Wayanad_-_Lives,_Livelihoods_and_the_Environment_-_Report.pdf

2011

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad A Preliminary Study A report of the preliminary study which tried to explore and understand the lives, livelihoods and the environment of Wayanad, a highland region of Kerala. Supported by IDRC-TTI Environmental Governance Group undertook this study with local support by Rural Agency for Social & Technological Advancement, RASTA, Wayanad. This report is co-authored by both RASTA and Public Affairs Centre.

Environmental Governance Group Public Affairs Centre 13-Sep-11

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011

Preface The Environmental Governance Group (EnGG) at the centre has been working to promote people centered environmental governance in India. As a pilot project it started working in the Gulf of Mannar coast of Tamil Nadu. The primary objective of the project is to develop a Climate Change Score Card, a knowledge product that harvests people’s opinion with scientific knowledge and connects these to quality of governance. While making progress on designing the CCSC, we strongly felt the need to broaden our reach into different regions, communities and geographies. We decided to do so in the highland region of Wayanad in Kerala. Wayanad is a small district in Kerala, South India that is nestled amidst the Western Ghats. The region enjoys a unique microclimate, as the district is dominated by a high-altitude valley amidst higher hill ranges. The region, once completely forested and devoid of significant human presence, has experienced rapid population growth and development since independence, with the population of the district doubling between 1970 and 2000. As a result of unregulated growth and unsustainable practices, the ecology of the region has been significantly affected over the last few decades. The effect of ecological degradation on local lives and livelihoods is becoming increasingly evident over the past decade. Under the influence of global climate change, the existing vulnerabilities of the region are likely to become worse and the climate risks are likely to become larger. It is the need of the hour to advocate for sound climate change adaptation and promote climateresilient development in Wayanad through careful study. As we embarked on this venture, we found that many funding agencies have shifted their focus out of Kerala to backward North Indian states, as a result of which getting funding support for this project appeared increasingly difficult. Thus, we decided that more background analysis was necessary to justify the case for Wayanad, and to preface fundraising efforts. We are indebted to the IDRC-TTi initiative for giving us the space and the resources to make progress here.

Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 Supported by the IDRC-TTi, EnGG is undertaking a preliminary study to understand the links between the environment, livelihoods and governance in Wayanad. We are partnering with RASTA (Rural Agency for Social and Technological Advancement), a reputed Civil Society organisation that has been working in Wayanad since 1984 on community empowerment, introduction of sustainable technologies, ecological conservation and natural resource management. The following report is an outcome of two field visits made by team from PAC to Wayanad and the numerous interactions with people from different backgrounds. All these interactions, interviews, discussions and secondary research have resulted in this report. Mr. Danesh along with other team members at RASTA have contributed major portions of this report. We acknowledge the time and support rendered by the farmers, community leaders, panchayat ex-officials, plantation owners, traders, researchers and the team of RASTA in undertaking the study and bringing it to this shape.

Wayanad



1. Introduction Wayanad has a long history, obscured like the mist in the hills, long forgotten. Historians are of the view that organized human life existed in these parts, at least ten centuries before the Common Era. Numerous evidences about New Stone Age civilization can be seen on the hills of Wayanad. Rock engravings in the Edakkal caves (pre-historic rock shelters), of Ampukuthimala located between Sulthan Bathery and Ambalavayal, represents human, animal figures, appliances of daily use and symbols. These follow a sequence, progression according to passing era. Speak volumes of the bygone era and civilization of pre-historic age, it enthuse modern historians to rewrite the history of Wayanad. The region was known as Mayakshetra (Maya's land) in the earliest records, The name evolved into Mayanad and finally into Wayanad. Folk etymology of the Wayanad tells us that the name is a combination of Vayal (paddy field) and Naad (land), making it 'The Land of Paddy Fields'. Wayanad District, have probably derived its name from ample land under paddy cultivation in sunken valleys and alluvial plains-Vayal, Vayal meaning paddy fields. Or the majority of the hills covered with forest, Vanam. This point is still under dispute, however, today it is neither of both, but Banana crop dominates the valley, hence it could be called “Vayazha Naad”. Geographically, Wayanad plateau sits where the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats converge, bringing together the elements of both systems in once place. The forests in Waynad are unique and ecologically important because they represent a transition zone from the moist Cullenia-dominated forests in the South Western Ghats to the northern drier dipterocarp forests. Placed on the southern west tip of the Deccan plateau, its prime glory is the majestic Western Ghats with lofty ridges interspersed with magnificent forests, tangled jungles, deep valleys and flood plans. In the centre of the district, hills are lower in height, while the northern area has high hills and they give a wild and mountainous appearance. Wayanad District is located on the crest of Western Ghats, and lies at a height of 7002100 mts above sea level. Some of the major peaks are Vellarimala, Banasura, Brahmagiri, Chembra, etc. ranging from 1500 mts. to 2100 mts. height. Have distinctive features, it is hilly and insular; have features that have distinct geographical identity and features, contrast the other districts of the Kerala, which are on the plains and have strong influence of the sea. This region is abundant in natural marvel with a vast area of greenery, mist capped mountains with hypnotizing scenic beauty. Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 During the period of colonial rule, they saw it a treasure trove. The forest yielded hard wood, which was used to make railway sleepers. To continuously carry on the work, they allowed the migration of people from the plains to settle, for providing labour. Gradually cleared areas were allocated to these migrants to settle down here. They were also instrumental starting plantation of Coffee and Tea. It was period of trail and tribulation for them, it took them more 50 years to stabilize the plantation. This district was one of the biggest foreign exchange earners of the state, being the land of cash crops of pepper, cardamom, coffee, tea, and other spices. Migrants came in hordes in different waves of last century, cleared the forest and swamps to start cultivation of cash crops, relentless effort start yielding results. It is a homeland of various ethnic groups. No other district in Kerala has such diversity in terms of its history and culture, customs and traditions, archaeology and anthropology, wild life and forest. The striking feature of Wayanad is abject poverty and penury amidst plenty, with the region declared backward as it has limited access to modern Institutions, and developmental activities are slow in coming. Parameters like density of population, occupational structure, health, educational and communication facilities, distribution of ration shops, availability of electricity to the residential houses, density of roads, and types of houses were considered for the identification of its backwardness. Backwardness is correlated with the relief and other natural conditions, also the standing in the present social development milieu of its marginalized community. The District is located on Western Ghats, a chain of high hills rising gradually from the midlands running parallel to the sea and joining the Mysore Plateau on the eastern side. The area is lying on the north-eastern part of the state, at the junction of the three southern states, adjoining to Coorg district of Karnataka and Gudular Taluk of Niligris District of Tamil Nadu. . The district is also a part of the Niligris Biosphere, which was one of the first regions of to be selected for Man, Agriculture and Biosphere under UNESCO’s (MAB Programme) in the country. It is declared eco fragile by the Ministry of Environment and Forest. Typically the hilly terrain, covered with green cover, its natural capital and asset, is diminishing, the forest, plantation; homestead farm is being systematically reduced. Valleys and alluvial plains were cultivated with paddy, now new entrant of banana and arecanut is making its presence in this area. The region has been inhabited group of ethnic people for more a long period, and only in the last half of 18th century it was opened by the Colonial Rulers to migrants, the land hungry migrants from the plains invaded and cleared the forest and started cultivation. The soil, remnant of the forest produced bountiful harvest without much effort and inputs. After a decade or so, this was maintained with farmyard manure and mulch of Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 bio mass, the gradually the cropping pattern changed from sustenance to cash crops, the cattle population diminished; the modern agriculture techniques and inputs replaced the traditional agriculture, knowledge and inputs. Productivity is on the decline, saw fast changing of the employment pattern and opportunities among the marginalised community. The decline of Natural assets brought about drastic changes, most of the citizens could not comprehend the present situation, and the blame is piled on, for plundering the natural wealth. The thinning of the green cover over the hills and changes in cultivation practices of the homestead farms has brought drastic changes to the micro environment, increase in pest and disease, resurgence of pest, falling soil moisture and sinking water table. It was process, from migration to settlers, clearing of forest and swamps to make space for cultivation and setting up of settlement. Once they were able to meet their sustenance, they gradually moved to cash crops, the intensification led to erosion of the primary assets the land. The wheel is moving to make a full circle, getting bleak, never knew what they have achieved yesterday could be getting out of their hands so soon.

