Man and his Symbols conceived and edited by
Carl G.Jung
The first and only work in which C a r l G. Jung, the world-famous Swiss psychologist, explains to the general reader his greatest contribution to our knowledge of the human mind: the theory of the importance of symbolism—particularly as revealed in dreams.
Man and his Symbols Carl G.Jung But for a dream, this book would never have been written. That dream — described by John Freeman in the Foreword—convinced Jung that he could, indeed should, explain his ideas to those who have no special knowledge of psychology. At the age of eighty-three, Jung worked out the complete plan for this book, including the sections that he wished his four closest associates to write. He devoted the closing months of his life to editing the work and writing his own key section, which he completed only ten days before his death. Throughout the book, Jung emphasizes that man can achieve wholeness only through a knowledge and acceptance of the unconscious—a knowledge acquired through dreams and their symbols. Every dream is a direct, personal, and meaningful communication to the dreamer—a communication that uses the symbols common to all mankind but uses them always in an entirely individual way, which can be interpreted only by an entirely individual key. (Continued on back flap)
i
Man and his Symbols
Man and his Symbols Carl G.Jung
and M.-L. von Franz, Joseph L. Henderson, Jolande J a c o b i , Aniela Jaffe'
Anchor Press Doubleday New York London
Toronto
Sydney
Auckland
Editor: Carl G. Jung and after his death M.-L. von Franz Co-ordinating Editor: John Freeman Aldus Editors Text: Douglas Hill Design: Michael Kitson Assistants: Marian Morris, Gilbert Doel, Michael Lloyd Research: Margery MacLaren Advisers: Donald Berwick, Norman MacKenzie
An Anchor Press book Published by Doubleday, a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc., 666 Fifth Ave., New York, NY 10103 Anchor Press and the portrayal of an anchor are trademarks of Doubleday, a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc. © 1964 J.G. FERGUSON PUBLISHING except chapter 2 entitled «Ancient myths and modern man» by Dr. Joseph L. Henderson, where copyright in this chapter within the United States of America is expressly disclaimed. Library of Congress Catalog Card No: 64-18631 ISBN 0 - 3 8 5 - 0 5 2 2 1 - 9 First published in the United States of America in 1964 Reprinted in 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 3 , 1 9 8 8 Printed and bound in Spain by TONSA, San Sebastian
Introduction: John Freeman
T h e origins of this book a r e sufficiently u n u s u a l to be of interest, a n d they b e a r a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n to its c o n t e n t s a n d w h a t it sets o u t to d o . So let me tell y o u j u s t h o w it c a m e to b e w r i t t e n . O n e d a y in t h e s p r i n g of 1959 t h e British B r o a d c a s t i n g C o r p o r a t i o n invited m e to i n t e r v i e w for British television D r . C a r l G u s t a v J u n g . T h e interview w a s to b e d o n e " i n d e p t h . " I k n e w little e n o u g h a t t h a t time a b o u t J u n g a n d his w o r k , a n d I a t o n c e w e n t to m a k e his a c q u a i n t ance at his beautiful lakeside h o m e n e a r Z u r i c h . T h a t was t h e b e g i n n i n g of a friendship t h a t m e a n t a g r e a t d e a l to m e a n d , I h o p e , g a v e some pleasure to J u n g in t h e last years of his life. T h e television i n t e r v i e w has no further p l a c e in this story, e x c e p t t h a t it was a c c o u n t e d successful and t h a t this b o o k is by a n o d d c o m b i n a t i o n of c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n e n d product of t h a t success. O n e m a n w h o saw J u n g o n t h e screen was W o l f g a n g Foges, m a n a g ing director of A l d u s Books. Foges h a d b e e n keenly interested in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of m o d e r n psychology since his c h i l d h o o d , w h e n h e lived near the F r e u d s in V i e n n a . A n d as h e w a t c h e d J u n g t a l k i n g a b o u t his life a n d w o r k a n d ideas, Foges s u d d e n l y reflected w h a t a pity it was that, while the g e n e r a l o u t l i n e of F r e u d ' s work was well k n o w n to educated r e a d e r s all over t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d , J u n g h a d n e v e r m a n a g e d to break t h r o u g h to t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c a n d was a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d too difficult for p o p u l a r r e a d i n g . Foges, in fact, is the c r e a t o r of Man and his Symbols. H a v i n g sensed from t h e T V screen t h a t a w a r m p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n existed b e t w e e n J u n g a n d myself, he asked m e w h e t h e r I w o u l d j o i n h i m in t r y i n g to persuade J u n g to set o u t s o m e of his m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d basic ideas in language a n d a t a l e n g t h t h a t w o u l d b e intelligible a n d i n t e r e s t i n g to non-specialist a d u l t r e a d e r s . I j u m p e d a t t h e i d e a a n d set off o n c e m o r e to Z u r i c h , d e t e r m i n e d t h a t I c o u l d c o n v i n c e J u n g of the v a l u e a n d i m p o r t a n c e of s u c h a work. J u n g listened to m e in his g a r d e n for two hours a l m o s t w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n — a n d t h e n said n o . H e said it in t h e nicest possible w a y , b u t w i t h g r e a t firmness; h e h a d n e v e r in the past tried to p o p u l a r i z e his w o r k , a n d h e w a s n ' t sure t h a t h e c o u l d successfully d o so n o w ; a n y w a y , h e was old a n d r a t h e r tired a n d n o t keen to take on such a l o n g c o m m i t m e n t a b o u t w h i c h h e h a d so m a n y d o u b t s . J u n g ' s friends will all a g r e e w i t h m e t h a t h e was a m a n of most positive decision. H e w o u l d w e i g h u p a p r o b l e m w i t h c a r e a n d w i t h o u t 9
