t are in fact s o biased (like Wikipedia, w h e r e the factual errors a n d partisan readings are a s t o u n d i n g ) , I give readers this o p p o r t u n i t y t o read m e in the original and simply get direct access t o m y t h o u g h t . In r e c e n t years I have b e e n p r e s e n t e d as a "controversial intellectual," W h a t this m e a n s is n o t quite clear, b u t in effect everyone admits that a controversial intellectual is o n e w h o s e t h o u g h t does n o t leave people indifferent: s o m e praise it, others criticize it, b u t in any case it causes t h e m t o react a n d think. I, I have n e v e r k e p t t o a single field o f i n t e r v e n t i o n : 1 have n o t dealt only w i t h the "Islamic religion," a l t h o u g h it is i m p o r t a n t
Introduction
What I BelUw
3
t o n o t e t h a t o n e of t h e areas I w o r k o n is indeed theological
fe. R e g a r d i n g Islamic references, m y a p p r o a c h has c o n s t a n t l y
a n d legal reflection s t a r t i n g f r o m w i t h i n Islamic references.
f t e e n t o d e v e l o p t h e m e s in t h r e e distinct steps. First, I q u o t e
I d o n o t r e p r e s e n t all M u s l i m s b u t I b e l o n g to t h e r e f o r m i s t
the sources: h e r e is a verse o r a Prophetic tradition (hadîtk) a n d
trend. I aim to r e m a i n faithful t o die principles of Islam, o n the
t this is t h e literal m e a n i n g . Second, I explain the different read-
basis of scriptural sources, while t a k i n g into account t h e evolu-
' ings offered b y scholars in t h e course of history as well as t h e
t i o n of historical a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n t e x t s . M a n y r e a d e r s
possibilities available for i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e said verse or
hadîth,
w h o have n o t y e t l o o k e d into r e l i g i o u s issues o r w h o have
because of its formulation o r in light of Islam's message. Third,
l i m i t e d k n o w l e d g e of t h e subject s o m e t i m e s find it difficult
s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e verse ( o r hadîth)
t o u n d e r s t a n d m y a p p r o a c h a n d m e t h o d o l o g y Unlike hteral-
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , I suggest a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g and i m p l e m e n t a -
ists w h o m e r e l y rely o n q u o t i n g verses, reformists m u s t take
tion t h a t take into a c c o u n t the context in w h i c h w e live. T h a t
t h e t i m e t o p u t t h i n g s in perspective, t o contextualize, a n d to
is w h a t I call the reformist a p p r o a c h .
a n d its v a r i o u s p o s s i b l e
suggest n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . To g r a s p this reasoning, readers
For e x a m p l e : (i) T h e r e a r e i n d e e d t e x t s ( o n e v e r s e , a n d
o r listeners m u s t follow it from b e g i n n i n g to end: if t h e y d o
h e n c e s o m e Prophetic t r a d i t i o n s ) t h a t refer to striking o n e ' s
n o t t h e y m a y m i s u n d e r s t a n d its conclusions and consider t h a t
wife: I q u o t e t h e m b e c a u s e M u s h m s r e a d a n d q u o t e t h o s e
t h e r e are c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o r t h a t it involves " d o u b l e s p e a k . "
texts. (2) H e r e are t h e interpretations t h a t have been suggested,
T h i n g s s h o u l d b e clarified: doublespeak consists in saying o n e
from the m o s t literalist, w h i c h justify striking w o m e n in t h e
t h i n g in front of a n a u d i e n c e to flatter o r mislead t h e m , and
n a m e of t h e Q u r a n , t o t h e m o s t r e f o r m i s t , w h i c h r e a d this
s o m e t h i n g else, different in c o n t e n t , elsewhere, t o a different
verse in light of the global message a n d contextualize t h e verse
a u d i e n c e o r in a different l a n g u a g e . A d a p t i n g o n e ' s level of
and P r o p h e t i c traditions as well as taking their c h r o n o l o g y into
s p e e c h t o o n e ' s a u d i e n c e , o r a d a p t i n g t h e n a t u r e of o n e ' s
a c c o u n t . (3) In light of t h o s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and c o n s i d e r i n g
references, is n o t d o u b l e s p e a k . W h e n addressing m y s t u d e n t s
the e x a m p l e set by t h e P r o p h e t , w h o n e v e r struck a w o m a n ,
I u s e elevated l a n g u a g e w i t h philosophical references t h a t they
I say t h a t d o m e s t i c violence contradicts Islamic teachings a n d
can u n d e r s t a n d ; w h e n s p e a k i n g b e f o r e social p r o t a g o n i s t s
that such b e h a v i o r m u s t b e c o n d e m n e d .
o r m a n u a l l a b o r e r s , I also use a p p r o p r i a t e speech a n d illust r a t i o n s ; and if I s p e a k t o Muslims, m y l a n g u a g e a n d references also take i n t o a c c o u n t their level of discourse a n d their u n i v e r s e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . This is a necessary p e d a g o g y To avoid d o u b l e s p e a k , w h a t m a t t e r s is t h a t the substance o f the discourse does n o t c h a n g e .
If m y readers or listeners s t o p at t h e first step in m y develo p m e n t (or if a reviewer, willfully o r n o t , quotes only p a r t of it), they c u t short m y reasoning; they m a y even claim t h a t I say the s a m e as the hteralists a n d accuse m e of doublespeak, Of course I q u o t e the s a m e verses as t h e literalists, b u t m y conclusions are different! A n d it is because 1 systematically start from
4
Inlmducticn
Wliiif ( Bslim'
the s o u r c e s and their i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t M u s h m s listen t o m y
n e n t s " : in effect, all t h e i r criticisms, e c h o i n g o n e a n o t h e r ,
lectures, read m y b o o k s , a n d relate t o t h e m .
cast a h a z e of d o u b t a n d suspicion over m y discourse. S o m e
1 have also focused o n p h i l o s o p h i c a l , social, c u l t u r a l , a n d
people read such criticisms w i t h o u t r e a d i n g m y o w n writings,
political issues (at b o t h n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l levels).
w i t h o u t even trying t o find o u t w h o their a u t h o r s are, a n d e n d
All t h o s e fields of s t u d y a r e of c o u r s e l i n k e d in o n e w a y o r
u p t a k i n g w h a t they say at face value. If t h e r e is s m o k e , t h e r e
another, b u t I have always b e e n careful n o t to confuse o r d e r s .
is fire, the saying goes. T h a t Is quite t r u e , b u t o n e should find
Because of t h e confusion I observe in c o n t e m p o r a r y d e b a t e s
out w h a t t h e fire is, and w h o lit it.
a b o u t societal issues (identities, religions, cultures, msecurity,
Yet, w h a t really m a t t e r s h e s b e y o n d t h i s s m o k e s c r e e n ,
i m m i g r a t i o n , m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , a n d so o n ) , I have a t t e m p t e d
which m u s t absolutely b e cast aside t o g r a s p t h e e s s e n c e o f
to d e c o n s t r u c t and classify p r o b l e m s , t h o u g h w i t h o u t discon-
m y t h o u g h t and of m y a p p r o a c h . In t h e p r e s e n t b o o k , I deal
n e c t i n g t h e m . I h o p e t h e p r e s e n t w o r k will c o n f i r m t h i s
[
c o m m i t m e n t and this a p p r o a c h and m e t h o d o l o g y .
I, each and every o n e of us, I state firmly t h a t w e have multiple,
w i t h t h e issue of i d e n t i t y crisis a n d of t h e d o u b t s t h a t assail
As m e n t i o n e d above, s o m e people have claimed t h a t I u s e d
m o v i n g identities, and t h a t t h e r e is n o reason—religious, legal,
d o u b l e s p e a k w i t h o u t ever p r o v i d i n g clear evidence. A n i m o r
or cultural—a w o m a n or a m a n cannot b e both American
has b e e n fostered a n d j o u r n a l i s t s r e p e a t it: " H e is r e p o r t e d to
L, o r E u r o p e a n a n d Muslim, Millions of individuals p r o v e this
use d o u b l e s p e a k , a n d so o n . " This is easy criticism: it is often
daily. Far from the m e d i a a n d political tensions, a c o n s t r u c -
the unverifiable ( a n d unverified) a r g u m e n t of those w h o have
1'
tive, in-depth m o v e m e n t is u n d e r w a y and Islam has b e c o m e
n o a r g u m e n t and have verified n o t h i n g , it is also frequently a
a W e s t e r n religion. W e s t e r n Islam is a reality, just like African,
d e v e r reversal p e r f o r m e d b y t h o s e w h o , deliberately o r n o t ,
Arab, or Asian Islam, O f c o u r s e t h e r e is only o n e single Islam
have a " d o u b l e h e a r i n g " a n d h e a r v e r y selectively. I will n o t
as far as f u n d a m e n t a l religious principles are c o n c e r n e d , b u t it
w a s t e m y t i m e h e r e t r y i n g t o defend myself: I have n o desire
includes a variety of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and a plurality of cultures.
or t i m e for this, it is n o n e t h e l e s s i m p o r t a n t for the r e a d e r t o
Its universality indeed s t e m s f r o m this capacity t o i n t e g r a t e
u n d e r s t a n d w h y w h a t 1 say can give rise t o such p a s s i o n a n d
diversity i n t o its f u n d a m e n t a l oneness.
reactions. I know that I disturb and I k n o w w h o m I disturb.
It is u p t o Muslim individuals t o b e a n d b e c o m e c o m m i t t e d
W h e n s p e a k i n g a b o u t religion, philosophy, o r politics, I have
citizens, aware of their responsibilities and rights. Beyond t h e
necessarily, in t h e s e t i m e s of t r o u b l e s , crises, a n d d o u b t s ,
minority reflex or t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o see t h e m s e l v e s a s victims,
o p e n e d fronts of i n t e l l e c t u a l and ideological o p p o s i t i o n a n d
t h e y h a v e t h e m e a n s t o a c c e p t a n e w a g e of t h e i r history.
often highly e m o t i o n a l ill feelings. At t h e e n d of diis b o o k , as
For t h o s e w h o w e r e b o r n in t h e W e s t o r w h o are citizens, it
the r e a d e r will see, ! identify seven different objective " o p p o -
is n o l o n g e r a q u e s t i o n of " s e t t l e m e n t " o r " i n t e g r a t i o n " b u t
6
Intfoducllon
What 1 Believe
r a t h e r of "participation" a n d "contribution." My p o i n t is that
[ b u t w h o d o n o t always have e n o u g h t i m e t o read a n d s t u d y
w e have n o w moved, a n d w e m u s t m o v e , t o the age of "post-
1 all the b o o k s . Being an i n t r o d u c t o r y w o r k , it may n o t suffice
i n t e g r a t i o n " d i s c o u r s e : w e m u s t h e n c e f o r t h d e t e r m i n e the
[ t o convey t h e complexity of a t h o u g h t (which may m o r e o v e r
p r o f o u n d , a c c e p t e d m e a n i n g of b e l o n g i n g . T h i s is t h e n e w
' have evolved and gained in density in t h e course of time) b u t
" W e " t h a t I have b e e n calling for, and that is already a reality in
• it will at least, I h o p e , h e l p start an o p e n , t h o r o u g h , critical
s o m e local experiences. O n e s h o u l d n o t b e naïve, however. I m p o r t a n t challenges remain: I have d r a w n u p a list as far as Muslims are c o n c e r n e d (the relationship b e t w e e n religion a n d c u l m r e , g e n d e r issues, t h e t r a i n i n g of i m a m s , c o n t e x t u a l i z e d religious e d u c a t i o n , institutionalizing t h e i r presence in society, etc.). W e s t e r n and E u r o p e a n societies, t h e i r politicians a n d intellectuals, m u s t l o o k realities in the face a n d , s o m e t i m e s after four generations, stop s p e a k i n g a b o u t t h e " i m m i g r a n t origin" of citizens w h o "need t o b e integrated." T h e y m u s t reconcile themselves w i t h politics a n d n o t act as t h o u g h , in the n a m e of c u l m r e o r religion, status o r social class h a d b e c o m e inoperative or o u t d a t e d references: social p r o b l e m s should n o t b e "Islamized" a n d such issues as u n e m p l o y m e n t , social m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , a n d o t h e r s should b e addressed politically. C u r r i c u l a m u s t also b e reassessed (especially in h i s t o r y b u t also in literature, philosophy, etc.) t o b e c o m e m o r e representative o f a shared h i s t o r y a n d include its wealth of r e m e m b e r e d experience. T h e W e s t m u s t start a dialogue n o t only w i t h "the o t h e r " b u t also w i t h itself: an earnest, profound, a n d constructive dialogue. I will deal w i t h t h o s e issues t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k . I have a t t e m p t e d t o b e as clear as possible w h i l e r e m a i n i n g simple and m e t h o d i c a l . T h i s is a b o o k of ideas, a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o w h a t I believe, m e a n t for t h o s e w h o really w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d
debate. T h i s is greatly n e e d e d .
The Early Years
9
[iBS it s h o u l d b e . Both t h e s c h o o l system a n d the media praised "exemplary work" p e r f o r m e d in mobilizing the y o u n g for solidarity in T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s as w e l l as in t h e West, for kwe h a d also launched awareness operations targeting e x t r e m e
The Early Years
poverty a m o n g the u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d in industrialized societies and the aged: I had b e e n elected one of the Geneva personalities of the year in 1990. As a teacher, ! h a d w r i t t e n three b o o k s with m y s t u d e n t s t o c o n f r o n t t h e m w i t h life, t h e e n v i r o n lent, a n d t h e challenges of society: a collective w o r k a b o u t
I
BEGAN TO GET MORE SPECIFICALLY INVOLVED
with the
issUC
of
the elderly a n d m e m o r y (The Split Hourglass),
another about
Islam a n d Muslims in t h e w o r l d , and particularly in t h e West,
marginalization and a c a d e m i c failure (In Red, in the Margin), a n d
in t h e l a t e 1980s a n d early 1990s. Before t h a t a n d for m a n y
a third a b o u t diversity (A Common Point, Difference). T h e city of
years—since the age o f eighteen—J h a d traveled extensively
Geneva h a d funded t h e p r o j e c t s and t h e y had m e t a particu-
in t h e T h i r d World, from S o u t h A m e r i c a t o India a n d t h r o u g h
larly w a r m and i m p o r t a n t reception. T h e point was t o place the
m a n y countries o n the African c o n t i n e n t . I had b e e n raised in
learning process at t h e h e a r t of t h e city a n d use the t e a c h i n g
a family in which t h e call and m e a n i n g o f faith were allied t o
of French literature as a m e a n s t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h w o m e n
the defense of h u m a n d i g n i t y a n d j u s t i c e . Even t h o u g h m y
and m e n facing social p r o b l e m s o r simply difierences. T h o s e
c o m m i t m e n t w a s n o t in t h e n a m e of Islam, it h a d always b e e n
years t a u g h t m e a lot a b o u t listening, patience, n o n j u d g m e n t ,
v a l u e d by m y m o t h e r a n d father: fighting against p o v e r t y in
and e m p a t h y Earlier on, o n e of m y f o r m e r students h a d died
t h e S o u t h , p r o m o t i n g e d u c a t i o n (for w o m e n in p a r t i c u l a r ) ,
of a d r u g overdose. I have never really forgotten h i m . I w a s his
p r o t e c t i n g s t r e e t c h i l d r e n , visiting
and s u p p o r t i n g
teacher, h e t a u g h t m e . H e died when 1 w a s sure he h a d stopped
social projects, fighting against c o r r u p t i o n and dictators, a n d
using drugs. 1 u n d e r s t o o d t h a t n o t h i n g is ever finally achieved
d e m a n d i n g m o r e h u m a n e and m o r e equitable t r a d e w e r e all
and t h a t o u r frailties r e m a i n . , . b e h i n d the masks of s t r e n g t h .
j u s t causes that they r e c o g n i z e d and approved.
S t r e n g t h i n d e e d Hes in a c c e p t i n g o n e ' s frailties a n d n o t in
favelas
I h a d b e e n a teacher, t h e n a very y o u n g dean in a G e n e v a h i g h school, and I h a d l a u n c h e d solidarity a w a r e n e s s o p e r a tions in p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y schools. A practicing believer in m y private life, I respected professional discretion in m y public position: I never p u t forward m y religious affiliation. This w a s
persuading oneself t h a t o n e has " o v e r c o m e " t h e m . But "overc o m i n g " t h e m may simply consist in accepting t h e m . Thierrj'-, m y s t u d e n t with "difficiilt aftection,"' t a u g h t m e t h o s e aspects of the educational relationship. It w a s n o t easy. O n e d a y in the conflict, h e also t a u g h t m e e m p a t h y a n d critical distance. His
10
What I Belíívf
The Earh! Yean
ii
sister h a d called m e becatose h e had hit his mother. H e r u p p e r Up
[l looked o n a n d told m y s e l f t h a t h e h a d m i s u n d e r s t o o d w h a t
h a d g o t s t u c k b e t w e e n h e r teeth. W h e n I reached the hospital
[I expected of h i m . S u d d e n l y h e stopped and explained t o t h e
I w a s angry, I could n o t i m a g i n e such behavior: h i t t i n g o n e ' s
[students: I w a n t e d t o tell y o u a b o u t C o l o m b i a n m u s i c a n d
m o t h e r ! W h e n I w a l k e d i n t o the waiting r o o m , his sister rushed
[traditional d a n c e s so t h a t y o u s h o u l d k n o w t h a t as w e l l as
t o m e a n d explained t h a t violence h a d b e e n their l a n g u a g e at
[having p r o b l e m s , w e C o l o m b i a n s have an identity, a dignity,
h o m e a n d that I h a d to understand: b o t h of t h e m had seen their
traditions, a n d a c u l t u r e , a n d t h a t w e l a u g h , and smile, a n d
father b e a t their m o t h e r and had experienced violence m their
[live. In t h i r t j ' m i n u t e s h e h a d t a u g h t m e a n u n e x p e c t e d lesson:
daily Hves. "Violence w a s o u r m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n ! " she
[never r e d u c e t h e o t h e r t o m y p e r c e p t i o n , t o his p r o b l e m s ,
w h i s p e r e d t o m e . S u d d e n l y 1 " u n d e r s t o o d " the probable causes
this poverty, o r his crises. H e h a d t a u g h t m e a lesson a b o u t
of his a t t i t u d e . I u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t accepting o r jusrifying.
' t h e p e d a g o g y of solidarity. I h a d b e e n m i s t a k e n . After t h a t
To u n d e r s t a n d is n o t t o justify: e m p a t h y makes this distinction
1 launched a m o v e m e n t in G e n e v a schools, calling for a t r u e
possible and, t h r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g , intelligence can h e l p us
" p e d a g o g y of sohdarity." O n e s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h t h e b e i n g ,
a d o p t a critical stance t h a t aUow.s us to l o o k for solutions, I was
the smile, t h e d i g n i t y t h e c u l t u r e t h a t fashions t h e p e r s o n
y o u n g a n d m y s t u d e n t h a d t h r o w n t h o s e truths t o m y face. H e
before r e d u c i n g h i m t o a s u m of n e e d s w h i c h
m a d e m e g r o w up, I have n e v e r forgotten those teachings, his
T h o s e t h i r t y m i n u t e s of m y h i e radically changed m y o u t l o o k
lessons.
on o t h e r s a n d o n fife. T h e twists a n d t u r n s of t h a t c o m m i t -
support.
T h a t s o l i d a r i t y c o m m i t m e n t , in G e n e v a , Brazil, I n d i a ,
m e n t t a u g h t m e so m u c h a b o u t life, w o u n d s , h o p e s , a n d fi-ail-
Senegal, o r B u r k i n a Paso, led t o m a n y rich experiences. Such
ties: t h e p o w e r of k n o w l e d g e , the s t r e n g t h of e m o t i o n , t h e
p e r s o n a h t i e s as t h e D a l a i L a m a , D o m H e l d c r C á m a r a , t h e
necessity of patience, t h e n e e d to listen. I have tried daily t o
A b b é P i e r r e , Pierre D u f r e s n e , o r S a n k a r a of course i m p r e s s e d
forget n o t h i n g .
m e a n d I o w e t h e m a l o t . But e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t w e r e
Years later, I resigned b o t h f r o m m y p o s t as a d e a n a n d as
t h e n a m e l e s s : t h e s i l e n t b r a v e , r e s i s t i n g in t h e d a r k . T h e y
president of the H e l p i n g H a n d Cooperative (called C o o p é r a t i o n
t a u g h t m e so m u c h , away from m e d i a a n d public a t t e n t i o n .
C o u p de Main in French) t h a t p r o m o t e d t h e "pedagogy of soli-
O n o n e o c c a s i o n , I h a d invited a C o l o m b i a n social w o r k e r
darity" discussed above, I n e e d e d change a n d to r e t u r n t o t h e
to o u r s c h o o l as p a r t o f o u r solidarity m e e t i n g s d u r i n g t h e
sources of m y faith a n d spirituality. A r o u n d m e , moreover, t h e
l u n c h h o u r . H e w a s t o speak a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m s of injustice,
issue of Islam had t a k e n o n g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e over t h e last
poverty, a n d crisis in his c o u n t r y I sat at the b a c k a n d listened.
ten years: f r o m the Iranian revolution in 1979 t o the R u s h d i e
D u r i n g t h e first h a l f o f h i s talk, h e s p o k e a b o u t t r a d i t i o n a l
affair o r t h e "Islamic h e a d s c a r f " controversy in France in 1989.
C o l o m b i a n d a n c e s , c o m p l e t e w i t h m u s i c and i l l u s t r a t i o n s .
Islam a n d Muslims h a d b e c o m e p o p u l a r topics.
n
Whli I Believe
The Early Years 13
T h a t w a s w h e n I d e c i d e d t o e n g a g e in w h a t 1 a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r e d a m a j o r c h a l l e n g e for t h e f u t u r e :
huilding
b r i d g e s , e x p l a i n i n g I s l a m a n d m a k i n g it b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d , b o t h a m o n g M u s h m s a n d in t h e W e s t w h i c h I k n e w so w e l l , h a v i n g lived t h e r e a n d s t u d i e d F r e n c h h t e r a t u r e a n d W e s t e r n philosophy. M y m a s t e r ' s d i s s e r t a t i o n in p h i l o s o p h y w a s The Notion of Suffering in Nietzsche's
Philosophy; t h e P h D
dissertation that I h a d t h e n u n d e r t a k e n (entitled as a Historian
of Philosophy)
Nietzsche
h a d led m e t o earnest, i n - d e p t h
r e a d i n g of the g r e a t e s t W e s t e r n p h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m S o c r a t e s , Plato, and Aristotle to Schopenhauer, through Descartes, S p i n o z a , K a n t , H e g e l , a n d M a r x in o r d e r t o c o n f r o n t t h e s u b s t a n c e of t h e i r v i e w s w i t h N i e t z s c h e ' s s o m e t i m e s v e r y free t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . M y t i m e w a s t h e n s p e n t o n r e a d i n g ( a n d a little on s p o r t ) , a n d I u s e d t o s p e n d b e t w e e n five and e i g h t h o u r s a day p o r i n g over texts. I also d e c i d e d t o r e s u m e i n t e n s i v e s t u d y o f t h e Islamic s c i e n c e s . I set m y s e l f a specialized r e a d i n g p r o g r a m , t h e n I d e c i d e d t o g o t o E g y p t w i t h m y family. E a c h of u s w a s t o benefit f r o m this: m y wife a n d c h i l d r e n w o u l d g e t t o k n o w t h e c o u n t r y , l e a r n A r a b i c , and s t u d y Islam, As for myself, I had set m y s e l f a d e m a n d i n g p r o g r a m a i m i n g t o c o v e r a five-year u n i v e r sicy c u r r i c u l u m in t w e n t y m o n t h s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g m o d e (private t u t o r i n g w i t h a scholar—'dlim) a l l o w e d for a n i n t e n s i v e i n d i v i d u a l r h y t h m s t a r t i n g everyday at five in t h e m o r n i n g a n d finishing at eleven P.M. o r m i d n i g h t , i will n e v e r forget this t r a i n i n g p e r i o d : it w a s i n t e n s e , difificult, b u t ever so l u m i n o u s a n d e n l i g h t e n i n g , I a c h i e v e d m y a i m s , t h a n k s be to God, and I have since kept completing m y training
t h r o u g h r e a d i n g , e n c o u n t e r s , a n d of c o u r s e w r i t i n g articles a n d b o o k s a b o u t i s l a m i n g e n e r a l o r Islamic law a n d j u r i s p r u d e n c e (fiqh) in p a r t i c u l a r . T h e s a m e values a n d t h e s a m e principles t h a t h a d inspired '.my initial c o m m i t m e n t t o solidarity, h u m a n dignity, a n d justice in the societies of the S o u t h as well as of t h e North n u r t u r e d m y c o m m i t m e n t as a M u s l i m . I n o w m e a n t t o s t a n d u p for m y religion, explain it, a n d , above all, s h o w t h a t w e have so m u c h in c o m m o n w i t h J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y b u t also w i t h the v a l u e s a d v o c a t e d by c o u n t l e s s h u m a n i s t s , a t h e i s t s , and agnostics. I m e a n t t o q u e s t i o n prejudices, to question t h e false c o n s t r u c t i o n s of E u r o p e ' s past ( f r o m w h i c h Islam w a s s u p p o s e d t o have b e e n absent), a n d of c o u r s e , help o p e n t h e way confidently t o living t o g e t h e r in h a r m o n y as o u r c o m m o n future requires. A p o i n t s h o u l d b e n o t e d : m u l t i c u l m r a l society is a fact; t h e r e is n o b e i n g for o r a g a i n s t it. T h i s b a s i c t r u t h m u s t b e h i g h l i g h t e d before e n g a g i n g i n t h e d e b a t e over " m u l t i c u l turalism," " i n t e g r a t i o n , " o r "citizenship." W h e t h e r w e w a n t it o r n o t , o u r W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s , in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s or E u r o p e , C a n a d a o r Australia, are c u l t u r a l l y diverse, as S o u t h A m e r i c a n , African, a n d Asian societies have l o n g b e e n ( a n d even E a s t e r n E u r o p e , so often o v e r l o o k e d w h e n s p e a k i n g of E u r o p e ) . T h i s m u s t b e a c c e p t e d , a n d m e a n s m u s t be s o u g h t t o b r i n g g r e a t e r h a r m o n y t o t h e " m u l t i c u l t u r a l citizenship'' discussed b y t h e p h i l o s o p h e r Charles Taylor o r the sociologist Tariq M o d o o d . T h e c h a l l e n g e of diversity requires practical solutions and compels citizens, intellectuals, and religious l i i e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o d e v e l o p a b a l a n c e d critical m i n d , a l w a y s
¡4
The Early Years t%
What! Believe
O p e n t o e v o l u t i o n , a n a l y s i s , e m p a t h y , a n d of c o u r s e self-
(I'l For years, I have b e e n facing such criticism, d o u b t , suspi-
criticism. Voicing o n e ' s o w n needs w h i l e also listening t o a n d
ilion, a n d rejection. I have always k n o w n t h a t such w o u l d b e
h e a r i n g t h e other, a c c e p t i n g c o m p r o m i s e w i t h o u t yielding o n
Ethe price, since I set o u t t o u n d e r m i n e a few certainties, t o
essentials, c h a l l e n g i n g deep-set beliefs a n d rigid o r d o g m a t i c
confront prejudices, and t o challenge s o m e over-simple conclu-
m i n d s o n a l l sides a n d particularly w i t h i n one's o w n c u l t u r a l
• sions. T h e political price s o o n b e c a m e o b v i o u s as b a n s c a m e
a n d r e l i g i o u s family: t h a t is n o t e a s y a n d it r e q u i r e s t i m e ,
. in succession; I w a s b a n n e d f r o m E g y p t after I criticized its
p a t i e n c e , empathy, a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
r e g i m e , t h e n for similar r e a s o n s from Tunisia, Saudi Arabia,
I h a d d e c i d e d t o e n g a g e in t h a t p r o c e s s of m e d i a t i o n
Syria, Algeria, and Libya. O n t h e other side, I w a s b a n n e d f r o m
b e t w e e n universes of reference, cultures, and religions. I fully
e n t e r i n g F r a n c e for six m o n t h s b e t w e e n N o v e m b e r 1995 a n d
a c c e p t e d b o t h m y M u s H m faith and m y W e s t e r n c u l t u r e a n d
May 1996, a n d m y U.S. visa w a s revoked for n o valid r e a s o n in
1 c l a i m e d t h a t this is p o s s i b l e and t h a t c o m m o n v a l u e s a n d
July 2004. In b o t h universes 1 h a d t o face restrictive m e a s u r e s ,
h o p e s are m o r e essential a n d m o r e n u m e r o u s
differences.
and t o this day I a m often d e n i e d venues in France a n d s o m e -
C o n v e y i n g t h a t m e s s a g e is difficult in this t i m e o f i m p a s -
rimes in B e l g i u m . It is n e v e r easy t o m e d i a t e b e t w e e n t w o
sioned debates d o m i n a t e d by confusion and m u t u a l deafness.
cultural a n d religious universes for w h i c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n has
A m e d i a t o r is a bridge, a n d a bridge n e v e r belongs t o o n e side
b e e n a p r o b l e m historically, w h e t h e r o n t h e philosophical or
only. T h u s t h e m e d i a t o r is always a little t o o m u c h " o n the
o n t h e political and e c o n o m i c level. "Values" are p u t t o t h e
o t h e r side," always s u s p e c t of d o u b l e loyalty I w a s always "a
fore, while the essence of alliances and conflicts is very often—
bit t o o W e s t e r n " for s o m e M u s l i m s a n d "a bit t o o M u s l i m "
quite simply—power.
than
for s o m e W e s t e r n e r s . O n b o t h sides o f the divide, t h e n , t h e
T h a t w a s the o r i g i n o f t h e figure o f the " c o n t r o v e r s i a l
b r i d g e - m e d i a t o r h a d t o p r o v e t h a t h e fully b e l o n g e d . W h e n
i n t e l l e c t u a l " w h o is a l w a y s accused, " o n b o t h sides o f t h e
passion and e m o t i o n g e t t h e u p p e r h a n d and colonize debates,
divide," o f b e i n g u n c l e a r , d u b i o u s , u n r e l i a b l e — i f n o t a l t o -
any b a l a n c e d , critical, a n d self-critical i n t e r v e n t i o n b e c o m e s
gether dishonest. I have k e p t asking m y detractors to p o i n t o u t
suspect a n d is s o o n perceived as a m b i g u o u s , as an i n t e r l o c u t o r
the a m b i g u i t i e s in m y p o s i t i o n s so t h a t I c o u l d clarify t h e m .
suggested o n m y w e b s i t e . T h e m e d i a t o r b e c o m e s the object of
T h e y s o m e t i m e s did, b u t m o s t of the t i m e m y detractors find
projections that s o m e t i m e s relate t o a distant past a n d t o deep
it difficult t o state precisely t h e so-called ambiguities in w h a t
disputes a n d t r a u m a s . N o t h i n g is s i m p l e . You m a k e e n e m i e s
I say. T h a t is m o s t often b e c a u s e they simply have n o t r e a d
o n b o t h sides, so t o speak, and o n b o t h shores you are s o m e -
m y b o o k s a n d articles. S o m e t i m e s it is either self-persuasion
t i m e s seen as a traitor, a " t u r n c o a t , " o r a m a n i p u l a t o r special-
o r a d e l i b e r a t e i n t e n t i o n t o b l u r m y p o s i t i o n w i t h a h a z e of
izing in "doublespeak."
suspicions, r u m o r s , o r d o u b t s fostered b y repeating t h e s a m e
Tii
Wkatmdieve
accusations of " d o u b l e s p e a k " or "rhetorical skill" u n s u p p o r t e d b y a n y serious a r g u m e n t . F r e q u e n t r e p e t i t i o n (in t h e m e d i a and o n the web) b r i n g s lasting credibility to the doubtfulness and controversial c h a r a c t e r of the intellectual. To express t h a t " t r u t h , " journalists a n d intellecmals alike often i n t r o d u c e m e as "highly controversial," w h e t h e r t o p r o t e c t themselves o r t o hint at t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a t m o s p h e r e ,
A Muslim, and a "Controversia Intellectua
C h a r l e s Taylor, discussing m y w o r k , o n c e u s e d a v e r y a p t formula: h e said t h a t I did n o t use "doublespeak" o r " a m b i g fi-om m y society a n d t h e
u o u s s t a t e m e n t s " b u t t h a t m y discourse w a s clear b e t w e e n t w o
INDEED, A P T E R INITIAL RECOGNITION
highly a m b i g u o u s u n i v e r s e s of reference. Taylor's s t a t e m e n t
school s y s t e m , e v e r y t h i n g h a d n o w c h a n g e d . T h e values of
e p i t o m i z e s w h a t I k n e w f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of m y c o m m i t -
dignity, solidarity, and j u s t i c e w h i c h I h a d u p h e l d as a citizen
m e n t : c o h e r e n t discourse b e t w e e n t w o universes of reference,
afoid t e a c h e r w i t h n o a p p a r e n t religion (and which h a d elic-
"civilizations" and cultures, shot t h r o u g h with d o u b t s , crises,
ited such praise in the past) n o longer h a d the same s u b s t a n c e
inconsistencies, a n d p o w e r plays, m u s t expect to c o m e u n d e r
or w o r t h w h e n they w e r e u p h e l d b y a " M u s l i m intellectual"
d o u b l e critical fire. At least for a while, for history s h o w s t h a t
or " M u s l i m scholar," F r o m t h e very m o m e n t w h e n I s t a r t e d
time levels things o u t a n d n o r m a l i z e s w h a t o u r c u r r e n t fears
speaking as a "Muslim" o r w h e n I w a s s e e n as such, a h a z e of
a n d t e n s i o n s c a n n o t conceive.
suspicion fell over m y i n t e n t i o n s and discourse. 1 experienced ^ithis revelation: the heavy, age-old b u r d e n of Europe's s t o r m y relations w i t h religion, and, in particular w i t h Islam—including denied intellectual influence, t h e Crusades, and colonization— still n e e d e d t o be cast off, I w a s a Swiss, a E u r o p e a n , b u t I w a s above all "a Muslim" in m y fellow citizens' perception: besides, 1 w a s n o t a "real E u r o p e a n , " o r if I w a s , I h a d t o prove it. My interlocutors had lists o f q u e s t i o n s t h a t w e r e to b e p u t t o m e to "test" t h e real n a t u r e o f m y " i n t e g r a t i o n " and incidentally compel m e t o a defensive p o s t u r e of c o n s t a n t justification, I observed, analyzed, a n d assessed t h e n a t u r e of i n h e r i t e d b u r d e n s a n d p r e s e n t fears. C o n t i n u o u s i m m i g r a t i o n since
18
A Mitiîim, and. a "Coniroversial IntetkctTal"
What! Believe
¡9
I
t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , t h e n e w visibility of t h e y o u n g e r
\ ered here and there o n t h e I n t e r n e t (always the same, r e p e a t e d
g e n e r a t i o n s of M u s l i m s , n e w d e m a n d s in schools a n d hospi-
1« t h o u s a n d times).
tals, a n d o t h e r i s s u e s — a l l t h o s e p h e n o m e n a ( w h i c h w e r e
First, m y lineage w a s attacked. Being t h e g r a n d s o n of t h e
soon t o include violence) were liable t o foster fear, suspicion,
founder
and d o u b t . E v e r y w h e r e , t h e W e s t e r n conscience w a s facing
nition a n d I m u s t n o t b e Ustened to. Islam, people said and still
deep-set d o u b t s : w h a t will b e c o m e of us w i t h this o n s l a u g h t
repeat, allows dissimulation {taqiyyah) and so I practiced it in
of i m m i g r a t i o n w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , is n e c e s s a r y t o W e s t e r n
the e x t r e m e ; all that s o u n d e d so fine t o Western audiences w a s
societies? W h o are t h o s e M u s l i m s w h o r e p r e s e n t "a n e w
in fact n o t h i n g b u t t h e presentable side of a far m o r e o b s c u r e
citizenship"^ a n d w h o are mainly faced w i t h serious e c o n o m i c
hidden a g e n d a : I w a n t e d t o Islamize m o d e r n i t y , E u r o p e a n d
difficulties, while political parties k n o w so little a b o u t t h e m ?