1.1 Developmental History of Wayanad The District came into being in 1980, by carving two taluks on the hills of Western Ghats of the nearby districts of Calicut and Cannanore. From inception it was lagging behind in infrastructural development, basic communication facilities and other essential amenities. Most of the staff posted in the District Administration are nonresidents; who often know little about what would be essential for the development of this backward region. Neither were the local people taken into confidence for planning or decision making process. It is only natural that region that lagged behind in the earlier stage of their development owing to the various problems, low cohesion among the inhabitants, barriers in physical communication, lack of infrastructure facilities and information; would face uncertainty in matter of attracting steady support for its developmental process. The effect of this reflected more in terms of social and economic development process. A region that has lagged behind in the past has not only failed to catch up with those that have achieved fair measure of growth, but also tended to land in severe crisis. It is caused by its own problems of not having sufficient personnel to rally behind the development process as per the need of the region. Being most migrants, cohesion or taking part in the political process is exceedingly limited. This migrant syndrome is gradually changing with the coming of the second and third generation


Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 The adverse impact of this is bound to seen on human development indicators. If human development indicators are to be considered as a measure of the region's achievement in the area of poverty eradication or reduction, the experience leave a lot to be desired. While poverty as such does not lead to the loss of lives, more often than not, people are deprived of their right to a lead a dignified life.

2. Socio-Economic Profile The region has been inhabited by migrants from the plains or coast and from elsewhere from the neighbouring states. Almost all major religions are found here. Hinduism is the predominant, Christianity and Islam are all thriving side-by-side, animism and sprinkling of Jains makes the faith of the general population. The settling down of inhabitants from far and near brought about its own problems. It brought with them different cultural values and complexities. In the initial stage, the survival instinct left little time and room beyond their immediate needs. The complexity in culture left little room for cohesion and whatever pittance gained was the benevolence of petty local leaders. With passing of time, Political Bodies started cultivating and bringing them under their fold, soon polarised into different faction according their social strata. This gave further room for isolating them, thus reducing their participation of the development process. The younger generation has started migrating out of this rural district for higher education. Only a few are returning to their home. This pattern of emigration to other districts is slowly sapping the human resource. As result agriculture is facing a slump, as the pace of activities has slow down, there is growing number of absenteeism landowners. On the other hand it has started a new pattern, cultivating on lease and contract. It is not a healthy practice; the cultivators have little ownership or care for the soil. Harmony between seemingly divergent religious groups and ethnic races appears to be the norm. Conflicts between different communities and religions are not found, even though tensions may rise from time to time. However most the conflicts that have risen are based on resource allocation and land distribution.

2.1 Population Wayanad is one of the thinly populated dist in the state of Kerala, having 5.48% of the state’s area. According to 2011 census, the District has a population of 816,558, which is 2.45 per cent of the state’s total population. The population density of 383 people per sq. km is one of the lowest in the state, whose average is 859. The District has the distinction of female outnumbering male population, which has happened in this Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 decade for the first time, male 401,314 and female 415,244. The sex ratio is 1035 female for every 1000 male. It is decadal growth is 4.60 state’s against state’s average of 4.86

2.2 Rural- Urban Ratio Kerala’s unique settlement pattern and wider infrastructure development makes it difficult to see the differences between urban and rural areas and there is a strong rural-urban continuum in all along the district. Strictly speaking, there is no urban population in Wayanad District. Kalpetta, the District Head quarters has gained Municipality status. However, life in Sulthan Bathery, and Mananthavady is in the process of gaining urban status. Nevertheless, in the context of Wayanad, population residing in rural area is high as 97%, who have many benefits of urban areas.

2.3 Literacy Rate The effective literacy rate in the district was 82.73 percent, which was lower than the state average of 89.81 percent. The effective literacy rate refers to the literacy of the total population excluding the infants below 6 years of age. While the male literacy rate in the district (87.59 percent) was the second lowest in the state, the female literacy rate (77.69 percent) was the third lowest in the state. However, it must be kept in mind that Kerala as a state enjoys much higher literacy rates than most of the country. However, using literacy as a singular indicator of human development would fail to accurately represent the situation in Kerala.

2.4 Livelihoods The primary motivation for migration into Wayanad District has been to eke out a new livelihood, to escape the penury and starvation in the plains, and start afresh in a land still waiting to be harnessed. Cultivating their own piece of land was the chief aspiration of most people who migrated into the district in the past century. Many first cultivated their own land for sustenance, and later gradually they shifted to cash crops along food crops. With cash crops getting established, many started indulging in non-farm activities as well. Cultivators form a large part of the workforce in the district, but due to small size of land, they have had to supplement their income with labour. Only sizeable numbers of cultivators have been able to make their living from the earnings from their cultivation.