h u r r y ; b u t w h e n h e did give his a n s w e r , it was usually final. I r e t u r n e d to L o n d o n g r e a t l y d i s a p p o i n t e d , b u t c o n v i n c e d t h a t J u n g ' s refusal was the e n d of t h e m a t t e r . So it m i g h t h a v e b e e n , b u t for two i n t e r v e n i n g factors t h a t I h a d not foreseen. O n e was the p e r t i n a c i t y of Foges, w h o insisted o n m a k i n g o n e m o r e a p p r o a c h to J u n g before a c c e p t i n g defeat. T h e o t h e r was a n e v e n t t h a t , as I look back on it, still astonishes m e . T h e television p r o g r a m was, as I h a v e said, a c c o u n t e d successful. It b r o u g h t J u n g a g r e a t m a n y letters from all sorts of p e o p l e , m a n y of t h e m o r d i n a r y folk w i t h no m e d i c a l or psychological t r a i n i n g , w h o h a d b e e n c a p t i v a t e d by the c o m m a n d i n g p r e s e n c e , the h u m o r , a n d the modest c h a r m of this very g r e a t m a n , a n d w h o h a d g l i m p s e d in his view of life a n d h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y s o m e t h i n g t h a t could b e helpful to t h e m . A n d J u n g was very pleased, n o t simply at g e t t i n g letters (his mail was e n o r m o u s a t all times) b u t a t g e t t i n g t h e m from p e o p l e w h o would normally have no contact with him. I t was a t this m o m e n t t h a t he d r e a m e d a d r e a m of the greatest i m p o r t a n c e to h i m . ( A n d as you r e a d this book, you will u n d e r s t a n d j u s t h o w i m p o r t a n t t h a t c a n be.) H e d r e a m e d t h a t , instead of sitting in his s t u d y a n d t a l k i n g to the g r e a t d o c t o r s a n d psychiatrists w h o used to call on h i m from all over the w o r l d , h e was s t a n d i n g in a p u b l i c p l a c e a n d a d d r e s s i n g a m u l t i t u d e of p e o p l e w h o w e r e listening to h i m with r a p t a t t e n t i o n a n d understanding what he said. . . . W h e n , a week or t w o later, Foges r e n e w e d his request t h a t J u n g should u n d e r t a k e a n e w book d e s i g n e d , n o t for the clinic or the philos o p h e r ' s s t u d y , b u t for the p e o p l e in the m a r k e t p l a c e , J u n g allowed himself to be p e r s u a d e d . H e laid d o w n two c o n d i t i o n s . First, t h a t the book s h o u l d n o t be a s i n g l e - h a n d e d book, b u t the collective effort of himself a n d a g r o u p of his closest followers, t h r o u g h w h o m he h a d a t t e m p t e d to p e r p e t u a t e his m e t h o d s a n d his t e a c h i n g . S e c o n d l y , t h a t I s h o u l d b e e n t r u s t e d w i t h the task of c o - o r d i n a t i n g the work a n d resolving a n y p r o b l e m s t h a t m i g h t arise b e t w e e n the a u t h o r s a n d the publishers. Lest it s h o u l d seem t h a t this i n t r o d u c t i o n transgresses the b o u n d s of r e a s o n a b l e m o d e s t y , let m e say at o n c e t h a t I was gratified by this second c o n d i t i o n — b u t w i t h i n m e a s u r e . F o r it very soon c a m e to m y k n o w l e d g e t h a t J u n g ' s reason for selecting m e was essentially t h a t he
I ()
regarded m e as b e i n g of r e a s o n a b l e , b u t n o t e x c e p t i o n a l , intelligence and w i t h o u t t h e slightest serious k n o w l e d g e of psychology. T h u s I was to J u n g t h e " a v e r a g e r e a d e r " of this b o o k ; w h a t I could u n d e r s t a n d would be intelligible to all w h o w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t e d ; w h a t I boggled at m i g h t possibly b e too difficult or o b s c u r e for s o m e . N o t u n d u l y flattered by this e s t i m a t e of m y role, I h a v e n o n e t h e less s c r u p u l o u s l y insisted (sometimes, I fear, to the e x a s p e r a t i o n of t h e a u t h o r s ) o n h a v i n g every p a r a g r a p h w r i t t e n a n d , if necessary, r e w r i t t e n to a d e g r e e of clarity a n d directness t h a t e n a b l e s m e to say w i t h confidence t h a t this book in its e n t i r e t y is d e s i g n e d for a n d a d d r e s s e d to the g e n e r a l r e a d e r , and t h a t t h e c o m p l e x subjects it deals w i t h a r e t r e a t e d w i t h a r a r e a n d e n c o u r a g i n g simplicity. After m u c h discussion, t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e subject of this book was agreed to b e M a n a n d his S y m b o l s ; a n d J u n g himself selected as his collaborators in t h e w o r k D r . M a r i e - L o u i s e v o n F r a n z of Z u r i c h , perhaps his closest professional c o n f i d a n t e a n d f r i e n d ; D r . J o s e p h L. H e n derson of S a n F r a n c i s c o , o n e of the most p r o m i n e n t a n d t r u s t e d of A m e r i c a n J u n g i a n s ; M r s . A n i e l a Jaffe of Z u r i c h , w h o , in a d d i t i o n to being a n e x p e r i e n c e d a n a l y s t , was J u n g ' s confidential p r i v a t e secretary and his b i o g r a p h e r ; a n d D r . J o l a n d e J a c o b i , w h o after J u n g himself is the most e x p e r i e n c e d a u t h o r a m o n g J u n g ' s Z u r i c h circle. T h e s e four people w e r e chosen p a r t l y b e c a u s e of t h e i r skill a n d e x p e r i e n c e in the p a r t i c u l a r subjects a l l o c a t e d to t h e m a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e all of t h e m were c o m p l e t e l y trusted b y J u n g to w o r k unselfishly to his instructions as m e m b e r s of a t e a m . J u n g ' s p e r s o n a l responsibility was to p l a n the structure of t h e w h o l e book, to supervise a n d d i r e c t the w o r k of his collaborators, a n d himself to w r i t e t h e k e y n o t e c h a p t e r , " A p p r o a c h i n g the U n c o n s c i o u s . " T h e last y e a r of his life was d e v o t e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y to this book, a n d when he d i e d in J u n e 1961, his o w n section was c o m p l e t e (he finished it, in fact, o n l y s o m e 10 days before his final illness) a n d his colleagues' chapters h a d all b e e n a p p r o v e d by h i m in draft. After his d e a t h , D r . von F r a n z a s s u m e d over-all responsibility for the c o m p l e t i o n of the book in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h J u n g ' s express i n s t r u c t i o n s . T h e subject m a t t e r of Man and his Symbols a n d its o u t l i n e w e r e therefore laid d o w n — a n d in d e t a i l — b y J u n g . T h e c h a p t e r t h a t b e a r s his n a m e is his work a n d ( a p a r t from s o m e fairly extensive e d i t i n g to i m p r o v e its intelligi11