Europeans, t h e w h o l e West, a n d I certainly h a d links w i t h radi-
W h a t is it they really w a n t : to " i n t e g r a t e , " or t o " I s l a m i z e "
cals o r t e r r o r i s t s . Such allegations, r e p e a t e d several h u n d r e d
E u r o p e , America, t h e West?
i times o n t h e Internet ( w i t h o u t any evidence, of course), n o w
My involvement in the Western public debate over t h e issue of Islam w a s very s o o n t o focus o n t h e "visible intellectual" a large n u m b e r of p r o j e c t i o n s a n d / o r animosities t h a t b e s e t m e f r o m different sides. My appeals for dialogue, for c o m i n g t o g e t h e r t h r o u g h s h a r e d universals, for h a r m o n i o u s coexistence involving m u t u a l e n r i c h m e n t , s e e m e d " t o o g o o d t o be t r u e " a n d w e r e b o u n d t o "hide s o m e t h i n g . " In effect, m y positions w e r e also a p t t o i m p e d e the interests of s o m e ideologues, o r g a n i z a t i o n s , m o v e m e n t s , a n d g o v e r n m e n t s , for w h o m t h e p r e s e n c e o f Islam a n d o f confident, s o m e t i m e s critical a n d p r o t e s t i n g M u s h m s w a s in itself a p r o b l e m and a p o t e n t i a l danger. O v e r t h e p a s t fifteen years, a t t a c k s have s t e p p e d u p and have c o m e fi:om several fronts w h i c h can b e fairly easily identified, as will b e s e e n at the e n d of this book. T h e m e d i a have often relayed t h o s e criticisms e i t h e r t o further t h e i r o w n d u b i o u s agendas a n d objectives ( w h e n they were ideologically involved themselves) o r simply r e p e a t i n g the allegations gath-
of the Muslim B r o t h e r h o o d , 1 w a s d a n g e r o u s b y defi-
give the impression t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e s o m e t r u t h in all this. W h e r e t h e r e is smoke, t h e r e is fire, they repeat, w i t h o u t trying to find o u t w h a t the fire is and w h o is feeding it.
i
Several Fronts, Two Universes, One Dtseourse 21
T h e e s s e n c e of t h a t a p p r o a c h and of t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g [theses o r i g i n a t e d m u c h earlier t h a n 9 / 1 1 , N e i t h e r did it c o m e n s a r e s p o n s e t o S a m u e l H u n t i n g t o n ' s mid-1990s p o s i t i o n s
Several Fronts, Two Universes, One Discourse
' a b o u t t h e "clash of civilizations" (which a n y w a y have b e e n : largely m i s i n t e r p r e t e d ) . As early as t h e l a t e 1980s, t h e n in m y 1 9 9 2 b o o k Muslims in the Secular State, I stated t h e first ' f u n d a m e n t a l s of m y behefs a b o u t t h e compatibility of v a l u e s and t h e possibiUty for i n d i v i d u a l s a n d citizens of different cultures a n d religions t o coexist positively (and n o t j u s t pacifi-
and this o b v i -
cally). U n l i k e w h a t I have o b s e r v e d a m o n g s o m e intellectuals
ously p r e v e n t s it f r o m b e i n g fully h e a r d in its s u b s t a n c e , its
a n d l e a d e r s , i n c l u d i n g s o m e M u s l i m t h i n k e r s and r e l i g i o u s
subtleties, and its vision for t h e future. S o m e of t h e criticisms
representatives, those views w e r e b y n o m e a n s a r e s p o n s e t o
e x p r e s s e d a r e of c o u r s e sincere a n d raise l e g i t i m a t e q u e s -
c u r r e n t e v e n t s n o r a c h a n g e o f m i n d p r o d u c e d by t h e post-
t i o n s — w h i c h I will t r y t o a n s w e r in t h e present w o r k — b u t
1 9 / r i t r a u m a . T h e y r e p r e s e n t a v e r y old s t a n c e w h i c h w a s
o t h e r s are clearly biased a n d a t t e m p t t o pass off their selective,
c o n f i r m e d , d e v e l o p e d , a n d clarified in t h e c o u r s e of t i m e .
prejudiced h e a r i n g as " d o u b l e s p e a k " o n e should b e w a r y of. I
Its s u b s t a n c e can b e f o u n d in m y first b o o k s and a r t i c l e s in
have l o n g b e e n criticizing their d e l i b e r a t e deaftiess a n d t h e i r
1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 9 ; t h o s e views w e r e t h e n built o n a n d e x p a n d e d in
ideological " d o u b l e h e a r i n g " : I a m d e t e r m i n e d t o g o a h e a d ,
every b o o k I w r o t e u p t o t h e p r e s e n t synthesis. A M u s l i m ' s
w i t h o u t w a s t i n g m y t i m e over such strategic diversions, and
religious discourse, a n d t h e m e d i a t o r ' s role itself, b r i n g a b o u t
r e m a i n faithful t o m y vision, m y principles, and m y p r o j e c t .
negative reactions in b o t h universes of reference. W h a t m a k e s
M Y DISCOURSE FACES M A N Y - S I D E D OPPOSITION,
I m e a n t o build bridges between t w o universes of reference,
things m o r e difficult is t h a t I d o n o t merely shed light o n over-
b e t w e e n t w o (highly debatable) constructions t e r m e d W e s t e r n
lapping areas and c o m m o n p o i n t s b e t w e e n t h e t w o universes
and Islamic "civilizations" (as if those w e r e closed, m o n o l i t h i c
of reference b u t t h a t I also call intellectuals, politicians, a n d
entities), a n d b e t w e e n citizens widiin Western societies t h e m -
religious figures t o a n e c e s s a r y d u t y of consistency a n d self-
selves. M y aim is t o show, i n theory and in practice, that o n e can
criticism. M y i n t e r l o c u t o r s d o n o t like this latter exercise so
be b o t h fully Muslim a n d W e s t e r n and that beyond o u r different
m u c h b e c a u s e indeed it is n o t easy.
affiliations w e share m a n y c o m m o n prindples and values t h r o u ^
T h e e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n t h e West and Islam (between civili-
which it is possible t o "live together" within contemporary plural-
zations, nations, a n d / o r citizens) will n o t be achieved construc-
istic, multicultural societies w h e r e various religions coexist.
tively a n d p o s i t i v e l y t h r o u g h m e r e w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g , b y
22
Several Fronu, Two Umvenes, One Discourse
What I Believe
13
Optimistically recalling t h e existence of c o m m o n values. T h e
[destructive e c o n o m i c o r d e r , racism, discrimination, acquies-
p r o b l e m lies further u p s t r e a m . All of us should s h o w humility,
cent relations w i t h the w o r s t dictatorships, a n d o t h e r failings.
respect, a n d consistency. Humility, b y a d m i t t i n g t h a t nobody,
tOur contradictions
n o civilization o r n a t i o n , holds a m o n o p o l y o n universals a n d
I d e m a n d i n g a n d rigorous w i t h b o t h universes.
o n the g o o d , and t h a t o u r political a n d social systems are n o t perfect; respect t o w a r d o t h e r s because w e should b e c o n v i n c e d t h a t their richness a n d achievements can b e beneficial t o us; and last consistency, b e c a u s e t h e other's p r e s e n c e acts like a m i r r o r in w h i c h w e s h o u l d c o n f r o n t o u r o w n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d i n c o n s i s t e n c y in t h e c o n c r e t e , day-to-day i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of o u r n o b l e s t values. T h i s is a difficult exercise b u t a n imperative o n e . Instead of unfairly c o m p a r i n g t h e ideal of o u r theoretical values with t h e other's practical deficiencies, w e m u s t c o m p a r e practices, shed light o n contradictions and m u t u a l hypocrisies, a n d t o g e t h e r i m p o s e a d o u b l e r e q u i r e m e n t : clarifying t h e area of o u r c o m m o n values a n d striving t o b e ever m o r e faithful t o t h e m intellectually, politically, socially, and culturally. This strict, s t a u n c h c o m m i t m e n t has caused m e t o b e perceived as a "traitor" b y s o m e M u s l i m s and as a "fifth c o l u m n infiltrated a g e n t " b y s o m e o f m y W e s t e r n fellow-citizens. To M u s l i m s , I r e p e a t t h a t Islam Is a g r e a t a n d n o b l e relig i o n b u t t h a t all M u s l i m s a n d M u s l i m m a j o r i t y societies did n o t in the past and d o n o t n o w live u p t o this nobleness: critical reflection is r e q u i r e d a b o u t faithfulness to OUT principles, o u r o u d o o k o n o t h e r s , o n cultures, freedom, the situation of w o m e n , a n d so on. Our contradictions and ambiguities are countless. T o W e s t e r n e r s , I similarly r e p e a t t h a t t h e u n d e n i a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s of f r e e d o m and d e m o c r a c y s h o u l d n o t m a k e u s forget m u r d e r o u s "civihzing m i s s i o n s , " c o l o n i z a t i o n , t h e
and ambiguities
are countless.
I am equally
Interacting Crises
25
igiona! identities are b e i n g r e a s s e r t e d . In addition, m i g r a t o r y l e n o m e n a , already m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , intensify t h e feeling b e i n g c a r r i e d away a n d t r a p p e d in an irreversible l o g i c :
Interacting Crises
r o p e is g e t t i n g older a n d it n e e d s i m m i g r a n t s t o m a i n t a i n .e s t r e n g t h a n d b a l a n c e o f its e c o n o m y ; t h e United States, lanada, and Australia are facing similar n e e d s — w i t h , in addi on, a l o n g tradition of i m m i g r a t i o n . Yet, those i m m i g r a n t s reaten c u l t u r a l h o m o g e n e i t y , w h i c h is already e n d a n g e r e d ly the globalization of c u l t u r e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i s is
is often presented
in t o s q u a r i n g the circle: e c o n o m i c n e e d s are in contradic
as a p r o b l e m of religions, values, a n d cultures that should be
Jon w i t h cultural resistances a n d obviously t h o s e resistances
T H E PROBLEM OF MUSLIM PRESENCE IN THE W E S T
addressed t h r o u g h t h e o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s , legal m e a s u r e s , or
1 n e v e r b e s t r o n g e n o u g h t o p r e v a i l . T h i s is t h e s e c o n d
by highlighting s o m e indisputable principles and values. It is
m e n s i o n o f t h e identity crisis: Ъ е г е , onslaughts from outside
w r o n g , however, n o t t o take into a c c o u n t the psychological
eaken traditional l a n d m a r k s . B u t that is n o t all: w i t h i n soci
tensions a n d e m o t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t s u r r o u n d a n d some
ties t h e m s e l v e s , n e w k i n d s of c i t i z e n s are e m e r g i n g . T h e y
t i m e s s h a p e the e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n t h e West, E u r o p e , a n d
;ed t o be Asians, Africans, T u r k s , o r Arabs, and n o w t h e y are
M u s l i m s a n d Islam. Critical debate over systems of t h o u g h t ,
'rench, British, Italian, Belgian, S w e d i s h , American, C a n a d i a n ,
values, a n d identities is a necessity a n d it m u s t be carried o u t
Australian o r N e w Zealander. T h e i r parents used t o b e isolated
s c r u p u l o u s l y critically, a n d in depth, b u t its o m n i p r e s e n c e o n
and had c o m e t o earn a living ( p r o b a b l y intending to go h o m e ) ,
the E u r o p e a n scene conceals other preoccupations that m u s t be
,but n o w their children are increasingly "integrated" into society
taken i n t o account t o avoid going after t h e w r o n g target.
jgnd m o r e a n d m o r e visible in s t r e e t s , schools, firms, adminis
W e s t e r n societies in g e n e r a l a n d E u r o p e a n s in p a r t i c u l a r
trations, and o n campuses. T h e y are visible t h r o u g h their color,
are e x p e r i e n c i n g a v e r y d e e p , m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l i d e n t i t y
i^their dress, and their differences, b u t t h e y speak the c o u n t r y ' s
crisis. Its first e x p r e s s i o n stems f r o m t h e twofold p h e n o m
language a n d they are indeed F r e n c h . British, Italian, Belgian,
e n o n of g l o b a l i z a t i o n and^—in E u r o p e — t h e e m e r g e n c e of
:Swedish, American, C a n a d i a n , Australian, or N e w Zealander.
t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n , b e y o n d reference t o t h e n a t i o n s t a t e .
'Their presence from w i t h i n d i s r u p t s representations and gives
F o r m e r l a n d m a r k s r e l a t e d t o n a t i o n a l identity, t h e c o u n t r y ' s
'rise t o s o m e t i m e s p a s s i o n a t e i d e n t i t y t e n s i o n s r a n g i n g f r o m
m e m o r y , o r specific c u l t u r a l references s e e m t o b e w e a r i n g
p u z z l e m e n t t o s e c t a r i a n o r e v e n racist r e j e c t i o n . A n o t h e r
e v e r y w h e r e t e n s i o n s can be felt, structuring n a t i o n a l o r
h e n o m c n o n "from w i t h i n " h a s e m e r g e d in r e c e n t y e a r s :
away:
26
WhatlBeUsve
Interacting Crises
17
n o t only has insecurity o r violence b e e n found t o increase in
[pluralism a n d m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m are viable, a n d so o n . T h o s e
s o m e areas or suburbs because of p o o r social i n t e g r a t i o n , but
rquestions reveal fears as well as doubts.
a global p h e n o m e n o n t h r e a t e n s n a t i o n a l securities. F r o m New
Similar questionings can be observed a m o n g Muslims. T h e
York in S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 1 t o Madrid in March 2004 o r L o n d o n
! identity crisis is a reality t h a t also takes o n multiple d i m e n -
in July 2005, the M u s l i m presence n o w i m p o r t s international
sions. O n a global level, n u m e r o u s , far-reaching q u e s t i o n s
d e m a n d s t h r o u g h v i o l e n t , e x t r e m i s t Islamist n e t w o r k s that
. emerge: in face of globalization, of global culture perceived as
strike o u t at i n n o c e n t citizens. Violent extremism strikes from
Westernization, the Muslim w o r l d is u n d e r g o m g a p r o f o u n d
within, since m o s t of t h e p e r p e t r a t o r s of those attacks were
crisis. M u s l i m majority societies m o s d y lag b e h i n d e c o n o m i -
either b o r n and r a i s e d in the W e s t o r i m m e r s e d in W e s t e r n
cally, they are generally u n d e m o c r a t i c , a n d w h e n they are rich,
c u l m r e . T h e e x p e r i e n c e of this violence completes the picture
they fail t o c o n t r i b u t e t o intellectual a n d / o r scientific p r o g -
of this d e e p identity crisis: globalization, i m m i g r a t i o n , n e w
fress. It is as if t h e M u s l i m w o r l d , p e r c e i v i n g itself as d o m i -
c i t i z e n s h i p s , a n d s o c i a l as well as e x t r e m i s t v i o l e n c e have
nated, c a n n o t hve u p t o its claims. Moreover, the experience of
palpable effects o n W e s t e r n societies" social psychology.
e c o n o m i c exile adds t h e c o n c r e t e d i m e n s i o n of t e n s i o n s a n d
D o u b t s and fears are visible. S o m e far right political parties
contradictions to this v a g u e general feeling. T h e fear of losing
t a k e a d v a n t a g e of t h o s e fears a n d use reassuring, p o p u l i s t
one's religion and culture at t h e core of W e s t e r n societies has
a r g u m e n t s stressing n a r i o n a h s m a n d the n e e d t o revive and
led t o n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e s of w i t h d r a w a l a n d self-isolation. All
p r o t e c t identity. T h e i r m a i n points are rejecting i m m i g r a n t s ,
i m m i g r a n t s have g o n e t h r o u g h similar experiences in t e r m s of
e n h a n c i n g security, a n d stigmatizing t h e n e w e n e m y t h a t Islam
culture, b u t for Muslims religious questionings are also often
stands fon P o p u l a t i o n s naturally r e s p o n d t o such r h e t o r i c and
m i x e d w i t h such c u l t u r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h e first g e n e r a -
all parties have t o take position over t h o s e sensitive issues. This
tions ( w h o w e r e usually f r o m m o d e s t social b a c k g r o u n d s in
p h e n o m e n o n brings a b o u t strategic shifts within f o r m e r polit-
i E u r o p e , t h o u g h n o t in t h e U n i t e d States o r C a n a d a ) experi-
ical g r o u p s ; tensions e m e r g e o n right and left b e t w e e n those
enced d e e p tensions, a n d still d o : the feefing of loss regarding
w h o refuse to r e s p o n d t o the identity crisis with stigmatizing,
their original language a n d c u l t u r e , b e i n g t o r n b e t w e e n t w o
s e c t a r i a n , o r racist d i s c o u r s e a n d t h o s e w h o find n o o t h e r
languages, uneasiness w i t h t h e W e s t e r n secular e n v i r o n m e n t
m e a n s t o have a p o h t i c a l future t h a n r e s p o n d i n g t o people's
w h e r e religious values are so little referred t o (except in the
fears. Lectures, debates, a n d b o o k s are increasingly n u m e r o u s :
United States), relations a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e i r o w n
p e o p l e everywhere try t o define French, British, Italian, D u t c h ,
children w h o are s t e e p e d in t h e W e s t e r n e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d
A m e r i c a n , Australian identity, to identify the roots a n d values
Other t e n s i o n s . T h e identity crisis r u n s t h r o u g h g e n e r a t i o n s .
of E u r o p e , America, o r Australia, t o find o u t w h e t h e r culmral
Here again it has t o d o w i t h fears a n d sufferings: t h e fear of
iS
Interacting Crises
What I Bdieve
self-dispossession, o f l o s i n g o n e ' s l a n d m a r k s , of c o l o n i z a t i o n of t h e inner self, a n d of daily contradictions, w i t h all the personal and psychological suffering this experience entails. O n e m u s t also a d d t o this the direct c o n s e q u e n c e s of the t e n s e climate that has developed in t h e West. Repeated, accelerating crises include the Rushdie affair, the "Islamic headscarf" controversy, terrorist attacks, the D a n i s h cartoons, t h e pope's r e m a r k s : t h e list is g e t t i n g longer and l o n g e r and each c o u n t r y also has its share of pohrical instrumentalization, sensational n e w s i t e m s , a n d juicy stories r e p o r t e d in t h e m e d i a . M a n y
29
[tensions a n d d o u b t s that often p r o d u c e passionate, e m o r i o n a l , l i o m e t i m e s u n c o n t r o l l e d a n d excessive reactions. T h e c o n s e quences o f t h o s e i n t e r a c t i n g crises can b e o b s e r v e d everyIWhere: u n d e r the effect of e m o t i o n , o n e listens less, deafness acts in; reflecrions b e c o m e less c o m p l e x a n d subtle, t h e y are expressed in b i n a r y t e r m s a n d subtlety is perceived as a m b i guity. Essentialized stories serve tojustify final j u d g m e n t s a b o u t the o t h e r s (one person's b e h a v i o r is seen t o represent all of her ' o r his society or c o m m u n i t y ) . H i g h - s o u n d i n g philosophical or political a r g u m e n t s will have n o effect if o n e does n o t take
M u s l i m s experience a feeling of srigmatization a n d c o n s t a n t
••Into a c c o u n t t h e real a n d s o m e t i m e s devastating c o n s e q u e n c e s
pressure: they feel t h o s e criticisms a n d this obsession w i t h "the
• of psychological t e n s i o n s , of m i s t r u s t , fear, e m o t i o n , deat-
p r o b l e m of Islam and M u s l i m s " as aggressions, denials of their
cliess, b i n a r y thinking, o r of focusing o n essentialized stories
a n d s o m e t i m e s clearly racist and Islamophobic expres-
that serve as indisputable evidence t o reject o r c o n d e m n . T o
sions. T h e y experience this daily: b e i n g a visible M u s l i m i n the
run against the tide of t h o s e p h e n o m e n a (which o n c e again
W e s t t o d a y is n o easy m a t t e r . In such an a t m o s p h e r e , a crisis
similarly aftect all parties), w e n e e d an educarional a p p r o a c h
of confidence is inevitable: s o m e have decided lo isolate t h e m -
relying o n a p e d a g o g y t h a t takes people's psychological state
selves, believing t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o h o p e for in a society
into a c c o u n t , w i t h o u t t r y i n g t o m a k e t h e m feel guilty ( n o r
t h a t rejects t h e m ; o t h e r s have decided t o b e c o m e invisible by
to stigmatize them) and w h i c h strives t o explain, qualify, a n d
disappearing into t h e crowd; last, o t h e r s have c o m m i t t e d them-
think in m u m a l t e r m s . T h e evolution of fear and d o u b t m u s t
selves t o facing t h e p r o b l e m and o p e n i n g spaces for e n c o u n t e r
be a n s w e r e d with a r e v o l u t i o n of self-confidence and m u m a l
a n d d i a l o g u e . C a u g h t a m i d t h e essentially n e g a t i v e m e d i a
• trust. E m o t i o n a l rejection a n d deafiiess m u s t be a n s w e r e d by
i m a g e of Islam a n d M u s l i m s ; the populist, sectarian discourse
intellectual empathy t h r o u g h which negative e m o t i o n s are kept
o f s o m e parties; t h e fears and r e l u c t a n c e of their A m e r i c a n ,
at bay a n d subjected t o constructive criticism. This requires a
A u s t r a h a n , o r E u r o p e a n fellow-citizens; and, t o c r o w n it all,
l o n g - t e r m , d e m a n d i n g , dialectical a p p r o a c h chat can o n l y b e
the crisis of confidence and the d o u b t s assailing Muslims them-
developed at the grass roots. It can only b e achieved t h r o u g h
selves, the challenge is a m o m e n t o u s o n e .
proximity and I believe at least fifiy years will be necessary for
rights,
Such psychological data m u s t be t a k e n into a c c o u n t w h e n s t a r t i n g this discussion: p e o p l e are afraid; t h e y e x p e r i e n c e
people t o get accustomed. T h a t is a l o n g t i m e . . . and yet it is so short on a historical scale.
Swi/i EvclHlions, Silent RrmtutiiMS )i
I
en perceived as processes of "dc-lslamization," of opposition religion,' entailing repressive m e a s u r e s : it w a s historically id factually impossible t o associate " s e c u l a r i s m " o r "reli-
Swift Evolutions, Silent Revolutions
ious n e u t r a l i t y " with freedom a n d d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n . W h e n I riving in t h e West, t h e first g e n e r a t i o n s carried with t h e m tose perceptions and that negative b u r d e n (and they often still i). This is accompanied b y major confusion b e t w e e n cultural Icments a n d religious references: for m a n y o f t h e m , b e i n g jiid remaining Muslims m e a n t being Muslims as they h a d b e e n
C U R R E N T PROBLEMS MAY SOMETIMES CAUSE US t o lose sight of
M o r o c c o . Algeria, E g y p t , L e b a n o n , Pakistan, o r T u r k e y
the historical perspective and lead t o unjustified pessimism. In
W h a t m a t t e r e d was t h u s t o b e Moroccan. Algerian. Egyptian,
less t h a n t w o g e n e r a t i o n s , amazingly rapid evolution has b e e n
Lebanese, Pakistani, o r T u r k i s h Muslims in E u r o p e , a n d n o t
o b s e r v e d b o t h in M u s l i m s ' thinking a n d in their u n d e r s t a n d i n g
merely Muslims in the West, even less W e s t e r n Muslims. For
of the W e s t e r n a n d E u r o p e a n e n v i r o n m e n t . Yet n o t h i n g was
many, especially a m o n g A r a b s . T u r k s , a n d Africans, t h e r e
easy: as n o t e d above, t h e first g e n e r a t i o n s w e r e often n a m r a l l y
could b e n o question o f t a k i n g the host c o u n t r y ' s nationality
isolated from an e n v i r o n m e n t that they did n o t k n o w well {as
since s o m e day they w o u l d "go h o m e . " S o m e Mu.slim scholars
in t h e United States o r C a n a d a ) o r h a d a very m o d e s t social
I 'itlamd)
c o n f i r m e d t h o s e misgivings b y c l a i m i n g t h a t living
s t a t u s a n d e d u c a t i o n (as in E u r o p e o r Australia). A b o v e all,
m the West could only b e allowed in case o f necessity: it w a s
they carried with t h e m an array of confusions that it w a s diffi-
a legal exceplion (ruklisa)
cult t o d o away with.
settling in t h o s e countries w h e r e drinking alcohol w a s a l l o w e d
T h e first natural a t t i t u d e w a s t o consider Western countries foreign lands w h e r e t h e y h a d t o live as strangers. Moreover, their p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e m e a n i n g a n d f u n d a m e n t a l s o f secularism s t e m m e d from a historical misunderstanding: t o r N o r t h Africans, Middle East Arabs, Asians, and T u r k s , secularization m e a n t an i m p o r t e d s y s t e m imposed by colonists o r i m p l e m e n t e d by such heads o f state as Kamal Atatiirk, H a b i b Bourguiba. Hafiz al-Assad. o r S a d d a m Hussein t h r o u g h dictatorial policies. Secularism and religious neutrality have mainly
a n d there c o u l d b e n o q u e s t i o n o f
and w h e r e religious m o r a l s w e r e n o t respected. In less t h a n t w o g e n e r a t i o n s p e r c e p t i o n s have c h a n g e d ificantly T h e vast majority o f M u s l i m s today assert t h e i r esence in the West a n d in Europe. Similarly, their rclationip t o secularism a n d religious n e u t r a l i t y h a s b e e n revised after scholars, intellectuals, a n d leaders u n d e r s t o o d ( b y studying t h e principles o f secularism) t h a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n of' church a n d state did n o t m e a n wiping o u t religions b u t r a t h e r regulating their p r e s e n c e in t h e pluralistic ( a n d m o r e o r less
32
What I Believe
Swifx Evohtitfns. Silral Revoiutioni
n
n e u t r a l ) public space t o ensure equality. T h e y o u n g n o l o n g e r
I uropean Muslims o r as Muslim W e s t e r n e r s or E u r o p e a n s . O n
h a v e q u a l m s a b o u t t a k i n g a W e s t e r n nationality, r e f e r r i n g
e g r o u n d , activities are m o r e and m o r e o p e n toward society
t o t h e m s e l v e s as c o m m i t t e d citizens a n d taking p a r t in their
and m a n y scholars and leaders, w o m e n a n d m e n , build local o r
c o u n t r y ' s social, political, and c u l t u r a l life. Millions of t h e m
ii.itional bridges with their fellow-citizens a n d political authori-
are peaceful, l a w - a b i d i n g citizens, w h i l e the m e d i a a n d the
ties. This is i n d e e d a silent revolution, w h i c h does n o t directly
public s e e m o b s e s s e d w i t h suspecting a p r o b l e m i n h e r e n t in
interest t h e media because it is b e i n g achieved on the l o n g - t e r m
Islam b e c a u s e of a few Hteralists o r extremists ( w h o m a v or
scale of g e n e r a t i o n s . Still, o n c e again, fi*om the s t a n d p o i n t of
m a y n o t b e violent) w h o claim n o t t o recognize W e s t e r n laws.
ihc historical time of p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s , such evolutions
Critical reflection h a s b e e n started r e g a r d i n g o r i g i n a l (Arab,
.ire revolutionary a n d extraordinary. T h e y have n o t b e e n fully
Asian, o r Turkish) c u l t u r e s that d o n o t always fully respect the
measured yet, and it is certain today, as I already w r o t e in 1996
f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s of Islam: q u e s t i o n a b l e h a b i t s , patri-
in To Be a European Muslim, t h e n in 2003 in Weslern Muslims and
a r c h a l reflexes, failure t o respect w o m e n ' s rights, t r a d i t i o n a l
the Future of Islam,'' t h a t t h e W e s t e r n a n d E u r o p e a n experience
p r a c t i c e s w r o n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h religion (excision, forced
has already h a d a very i m p o r t a n t i m p a c t o n Islam t h r o u g h o u t
m a r r i a g e s , etc.) h a v e b e e n reconsidered.
the w o r l d and of c o u r s e o n M u s l i m m a j o r i t y s o c i e t i e s — a n
P r o b l e m s remain, o f course, and n e w m i g r a n t s are (and will b e ) constantly b r i n g i n g t o t h e fore o l d issues t h a t t h e M u s l i m s
i m p a c t t h a t will b e e v e n m o r e c o n s i d e r a b l e in t h e y e a r s t o come.
w h o have been p r e s e n t for a l o n g t i m e have long overcome.'' It
O n e s h o u l d n o t fail t o o b s e r v e t h e revival o f spirituality a n d
is also t r u e t h a t n o t all c o u n t r i e s have reached t h e s a m e level
of t h e q u e s t for m e a n i n g a m o n g M u s l i m W e s t e r n e r s . Islam
of evolution: French, British, a n d A m e r i c a n M u s l i m s have a
is p e r c e i v e d as s u c h a p r o b l e m t o d a y t h a t MusHm s c h o l a r s
l o n g e r e x p e r i e n c e of W e s t e r n societies ( A m e r i c a n M u s l i m s
or intellectuals are often called u p o n t o explain w h a t Islam is
have n o t b e e n there so l o n g b u t are b e t t e r educated) a n d they
not in light of c u r r e n t challenges. H o w e v e r , Islam is first and
are far m o r e a d v a n c e d in their reflection and activities. Yet it
foremost a n a n s w e r for t h e m a j o r i t y of M u s l i m h e a r t s and
s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e process is accelerating and that o t h e r
consciences, e c h o i n g a q u e s t for m e a n i n g at the c o r e of rich
M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s in all W e s t e r n countries are benefiting
and industrialized societies. T h i s is hardly ever m e n t i o n e d , and
i r o m t h o s e a c h i e v e m e n t s and are n o w developing t h e i r under-
yet this is w h e r e the essence of religion hes: millions of Muslim
s t a n d i n g of W e s t e r n realities at a q u i c k e r pace. T h e role of
w o m e n a n d m e n e x p e r i e n c e religion as spiritual i n i t i a t i o n ,
s o m e leaders w h o are converts t o Islam is also crucial t o this
reconciliation with m e a n i n g , and q u e s t for the l i b e r a t i o n of
e v o l u t i o n . ' N o w a d a y s , p e o p l e s p e a k of b e i n g M u s l i m s in
their irmer selves in a global w o r l d d o m i n a t e d by a p p e a r a n c e s
t h e W e s t a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y define t h e m s e l v e s as W e s t e r n o r
and excessive p o s s e s s i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n . T o b e a M u s l i m
34
Widl I Believe
W e s t e r n e r is also to experience the spiritual tension b e t w e e n a faith t h a t calls for liberation of the inner self and a daily life t h a t s e e m s t o c o n t r a d i c t a n d i m p r i s o n it. T h i s is a difficult experience w h e t h e r for a Hindu, a Buddhist, a Jew, a Christian, o r a M u s l i m ; it is a difficult e x p e r i e n c e for all h u m a n beings w h o wish t o r e m a i n free with their values and w h o w o u l d also like t o offer their children the i n s t r u m e n t s of their freedom. It w o u l d b e w o r t h w h i l e , at the core of all those debates, n o t t o
Multiple Identities First an American (a European, an Australian), or a Muslim?
disregard that essential religious, spiritual, and philosophical dimension.
GLOBALIZATION, MIGRATIONS, EXILE,
increasingly r a p i d poHt-
ical and social change, all t h e s e p h e n o m e n a cause fear, anxiety, and t e n s i o n . F o r m e r l a n d m a r k s s e e m o u t d a t e d a n d fail t o provide serenity; w h o are w e at the core of such upheavals? The issue of identity s t e m s f r o m t h o s e d e e p d i s t u r b a n c e s . W h e n s o m a n y p e o p l e a r o u n d us, in o u r o w n society, n o l o n g e r r e s e m b l e us a n d a p p e a r so different, w e n a t u r a l l y feel t h e n e e d t o redefine ourselves. Similarly, the experience of b e i n g u p r o o t e d , of e c o n o m i c a n d political exile, leads t o this q u e s t for identity at the core o f a n e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t is n o t n a t u r a l l y ours. T h e reaction is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b u t w h a t should b e stressed h e r e is t h a t it is above all a re-action to a presence o r an e n v i r o n m e n t felt as foreign. T h u s o n e defines one's identity by reaction, by differentiation, in o p p o s i t i o n to w h a t o n e is not, or even against others. T h e process is a natural o n e , and it is just as n a t u r a l t h a t the a p p r o a c h should b e c o m e binary a n d eventually set a m o r e or less constructed "identity" against a n o t h e r that is projected o n t o "the other" or "society." Identities defined in t h i s m a n n e r , reactive identities, are in essence u n i q u e and exclusive, b e c a u s e of the very n e c e s s i t y .
36
Miiiriplc Identities
WhatlBdkvs
37
t h a t h a s g i v e n rise t o t h e m : t h e p o i n t is t o k n o w w h o o n e is and, clearly, w h o o n e is n o t .