2.5 Ethnic Profile The District is inhabited by various groups of people who came at different period of history. The earliest were the tribal groups, who are a heterogeneous community, consist of six groups, two of the groups are cultivators, and have their own land, namely Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 Kurchiyans and Mullakuramban. They show remarkable adaptation and have strong clanship. There is another group called Uralikurmaban, who are the only artisan tribe, they made clay pots without the use of the potter’s wheel. The other two groups consist of Paniya and Adiyans, mostly landless and were formerly bonded labourers. The Kattunaicken, a primitive tribal group, the last to join the mainstream, live in periphery or on the fringe of the forest land. Many of them have land of their own for cultivation of coffee, pepper and other crops. Jains, was the group who have migrated from Mysore area to Wayanad around 1800 AD, and made their home. As early entrants, they have captured the essence of farming. Their homestead farms were closely linked the wetland. Most of them have large holdings of coffee, declared under plantation. As planters, they are the most progressive ones. Early in the 18th Century, the rulers in the plains brought under the domain. Wayanad District was divided under the local chieftains of Nair tharavad. The division is still followed today, divided into Amsams (villages) and desams (sub-divisions). Controlling tracts of land in their possession, later on, they sold some of the land to the migrants. They now do cultivation of the remaining tracts of land; however their children have moved out of cultivation, many have secured employment in Government and private sector. The Christian community came in small numbers in early 20th Century. Most of them sold their property and left their ancestral land to escape its problems. After the Second World War, they came in hordes, which went on for nearly for two odd decades. They had the support of the Church for finding land to settle down. New crops, ginger, tapioca and other crops were introduced by them. Most of this community owns land sufficient to meet the needs of the family. Many have converted the coffee growing areas to Rubber cultivation. Their children are moving out agriculture, as they have secured employment. The Muslim community arrived here due to continuous struggles between British and Khilafath movement and poverty attracted them from Malabar plains. The plantations absorbed some, while others took land for cultivation on lease; some became labourers with land lords, while the other became petty traders. Many of them have become traders, and only small amount of them does actual cultivation. After the district was formed in the 1980, migrants who came in largely to set up small businesses in the non-agricultural, services sectors. The district has a mixed population of Hindus, Christians and Muslims. As per 1991 census, of the total population of the District, 50% is Hindu, 26% is Muslim and 23% is Christian. Other religious groups include a small Jain community, which has a long Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 history in Wayanad, forming less than 1% of the total population. Tribal communities, numbering 136,062 (17.43% of the total population of Wayanad) do not form a homogenous entity. Major communities found in the district are Paniyan (44.77%), Mullu Kuruman (17.51%), Kurichian (17.38%), Kattunaickan (9.93%), Adiyan (7.10%) and Urali Kuruman (2.69%). They can broadly be categorized into three avocations viz., marginal farmers, cultivators cum agricultural labourers, and agricultural labourers.

3. Geography and Natural Resources 3.1 Location The district of Wayanad is located in the Northern Eastern part of Kerala State. It lies between 11° 27' N and 12° 58' N latitudes and 74° 52' E and 76° 07' E longitudes. Geographical area is about 2,132 Sq.Km, Bounded on the east by Nilgiris Dist of Tamil Nadu, and Mysore and Kodagu district of Karnataka on the north and east, in the south by Malappuram and on the west by Kozhikode and Kannur.

3.2 Land Utilization Geographically, Wayanad can be divided into six categories of land forms: mountains, highly steep land, moderately steep land, valleys, marshy lands or submerged and flood plains. Of these six land forms, about 87 percent of the total area is dry land classified under mountains, highly steep land, and moderately steep land with undulating topography. The remaining are wet lands, consisting of valleys, marshy lands, flood plains totaling to 13 percent. The western part of the district receives heavy rainfall from the south west monsoon, while the North and east is in the rain shadow. The forest of Wayanad accounts for 37 percent of it land area. The last remaining green patches are under various stages of devastation. 1. Total Area (Sq.Km) Wet Area (hect) Dry Area (hect) 2. Forest Area (hect.)

2,131 24,731 100,869 78,787

Land capability: Considering the characteristics of soil, drainage/wetness, erosion, runoff etc, broad land capability (LC) classes Land Class I Class II (Good cultivable land)

Type Wet lands Dry land

Class III (Moderately good cultivable land) Class IV (Fairly good cultivable lands)

Dry land Dry land

Crops /Vegetation Rice, Banana, Areca nut Coffee, Pepper, ginger, turmeric Coffee, Pepper, Agroforestry Coffee, Pepper, Agroforestry


Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 Class VI (Well suited for forestry or grazing) Class VIII (Land suited only for wildlife and recreation).

Dry land Dry land

Land Utilization pattern 1. Total Geographical Area 2. Forest Area 3. Land put to non agricultural use 4. Barren & uncultivable land 5. Permanent pastures and other grazing land 6. Land under misc. tree crops 7. Cultivable waste 8. Fallow other than current fallow 9. Current fallow 10. Net area sown 11. Area sown more than once 12. Total cropped area

Tea Forest

(in Ha) 212,560 78,787 273 52 489 1,032 391 1,598 117,384 87,643 205,027

3.2.1 Uplands Wayanad being part of Western Ghats is having a hilly terrain with undulating topography. Most of the uplands are having land classification of VI, VII and higher is Class VIII. Class VI has been cultivated or turned in to plantation. Most of these are plantations, almost an extension of Forest; it has been terraced and cropped with standing crops of Coffee and pepper. While the land under Class VII are mostly under permanent cover of tea plantation, lightly interspersed with shade trees. The land under Class VIII is permanently forest land, normally steep hills and mountains, under green cover, trees, it some area it is under Shola forest, one of the unique one particularly of the Western Ghats. Much of the vegetation in the shoal is in the valleys, trees are stunted because extreme climate and winds. The most important other component is the adjacent grass lands associated with it, they capture the rainfall only to release them gradually, tiny streams spring to life, continuously yielding water to tiny brook, they join together to become watercourse for the streams. These small streams further flows into the tributaries of the main river Kabini. There were some attempt to convert tem to forest plantation, in lower elevation it had become tea plantation, while others exotic tree species have been introduced, it results are not encouraging for continued aforestation.


Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 3.2.2 Midlands The land between the valleys and upland are the midlands. It comes under the land classification of II, III and IV, ranging from rolling landscape of hills and dales. Much is under cultivation. It is here where the homestead farming takes place and where most people live. Homestead is defined as an operational farm unit or farming environment in which crop, livestock, poultry, apiculture etc is carried out mainly for the purpose of satisfying farmer's needs. This type of farming is a common feature of the region, where farmers utilises the available land around the house for cultivating a variety of annual/seasonal or perennial crops of their choice, based on the home requirement and marketing preferences if surplus is produced subject to the extent of the land availability. The number of home stead farms could be as many as the number of families in the area, where the home is always surrounded by a small piece land, where ploy crop combination are cultivated with animals and poultry. Predominance of marginal and small farm holdings is of common occurrence. Homestead farming is not the main occupation of more than sixty percent of the landholders. It is only a secondary occupation for them. The region's climate permits cultivation of high value perennial crops. The climate also permits relative high cropping intensity (136 %) inspite of the low proportion area irrigated. The varied terrain and high rainfall permits a wide array of cropping patterns, mix of perennial and field crops. Nearly all the farm is devoted to three or more major crops. The wide variety of the cropping pattern is reflected in most homestead farms. Predominance of tree or perennial crops and mainly rainfed farming are the remarkable features of the region’s agriculture. The region is well above the national average of 85% in cultivation efficiency. The cropping system practised is a multi storied high intensity agricultural system where mixed cropping and perennial plantations coexist at different heights on the same unit area of land and take advantage of the rainfall and sunshine

3.2.3 Lowlands Wayanad District, have probably derived its name from ample land under paddy cultivation in swamps, marshy land, sunken valleys and alluvial plains-Vayal, The Folk etymology of the word says it is a combination of Vayal(paddy field) and Naad (land), making it 'The Land of Paddy Fields'. It was the chief attraction of all early settlers for cultivation for sustenance Vayal is the term used to describe the fields, where the cultivation of paddy takes place. Generally it collects water in the monsoon months. These are basin or valley, or flood plains, distinguish a typical paddy fields, are surrounded by low range of Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 undulating hills, with a drainage system. These can be classified into four categories, namely Kara kadam or Kuni Vayal, Kundu Vayal, Koravu Vayal and Poyil on the basis of soil texture, clay content, percolation and retention of water, fertility and location of the field These fields (lands) are important part of the local agro ecosystem. Serve the community in many ways. First, it serves to grow the staple crop (rice), the varieties planted here would vary according to the physical parameters the fields. The activity is helping to recharge the ground water, therefore balancing the hydraulic gradient of the water table of the area. It collects the water from and the runoff from the hills, the running water is made to stand. The stream adjoining the field supports varieties flora and fauna. The former supplements the needs of the community, from supplementary food to making of various herbal preparations for common ailments. While the latter plays an important role in maintaining a healthy ecosystem, besides toping of the ground water in the region Categorization of paddy fields (Vayals) •

Kara kadam or Kunivayal, lowland normally adjacent to the rolling foothills. This field springs to live after the monsoon has started. It is the first stop point of the excess water flowing from the hills. This Vayal type contains more soil (sandy loam) with less clay content, has low retention or water holding capacity. Cultivation is primarily under rain fed condition, one crop raised during Nancha season (monsoon), is also used for growing vegetable in summer months.

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Kundu vayals are the flat fields located in the valley bottoms. They are the continuation of the kara kandam, it collects the runoff, retains inflowing sediment. This type of Vayal is characterized by standing water throughout rainy season. The soil is clayey with less sand content, thereby increasing its water retention capacity. The water is retained here for a longer period want of proper drainage facilities. It supports wide variety of aquatic life and flora.

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Koravu Vayal is also known as Aathi kandam, is remnant of the swamp, marshy characteristics . The profile of this Vayal type is like that of quick sand, with practically low soil with little clay content, have high content of submerged biomass, its remnants under various stage of decomposition. These are one of the most fertile fields, need little manure, the cultural operations are done manually with skills.

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Poyil are fields adjacent to the river banks, due to constant flooding during the monsoon, good amount silt is deposited here. However the soil is mostly sandy, little of clay; due to delay in getting the land prepared because of flooding, quick maturing variety of paddy is planted here, It is prone to flooding and onslaught of winds.


Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 

Much of the Kara kadam or Kunivayal has been converted into settlement or areca nut groves. While the Kundu vayal has been utilised for cultivation of banana or ginger more than cultivating of paddy. In the process of cultivation of cash crops, it natural functions has been curtailed drastically. The Koravu vayal, is being gradually dying a natural death, due insufficient recharge in the up hills due to loss of green cover and land fragementation. Poyil is one area, where paddy cultivation is going on, however summer crop has been falling due lack of water in the river for irrigation.

3.3 Area under different crops The migrants from the plains of Malabar came to the forested tracts of Wayanad around 1780s, started homestead cultivation with pepper (Piper nigrum). The multistrata ‘garden land homesteads’ prevalent have evolved over a long period of time under variable planting and/or extraction regimes. In 1828 the coffee introduced in Wayanad, and the first coffee plantations appeared 1838. Coffee was produced along with pepper, in agroforestry combinations. But coffee plantation did not succeeded as expected due to diseases, and many alternatives crops were tried. Tea plantations were developed in several areas from 1892, and crops such as Cardamom (Elettaria cardamom), pepper, cinchona (Cinchona officinalis), and arecanut were also introduced, though to a lesser extent. The major plantation crops (tea, coffee, pepper and arecanut) together constitute 38% of cropped area. Coffee, which covers a total area of 67,429 hectares, is grown as under-crop in the homesteads of over 80% of small and marginal farmers in Wayanad district. Pepper, the second most important crop in the district, is also grown in home gardens, mostly in combination with coffee. Of the total estimated 155,855 landholdings in the district of Wayanad, 83% belong to either small or marginal farmers.

3.4 Soil & Fertility Status The soil types seen in the area are mainly the remnants of forest loam. It is a product of weathering of crystalline rock under continuous vegetative cover, high rainfall, and moisture. It is characterised by surface layer of humus and other organic matter at various stages of decomposition under humid tropical climate. Soil profile is immature with shallow soil followed by gneissic parent material. It is dark reddish or yellowish brown to black in colour with loam to silky loam texture. Laterite soils are also common, particularly in exposed areas, and are generally poor in Nutrients besides lack organic matter and acidic in nature. The valleys and alluvial plains are deposits of materials eroded from the hills. The soils in the paddy field are mainly the sandy loam, fine silt, silt laden with debris and Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 lithomargic clay being under the constant cover of water, much of the accumulated biomass is in the process of becoming peat. This makes the soil acidic. The soil has gone under marked changes due to intensive cultivation, reduced recycling, falling tree cover and indiscriminate usage of chemical fertilizers. Use of excess nitrogenous fertilizer has resulted in a reduction in soil organic carbon besides creating acidic conditions. Little care has been given to the replenishment of micronutrients in the soil, It has also be creating the silent hunger of soil, micro elements are mined, without proper recycling it has made the soil poorer.