bility to t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r ) n o b o d y else's. I t was w r i t t e n , i n c i d e n t a l l y , in English. T h e r e m a i n i n g c h a p t e r s w e r e w r i t t e n b y t h e v a r i o u s a u t h o r s to J u n g ' s d i r e c t i o n a n d u n d e r his supervision. T h e final e d i t i n g of the c o m p l e t e w o r k after J u n g ' s d e a t h has b e e n d o n e by D r . von F r a n z w i t h a p a t i e n c e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d good h u m o r t h a t leave the p u b l i s h e r s a n d myself g r e a t l y in h e r d e b t . Finally as to t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e book itself: J u n g ' s t h i n k i n g has colored t h e w o r l d of m o d e r n psychology m o r e t h a n m a n y of those w i t h casual k n o w l e d g e realize. S u c h familiar t e r m s , for i n s t a n c e , as " e x t r a v e r t , " " i n t r o v e r t , " a n d " a r c h e t y p e " a r e all J u n g i a n c o n c e p t s — b o r r o w e d a n d s o m e t i m e s misused b y o t h e r s . B u t his o v e r w h e l m i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n to psychological u n d e r s t a n d i n g is his conc e p t of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s — n o t (like t h e u n c o n s c i o u s of F r e u d ) m e r e l y a sort of glory-hole of repressed desires, b u t a w o r l d t h a t is j u s t as m u c h a vital a n d real p a r t of the life of a n i n d i v i d u a l as the conscious, " c o g i t a t i n g " w o r l d of the ego, a n d infinitely w i d e r a n d richer. T h e l a n g u a g e a n d t h e " p e o p l e " of the u n c o n s c i o u s a r e symbols, a n d the m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s d r e a m s . T h u s a n e x a m i n a t i o n of M a n a n d his S y m b o l s is in effect a n e x a m i n a t i o n of m a n ' s r e l a t i o n to his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s . A n d since in J u n g ' s view the u n c o n s c i o u s is the g r e a t g u i d e , friend, a n d adviser of t h e conscious, this book is r e l a t e d in the most direct t e r m s to the s t u d y of h u m a n beings a n d their s p i r i t u a l p r o b l e m s . W e k n o w t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h it (a t w o - w a y service) p r i n c i p a l l y by d r e a m s ; a n d all t h r o u g h this book ( a b o v e all in J u n g ' s o w n c h a p t e r ) you will find a q u i t e r e m a r k a b l e e m p h a s i s p l a c e d o n the i m p o r t a n c e of d r e a m ing in the life of the i n d i v i d u a l . I t w o u l d b e a n i m p e r t i n e n c e o n m y p a r t to a t t e m p t to i n t e r p r e t J u n g ' s w o r k to r e a d e r s , m a n y of w h o m will surely b e far b e t t e r q u a l i fied to u n d e r s t a n d it t h a n I a m . M y role, r e m e m b e r , was m e r e l y to serve as a sort of "intelligibility filter" a n d by n o m e a n s as a n interp r e t e r . Nevertheless, I v e n t u r e to offer two g e n e r a l points t h a t seem i m p o r t a n t to m e as a l a y m a n a n d t h a t m a y possibly b e helpful to o t h e r n o n - e x p e r t s . T h e first is a b o u t d r e a m s . T o J u n g i a n s the d r e a m is n o t a kind of s t a n d a r d i z e d c r y p t o g r a m t h a t c a n be d e c o d e d by a glossary of s y m b o l m e a n i n g s . I t is a n i n t e g r a l , i m p o r t a n t , a n d p e r s o n a l expression of the i n d i v i d u a l u n c o n s c i o u s . It is j u s t as " r e a l " as a n y o t h e r
I 2
p h e n o m e n o n a t t a c h i n g to the i n d i v i d u a l . The, d r e a m e r ' s i n d i v i d u a l unconscious is c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h t h e d r e a m e r a l o n e a n d is selecting symbols for its p u r p o s e t h a t h a v e m e a n i n g to the d r e a m e r a n d to n o b o d y else. T h u s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d r e a m s , w h e t h e r b y the analyst or by the d r e a m e r himself, is for the J u n g i a n psychologist a n entirely personal a n d i n d i v i d u a l business ( a n d s o m e t i m e s a n e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d very l e n g t h y o n e as well) t h a t c a n by n o m e a n s b e u n d e r t a k e n by rule of t h u m b . T h e converse of this is t h a t the c o m m u n i c a t i o n s of the unconscious are of the highest i m p o r t a n c e to the d r e a m e r — n a t u r a l l y so, since the unconscious is a t least half of his total b e i n g — a n d frequently offer h i m advice or g u i d a n c e t h a t c o u l d be o b t a i n e d from n o o t h e r source. T h u s , when I d e s c r i b e d J u n g ' s d r e a m a b o u t a d d r e s s i n g the m u l t i t u d e , I was not d e s c r i b i n g a piece of m a g i c or suggesting t h a t J u n g d a b b l e d in fortune telling. I was r e c o u n t i n g in the s i m p l e t e r m s of daily e x p e r i e n c e how J u n g was " a d v i s e d " by his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s to reconsider a n i n a d e q u a t e j u d g m e n t he h a d m a d e w i t h t h e conscious p a r t of his m i n d . N o w it follows from this t h a t t h e d r e a m i n g of d r e a m s is not a m a t t e r that the well-adjusted J u n g i a n c a n r e g a r d as simply a m a t t e r of chance. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , the ability to establish c o m m u n i c a t i o n s with the u n c o n s c i o u s is a p a r t of t h e w h o l e m a n , a n d J u n g i a n s " t e a c h " themselves (I c a n t h i n k of n o b e t t e r t e r m ) to be r e c e p t i v e to d r e a m s . W h e n , therefore, J u n g himself was faced w i t h the critical decision w h e t h e r or not to w r i t e this book, he was a b l e to d r a w on the resources of both his conscious a n d his u n c o n s c i o u s in m a k i n g u p his m i n d . A n d all t h r o u g h this book you will find the d r e a m t r e a t e d as a direct, personal, a n d m e a n i n g f u l c o m m u n i c a t i o n to the d r e a m e r —a c o m m u n i c a tion t h a t uses the symbols c o m m o n to ajl m a n k i n d , b u t t h a t uses t h e m on every occasion in a n entirely i n d i v i d u a l w a y t h a t c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d only by a n entirely i n d i v i d u a l " k e y . " 1
T h e second p o i n t I wish to m a k e is a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a r g u m e n t a t i v e m e t h o d t h a t is c o m m o n to all the writers of this book p e r h a p s to all J u n g i a n s . T h o s e w h o h a v e limited themselves to living entirely in the w o r l d of the conscious a n d w h o reject c o m m u n i c a t i o n with the u n c o n s c i o u s b i n d themselves by the laws of conscious, formal life. W i t h t h e infallible ( b u t often meaningless) logic of t h e a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n , they a r g u e from a s s u m e d premises to i n c o n t e s t a b l y d e d u c e d
'3