^ew, a C h r i s t i a n , o r a M u s l i m : h e r o r h i s p a s s p o r t o r n a t i o n -
T h i s a t t i t u d e is n a t u r a l and, o n c e again, u n d e r s t a n d a b l e in
vidual m u s t v o t e for a c a n d i d a t e at a n election, she o r h e is
a p e r i o d of rapid upheavals, b u t it is unhealthy and dangerous.
first an A m e r i c a n , Italian, F r e n c h , o r British citizen involved in
A t t e m p t s t o clarify t h i n g s are actually oversimplifying and
national affairs. D e p e n d i n g on the r e a l m o r the field of activity,
a b o v e all reductive. C l e a r answers are expected fi^m oneself
the individual therefore p u t s forward o n e identity o r another,
a n d one's feUow-dtizens: o n e should b e primarily "American,"
and t h a t is n o t c o n t r a d i c t o r y
ality c a n n o t a n s w e r t h e existential q u e s t i o n . W h e n a n indi-
'Australian," " N e w Z e a l a n d e r , " "Italian," "French," "British,"
At a t a l k I w a s g i v i n g o n e d a y in G r e e c e , at G e o r g e
" D u t c h " — o r p r i m a r i l y "Jewish," "Christian," or "Muslim." Any
Papandreou's invitation, t h e e c o n o m i s t A m a r t y a Sen expressed
a n s w e r t h a t a t t e m p t s t o qualify this exclusive self-definition
his total a g r e e m e n t w i t h m y t h o u g h t t h r o u g h a fine illustra-
t e n d s t o be perceived as ambiguous. M o r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y this
tion. S u p p o s e , h e said, y o u are a p o e t a n d a vegetarian. If y o u
casts d o u b t o n t h e loyalty of individuals, and particularly today
are a d i n n e r g u e s t , t h i s is n o t i m e o r p l a c e t o insist o n y o u r
of Muslims w h o are required to say w h e t h e r they are first and
identity as a poet, while if y o u a t t e n d a p o e t r y circle, y o u are
foremost "Muslim" o r 'American," "Canadian," "South African,"
certainly n o t going t o i n t r o d u c e yourself as a vegetarian, for
" S i n g a p o r i a n , " " F r e n c h , " "ItaUan," " B r i t i s h ' . , . T h e q u e s t i o n
you w o u l d b e seen as eccentric. In o t h e r w o r d s , y o u have m o r e
explicitly addresses t h e i r dcfinirion of their identity w h e r e a s
than o n e identity a n d y o u give priority t o o n e of t h o s e identi-
implicitiy, and m o r e seriously, it has t o d o with loyalty Since o n e
ties o r t h e o t h e r d e p e n d i n g o n the e n v i r o n m e n t or situation,
can only have o n e identity, o n e can only have o n e loyalty, A clear,
w i t h o u t this affecting y o u r loyalty t o o n e o r d e r of affiliation
unqualified, u n a m b i g u o u s answer m u s t be given!
o r t h e o t h e r . A p o e t w h o says h e is a vegetarian a t a m e a l is n o
Yet t h e q u e s t i o n itself is m e a n i n g l e s s . O b s e s s e d w i t h the
less a poet! T h e e x a m p l e is indeed enlightening, a n d it proves
idea o f defining oneself in o p p o s i t i o n t o w h a t o n e is n o t , o n e
that t h e q u e s t i o n of w h a t o n e is f o r e m o s t (or exclusively) is
e n d s up r e d u c i n g oneself t o a single identity that is s u p p o s e d
a bad q u e s t i o n , a q u e s t i o n t h a t m u s t b e q u e s t i o n e d a n d that,
to tell everything. Yet t h e r e arc different orders w i t h i n w h i c h
ultimately, o n e should refuse t o answer.
o n e will have t o define oneself differently. Asking w h e t h e r o n e
O n e m u s t resist t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o r e d u c e one's identity to
is primarily " M u s h m " o r ' A m e r i c a n , " "Australian," "Italian,"
a single d i m e n s i o n t h a t t a k e s priority over every o t h e r . This
" F r e n c h " o r " C a n a d i a n " o p p o s e s t w o identities a n d affilia-
can i n d e e d b e reassuring, b u t it is above all i m p o v e r i s h i n g and,
t i o n s t h a t d o n o t b e l o n g t o t h e s a m e r e a l m . In t h e r e a l m o f
in l i m e s o f crisis a n d t e n s i o n , it can lead t o rejection, r a d s m .
religion a n d philosophy, chat w h i c h i m p a r t s m e a n i n g t o life,
and l a t e n t o r passionate conflicts of identity, culture, o r "civi-
a h u m a n b e i n g is first a n d foremost an atheist, a B u d d h i s t , a
lization." W e s h o u l d r e a c h a b r o a d e r v i e w of o u r s e l v e s a n d
38
What I Believe
o u r fdlow-citizens: e a c h o n e o f u s h a s multiple identities that
fove o n e ' s loyalty. T r u s t m a k e s it possible t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t
s h e / h e m u s t accept, n u r t u r e , a n d develop, i have l o n g b e e n
rue loyalty is always critical: w i t h o a r g o v e r n m e n t , w i t h o u r
r e p e a t i n g t o Muslims a n d t o m y fellow-citizens t h a t I a m Swiss
li'llow believers or w i t h t h e " u m m a h " ( M u s l i m faith a n d spiri-
b y n a t i o n a l i t y , E g y p t i a n by m e m o r y , M u s l i m by r e h g i o n ,
j a l c o m m u n i t y ) , w e s h o u l d never e x t e n d blind s u p p o r t t o
E u r o p e a n b y c u l t u r e , universalistic b y principle, M o r o c c a n a n d M a u r i t i a n b y a d o p t i o n . T h i s is n o p r o b l e m w h a t s o e v e r : I live w i t h those identities, and o n e o r t h e other m a y t a k e the lead d e p e n d i n g o n t h e context o r occasion. O t h e r d i m e n s i o n s s h o u l d even b e a d d e d t o t h o s e identities: b e i n g a m a n , having a specific social s t a t u s , a j o b , a n d s o o n . O u r i d e n t i t i e s a r e m u l t i p l e and constantly o n t h e m o v e . ' R e a c h i n g such a w a r e n e s s of t h e f l u c t u a t i n g m u l t i p l i c i t y o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t i e s s u p p o s e s a c q u i r i n g a m e a s u r e o f selfconfidence a n d t r u s t in o t h e r s . O n c e again, this h a s m o r e t o d o w i t h psychology t h a n w i t h philosophy and religion proper. S u c h w o r k on oneself, o n o n e ' s m u l t i p l e affiliations a n d o n b e i n g able t o step o u t o f one's o w n perspective, requires k n o w l e d g e of o n e s e l f a n d of o t h e r s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h daily p r a c t i c e : t h e c h a l l e n g e is c o n s i d e r a b l e . Only e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k — g e n u i n e a p p l i e d , critical p e d a g o g y — t h a t r e c o n c i l e s individuals w i t h t h e different d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e i r b e i n g , their origins, a n d their h o p e s c a n enable t h e m t o overcome anxious, reactive, and passionate reactions w h e n e n c o u n t e r i n g others. N a t u r a l initiation p r e c i s e l y n e e d s s u c h day-to-day, real-life e n c o u n t e r s , a r o u n d c u l t u r a l o r social projects, t o b r e a k b a r r i e r s a n d o p e n prospects. O n l y in such daily practice, in such educat i o n t h r o u g h e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , experience, and dialogue, can o n e t r u s t a n d b e t r u s t e d a n d t h u s assess t h e o t h e r ' s loyalty. T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n e x p r e s s i n g b l i n d loyalty o r h a v i n g t o
"our o w n k i n d " against all "others." W e should b e faithful to principles of justice, dignity, equality, a n d b e able t o criticize .ind d e m o n s t r a t e against o u r g o v e r n m e n t (or even t h e mainstream in o u r society) w h e n they u n d e r t a k e an u n j u s t war, , e n d o r s e a p a r t h e i d , o r associate w i t h t h e w o r s t d i c t a t o r s o n earth. Similarly, w e m u s t also develop critical loyalty t o w a r d our M u s l i m (or other) fellow believers a n d oppose their ideas and actions w h e n they b e t r a y t h o s e very principles, stigmatize the o t h e r , p r o d u c e r a c i s m , o r justify dictatorships, t e r r o r i s t attacks, o r t h e m u r d e r of i n n o c e n t s . T h i s d o e s n o t have t o do with i d e n t i t y issues b u t w i t h t h e c o h e r e n c e o f conscience t h a t unites t h o s e identities a r o u n d a b o d y of principles that m u s t , to b e fair, b e u s e d unsclectivety a n d critically as well as selfcritically. Being a p a t r i o t , feeling t h a t o n e b e l o n g s t o a society, a nation, o r a c o m m u n i t y of faith is a g o o d thing, b u t it c a n n o t justiiy b l i n d , chauvinistic n a t i o n a l i s m , a d v o c a t i n g a n a t i o n a l a n d / o r religious exception o r election, o r exclusivist religious d o g m a t i s m d e f e n d i n g o n e ' s fellow b e l i e v e r s w h a t e v e r t h e circumstances. T h e m o s t respectable a t t i t u d e s w e r e s h o w n b y those w h o dared take a stand against t h e i r o w n in t h e n a m e of dignity and justice: t h o s e w h o , d u r i n g t h e Second W o r l d War, refused t o give u p J e w s ( o r s e n d t h e m b a c k t o t h e frontier) w h e n t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t r e q u i r e d t h e m t o ; t h o s e w h o refused to fight in V i e t n a m a n d w e r e jailed for it; t h o s e w h o resisted
'
40
What I Believe
unfair a p a r t h e i d l a w s at t h e cost of their lives; t h o s e w h o o p p o s e d the i n s t r u m e n t a l i z a t i o n o f religion t o p r o d u c e very Islamic autocratic s y s t e m s (as in Saudi Arabia) o r w h o o p p o s e d t h e instrumentalization o f its so-called m o d e r n i z a t i o n t o justiiy dictatorships "in t u n e w i t h m o d e r n i t y " (as in Tunisia); t h o s e w h o c o n d e m n e d terrorist attacks against innocents w h e n they w e r e p e r p e t r a t e d in t h e n a m e of t h e i r religion.
Western Islam Religion and
NUMEROUS MUSLIMS—'Miantd
Culture
as well as ordinary believers—
have o p p o s e d the idea t h a t there could b e a "Western Islam" or a "European Islam" different from the o n e and only "Islam." They have interpreted such t e r m s as a t t e m p t s at division, adulteration, o r p e r h a p s d a n g e r o u s reform. In o t h e r circles, sociologists have claimed t h a t there is n o t "one Islam" b u t several very different "Islams" d e p e n d i n g o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s or societies a n d that this diversity m u s t be addressed o n a circumstantial basis. Confronted b y those t w o contradictory approaches, m y position has been to present things from within and in this m a n n e r t o grasp b o t h the unity a n d diversity of t h e Islamic universe. As regards behef, the pillars of faith ('aqidah)
and
practice Cibaddt), Islam is one and unites all traditions (both Sunni and Shi'a) o n t h e basis of t h e Q u r a n i c revelation and of Prophetic traditions (Sunnah) that set the c o m m o n framework and principles. East and West, N o r t h and South, Muslims relate t o those scriptural sources, fundamentals, a n d practices, and everywhere this is, palpably and visibly, w h a t n u r t u r e s the "faith c o m m u n i t y " called the ummah.^
4Z
What I Btlieve
•
Western Ishim
'
41,
T h a t b e i n g said, diversity c a n n o t b e denied, and it mainly
fhe point is n o t to create a n e w Islam b u t t o r e c o n n e c t Islam
o p e r a t e s o n t w o levels. First, there is a diversity of readings
with its original d y n a m i s m , creativity, a n d confidence, w h i c h
and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , w h i c h a c c o u n t s for the different tradi-
niabled t h e faithful t o o b s e r v e and integrate positively all that
tions, t r e n d s , a n d legal schools (as m a n y as t h i r t y at s o m e
was g o o d and positive in t h e c u l m r e s they e n c o u n t e r e d while
periods). T h i s diversiry h a s always existed and, d e p e n d i n g o n
r e m a i n i n g critical and selective w h e n t h o s e cultures c o u l d
the differences, it h a s always been m o r e o r less accepted (some-
u'^ult in insularity, in q u e s t i o n a b l e b e h a v i o r and usage, or in
t i m e s w i t h difficulty, p a r t i c u l a r l y b e t w e e n S u n n i a n d Shi'a)
•-ystematic discrimination. All cultures, w h e t h e r Arab, Asian,
by scholars and o r d i n a r y Muslims. T h e o t h e r level of diver-
or Western, require a critical a n d self-critical mind apt t o assess
sity is cultural: the principles of Islam regarding social affairs
habits in light of principles b e c a u s e habits often e r o d e o r b l u r
(mu'dmaldt)
have always b e e n very inclusive t o w a r d c u l t u r e s
principles. O n e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be b o t h o p e n a n d critical:
a n d t r a d i t i o n s ( r e c o g n i z i n g al-'urf, s o u n d c u s t o m established
.ilways r e m a i n curious a n d seek w h a t is beautiful and g o o d ,
before Islam): M u s l i m s i n Africa o r in Asia have largely kept
and always remain cautiously alert in assessing w h a t is negative
t h e i r w a y o f life a n d h a b i t s while r e s p e c t i n g t h e c r e e d , p r a c -
and unfair.
tices, a n d principles s h a r e d by all M u s l i m s . They have simply
T o reach this objective, Muslims in t h e W e s t and in E u r o p e
b e e n selective and p r e s e r v e d w h a t did n o t contradict any prin-
m u s t p e r f o r m a twofold w o r k of d e c o n s t r u c t i o n and r e c o n -
ciple of their faith: it has b e e n so for centuries, and this explains
struction. O n e m u s t first set o u t to distinguish w h a t is religious
t h e n o t a b l e differences in mind-sets a n d ways of life a m o n g
and w h a t is cultural in t h e w a y they conceive Islam w h e n they
Arab, African, T u r k i s h , o r Asian M u s l i m s . T h u s t h e r e is o n e
c o m e from Pakistan, Turkey, or Arab c o u n t r i e s . T h e r e is n o
religion, o n e Islam, w i t h various i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d several
faith o r religion w i t h o u t c u l t u r e , n o r a n y culture w i t h o u t a
cultures.
religious s u b s t r a t e , b u t r e l i g i o n is n o t c u l t u r e : o p e r a t i n g the
W h a t h a p p e n e d e l s e w h e r e in the past is h a p p e n i n g in the
distinctitjn is n o t easy b u t exile makes it necessary a n d difficult,
W e s t today. W h a t w e call W e s t e r n I s l a m is o f e x a c t l y t h e
yet over t h e course of t i m e , paradoxically, it b e c o m e s easier
s a m e n a t u r e : it is a n I s l a m that re.spects the c o m m o n creed,
and easier. Initially, of c o u r s e , m i g r a n t s always huddle a r o u n d
practices, a n d principles a n d m a k e s t h e various W e s t e r n a n d
their religion, culture, a n d c o m m u n i t y t o protect themselves
E u r o p e a n cultures its o w n . We are w i t n e s s i n g the b i r t h of a
from the foreign e n v i r o n m e n t . They stick t o the ways of life of
W e s t e r n Islamic c u l t u r e w i t h i n which M u s l i m s r e m a i n faithful
their c o u n t r i e s of origin, often confusing rehgion, culture, and
t o f u n d a m e n t a l religious principles while o w n i n g u p t o their
traditions. T h e second and later generations cannot be c o n t e n t
W e s t e r n cultures. T h e y are b o t h fully Muslim as t o religion
w i t h this a t t i t u d e and t h e y always (being also m o r e e d u c a t e d )
a n d fully Western as t o culture, and t h a t is n o p r o b l e m at all.
c o m e t o q u e s t i o n s o m e c u l t u r a l traits o f t h e c o u n t r i e s of
44
Western Is\am
WhiU I Believe
45
o r i g i n as they n a t u r a l l y absorb t h e l a n g u a g e and culture of
iritain, or France, will n o t fail t o spread t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e ,
t h e c o u n t r y in w h i c h t h e y live. T h i s transition p e r i o d is o n e
[including countries w h e r e Muslims have arrived m o i ^ recentiy
of n a t u r a l conflict b e t w e e n g e n e r a t i o n s b u t also w i t h the s u r r o u n d i n g society: w h a t is involved h e r e is doing away with
Even t h o u g h there wUl always b e n e w Muslim immigrants, t h e Issue of Islam m u s t n o w be distinguished firom the p h e n o m -
the habits inherent in t h e parents' culture that are seen as prob-
' non of i m m i g r a t i o n . It is henceforth a E u r o p e a n issue, and a
lematic and as n o t always Islamic, a n d taking as one's o w n the
[Western o n e .
positive elements of W e s t e r n cultures while remaining faithful t o Islam's principles. In countries w h e r e the Muslim presence is l o n g e r established, this transition is already well u n d e r way a n d t h e stage o f c u l t u r a l i n t e g r a t i o n has already b e e n overc o m e : the y o u n g are n o w culturally French, British, American, S o u t h African, Singaporian, o r C a n a d i a n . In o t h e r countries, t h e p r o c e s s is a c c e l e r a t i n g , a n d t h e r e are n o w i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s of Muslim Westerners w i t h o u t this b e i n g a problem for the w o m e n and m e n w h o define themselves as such. W e s t e r n Islam is n o w a reality: w o m e n a n d m e n have English. French, G e r m a n , o r Italian as their first language; they are i m m e r s e d in the various Western culmres, and despite the negative i m a g e conveyed by certain media, political trends, or lobbies, they feel at h o m e in America, Australia, o r E u r o p e and this is w h e r e they wish t o build their f u m r e and raise t h e i r children . T h e g r o w i n g n u m b e r s of converts, w h o used t o b e c o m e 'Arabized" or "Pakistanized" to feel m o r e Muslim, have now d e v e l o p e d into a m o r e positive v e c t o r for the a c c u l t u r a t i o n of M u s l i m s since t h o s e converts t a k e o n responsibilities and increasingly own u p to their Western a n d European heritage. T h e process is u n d e r w a y : Islam is a W e s t e r n religion, in light of history, of objective data, of n u m b e r s , and also n o w of culture. This p h e n o m e n o n , which is n o w patent in America,
"CuJh*™!" Muslims, Rcfbrmisu. I.iteralhts, and So On
47
their o r i g i n , a n d t h e i r n a m e , t h e y have n o " r e l i g i o u s visibility" ( n o r a n y d e m a n d s ) e x c e p t w h a t t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
8 'Cultural" Muslims, Reformists, Literalists, and So On
society i m p o s e s on t h e m a g a i n s t t h e i r w i l l b y a s s i m i l a t i o n or p r o j e c t i o n . W h e n t h e y g e t involved in society o r politics, ihey are still perceived as " M u s l i m s " w h e t h e r t h e y w i s h t o b e or not, e v e n if they d o n o t overtly act as M u s l i m s a n d have n o w i s h t o b e defined as s u c h . A m o n g t h e remaining 20 p e r c e n t t o 25 p e r c e n t (including all those w h o practice m o r e o r less regularly, a t t e n d m o s q u e s , pray
do n o t practice their r e h g i o n
daily or o n c e a week, fast, a n d m a y s o m e t i m e s b e involved in
r e g u l a r l y a n d e x p e r i e n c e no specific " r e h g i o u s " p r o b l e m s
Islamic organizations), t h e reformist t r e n d clearly holds sway
in t h e i r daily lives. M a n y refer t o t h e m s e l v e s as b e l i e v e r s ,
from the s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n o n . Some m a y still express tradi-
abstain from alcohol a n d pork, observe R a m a d a n o u t of
tionalist views, yet in practice m o s t 'ulamâ, leaders, and ordi-
faith o r f a m i l y ( a n d / o r c u l t u r a l ) t r a d i t i o n , b u t t h e y h a v e
nary M u s l i m s explicidy or tacitly admit t h a t t h e n e w W e s t e r n
n o r e g u l a r p r a c t i c e a n d r a r e l y a t t e n d m o s q u e s . O t h e r s also
context m u s t b e taken into a c c o u n t a n d t h a t a d e q u a t e solu-
refer t o t h e m s e l v e s as believers b u t d o n o t respect t h e obli-
rions m u s t b e found to face n e w challenges. T h o s e believers
garions a n d prohibitions of their religion; they m a y drink
and w^orshipers n e e d t o find the m e a n s t o b e faithful t o Islamic
a l c o h o l a n d live w i t h o u t a n y p a r t i c u l a r religious sensitivity
principles w h i l e c o n f r o n t i n g t h e new, fluctuating realities of
(except, h e r e a g a i n , d u r i n g R a m a d a n , o r in p u n c t u a l r e a c -
W e s t e r n societies. T h i s r e q u i r e s r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s c r i p t u r a l
tion t o w h a t t h e y m a y feel t o be a t t a c k s o r aggressions in t h e
sources, revisiting literalist readings that p r o c e e d by r e d u c t i o n
m e d i a o r f r o m c e r t a i n political parries). O t h e r s still, a small
or " c u l t u r e - b a s e d " r e a d i n g s t h a t o p e r a t e b y p r o j e c t i o n , a n d
minority, define t h e m s e l v e s as atheistic, a g n o s t i c , o r m e r e l y
e n g a g i n g in n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in light of t h e n e w c o n t e x t .
" c u k u r a l " M u s l i m s ( o r e v e n as " e x - M u s l i m s " ) and h a v e n o
Indeed f u n d a m e n t a l principles ('aqîdah)
a c t u a l r e l i g i o u s affiliation. It m u s t h e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h o s e
( 'ihadât) d o n o t change, b u t o n e m u s t e n g a g e in critical read-
t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s ( t h e first t w o in p a r t i c u l a r ) r e p r e s e n t t h e
ings and r e a s o n i n g (ijtihâd) t o find the w a y s t o a faithfulness
m a j o r i t y (75 p e r c e n t t o 80 p e r c e n t d e p e n d i n g on o r i g i n s a n d
that is n o t blind t o the evolutions of t i m e a n d t o thé diversity-
places) o f t h o s e w h o are defined a n d r e c k o n e d as " M u s h m s "
of societies. For reformists, faithfulness as t o practice, prescrip-
in W e s t e r n societies. T h o s e w o m e n a n d m e n have n o "reli-
tions, and prohibitions is essential, b u t t h e r e is n o faithfulness
g i o u s " p r o b l e m w i t h t h e W e s t : a p a r t f r o m t h e i r skin color.
without evolution.'
MOST MUSLIM WESTERNERS
a n d ritual p r a c t i c e s
48
"Cultural" Musli-ms, Reformüif, Literalist!, and So On
What I Believe
49
For close t o twenty-five years, I have b e e n p a r t of this t r e n d
le Sunnah) a n d keep away from W e s t e r n society that appears
that prevails a m o n g t h o s e M u s l i m s w h o claim a religious affili-
"devoid of religion" and "devoid o f morals." T h e scholars and
ation a n d sensiti\Hty associated t o r e g u l a r practice. O v e r o n e
"leaders in t h o s e minority t r e n d s are far from b e i n g superficial,
g e n e r a t i o n , a n a s t o u n d i n g evolution h a s t a k e n place i n t e x t
uneducated m i n d s : t o think so w o t i l d b e a p r o f o u n d misjudg-
interpretations, in t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Western context,
ment. It is their t u r n of mind, a certain vision of realities, t h a t
in discourses, and in views a b o u t religious, cultural, a n d soci-
L determines their particular w a y o f i n t e r p r e t i n g the Texts a n d
etal d e b a t e s . 'Ulama a n d t h e i r councils, intellectuals, organi-
'^the world: w h a t emerges—however sophisticated their m i n d s —
zation leaders as well as o r d i n a r y M u s l i m s have p e r f o r m e d a
Is always a binary world of g o o d a n d evil, of " u s " versus "them,"
g e n u i n e intellectual r e v o l u t i o n : this is n o t always r e c o g n i z e d
of " k n o w l e d g e " a n d " i g n o r a n c e , " of Islam a n d others. T h i s
in the West, for the l o n g t i m e of m e n t a l i t y change is invisible
results in a relationship t o reality as d o g m a t i c as it is fbrmal-
to the i m m e d i a t e t i m e of m e d i a coverage (or t h e short t i m e of
tfatic, which d e t e r m i n e s a certain w a y of b e i n g a Muslim today:
political stakes), and yet real, highly positive progress h a s b e e n
a rigid, literalist reading of t h e Texts, insistence o n "islamic"
m a d e . W h a t has b e e n achieved is very i m p o r t a n t , as w e shall
knovMedge t h a t edifies as o p p o s e d t o o t h e r "useless" areas of
see, a n d it brings high h o p e s even t h o u g h the process m u s t still
knowledge, isolation from t h e world which is g o i n g astray a n d
be carried o n beyond a reformist t h o u g h t t h a t merely strives t o
particularly from the West, a n d , very often, a "literal," blind
adapt ro c u r r e n t circumstances (but r e m a i n s unable t o b e c o m e
r e s p e a for ruling Islamic authorities. T h o s e trends exist in t h e
a force for t r a n s f o r m a t i o n c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the i n t e l l e c t u a l ,
West and they are marginal, even t h o u g h they are able t o attract
scientific, a n d ethical reflection of w h i c h o u r world is in such
(temporarily, m o s t of the time) y o u n g people looking for sharp
great n e e d ) . This is indeed w h y I call for a n even deeper "radical
clarity o r g o i n g t h r o u g h crises a n d t o w h o m t h e i r a p p r o a c h
r e f o r m " t h a t requires u s t o reconsider t h e very sources of t h e
gives a sense of security. T h e negative media images, feelings of
f u n d a m e n t a l s of Islamic law a n d j u r i s p r u d e n c e {usui
al-jiqk)
rejection, o r social marginalization have also s o m e t i m e s p u s h e d
r a t h e r t h a n keeping t o context-related adaptations of law a n d
those y o u n g p e o p l e toward t h o s e trends t h a t at the same t i m e
j u r i s p r u d e n c e (Jiqh). W e s h o u l d thereby e q u i p ourselves w i t h
offer p r o t e c t i o n and enable t h e m t o construct a far m o r e confi-
the m e a n s t o move from a n "adaptation r e f o r m " to a "transfor-
dent image of themselves and w h e r e they b e l o n g .
mational r e f o r m " based o n contribution.'"
For t h o s e literalist trends, as indeed for traditionalists ( w h o (and
strictly a d h e r e t o o n e s c h o o l of law o r o n e ritualistic m o v e -
inappropriately, " W a h h a b i t e " ) , which have a totally different
[ m e n t like the tablighi), r e f o r m i s t s go t o o far a n d have s o m e -
approach to the W e s t e r n context. They consider that o n e
imes " g o n e o u t of Islam." I n t e r n a l debates a n d rejections are
should r e m r n ro the letter o f scripmral sources (the Q u r a n and
^continuous, a n d often passionate a n d v i o l e n t . In the W e s t as
T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , literalist t r e n d s , called "salafi"
50
What / Bchcvi
well as in Asia, Africa, o r Mauritius, in s o m e Muslim majority c o u n t r i e s o r o n t h e w e b , I have for i n s t a n c e repeatedly b e e n called a "kdfir"
( n e g a t o r , infidel), a "murtad"
9
(apostate), or
a n i m p o s t o r s e e k i n g t o a d u l t e r a t e Islam and d e s t r o y it from
Advances
w i t h i n . T h i s h a p p e n s t o a large n u m b e r o f reformists (ironically c o n s i d e r e d "fundamentalists" b y s o m e W e s t e r n circles). O t h e r m o r e sectarian a n d / o r politicized trends exist, b u t they are quite m a r g i n a l even t h o u g h s o m e of their public declarations a t t r a c t media a t t e n t i o n . T h e optical illusion of t h e m e d i a m u s t n o t mislead us: t h e Islamic g r o u p s o r g r o u p u s c u l e s that
)R BELIEVING, OBSERVANT
MusLiMS w h o m a y have faced
m o s t often m a k e n e w s , t h o s e that express the m o s t incendiary
lifficulties t r y i n g t o reconcile t h e c o m m a n d s a n d prohibitions
and v i o l e n t views, r e p r e s e n t the tiniest fringe of the M u s l i m
their religion w i t h life in W e s t e r n societies, t h e evolution
c o m m u n i t y , which d o e s n o t identify with t h e m .
3f t h i n k i n g a n d mind-sets h a s b e e n rapid a n d impressive, as
O n e s h o u l d also n o t e t h e significant, i n c o n s p i c u o u s , a n d
ll said, if o n e takes the t i m e t o seriously assess w h a t has b e e n
often m u l t i f o r m presence o f Sufi circles. S o m e are Sufi while
a c h i e v e d . Both o n the theoretical a n d practical levels, a n u m b e r
b e i n g i n v o l v e d in Islamic associations, o t h e r s strictly follow
Ipf principles have b e e n established a n d constitute advances for
Islamic p r e s c r i p r i o n s a n d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of m y s t i c s b u t
Dday a n d for t h e future.
w i t h o u t displaying it, o t h e r s still have a very loose relationship
First, the old traditional b i n a r y categorization of the w o r l d
to Islam a n d even t o t h e Sufi tradition itself, w i t h practices a n d
)to "the a b o d e of Islam" (ddr al-isUm) and " t h e a b o d e of w a r "
rules t h a t are very flexible if n o t altogether absent. This d i m e n -
Sr al-harb) h a d t o b e q u e s t i o n e d . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of a
sion of Islam is i m p o r t a n t and Sufi circles can play active, a n d
ew literalist, traditionalist, o r pohticized g r o u p s , n o scholarly
highly contradictory, parts in Western societies (as w a s t h e case
fauthority and n o significant organization uses t h o s e concepts
d u r i n g c o l o n i z a t i o n o r e v e n t o d a y in M u s l i m m a j o r i t y soci-
' a n y m o r e , S u c h t e r m s as " a b o d e of c o n t r a c t " {ddr al-'ahd
eties): they can stand, internally, as rigorous guardians o f t h e
iddrcd-'aqd),
spiritual substance of Islam's message; they can merely assert their a u t o n o m y from t h e authorities; o r on the contrary, they
or
" a b o d e of treaty" (ddr al-sulh), or "abode of predi-
cation" (dar ad-da'wah)
are n o w b e i n g used. I have suggested
le concept of " a b o d e of t e s t i m o n y " (ddr ash-shahAdah),
which
can be i n s t r u m e n t a l i z e d b y g o v e r n m e n t s t o p r e s e n t a certain
[expresses t h e idea t h a t M u s l i m s , like all p e o p l e of faith a n d
i m a g e of t h e "other," " m o d e r a t e " Islam, t h a t is "fi:ee" o r even
[convictions, s h o u l d strive t o b e " w i t n e s s e s " of their m e s s a g e
"secularized"—which is, in itself, utterly meaningless.
[and p r i n c i p l e s t h r o u g h t h e i r p r e s e n c e a n d b y b e h a v i n g
5i
WhallBdieve
consistently with those principles. Such a n appellation hreak the binary relarion and, in a global world, it achieves reconcili-
Advances 53
g for equal creatment is quickly i n t e r p r e t e d by the media .Hid public opinion as a d e m a n d for special t r e a t m e n t . "
ation w i t h Islam's universal dimension: t h e w h o l e w o r l d has
(Considerable effort has g o n e i n t o e n c o u r a g i n g Muslim
b e c o m e a space, an a b o d e , of testimony. T h e w i t n e s s is n o
iltizens t o study and t o interact m o r e and m o r e with society,
longer a s t r a n g e r in t h e o t h e r ' s world, n e i t h e r is he linked t o
effect, t h e i r n e w visibility r e p r e s e n t s exactly t h e o p p o s i t e
the o t h e r b y a contract: h e is at h o m e , a m o n g his o w n kind,
" w h a t is g e n e r a l l y said. F i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n m i g r a n t s w e r e
and h e simply tries t o b e consistent w i t h his beliefs a n d in
Isolated a n d invisible: t h e i r p r e s e n c e w a s n o t even n o t i c e d .
h a r m o n y w i t h the p e o p l e w i t h w h o m he Uves and builds his
With the s e c o n d a n d third g e n e r a t i o n s e m e r g i n g , things have
future.
I hanged: t h e y o u n g are n o w visible everywhere, in the street,
It is n o w clear t h a t so l o n g as the t w o basic rights {freedom of c o n s c i e n c e and freedom of w o r s h i p ) a r e r e c o g n i z e d and protected, as they are in all Western societies, Muslims have to respect t h e law, which is b i n d i n g o n t h e m as it is o n all o t h e r citizens a n d residents. M u s h m W e s t e r n e r s have u n d e r s t o o d that w h e n secularism a n d religious n e u t r a l i t y are n o t instrum c n t a l i z e d b y i d e o l o g u e s or intellectual or political t r e n d s opposed t o any presence of religion, they g u a r a n t e e religious p l u r a l i s m in W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s and p r o t e c t their l e g i t i m a t e rights. O n c e again, n o recognized Muslim scholar, n o credible Islamic organization, requires specific laws or exceptional treatm e n t : closer s m d y will s h o w that they d e m a n d that the law be enforced a n d that, in its n a m e , t h e different religions receive fair a n d equal t r e a t m e n t . T h e media or t h e political stage have often p r e s e n t e d the d e m a n d s of s o m e Muslim o r g a n i z a t i o n s as p r o b l e m a t i c because t h e y asked for specific rights: in effect, they w e r e only asking for w h a t h a d a l r e a d y b e e n g r a n t e d t o o t h e r s (Jews, R o m a n Catholics, o r P r o t e s t a n t s ) before t h e m , b u t s u c h p r o j e c t i o n s a r e m a d e o n Muslims* i n t e n t i o n s a n d c o n t r o v e r s y s t a r t s so q u i c k l y t h a t M u s l i m citizens' m e r e l y
campuses, in workplaces. T h e first natural reaction t o this lew visibihty is to identify it as t h e presence o f a new, seemingly different, segregated " c o m m u n i t y . " Yet it is exactly t h e < tpposite: p e r c e p t i o n by the p u b l i c , politicians, and the media l.igs behind reality, so that they give deficient interpretations. I he n e w visibility d o e s n o t p r o v e the existence of a closed, si'gregatcd c o m m u n i t y b u t exactly the opposite: it shows t h a t new g e n e r a t i o n s are o p e n i n g u p , reaching o u t of their social, cultural, and religious g h e t t o s in take up their place in a space .ind society they rightly consider their o w n . T h e same is t r u e , indeed, of African Americans in t h e United States. This reality IS a considerable advance: at the intellecmal level, in universities, o n the j o b m a r k e t , socially, politically culturally, even in sports, M u s l i m citizens are g e t t i n g involved. T h e y are d o i n g s " individually, following t h e i r o w n a s p i r a t i o n s a n d h o p e s , and n o w h e r e can one find w h a t could be considered, socially o r politically, a c o m m o n p o s i t i o n , even less a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of "the c o m m u n i t y " and of "its interests." All that is said t o that effect has t o do with fantasy and w i t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l ization of fear: in reahty, M u s l i m Americans, E u r o p e a n s , o r
54
W hat 1 Believe
Advances
н
Australians are getting involved e v e r y w h e r e , individually, and
I t )n several levels, then, a veiy i m p o r t a n t process of institu
they lay n o claim to "representing" or "defending" "the Muslim
malization can be observed and is gaining m o m e n t u m . W h a t
community."
I also m o s t e n c o u r a g i n g and positive is the parallel process of
O n e can also observe a process of institutionalization o f t h e
.iching o u t t o w a r d o r g a n i z a t i o n s outside t h e c o m m u n i t y :
Muslim presence t h a t is o c c u r r i n g in several directions. It natu
iharities, social s t r u c t u r e s , political parties. M u s l i m citizens
rally b e g a n with the creation of m o s q u e s : this was and every
' n o w getting involved b e y o n d their " c o m m u n i t y " and inter
w h e r e r e m a i n s the first act of Muslims settling in a n e w envi
i r i i n g w i t h society in a wholly n e w m a n n e r : they are citizens
r o n m e n t . T h e n associations and o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h m o r e o r
.11 id they are developing a sense of belonging in their daily lives,
less specialized aims w e r e created everywhere; associations for
lis is palpable everywhere, and it is i m p o r t a n t t o take its full
y o u n g p e o p l e , for students, for w o m e n , for cultural activities or
leasure. T h e impact of this multidimensional process will b e
sports. Initially Muslims naturally t h o u g h t of associations exclu
jcial in and for t h e years t o c o m e .
sively addressing the religious community. They had t o a n s w e r
In recent years f have m e t a n u m b e r of ministers, secretaries
the n e e d s o f Muslims Uving in a n e w context. In certain soci
state, and officials in m a n y W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s a n d 1 have
eties w h e r e the p h e n o m e n o n w a s well established and recog
x t forward t h o s e analyses t o t h e m along w i t h a few opinions
nized as in Britain, the N e t h e r l a n d s , Scandinavia, the U n i t e d
l ^ o u t a d d r e s s i n g t h e issues r e l a t e d t o t h e M u s l i m p r e s e n c e .