3.5 Forests of Wayanad Forest is a complex ecological system in which trees are the dominant life form. They are developed under a variety of conditions within the climatic limits, and the type of soil, plant, and animal life differs according to the extremes of environmental influences. The forests of Wayanad are unique and important because they represent a transition zone from the moist forests in the south Western Ghats to the northern drier forests in the north. Overall forest coverage of Wayanad plateau falls under one of the five categories of vegetation type’s mainly evergreen, semi-evergreen, moistdeciduous, dry-deciduous, scrub and plantations. Forest types are distinguished from each other according to species composition (which develops in part according to the age of the forest), the density of tree cover, type of soils found there, and the geologic history of the forest region. Soil depth is important because it determines the extent to which roots can penetrate into the earth and, therefore, the amount of water and nutrients available to the trees. Water may be lost by evaporation from the surface or by leaf transpiration. Evaporation and transpiration also control the temperature of the air in forests, which is always slightly warmer in cold months and cooler in warm months than the air in surrounding regions. The density of tree cover influences the amount of both sunlight and rainfall reaching the layer beneath them. The movement of rainfall into the forest is considerably influenced by leaf cover, which tends to slow the velocity of falling water, which penetrates down to the ground level by running down tree trunks or dripping from leaves. The forest floor consists of humus layer which is affected by the high levels of heat and humidity, which quickly decompose whatever organic matter exists. Fungi on the soil surface play an important role in the availability and distribution of nutrients. Some species of fungi live in partnership with the tree roots, while others are parasitically destructive. In tropical forests, fruit bats, bees and birds play an important pollination. The forest is nature's most efficient ecosystem, with a high rate of photosynthesis, moving both plant and animal systems in a series of complex organic relationships. Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 The tropical evergreen forest (west coast tropical evergreen forest) occurring within a narrow strip along the Western Ghats is perhaps the most endangered natural habitat. Extremely fragile, it has suffered most from human interaction. In species diversity it is the richest habitat and has developed in areas of the heaviest rainfall. There is very little soil erosion and that the streams and rivers originating from the rain forests are clear and perennial. This may be attributed to the thick canopy and closely packed trees. The evapo-transpiration from the forests is much higher than that from any other surface. This cools the atmosphere, because of the altitude it helps in easy condensation of water vapor. This is the origin of the local summer rains. Tropical evergreen forests constitute the climax vegetation, is characterized by at least three tiers, the highest often attaining a height of 40-45m. Many species develop plank buttresses. The middle stratum is more or less candle shaped and the lower characteristically conical. The trees are heavily infested with epiphytic orchids, aroids, mosses, and ferns. Semi-evergreen forests (Indian west coast semi-evergreen forests) are generally considered as a transitional stage between evergreen and moist deciduous forests. It is also found in localities where the evergreen forests are subjected to high disturbances. The species occurring in the lower layer are the same as seen in the evergreen forests. A small variety of plant species possessing medicinal property are found exclusively in this forest type. Major part of this forest has been subjected to selection felling in the past. Under continued anthropogenic disturbances such as frequent fires and biomass extraction, semi-evergreen forests retrograde to moist deciduous forests. This is a common depredatory phase in the forests. In the moist deciduous forests (southern moist mixed deciduous forests) the trees reach 30 to 35 m height. Compared to evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests are superior in species richness. But in contrast to evergreen forests, these deciduous forests are commercially very valuable. Bamboos and reeds are also common. The differentiation into various layers is not distinct. Moist deciduous formation occurs at 200-1250 m altitudes, where temperature ranges between 15 -35° C and rainfall between 1500 to 2500 mm. These forests are also important for bamboos, which form important forage of wild animals. Ground vegetation is rich with grasses, herbs and shrubs offering wide range of forage. Due to abundance of ground vegetation, bamboos and other species and due to good light and spaced tree growth, these forests provide wide choice of habitats for wild ungulates, arboreal mammals, birds and butterflies. Common ground flora consists of many species of herbs, possessing medicinal properties. Moist deciduous forest is a forest type of intermediate density, coming in succession before wet evergreen forests and in low rainfall regions moist deciduous forests. Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 However, due to local factors, fire and other anthropogenic disturbances the forests can show an arrested succession. Moist deciduous forests are considered to be the richest in terms of the variety of medicinal plants (about 300 species). Apart from medicinal plants, a number of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are also collected from the deciduous forests.. Plantations (Forest), less productive forest is planted up with commercial species such as Teak. Eucalyptus plantations are raised for paper mills. There are also plantations of softwood trees and bamboo. These plantations are mostly made after clearing existing vegetation. There are prescribed treatments such as thinning and weeding for different trees. Large proportion of Wayanad landscape comprises of plantations which have resulted in the severe fragmentation of its forests. Remaining forests of Wayanad plateau are of small packets of evergreen and deciduous forest, with scrub. Wayanad forest region consists of two parts. The first part comprising Wayanad Wild Life Sanctuary and surrounding areas consist of deciduous forests and plantations. Second part consist of a belt of forest covering areas such as Wild Life Sanctuary, which are mostly hilly areas are covered with evergreen forests, but the continued and indiscriminate exploitation of the natural resources points towards an imminent environmental crisis. There are some important animal corridors in these sanctuaries, it is also the reason of man-animal conflict. Conserving these forests is a big challenge due to this fragmentation and the prospect of increasing degradation due to overexploitation. Moreover, a number of crops, currently cultivated extensively, have their wild relatives here. Among spices, the wild cousins of black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and curcuma are largely found in the wet forests. This area that receives high annual rainfall within a short span of three to four months, the forest land in Wayanad also performs important hydrological functions.

3.6 Water Wayanad is a largely a mountain area that receives high annual rainfall from the bimodal seasonal within a short span of four to six months, land performs important hydrological and watershed functions. A large number of people living in the adjoining areas receive most of their water supply from rivers originating in the area. Thus, the soils and waters of this region sustain the livelihoods of many people. The geographic setting of Wayanad makes it highly sensitive to environmental stresses. Most of the crops are rain fed, and irrigation is done for only summer crop of paddy by farmers, and for this small streams by bunded, allowed the collected water to flow by gravity. The others bunds the rivers for pumping water to irrigate the poyil alnds. In the year when the cherry blossom showers (February) fails, the large cultivators of coffee Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 crops resort of bunding the streams and pumping the impounded waters with large capacity pumps, this cause serious shortage downstream often leading to social unrest, sometime flaring up to physical violence. The constant dredging of sand from the river have lowered the riverbeds considerably, besides the cultivation of other cash crops in the valleys. This results in a reduced hydraulic gradient, leading to the falling ground water levels, drying small streams and shallow wells in the pre-monsoon period. The submerged valleys' prime function of harvesting the rainwater and recharging the water table has been drastically curtailed with their conversion for non rice cash crops, and converting to non agricultural purposes. The area is moderately well drained and exhibits a dendrite pattern. The area being undulating has a number of streams, which drain into Kabini River. Depth of ground water fluctuates considerably with the phyisography but generally remain below a depth of 10-17 metres in the homestead. It is available at 1-5mtrs in valley portion. Rivers and streams are having serious setback with the smooth flow of water in the summer with constant mining of sand from the riverbeds. The main water sources are surface water and ground water. Ground water is used extensively for drinking and other domestic purposes drawn from domestic dug wells. These wells are been deepen on a regular basis to supply water. The average density of wells is about 70 per sq Km. In summer, most wells around valleys show discoloration in the water, this is due to dissolved iron. When the recharge is low, the ground water movement comes to halt, and stagnates. With low rate of aeration, the iron dissolved starts showing a rusty red colour. Such water is not acceptable to the people, as it discolors white clothes, stains the rice when cooked, apart from imparting a strong odour of iron. During the monsoon months it gets aerated with recharged water, while in the pre monsoon months, this problem gets pronounced. If the recharge of the ground water can be increased in the given area, the problem will solve itself.