conclusions. J u n g a n d his colleagues seem to m e ( w h e t h e r they k n o w it or not) to reject the l i m i t a t i o n s of this m e t h o d of a r g u m e n t . It is not t h a t t h e y i g n o r e logic, b u t t h e y a p p e a r all t h e t i m e to be a r g u i n g to the u n c o n s c i o u s as well as to t h e conscious. T h e i r dialectical m e t h o d is itself symbolic a n d often devious. T h e y c o n v i n c e not by m e a n s of t h e n a r rowly focused spotlight of the syllogism, b u t by skirting, by r e p e t i t i o n , b y p r e s e n t i n g a r e c u r r i n g view of the s a m e subject seen e a c h t i m e from a slightly different a n g l e — until s u d d e n l y the r e a d e r w h o has never b e e n a w a r e of a single, conclusive m o m e n t of p r o o f finds t h a t he has u n k n o w i n g l y e m b r a c e d a n d t a k e n i n t o himself some w i d e r t r u t h . J u n g ' s a r g u m e n t s ( a n d those of his colleagues) spiral u p w a r d over his subject like a b i r d circling a tree. At first, n e a r the g r o u n d , it sees only a confusion of leaves a n d b r a n c h e s . G r a d u a l l y , as it circles h i g h e r a n d h i g h e r , the r e c u r r i n g aspects of t h e tree form a wholeness a n d r e l a t e to their s u r r o u n d i n g s . S o m e r e a d e r s m a y find this " s p i r a l i n g " m e t h o d of a r g u m e n t o b s c u r e or even confusing for a few p a g e s — b u t not, I t h i n k , for long. I t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of J u n g ' s m e t h o d , a n d very soon the r e a d e r will find it c a r r y i n g h i m w i t h it o n a persuasive a n d profoundly absorbing j o u r n e y . T h e different sections of this book speak for themselves a n d r e q u i r e little i n t r o d u c t i o n from m e . J u n g ' s o w n c h a p t e r i n t r o d u c e s t h e r e a d e r to the u n c o n s c i o u s , to t h e a r c h e t y p e s a n d symbols t h a t form its l a n g u age a n d to t h e d r e a m s by w h i c h it c o m m u n i c a t e s . D r . H e n d e r s o n in the following c h a p t e r illustrates the a p p e a r a n c e of several a r c h e t y p a l p a t t e r n s in a n c i e n t m y t h o l o g y , folk l e g e n d , a n d p r i m i t i v e r i t u a l . D r . von F r a n z , in the c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d " T h e Process of I n d i v i d u a t i o n , " describes the process by w h i c h t h e conscious a n d t h e unconscious w i t h i n a n i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n to k n o w , respect, a n d a c c o m m o d a t e o n e a n o t h e r . I n a c e r t a i n sense this c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s n o t only the c r u x of t h e w h o l e book, b u t p e r h a p s the essence of J u n g ' s p h i l o s o p h y of life: M a n b e c o m e s w h o l e , i n t e g r a t e d , c a l m , fertile, a n d h a p p y w h e n ( a n d only w h e n ) t h e process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n is c o m p l e t e , w h e n t h e conscious a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s h a v e l e a r n e d to live a t p e a c e a n d to comp l e m e n t o n e a n o t h e r . M r s . Jaffe, like D r . H e n d e r s o n , is c o n c e r n e d w i t h d e m o n s t r a t i n g , in the familiar fabric of the conscious, m a n ' s r e c u r r i n g interest i n — a l m o s t obsession w i t h — the symbols of the u n conscious. T h e y h a v e for him a p r o f o u n d l y significant, almost a nour-
14
ishing a n d s u s t a i n i n g , i n n e r a t t r a c t i o n — w h e t h e r t h e y o c c u r in the myths a n d fairy tales t h a t D r . H e n d e r s o n a n a l y z e s or in the visual arts, which, as M r s . Jaffe shows, satisfy a n d d e l i g h t us b y a c o n s t a n t a p p e a l to the u n c o n s c i o u s . Finally, I m u s t say a brief w o r d a b o u t D r . J a c o b i ' s c h a p t e r , w h i c h is s o m e w h a t s e p a r a t e from the rest of the book. It is in fact a n a b b r e viated case history of o n e i n t e r e s t i n g a n d successful analysis. T h e value of such a c h a p t e r in a b o o k like this is o b v i o u s ; b u t two w o r d s of w a r n ing are nevertheless necessary. First, as D r . v o n F r a n z points o u t , t h e r e is no such t h i n g as a typical J u n g i a n analysis. T h e r e c a n ' t b e , because every d r e a m is a p r i v a t e a n d i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d n o t w o d r e a m s use t h e symbols of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s in t h e s a m e w a y . So every J u n g i a n analysis is u n i q u e — a n d it is m i s l e a d i n g to consider this o n e , taken from D r . J a c o b i ' s clinical files (or a n y o t h e r o n e t h e r e has ever been), as " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " or " t y p i c a l . " All o n e c a n say of the case of H e n r y a n d his s o m e t i m e s l u r i d d r e a m s is t h a t t h e y form o n e t r u e example of t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e J u n g i a n m e t h o d m a y b e a p p l i e d to a p a r t i c u l a r case. S e c o n d l y , t h e full history of even a c o m p a r a t i v e l y u n c o m p l i c a t e d case w o u l d t a k e a w h o l e book to r e c o u n t . I n e v i t a b l y , the story of H e n r y ' s analysis suffers a little in c o m p r e s s i o n . T h e references, for instance, to t h e / Ching h a v e b e e n s o m e w h a t o b s c u r e d a n d lent a n u n n a t u r a l ( a n d to m e unsatisfactory) flavor of the occult b y b e i n g p r e sented o u t of t h e i r full c o n t e x t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , we c o n c l u d e d — a n d I a m sure the r e a d e r will a g r e e — t h a t , w i t h the w a r n i n g s d u l y given, the clarity, to say n o t h i n g of the h u m a n interest, of H e n r y ' s analysis greatly e n r i c h e s this b o o k . I b e g a n b y d e s c r i b i n g h o w J u n g c a m e to w r i t e Man and his Symbols. I end by r e m i n d i n g t h e r e a d e r of w h a t a r e m a r k a b l e — p e r h a p s u n i q u e — p u b l i c a t i o n this is. C a r l G u s t a v J u n g was o n e of the g r e a t d o c t o r s of all time a n d o n e of t h e g r e a t t h i n k e r s of this c e n t u r y . His object always was to h e l p m e n a n d w o m e n to k n o w themselves, so t h a t b y self-knowledge a n d t h o u g h t f u l self-use they c o u l d lead full, rich, a n d h a p p y lives. At the very e n d of his o w n life, w h i c h was as full, rich, a n d h a p p y as any I h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d , he d e c i d e d to use the s t r e n g t h t h a t was left him to a d d r e s s his message to a w i d e r p u b l i c t h a n h e h a d ever tried to r e a c h before. H e c o m p l e t e d his task a n d his life in t h e s a m e m o n t h . T h i s b o o k is his legacy to t h e b r o a d r e a d i n g p u b l i c .