States, C a n a d a , South Africa, o r Singapore, Muslims b e g a n t o
, have kept repeating that an evolution is u n d e r w a y and that
set u p private schools. H e r e again, t w o needs were addressed:
Ime must be reckoned with. N evertheless, strategies can
protecting the young from the Western environment (most
Hie devised by g o v e r n m e n t s t o accelerate and facilitate t h o s e
of the time such schools t a r g e t e d girls) a n d creating efficient
f i c t t l e m e n t p r o c e s s e s , all t h e m o r e so as M u s l i m c o m m u n i
schools that w e r e n o t secondclass schools, as state schools often
ies are generally n o t rich (considering their m e m b e r s ' social
are in the areas or suburbs w h e r e socially marginalized a n d / o r
origin—apart f r o m s o m e A m e r i c a n o r Canadian i m m i g r a n t s ) :
Muslim populations are mainly concentrated.'^ In m a n y coun
in all circumstances, and while respecting t h e legal
tries, reflection has developed in o r d e r t o set u p preacademic
of the s e p a r a t i o n o f o r d e r s (state a n d religion), g o v e r n m e n t
o r a c a d e m i c t r a i n i n g colleges t o p r o v i d e leaders o r i m a m s
action s h o u l d b e c o n t e n t w i t h trying to facilitate
w i t h soUd k n o w l e d g e o f " t h e o l o g y " a n d Islamic law as well
trustingly a n d n o t a t t e m p t t o control t h e m w h i l e fostering
as u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e local context. O n e may also m e n t i o n
mistrust. Any c o n t r o l o r i e n t e d a p p r o a c h will n o t only foster
the creation of small businesses pubhshing b o o k s a b o u t Islam
suspicion and confirm that M u s l i m citizens are n o t treated Ике
( w h e t h e r n e w o r translated), selling halal m e a t , or o t h e r w i s e
the o t h e r s : it wLll also fail t o elicit credibility a n d significant
answering t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s expectations in t e r m s of c o n s u m p
support within Muslim c o m m u n i t i e s .
firamework evolutions
challenges 57
before w e can o p e n a s h a r e d critical d e b a t e over concepts id their definition.
10
: Clarifying t h e t e r m i n o l o g y is crucial. F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n
Challenges
ite that t h e shari 'ah is n o t " a s y s t e m " n o r "a closed b o d y of imic l a w s " " b u t r a t h e r t h e " W a y to faithfulness to Islam's bjcctives" ( w h i c h consist in p r o t e c t i n g life, dignity, j u s t i c e , quality, peace. N a t u r e , etc,),'* this entails direct consequences my u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e legal f r a m e w o r k of Western socis. T h u s , all t h e laws t h a t p r o t e c t h u m a n life a n d dignity,
are n u m e r o u s a n d . h e r e a g a i n ,
promote justice a n d equality, enforce respect of N a t u r e , and so
m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l . Even t h o u g h I say w i t h force and convic-
1, are my shari 'ah i m p l e m e n t e d in my society, even t h o u g h this
t i o n t h a t t h e reformisr r r e n d h o l d s sway in the W e s t a m o n g
. n o t a M u s l i m majority society o r those laws have n o t b e e n
M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c o n t e x t
ievised a n d p r o d u c e d by M u s l i m scholars. I follow t h e W a y
is u n d e r g o i n g r a p i d e v o l u t i o n , n a i v e t y a n d blind o p t i m i s m
llnce t h o s e l a w s enable m e t o b e faithful t o its f u n d a m e n t a l
m u s t b e avoided. T h e first m a j o r challenge r e m a i n s t o d e e p e n
fobjectives a n d therefore t o b e faithful t o Islam's m e s s a g e a n d
k n o w l e d g e b o t h of I s l a m a n d of W e s t e r n societies a m o n g
' principles.
T H E C H A L L E N G E S AT H A N D
'ulamâ,
intellecmals, association leaders, imams, and m o r e
generally o r d i n a r y M u s l i m s . T h i s b e g i n s w i t h m a s t e r i n g t h e t e r m i n o l o g y : it is i m p e r a t i v e t o d e v e l o p a n d circulate m o r e a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f such c o n c e p t s as "fiqh,"
"ijtihM"
(critical i n d e p e n d e n t t h i n k i n g ) , "fatwa" (legal opinion), "jihad" (effort, r e s i s t a n c e ) , "sharî'ah"
(the w a y t o faithfulness) o r
"secularization," "secularity," "laicity" "citizenship," " d e m o cratic principles," " d e m o c r a t i c m o d e l s , " " h u m a n rights," a n d "universals." Such c o n c e p t s are read a n d used b u t confusion is w i d e s p r e a d , and M u s h m s m u s t equip t h e m s e l v e s w i t h clearer discourse relying o n a c l o s e r m a s t e r y a n d definition of t e r m s . I have b e e n w o r k i n g t o w a r d this for years in t h e various b o o k s I have w r i t t e n a b o u t s u c h issues, b u t t h e r e is still a l o n g w a y t o
Such a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f I s l a m i c t e r m i n o l o g y t o t a l l y [reverses perspectives. B e t t e r k n o w l e d g e of w h a t citizenship [implies p r o d u c e s similar r e s u l t s . M u s l i m s m u s t t h u s g e t rid l o f t w o obstacles t h a t result f r o m i n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( o f their s t a t u s . T h e y are faced w i t h b o t h a d i s c o u r s e a n d a pressure t h a t systematically confuse orders: a l t h o u g h they are already citizens m s o m e c o u n t r i e s , diey are constantly consid^.ered " m i n o r i t i e s " b e c a u s e t h e i r religion or t h e i r culture a r e Deing referred t o whereas secularized W e s t e r n societies clearly m a k e a distinction b e t w e e n t h e citizen's legal a n d public status and t h e believer's religious affihation. M u s l i m s often h a v e i psychologically integrated this p e r c e p t i o n (that is projected o n them) and also refer t o t h e m s e l v e s as a "minority," confusing
58
What ! MiEve
the factual n u m b e r s o f t h e i r religious c o m m u n i t y w i t h the
1 by fighting against injustice, racism, discrimination, p o p u -
m e a n i n g a n d legal s u b s t a n c e of t h e i r b e l o n g i n g as citizens,
| t stigmatization discourse, a n d hypocrisies. T h i s also m e a n s
H o w e v e r , in t h e o r d e r o f citizenship, of r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e
[ h t m g against paternalistic, often neo-colonialist discourse
law, o r of the t r e a t m e n t o f individuals, t h e minority concept
id infantihzing t r e a t m e n t : for t h i r t y years t h e W e s t has seem-
is inoperative: there is n o s u c h t h i n g as "minority citizenship"!
Igly b e e n faced w i t h " y o u n g M u s h m s " w h o are e t e r n a l l y
T h e y m u s t therefore o v e r c o m e this " m i n o r i t y " m i n d - s e t and
Pyoung" a n d w h o are t a k i n g q u i t e a l o n g t i m e t o g r o w i n t o
fully p a r t i c i p a t e in c i t i z e n s h i p o n an e q u a l footing w i t h t h e
idults m a t u r e e n o u g h t o discuss issues on an equal footing.
" m a j o r i t y " D r a w i n g a h n k w i t h the definition and the inclusive
T h e feeling of b e l o n g i n g t h a t s t e m s from d e e p e r k n o w l -
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the c o n c e p t of shari'ah suggested above will
(dge of c o n c e p t s a n d objectives is a p t to e n a b l e Muslims t o
shed light o n the n a t u r e of t h e intellectual revolution t h a t can
) r o a d e n t h e i r i n t e r e s t s t o i n c l u d e social p r o b l e m s b e y o n d
e m e r g e fi-om this process o f clarification. T h i s w o r k r e m a i n s
lose related t o Islam. Social q u e s t i o n s , education, schooling
t o b e c a r r i e d o u t e v e r y w h e r e in M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s : the
jolicies, p a r e n t s ' associations, u n e m p l o y m e n t , t h e h o m e l e s s ,
m o r e o r less clear or confused feeling t h a t change is necessary
Jelinquency, u r b a n violence b u t also societal debates, p o w e r
exists, b u t a large-scale p o p u l a r i z a t i o n effort is required t o give
Pgnd " r a c e " r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i n v o l v e m e n t in p a r t i e s , ecology,
it f o r m and substance.
llmrnigJ^^tion poHcies, and i n t e r n a t i o n a l relations m u s t interest
S u c h w o r k o n p e r c e p t i o n s will m a k e it possible t o fight
f t h e m like all o t h e r citizens. So far only a m i n o r i t y of M u s l i m
against t h e t e m p t a t i o n for p e o p l e w i t h i n Muslim c o m m u n i t i e s
^citizens reach o u : in this way, a n d t h e y often have t o face suspi-
to cast themselves as victims. W h e n it is m a d e clear t h a t they
ion or e n d u r i n g prejudice, Yet t h e y o p e n t h e w a y t o a process
are at h o m e in the West, t h a t t h e Way of faithfulness to h i g h e r
lat may b e slow b u t is irreversible. T h e challenge is t o see t h a t
principles m u s t be followed b o t h here a n d elsewhere, t h a t they
jis process is u n d e r s t o o d a n d s o u g h t rather t h a n just suffered
m u s t s t o p considering t h e m s e l v e s a m i n o r i t y b u t t h a t o n the
[ and m a n a g e d so chaotically t h a t it b e c o m e s c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e
c o n t r a r y k n o w i n g their d u t i e s as well as t h e i r rights as citizens
: and fosters division.
involved in the majority is a necessity: w h e n all that is m a d e
D r a w i n g u p t h e long list o f challenges is impossible, b u t
clear, M u s h m s will be called u p o n t o t a k e responsibility for
a n u m b e r i m m e d i a t e l y stand o u t a n d should b e addressed as
themselves a n d get rid of t h e victim mind-set. This is a m a j o r
priorities. O n e i m p o r t a n t issue is t o l o o k i n t o t h e processes
challenge: it is u r g e n t t o s t o p b l a m i n g
"society-that-docs-not-
t h r o u g h w h i c h y o u n g p e o p l e are a t t r a c t e d t o rigid literalism
like-us" o r " i s l a m o p h o b i a " o r "racism" a n d thereby justifying
or, on a m o r e pohtical level, t o radicalizanon. a n d in rare cases
g u J t y passivity. T h a t such p h e n o m e n a exist cannot be d e n i e d ,
; to violent action a n d extremism. Islamic e d u c a t i o n in the W e s t
b u t M u s l i m s m u s t tackle t h e m by g e n i n g involved as d o z e n s
' m u s t be revisited b o t h in its f o r m and c o n t e n t in light of t h e
6o
What I Udieve
Challenges 61
c o n t e x t a n d of t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c h a l l e n g e s . D i s c o u r s e
at the m e a n s and m e t h o d s of e d u c a t i o n a n d transmission in
about the surrounding society and Western culture must
better-organized, m o r e efficient m a n n e r , for if they d o not,
c h a n g e in t o n e and o r i e n t a t i o n : MusHms m u s t i m p e r a t i v e l y
i^ances and achievements will constantiy b e u n d e r m i n e d b y
be e n c o u r a g e d to participate in the American, Australian, and
ate attimdes of s o m e y o u n g p e o p l e or s o m e n e w i m m i g r a n t s
E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e s (as w e l l as S o u t h African, M a u r i t i a n , o r
Cting in the n a m e of wholly deficient perceptions, or sincerely
Singaporian) t h a t are n o w t h e i r o w n . Creativity, contribution,
(id/or naively allowing t h e m s e l v e s t o be instrumentalized.
and p r o d u c t i o n in t h e arts, music, c i n e m a , and l i t e r a m r e are to be e n c o u r a g e d , as well as reading aU types of b o o k s . Such confident o u t r e a c h , s u c h t r u s t in their wealth a n d capacity t o c o n t r i b u t e a n d give, such shared presence—this is w h a t m u s t b e e n c o u r a g e d o n several levels a n d in t h e different social, political, cultural fields as well as in sports, of course. A w o r d m u s t b e said h e r e a b o u t t h e q u e s t i o n of transmission b e c a u s e the challenge is a major o n e a n d is inadequately addressed, as reality s h o w s daily. N e w g e n e r a t i o n s of M u s l i m s quickly a p p e a r and q u i c k l y b e c o m e visible in society, while the o n g o i n g m i g r a t i o n p h e n o m e n o n b r i n g s in a n e w population of fireshly i m m i g r a t e d Muslims. T h e n a g g i n g q u e s t i o n is crystal clear: h o w can a d v a n c e s in t e r m s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g , discourse, a n d civic i n v o l v e m e n t b e t r a n s m i t t e d b o t h vertically t o t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n s a n d h o r i z o n t a l l y t o r e a c h the different c o m m u n i t i e s , and a m o n g t h e m the i m m i g r a n t s w h o k e e p arriving w i t h a vision of Islam confused w i t h t h a t of their c o u n t r i e s of origin? I have a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t h e r e t h a t s o m e populist p a r t i e s use newly arrived i m m i g r a n t s t o cast d o u b t o n all the M u s l i m s settled in t h e different countries, and t h e m e d i a s o m e t i m e s c o n t r i b u t e t o fostering suspicion b y f o c u s i n g o n the p r o b l e m s n e w i m m i g r a n t s occasionally encounter. T h i s is a real difficulty: M u s l i m citizens m u s t t h i n k
The loue of Women 63
Iternal progression, and of t h e e n d s of the global message, ley proceed b y "reduction" a n d s o m e t i m e s m a n a g e tojustify iterpretations t h a t clearly c o n t r a d i c t the overall message in
11
Its historical e v o l u t i o n o r t h e m o d e l of b e h a v i o r set b y t h e
The Issue of Women
•ophet of Islam. Beyond unjustified practices (such as phys;al violence as already m e n t i o n e d ) , r e f o r m i s t a n d literalist iterpretations differ in their very c o n c e p t i o n of w o m e n , a n d their identity a n d a u t o n o m y . Literalist interpretations inte•ate the patriarchal context o f t h e time w i t h o u t any critical
has always b e e n a priority in m y c o m m i t -
[istance and associate w o m e n ' s presence and role t o their rela-
m e n t , I have kept q u e s t i o n i n g traditional i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d
tion to m e n , while the reformist a p p r o a c h reaches o u t b e y o n d
inviting M u s l i m s t o h o n e s t lucidity a n d critical reflection cjver
;e historical c o n t e x t t o e x t r a c t f u n d a m e n t a l objectives as
the s i t u a t i o n of w o m e n in M u s l i m m a j o r i t y societies a n d in
;o w o m e n ' s identity and t h e i r s t a t u s as a u t o n o m o u s b e i n g s .
c o m m u n i t i e s settled in the West. T h e p o i n t w a s n o t to r e s p o n d
' W o m e n s h o u l d t h u s b e c o m e subjects a n d m a s t e r their o w n
t o W e s t e r n criticisms b y a d o p t i n g a defensive (or a l t o g e t h e r
fates.
T H E ISSUE OF WOMEN
apologetic) attitude b u t t o a n s w e r tiie r e q u i r e m e n t of intellectual p r o b i t y a n d consistency I have r e p e a t e d this m a n y
T h e s t u d y of t h e w r i t i n g s a n d c o m m e n t a r i e s of e a r l y
times;
'ulamâ, fi-om T a b a r i t o Abu H â m i d al-Ghazâli, clearly s h o w s
Islam h a s n o p r o b l e m w i t h w o m e n , b u t M u s l i m s d o clearly
jthat they w e r e greatly i n f l u e n c e d b y their c u l t u r a l environ-
appear to have serious p r o b l e m s with t h e m , and the r e a s o n s
iment. O n e can ofi^en observe t h a t they unwittingly proceed b y
and s o m e t i m e s the ( q u e s t i o n a b l e ) justifications for this m u s t
"projection" o n t h e Texts, t h e i r substance and their objectives.
be s o u g h t from within.
A contemporary/flqifi (Muslim j u r i s t ) or c o m m e n t a t o r m u s t
First, t h e r e is a d o u b l e p h e n o m e n o n at t h e source of all t h e
therefore p e r i b r m a twofold dialectical analysis: die scriptural
theological a n d social c o n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t have b e e n established
sources m u s t first be read in light of their context, and t h e n
a posteriori. T h e issue of w o m e n is a m o n g those m o s t widely
later c o m m e n t a r i e s m u s t b e r e a d in light of t h e sociocultural
affected b y literalist r e a d i n g s of t h e Q u r a n a n d of P r o p h e t i c
contexts of the scholars w h o p r o d u c e d t h e m . T h i s process of
traditions. N e g l e c t i n g t h e fact that t h e Revelation t o o k place
deconstruction IS difficult, b u t it m a k e s it possible to critique
in a g i v e n c o n t e x t a n d t h a t its t r a n s m i s s i o n over a p e r i o d o f
t h e historical a n d c u l t u r a l c o a t i n g t h a t h a s b e e n p r o j e c t e d
t w e n t y - t h r e e years d e t e r m i n e s a n orientation as t o divine p e d a -
S'Onto p r i m a r y s o u r c e s . T h u s , d i s c o u r s e a b o u t w o m e n h a s
gogy, Mteralist readings fi-eeze the text o u t of its context, o f its
b e e n widely influenced b y p a t r i a r c h a l cultures, so t h a t s o m e
64
Wkar 1 Helkvt:
The Issv-e. of Women
65
c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t w e r e n o t "Islamic" have c o m e t o be
jntrol. Refusing " W e s t e r n " d o m i n a t i o n b y b e t r a y i n g o n e ' s
justified. F e m a l e excision, forced m a r r i a g e s , h o n o r c r i m e s ,
m religious m e s s a g e is a n e v e n m o r e d a n g e r o u s f o r m o f
for instance, are n o t Islamic even t h o u g h certain scholars m a y
.Henation s i n c e , in t h e p r o c e s s o f resisting, o n e ' s critical
have a t t e m p t e d t o p r o v i d e r e h g i o u s justification for t h e m . T h i s
iipacity, c o n c e r n for c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d c r e a t i v e e n e r g y are
critical w o r k is a l o n g w a y f r o m being c o m p l e t e d , a n d aware-
lost. O n e e n d s u p b e i n g d e f i n e d only t h r o u g h t h e o t h e r s ,
ness m u s t b e raised a m o n g Muslims a n d t h e i r fellow-citizens
irough their negative m i r r o r : h e r e , psychology wins o u t over
a b o u t t h o s e confusions t h a t lead t o t h e original message b e i n g b e t r a y e d . T h i s is why 1 c o o p e r a t e d w i t h the Muslim o r g a n i -
libération. It is therefore i m p o r t a n t to carry o u t in-depth critical w o r k
z a t i o n S P I O R ' ' f r o m R o t t e r d a m in l a u n c h i n g a E u r o p e a n
.iiid
campaign against forced m a r r i a g e s in M a y 2008: the p o i n t is t o
irligious l e a r n i n g necessary t o develop n e w feminine readings.
speak o u t a n d state forcefully t h a t such practices (like excision,
W o m e n m u s t b e p r e s e n t in t h e religious c o m m u n i t y ' s deci-
h o n o r crimes, a n d o t h e r s ) arc against Islam.
e n c o u r a g e w o m e n t o b e c o m e involved a n d acquire t h e
ion circles, in organizations, in m o s q u e m a n a g i n g bodies, and
Moreover, t h e psychological d i m e n s i o n in the debate over
other places. T h i n g s should be s h a k e n u p so t h a t w o m e n can
w o m e n s h o u l d n o t be d o w n p l a y e d . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e
rcover their p r o p e r place, b u t w o m e n t h e m s e l v e s m u s t also
W e s t is a c o m p l e x o n e : before, during, t h e n after colonization,
get organized: they will achieve n o t h i n g if they retain a \'ictim
the issue of w o m e n has b e e n central t o p o w e r relations and
mind-set. It is o b v i o u s t o d a y t h a t w h e r e v e r w o m e n hâve h a d
political as well as t h e o l o g i c a l and cultural debates. T h i s has
access t o schooling, have received Islamic e d u c a t i o n , o r have
fostered a k i n d of reflex reacrion in the c o n t e m p o r a r y M u s l i m
b e c o m e involved at t h e c o m m u n i t y or social level, they perform
psyche: t h e less Western t h e discourse a b o u t w o m e n , the m o r e
b e t t e r t h a n m e n : they achieve b e t t e r results, t h e y are m o r e
it is perceived as Islamic, a n d conversely, t h e m o r e islamic it is,
committed, m o r e rigorous, a n d m o r e earnest. Facts and figures
the m o r e it should b e restrictive and o p p o s e W e s t e r n p e r m i s -
speak for themselves. This process m u s t g o o n a n d offer w o m e n
siveness w h o s e objective is s u p p o s e d t o be to u n d e r m i n e reli-
full access t o civil society a n d t o e m p l o y m e n t w i t h d e m a n d s
g i o n a n d m o r a l s . Such a n a t t i t u d e has often p r e v e n t e d M u s l i m
t h a t should b e t a k e n for g r a n t e d : similar training, similar quali-
scholars a n d intellectuals f r o m u n d e r t a k i n g an a u t o n o m o u s ,
fication m e a n g e t t i n g the s a m e salary, and j o b discrimination
r i g o r o u s critique from w i t h i n , s t e m m i n g f r o m a c o n c e r n for
(becaiL'îe a w o m a n is t o o y o u n g a n d will probably have a child,
r e c o n c i l i n g M u s l i m s w i t h t h e i r o w n m e s s a g e and its e n d s .
o r because s h e is t o o old a n d d o e s n o t fit w i t h the youthfhl
T h e p o i n t is n o t to b e naive a b o u t relations o f d o m i n a t i o n b u t
"image") m u s t b e rejected a n d f o u g h t against. W h e t h e r o r
indeed t o g e t rid of t h e fear and alienation t h a t keep t h o u g h t
n o t o n e calls it feminist (I d o n o t m i n d ) , this c o m m i t m e n t for
static in o r d e r t o stand a p a r t from the o t h e r s and refuse t h e i r
w o m e n ' s legitimate rights can a n d m u s t take place fi:om within
66
Wkac I Believe
t o have a chance of b e i n g successful. T h e r e is a long way t o g o and w e m u s t all engage in it together: by elaborating a discourse that speaks of w o m e n as beings before addressing only t h e i r functions in the family o r society, a discourse that protects their a u t o n o m y and fi'eedom of being and of action. We all have to be consistent: g u a r a n t e e i n g w o m e n ' s freedom entails accepting that they m i g h t m a k e a c h o i c e o n e u n d e r s t a n d s or a n o t h e r
12
The Sense of Belonging and the "Post-Integration" Approach
choice o n e d o e s n o t u n d e r s t a n d . O n e s h o u l d be wary of t h o s e very " l i b e r a l , ' and above all very d o g m a t i c , n e w j u d g e s w h o think they have a right t o j u d g e what use o t h e r s should m a k e of their freedom,
T H E FEELING OF BELONGING
t o W e s t e r n o r European societies
will n o t spring from incantatory, idealistic discourse. Beyond all the m o d a l i t i e s of " i n t e g r a t i o n , " the feeling of b e l o n g i n g involves v e r y d e e p and s o m e t i m e s c o m p l e x psychological d i m e n s i o n s . It feeds o n v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s : t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a t m o s p h e r e ; political, i n t e l l e c t u a l , and p o p u l a r d i s c o u r s e ; media imagery; daily representations; n e i g h b o r relations; t h e feeling of b e i n g recognized as a n asset o r at least of b e i n g "valuable" in the other's eyes. It requires j o i n t effort t o n u r t u r e this feeling d e e p inside individuals: n o t h i n g is easy here, a n d all parties m u s t take t h e i r responsibilities. If o n e w e r e still to use the concept of " i n t e g r a t i o n " one could, as I did in m y 1993 b o o k L ^ 5 musulmans dam la laïcité (Muslims in the Secular State), s p e a k of " i n t e g r a t i o n of i n t i m a c i e s " to refer t o t h e process of "feeling comfortable" and "at h o m e . " Gradually, the different m o d e s of "integrarion" [linguistic, intellectual, social, legal, cultural, and religious integration} have b e c o m e o r are b e c o m i n g obsolete: w h a t remains is the ultimate stage, w h i c h is psychological as well as intellectual and which nurtures, a n d is n u r m r e d by, the sense of belonging.
68
What I Believe
At this u l t i m a t e stage, t h e success of t h e integration process
TheStnseef
Belonging and the "Post-Inlegration"Approach
6g
s, w h i c h p r o d u c e affiliations a n d o u t l i n e differences a n d
precisely lies in n o l o n g e r s p e a k i n g of integration. So l o n g as
elusions.
o n e refers t o "integration," o n e nurtures t h e perception of t w o
We must elaborate a "post-integration" approach and
entities b a s e d o n a feeling o f " u s " versus " t h e m , " o f a society
scourse, revisiting the w a y in w h i c h p e o p l e r e p r e s e n t a n d
that "receives" and of citizens w h o are still a little "of i m m i -
j ^ a l y z e t h e m s e l v e s and thereby t a k i n g into a c c o u n t the trans-
g r a n t o r i g i n " and w h o are "received." T h e all b u t obsessive
j r m a t i o n s in W e s t e r n societies. In this r e s p e c t , the h i s t o r y
discourse a b o u t the " m t e g r a t i o n " of n e w citizens is a n objec-
f i n d social a n d political p o s i t i o n s of Afidcan A m e r i c a n s are
tive i m p e d i m e n t t o t h e positive d e v e l o p m e n t of a feeling o f
instructive a n d useful since t h e i r discourse a n d a p p r o a c h h a v e
b e l o n g i n g . In this sense, a t s o m e stage i n t e g r a t i o n policies
overcome t h o s e registers and firmly situate themselves inside
result in t h e exact o p p o s i t e of w h a t they set o u t t o achieve:
,'American society. T h a t discourse and a p p r o a c h from w i t h i n
t h e y h i g h l i g h t differences, define c a r i c a t u r e d entities, a n d
r e q u i r e r e v i s i n g o u r official h i s t o r y syllabi a n d s u g g e s t i n g
m a i n t a i n t h e idea t h a t after several g e n e r a t i o n s certain citizens
an inclusive a p p r o a c h . W e n e e d a n official h i s t o r y (national,
r e m a i n g u e s t s , w h o are t o o different, w h o p e r p e t u a l l y n e e d
European, a n d W e s t e r n ) t h a t i n t e g r a t e s the plural m e m o r i e s
to "adapt." S u c h discourse n u r m r e s p e r c e p t i o n s : in France o r
o f t h e citizens ( n e w o r n o t ) w h o a r e p a r t of it: it is i m p o r t a n t
in Britain, after t h r e e , four, o r even five g e n e r a t i o n s , p e o p l e
t o m e n t i o n t h e m , t o shed light o n their c u l m r a l and intellec-
still speak of French o r British citizens "of i m m i g r a n t origin."
lual wealth, a n d t o value t h e i r contriburion a n d presence. N o
African A m e r i c a n M u s l i m s arc still too African o r t o o Muslim
feeling of b e l o n g i n g t o a social s t r u c m r e can develop if it d o e s
t o b e t r e a t e d equally. H o w l o n g d o e s o n e r e m a i n a n i m m i -
not a c k n o w l e d g e the value a n d t h e (historical and p r e s e n t )
g r a n t , while the only difference b e t w e e n "ethnically F r e n c h "
contribution o f its m e m b e r s , o f all its m e m b e r s . T h e point is
o r "ethnically Brirish" citizens a n d r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s lies in
n o t to p r o d u c e guilt-fostering discourse a b o u t past coloniza-
the fact t h a t t h e "ethnically French" o r "ethnically British" a r e
rion b u t positive, confident d i s c o u r s e t h a t is able t o o w n u p
simply i m m i g r a n t s of l o n g e r standing? In t h e United States,
t o mistakes, t o assess i n p u t a n d assets, t o tell of t h e painful
African A m e r i c a n s sull face t h e realities o f racism, o f relation-
experience of slavery, of exile, a n d of the contribution of t h e
ships of d o m i n a t i o n , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d alienation, w h i c h
first generations, the n e w citizens' fathers a n d m o t h e r s , t o t h e
s t i g m a t i z e t h e " o t h e r . " B a r a c k O b a m a ' s e l e c t i o n should n o t
construction o f Western c o u n t r i e s .
deceive u s a b o u t t h e d e e p - l y i n g c u r r e n t s t h a t still i n f l u e n c e a n d d e t e r m i n e A m e r i c a n society as far as t h e racial issue is c o n c e r n e d . O n t h e scale o f history, differences are relative: t h e p r o b l e m h e r e has t o d o w i t h p e r c e p u o n s a n d r e p r e s e n t a -
It is i m p o r t a n t t o develop positive, official policies focusing on c o n t r i b u t i o n s a n d s h a r i n g r a t h e r t h a n o n a so-called i n t e gration w h o s e m e a n i n g has b e c o m e unclear n o w that the va.st majority of citizens speak t h e c o u n t r y ' s l a n g u a g e , respect laws.
70
W hat I Bdicve
Tht Sense af Belonging and the "Post-Integration" Approach
and, precisely, d e m a n d t h e right t o e q u a l t r e a t m e n t . Yet, all is
t o t t e r d a m , u n d e r t h e initial i m p e t u s of a c o u n c i l m e m b e r
as t h o u g h they .still h a d t o p r o v e that they b e l o n g by having t o
r o m t h e e c o l o g i s t party ( O r h a n Kaya), A r o u n d t h e g e n e r i c
answer lists o f sensitive q u e s t i o n s (which m a y vary f r o m o n e
l e m e "Citizenship,
identily, and seme of belonging," it aims at
W e s t e r n c o u n t r y t o a n o t h e r ) m e a n t t o establish w h e t h e r o r
.leveloping bridges in various fields: education, t h e j o b m a r k e t ,
n o t they are " m o d e r a t e " a n d c a n be "integrated." Are y o u first
media, r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n faith c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d social p r o j
a M u s l i m o r American, C a n a d i a n , AustraHan, Italian, British,
ects. T h e local level is w h e r e a t r u e sense of b e l o n g i n g can
o r French? D o y o u speak t h e national l a n g u a g e at h o m e ? W h a t
i e fostered, t h r o u g h m u t u a l r e s p e c t a n d t r u s t a n d innovative,
do you t h i n k of the " M u s l i m veil"? W h a t is y o u r position a b o u t
plural initiatives. Aftier an initial cycle of e n c o u n t e r s in t h e
h o m o s e x u a h t y ? H o w d o y o u e d u c a t e y o u r children? D o y o u g o
lield, 1 have p u b l i s h e d a firststage r e p o r t a b o u t e d u c a t i o n , ' "
to the s w i m m i n g pool? D o y o u w a n t Islamic schools? H o w d o
and t h e p r o c e s s is g o i n g o n a b o u t s u c h i s s u e s as t h e j o b
y o u c h o o s e y o u r female o r m a l e doctor? a n d so on. S o m e t i m e s
market a n d t h e m e d i a . J u s t like t h o s e projects t h a t insist o n
they are even q u e s t i o n e d a b o u t the IsraeHPalestinian conflict,
proximity': a c o m m o n sense o f b e l o n g i n g , a n d civic creativi
t h e w a r i n Iraq, o r m o r e g e n e r a l l y t h e crises i n t h e M i d d l e
ty—in the n a m e of an a p p r o a c h t h a t is clearly "postintegra
East, Asia, or N orth Africa. Such testing q u e s t i o n s are utterly
lion" in n a t u r e — w e n e e d n a t i o n a l policies for local initiatives.
unacceptable, y e t t h e y are e v e r y w h e r e p r e s e n t and distinguish
Besides, o n e can observe at t h e local level t h a t t h e t e n s i o n s
"good"' f r o m "bad" M u s l i m s , g o o d citizens from "suspects";
and p a s s i o n a t e d e b a t e s t h a t f o c u s t h e a t t e n t i o n o f n a t i o n a l
a n d y e t n o o n e w o u l d d a r e ask such q u e s t i o n s o f ordinary,
I'rotagonists are n o t part of l o c a l reality. O n e s h o u l d n o t be
" p u r e b r e d " citizens, of atheists, agnostics, Jews, CathoHcs, o r
misled by t h e d e b a t e s in national capitals, by t h e declarations
î ' r o t e s t a n t s , h o w e v e r c o n s e r v a t i v e o r d o g m a t i c they m i g h t b e .
of s o m e v e r y visible politicians o r of s o m e n a t i o n a l m e d i a
A l o n g w i t h t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d policy regarding s c h o o l syllabi, i t is i m p o r t a n t t o l a u n c h local projects that b r i n g citi
w h o arc n o t a w a r e of the v e r y constructive d y n a m i c s u n d e r w a y e v e r y w h e r e in cities a n d n e i g h b o r h o o d s .
z e n s t o g e t h e r a r o u n d c o m m o n v a l u e s a n d s t o p classifying
T h e rcsponsibiUty of Muslim citizens is also very i m p o r t a n t .
t h e m as "nationals," " i n t e g r a t e d , " or " t o b e i n t e g r a t e d " ( o r as
As 1 said, t h e y m u s t revisit b o t h t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e t e a c h i n g
" a u t o c h t h o n o u s " o r " a l l o c h t h o n o u s " as in the N e t h e r l a n d s ) .
offered in o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d m o s q u e s a n d t h e п а ш г е of t h e
It is i m p o r t a n t t o a c k n o w l e d g e that t h e y are citizens a n d t o
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t are s p r e a d r e g a r d i n g t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
involve t h e m in local social actions t h a t recognize their près
s(Kiety, M u s l i m circles s h o u l d insist on t h e i m p o r t a n c e of
encc, p r o m o t e their i n p u t , a n d mobilize t h e i r energy. D u r i n g
knowing the l a n g u a g e a n d t h e s u r r o u n d i n g legal f r a m e w o r k
the past t h r e e years, I have t a k e n p a r t in a n extremely inter
b u t also d e v e l o p a positive a p p r o a c h t o c u l t u r e , t h e a r t s ,
esting a n d i n n o v a t i v e p i l o t p r o j e c t w i t h t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y of
contributing, creativity, a n d of c o u r s e t h e sense of b e l o n g i n g
7% What / Brfteve
that m u s t be acknowledged a n d n u r t u r e d . W h a t Muslims h e a r in m o s q u e s , lectures, o r c o m m u n i t y events m u s t enable t h e m to feel comfortable b o t h w i t h their affiliation t o Islam and w i t h a confident citizenship r e a c h i n g o u t t o t h e i r fellow citizens. T h i s is w h y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n is so i m p o r t a n t b o t h at t h e local a n d national levels: in the l o n g run, i m a m s will have t o be trained in t h e W e s t e r n , E u r o p e a n , and national c o n t e x t — i n d e p e n d e n t l y , of c o u r s e — a n d to k n o w t h e language a n d c u l m r e of the c o u n t r y a n d b e suffused w i t h t h e m from w i t h i n in o r d e r t o offer faith c o m m u n i t i e s a v i s i o n a n d s o l u t i o n s a t t u n e d t o the realities in t h e field. Intellecmals, leaders, organization managers, and n u m e r o u s M u s l i m s c h o l a r s are m a k i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e efforts t o effect this t r a n s i t i o n a n d as I said, things are m o v i n g very quickly. Nevertheless, it will still t a k e t i m e for M u s l i m s to d e v e l o p a consistent global vision a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e forms and stages of the multidimensional c o m m i t m e n t s they need. N u m e r o u s challenges a n d far-reaching issues are involved: aside f r o m strictly religious questions, t h e r e are of c o u r s e economic a n d cultural considerations t h a t m u s t be taken i n t o account in t h e processes of representation a n d perception of oneself a n d of the e n v i r o n m e n t . To this s h o u l d be added t h e political issue: at the national level, m a n y political parties claim that religiotts affiliation should be distinguished from citizenship: yet o n t h e local level o n e can observe t h a t practices are quite different a n d t h a t officials a n d representatives n o t only take religious affiliation into a c c o u n t b u t also rely o n that feeling to attract votes or appeal t o voters. This p h e n o m e n o n is visible e v e r y w h e r e : Muslims a n d their n u m b e r s are, and are increasingly g o i n g t o
The Smu of Bdanging and ifcf 'Post-lntegiatim " ApfroatM 73
b e c o m e , i m p o r t a n t stakes in elections, a n d political parties, often out of t o u c h with those n e w citizens, frequendy m a n a g e ito reach t h e m only through " c o m m u n i t y - o r i e n t e d " discourse, by promising t o take their "religious" d e m a n d s into account. I his is in c o m p l e t e contradiction w i t h the political principles that claim t o k e e p religion a p a r t from politics. For M u s h m leaders and citizens, the challenge is a major o n e : they can play o n p o w e r s t r u g g l e s a n d o n n u m b e r s to influence local policies and, at t h e same time, reinforce c o m m u n i t y feelings. O r ihey can. on t h e contrary, set o u t t o develop a citizen's ethics by d e m a n d i n g consistency, fair social policies, and equal treatment. This m e a n s d e m a n d i n g political integrity, c o m p e t e n c e , .ind ^ne civic evaluation of local policies r a t h e r t h a n l e a d i n g Muslim citizens i n t o t h e d e a d e n d of c l o s e d , c o m m u n i t y oriented political logics i n t o w h i c h election-obsessed politicians are strangely and d a n g e r o u s l y attracting t h e m .