3.7 Agro Biodiversity Geographically, Wayanad plateau sits where the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats converge, bringing together the elements of both systems in once place. The forests in Wayanad are unique and ecologically important because they represent a transition zone from the moist Cullenia-dominated forests in the South Western Ghats to the northern drier dipterocarp forests. Thus it is a hotbed for developing of two different types of vegetation in a place. Forests also serve as repositories of genetic diversity and confer hydrological benefits. The area falls entirely within the Western Ghats of India, one of the 18 biodiversity hotspots. It is characterised by high levels of species endemism. The forests here are globally important as they house endemic flora and fauna, including species of plants, Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 species of mammals, species of birds, species of amphibians. Among these, there are species are critically endangered, species are endangered, and species are vulnerable, according to IUCN classification. A number of cultivated food plants have their wild relatives in these wet evergreen forests, including the spices pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, ginger and curcuma. The district of Wayanad is characterised by homestead farming at the subsistence level and smallholder plantations. Paddy, is the staple food of the region. Wetland-based cropping systems involve mainly paddy, with summer cultivation of vegetables and banana. The uplands adjoining the wetlands are characterised by homestead farming with coffee and pepper. Coffee-based cropping systems involving coffee, pepper and ginger, along with many trees, are the most prevalent land use patterns. In traditional agro-forestry systems composed mainly of home gardens, the native tree composition of farmlands was largely left intact; only the under-storey plants were replaced by crops. This system lies contiguous with the natural forests and provides an unhindered habitat for wildlife in the area due to plant diversity and shade. Most farmers in Wayanad are small, marginal, and tend to grow multiple sets of crop on their farmlands. Farmers maintain a spectacular variety of plants in their home gardens to meet their varied needs. A typical home garden represents an operational farm unit that integrates trees with field crops, livestock, and poultry, with the basic objective of ensuring sustained availability of multiple products such as food, vegetables, fruits, fodder, fuel, timber, medicines and/or ornamentals, besides generating employment and cash income. Home gardens constitute a dominant and promising land use system, maintaining high levels of productivity, stability, sustainability and equitability. Home gardens with a multistorey canopy structure are deliberately planned to mimic a natural forest and thereby lack a discernible planting pattern. Physiognomically, home gardens exhibit a multitiered canopy structure somewhat similar to that of a tropical evergreen forest. The mean density of trees in a home garden is estimated to be as high as 116 trees per hectare. Home gardens play an important role in the food security of the region as they supply varied products throughout the seasons. Tubers, vegetables, fruits and spices from home gardens make up a significant part of the nutritional requirements of the household. Crop diversity in homesteads results in a range of output from a given area, increasing self-sufficiency and reducing the economic risks associated with adverse climatic, biological and market impacts on particular crops. Another important function of home gardens is the generation of a cash income. Most of the income from a home garden is from marketable surplus derived from perennials such as fruit trees. Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 The high degree of biodiversity present in a home garden is unique and totally distinct from the biodiversity present in a natural forest. The biodiversity of a home garden is the result of generations of conscious selection by farmers, and bears the imprint of their choices. Moreover, these components are, in most cases, the last refuge for species that are useful but not commercially viable for cultivation. These home gardens satisfy a substantial proportion of society's demands.

4. Environment and Climate 4.1 Climatic condition The region lying on the crest of the Western Ghats, with average altitude of 3,000 ft, receives rain from both the monsoons bringing in more than 3,000 mm. The distance from the coast, the altitude and vegetation on surrounding forest on the hills and cultivated green cover creates a salubrious climate. Lakkidi on the edge of western face of the Western Ghats in Vyttiri taluk has the highest average rainfall in Kerala, above 4,500 mm. Rainfall distribution is bimodal. It herald with arrival of Southwest monsoon (edavappathi), in June which is known locally as Kalavarsham, July is the most rainy month in the district and North East monsoon is known as tulaavarsham. Generally the year is classified in four seasons namely, cold weather (DecemberFebruary) with mist hovering the region in the evening, hot weather (March-May) dry spell interspersed with pre monsoon showers in the afternoon with high velocity winds followed by bouts of lighting and hail storms, Southwest monsoon (June-September) with torrential showers, in July which is the peak, and then mist like needle rains to close the season. The northeast monsoon (October-November) announces its arrivals with thunder and heavy showers. Wayanad experience a high relative humidity The district gets the advancing monsoons during the months of June-September known as edavappathi in the windward side on the western and the retreating monsoon tulaavarsham of October to December in the leeward side. And both them together are known as Kalavarsham. In terms of volume the advancing monsoons bring more rain than the retreating monsoons. The southwest monsoon contributes about 60 % while the Northwest monsoon contributes about 30%, with the rest coming from pre monsoon showers. The climate is generally mild, with mercury touching about 35ºC in the day during short summer months (March to May). In the fall of the year the temperature drops around 15ºC. It has rains for more than 126 days in year.


Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 From June to August, the South West monsoon rains incessantly, with a short dry spell in between, and heavy showers with lighting in July which is the peak and slows down gradually in August to continuous light drizzle. The Northwest monsoon starts in late September to November, and is usually announced with bouts of lighting. From December to January is the dry spell, the mercury drops, heavy mist in the late evenings, which finally gets lifted in the late mornings after a chilly night. It is also visited by dry winds. Physically, Wayanad sits where the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats converge, bringing together the elements of both systems in once place. The geographical position of the area is unique and peculiar. The lofty hills of the district are one of the highest point facing the southern end of the Deccan Plateau. Any atmospheric disturbance, either in the western coast –Arabian Sea or Bay of Bengal, is felt in the District, it brings extra rains. The temperature during the day varies from 15°C in the fall of the year to 32°C in the post monsoon months of summer. In the fall of the year, ambient temperature falls early in the evening and gaining after the sun rises above the horizon late in the morning. The altitude and the cover of vegetation of the region play the reigning role of the climate. The diurnal temperature difference is more than 8-12O C The relative humidity varies from 90% to 70% in Monsoon and summer respectively. The short interim rains in February is crucial for all rainfed , lasting for a few days, called Cherry blossom showers, is crucial for the flowering and the Backing showers for the initial setting of Coffee beans, has become elusive. Its failure is taking a heavy toll of the coffee crop, agriculture on the whole. If the North East Monsoon is weak, it would affect the availability of drinking water, and put much stress on the perennial crops. The pattern of rainfall has changed much, along with the reduced quantity. Pre monsoon showers in the afternoon are visited with hailstorms and strong winds, taking toll of standing crops particularly in flood plains and valleys. Rains are of heavy downpours are coming common during the monsoon period, which is destructive and disrupting the daily life of the inhabitants. Earlier the rains would have been of drizzle all through the period, with a break of few days of clear sky. From the former, run off was pronounced, while with the latter, greater absorption by the ground. The large difference of the diurnal temperature and long days with cloud cover, typical of the hills, give the crops planted here distinctive characteristics because of the reduced metabolism due reduced sunlight and to fall of mercury, have longer gestation period before maturing. This has builds a distinct characteristics of the produce from this district. In the past two decades or so, the green cover of the hills, plantations and homestead farms is undergoing sweeping changes. The traditional custodians of the green heritage are trying to increase productivity at the cost of chopping down trees. Selection fellingPublic Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 removal of large trees, followed by clear felling, final removal of remaining uneconomic & under growth, planting with teak, some area, witness the planting exotic varieties. The large plantation and homestead farms also saw the onslaught the green cover. The former removed them, whenever they were passing over a bad patch, while the latter removed the trees cover after land were fragmented to make place for dwellings and use for construction of dwellings. All these activities is changing the micro climate, change of the water regime, springs are hard to come, streams exist only for short duration, ground water level is falling. Early drying of soil, moisture stress is common during the summer; the ambient temperature has been shooting up has been widely noticed. This in turn has promoted crops to mature earlier by two-four weeks, has been gradually changing the annual harvest season period. Earlier in the fall of year, the harvest of crops followed a set pattern, now the overlap, and this necessitated importing unskilled labour from the neighbouring states to carry out the operations.

4.2

Climatic data Mean summer temperature Mean winter temperature Difference Annual mean temperature Soil temperature regime Soil moisture regime

27.82 OC 15.47OC 12.45 OC 19.57 OC Isohyperthermic stic

4.3 Natural & Man made Hazards & their impact: Waste Management With cash crops being intensified, and in order to increase the productivity, blind usage of fertilizers, pesticides, seed treatment chemicals, plant growth regulators, etc. are being used in increasing quantities. Such indiscriminate usage is leading to the deterioration of the environment. The water bodies serve as sinks to these agrochemicals which ultimately reach biomass and have its impact on individuals and communities. The presence of visible indicators of degradation are the absence of commonly seen species, reduction of earthworms both in dry land and wetlands, absence dragon flies in the paddy lands, reduced number of crabs, almost absence of frogs, elimination of foxes, reduced number of owls, heron etc. All the above mentioned played an important part in maintaining the ecosystem, it’s reduction has brought secondary problems, for which the farming community have to further use pesticides to keep up the production level.


Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 Wetlands are the sink of the flow of residual from the agricultural operations. The deposition of leach materials is being absorbed by different levels in ecosystem. With bio magnification, it has reduced the population of local fauna, evidenced by disappearance of many species which were abundant. The leached materials is slowly passing over the threshold level, ground water is getting contaminated, only because of the high rate of rainfall, the dilution takes places. Water samples collected in pre monsoon months shows levels of contamination, while in the post monsoon months; the level is below the safe level. The urbanisation process started the usage of natural materials for construction. The hills were the source of rubble. With fast mechanisation, new methods were used for blasting, which is also a nuisance for people in its proximity. Many houses in nearby locations show telltale signs of this nefarious activity, with cracks in the walls and fallen plaster from ceiling. Sand is dredged from the river beds, creating large cavities in the beds, and dried up streams. Stream and river banks are also targeted, and as much sand as possible is mined before the monsoon. Once the monsoon arrives, this leads rivers to meander, taking away huge chunks of cultivable area of the poyil, the last refuge of rice cultivation. The brick kilns located on the adjacent of river banks mine clay, and the resulting cavities in the ground drain water from nearby paddy fields. With reduced recharge due to change cropping pattern and land utilization in the wetlands, which are converted to cash crops, the runoff and received rains, doesn’t have time to stand for recharging. The lowering of river beds also reduced the water retention of the water in the ground. As a result the water table is falling, with reduced pressure from the hydraulic gradient, soil is sinking. Most of the houses show cracks in their foundation and walls, this due to submergence. Accumulation of waste from houses and urbanized areas is increasing, which is a problem as there is no planned solution in sight. Waste water from the home is let into soak pits, from the latrine are led to septic tanks. In areas of high water table, particularly in the low lands and valley, it has become a problem in monsoon season, due to rise in groundwater level. The safe distance between the sanitation and wells has fallen to less than 5 meters. Solid waste from commercial centers also pose a problem, there are no safe way to dispose them. There is no segregation of the material disposed. Much of the accumulated waste are biodegradable, along with assorted mixture of plastic, waste from failed electronic components make the remaining bulk. It is collected on alternate days and disposed in place allotted by the Gram Panchyat. Individuals in the vicinity of the dumps have started complaining, the smoke and fumes from the burning reaches their home.



5. Environmental Degradation and Livelihood Security The ecological base of Wayanad is very fragile as is the case with most hilly and mountainous ecosystems. Over a period of time agricultural land in Wayanad has borne the brunt of inconsiderate agricultural practices as farming communities here had adhered to ‘plain land management’, which they had hitherto used for the cultivation that was different from the ‘hill land management’ of agricultural terrain that was required for the ecosystem of Wayanad. This has resulted in environmental degradation; a long term effect of land mismanagement, unscientific cultivation, and uncontrolled use of fertilizers and pesticides manifesting itself in plant disease, and reduced yield. There is an increase in the area under cultivation of major cash crops from the early 70s onwards as the cost benefit ratios began favouring the cultivation of cash crops over food crops as profits were higher. The environmental consequence of shifting agricultural patterns based on price rather than a premeditated approach is a very serious concern which has led to an emergence of inconsistencies. In paddy cultivation, standing water is required in fields for its growth, the impounded water to percolate down to the water table, which helps to stabilize and maintain the ground water level. But with the conversion of paddy fields to ginger, banana and arecanut plantations, the wetlands of Wayanad are being drained for the cultivation of these crops. Therefore, with shrinking wet lands the ground water levels in the district has also reduced considerably making some areas prone to droughts during the long summer months. The changing cultivation patterns, reduced recycling, removal of tree cover have made this region vulnerable to environmental disasters like drought, which have been taking a heavy toll on agriculture, partially or totally damaging crops like pepper and coffee in Wayanad. In the case of partial damage the yield recovery period is an average of 3 years and for total damage the recovery period is 5 to 7 years. During the period of boom in Wayanad, farmers began raising the input level in the land as they were trying to maximize their output to get a profit and in the period of crisis the farmers were not able to keep up the levels of fertilizers and pesticides leading to disease and crop loss. The reduction of fertilizer subsidies also played a role in making inputs more inaccessible to the farmer. This led the farmers to use imbalanced ratio of fertilizer, led to proliferation of insects, leading to use pesticides.


Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 With intensification cropping higher inputs fertilizer to maintain productivity, followed by pesticides to reduce pest attack and curtail the diseases. It also led of mining away of soil micro nutrients, with reduced recycling, soil organic carbon felled, leading stress in summer, and reduced soil microbial activity. The absence of soil organic carbon, because of reduced recycling and burning out because of high Nitrogenous fertiliser created imbalance, increased soil borne diseases, made it more prone to attack in mono cropping leading to failure in Wayanad. Similarly, the excessive use of fertilizers has raised the ph levels in the soil making it acidic, again affecting the productivity. Because of this, supply of certain nutrients is curtailed, required for essentially for proper growth. Thus, the uncontrolled use of fertilizers and pesticides has led to the reversal of the intended aim to increase production resulting in a decrease instead. In the recent past, man-made factors affecting the environment have coupled with a relatively new phenomenon of unpredictable climate change. Climate change has led to the deepening of the crisis through droughts, rise in temperature, higher rates of evaporation and erratic rainfall patterns affecting the yield and growth of crops. Some of these factors of change can be reduced with better knowledge imparted to farmers, some can be controlled by the development of infrastructure and safety-net measures and some cannot. For example coffee yield is determined by a spell of rain before the plant blossoms every year; called the blossom showers; if it’s timing is altered it could result in failure of the crop or reduced yield. Similarly, in the case of pepper it is the rainfall that helps in the pollination determining its yearly yield. Temperature change again helps in the spread of fungal diseases in crops which if not controlled can cause heavy losses. The environmental problems associated with livelihood vulnerabilities can be classified into two categories: 



The first group consists of factors affecting the environment that are a direct consequence of features, which are manmade and are influenced by primary factory like land use, fertilizer management, recycling and cropping patterns fueled by secondary factors like markets and price. The second group of factors influencing the environment is beyond the control of man as they are climatic in nature and have to be dealt with through proactive and precautionary measures at infrastructural and policy levels.

Environmental degradation is a more physical and a long term reality which needs to be looked at seriously from national and international levels in order to prevent more disastrous manifestations. The difficulty, the separation of livelihood and environment is near to impossible as they are interconnected, especially with reference to agriculture and development. Therefore, what is required is a studied and rational pattern of Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

Lives, Livelihoods & Environment of Wayanad 2011 change brought about with the aid of R&D in agriculture and development to protect livelihoods and the environment. The pressure from the markets has forced the farmer to increase their inputs and produce more crops leading to the popularisation of harmful agricultural practices in order to meet their survival needs which in-turn has adverse effects on the environment. Alternatives like organic farming that could be made lucrative through proper encouragement and incentives to farmers and developing new markets for such goods, to integrate mechanisation into farming systems to compensate for reduced manpower through which the cost of production in agriculture can be reduced, helping in making the product more competitive in the international market. But the accomplishment of these measures would also require cooperation to provide technical know-how and concessions for their development.

6. Bibliography Livelihood risks and coping strategies: A case study in the agrarian village of cherumad, kerala K.N.Nair, Antonyto Paul , Vineetha Menon November 2007 Shrinking World, Expanding Crisis WTO, Globalisation and the Agrarian Crisis in Wayanad, Kerala Masters Program in Asian Studies Centre for East and South East Asian Studies Lund University, Sweden Mathew Abraham Settler Colonists, Agrarian Entrepreneurs and the Permissive State. Aspects of the Political Economy of Hill Produce in Wayanad, South India, 1920 – 1998 Daniel Münster Institute for Social Anthropology, University of Halle-Wittenberg, Germany The home gardens of Wayanad A V Santhoshkumar and Kaoru Ichikawa Infochange News & Features, July 2010



Livelihoods in Wayanad in the 20th century. A quick overview of the livelihoods of Wayanad, and how they have evolved in the last century. 1. Coffee and other plantations: During the British era, a small but significant number of coffee and other plantations were set up in Wayanad, with some migrants from nearby Coorg as well. Oral testimonies told us that the British introduced coffee to the region first in the Manatthavadi area. Later on, Jain and Gowda communities from nearby started moving in as well. It is to be noted that Coffea robusta is the primary variety of coffee grown in the region, and not the more high-value Coffea arabica. Robusta coffee is more often used in low-grade coffees such as instant and flavoured coffees. 2. Forest-based livelihoods: Taking advantage of the ready availability of firewood and other forest-based resources, migrants in the last century practiced livelihoods such as lemongrass cultivation. It was grown to extract lemongrass oil, a lucrative commodity. However, the extraction of the oil required very large quantities of wood (with 50 “head loads” of firewood needed for 1kg of oil). An added advantage of lemongrass cultivation was that it had a 6-month payback period, which was short enough to be attractive for new immigrants looking for income before too long. However, the livelihood was discontinued in 5-10 years because they ran out of readily available firewood. It is likely that a large and non-renewable amount of the forests were cut down in this period, perhaps irrevocably altering Wayanad. With significantly higher prices for firewood, most communities had to switch to other livelihoods. It should be noted that crops like Ragi and Maize were also cultivated to some extent, concurrent with lemongrass. 3. Extensive coffee & pepper cultivation: Coffee cultivation became increasingly popular in the 1960s and after, with smaller landholders (with 1-2 acre or 5-10 acre land holdings) entering the fray. This form of small-scale coffee cultivation mostly follows a mixed-cropping model, where coffee is cultivated alongside pepper, betel leaf, ginger and other plants. After the intensification of pepper growth and the introduction of hybrid varieties, pepper is now almost universally pest-ridden and provides little or no income to the farmers today. Native pest-resistant varieties are still being grown successfully only in small scattered pockets, and unfortunately cannot be easily reintroduced to already pest-prone areas. 4. Paddy and Areca cultivation: Paddy and areca have usually been cultivated in the lowland and valley regions of Wayanad, where the natural drainage systems have been harnessed, as both crops require far more water than coffee or other crops. Today, paddy gives a fairly low net return compared to other cash crops and areca is riddled with a yellowing drought (the source of which is a microbial infection), which results in significant losses to yield and quality. 5. Banana cultivation: Off late, thanks to high market prices, many local farmers have switched from paddy to banana in the low-lying areas and valleys. Public Affairs Centre | Environmental Governance Group

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