'5
Contents
Part 1 Approaching the unconscious
18
Carl G. J u n g
Part 2
Ancient myths and modern man
104
Joseph L. Henderson
Part 3
The process of individuation
158
M.-L. von Franz
Part 4
Symbolism in the visual arts
230
Aniela Jaffe
Part 5
Symbols in an individual analysis
272
Jolande Jacobi
Conclusion: Science and the unconscious 304 M.-L. von Franz
Notes
311
Index
316
Illustration credits
319
Approaching the unconscious
Carl G. J u n g
The entrance to the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Rameses III
Approaching the unconscious
T h e i m p o r t a n c e of d r e a m s
M a n uses the spoken or w r i t t e n word to express the m e a n i n g of w h a t he w a n t s to convey. His l a n g u a g e is full of symbols, but he also often e m p l o y s signs or i m a g e s t h a t a r e not strictly descriptive. S o m e a r c m e r e a b b r e v i a t i o n s or strings of initials, such as U N , U N I C E F , or U N E S C O ; o t h e r s a r e familiar t r a d e m a r k s , the n a m e s of p a t e n t m e d i c i n e s , b a d g e s , or insignia. A l t h o u g h these a r e m e a n i n g l e s s in themselves, they h a v e a c q u i r e d a r e c o g n i z a b l e m e a n i n g t h r o u g h c o m m o n usage or d e l i b e r a t e intent. Such things a r e n o t symbols. T h e y a r e signs, a n d they d o no m o r e t h a n d e n o t e t h e objects to w h i c h they a r e a t t a c h e d . W h a t w e call a s y m b o l is a t e r m , a n a m e , or even a p i c t u r e t h a t m a y be familiar in daily life, yet t h a t possesses specific c o n n o t a t i o n s in a d d i t i o n to its c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d o b v i o u s m e a n ing. It implies s o m e t h i n g v a g u e , u n k n o w n , or h i d d e n from us. M a n y C r e t a n m o n u m e n t s , for instance, a r c m a r k e d with t h e design of the
d o u b l e a d z e . T h i s is a n object t h a t we know, b u t w e d o not k n o w its symbolic implications. For a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , take t h e case of the I n d i a n w h o , after a visit to E n g l a n d , told his friends at h o m e t h a t the English w o r s h i p a n i mals, because he h a d found eagles, lions, a n d oxen in old c h u r c h e s . H e was not a w a r e (nor a r e m a n y Christians) t h a t these a n i m a l s a r e symbols of the Evangelists a n d a r e derived from the vision of Ezekiel, a n d t h a t this in t u r n has a n a n a l o g y to the E g y p t i a n sun god H o r u s a n d his four sons. T h e r e a r e , m o r e o v e r , such objects as t h e wheel a n d the cross t h a t a r e k n o w n all over t h e w o r l d , yet t h a t h a v e a symbolic significance u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . Precisely w h a t they symbolize is still a m a t t e r for controversial speculation. T h u s a w o r d or a n i m a g e is symbolic w h e n it implies s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n its obvious a n d i m m e d i a t e m e a n i n g . It has a w i d e r " u n c o n s c i o u s " aspect t h a t is never precisely defined or
fully explained. N o r c a n o n e h o p e to define or explain it. As the m i n d explores the s y m b o l , it is led to ideas t h a t lie b e y o n d the g r a s p of reason. T h e wheel m a y lead o u r t h o u g h t s toward the concept of a " d i v i n e " sun, b u t at this point reason must a d m i t its i n c o m p e t e n c e ; m a n is unable to define a " d i v i n e " b e i n g . W h e n , with all our intellectual l i m i t a t i o n s , we call something " d i v i n e , " we h a v e merely given it a name, which m a y be based on a creed, b u t never on factual e v i d e n c e . Because there a r e i n n u m e r a b l e things b e y o n d the range of h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g , we constantly use symbolic t e r m s to represent c o n c e p t s that we c a n n o t define or fully c o m p r e h e n d . This is one reason w h y all religions e m p l o y symbolic language or i m a g e s . But this conscious use of symbols is only o n e aspect of a psychological fact of great i m p o r t a n c e : M a n also p r o d u c e s symbols unconsciously a n d s p o n t a n e o u s l y , in the form of d r e a m s .
It is not easy to g r a s p this p o i n t . But the point must be g r a s p e d if we a r e to k n o w m o r e a b o u t the ways in w h i c h the h u m a n m i n d works. M a n , as we realize if we reflect for a m o m e n t , never perceives a n y t h i n g fully or c o m p r e h e n d s a n y t h i n g c o m p l e t e l y . H e c a n see, h e a r , t o u c h , a n d t a s t e ; b u t h o w far he sees, h o w well he h e a r s , w h a t his t o u c h tells h i m , a n d w h a t he tastes d e p e n d u p o n the n u m b e r a n d q u a l i t y of his senses. T h e s e limit his p e r c e p t i o n of the world a r o u n d h i m . By using scientific instrum e n t s he can p a r t l y c o m p e n s a t e for the deficiencies of his senses. F o r e x a m p l e , he c a n e x t e n d the r a n g e of his vision by b i n o c u l a r s or of his h e a r i n g by electrical amplification. But the most elaborate a p p a r a t u s cannot do more than bring d i s t a n t or small objects w i t h i n r a n g e of his eyes, or m a k e faint s o u n d s m o r e a u d i b l e . N o m a t t e r w h a t i n s t r u m e n t s he uses, at some point he r e a c h e s the e d g e of c e r t a i n t y b e y o n d w h i c h conscious k n o w l e d g e c a n n o t pass.
Left, three of the four Evangelists (in a relief on Chartres Cathedral) appear as animals: The lion is Mark, the ox Luke, the eagle John. Also animals are three of the sons of the Egyptian god Horus (above, c. 1 250 B.C.), Animals, and groups of four, are universal religious symbols. 24
In many societies, representations of the sun express man's indefinable religious experience. Above, a decoration on the back of a throne belonging to the 14th-century B.C. Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen is dominated by a sun disk; the hands at the end of the rays symbolize the sun's life-giving power. Left, a monk in 20th-century Japan prays before a mirror that represents the divine Sun in the Shinto religion.