Sociopolitical Issues, die Media
75
Such t h i n k i n g is d a n g e r o u s a n d m u s t b e firmly rejected. I have been r e p e a t i n g that t h e victim feeling m u s t be fought
13
against, b u t this m u s t n o t p r e v e n t us from s e e i n g that t h e r e
Sociopolitical Issues, the Media
ai'e indeed victims of j o b o r h o u s i n g discrimination and m o r e general racially m o t i v a t e d injustice. Racism is a reality a n d t h e way s o m e cities, districts, o r s u b u r b s are m a n a g e d is unfortunately r e m i n i s c e n t of colonial p a t t e r n s , w i t h s o m e citizens being m a d e t o feel t h a t they are w o r t h less t h a n o t h e r s , t h a t they are s e c o n d - c l a s s c i t i z e n s . H o w e v e r , r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t
or courage to promote
there are victims is o n e thing; m a i n t a i n i n g a victim mind-set is
social policies, they simply t a k e advantage of popular percep-
another. I a m calling tor an entirely opposite attitude: because
tions a n d feelings a n d e n d u p "culturalizing," "religionizing,"
t h e r e are actual victims, p e o p l e m u s t resist a n y t e m p t a t i o n t o
o r "Islamizing" social issues. A direct o r implicit link is t h u s
Ifel Victimized a n d take it u p o n t h e m s e l v e s t o d e m a n d t h e i r
established b e t w e e n social p r o b l e m s , violence, marginalization
rights.
W H E N P O L I T I C I A N S L A C K T H E IDEAS
o n the o n e h a n d , and individuals' skin c o l o r {"race"), cultural
This begins w i t h stating t h a t politicians m u s t stop "cultural-
origin, o r rehgion o n the o t h e r hand. At a loss for political ideas,
izing" and "Islamizing" p r o b l e m s because they d o n o t k n o w
they develop expedient, populist theories t h a t are often cxplic-
how to solve t h e m with new, b o l d e r social pohcies. O u r politi-
idy or implicitly racist. At t h e core of this process, the d a n g e r
cians lack c o u r a g e and are obsessed wirh the t i m e span of elec-
consists in Muslim citizens themselves t a k i n g in this discourse
tions, which is n o t the far l o n g e r t i m e of social reforms. S u c h
and b e g i n n i n g t o t h i n k t h a t t h e i r p r o b l e m s are n o t political
problems as missing social structures, u n e m p l o y m e n t , housing,
b u t religious and cultural. Because they are often u n a w a r e o f
o r social d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h a v e n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h religion:
t i m e - h o n o r e d strategies a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s (power relations,
they are social issues that r e q u i r e social pohcies. O n e c a n n o t
representarions, etc.) in t h e g e n e r a l t r e a t m e n t of the race issue
but rejoice t h a t d u r i n g t h e 2005 riots in France's suburbs, t h e
(concerning Native Americans, Airican Americans, Arabs, etc.),
majority of t h e political class abstained from t u r n i n g the situ-
they are all t o o r e a d y — w i t h faulty naivety—to accept the equa-
ation into a cultural and reHg]ou.s problem: t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
tion a c c o r d i n g t o which, b e c a u s e of t h e i r m i n o r i t y religious
could have b e e n dramatic. H o w e v e r , four years o n — a n d in spite
and c u l m r a l affiliation, they will never be able t o escape social
of presidential, legislative, a n d local e l e c t i o n s — n o t h i n g h a s
marginalization. T h e victim feeling then a p p e a r s justified, since
been d o n e , n o t h i n g has c h a n g e d . P r u d e n c e w a s s h o w n a b o u t
society a n d its policies offer n o h o p e ; w e have c o m e full circle.
liow the riots s h o u l d be qualified b u t this h a s b e e n followed
76
What f Believe
by passivity, t h e political class keeping silent over t h o s e issues, giving the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h o s e are n o t t h e p r o b l e m s o f t r u e citizens, t h a t they are n o t real, priority i n t e r n a l c o n c e r n s : all is as if u r b a n districts a n d s u b u r b s w e r e c u t off from t h e rest of t h e c o u n t r y , [n t h e U n i t e d States, t h e election of t h e first African A m e r i c a n p r e s i d e n t should n o t d e l u d e us i n t o overl o o k i n g t h e structural r a c i s m and daily injustice faced b y b l a c k
SociopoHikal li-^es, the Media
jy
E
andition for integrating w i t h the European U n i o n , or does it t? If it d o e s , it can join; if it d o e s not. it s h o u l d wait and try m e e t those goals. But w h a t c a n be observed is h e r e again a ft toward religion and culture: the p r o b l e m of Turkey is. w e
_ . J told explicitly or implicitly, a religious a n d cultural issue 1 hat e n d a n g e r s E u r o p e a n b a l a n c e s and the c o n t i n e n t ' s cultural I lomogeneity. M e m b e r s o f t h e E u r o p e a n P a r i i a m e n t have said
people. Such processes of "culruralizing" or "Islamizing"
n, and g o v e r n m e n t s p r e t e n d t o be u n a w a r e of it: however,
social q u e s t i o n s or conversely shifi:ing t h e m t o a sort of civic
l-'rench p r e s i d e n t Nicolas S a r k o z y has said o u t loud w h a t the
no-man's-land can be o b s e r v e d in all W e s t e r n countries w h e n
majority was silently thinking. T h e picture is a gritn o n e , a n d
elections are d r a w i n g n e a r o r in times of crisis.
it involves d a n g e r o u s inconsistencies.
If t o t h i s w e a d d t h e i s s u e o f i m m i g r a t i o n , t h e p i c t u r e
E v e r y w h e r e the same d i s p l a c e m e n t s of social and pohtical
gets even darker. Rather t h a n being j u d g e d in light of h u m a n
issues t o w a r d the cultural a n d religious field can b e observed:
rights
o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d e c o n o m i c realities o n t h e o t h e r
u n a b l e t o d e v i s e fair, e g a l i t a r i a n policies o n t h e social a n d
h a n d , p h e n o m e n a are t u r n e d into q u e s t i o n s of identity, reli-
political levels, politicians justify inconsistencies, c o n t r a d i c -
g i o n , a n d c u l t u r e : these t h i n g s arc n o t only t h r e a t e n e d f r o m
lions, and s o m e t i m e s hypocrisies t h r o u g h racial, cultural, and
within b u t also fi-om o u t s i d e by the c o n s t a n t influx of i m m i -
leligious considerations that are s u p p o s e d t o explain or justify
g r a n t s . T e n d e n t i o u s o r clearly racist r e m a r k s are b e c o m i n g
differential t r e a t m e n t . W h a t M u s l i m W e s t e r n citizens m u s t
increasingly c o m m o n in political speeches a n d a m o n g p e o p l e :
urgently d e m a n d is r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r s t a t u s a n d t h e e q u a l
the r e a l m s o f p o h t i c s a n d of e c o n o m i c m a n a g e m e n t a r e
treatment t h a t society has t o p r o v i d e at all levels. Social policies
a b a n d o n e d t o give w a y t o i d e n t i t y - c e n t e r e d , "essentialist,"
should be reexamined as well as the necessary m a n a g e m e n t of
cultural a n d r e h g i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t justify x e n o p h o b i a
power relationships, since this is ultimately w h a t it is all about,
and r e j e c t i o n . In Switzerland,'^ D e n m a r k , Spain. G e r m a n y ,
'I he point is t o accept t h a t e c o n o m i c relationships should be
France, Italy, and finally t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e , as well as in t h e
addressed pohtically: because t h e y are obsessed with identity
U n i t e d States, Canada, o r Australia, Islam a n d Muslims d o n o :
issues and k e e p focusing t h e d e b a t e o n "values," "culture," o r
s y m b o h z e settled citizens b u t eternal i m m i g r a n t s w h o are t o
"civilization," W e s t e r n societies avoid such issues as t h e rule o f
b e i n t e g r a t e d or stigmatized. In E u r o p e , t h e political issue o f
law, equal t r e a t m e n t , objective relations o f d o m i n a t i o n , deni-
Turkey's integration should have been considered solely o n the
gration, and e c o n o m i c and social marginalization, of political
basis o f t h e conditions for accession: d o e s Turkey a n s w e r the
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , racism, a n d x e n o p h o b i a . In so d o i n g , t h e y
7M
Sociopolitical Issues, the Media
Hluil i Believe
79
assent t o d a n g e r o u s d e m o c r a t i c s h o r t c o m i n g s . In the n a m e iil
!itizens, social p r o t a g o n i s t s a s well a s politicians, m u s t
a r e c o n s t r u c t e d idea of its identity and of a selective a n d highly
...line t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n issue m o r e rigorously and system-
ideological self-representation, a h u g e n u m b e r of intellectuals
ically Leaving aside 'pubhc relations" strategies and playing
and politicians in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia,
. sensation a n d i m a g e , j o u r n a l i s t s and m e d i a t o r s m u s t bC'
o r N e w Z e a l a n d s e e m r e a d y Co b e t r a y s o m e of their funda-
icouraged t o t a k e their t i m e , t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e complexity
menral d e m o c r a t i c values. T h e danger is real.
issues, a n d t o g r a s p things in light of l o n g - t e r m processes
T h e role of the m e d i a in representarions a n d in the n a t u r e of
d historical evolution. T h i s is a difficult c h a l l e n g e i n d e e d
national and international debates can n o l o n g e r be downplayed
. c a u s e j o u r n a l i s t s t h e m s e l v e s are subject t o t h e pressure o f
o r u n d e r r a t e d . O n e can i n d e e d remain passive and e n d u r e the
,mc and o f m a j o r i t y p e r c e p t i o n s . At any r a t e , w e also n e e d
" m e d i a logic" t h a t n a t u r a l l y focuses o n crises a n d amplifies
'Wild journalists w h o dare c o n t r a d i c t accepted opinions, w h o
p r o b l e m a t i c o r negative representations; o r o n e can t h i n k of
lucstion certainties and ask a p p r o p r i a t e q u e s t i o n s . T h e y are
involving j o u r n a l i s t s a n d t h e media in t h e general d y n a m i c s
.creasingly scarce, b u t they exist a n d their contributions are
that I have b e e n describing. This does n o t m e a n a t t e m p t i n g t o control journalists or limit their freedom of expression and analysis, b u t w o r k i n g o n fundamentals and o n long-term issues, first b y m a k i n g journalists aware that they are citizens and that they ought to keep their civic conscience alert while performing their work. This entails their focusing on processes rather than n e w s items, o n in-depth efforts t o b m l d rather t h a n o n media "scoops" and o n the sensational covering of striking, shocking events. It requires "media policies" focusing o n t h e training of j o u r n a l ists ( a b o u t religious a n d cultural issues o n the o n e h a n d and social issues and m a r g i n a l i z a d o n processes o n the other h a n d ) . Local media m u s t get involved, and interesting short- and longt e r m local action m u s t g e t t o be b e t t e r k n o w n . Because they are unavoidable mediators, journalists shape representations and are in effect key protagonists in m a n a g i n g social, religious, and culmral pluralism, in developing a sense of c o m m o n belonging, as well as in potentially n u r t u r i n g fears a n d phobias.
'ssehtial.
The Roouaj'Europe... and of the West
81
vr.ils is u l t i m a t e l y as s i m p l e as it is explicit: Islam is " t h e 'ilitT," even w h e n present a m o n g us. This idea is a n y t h i n g b u t n e w a n d t h e v e r y p r o j e c t o f
14
The Roots of Europe.. and of the West
u r o p e , b e y o n d its g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , h a s b e e n iiirtured a n d s h a p e d by this p r o c e s s of distinction
from—or
I liar o p p o s i t i o n t o — w h a t is n o t itself. T h e selective r e c o n ^ t o u c U o n of historical liabilities, of E u r o p e ' s roots, a n d t h e B l a n k " c h a r a c t e r i z i n g of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n by Islam a n d B u s l i m s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of E u r o p e are edifying in this
IN RECENT TEARS,
the d e b a t e has b e e n seen t o shift from p o h t -
^ B p e c t . T h e scientific, legal, philosophical, a n d r e h g i o u s i n p u t
ical a n d e c o n o m i c issues t o cultural a n d religious o n e s , b u t
B
it has also b e e n p r o j e c t e d o n history, w i t h s o m e t i m e s s u r r e -
^ftch an e x t e n t — b o t h in the collective m e m o r y and in school
ahstic d e b a t e s over " W e s t e r n values " and "the r o o t s " of
^ n i b i — t h a t o n e c a n n o t b u t s e e t h i s as a n ideological c h o i c e
E u r o p e a n d its " G r e c o - R o m a n " or " J u d e o - C h r i s d a n " identity,
B
o r simply " G r e e k a n d C h r i s t i a n " a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o p e in his
B l p r e s s i o n , t h e figure of A v e r r o e s (twelfth c e n t u r y ) — t h e
12 S e p t e m b e r 2006 R e g c n s b u r g address. W i t h t h e arrival of
^ftionalisl-who-is-so-much-like-us
Islam and n e w . m o r e visible i m m i g r a n t s a n d w i t h t h e p a t e n t
B r i s t o t l e ^ " — i s m e n t i o n e d obsessively w h i l e several d o z e n
c h a n g e in W e s t e r n societies, t h e t e m p t a t i o n s e e m s t o b e t o
H t i e n t i s t s , t h i n k e r s , p h i l o s o p h e r s , a n d a r t i s t s are n e g l e c t e d
close r a n k s , t o redefine w h a t the W e s t a n d E u r o p e a r e in
B t h o u g h they n o t only lived in E u r o p e b u t deeply influenced
o r d e r t o b e able t o d e l i m i t (in the sense o f .setting limits t o )
B i r o p e a n m i n d - s e t s as w e l l as scientific, p h i l o s o p h i c a l , a n d
w h a t W e s t e r n / E u r o p e a n i d e n t i t y is a n d w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s
H r e n legal a n d political p r a c t i c e s . T e x t b o o k s , from p r i m a r y
it c u l t u r a l l y a n d religiously. At the c o r e of p l u r a l i s m , t h e
• c h o o l t o university, m a k e b u t m a r g i n a l m e n t i o n o f t h a t
g r e a t e s t d a n g e r w o u l d be for t h e idea o n e h a s always m a i n -
I n p u t , and university syllabi s o m e t i m e s fail t o refer to t h e m
tained a b o u t oneself t o collapse: never m i n d the h u m a n i s t
H k o g e t h e r . Is this partial loss of m e m o r y incidental, o r d o e s it
values a n d t h e social a n d political vision of E u r o p e a n d of
H f s u l t from a deliberate ideological and pohtical choice? T h e r e
the W e s t ; w h a t m a t t e r s h e n c e f o r t h is o u r r o o t s , o u r identity,
B n o d o u b t as t o the answer.
a n d w h a t defines us historically as " W e s t e r n , " " E u r o p e a n , "
1^
o r " F r e n c h , " "Italian," "British," o r "American" in t e r m s o f ancestral c u l t u r e a n d e s t a b h s h e d religion. W h a t this p r o c e s s
M u s l i m scholars and intellectuals has b e e n overiooked t o
t h e p r o c e s s leading t o self-construction. T o m a k e a g o o d a n d w h o rediscovered " o u r "
T h e reflexes t h a t can be o b s e r v e d t o d a y confirm the basic
n a t u r e of this very old p r o c e s s , w h i c h consists, while d e t e r m i n i n g a n d s e l e c t i n g w h a t defines u s , i n h i g h l i g h t i n g w h a t
82
The Kooii sf Europe... and of the West
What I Beheve
is different from us o r s t a n d s in o p p o s i t i o n t o us. W h a t w e are directly w i t n e s s i n g t o d a y is a v e r y v o l u n t a r y reactiva-
83
. in its historical a p p r o a c h a n d in its p r e s e n t definition of iropean identity.
t i o n of this p r o c e s s of r e d e f i n i n g i d e n t i t y : t h e p r e s e n c e of
Europe c a n n o t survive, and n e i t h e r can t h e West, if it keeps
n e w M u s l i m c i t i z e n s , t h e c o n t i n u o u s flow o f i m m i g r a n t s
iving t o define itself in exclusive t e r m s a n d in opposition t o
and d e m o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n s cause fear, a n d it is t h e r e f o r e
i c other—Islam o r M u s h m s — o f w h o m it is afraid. W h a t the
b e c o m i n g u r g e n t t o clearly state w h o o n e is for fear t h a t o n e ' s
k'est. including of course E u r o p e , m o s t n e e d s today may n o t
identity and c u l m r e will be lost in diversity o r simply disappear.
• so m u c h dialogue with o t h e r civilizations as actual dialogue
T h e fear of r e h g i o u s a n d c u l t u r a l pluralism leads to r e d u c t i o n
^•ilh itself It n e e d s to a c k n o w l e d g e the facets of its o w n self
a n d t o a very exclusive o u t l o o k o n o n e ' s past. Indeed, t h o s e
i.il it has t o o l o n g refused to see a n d that even n o w prevent
were the considerations underlying the p o p e s Regensburg
, from e n h a n c i n g the wealth of its religious a n d philosophical
address: b y s p e a k i n g a b o u t t h e Hnk b e t w e e n faith a n d r e a s o n
raditions. T h e W e s t a n d E u r o p e m u s t c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h
and insisting o n the privileged relationship b e t w e e n t h e G r e e k
,ie diversity of t h e i r past in o r d e r to m a s t e r t h e n e c e s s a r y
rationalist tradition and t h e Christian religion, Pope Benedict
pluralism of t h e i r future. T h e reductive a p p r o a c h used b y t h e
XVI s o u g h t t o define E u r o p e a n (and W e s t e r n ) i d e n t i t y as
>( tpe and by t h o s e w h o conjure u p the b u g b e a r of d a n g e r o u s
primarily Christian in its faith and G r e e k in its philosophical
iltural pluralism is of n o h e l p in this process of reappropria-
r e a s o n . I s l a m , s u p p o s e d n o t t o r e c o g n i z e this r e l a t i o n s h i p
ion. It is up t o academics a n d intellectuals, w h e t h e r M u s h m
to reason, w a s t h u s seen a s foreign t o t h e E u r o p e a n identity
5r not, to p r o v e — t h r o u g h historical-critical studies—that they
t h a t d e v e l o p e d o u t o f this h e r i t a g e . It w a s m the n a m e o f s u c h
ire mistaken b o t h historically and scientifically.^*' T h i s w o u l d
a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a few y e a r s ago, t h e n Cardinal Ratzinger h a d
,ilso b e a m e a n s for today's M u s h m s t o reconcile t h e m s e l v e s
already stated his refusal o f T u r k e y i n t e g r a t i n g E u r o p e : b e i n g
wilh t h e edifying creativity o f t h e W e s t e r n a n d E u r o p e a n
Muslim, T u r k e y h a d n e v e r b e e n and c o u l d never be g e n u i n e l y
Muslim thinkers of the past, w h o n o t only w e r e "integrated"
E u r o p e a n in culture. O n c e again, Islam is different; it is " t h e
b u t w h o deeply c o n t r i b u t e d t o b o t h E u r o p e a n d the W e s t at
other," In this respect, B e n e d i c t XVI is a very E u r o p e a n p o p e
l.iige, n u r t u r i n g a n d eruiching t h e m w i t h t h e i r critical reflec-
w h o calls u p o n the c o n t i n e n t ' s p e o p l e s t o b e c o m e a w a r e of
tions. It is i m p o r t a n t t o s h o w t h a t the selective m e m o r y t h a t
the c e n t r a l , inescapable c h a r a c t e r o f Christianity if they are
tends t o "forget" the decisive i n p u t of such M u s l i m t h i n k e r s
i n t e n t o n n o t losing t h e i r identity. T h i s m e s s a g e m a y be a
.ind active r a t i o n a l i s t s as al-Kindi (ninth c e n t u r y ) , al-Farabi
legirimate o n e in t h e s e t i m e s o f identity crisis b u t it is a b o v e
( t e n t h c e n t u r y ) , I b n Sina ( A v i c e n n a , e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y ) ,
all p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s since it o p e r a t e s a twofold r e d u c -
.il-Ghazali (twelfth century), ash-Shatibi ( t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) /
84
What I Believe
Ibn Khaldun ( f o u r t e e n t h century), a n d o t h e r scientists reconstructs a E u r o p e t h a t misleads itself a n d o t h e r s a b o u t its past. In light o f this n e c e s s a r y r e c l a m a t i o n , M u s l i m s c a n show, reasonably and w i t h o u t polemics, chat they share the essence of t h e v a l u e s o n w h i c h E u r o p e and t h e West are b a s e d and
15
Reform and the Seven "Cs'
t h a t t h e i r o w n religious tradition has also c o n t r i b u t e d t o the e m e r g e n c e and p r o m o t i o n of chose values.
M Y THEORETICAL AND LEGAL STUDIES
as well as m y w o r k at the
grass r o o t s over the past t w e n t y years have ted m e t o evolve, expand m y thinking, and e x p l o r e n e w avenues. O n the t h e o retical level, I have c o m e t o t h i n k that M u s l i m s o u g h t t o g o further t h a n m e r e reflection a b o u t Islamic law and j u r i s p r u dence (al-fiqh). For a h u n d r e d a n d fifty years w e have b e e n speaking a b o u t a u t o n o m o u s critical reasoning (ijtihdd),
which
ought t o enable us t o face c o n t e m p o r a r y challenges: yet crises a n d obstacles r e m a i n , a l t h o u g h c o n s i d e r a b l e e v o l u t i o n h a s taken place. I believe w e m u s t n o w r e t u r n t o the sources o f the f u n d a m e n t a l s of law a n d j u r i s p r u d e n c e (usul al-fiqh) a n d question t h e original categorizations and m e t h o d o l o g i e s . T h i s is w h a t I have called "radical r e f o r m , " w h i c h should lead u s from s t r u g g h n g adaptation r e f o r m to creative transformational reform.^' T h e challenge is a m a j o r o n e a n d the process t h a t can lead t o t h o s e d e v e l o p m e n t s will take t i m e and wiU initially meet sharp criticism, if n o t s t a u n c h opposition and rejection. The t e r m s of the debate have nevertheless b e e n set: m y aim, along w i t h o t h e r Muslim scholars and intellecmals, is t o o p e n a debate over fundamentals.
fifS What 1 Believs
I have always s o u g h t t o p u r s u e this theological-legal, intel-
Reform and the Seven "Cs"
W h a t Muslims urgently n e e d is first of all conjidaice.
Sj
The
lectual, a n d academic c o m m i t m e n t u p s t r e a m in parallel w i t h
intity crisis is a d e e p o n e a n d it is imperative, t h r o u g h educa-
m y c o m m i t m e n t at t h e c o r e of civil societies in the West o r in
t i o n , to develop b e t t e r k n o w l e d g e of oneself a n d o n e ' s history,
t h e T h i r d W o r l d , and of c o u r s e w i t h i n M u s l i m societies and
• o shape a c o n s c i e n c e and intelligence t h a t is confident a n d
c o m m u n i t i e s . O v e r t h e past t w e n t y years I have b e e n able to
M-rene: t h a t is b o t h sure of itself and h u m b l e t o w a r d o t h e r s .
visit a l m o s t all E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s , t h e United States, C a n a d a , .
I ijiimately, self-con/idcnce s h o u l d be allied t o con/uieficc in others.
Russia, Australia, N e w Z e a l a n d , and m o s t African, Asian, and
I his process m u s t b e associated w i t h a p e r m a n e n t ,
A r a b c o u n t r i e s . I have always b e e n in t o u c h with citizens of all
duty of consistency: o n e s h o u l d n o t idealize o n e ' s values a n d
b a c k g r o u n d s and religions as well as o r d i n a r y Muslims s o as t o
mes.sage and b e c o m e unable t o d r a w u p a t h o r o u g h critique
listen, analyze, a n d try t o u n d e r s t a n d . In t h e case of M u s h m
nf the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , m a l f u n c t i o n i n g , o r even betrayals t h a t
c o m m u n i t i e s t h e w o r l d over, in t h e West and everywhere else,
I un t h r o u g h Muslim societies a n d c o m m u n i t i e s . Critical m i n d ,
it s o o n b e c a m e clear t o m e t h a t p r o b l e m s h a d as m u c h t o
critical loyalty, active rationality are n o t only t h e b e s t allies o f
do w i t h spirimality a n d psychology as w i t h strictly religious,
deep spirituality b u t also t h e conditions for d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
social, o r political realities.
renewal. W h e r e v e r they a r e , in w h a t e v e r r e g i o n of t h e w o r l d ,
rigorous
O v e r t h e years, 1 have developed an a p p r o a c h and discourse
Muslims should be witnesses (shahid, plur. shuhadd) t o the rich-
I initially s u m m a r i z e d in a t h e o r y of t h e "four C s . " " T h e idea
ness and positive potential of their message. T o this end, t h e y
was to set priorities and o p e n simple, clarifying prospects as t o
m u s t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c o m m o n welfare, w h a t e v e r p e o p l e ' s
u n d e r s t a n d i n g issues a n d g e t t i n g Muslims involved. D u r i n g a
religion, status, o r origin: the poor, the sick, a n d t h e oppressed,
visit t o Africa for t h e International S y m p o s i u m of F r a n c o p h o n e
in o u r eyes, s h o u l d have n o r e l i g i o n . M u s l i m citizens' coiitri-
Muslims (CIMEF), w h i c h t o o k place in O u a g a d o u g o u [Burkina
bulion m u s t b e an answer t o t h e o u t d a t e d discourse obsessed
Faso) in A u g u s t 2006, t w o speakers t o o k u p t h e q u e s t i o n and
with "integration." In all t h e r e a l m s of intelligence and action
suggested t h a t I a d d a n o t h e r t w o " C s " t o m y list. T h e y w e r e
(the sciences, t h e arts, c u l t u r e s , societies, politics, e c o n o m y ,
a b s o l u t e l y right. Recently, after a l e c t u r e I gave at O x f o r d
ecology, ethics, etc.) M u s l i m s m u s t r e c a p t u r e t h e e n e r g y of;
University, a w o m a n from t h e a u d i e n c e c a m e u p t o m e a n d
creativity a n d a taste for initiative a n d risk. M i n d s a n d t a l e n t s
s u g g e s t e d t h a t I s h o u l d c o n s i d e r a n o t h e r " C " : that, in effect,
m u s t be liberated and w o m e n a n d m e n m u s t b e offered space
deeply e c h o e d a conversation I h a d h a d w i t h Karen A r m s t r o n g
for expression, e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , criticism, a n d r e n e w a l . Yet
and h a d developed in m y latest philosopfiical book.'^^ T h a t is
they m u s t n o t forget that m a n y of their fellow citizens (even of
w h y t h e a p p r o a c h n o w includes seven " C s " t h a t o u g h t t o b e so
their fellow believers) have fears, d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d , and w o u l d
m a n y pillars in e l a b o r a t i n g priorities a n d strategies.
like t o k n o w m o r e : communication
is essential. C h o o s i n g t e r m i -
88
W hat I Believe
Жфгт and the Seven "Cs"
89
nology, defining concepts, b e i n g able t o shift one's perspective
iind m e n alike are experiencing a psychological a n d intellec
a n d s h o w intellectual (and cultural) e m p a t h y are i m p o r t a n t
Uial crisis of confidence. O n l y t h r o u g h such p e r s o n a l efforts
n o t only from o n e ' s o w n s t a n d p o i n t as a speaker b u t also in
ran Muslims learn t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h their e n v i r o n m e n t in
the situation of those w h o Usten (with their fears, their history,
m o r e t h a n a reactive o r e m o t i o n a l , and t o o often defensive,
their references). A n o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t r e m a i n s : being consis
m a n n e r . T h a t is also t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n t o t h i n k o u t
t e n t a n d selfcritical c a n n o t justify failure t o criticize o t h e r s '
contestation a n d strategies t o resist dictatorship, d o m i n a t i o n ,
tnconsistencies o r hypocrisies. Confronted by p o w e r s , govern
and discrimination n o t in a r a n d o m , chaotic m a n n e r b u t w i t h
m e n t s , o r e v e n laws (like t h e apartheid laws t h a t u s e d t o b e
a vision t h a t defines priorities a n d stages. It is u r g e n t t h a t in
institutionalized in S o u t h Africa), o n e m u s t retain o n e ' s d u t y
the course of this m a t u r a t i o n process, Muslims d o n o t allow
and right t o contest. O n e m u s t be able t o resist the b e t r a y a l
the m o s t radical voices to m o n o p o l i z e the m e d i a and public
of principles, even w h e n t h e b e t r a y e r s are o n e ' s o w n family,
attention. W ith and for their fellow ci:tizens, they m u s t raise the
one's fellow believers, o n e ' s g o v e r n m e n t , or whoever else. O n e
voice of, a n d s h o w the w a y t o , confidence, poise, a n d critical
m u s t n o t r e m a i n silent, w h e t h e r in front o f t h e hypocritical
rationality—but also w i s d o m , love, a n d forgiveness: r e m a i n i n g
p o s t u r i n g of W e s t e r n states in reaction t o China's repression
themselves, refusing to b e c o m e "stock Arabs" or "stock
of T i b e t a n s ( w h o m I have b e e n defending for over twentyfive
M u s l i m s . " s p r e a d i n g peaceful, b a l a n c e d , critical, g e n e r o u s
years) o r a m i d the i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y ' s silence w h i l e
discourse in times of crises a n d tension b u t also speaking o u t
Palestinians suffer colonization and repression at the h a n d s of successive Israeli g o v e r n m e n t s / " D e v e l o p i n g the capacity for empathy, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , forgiveness, a n d reaching
compassion
for oneself a n d o t h e r s (as t h e Buddhist t r a d i t i o n requires) is a n o t h e r imperative. W h a t this involves is n o t pity o r passive s e n t i m e n t a h s m b u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d forgiveness in a c t i o n , d e m a n d i n g j u s t i c e w i t h o u t ever forgetting t h e r e a l m o f t h e h e a r t a n d of l o v e . " T h e s e v e n " C s " (Confidence, Creativity,
Communication,
Consistency,
Contestation,
Contribution,
a n d Compassion)
provide a clear f r a m e w o r k a n d above all a sense of priorities. E d u c a t i o n , selfknowledge, critical t h i n k i n g , and creativity are areas t h a t m u s t b e u r g e n t l y addressed. MusUm w o m e n
' firmly w h e n e v e r w o m e n o r m e n , M u s h m o r n o t , b e t r a y t h e universal v a l u e s of dignity, f r e e d o m , a n d j u s t i c e . D e m a n d (justice and give love.
The West an4 ¡t¡ Mirror
91
i d a m e n t a l assets o f political p l u r a l i s m in w h i c h the W e s t stly takes pride. T h e issue at h a n d is clearly t o save Europe's
16
il or simply t o provide it w i t h o n e , as suggested b y the title
The West and Its Mirror A New
"We"
IF the p r o g r a m in which I t o o k p a r t several years ago^' u n d e r u' p a t r o n a g e of Jacques D e l o r s , w h o w a s t h e n president o f le European C o m m i s s i o n . In ft-ont of this mirror, the first challenge is t o avoid confuiion. Looking b e y o n d perceptions and imagination, the n a t u r e )f p r o b l e m s m u s t be m o r e precisely defined a n d o n e m u s t
W E S T E R N SOCIETIES H A V E C H A N G E D
a n d t h e p r o c e s s is irre-
•ep m o r e stricdy to facts and figures. T h e r e are religious and
versible. M u s h m citizens have settled in a n d will c o n t i n u e j
I iiltural questions that m u s t b e considered as such. T h e r e are
t o d o so. M o r e o v e r , E u r o p e ' s e c o n o m i c survival, like t h a t j
I ither challenges that, as m e n t i o n e d above, are s o c i o e c o n o m i c
of C a n a d a , t h e United States, Australia, o r N e w Z e a l a n d , is
111 nature, a n d they m u s t n o t b e confused w i t h t h e religious
d e p e n d e n t o n future i m m i g r a t i o n . W h a t e v e r t h e n a t u r e o f
ind c u l m r a l issues even t h o u g h t h e majority o f t h e p e r s o n s
cultural and religious resistance today, reality and needs m u s t
involved are r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s o r Muslims. T h e overlapping
be considered objectively t o m a n a g e c u r r e n t challenges in the
a n d / o r c o m b i n a t i o n of factors (culture, r e l i g i o n , a n d social
best possible way. Discourse a n d policies that instrumentaHze
marginalization) do n o t m a k e t h e m the s a m e : as I said, social
fear a n d play o n p o l a r i z a t i o n t o w i n elections m a y i n d e e d
policies m u s t t a c k l e social p r o b l e m s a n d t h e y m u s t b e distinct
attract confused, a n x i o u s citizens in t h e s h o r t r u n , b u t they
f r o m p o l i c i e s a d d r e s s i n g c u l t u r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s diversity.
are d a n g e r o u s , i n o p e r a t i v e , a n d m i s l e a d i n g and d i s h o n e s t in
T h e f o r m e r will necessarily b e helpful t o the latter (and vice
the l o n g r u n . W e s t e r n societies m u s t l o o k themselves in the
versa) b u t they are not identical and these r e a l m s m u s t n o t b e
face, a c k n o w l e d g e o n g o i n g changes, a n d build a n e w f u t u r e
confused. Moreover, internal questions m u s t n o t b e confused
t h a t is n o t simply i m p o s e d b y e c o n o m i c necessity b u t rehes o n
w i t h i m m i g r a t i o n issues t h a t d e m a n d t h o r o u g h
definite political will, a project for society, a true "philosophy
and fair and reasonable l o n g - t e r m policies. W o m e n and m e n
o f plurahsm,"^"^ and a lucid o u d o o k o n cultural diversity, inter-
flee poverty, the West needs labor: h o w can fear b e overcome
culturality, a n d religious plurality. This is a categorical neces-
to ensure t h a t the dignity of h u m a n beings is respected a n d
sity: w i t h o u t a purposeful policy a i m e d a t m a n a g i n g cultural
that they are n o t transformed into criminals a n d illegal i m m i -
and religious diversity within d e m o c r a t i c societies, t h e very
g r a n t s while t h e m o s t objective forecasts s h o w t h a t they will
•principles o f d e m o c r a c y will b e e n d a n g e r e d , a l o n g w i t h t h e
be needed? Are w e going to scrupulously respect o u r principles
reflection
9i
The West and /is Mirror
What I Believe
93
and h u m a n rights or casually accept the b i r t h of a new, m o d e r n
exactly o p p o s i t e o b s e r v a t i o n a s far as c o m m o n p e r c e p -
f o r m of u n a c k n o w l e d g e d slavery in w h i c h often u n d o c u -
)ns are c o n c e r n e d : people feel t h a t the y o u n g are n o t i n t e -
m e n t e d w o r k e r s are driven u n d e r g r o u n d a n d then exploited,
^ a i i n g , t h a t t h e g a p b e t w e e n c o m m u n i t i e s is w i d e n i n g ,
s o m e t i m e s c o m p e l l e d t o p r o s t i t u t i o n , a n d w o r k illegally for
tat Islam is i n d e e d a p r o b l e m . " I n t e g r a t i o n " is u n d e r w a y
shamefully low wages?
Ifjth the t r o u b l i n g p a r a d o x t h a t in p r o p o r t i o n a n d at t h e
D i s t i n g u i s h i n g [ a n d d e c o n s t r u c t i n g ) p r o b l e m s in t h i s
( t m e t i m e , a feeling of " i n s e c u r i t y " and d i s t r u s t is s p r e a d i n g
w a y m a y clarify issues a n d stakes. It s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t
ifilhin plural s o c i e t y This h a s b e e n c o n f i r m e d b y the r e c e n t
facts a n d figures m a y s o o t h e fears. C o u n t r i e s w i t h t h e m o s t
riallup r e p o r t (Gallup C o e x i s t I n d e x , 2009). The d i s t o r t i n g m i r r o r of t h e m e d i a ( w h i c h focus o n the
r e c e n t , in p a r t i c u l a r M u s l i m , i m m i g r a t i o n s h o u l d o b s e r v e ' w h a t h a p p e n s in F r a n c e o r in B r i t a i n w h e r e i m m i g r a n t s
lost e x t r e m e discourse a n d o n t h e m o s t critical situations)
settled l o n g e r ago, I have said this a n d it m u s t b e
IS well as instrumentalization b y p o p u h s t political parties and
tirelessly
rally focus o n p r o b l e m s a n d crises) and political i n s t r u m e n -
Ippeated crises all converge to k e e p u p fear a n d polarization. rovications o n t h e one h a n d a n d excessive reactions on t h e
talization, virtually all M u s l i m citizens are law-abiding, speak
| n ) e r bring no rehef terrorist attacks and violence o n o n e side.
the l a n g u a g e of the c o u n t r y , a n d are involved in their society
He
r e p e a t e d : away from m e d i a effects (because t h e m e d i a n a t u -
Danish c a r t o o n s , the p o p e ' s speech, excessive remarks by
(intellectually, socially, politically, culturally, in t h e a r t s , in
Hme ex-Muslims o r "anti-Islamic" films,fromAyan Hirsi Ali
s p o r t s , etc.),^^ T h e y m a y i n d e e d e x p e r i e n c e t e n s i o n s or, in
Hr'Geert Wilders, will go on n u r t u r i n g fear, m u t u a l rejection,
t i m e s o f crises, e x p r e s s u n e a s i n e s s o r h a v e e m o t i o n a l reac-
Ind
tions in w h i c h t h e n a t u r e o f their r e s p o n s e s is c o n d i t i o n e d
prejudice for s o m e rime y e t . T h e road will b e long, a n d 1
Believe it will take n o
less t h a n t w o g e n e r a t i o n s t o o v e r c o m e
b y t h e o f t e n h i g h l y b i a s e d q u e s t i o n s t h e y a r e asked;^" b u t
those tensions. T o this end, t o override fear a n d build the future,
facts speak for t h e m s e l v e s and prove t h a t t h i n g s are evolving
we m u s t nevertheless begin t o prepare the g r o u n d and m a k e it
q u i c k l y a n d positively Yet this d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t p e r c e p -
possible for t r u s t t o develop; a real revolution o f trust is indeed
tions are following suit: a s t u d y by m y colleague at E r a s m u s
required t o resist the evolution of distrust in o u r societies. 1
University Rotterdam, Professor H a n Etzinger, covering
have highlighted a n u m b e r of preventive m e a s u r e s (educational
M o r o c c a n a n d T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n g r o u p s , has s h o w n t h a t
and social policies, fighting discrimination, political participa-
r e g a r d i n g m o s t o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s u s e d t o assess i n t e g r a -
tion, e t c ) , b u t
t i o n processes,^" c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n c e s h a v e o c c u r r e d a n d
increasingly o c c u r and that success may be possible. We n e e d
t h e settling-in p r o c e s s is objectively g o i n g r a t h e r well, a n d
national m o v e m e n t s of local initiatives that, b e y o n d the s h o r t
better and better. This positive observation comes w i t h
run of elections, think and build for the long
it is mainly
on t h e local level t h a t advances run.
will
Thl West and It) Mirror 94
95
What I Believe
tainafon, It is o n t h e local level t h a t a deeper, m o r e c o n c r e t e sense
a n d other pressing m a t t e r s . G o v e r n m e n t s and
J T u t h c r t t t e s b e a r a major responsibility n, tins prccess^bu
of p l u r a l , creative, critical b e l o n g i n g c a n b e d e v e l o p e d : a
^ h e e n d of tire day .t is u p t o c t r z e n s t o c r e a t e d y n a m . c s
n e w " W e " as I called it five years ago, w h i c h materialized in
• * o . n g k n o w l e d g e , . . s p e c t . a n d trust, and thereby pro^nde
a Manifesto for a New "We" w r i t t e n in 2 0 0 6 / ' O u r societies are awaiting t h e e m e r g e n c e of a n e w " W e . " This " W e " m u s i b r i n g t o g e t h e r w o m e n a n d m e n , citizens of all religions or w i t h o u t religion, w h o will jointly u n d e r t a k e t o resolve t h e contradictions in their society and fight for the right t o w o r k , to h o u s i n g , to respect, against racism and discrimination of all sorts o r offenses against h u m a n dignity. S u c h a " W e " w o u l d h e n c e f o r t h r e p r e s e n t this c o m i n g t o g e t h e r of citizens confid e n t in t h e i r values, d e f e n d i n g p l u r a l i s m in their c o m m o n society, respectful of p l u r a l identities, and w h o together w i s h t o take u p the challenge in the n a m e of t h e i r shared ideals at t h e very h e a r t of their societies. As loyal and critical citizens or residents, they j o i n forces against shallow, e m o t i o n a l , o r sectarian reactions. T h e y s t a n d firm for rationality, dialogue, listening, a n d a reasonable approach to complex, difficult social questions. I have said so, a n d let m e r e p e a t it: it is at t h e local level t h a t t h e plural f u t u r e of Western societies will b e played out, It is a m a t t e r of g r e a t e s t urgency t o set u p local initiatives w h e r e w o m e n a n d m e n o f different religions, cultures, a n d sensitivities create spaces for m u t u a l k n o w l e d g e and s h a r e d c o m m i t m e n t : spaces for t r u s t . T h o s e c o m m o n projects m u s t h e n c e f o r t h b r i n g t h e m t o g e t h e r and give b i r t h in practice t o this n e w " W e " a n c h o r e d i n citizenship. I n d e e d "intercultural" a n d " i n t e r f a i t h " d i a l o g u e s are i m p o r t a n t a n d n e c e s s a r y b u t they c a n n o t b e as effective as shared c o m m i t m e n t o v e r all priority issues: e d u c a t i o n , social divides, insecurity, r a c i s m .
T a n d tndrrect resistance agarnst the lures of seetanantsm.
CriCUisms and Oppositions
97
('hat ideology a n d / o r interests d o they defend before focusing I my own discourse and c o m m i t m e n t ? W h i l e the attacks are
17
lany and diverse, the campaigns t h a t t u r n m e i n t o a "contro-
Criticisms and Oppositions
•rsial intellectual" have a l o g i c o f t h e i r o w n a n d suit well111 iderstood interests. It may b e interesting t o take a closer l o o k ,11 ihem.
As I
SAID, THAT HAS BEEN MY STANCE FOR YEARS.
Very
CriticismS,
D o g m a t i c
Secularists
first of (and mainly in) France, t h e n taken u p by s o m e Frenchloving g r o u p s o r s o m e ideological currents, have built u p a h a z e
H
of controversy a r o u n d m e a n d m y c o m m i t m e n t . " W e b links
• c c U l a r i s t " t r e n d s w e r e b a t t l i n g o n t h e fi-ont l i n e . F o r t h e i r
and b l o g entries have m u l t i p l i e d a m o n g t h e mass of "informa-
B e o l o g u e s a n d advocates, t h e n e w presence o f Muslims a n d
t i o n " a n d criticism circulating o n the I n t e r n e t . It is n o t always
their thinkers revived the old fears of a " r e t u r n of religion,"
MY FIRST DEBATES IN F R A N C E ,
it clearly a p p e a r e d that s o m e
easy t o identify the n u m e r o u s repetitions a n d allegations t a k e n
^Br
u p h e r e a n d t h e r e , w h i c h give t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e r e m a y
H h a s a historical q u a r r e l w i t h " r e l i g i o n , " a n d Cathoficism
be s o m e t r u t h in t h e facts r e p o r t e d , w h i l e m o s t of t h e t i m e
T n particular, b e c a u s e o f w h i c h any d e b a t e a b o u t r e l i g i o n
they are m e r e l y "high-frequency r e p e t i t i o n s " t h a t p e o p l e do
quickly b e c o m e s loaded, p a s s i o n a t e , a n d excessive. O n t h e
n o t t a k e t h e t i m e t o c h e c k o r t o subjecr t o critical s c r u t i n y
o t h e r h a n d , t h e colonial e x p e r i e n c e in Algeria w a s a painful
Moreover, they hasten t o say that w h e r e t h e r e is s m o k e , t h e r e
o n e . a n d past disputes w i t h f o r m e r l y c o l o n i z e d p o p u l a t i o n s ,
is fire, a n d t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e s o m e t r u t h b e h i n d all t h o s e criri-
with Muslims and w i t h Islam, have still n o t b e e n left: b e h i n d .
cisms, r e p o r t e d r e m a r k s , a n d r u m o r s .
T h i s w a s t h e a t m o s p h e r e in w h i c h t h e d e b a t e o v e r I s l a m
F r a n c e i n d e e d h a s a d o u b l e p r o b l e m . O n the o n e h a n d ,
O n e s h o u l d p e r h a p s t a k e the time t o l o o k into the origins
flared u p in t h e late 1980s o v e r t h e issue of t h e "Islamic h e a d -
o f t h a t "fire," w h i c h c r e a t e s such a s m o k e s c r e e n of suspicion
scarf." S o m e highly sectarian i d e o l o g u e s of secularism t u r n e d
a r o u n d m y work and c o m m i t m e n t that they b e c o m e b l u r r e d
it into a n e w religion w i t h its principles and d o g m a s , r e a d i n g
a n d s o m e t i m e s d o w n r i g h t invisible. W h a t g r o u p s are so
into legal texts w h a t they did n o t say (and s o m e t i m e s rejecting
d i s m r b e d by this discourse t h a t they are constantly striving t o
or d e n y i n g w h a t they did say o r allow). T h o u g h I was initially
revive t h e "fire" of c o n t r o v e r s y t o m i s l e a d ordinary citizens?
misled b y s u c h ideological, d o g m a t i c d i s c o u r s e , I later s t u d i e d
9S
Critidsm and Oppositions
WbatlBdinv
99
t h e legal texts a n d m e t a n d d e h a t e d w i t h t o p French specialists
vhereas it is serenely a c c e p t e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d in all o t h e r
(Jean Boussinesq, Emile P o u l a t j e a n Baubérot, and others) and
/ e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e should n o t d o w n p l a y
I t o o k p a r t for several years in the C o m m i s s i o n on Secularism
rench influence over debates a b o u t Islam in E u r o p e and t h e
and Islam o f t h e Ligue française de l ' e n s e i g n e m e n t " w i t h
/est: politicians a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p h o l d i n g a secularistic
such figures as Michel M o r i n e a u and Pierre T o u r n e m i r e . T h i s
ieology (by definition e i t h e r antireligious o r "anti-Islamic")
w a s w h e n I u n d e r s t o o d t h a t n o t h i n g in secularism o p p o s e d
ry to spread their influence a n d find a n u m b e r of supporters
a free a n d a u t o n o m o u s p r a c t i c e of Islam: I have since h e e n
lie world over, in the media as w e l l as with s o m e intellectuals
calling for a strict i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of F r a n c e ' s 1905 law o n
or s o m e political parties.
secularism, b o t h in letter a n d spirit, equally for all citizens b e they M u s l i m o r n o t . T h i s w a s precisely t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d specialists o f secularism, b o t h in the Ligue française de l ' e n s e i g n e m e n t a n d in t h e L i g u e française des
The Far Right
Droits de l ' H o m m e ( F r e n c h H u m a n Rights League). For t h e ideologues o f a certain f o r m of sectarian secularism ( w h o a r e
T H E N E W M U S L I M P R E S E N C E IN T H E W E S T
themselves "fundamentaUsts" as Jean B a u b é r o t puts it) t h a t is
i m m i g r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o w o r l d w a r s t h e n essentially
confused w i t h the rejection of religion ( a n d the h o p e t h a t it
after W o r l d W a r II) has of c o u r s e b e e n the b u t t of criticism
may disappear), m y p o s i t i o n is u n a c c e p t a b l e a n d d a n g e r o u s :
from t h e m o s t n a t i o n a l i s t i c , c h a u v i n i s t i c , a n d s o m e t i m e s
their o w n secularist d o g m a t i s m , and t h e militant atheism o f
clearly racist parties. As 1 said, the increasingly visible presence
s o m e o f t h e m , are b e n t o n s h o w i n g a t all costs t h a t s u c h a
of t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n s o f Muslims t h r o u g h o u t the West,
p o s i t i o n "hides s o m e t h i n g " and t h a t this is o n e m o r e "reli-
continuous immigration, and t h e identity and confidence crisis
g i o u s " colonist in disguise.
of nation-states amid globalization have b e e n ideal targets for
(resulting fi-om
Deafiiess is at its p e a k , a n d it has b e c o m e impossible t o
far right popuUsts d e n o u n c i n g t h e d a n g e r o f foreign p r e s e n c e .
hold a r e a s o n a b l e d e b a t e w i t h s o m e secularist g r o u p s w h o
In the past t h a t danger used t o b e , here and t h e r e on the s a m e
foster suspicion against M u s l i m s and try t o spread their d o u b t s
continent. Italians, Spaniards, P o r t u g u e s e , Poles, Blacks, a n d
all over E u r o p e and the W e s t , t h r o u g h E u r o p e a n and inter-
others. T h e n people increasingly b e g a n t o speak a b o u t Arabs,
n a t i o n a l i n s t i m t i o n s , for i n s t a n c e . A s i m p l e c o m m o n sense
Pakistanis, T u r k s , B o s n i a n s , K o s o v a r s , a n d A l b a n i a n s , a n d
formula t h a t I keep repeating, such as "CompeUing a w o m a n
assimilate t h e m to "Islam" a n d " M u s l i m s " w h o w e r e e n d a n -
t o w e a r a h e a d s c a r f is a g a i n s t Islam, a n d c o m p e l l i n g h e r t o
gering the i d e n t i t y and h o m o g e n e i t y of G r e c o - R o m a n a n d
r e m o v e i t is a g a i n s t h u m a n rights," is i n a u d i b l e in F r a n c e
Judeo-Christian "Western a n d E u r o p e a n culture."^''
100
Cnnàsms and Oppositions
What I Belicw
iot
W h a t is disquieting t o d a y is that w h a t u s e d to be said exclu-
j m e n . In f o r m e r C o m m u n i s t o r Socialist e n v i r o n m e n t s ,
sively by far right politicians and intellectuals has n o w b e c o m e
...linism w a s n a t u r a l l y associated w i t h a radical critique o f
standard discourse a m o n g m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l parties right and
cligion (Christianity essentially) said t o foster a negative i m a g e
left. S t a t e m e n t s a b o u t i m m i g r a t i o n , assimilation, M u s l i m s
..' w o m e n , reinforce inequalities, a n d oppose w o m e n ' s libera-
b e i n g "impossible t o i n t e g r a t e , " the incompatibility of values
inn, in particular b y prohibiting c o n t r a c e p t i o n and abortion.
or "cultures," essentialism i n t h e representation of "Muslims"
' t h e n e w M u s l i m p r e s e n c e , a l o n g w i t h t h e visibility o f
are so m a n y references and clichés that often stem from racism
luslim w o m e n w e a r i n g h e a d s c a r v e s , a n d s o m e t i m e s even
and s o m e t i m e s recall the darkest periods of the West's history.
• he "niqab" (veil covering t h e face), has intensified fears of
W h a t u s e d t o b e said a b o u t Jews ( d o u b l e s p e a k , d o u b l e alle-
.1 r e t u r n t o r e l i g i o n , n e c e s s a r i l y o p p o s e d t o w o m e n , t h e i r
giance, a n d obscure c o n n e c t i o n s with "internationalJudaism")
status, and their a u t o n o m y . A l t h o u g h d u r i n g the Middle Ages
is n o w r e p r o d u c e d in a l m o s t similar t e r m s a b o u t Muslims; the
,(iul Renaissance and until t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y Islam a n d
c o m p a r i s o n is m o s t d i s q u i e t i n g , a n d yet w h a t is s h o c k i n g is
Muslims w e r e t h o u g h t t o have a particular taste for sensu-
t h e b r e a d t h a n d "transversahty" of this discourse, which n o w
.ility and "lewdness" in k e e p i n g w i t h the stereotyped Oriental
transcends ideological a n d political affiliations. Lacking innova-
universe of t h e Arabian Nights,
tive and efficient social policies, m a n y p a r t i e s have n o q u a l m s
colonial p e r i o d b r o u g h t t h e t o t a l l y c o n t r a s t i n g i m a g e of a
a b o u t p l a y i n g o n fears a n d in the populist vein, especially at
strict, u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e l i g i o n , o p p o s e d t o w o m e n ' s b o d i e s
election times, w i t h closed discourse a b o u t "national identity"
iind to p l e a s u r e s . It will b e n o t i c e d t h a t in b o t h historical
and "security" and very biased s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t i m m i g r a n t s
periods, Islam w a s always pictured as "the other," "different,"
and foreigners or, m o r e explicitly, a b o u t M u s l i m s a n d t h e i r
"antithetical": t h e conservative Christian West pictured Islam
practices.
as lewd and permissive; t h e free m o d e r n West depicts a carica-
c o l o n i z a t i o n a n d t h e post-
ture of Islam focusing o n prohibitions and sexual oppression. Feminist organizations have spHt u p t h r o u g h o u t the W e s t . S o m e g r o u p s have established links w i t h M u s l i m o r g a n i z a Some
Feminist
Trends
tions (in E u r o p e , C a n a d a . Australia, t h e U n i t e d States, a n d South Africa as well as M u s l i m majority countries): they d e e m
w e r e o r i g i n a l l y quite close t o
it possible t o find c o m m o n p o i n t s b e t w e e n t h e i r c o m m i t m e n t
progressive Christian circles. Others s t o o d out by their
and the struggle of w o m e n w h o w a n t t o r e m a i n Muslim a n d
staunch opposition t o religion, w h i c h they saw as intrinsically
fight f r o m w i t h i n Islam t o f u r t h e r t h e i r c a u s e s against liter-
producing patriarchal discourse that discriminated against
alist a n d / o r c u l t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . O t h e r s c a n n o t a c c e p t
M A N Y T R E N D S OF F E M I N I S M
102
WhatlBelieve
Criririsnti and Oppositions
103
such alhances and carry o n their feminist struggles exclusively
dally in t h e b o o k s and discourse p r e s e n t in t h e West (and
w i t h "ex-Muslims" o r simply against Islam, which they see as
East), and point o u t the d a n g e r lurking in t h e very prin-
intrinsically d i s c r i m i n a t i n g . . . like all religions, or p e r h a p s a
,Jes of Islam. Islam's and M u s l i m s ' capacity t o " b e c o m e
little m o r e . T h e idea that a w o m a n might find liberation i n a n d
,jodcm" wiU, according to t h e m , lie in their capacity t o accept
t h r o u g h Islam, as I have b e e n s u g g e s t i n g for years, is simply
lomo.sexuahty a n d n o t c o n d e m n it. S o m e o f t h e m e x p e c t
meaningless t o t h e m , a n d t h o s e w h o spread such an idea can
uslims to acknowledge h o m o s e x u a l marriage and adoption
only be m a n i p u l a t o r s . T o t h o s e " W e s t e r n feminists" ( w h o
.d to accept the possibility t h a t an i m a m m i g h t b e h o m o -
often believe t h a t they alone h o l d the m o n o p o l y of universal
xual. This is the price for Muslims to be truly i n t e g r a t e d and
v a l u e s a n d f e m i n i s m ) , t h e s t r u g g l e of M u s l i m w o m e n , o r
.my o t h e r discourse will inevitably b e held in suspicion.
"Islamic f e m i n i s m , " is a fraud, a n d t h e y t r y t o discredit a n y
There are of course discourses of c o n d e m n a t i o n , and others
discourse s u p p o r t i n g its positions; the M u s l i m headscarf can
ixplicitly h o m o p h o b i c , within Muslim majority societies and
only be a s y m b o l of m a l e o p p r e s s i o n a n d t h e only t r u e a n d
.iinong individuals living in t h e West. It w o u l d b e w r o n g t o
l e g i t i m a t e f e m i n i s m is t h a t d e v e l o p e d b y W e s t e r n w o m e n .
vli-ny
This is clearly a W e s t e r n - c e n t e r e d view and, with the i r o n y of
positions p r e s e n t a m o n g M u s h m s m u s t be n o t e d . I have b e e n
terminology, p a t e r n a l i s m l o o m s large.
repeating for years that Islam d o e s n o t p r o m o t e homosexuality
k . H o w e v e r , various a p p r o a c h e s exist a n d t h e different
(it is rejected in principle since it does n o t c o r r e s p o n d to the divine project established for all h u m a n beings), b u t that d o e s n o t prevent m e from h a v i n g a clear position: n o t s h a r i n g the
Some Homosexual Groups
opinions and actions of h o m o s e x u a l s as to their sexuality d o e s n o t prevent m e from respecting w h o they are. This is indeed
the same apprehen-
w h a t each of us should expect f r o m fellow h u m a n b e i n g s ;
sions a b o u t reUgions in g e n e r a l as can b e o b s e r v e d in s o m e
respect a s a b e i n g even t h o u g h t h e r e m a y b e d i s a g r e e m e n t
secularist a n d feminist circles. Religions generally c o n d e m n
over belief a n d / o r behavior. T h o u g h I have reservations a b o u t
homosexuality, and the r e t u r n of religion, a n d particularly of
h o m o s e x u a l couples m a r r y i n g o r adopting children, I d o n o t
Islam, is t h o u g h t to imply that discourses of c o n d e m n a t i o n ,
hesitate t o fight against the h o m o p h o b i c discourse o r measures
rejection, o r o f passive a n d active h o m o p h o b i a will reappear.
o f w h i c h t h e y m a y b e t h e v i c t i m s and t o g e t involved in all
Recent years have seen the b i r t h of actual lobbies of gay a n d
c o m m o n causes b y their side. S o m e homosexual organizations
lesbian organizations that intervene in politics and in the media
still find this discourse t o o "conservative" as well as d a n g e r o u s
t o d e n o u n c e t h e reality o f h o m o p h o b i a i n Islamic circles.
because of its appareiit openness. T h e y see only o n e possible
H O M O S E X U A L ORGANIZATIONS DISPLAY
104
Critidsm.î ami OppositiùM
WhatlBdievc
105
future for coexistence w i t h Muslims: p r o m o t i n g a n d allying.;
lus, t h e M u s l i m p r e s e n c e h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y s o m e
themselves w i t h Muslim gay a n d ieshian organizations. T h o s e
„ j n i z a t i o n s o r intellectuals ( b o t h J e w i s h a n d n o n - J e w i s h )
scholars a n d Muslims w h o respect beings w i t h o u t p r o m o t i n g
.1 d a n g e r t h r e a t e n i n g t o r e v i v e t h e o l d d e m o n s of a n t i -
their sexual b e h a v i o r d o n o t g o far e n o u g h for their all-out,
litism in t h e W e s t . S o m e h a v e a d d e d t o t h a t t h r e a t o n e
often q u i t e o u t s p o k e n m i l i t a n c y
,111 anti-Israeli " I s l a m o - l e f t i s m , " c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e l a t t e r aled its d e e p l y a n t i - S e m i t i c n a t u r e , i w a s a m o n g t h e rst, as e a r l y as 1 9 9 2 , t o s p e a k o u t a g a i n s t a n t i - S e m i t i s m
Pro-Israeli and Neoconservative Circles
_long M u s l i m s : I said t h a t " a n t i - S e m i t i s m w a s by essence iti-Islamic" a n d that o n e h a d t o d e n o u n c e t h e d e v i a t i o n s
is a c e n t r a l issue a n d its
Wt c o u i d b e f o u n d in s o m e M u s l i m d i s c o u r s e s j u s t i f y i n g
impact has b e c o m e global. T w o p h e n o m e n a linked co the situ-
Rhc r e j e c t i o n o f J e w s o n t h e g r o u n d s o f t h e o p p r e s s i o n
a t i o n in t h e M i d d l e East h a v e a p p e a r e d in r e c e n t y e a r s a n d
I .irried o u t b y Israeli g o v e r n m e n t s . In t h e m e a n t i m e , I
have a m a j o r effect o n M u s l i m s e t t l e m e n t in the West. T h e y
decided n o t t o r e m a i n silent a n d t o reject all f o r m s of black-
m u s t b e identified and fully assessed. First, there is w h a t has
mail: c r i t i c i z i n g Israel a n d its c o n t i n u o u s
b e e n t e r m e d the rise o f a " n e w anti-Semitism" that is said t o
irmexarion, a n d o p p r e s s i o n p o l i c i e s is n o t a n t i - S e m i t i s m :
originate n o longer in far right parties b u t a m o n g Arab, Asian,
n e i t h e r d o e s criticizing t h e S a u d i A r a b i a n g o v e r n m e n t h a v e
Turkish, a n d Muslim residents o r n e w citizens. Jewish organi-
.niything t o d o w i t h I s l a m o p h o b i a . I h i n g s m u s t be k e p t
zations and intellectuals, in France, Germany, Britain, Australia,
M'parate: o n e s h o u l d reject a n t i - S e m i t i s m in all its a s p e c t s
Canada, o r t h e United States, h a v e d e n o u n c e d the e m e r g e n c e
b u t d r a w u p a c l e a r a n d n e c e s s a r y c r i t i q u e o f Israeli p o l i -
of this p h e n o m e n o n , s o m e t i m e s stigmatizing Muslim p o p u -
cies. T h a t is precisely t h e m e a n i n g of t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e
lations living in the W e s t . T h e p r e s e n c e of n e w Muslim citi-
G l o b a l M o v e m e n t of N o n - V i o l e n t R e s i s t a n c e ^ ' chat w e
zens has also resulted in increasingly critical discourse a b o u t
launched w i t h intellectuals and organizations the w o r l d
Israel's policies and its t r e a t m e n t o f t h e Palestinian p o p u l a t i o n .
over (of all political a n d r e l i g i o u s affiliations) as a r e s u l t o f
M o r e and m o r e intellectuals and o r g a n i z a t i o n leaders of Arab,
the a t t a c k o n G a z a in D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 8 - J a n u a r y 2009: o n t h e
African, o r Asian descent (mainly b u t n o t exclusively Muslims)
o n e h a n d , s t a u n c h r e j e c t i o n o f all injustices; o n t h e o t h e r
have d e v e l o p e d a p o s i t i o n o n successive Israeli g o v e r n m e n t s
h a n d , u n f a i l i n g o p p o s i t i o n t o all r a c i s m s .
T H E ISRAELI-PALESTINIAN CONFLICT
colonization,
and have rallied left-wing, far left, or altermondialist ( b u t also
Such d i s c o u r s e is c o n s i d e r e d d a n g e r o u s b y all t h e u n c o n -
right-wing and center-right) political m o v e m e n t s that criticize
ditional s u p p o r t e r s of Israel a n d its policy. T o p r e v e n t t h e
Israeli policies.
c r i t i q u e f r o m b e i n g h e a r d , t h e s i m p l e s t w a y is t o c a s t a
106
Wkat I Believe
s u s p i c i o n o f a n t i - S e m i t i s m o v e r all t h o s e w h o q u e s t i o n Israeli policies. M a n y o t h e r s , a l o n g w i t h m e , have e n d u r e d the a n g e r a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s o f c e r t a i n pro-Israeli l o b b i e s .
Criticisms And Oppositions
107
Some Arab and... Western States I'iCTURE WOULD NOT BE COMPLETE if o n e
did n o t add
the
In 2003 I s p o k e o u t against t h e m a n e u v e r s o f s o m e (Jewish
u s employed b y certain A r a b g o v e r n m e n t s . T h e y are also
and non-Jewish) intellectuals w h o d e n o u n c e d t h e n e w anti-
.ful of all t h e voices that, living in the W e s t , can criticize
S e m i t i s m a n d s t i g m a t i z e d its n e w p r o m o t e r s as "Arabs,"
tatorship, l a c k of d e m o c r a c y , t h e a b s e n c e o f civil soci-
"Asians," a n d m o r e g e n e r a l l y " M u s h m s . " I also said t h a t t h e
,BS, t o r t u r e , a n d the oppression of p o p u l a t i o n s . Such states
influence o f pro-Israeli l o b b i e s w a s i m p o r t a n t in p r o m o t i n g the w a r in Iraq, b o t h in E u r o p e a n d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d
, J Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Tunisia, Algeria (and so m a n y ilhers) k e e p interfering t h r o u g h direct political o r d i p l o m a t i c
t h a t this w a s in itself a p r o b l e m and a d a n g e r . I should also
.leans to vilify t h e MusHm scholars, intellectuals, or leaders
have m e n t i o n e d t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e o f E v a n g e l i c a l
vho criticize t h e m . T h o s e a r e s u p p o s e d t o b e p a t e n t l y
Christian Zionists. Be t h a t as it may, m y t a k i n g this d o u b l e
l.ingerous w o m e n and m e n , w h o m a i n t a i n links t o Islamism
stand set off a slander c a m p a i g n in France and in the U n i t e d
.v'he'ther radical o r not) while p r e t e n d i n g t o b e d e m o c r a t s . It
States ( t h e n in E u r o p e as a r e s u l t of t h e F r e n c h c a m p a i g n ) :
IS in those c o u n t r i e s ' interests t o cast a h a z e of suspicion over
1 w a s p r e s e n t e d as a n " a n t i - S e m i t e " w h o d e n i e d Israel's exis-
ligures w h o m i g h t m a k e t h e m s e l v e s h e a r d in the W e s t since,
tence or w a n t e d it d e s t r o y e d . My p o s i d o n also led t o m y U.S.
h a v i n g definitely settled in d e m o c r a c i e s , t h e y a r e free a n d
visa b e i n g r e v o k e d n i n e d a y s before I w a s t o m o v e p e r m a -
ihey n o l o n g e r n e e d to " r e t u r n t o their h o m e c o u n t r i e s . "
n e n t l y t o I n d i a n a t o t a k e u p a d u a l p r o f e s s o r s h i p at N o t r e D a m e University.^^
S u r v e i l l a n c e by foreign e m b a s s i e s , i n f o r m a t i o n
about
so-called suspects, o r " r u m o r s " a b o u t t h e reliability a n d loyalty
Beyond t h o s e incidents, o n e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h e reality
of this o r that association l e a d e r o r intellectual are c o m m o n
o f t h e g e n e r a l c l i m a t e a n d o f political g a m e s a n d tactics:
• practice: that is the daily lot of m a n y W e s t e r n citizens involved
n u m e r o u s Israeli lobbies w o r k at spreading suspicion t o w a r d
in Muslim associations. O v e r t i m e . W e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t s will
t h e M u s l i m presence—-seen as potentially a n t i - S e m i t e — a n d
certainly b e c o m e less d e p e n d e n t o n foreign sources of infor-
try t o associate any criticism o f Israeh policies c o m i n g from
mation, b u t for the time being, "very d e m o c r a t i c " Arab states
A r a b a n d M u s l i m (but also C h r i s t i a n ) intellectuals w i t h t h e
keep fostering r u m o r a n d suspicion a b o u t t h e i r o p p o n e n t s
same d a n g e r o u s anti-Semitism. S o m e Israelis and Jews have
living abroad, a n d Western leaders (as well as s o m e journaUsts
d e n o u n c e d this u n w h o l e s o m e g a m e , b u t they r u n against t h e
w h o are r e g u l a r guests at press dinners) receive t h a t useful,
tide a n d t h e y have h e e n labeled "self-hating" Jews.