Right, tungsten atoms seen with a microscope that magnifies 2,000,000 times. Far right, the spots in center of picture are the farthest visible galaxies. No matter how far man extends his senses, limits to his conscious perception remain.
T h e r e are, m o r e o v e r , u n c o n s c i o u s a s p e c t s of
w h e r e it a p p e a r s n o t a s a r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t b u t
o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f r e a l i t y . T h e first is t h e f a c t
a s a s y m b o l i c i m a g e . A s a m a t t e r o f h i s t o r y , it
that e v e n w h e n o u r s e n s e s r e a c t t o r e a l p h e n o -
was
mena, sights, a n d s o u n d s , t h e y a r e
psychologists
somehow
translated from t h e r e a l m of r e a l i t y i n t o of t h e m i n d . W i t h i n
the mind
they
that
become
psychic e v e n t s , w h o s e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e is u n -
the
study
of d r e a m s
to
that
investigate
first
the
enabled
unconscious
a s p e c t of c o n s c i o u s p s y c h i c e v e n t s . It
is o n
such
evidence
that
psychologists
a s s u m e t h e e x i s t e n c e of a n u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e
k n o w a b l e (for t h e p s y c h e c a n n o t k n o w its o w n
— t h o u g h m a n y scientists a n d philosophers d e n y
psychical s u b s t a n c e ) . T h u s
its e x i s t e n c e . T h e y a r g u e n a i v e l y t h a t s u c h a n
every
experience
contains a n i n d e f i n i t e n u m b e r of u n k n o w n fac-
a s s u m p t i o n i m p l i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of t w o " s u b -
tors, n o t t o s p e a k o f t h e f a c t t h a t e v e r y c o n c r e t e
j e c t s , " o r ( t o p u t it i n a c o m m o n p h r a s e )
object is a l w a y s u n k n o w n i n c e r t a i n
two
respects,
personalities within the same individual.
But
because w e c a n n o t k n o w t h e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f
t h i s is e x a c t l y w h a t it d o e s i m p l y — q u i t e
cor-
m a t t e r itself.
r e c t l y . A n d it is o n e o f t h e c u r s e s o f m o d e r n
T h e n t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n e v e n t s of w h i c h
we
m a n t h a t m a n y p e o p l e suffer from this d i v i d e d
have n o t c o n s c i o u s l y t a k e n n o t e ; t h e y h a v e r e -
p e r s o n a l i t y . I t is b y n o m e a n s a
m a i n e d , so t o s p e a k , b e l o w t h e t h r e s h o l d o f c o n -
s y m p t o m ; it is a n o r m a l f a c t t h a t c a n b e o b -
pathological
sciousness. T h e y h a v e h a p p e n e d , b u t t h e y h a v e
s e r v e d a t a n y t i m e a n d e v e r y w h e r e . I t is n o t
been a b s o r b e d s u b l i m i n a l l y , w i t h o u t o u r c o n -
merely the neurotic whose right h a n d does not
scious k n o w l e d g e . W e
k n o w w h a t t h e left h a n d is d o i n g . T h i s p r e d i c a -
can
become aware
of
such h a p p e n i n g s o n l y i n a m o m e n t o f i n t u i t i o n
m e n t is a s y m p t o m o f a g e n e r a l u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s
or by a p r o c e s s o f p r o f o u n d t h o u g h t t h a t l e a d s
t h a t is t h e u n d e n i a b l e c o m m o n i n h e r i t a n c e o f
to a l a t e r r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e y m u s t h a v e h a p -
all m a n k i n d .
originally
M a n has d e v e l o p e d consciousness slowly a n d
ignored t h e i r e m o t i o n a l a n d v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e , it
pened; a n d
though
we m a y
have
laboriously, in a process t h a t took u n t o l d ages to
later w e l l s u p f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a s a s o r t
r e a c h t h e c i v i l i z e d s t a t e ( w h i c h is a r b i t r a r i l y
of a f t e r t h o u g h t .
dated
It m a y a p p e a r , for i n s t a n c e , in t h e f o r m o f a dream.
As a
general
rule,
the
unconscious
aspect o f a n y e v e n t is r e v e a l e d t o u s i n d r e a m s ,
from
the invention
of s c r i p t in
about
4 0 0 0 B . C ) . A n d t h i s e v o l u t i o n is f a r f r o m c o m p l e t e , for l a r g e a r e a s o f t h e h u m a n m i n d still s h r o u d e d
in d a r k n e s s . W h a t w e call
" p s y c h e " is b y n o m e a n s i d e n t i c a l w i t h
are the our
c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d its c o n t e n t s . W h o e v e r d e n i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s is i n f a c t a s s u m i n g t h a t o u r p r e s e n t k n o w l e d g e o f t h e p s y c h e is t o t a l . A n d t h i s b e l i e f is c l e a r l y j u s t a s false a s t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w e k n o w a l l t h e r e is t o b e k n o w n a b o u t t h e n a t u r a l u n i v e r s e . O u r p s y c h e is p a r t o f n a t u r e , a n d its e n i g m a is a s l i m i t l e s s . T h u s w e c a n n o t
define
either the psyche or nature. W e can
merely
state w h a t w e believe t h e m to be a n d describe, as best w e c a n , h o w they function. Q u i t e a p a r t , therefore, research
from has
the
evidence
accumulated,
that
there
are
medical strong
g r o u n d s o f l o g i c for r e j e c t i n g s t a t e m e n t s
like
" T h e r e is n o u n c o n s c i o u s . " T h o s e w h o s a y s u c h things merely express an age-old
"misoneism"
— a fear of t h e n e w a n d t h e u n k n o w n .