"firsthand" information.
io8
Critictims and Oppcsirions 109
What I BeliciK
It should be added t h a t s o m e W e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t s t h e m -
. a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m , " i m p l e m e n t Islam." T h o u g h they
selves are n o t very happy w i t h their Muslim citizens and resi-
n o d o u b t religiously sincere, t h e i r political naivety is as
d e n t s criticizing the d u p h c i t y of their policies w h e n they speak
Tofound as it is d a n g e r o u s . T h o s e g r o u p s o r t h e i r criticisms
of d e m o c r a c y and d o n o t hesitate t o c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h t h e
lay be exploited in the West t o cast suspicion or disrepute o n
w o r s t dictatorships if t h e y are rich o r geo-strategically inter-
Ither
currents. Elsewhere, in painful circumstances, this very
esting. Fostering suspicion a b o u t t h o s e Muslim intellectuals'
cuHar play o f alliances c o u l d b e observed w i t h t h e Taliban:
and leaders' c o m m i t m e n t a n d intentions m a y also reduce the
ilier b e i n g useful t o A m e r i c a n g o a l s in Afghanistan for a
impact o f their internal pohtical criticisms. T h e r e is an objec-
vhile, they b e c a m e everybody's enemies as s o o n as the Bush
tive alliance of well-understood interests b e t w e e n s o m e a u t o -
idministration changed their m i n d s a b o u t t h e m . ' " Similar stra-
cratic A r a b and Asian states a n d s o m e W e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t s w h o collaborate w i t h t h e m , in c o m p l e t e contradiction o f t h e values they claim t o e n d o r s e and p r o m o t e ( h u m a n r i g h t s , democracy, etc.).
icgic instrumentalization exists, o n a n o t h e r level, in Western ocieties w h e r e MusUm l e a d e r s o r g o v e r n m e n t s deliberately exploit such divisions and s o m e people's political naivety. One should also add to this the efforts and criticisms of those w h o still refer t o themselves a s Muslims o r "cultural Muslims" or w h o call t h e m s e l v e s "ex-Muslims," a n d w h o s e c u r r e n t o r
Some Salafi Groups and Some "Ex-Muslims "
past affiliation t o Islam g r a n t s t h e i r speech s o m e credibility. Some of t h e m have gone t h r o u g h difficult experiences within that
Muslim societies or c o m m u n i t i e s ; others used t o be radicals o r
c o m e from within Muslim c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e West a n d w h a t
violent extremists, while o t h e r s c o m e from Muslim majority
advantage can b e taken of t h e m . T h e p i c m r e b e c o m e s aU t h e
societies and claim t o k n o w t h e t r u e nature of problems "from
m o r e complex w h e n o n e fully measures t h e internal tensions
within." S o m e of their criticisms are u n d o u b t e d l y justified
and divisions that are far from clarifying things and t h a t m a y
and relevant, a n d they m u s t be answered. Yet w h a t is o b v i o u s
be used politically in o n e w a y or another.
today is t h e exploitation o f such "insider discourse" t h a t is
O N E MUST NOT FORGET T H E OBSTACLES A N D CRITICISMS
T h u s literalist salafi g r o u p s o r highly traditionalist m o v e -
supposed to prove the d a n g e r of Islam, the duplicity of s o m e
m e n t s generally avoid g e t t i n g iiwolved in politics while t h e y
Muslims, o r the secret ramifications of a "sprawling Islamist
often e l a b o r a t e a very h a r s h t h e o l o g i c a l discourse t o w a r d
International." Deliberately o r n o t (and s o m e t i m e s w i t h full
reformist a n d / o r Islamist m o v e m e n t s . S o m e of t h o s e hteralist
awareness), t h o s e " m o d e r a t e Muslims" o r t h o s e "ex-Mushms"
salafi g r o u p s s u p p o r t s u c h states as S a u d i Arabia, b e i n g
(who gain recognition, f a m e , a n d s o m e financial benefit) g o
convinced t h a t o n e m u s t r e s p e c t the authority o f g o v e r n m e n t s
along with certain g o v e r n m e n t s ' tactics or ally themselves with
Critkisms and OpposiriofU no
in
Wliiii ! Bdicve
supposedly "ideologically n e u t r a l " intellectuals t o foster suspi cion a n d confirm d o u b t s a b o u t Islam o r a b o u t s o m e Muslim scholars o r intellecmals. If s o m e M u s l i m s say it, it m u s t b e t r u e ! O n c e again, the p o i n t is n o t t o claim t h a t all their criticism is g r o u n d l e s s b u t t o be fully a w a r e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l political e x p l o i t a t i o n of such d i s c o u r s e : s o m e o f t h o s e M u s l i m s o r " e x - M u s l i m s " ' " have m o r e o v e r u n d e r s t o o d t h a t they only have to r e p e a t w h a t people w a n t t o hear, a n d t h e y are happy t o oblige. As c a n b e seen, t h e criticisms d i r e c t e d at m e are v a r i e d a n d diverse. W h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s an intellecmal p r e s e n t e d as "controversial" and takes s t o c k of the a m o u n t of criticism that s e e m s t o c o m e from all sides, h a v i n g s o m e d o u b t a n d suspicion is n o r m a l . Yet o n e s h o u l d go further a n d n o t only question the target b u t also analyze the ideological dispositions and the i n t e n t i o n s of the different sources t h a t p r o d u c e t h o s e criticisms, foster r u m o r s , a n d r e p e a t allegations. T h e n , o n e stops b e i n g n a ï v e . O n c e again, m y p o i n t is n o t t o d e n y t h e legitim a c y of s o m e necessary a n d relevant questions. But o n e m u s t n o t m a i n t a i n a political naivety that p r e v e n t s debate, m a k e s o n e deaf t o a r g u m e n t s , a n d m o s t of all, causes o u r d e m o c r a t i c spaces a n d o u r respective capacities for fruitfrtl and c o n s t r u c tive exchanges of ideas t o slowly disintegrate. T h e "fires" that p r o d u c e thick, rarely i n n o c e n t , often s t r a t e g i c s m o k e s h o u l d therefore b e carefully scrutinized. They s h o u l d be k n o w n a n d identified; a n d w h e n t h e y involve dishonesty, lies, or m a n i p u lation, t h e y should b e i g n o r e d . As far as I a m c o n c e r n e d , I go o n w i t h m y c o m m i t m e n t , with m y efforts t o m a k e t h i n g s clear a n d t o c o m m u n i c a t e , resisting injustice, fighting against
iti ism, political lies, and ideological over-simplicity: I k n o w vlic'ie s o m e attacks c o m e from and I also k n o w that m y p a t h iviies m e t o p u t t h e m into perspective, o r even t o b r u s h t h e m nitdc, with d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d w i s d o m . I have learned that o n e : n luld say "Peace!" t o t h o s e w h o s h o u t t h e i r h a t r e d for o n e ' s I'ling and p r e s e n c e or at o n e ' s passage. T h a t is n o t always easy. Such is the m e a n i n g of all spirituafities, t h e d e e p jihad of t h e Ill-art a n d m i n d . S o I say "Peace," with force, tranquility, and dignity, t o all t h e instigators o f lies, hypocrisies, a n d w a r s .
Conclusion
113
ifdlecmal is after all m o s t u n s e t d i n g : h e reflects t o W e s t e r n Ciety a m i r r o r of n o t always acknowledged contradictions or, his m e r e p r e s e n c e , reveals u n c o n s c i o u s W e s t e m - c e n t r i s m iih its suppressions, its h a n g u p s , possibly its t r a u m a s . I have
Conclusion
L casionally h a d live personal experience of the tense, obsesiive reactions o r o b v i o u s faulty acts t h a t c o u l d result
from
ly presence in certain societal debates—from w h i c h 1 should ;irnhably have b e e n n a m r a l l y absent. 1 have seen intelligent, 'lin.ited w o m e n and m e n , e n d o w e d w i t h perfect h e a r i n g , t h a t m y fields o f
I ' l u a l l y b e c o m e d e a f . . . a n d s u d d e n l y less intelligent, a n d
activity are multiple, complex, and often c o m p l e m e n t a r y My
••nnietimes n o t e d u c a t e d at all. M y study of psychology and
addressing a variety of issues in different fields o r realms m a y
jsychoanalysis, w i t h t h e h e l p o f critical d i s t a n c e and s o m e -
have led t o confusion, a l o n g w i t h o p p o s i t i o n a n d criticism.
,1mes humor, h a v e enabled m e t o u n d e r s t a n d such symbolical
I a m aware o f this a n d 1 have often h a d t o m a k e it clear fi-om
ransfers a n d negative s u b h m a t i o n .
T H E READER MAY BY NOW HAVE R E A L I Z E D
w h a t s t a n d p o i n t and w i t h w h a t status I was speaking. W a s it
Nevertheless, I remain fundamentally optimistic while
as m a n of religion? A m o n g religious trends, w a s I a reformist
knowing, as I said, that the r o a d will be l o n g a n d t h a t evolu-
o r a conservative? Did I s p e a k as a W e s t e r n e r , or as a citizen
tions and progress m u s t be considered in t e r m s of generations
of which country? Politically, was I r a t h e r t o the left or t o t h e
rather than of years. Efforts are required in m a n y fields and w e
center of the political spectrum?—and so o n and so forth. S o m e
must get involved, steadfastly a n d consistently, in accelerating .
c o m m e n t a t o r s have found it difficult to simate m e . and this is
and a c c o m p a n y i n g the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n processes. For twenty-
understandable because of t h e variety of topics addressed (reh-
five years I have kept trying, b o t h o n the a c a d e m i c and t h e o -
g i o u s , c u l t u r a l , social, philosophical, a n d political, n a t i o n a l ,
retical level and very practically at the grass roots, t o set forth
and international) a n d o f t h e complexity o f t h e issues. Yet this
a vision, n u r t u r e reflection, a n d test strategies and projects.
is w h a t b e i n g a c o m m i t t e d intellectual involves, and it w o u l d
Everywhere in the West, advances must be recorded and a thor-
b e c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o e.xpect a "Muslim intellectual" t o s p e a k
o u g h assessment of the s i m a t i o n a n d of r e m a i n i n g challenges
a b o u t n o t h i n g b u t Islam; or t o decide that his being a " M u s l i m "
must be carried o u t in every country. By p u t t i n g forward a few
is e n o u g h t o cast suspicion o n his political c o m m i t m e n t a n d
ideas, this b o o k has also o u t H n e d p r o s p e c t s for p r e s e n t a n d
discourse which of course by definition carmot be free, a u t o n o -
future c o m m i t m e n t s . This also m u s t be discussed and debated
m o u s , a n d even less, universalistic. An openly Muslim W e s t e r n
earnestly, w i t h o u t u n d u e passion o r excessive e m o t i o n .
JJ4
Condusion
What I Bdteve
115
As I have repeatedly stated, the challenge is also a psycho-
)urs the desire t o go further, t o u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r , and t o
logical o n e . W e m u s t l e a r n a n d r e c a p t u r e the m e a n i n g of
irry out a dialogue. This is w h y w e m u s t really live and w o r k
self-confidence and of t r u s t in others. T h i s requires consider-
((grther o n shared projects.
able effort from e v e r y o n e : facing one's fears, smdying, ques-
T h e q u e s t i o n is in effect s i m p l e . Over a n d b e y o n d all t h e
tioning o n e ' s position, t e l h n g and conveying w h a t o n e is b u t
iheories that could be devised, it is i m p o r t a n t t o ask everyone,
also l i s t e n i n g and r e a c h i n g o u t of oneself t o m e e t o t h e r s .
.IS I often d o w h e n concluding lecmres: how m a n y w o m e n and
Self-confidence a n d t r u s t in o t h e r s require that b o t h p a r t i e s
men from outside your " o w n circle," y o u r " o w n culture," o r
be lucid as t o their o w n difficulties and genuinely seek k n o w l - '
your "own universe of reference" have you m e t d u r i n g the past
edge and understanding. S u c h an effort involves resisting o n e s
month?''" W i t h h o w m a n y of t h e m have y o u exchanged views,
own fears, phobias, a n d distrust to reach a state of k n o w l e d g e , •
debated, or even worked at a c o m m o n social, cultural, o r polit-
mastery, and fulfillment, and to achieve self-respect and respect
ical project? H o w m a n y w o m e n and m e n have y o u m e t in the
for o t h e r s : for e v e r y o n e , M u s l i m s a n d n o n - M u s l i m s , this is
[>ast m o n t h , o r t w o or six m o n t h s , with w h o m y o u have expe-
g e n u i n e jihad, in the v e r y precise m e a n i n g this t e r m h a s in
rienced cultural, religious, a n d social diversity, b e e n positively
Islamic references (effort a n d resistance), a jihad for trust. This
questioned, a n d b e e n c o m p e l l e d t o r e c o n s i d e r y o u r way o f
is a daily effort, with oneself and with o n e ' s neighbors, in one's
thinking, y o u r certainties, and y o u r habits as well as s o m e of
h o m e a n d in one's n e i g h b o r h o o d : this is h o w the pluralism o f
your prejudgments and prejudices? It is easy t o t h i n k o f oneself
ideas, cultures, and religions should be m a n a g e d if w e w a n t to
as "open" in a universe p e o p l e d with always the same citizens
give u n i t y t o diversity o r simply give a m e a n i n g t o o u r living
and friends, a n d w h e r e o p e n n e s s is t h o u g h t r a t h e r t h a n actu-
together. T h i s is by n o m e a n s easy and it will never he, b u t w e
ally experienced. Mental g h e t t o s are n o t m i r a g e s ; they actually
actually have n o choice: like every conscience o r society at a
exist in palpable reahty: b e i n g " o p e n " inside o n e ' s m e n t a l o r
specific t i m e in history, w e are facing the key r e q u i r e m e n t of
intellectual g h e t t o does n o t o p e n its d o o r b u t simply allows
o u r time.
one t o h a r b o r the illusion t h a t t h e r e is n o g h e t t o and n o d o o r
It is difficult, in these t i m e s of global c o m m u n i c a t i o n and
The m o s t d a n g e r o u s prisons are those w i t h invisible bars.
culture, of speed, s o m e t i m e s of haste and collective e m o t i o n -
Reaching o u t of the m e n t a l , intellectual, b u t also social,
alism t o t a k e the t i m e t o reconcile o u r s e l v e s with t h e slow,
cultural, a n d religious g h e t t o is of c o u r s e a f u n d a m e n t a l
dense t i m e of critical r e a s o n , of k n o w l e d g e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
r e q u i r e m e n t for M u s l i m s as well. I have o f t e n r e p e a t e d t o
and complexity. Experience has s h o w n m e , b o t h w i t h y o u n g
Muslim W e s t e r n e r s t h a t they s h o u l d t h i n k o f t h e m s e l v e s as
a n d o l d e r p e o p l e , t h a t day-to-day m i n g l i n g a n d p e r s o n a l
"gifts" as w e l l as " q u e s t i o n s " t o their fellow citizens. T h e y
i n v o l v e m e n t is w h a t a w a k e n s minds, b r i n g s awareness, a n d
are gifts because they carry w i t h t h e m o t h e r prospects, o t h e r
Omdmion
life
WhrUlBdieve
'
i
cultures, a n d o t h e r m e m o r i e s t h a t are a w e a l t h w i t h w h i c h they n u r t u r e t h e i r o w n society. T h e y m u s t b e aware o f and c o n s i d e r confidently w h a t they are a n d w h a t they can b r i n g t o W e s t e r n societies: o t h e r v i e w p o i n t s , t h e e x p e r i e n c e of true cultural pluralism, t h e m e a n i n g of shared, and not m o n o p o l i z e d , universals. T h i s presence f r o m w i t h i n is n o w a constitutive e l e m e n t a n d suggests that advances in e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t and technological skill s h o u l d never be m i s t a k e n to imply ideological or philosophical superiority. This presence and gift offers its w e a l t h a n d t e a c h e s humility. But M u s l i m s m u s t also r e m a i n " q u e s t i o n s " : w i t h their faith, their practices, t h e i r behavior, and t h e i r day-to-day civic c o m m i t m e n t , they m u s t positively challenge t h e i r fellow citizens. This is exactly t h e m e a n i n g of t h e f o r m u l a I u s e d m a n y y e a r s a g o w h e n I told Muslims; y o u r p r e s e n c e m u s t b e c o m e n o r m a l w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g c o m m o n p l a c e . L e a r n i n g t o c o p e w i t h t h e spiritual quest for t h e divine, for oneself, and for m e a n i n g at t h e core of W e s t e r n societies, w h e n o n e has c h o s e n to, is n o t c o m m o n place. T h i n k i n g a n d living o u t this q u e s t b y practicing a daily ethics t h a t shapes o n e ' s conscience and h e a r t a n d orients one's actions is n o t trivial. D e v e l o p i n g a n ethics of citizenship
117
thai
requires consistency and r e h e s o n reconciliation b e t w e e n the universality of values a n d t h e sense of b e l o n g i n g (and critical loyalty) o n t h e national a n d local level is n o t c o m m o n p l a c e . At the core of the West, M u s h m s ' individual and collective presence s h o u l d b e seen as a q u e s t i o n o r r a t h e r a series of q u e s tions: W h a t d o e s this p r e s e n c e m e a n t o me? H o w c a n t h e i r b e h a v i o r b e explained? W h e r e d o I stand? W h o a m I a n d w h a t d o I w a n t t o b e in front of this "other," at the core of shared.
jnfident p l u r a l i s m ? T h i s q u e s t i o n i n g p r e s e n c e is a m i r r o r , phe m i r r o r o f t h e o t h e r reflects a t h o u s a n d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t oneself T h o s e q u e s t i o n s m a y i n d e e d b e u n s e t t l i n g at t i m e s , iiut they are ever so necessary. It will take t i m e ; it will t a k e patience. G e n u i n e , impressive .idvances have already been achieved. Beyond the crises in the media and politics, n e w d y n a m i c s e m e r g e , initiatives and interesting p r o j e c t s b r i n g t o g e t h e r w o m e n a n d m e n w h o refuse polarization, simplification, m a n i p u l a t i o n , a n d exclusion: politicians a n d social w o r k e r s (locally o r nationally), responsible .md c o n s c i e n t i o u s j o u r n a l i s t s , o r d i n a r y a n d / o r a n o n y m o u s citizens. T h o s e w o m e n and m e n are far m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n is generally believed, and they share a certain sense of humanity, dignity, and ethics, w h e t h e r t h e y are behevers o r not, M u s h m s o r not. It is w i t h those w o m e n a n d m e n t h a t the future m u s t be built, w ^ t h o u t naivety, b u t w i t h t r u s t a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
1
',
i-' ..
Appendix I Thierry
THE BACK OF THE CLASSROOM,
h e had k e p t his coat on; as
' he was a h o u t t o leave. Yet w e h a d just got in. T h a t w a s t h e rst time I m e t Thierry. Later e n c o u n t e r s gave rise t o a particurly t e n s e conflict. Alone, b o t h feverish a n d p r o u d , h e k e p t drying to s h o w m e that m y position as a teacher w a s e n o u g h t o Jirove that "I c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d , " that of course "I j u d g e d i h i m " .. .badly, like "them." All m y "teacher's" d e m a n d s , all m y Jttempts at dialogue, all m y suggestions w e r e b r u s h e d aside ^with the coldness and h a t r e d s h o w n t o e n e m i e s . "Mind y o u r o w n b u s i n e s s . . . I don't w a n t t o talk to y o u . . . " H e was scornful to excess—"asocial," they said. T h e n , t h e day before t h e a u t u m n break, as h e h a n d e d in a French essay, h e told m e : "It m u s t b o t h e r y o u t o read o u r essays d u r i n g t h e holidays?!" H e w a s w a t c h i n g m e , as if t o t a k e i m m e d i a t e n o t e of m y r e a c t i o n t o t h e c h a l l e n g e . " O f c o u r s e , m y d e a r T h i e r r y . . . " 1 a n s w e r e d , l o o k i n g straight at h i m . H e w a s e m b a r r a s s e d , b u t this w a s t h e first e x c h a n g e , t h e first " w a r m t h , " the first sign. "See y o u , " h e said, as h e t u r n e d away w i t h a s t r a i n e d smile. Affection was so difficult for h i m .
Tio
Appendix 1
Appendixl
m
T h e following weeks and m o n t h s allowed m e to chart
Ic d e m a n d e d silence. H e h a d m r n e d m e i n t o a teacher w h o
T h i e r r y ' s b a c k g r o u n d . T o o m a n y absences, t o o m u c h violence
i.id nothing t o say I was s u p p o s e d t o give "'knowledge"; 1 h a d
had u n d e r m i n e d all his p r o t e c t i o n s . H e w a s ever so fragile
Id experience t h e i g n o r a n c e o f a collapse.
and w i t h d r a w n t h a t h e e n d e d u p t u r n i n g his w e a k n e s s i n t o
T h e darkness tore apart w h e n w e traveled to Mali together.
a s t r e n g t h : h e did n o t a l l o w a n y o n e t o love him. At best, h e
1 here were t h r e e o f us and T h i e r r y was a m o n g us. H e stopped
accepted t o b e j u d g e d , at s c h o o l . . . and very badly. H e w a s so
s m o k i n g " . . . for a m o n t h , h e m a r v e l e d . " H e r e , it is w o r t h it
used t o it t h a t h e m a d e a p o i n t of s t r e n g t h e n i n g that i m a g e : he
' i m e h o w . . . " Strangely, h e felt t h a t h e w a s b e c o m i n g p a r t of
k n e w h o w t o s h o w adults h o w worthless h e w a s , from teachers
.1 b a c k g r o u n d t h a t r e s p o n d e d w i t h s y m p a t h y , n o q u e s t i o n s
to the y o u n g offenders d e p a r t m e n t . W i t h the painful p a r a d o x
.isked. His will w a s s u d d e n l y b r i m m i n g with resources: " I ' m
that h e w a s a victim of w h a t he t h o u g h t he decided.
starting again from scratch
I'm going t o g e t w h a t 1 w a s n o t
T h e r e w e r e d r u g s a n d theft; r u n n i n g away a n d w a n d e r i n g .
given." Today t h o s e w o r d s e c h o in m y m e m o r y . W h e n w e g o t
T h e n , m o r e a n d m o r e often, signs s h o w e d t h a t a b o n d w a s
hack, and for six m o n t h s . T h i e r r y lived o n t h a t h o p e , o n t h a t
f o r m i n g t h r o u g h t h e successive failures. T h i e r r y t e s t e d m y
strength. We h a d " w o n ' " . . .
trust and m y patience, and with unsettling regularity he
And then, all w a s empry. T h i e r r y w a s lying at t h e foot o f a
failed t o r e s p o n d t o t h e slightest of m y h u m a n d e m a n d s . H e
iree w h e n he w a s found dead, in t h e a u t u m n o f 1983. T h e t r a p
n e e d e d t o b e loved b e y o n d the law, b e y o n d n o r m s , at t h e far
of his life h a d snapped shut: a n overdose, q u i t e simply Images,
e n d o f t r a n s g r e s s i o n . . . O t h e r w i s e , t h e r e c o u l d be n o love!
h o r i z o n s c r o w d into m y m i n d . And a t e s t i m o n i a l , a t r i b u t e ,
His b r o k e n h o m e , his s o l i t u d e h a d t a u g h t h i m t h a t t h o s e
.i g e s t u r e . T h i e r r y shaped m y fate as a t e a c h e r . H e had n o t
w h o give n o r m a l love can easily b e t r a y it. T h e n a m r e o f his
I hosen a n y t h i n g , and all d o o r s h a d closed. Even before he was
fate h a d o v e r s h a d o w e d s c h o o l e x p e c t a t i o n s : w h e r e o t h e r s
b o r n , he h a d b e e n c o n d e m n e d , t o be b o r n c o n d e m n e d . Like
l e a r n e d , T h i e r r y s t u m b l e d . W h e r e o t h e r s f o u n d t h e i r way,
all those a r o u n d h i m , I w a s necessary t o h i m , a n d insuffrcienr.
h e lost his.
His death at n i n e t e e n colored m y c o m m i t m e n t w i t h a requirement: to be t h e r e above all, c o m e w h a t may. W i t h o u t a h e a r t of p a t h s outlined v e r y early
o u r profession is n o l o n g e r o n e . W h a t r e m a i n s is t o o v e r c o m e
o n . I b e c a m e a w a r e , in t h e m o s t violent m a n n e r , t h a t s o m e
failures. T h i e r r y is n o m o r e . A m e m o r y ; i m a g e s from w h i c h ,
teenagers e a r n life t h r o u g h a n infernal i n n e r struggle. B e t w e e n
with a few d o u b t s , o n e s h o u l d d r a w the s t r e n g t h t o g o o n .
THIERRY TAUGHT ME THE SADNESS
survival a n d school, the choice is obvious. Emptiness served as an identity in T h i e r r y ' s c o n s c i e n c e , w h a t w a s t h e r e t o train? His d o u b t s a n d m i n e t a u g h t m e to b e t h e r e and say n o t h i n g .
Appendix II Manifesto for a New "We" An Appeal to Western Muslims Their Fellow Citizens W E HAVE AMPLE REASON TO BE CONCERNED. T h e
and
s i t u a t i o n of
MusHms in W e s t e r n societies has, for t h e last t w e n t y years, b e e n f r a u g h t w i t h difficulty. If anything, this situation has w o r s e n e d over the last five years. T h e " w a r against t e r r o r " launched after the events of S e p t e m b e r i i , i o o i , along w i t h repeated terrorist attacks t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d and increased tensions arising from social p r o b l e m s or from i m m i g r a t i o n , have c o m b i n e d to portray Islam—^and Muslims in genera!—as a threat ro W e s t e r n societies. Fear, with the e m o t i o n a l and often irrauonal reactions t h a t accompany it, has b e c o m e a p a r t of the public mind-set. W h i l e such reactions may s o m e t i m e s be legitimate and understandable, they are also being exploited with increasing frequency for political and electoral ends. From C a n a d a t o Australia, by way of t h e United States and Europe, hardly a W e s t e r n society has b e e n spared its o w n searing questions of "identity," its own "integration"-related tensions, a n d its own debate o n the place of Muslims within its confines. Muslims, meanwhile, realize t h a t the a t m o s p h e r e has b e c o m e m o r e highly charged, that suspicions have deepened; they have b e c o m e the subject of debates that are n e i t h e r
124
Appendix n
Appendix U
115
entirely t r a n s p a r e n t n o r v e r y healthy. M u s l i m s find t h e m -
m d t o q u e s t i o n s that are perfectly l e g i t i m a t e , even t h o u g h
selves faced with clear-cut alternatives: t h e y can accept t h e i r
I hey may be expressed with a certain confusion. Are Muslims
lot a n d a d o p t the a t t i m d e o f t h e "victim," the "discriminated
II Lily capable of living in secularized societies? Are their values
minority," w h o withdraws i n t o itself and never ceases tojustify
I ompatible w i t h those of d e m o c r a c y ? C a n they live side b y
itself, o r they can face u p to their difficulties, b e c o m e full-
side and m i n g l e w i t h their n o n - M u s l i m neighbors? C a n they
fledged subjects of t h e i r o w n history, a n d t a k e t h e necessary
II imbat t h e s h o c k i n g b e h a v i o r exhibited in their n a m e , in the
corrective measures. It is only namral that they complain of the
lorm of t e r r o r i s m , d o m e s t i c violence, forced m a r r i a g e , a n d
t r e a t m e n t h a n d e d t h e m , t h a t they criticize the racism a n d daily
die like? C a n they free t h e m s e l v e s from t h e i r social g h e t t o s ,
discrimination they m u s t e n d u r e , b u t in the final analysis, their
those b r e e d i n g g r o u n d s of u n e m p l o y m e n t , insecurity, a n d
fate is in their hands. N o t h i n g will change until they accept full
inarginality?
responsibility for t h e m s e l v e s , b e c o m e constructively critical,
Faced w i t h these questions, Muslims m u s t rise t o t h e occa-
and self-critical, and r e s p o n d to the creeping evolution of fear
sion. T h e y m u s t express c o n f i d e n c e in t h e m s e l v e s , in t h e i r
w i t h a firmly g r o u n d e d revolution of trust.
valuts, in t h e i r abihty t o live a n d t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h full serenity in W e s t e r n societies. T h e revolution o f trust w e are calling for will d e p e n d first o n self-confidence, o n confidence m one's convictions: their task is t o reappropriate their heritage
Handling Fears; Facing Legitimate Questions
and to develop toward it a positive yet critical intellectual attitude. T h e y m u s t b e capable of affirming t h a t the teachings of
have b r o u g h t Western p o p u l a t i o n s
islam s u m m o n Muslims first t o spiritual life, t o introspection,
face t o face w i t h n e w realities and self d o u b t s as deep as they
and to self-reform. T h e y m u s t forcefully insist that M u s l i m s
have b e e n challenging. T h e increasingly visible p r e s e n c e of
are expected to respect the laws of the countries in which they
millions o f Muslims in t h e i r midst has m a d e t h e m aware t h a t
reside and t o w h i c h they m u s t b e loyal. Millions o f M u s l i m s
their societies have c h a n g e d : cultural h o m o g e n e i t y is a t h i n g
are, in fact, already proving every d a y that "religious integra-
o f the past, t h e q u e s t i o n o f their o w n identity has b e c o m e
tion" is an accomplished fact, that they are indeed a t h o m e in
complex, social mixing is a n ideal t h a t can only be achieved
the W e s t e r n countries w h o s e tastes, culture, and psychology
w i t h difficulty, p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n social p r o b l e m s s u c h as
they have m a d e their o w n .
E V E N T S OF RECENT TEARS
u n e m p l o y m e n t , racism, a n d m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n multiply. T h i s
Still, faced with legitimate fears, Muslim Westerners c a n n o t
sense o f instability, c o m b i n e d with t h e p r e s e n c e of a reli-
simply m i n i m i z e or avoid t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . T h e y m u s t , as a
g i o n a n d a c u l t u r e s e e n as "foreign," h a s given rise t o fears
m a t t e r of u t m o s t urgency, develop a critical discourse t h a t
Appendix I!
rejects t h e victim's stance, o n e t h a t criticizes instead radical, literal, a n d / o r c u l m r a l r e a d i n g s of the sources. In the n a m e of
127
ilicse very areas. W h a t n e w pohtical, social, a n d city-planning policies c a n w e p r o p o s e t o r e d r e s s this s t a t e of affairs, n e w
t h e guiding principles of Islam, they m u s t t a k e a stand against,
initiatives t h a t w o u l d enable u s t o c o m b a t segregation a n d sell-
for i n s t a n c e , t h e use a n d m i s u s e of t h e i r r e l i g i o n t o justify
segregation, a n d e n c o u r a g e g r e a t e r social justice and mixing at
terrorism, domestic violence, or forced m a r r i a g e . T h e future of
all levels o f society?
the M u s l i m spiritual c o m m u n i t y will necessarily require institutions of religious training (Islamic studies, Islamology, i m a m training schools, etc.) t o b e established in t h e West and h e l p t o
Exploiting Fear
r e s p o n d t o W e s t e r n citizens' expectations. W i t h the s a m e critt h e sole province
ical a t t i t u d e , they m u s t l e a r n t o m a k e distinctions; they m u s t
T H E A R G U M E N T S THAT W E R E , Ï E S T E R D A Ï ,
n o t e n d o r s e t h e confusion t h a t s u r r o u n d s t h e debates related
of parties o f t h e e x t r e m e right have u n f o r t u n a t e l y f o u n d a
t o t h e i r societies: social p r o b l e m s , u n e m p l o y m e n t , m a r g i n -
h o m e w i t h i n traditiontil m a i n s t r e a m parties. Pohtical l e a d e r s
alization, a n d i m m i g r a t i o n are n o t "religious p r o b l e m s " a n d
increasingly play u p o n fear t o m o b i l i z e v o t e r s and t o p r o m o t e
have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h Islam as such, it is imperative t o reject
increasingly hard-line p o h c i e s for m a n a g i n g social p r o b l e m s ,
t h e " I s l a m i z a t i o n " of e d u c a t i o n a l and s o c i o e c o n o m i c issues
security, a n d i m m i g r a t i o n . At a loss for creative, i n n o v a t i v e
that require political, n o t r e h g i o u s , solutions.
ideas for p r o m o t i n g cultural pluralism o r for c o m b a t i n g u n e m -
O n e of t h e m o s t effective w a y s of r e s p o n d i n g t o legitim a t e fears is t o separate p r o b l e m s into t h e i r c o m p o n e n t p a r t s b u t w i t h o u t d i s c o n n e c t i n g t h e s e closely r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s .
p l o y m e n t a n d social g h c t t o i z a t i o n , they prefer t h e d a n g e r o u s rhetoric of p r o t e c t i n g "identity" and " c u l t u r a l h o m o g e n e i t y , " of defending " W e s t e r n v a l u e s , " of i m p o s i n g strict limitations ;
" D e c o n s t r u c t i n g w i t h o u t disconnecting" m e a n s that w e a c c e p t
o n "foreigners" with, o f c o u r s e , t h e w h o l e a p p a r a t u s of n e w
t h e obligation t o distinguish w h a t is strictly religious in n a t u r e
security l a w s t o fight t e r r o r i s m . These p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e s .
f r o m e d u c a t i o n a l , social, o r i m m i g r a t i o n - r e l a t e d issues, a n d
play u p o n d e e p - s e a t e d a p p r e h e n s i o n s , p e r p e t u a t e confusion
t h e n analyze h o w cause-and-effect relationships are established
over t h e t e r m s o f d e b a t e , a n d p r o m o t e a b i n a r y a p p r o a c h
at t h e sociopolitical g r a s s r o o t s . Citizens o f t h e Muslim faith
to sociopolitical issues. T h e implicit t e r m s o f t h e d e b a t e a r e
m u s t c o n t r i b u t e to a r e f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e political q u e s t i o n s
often r e d u c e d t o a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o e n t i t i e s : " W e
of the day. S e e n in this light, u n e m p l o y m e n t , school failure,
W e s t e r n e r s " a n d "They, t h e M u s h m s , " even w h e n citizens are
and d e l i n q u e n c y have, as w e already m e n t i o n e d , n o c o n n e c -
Mushms and Westerners,
tion w i t h Islam. Yet it is vitally necessary t o g r a s p the r e a s o n s
T h e c o n s t a n t r e t u r n t o t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n s in national polit-
that M u s l i m citizens a n d residents bear the b r u n t of failure in
ical d e b a t e s (violence, w o m e n , i n t e g r a t i o n , etc.) is far from
ii8
Appendix I!
Appendix II
119
innocent; t h e question o f " [slam" often b e c o m e s a diversionary
i d e o l o g y t h e y p r o m o t e . In t h e n a m e of W e s t e r n values t h e
tactic t h a t pohtical parties employ to u n d e r m i n e their adver-
Muslims m u s t fight against policies that n o r m a l i z e c o m m o n
saries and attract voters. Racist and x e n o p h o b i c speech prolif-
racism and discriminatory t r e a t m e n t , that stigmatize a p o r t i o n
e r a t e s ; t h e p a s t is r e i n t e r p r e t e d so as t o exclude Islam
from
of the population. T h e true loyal citizenship is a critical loyalty
the shghtest participation in the creation of the Western iden-
t h a t m e a n s t o refuse t o h a v e t o p e r m a n e n t l y prove o n e ' s
tity, henceforth redefined as purely G r e c o - R o m a n and J u d e o -
b e l o n g i n g t o t h e society in full k n o w l e d g e of one's respon-
Christian; individuals are t e s t e d at the b o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e the
sibilities as a citizen, lay claim t o one's rights, and carry o u t
"moral flexibility" of i m m i g r a n t s , and laws reinforcing security
a t h o r o u g h g o i n g critique of g o v e r n m e n t policies w h e n t h e s e
b e c o m e reflexive in these t i m e s of fear a n d instability, n o t t o
^ U c i e s b e t r a y t h e ideals o f a d e m o c r a t i c society.
m e n t i o n t h e policies o f intransigence w h o s e ultimate effect is to criminalize i m m i g r a n t s a n d asylum seekers. In response to these a t t e m p t s at exploitation and, o n occa-
A New "We"
sion, t o t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s t h e m , c i t i z e n s of the M u s l i m religion m u s t behave c o n t r a r y t o the n a t u r a l
IF THERE IS A CONTRIBUTION
reactions. Instead of w i t h d r a w i n g from the public debate a n d
t o their respective societies, it is surely t h a t of reconcihation.
into isolation, they m u s t m a k e themselves heard; step o u t of
Confident in convictions, frank and rigorous in their critical
their religious, social, cultural, o r political g h e t t o s ; and m o v e
outiook, a r m e d with a b r o a d e r understanding o f Western soci-
forward t o m e e t and reassure their fellow citizens. T h e poli-
eties, of their values, their history, and their aspfracions, t h e y
cies of t h o s e w h o exploit fear are intended t o create precisely
are ideally placed to engage their fellow citizens in reconciling
w h a t t h e y claim t o c o m b a t : b y perpetuaUy accusing M u s l i m s
these societies w i t h their o w n ideals. T h e vital issue t o d a y
of n o t b e i n g integrated, of setting themselves apart, of setting
is n o t t o c o m p a r e social m o d e l s or experiences in a
u p barriers b e t w e e n " t h e m " and "us," a n d of shutting t h e m -
debate (as w e have witnessed a m o n g the United States, France,
selves u p in a religious i d e n t i t y they v i e w a s exclusive, t h e
and Great Britain) b u t m o r e simply, a n d in a far stricter a n d
intellectuals and politicians w h o w a r n against the "naivety" of
m o r e d e m a n d i n g way, t o t a k e t h e m e a s u r e o f each society b y
o t h e r poHticians, against " t h e Islamic t h r e a t " or the "failure"
comparing the ideals affirmed and pmclaimed by its intellecmals
o f pluralist society o r o f muJticulturaiism. spread suspicion,
and politicians with the concrete practices that can be observed
create divisions, and try t o isolate the Muslims. As citizens,
at the social grass roots: h u m a n rights a n d equality of oppor-
Muslims are today called u p o n t o establish a rigorous critique o f t h e s e very alarmist p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t h a t badly conceal the
I
that Muslim Westerners can bring
fruitless
mnity ( b e t w e e n men and w o m e n , people of different origins, skin colors). We must bring constructive criticism to bear o n our
130
AppendixU
Appendix U
131
societies and m e a s u r e w o r d s against deeds: all the citizens m u s t
tivities can o p e n n e w h o r i z o n s o f m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g and
adopt toward their society the same healthy self-crirical attitude
shared c o m m i t m e n t : h o r i z o n s of trust. T h e s e shared projects
that MusHms must d e m o n s t r a t e toward their community.
m u s t h e n c e f o r t h bring us t o g e t h e r and give b i r t h t o a n e w
O u r societies are a w a i t i n g t h e e m e r g e n c e of a n e w " W e . "
" W e " a n c h o r e d in citizenship. O f c o u r s e , "intercultural" a n d
A " W e " t h a t w o u l d b r i n g t o g e t h e r m e n a n d w o m e n , citi-
"interfaith" dialogues are b o t h vital and necessary, b u t t h e y
z e n s o f all r e l i g i o n s — a n d t h o s e w i t h o u t r e l i g i o n — w h o
c a n n o t have t h e impact of t h e shared c o m m i t m e n t of citi-
w o u l d u n d e r t a k e t o g e t h e r t o resolve t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
zens in the priority fields: education, social divides, insecurity,
of t h e i r society: the r i g h t t o w o r k , t o h o u s i n g , t o r e s p e c t ,
racisms, discriminations, a n d m o r e .
against r a c i s m and all f o r m s of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , all offenses
Together they m u s t learn t o question educational p r o g r a m s
henceforth
and t o p r o p o s e m o r e inclusive a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e s u m of
represent this c o m i n g t o g e t h e r of citizens confident in t h e i r
r e m e m b e r e d experiences t h a t m a k e u p today's Western soci-
values, defenders of p l u r a H s m in their c o m m o n society, a n d
eties. These societies have changed, and the teaching of history
respectful o f t h e i d e n t i t i e s of o t h e r s ; citizens w h o s e e k t o
m u s t c h a n g e apace; it m u s t include the multiplicity of these
t a k e u p t h e challenge in t h e n a m e o f t h e i r shared v a l u e s at
experiences; it m u s t even speak of the d a r k periods of history,
the very h e a r t of their societies. As loyal a n d critical citizens,
t h o s e o f w h i c h n e w c i t i z e n s o f the W e s t have often b e e n
as m e n a n d w o m e n of integrity, they j o i n forces in a revo-
the original victims. Alongside the E n l i g h t e n m e n t , a n d t h e
l u t i o n o f t r u s t a n d c o n f i d e n c e t o s t e m t h e o n r u s h o f fear.
progress a n d achievements of science a n d technology, s o m e -
Against shallow, e m o t i o n a l , even h y s t e r i c a l reactions t h e y
thing m u s t also b e said a b o u t slaver)', a b o u t coIoniaUsm, a b o u t
stand firm for rationality, for dialogue, for attentiveness, for a
racism, g e n o c i d e , and m o r e . Objectively, w i t h o u t a r r o g a n c e
reasonable a p p r o a c h t o c o m p l e x social questions.
o r a p e r m a n e n t sense of guilt. At the risk of t o u c h i n g off a
a g a i n s t h u m a n dignity. S u c h a " W e " w o u l d
•
competition for m o s t - w o u n d e d victim status, a more objective reading of t h e m e m o r i e s building the c u r r e n t national h i s t o r y
Local, National
m u s t be m a d e official. O n t h e social level, w e m u s t c o m m i t ourselves t o a far m o r e t h o r o u g h g o i n g social mixing in b o t h
is n o w being played o u t
o u r s c h o o l s a n d o u r c o m m u n i t i e s . Far m o r e c o u r a g e o u s
at t h e local level. It is a m a t t e r of greatest u r g e n c y t o set in
and creative social a n d u r b a n policies are n e e d e d , of course.
m o t i o n n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t s o f local initiatives, in w h i c h
But even n o w citizens can foster h u m a n interchange in and
w o m e n a n d m e n o f different religions, c u l t u r e s , a n d sensi-
^ t h r o u g h projects focused o n local d e m o c r a t i c participation.
T H E FUTURE OF W E S T E R N SOCIETIES
Appendix II 132
133
Appendix 11
N a t i o n a l political a u t h o r i t i e s m u s t go a l o n g w i t h , facihtate, and e n c o u r a g e such local d y n a m i c s . W e s t e r n societies will n o t w i n the battle against social insecurity, v i o l e n c e , a n d d r u g s t h r o u g h t h e sole s e c u r i t y - b a s e d a p p r o a c h . W h a t w e n e e d in o u r c o m m u n i t i e s are social instit u t i o n s , civic e d u c a t i o n , local j o b c r e a t i o n , a n d confidenceb u i l d i n g policies. Local political a u t h o r i t i e s can do m u c h t o
initiative: s u c h are the c o n t o u r s o f a responsible c o m m i t m e n t b y all t h e citizens in W e s t e r n societies—for t h e y lay claim t o the benefits of a responsible, citizen-based ethic; for they w a n t t o p r o m o t e t h e Western cultural richness; for they k n o w t h a t survival will d e p e n d , imperatively, u p o n a n e w sense o f political creativity. Citizens m u s t w o r k in the l o n g t e r m , above a n d b e y o n d t h e electoral d e a d l i n e s t h a t p a r a l y z e politicians a n d
transform t h e prevailing a t m o s p h e r e of suspicion, and citizens,
hinder the formulation of innovative, courageous policies.
including Muslims, m u s t n o t hesitate t o k n o c k on their d o o r s ,
W h e n t h e e l e c t e d official h a s n o w h e r e t o t u r n , w h e n h e n o
t o r e m i n d t h e m t h a t in a d e m o c r a t i c society the elected r e p r e -
l o n g e r can t r a n s l a t e his ideas i n t o reahty, it falls t o t h e v o t e r s ,
sentative is at t h e service o f the voter, a n d n o t the o p p o s i t e ,
t o t h e c i t i z e n s , t o lay full c l a i m t o t h e i r ideals, and t o m a k e
It is i m p e r a t i v e that w e b e c o m e involved in n a t i o n a l affairs,
t h e m a reality.
that w e n o t allow ourselves ro be carried away by the passions g e n e r a t e d o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l scene. Still, it is clear t h a t a critical discussion of h o w i m m i g r a t i o n is m a n a g e d h a s y e t t o take place in t h e West; it is n o l o n g e r possible t o strip t h e T h i r d W o r l d of its riches a n d in t h e s a m e b r e a t h treat t h o s e w h o flee poverty and dictatorial regimes as criminals. N o t only is such b e h a v i o r unjust a n d i n h u m a n ; it is intolerable. T o h e and t o r e m a i n the voice o f t h e voiceless of Iraq o r Palestine, of T i b e t o r C h e c h n y a , of a b u s e d w o m e n o r of AIDS victims (particularly in Africa, even t h o u g h m e d i c a t i o n exists) is t o take a stand for reconciliation in the n a m e o f the ideals of dignity, h u m a n rights, and justice t o o often sacrificed on t h e altar of s h o r t - t e r m political gain a n d geostrategic interests. In t i m e s of globalization, b o t h local m u t u a l trust and global critical m i n d pave the r o a d t o w a r d reconciliation b e t w e e n civilizations. A revolution of trust a n d confidence, of critical loyalty, t h e b i r t h of a n e w " W e " d r i v e n b y national m o v e m e n t s of local
.
1 Notes
See the text I have dedicated t o him in Appendix I. In the m o s t advanced countries such as Britain. France, Belgium, the United Statei, or Canada, This phen.omenon of definitive sciilement. of passing from immigrant to citizen status, was to spread to all Western countries and continues to do so. One translation for secularism in Arabic is al-ládijtiyyah, a system without religion. An intelligent policy would be to involve long-standing Western Muslim citizens to help new migrants facing c o n s c i e n c e or cultural conflict issues. Yet today, political discourse exploiting fear doe.'! exactly the opposite: it makes dangerous use o f n e w migrants' difficulties and of s o m e shocking stories—to cast suspicion over all Muslims, wiiether citizens or n e w immigrants. This is n o t always so: s o m e converts, instead o f taking advantage o f their knowledge of society, adopt a position of self-marginalizacion and self-segregation, thu5 b e c o m i n g strangers in their own society. To Be a European Muslim (Leicester, UK: The Islamic Foundation, 1998); WfjierM Musiims and the Future of Islam ( N e w York: Oxford University Pres.s, 2004). This is what IcKplained and analyi::ed in the boo\íTo Be a European Mu-ilim whe[i 1 spoke of a Muslim identity that is always open, always inclusive, always on the move. B e l o n g i n g t o the " u m m a h . " to the spiritual c o m m u n i t y or "faith community," is subject ro the s a m e conditions m e n t i o n e d above. As I noted in To Be a European Muslim, it is a matter of respecting principles and contracts; thus, Muslims are strictly bound by the laws of the countries in which they Lve in the West, and ihey must moreover be critical and self-critical coward their fellow believers (as indeed toward all m e n
136
Noto
Notes
and all societies). If those latter uphold justice, they must support t h e m ; if they d o not, ihey must rt'sisi them. Muslims b e l o n g l o a "spiritual c o m m u n i t y " based o n p r m d p l c s . and if the c o m m u n i t y ur its m e m b e r s betray those principles, their duty is to stop ih^m or oppose t h e m . T h e Prophei o f Islam o n c e said: "Help your brother, whether he is just or unjust!' His companions inevitably questioned h i m about the support they w e r e to give an unjust brother; h o w could that be? And the Prophet answered, reversing ihe perspective: "Preveni him [ihe unjust brother! from performing injustice; this is h o w you will support him!" (hadith reported by alBukhàrì). 9. On the level o f more learned, specialized terminology, ihis I'eformisni defines itself as saiaji. m e a n i n g that its advocates w a n t tn return t o the faithfulness of the first g e n e r a t i o n s ol Muslims [the salaf) and recap ture t h e energy, creativity, a n d boldness o f early scholars w h o did n o t hesitate to suggest n e w approaches to n e w contexts. This word can b e confusing because it is u s e d w i t h another, o p p o s e d meaning. There are literalist saiafi irends that also refer to the salaf t o advocate a return to rigid, literal inierpreiations o f the past. F or the former group, faithful ness involves m o v e m e n t (since times and societies have changed) while for the latter it implies freezing the text beyond time and environment. 10. This is the subject of my book Rai^iciil Reform: Islamu Ethics and Liberation ( N e w York: Oxford University Press, 2009), which deals with this in^>era tive evolution of c o n t e m p o r a r y Muslim thinking. 11. I have, for instance, taken a position in Canada (and in Britain after the Archbishop o f Canterbury's remarks) in debates over the religious arbi tration and conciliation courts granted l o and used by other religions. A p o l e m i c appeared w h e n s o m e Muslims asked t o h e granted the s a m e rights as iither religions. F r o m a strictly legal standpoint, the Muslim organizations which d e m a n d e d such equality w e r e right, but m y posi tion w a s that iti fact Mu.siims did not need those iriernal adjustments and that solutions c o u l d b e found within the existing legal framework, 12. J have explained in m a n y b o o k s and articles that m y position is t o encourage Mu.shm citizens 10 enroll their children in the public s c h o o l system where they will learn t o live with their fellow citizens of various origins and cultures. Private .schools, w h i c h a n y w a y only receive z percent or i percent o f M u s l i m children, arc neither a panacea n o r a fu tu reoriented choice. E n g a g i n g in the state school system, as parents and as students, is a necessity. It remains that t h e system s h o u l d b e reformed in depth, for the m i x i n g of social statuses and cultures is but an illusion in what ought t o be c o m m o n , equal schooling for all. S o m e
137
Stale schools are actually social and cultural ^ e t t o s , and inequaiilles in treatment within the public s y s t e m are simply unacceptable. If nothing is d o n e in this field, it can b e n o surprise that s o m e people think o f creating efficient altemaiive structures exclusively for Muslims: anyway, such segregation already exisus in state schools in s o m e area.s or suburbs (where 80 percent or 90 percent o f pupils are "of immigrant origin" or "Muslims"), with the additional bitter truth that achievement levek in those schools are very l o w and offer childn;n n o h o p e of success, 13, As Mushm jurists (fuqaha) have defined it according to their specialty a.s scholars o f Islamic law and juri.sprudence [fiqh). 14, See my b o o k s To Be a Eurapeûn Muslim, W eUern Muslims and the Future of Islam, and especially Radical Reform: Islamic Ethics and lAberation. in which I put forward a n e w categorization of t h e ethical finabtics in Islam's message. 15, See o n ray website (www.tariqramadan.com) the information about this European campaign "Joining h a r d s against forced marriages" in collabo ration w i t h the Rotterdam municipality and the "think tank" I chair. The European Muslim Network, 16, Sec the reports published s o far; Report on City Tour of Tariq Ramadan March 2007-Ыпе 2007, Municipality of Rotterdam, Youth, Education and Society (Jeugd. Ondcrwijs e n Samcnieving). September 2007, and Ctttzenship, Identity umi A Sense of Belonging; Bridge of Trust, Education: The First Pillar, Municipality o f Rotterdam, Youth. Education and Society (Jcugd, Onderwijs en Samenleving), Apnl гоо8, 17, An academic component is hnked to ibis project, w i t h the creation o f a "Citizenship and Identity ' chair at the University of Rotterdam, Three P h D projecus h a w started over comparahvc studies of local policies and dynamics. See my w e b p a g e at tbe univer.sity; w w w . e u r . n l / f s w / staff/ h o m e p a g e s .•' ramadan, 18, In Switzerland, s o m e leaders o f the tar right party Union Démocratique du Centre ( U D C ) have d e m a n d e d that 1 be stripped of m y nationality because m y comraitraent for Islam was evidence o f my failure to inte grate. T h e y moreover d e m a n d e d that building minarets be prohibited for they symbolized Muslims' sertlcment and the 'arrogance o f their colonization" contradicting the "Christian essence" of Swiss culture, 19, But w h o w a s also, ic is generally overlooked, a Muslim judge (yiîtJî) as well as a fcrveiii worshiper,
i
20, This is what the philosopher and medievalist Alain de Libera has been d o i n g in b o o k after book: see in particular his seminal Penser au Moyen Âge.
liH
Notes
21. ZZ. 2.'5. 24.
See my hook. Radical Refonn: IsUimiC Ethics and Liberation. This w a s a pun as I argued for chc need "to foresee t h e four Cs." "The Quest for Meaning, a Philosophy of Plumiism." O n e m u s t also d e n o u n c e the hypocrisy of Arab states, which after all bear the m a i n responsibility for letting d o w n t h e Palestinians and for their current disarray. 25. That is t h e idea underlying the Charter for Cimpassion initiated b y Karen Armstrong, which develops that idea that the realm of the heait is necessar}' t o the finality of Justice, T h e Croup o f Sages, t o which I b e l o n g , m e t in February 2009 in G e n e v a to finalize chc t e r m s o f the Charter*, about w h i c h the public has b e e n imi-ted to m i t e and react. 26. That is the, title o f my late.st b o o k : The Quest for Meaning, a Philosophy of Plurali-im. 27. The project w a s precisely entitled Giving Europe a Soul. 28. This IS w h a t I have called t h e three "Ls," w h i c h Muslim citizens have n o w acquired: mastering the national language, respecting the law, and (even) maintaining critical loyalty t o their society. 29. Including t h o s e m e n t i o n e d earlier intended to test their loyalty, o f the type' w h o are you primarily? 30. To the notable and paradoxical exception of language acquisition: it s e e m s that the nature of requiremenLs as to mastering the language (on the job market) is higher even as the yoLmg are becoming aware of the difficulties that are awaiting thejiim finding work.'I'hect)mbined phenomena of high requirements and disafiection wtiuld, the report goes, seem to explain this regression, which nevertheless is not confirmed in all cotuitries. T h e report is in Dutch and is soon to b e published in English (wholly or in part). 31. See Appendix 11: Manifesto for a N e w "We." 32. O n e s h o u l d also n i e n t i o n h e r e t h e wrirings o f t h e n e w "terrorism experts," w h o k e e p f o s t e r i n g suspicion and f e e d i n g r u m o r s a b o u t possible c o n n e c t i o n s , w i t h o u t ever providing evidence of their h y p o thetical conclusions, T h a t e n a b l e s the.m to g o o n giving "expert opinions" about "terrorist n e t w o r k s " and thereby earning s o m e money. 33. A p r o m i n e n t msritution as far as rhe m e m o r } ' and piindples of French secularism arc concerned, 34. 'I'he l e r m 'judeo-Christ!an" is a recent one. It w o u l d have b e e n i m p o s sible t o put it this way during t h e Second World War, This is an a p o s t e riori idoological reconstruction, , 35. See the w e b s i t e m\'\v, pale stine global resistance, info that sets forth t h e m o v e m e n t ' s p h i l o s o p h y and the characteristics o f the synergies that should be established.
36- This is w h a t John J. Mearsheimcr a n d Stephen M, Walt have s h o w n in a recent study; The Israel Lobby and US Foreign Policy ( N e w York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 37, After I w a i t e d for t w o years and initiated a lawsuit t o find out the r e a s o n m y visa h a d b e e n revoked, rhe D e p a r t m e n t o f H o m e l a n d Security c l a i m e d t h a t 1 had given m o n e y ttj a Palestinian organization w h i l e 1 "should reasonably have k n o w n " that this organisation ' bad links with the terrorist m o v e m e n t H a m a s , Y e t . not only is this organization not blacklisted —to this day- -anywhere in Europe (where 1 live), b u t 1 gave about 700 e u r o s 10 this organization b e t w e e n 1998 and a o o i , a year before it w a s blacklisted in the Utiit.cd States. T h u s I "should reasonably have k n o w n " a year before the Departinent of Hom.eland Security itself that it was g o i n g to be suspected! This is all the rnore ludicrous w h e n one learns that such ridiculous and arbLlraiy d e d s i o n s are retroactive! It should b e a d d e d that 80 percent o f the questions 1 had t o answer during my t w o i n t e r v i e w s at the U.S. emba.'fsy in Switzerland were about m y positions over the war in Iraq and the Palestinian resistance, I repeated that such resistance is legitimate even t h o u g h I disagree with the m e a n s used (killing innocents cannot b e justified), 38, C o n c u r r i n g e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n i n t e r v e n t i o n i n Afighanistan had already b e e n p l a n n e d before t h e September ri, l o o i , terrorist attacks, 39, It muse b e stressed here that s o m e supposedly "liberal" Muslims have n o qualms about supporting dictators: b e i n g religious "liberals" d o c s n o t mean b e i n g political "demotTats." T h e W e s t e r n public is often misled over this issue: for instance, m a n y Tunisian intellectuals claim 10 be liberals as far as religion is c o n c e r n e d but they side with dictatorship concerning politics. Examples abound, 40, Their having an "exotic" n a m e i s not enough: chose persons m a y verj^ well still b e l o n g co t h e s a m e "universe o f reference."
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Index 145
142 Index Department of H o m e l a n d Security, i39n37 Descartes, 12 dialectical approach, 29 dictators, 8. 23,30,39, 40, 8 9 . 1 0 7 - 8 , I39n39
dissimilation (taqiyyah). diversity, 42
19
challenges of, 13-14
Erasmus University Rotterdam, 92 ethics, o f citizenship. 116 Etzinger, Han, 9 2 European roots, 80-84 European Union, 2 3 , 77 Evangelical Christian Zionists, 106 excision, 32, 64 ex-Muslims, 108-11 extremis: networks, 26,32
cultural, 42 of Islam. 41 managing, 90-91 dogmatic secularists, 9 7 - 9 9 double hearing, 20 doublespeak, 14-16, 20 Dufresne, Pierre, 10 e c o n o m i c needs cultural resistances contradicting,
as
I35n8 48-49-
56-58, t36n9
education, 32, .18, 87-89, m (private mtoring with
scholar), 12 civic. 131-32 islamization of, 126 as preventive measure. 93 private schools, 54 promoting, 8 shared c o m m i t m e n t for, 94,131, H6ni2-13 Egypt, 107 ban from, 15 trip to, 12
standing up for, 132 of w o m e n , 98 humility. 22 Huntington. Samuel. 11
48,85
hypocrisy, i3Sn24
identity, t27,
i35n7
defining through roots, 81-83
al-Farabi. 83
Giving Europea Soul, i38n25, i38n27
far right populists, 99-100
globalization, 25, 26, 132
^(wii (legal opinion], 56
Global Movement o f Non-Violent Resistance, 105 Group of Sages,
'ibaddt (practice). 41. 47 Ibn Khaldiln, 83 Ibn Sina, 83
43-44 Geneva, 8-9 genocide. 131 al-Chazali. .^bù H i m i d , 63, 83
fear, z6. 28-29, 53-54
measured in society, 129
Hussein, Saddam, 30
faqih (Muslim jurist), 6 3
deconstructing without
Muslim exile, 27-28 'dUtn
faith c o m m u n i t y (ummah), 3 9 , 41,
judged in light of, 76
jurisprudence (usui al-fiqk),
Gaza strip, 105 generational differences, cultural,
feilure, 126-27
faithfulne.ss, 39.
freedom, 31,65-66 fi^edom o f conscience. 52 freedom of worship, 52 French Muslims, 32 fundamentalists, 50 fundamentals o f Islamic law and
I38n25
multidimensionalism of, 35-38 self-confidence and, 38 identity crisis, 35-40 loyalty t d a t i n g to. 36 traditional landmarks weakened.
disconnecting. 126-27 exploiting, 127-29,135n4
halal meat, 34
handling, 125-27
Hamas, 139137
as public mind-set, 123
headscarf controversy. See Islamic
of religious and cultural pluralism, 82 feminist trends, 100-102 films, anti-Islamic, 9 3 (adaptations o f Islamic law and jurisprudence), 13, 48, 56, 85 forced marriages, 31. 64 foreign lands, 30 four Cs theory, 86 France
empathy, 10.88
ban from, 15
equal treatment, 52-53, 69-70, 129
seculansm law, 97-98
headscarf controversy Hegel, 12 Helping Hand Cooperative (Cooperation Coup de Main), 11 Hirsi Ali, Ayan, 93
o f W e s t e m societies, 24-25 ijiihAd (reasoning). 47, 56, 85 immigration, 25, 68 challenges of new, 60- 61 e c o n o m i c survival and, 90 managing, 132 moral flexibility tested, 128 of Muslims, 18
homosexual groups. 102-4
racism and. 76
honor crimes, 64
social psychology influenced
h u m a n interchange, 131 h u m a n rights, 56. 92, 98,108,131,
by, 26 infidel (fea/ir), 50
Sec also Islamic headscarf
in Red, tn the Mar^H (Ramadan). 9
controversy
instilutionalization.ofM usiim
contradictions to, 108
presence, 54-55, 72
144
Index
Index
incegraiion. 13,2526. See also post
IsraelPalestine conflict, 1046
integration approach integrity, 130
jihad (effort, resistance), 56. m . 114
intellectual, controversial, 15
journalism, dangers of, 7879
intercultural dialogues, 131
Judaism, 13,100. See aho .selfhating
interfaith dialogues, 131 International Sym]x>siuin o f Francophone Muslims
Islam, See aho deIslamization; Sufi; Western Islam
c o m m u n i t y needs of, 5455 confidence increasing in, 125
Arab Slates and, 107
converts, 44
dangers of.
fighting against policies, 12829
7 8 - 7 9
distorted mirror of, 44,
9 2 - 9 3
h o m o p h o b i a spread through,
Jews JudeoChristian, 80, 99,128,138n34 jurisprudence, 13,48,56,85 kâfir (negator, infidel), 50 Kant, I Ï
mindset differences, 42
optical illusion of, 5 0
misunderstanding of, 47
o w n agenda of, 18, 2 8 . 3 2 , 3 3 , 46.
moderate, 109 not recognizing Western laws. 32 participating in country culiure, 60
presenting Muslims as
books about, 54
racisTn o f far right, 99100
problematic, 5 2
as diversionary t a a i c , 128
landmarks, 24
as European issue, 45
language.
explaining, 12. 33
law. i38njB
mental ghettos, 1 1 5
homosexuality and, 1024
legal exception (ntkhsa), 31
migration. 2 5
inlerpretaiion differences, 42
legal opinion (fatwa), 56
minonty status,
issues regarding, 11
de Libera, Alain, i37n20
moderate Muslims, 1 0 9
nobleness of, 2223
Libya, ban from, 15
M o d o o d , Tariq, 1 3
objectives of, 57
Ligue française de l'enseignement, 98
Morineau, Michel, 98
spirituality of, 33
Ligue française des Droits de
I38n28,
i38njo
religious affiliation of, 4748
mediation, 14
secular relation.ship of, 31 seen as minority, 5758 society interaction changes of, 53
57-58
stigmatization of, 28 taking responsibility, 12324 Western and, 2 0 Western presence of, 24. 3 i 3 i
mosques, 5 4
unity and diversity of, 41
l ' H o m m e (F rench H u m a n
mu 'dmaiat (social affairs), 4 2
w o m e n and
Rights League), 98
multicultural citizenship,
raismterpreiadons
hneage, attack of, 1
multicultural sociery, 1 3
Islamic feminism, 100102
literalist trends, 4950
multiple identities.
Islamic headscarf controversy, 11,
local level, participation for c h a n g e ,
murtad (apostate), 5 0
of, 6266, 100102
28. 97, 9S99. lor, 102 Islamist International, 109 Islamizing problems, 7476,126 Is la moleftism, 105
7072, 9394,13033 loyalty, 29, 129, T32,1381128 identity relating to, 36 n e e d i n g t o prove, 35 38
13,
Muslim scholars Cutama), 31, 47. 48, 2 6 - 2 7
36-37
islamophobia, 5859 Manifestfor a New " We, " 94
The Israel i.obhy and US Fo reign Po licy
marriages, forced, 32.64
(Mearsheimer and Waltj,
Marx, Karl, 1 2
I39n36
Mauritius. 38. 50
56,63 Muslims in the Secular State {Les musulmans dans la laícíté) (Ramadan), 2 1 , 6 7
Muslim Brotherhood, 1 9 Muslim intellectual, 1719,11213
national identity, 2426
Muslim judge {q&dt}, I 3 7 n i 9
national level, participation for
Mu.slim jurist (faqih), 63 Muslims, 1 0 9 . See also exMuslims;
isolation, 30
identity cri.sis of, 27 lawabiding nature of, 92
journalism protagonist of
49
alKindi, 83
identity, 135П7 intellectual revolution of, 48
1023 pluralism, 78
(CIMEF). 86 intimacies, integration of, 67
• lcarsheimer,JohnJ,. 1391136 media, 9 9 , 102, 1 1 7
145
change, 13033 negator (kafir), 50
Western Muslims; Young
neocunservative circles, 1046
Muslims
n e w antiSemitism, 1046
Bntish. 32
n e w "We," 6,94.12333
c o m m i t m e n t as, 1 3
Nietzsche, 12
¡46
Index
Index
Ninzsche as a Historian o f Philosophy (Ramadan), i i
postintegration approach, 6773
9/11 attacks, 21, 123, 139038
Poulat, Emile, 98
niqab (veil covering face}, loi
practice ("ibflijdt), 41 private schools. 54
71« No tio n of Suffering in Sietziche's Philosophy (Ramadan), 12
'. Iigiousness. contradictions and
popular perceptions, 74
prolsraeU circles, 1046
Notre D a m e University, 106 Obama, Barack, 68, 76
qiMt (Muslim judge). I37ni9 Quran, 48
openness, 115 Orhan Kaya. 71 outreach, 60 overcoming, 9
Papandreou, George, 37 paternalism, 102
Ratzinger (Cardinal), See Benedict XVI (Pope) reasoning (ijtihàd).
pedagogy of solidarity, 1011
reconciliation,
Penserau Vloyen Age (de Liberaj. ij^iaa
reductiw approach, 83
pen^eptions
reform, 23, 4650. 56,136
Socrates, 12
roots, of Europe and West, 8084
solidarity, io~ii
rukhsa (legal exception), 31
Spinoza, 12
Rushdie affair, 11. 28
SPIOR, 64
Sankara, 10
Sufi. 50
Sarkozy, Nicolas. 77
Sunnah, 41, 49
Saudi Arabia, 15, 40,107
Sunni. 41, 42
Schopenhauer, 12
Syria.
secularism. 3031, 9799.
129-30,132
creative transformational, 85
The Split Hourglass (Ramadan), 9 strength, 9
15.107
Tabari, Ó3
138034 Í35n3,
r38n33 selfconfidence, 38, 87,114, Sec also •
confidence
radical, 8589
sclfCritirism. 14, 88,124.135n8
w o m e n and, 63
selfdefinition, 3536
reformist trend,
Plato, II
Regensburg, address of Pope, 80, 8 2
core of, 80
sociopolitical issues, 74-79
respect, 22, 1034, 130
Second World War, 18, 39, 99,
47, 85
pillars of faith ( 'aqidah), 41, 47 pluralism, 83,94,11617,127,130
s o c i o e c o n o m i c challenges, 91
repression, 31. 88
i36n9
Liberation (Ramadan), 136
reactive identities, 3536
Pierre, Abbé, 10
social integration, poor, 2526
religious training. 12*
spiritual tension, 3334
radical reform. 8589
patriotism, 39
popular, 74
social aifairs (mu 'dmalAt), 42
religious problems, defining, 126
salafi (faithfulness). 4849.10811.
alio antiSemitism
patience, 11
changing, 58
religious neutrality, 3031
racism, 5860, 68, 75. i i 8 , Hi. See
Radical Reform: Islamic Ethics and Palestinian repression. 88
slavery, unacknowledged, 92. 131
ambiguities of, 2213
•• •
147
2-3,46-50, 8 5 - 8
self examination, o f Western society, 90-95
tflWi^Jii, 4 9 Taliban, 109 tii^iyyali (dissimilation), 19 Taylor, Charles. 1 3 , 1 6 terrorism, 1 2 6 - 2 7 , 1 3 8 П 3 2 , 139П37. See also war against terror striking from within, 26 y o u n g people and, 59
regional ideniLties, 25
selfhating j e w s , 106
testing questions, 70
religion
selfknowledge, 88
Thierry (student), 9 , 1 1 9 - 2 1
fear o f religious and cultural. 82,
confusion over, 31
selfmarginalizalion, 135 n5
Tibet, repression of, 88
guarantee of religious, 52
culture relating to, 4145
selfre flection, o f West, 9095,
To Be a European Miislim
journalistn protagonist of, 78
homosexuality condemned by, 102
philosophy of, 90
legal framework for, i36nir
Sen, Amartya, 37
T o u r n e m u e . Pierre, 98
viability of cultural, 2627
opposition to, 31
seven Cs, 8 6 8 9
traditional landmarks, w e a k e n i n g
repressing. 31
shahid (witness), 87
political integrity. 73 politics, 7479, 12738,13233
Western Islam culture and, 4145
11617
Shi'a, 41,42
(Ramadan).
33.135П7. [35П8
o f 25 transmission, 60tìi
'
148 Inàex war against terror, 123
trust, development of, 93,114.
"We." 6, 94, «3-33
130, 131,132. Tunisia, 15, 40,107 "nirkey. 31, 43, 76-77. 82
Western domination, 64-65
•'• . •
•i
Western Islam, 41-45
. nr,
Western Muslims, 33-34 U D C . See U n i o n EJémocratique du Centre 'ulama (Muslim scholars), 31, 4 7 . 4 8 . 56, 63 ummah (faith c o m m u n i t y ) , 39, 41, i35n8 U n i o n D é m o c r a t i q u e du Centre (UDC), I37ni8
appeal to, 123-33 defining themselves, 4 6 - 4 7 reconciliation, 129-30 spiritual revival of. 33 stattis recognition d e m a n d b y 77 Wwlem Muslims and the Future of Islam (Ramadan), 33
United States, ban iirom, 15
Western societies, mirror of, 90-95
usùlal-fìqh (fundamentals of Islamic
Western states, criticisms, 107-8
law and jurisprudence), 48, 85
Wilders, Geert, 93
"us" V. "them" feeling, 68
witness (shàhià). 87
value.s, c o m m o n , 22
w o m e n . 54, 62-66,127
witnessing, 51-52 veil covering face (niqab), l o i
disrespect of, 32
victim feeling, 74-75.124.13i
feminist trends, 100-102
Vietnam, 39
h u m a n rights of, 98
violence, 10.26. See also 9/11; terrorism
retlecrion on situation of, 22
visa revocation, 15,106,139n37 visible intellectual, 18
voiceless, 132 World War II, 18,39, 99, i38n34
voicing, one's needs, 14 xenophobic speech, 128 Wahhabite, 48 Walt, S t e p h e n M., I39n36
y o u n g Muslims, 49, 53, 54,59