23
T h e r e a r e h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o n s for t h i s r e s i s t a n c e to t h e i d e a of a n u n k n o w n p a r t of t h e
human
p s y c h e . C o n s c i o u s n e s s is a v e r y r e c e n t a c q u i s i t i o n o f n a t u r e , a n d it is still i n a n
"experimen-
that an individual m a y have such an
uncon-
scious identity with s o m e o t h e r person or object. T h i s i d e n t i t y takes a v a r i e t y of forms a m o n g p r i m i t i v e s . I f t h e b u s h s o u l is t h a t o f a n a n i m a l ,
t a l " s t a t e . I t is f r a i l , m e n a c e d b y s p e c i f i c d a n -
t h e a n i m a l i t s e l f is c o n s i d e r e d a s s o m e s o r t of
gers, a n d easily i n j u r e d . As a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e
b r o t h e r t o t h e m a n . A m a n w h o s e b r o t h e r is a
n o t e d , o n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n
c r o c o d i l e , for i n s t a n c e , is s u p p o s e d t o b e safe
mental
de-
rangements that occur a m o n g primitive people
w h e n s w i m m i n g a crocodile-infested
is w h a t t h e y c a l l " t h e loss o f a s o u l " — w h i c h
t h e b u s h s o u l is a t r e e , t h e t r e e is p r e s u m e d t o
m e a n s , as the n a m e indicates, a n o t i c e a b l e dis-
h a v e s o m e t h i n g like p a r e n t a l a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e
river.
If
r u p t i o n (or, m o r e t e c h n i c a l l y , a dissociation) of
i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n e d . I n b o t h cases a n
consciousness.
t o t h e b u s h s o u l is i n t e r p r e t e d a s a n i n j u r y t o
A m o n g s u c h p e o p l e , w h o s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is
injury
the m a n .
a t a different level of d e v e l o p m e n t from o u r s ,
I n s o m e t r i b e s , it is a s s u m e d t h a t a m a n h a s
t h e " s o u l " ( o r p s y c h e ) is n o t felt t o b e a u n i t .
a n u m b e r o f s o u l s ; t h i s b e l i e f e x p r e s s e s t h e feel-
a
ing of s o m e p r i m i t i v e individuals that they each
" b u s h s o u l " as well as his o w n , a n d t h a t this
Many
primitives
assume
that
a
man
has
consist of several linked b u t d i s t i n c t units. T h i s
b u s h s o u l is i n c a r n a t e i n a w i l d a n i m a l o r a t r e e ,
m e a n s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p s y c h e is f a r
with which the h u m a n individual has some kind
b e i n g safely s y n t h e s i z e d ; o n
o f p s y c h i c i d e n t i t y . T h i s is w h a t
t h r e a t e n s to f r a g m e n t o n l y too easily u n d e r t h e
the
distin-
guished French ethnologist Lucien Levy-Briihl called a "mystical p a r t i c i p a t i o n . " H e later retracted
this
criticism, but
term
under
pressure
I believe that
w r o n g . I t is a w e l l - k n o w n
of
adverse
his critics
psychological
were fact
from
the contrary,
it
o n s l a u g h t of u n c h e c k e d e m o t i o n s . W h i l e t h i s s i t u a t i o n is f a m i l i a r t o u s f r o m t h e s t u d i e s o f a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , it is n o t so i r r e l e v a n t t o o u r o w n a d v a n c e d c i v i l i z a t i o n as it
might
s e e m . W e t o o c a n b e c o m e d i s s o c i a t e d a n d lose
" D i s s o c i a t i o n " m e a n s a s p l i t t i n g in the psyche, causing a neurosis. A f a m o u s f i c t i o n a l e x a m p l e of t h i s state is Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde ( 1 8 8 6 ) by t h e S c o t s a u t h o r R. L S t e v e n s o n . In t h e s t o r y J e k y l l ' s " s p l i t " t o o k t h e f o r m of a p h y s i c a l c h a n g e , rather t h a n (as in r e a l i t y ) an inner, p s y c h i c state. Left, M r . H y d e ( f r o m t h e 1 9 3 2 f i l m of t h e story) — J e k y l l ' s "other half."
P r i m i t i v e p e o p l e call d i s s o c i a t i o n " l o s s of a s o u l " ; t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t a m a n has a " b u s h s o u l " as w e l l as his o w n . R i g h t , a N y a n g a t r i b e s m a n of w e s t c e n t r a l A f r i c a w e a r i n g a m a s k of the h o r n b i l l — t h e b i r d t h a t h e i d e n t i f i e s w i t h his b u s h s o u l .
Far r i g h t , t e l e p h o n i s t s o n a b u s y s w i t c h b o a r d h a n d l e m a n y c a l l s at o n c e . In s u c h j o b s p e o p l e " s p l i t o f f " parts of t h e i r c o n s c i o u s m i n d s t o c o n c e n t r a t e . B u t t h i s split is controlled and temporary, not a spontaneous, abnormal dissociation.
2 I
our i d e n t i t y . W e c a n b e p o s s e s s e d a n d
altered
by m o o d s , o r b e c o m e u n r e a s o n a b l e a n d u n a b l e to r e c a l l i m p o r t a n t
facts
about
ourselves
or
"loss of a s o u l , " or e v e n t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l c a u s e of a neurosis. Thus,
even
in o u r
day
the
unity
of
con-
o t h e r s , so t h a t p e o p l e a s k : " W h a t t h e d e v i l h a s
s c i o u s n e s s is still a d o u b t f u l
got i n t o y o u ? " W e t a l k a b o u t b e i n g a b l e
"to
e a s i l y b e d i s r u p t e d . A n a b i l i t y to c o n t r o l o n e ' s
control o u r s e l v e s , " b u t s e l f - c o n t r o l is a r a r e a n d
e m o t i o n s that m a y be very desirable from o n e
remarkable virtue. W e m a y think we have our-
point of view w o u l d b e a q u e s t i o n a b l e a c c o m -
selves u n d e r c o n t r o l ; y e t a f r i e n d c a n e a s i l y tell
p l i s h m e n t f r o m a n o t h e r , for it w o u l d
us t h i n g s a b o u t o u r s e l v e s o f w h i c h w e h a v e n o
social i n t e r c o u r s e of v a r i e t v . color, a n d w a r m t h .
knowledge.
a f f a i r ; it c a n
It is a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d
Beyond d o u b t , e v e n in w h a t w e call a high level of c i v i l i z a t i o n , h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s
has
not yet a c h i e v e d a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e o f c o n t i -
deprive
that we
r e v i e w the i m p o r t a n c e of d r e a m s
too
must
t h o s e flimsy,
evasive, unreliable, vague, a n d uncertain
fan-
tasies. T o e x p l a i n m y p o i n t of view, I s h o u l d
nuity. It is still v u l n e r a b l e a n d l i a b l e t o f r a g -
l i k e t o d e s c r i b e h o w it d e v e l o p e d o v e r a p e r i o d
mentation. T h i s c a p a c i t y to isolate p a r t of o n e ' s
of y e a r s , a n d h o w I w a s led to c o n c l u d e
m i n d , i n d e e d , is a v a l u a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .
d r e a m s are the most frequent a n d
It
that
universally
e n a b l e s us to c o n c e n t r a t e u p o n o n e t h i n g a t a
a c c e s s i b l e s o u r c e for t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f m a n ' s
time, e x c l u d i n g e v e r y t h i n g else t h a t m a y c l a i m
symbolizing faculty.
our a t t e n t i o n . B u t t h e r e is a w o r l d o f d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a c o n s c i o u s d e c i s i o n t o s p l i t off a n d
Sigmund tried
Freud
to e x p l o r e
was the pioneer who
empirically
the
first
unconscious
temporarily s u p p r e s s a p a r t of o n e ' s p s y c h e , a n d
b a c k g r o u n d of consciousness. H e w o r k e d on the
a c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h
general assumption that d r e a m s are not a matter
this h a p p e n s
spontane-
ously, w i t h o u t o n e ' s k n o w l e d g e o r c o n s e n t a n d
of c h a n c e
even a g a i n s t o n e ' s i n t e n t i o n . T h e f o r m e r is a
thoughts and problems. This assumption
civilized a c h i e v e m e n t ,
n o t in t h e least a r b i t r a r y . It w a s b a s e d u p o n t h e
the latter a
primitive
but
are associated
with
conscious was
25
c o n c l u s i o n o f e m i n e n t n e u r o l o g i s t s (for i n s t a n c e ,
a s t h m a : H e " c a n ' t b r e a t h e the a t m o s p h e r e at
Pierre J a n e t )
t h a t neurotic s y m p t o m s are re-
h o m e . " A t h i r d suffers f r o m a p e c u l i a r
para-
lated to s o m e conscious e x p e r i e n c e . T h e y even
lysis o f t h e l e g s : H e c a n ' t w a l k , i . e . " h e
can't
appear
conscious
go on a n y m o r e . " A fourth, w h o vomits w h e n
m i n d , w h i c h , at a n o t h e r t i m e a n d u n d e r differ-
h e e a t s , " c a n n o t d i g e s t " s o m e u n p l e a s a n t fact.
to b e split-off a r e a s of t h e
ent conditions, c a n be conscious.
I c o u l d cite m a n y e x a m p l e s of this k i n d ,
Before the b e g i n n i n g of this c e n t u r y ,
but
such physical reactions are only one form
Freud
in
and Josef Breuer had recognized that neurotic
w h i c h t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t t r o u b l e us u n c o n s c i -
s y m p t o m s — h y s t e r i a , c e r t a i n t y p e s of p a i n , a n d
ously m a y express t h e m s e l v e s . T h e y m o r e often
a b n o r m a l b e h a v i o r — a r e in fact
find e x p r e s s i o n in o u r d r e a m s .
symbolically
m e a n i n g f u l . T h e y a r e o n e w a y in w h i c h unconscious
mind
expresses
itself, j u s t
the as
A n y psychologist w h o h a s listened to n u m -
it
bers of p e o p l e d e s c r i b i n g t h e i r d r e a m s
m a y in d r e a m s ; a n d t h e y a r e e q u a l l y s y m b o l i c . A p a t i e n t , for i n s t a n c e , w h o is c o n f r o n t e d
knows
that d r e a m symbols have m u c h greater variety
with
t h a n the p h y s i c a l s y m p t o m s of neurosis.
an intolerable situation m a y develop a spasm
They
o f t e n consist of e l a b o r a t e a n d p i c t u r e s q u e fan-
w h e n e v e r h e tries to s w a l l o w : H e " c a n ' t swal-
t a s i e s . B u t if t h e a n a l y s t w h o is c o n f r o n t e d
low i t . " U n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s of p s y c h o l o -
this d r e a m m a t e r i a l uses F r e u d ' s o r i g i n a l t e c h -
gical stress, a n o t h e r p a t i e n t h a s a n a t t a c k
n i q u e o f " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n , " h e finds t h a t d r e a m s
of
1 S i g m u n d Freud ( V i e n n a ) 2 Otto Rank (Vienna)
6 James J. Putnam
3 Ludwig Binswanger 4 A A Brill
7 Ernest J o n e s ( T o r o n t o ) 8 W i l h e l m Stekel (Vienna)
26
(Kreuzlingen)
5 Max Eitingon
(Berlin) (Boston)
9 Eugen Bleuler
(Zurich)
10 Emma J u n g (Kusnacht) 11 S a n d o r F e r e n c z i ( B u d a p e s t ) 12 C. G J u n g
(Kusnacht)
by
can e v e n t u a l l y b e r e d u c e d to c e r t a i n basic p a t -
of " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n . " B u t after a t i m e I b e g a n to
terns. T h i s t e c h n i q u e p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t
feel t h a t t h i s w a s a m i s l e a d i n g a n d
inadequate
in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
use of t h e rich fantasies t h a t t h e
unconscious
enabled Freud
of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , for
to use d r e a m s as t h e
it
starting
p r o d u c e s in sleep. M y d o u b t s r e a l l y b e g a n w h e n
point from w h i c h t h e u n c o n s c i o u s p r o b l e m of
a c o l l e a g u e told m e of a n e x p e r i e n c e he
the p a t i e n t m i g h t b e e x p l o r e d .
d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of a long t r a i n j o u r n e y
had in
Freud m a d e the simple but penetrating obser-
Russia. T h o u g h he did not k n o w the l a n g u a g e
v a t i o n t h a t if a d r e a m e r is e n c o u r a g e d t o g o o n
a n d could not even d e c i p h e r the Cyrillic script,
talking a b o u t his d r e a m i m a g e s a n d t h e t h o u g h t s
he found himself m u s i n g over the strange letters
that these p r o m p t
in w h i c h the r a i l w a y notices w e r e w r i t t e n , a n d
in his m i n d ,
h e will
give
himself a w a y a n d r e v e a l t h e u n c o n s c i o u s b a c k -
h e fell i n t o a r e v e r i e i n w h i c h h e i m a g i n e d a l l
g r o u n d of his a i l m e n t s , in b o t h w h a t h e s a y s
s o r t s o f m e a n i n g s for t h e m .
and w h a t he d e l i b e r a t e l y o m i t s s a y i n g . His ideas
O n e i d e a l e d t o a n o t h e r , a n d in h i s r e l a x e d
may seem i r r a t i o n a l a n d i r r e l e v a n t , b u t after a
m o o d h e found t h a t this "free a s s o c i a t i o n " h a d
t i m e it b e c o m e s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o s e e w h a t it is
stirred u p m a n y old m e m o r i e s . A m o n g
t h a t h e is t r y i n g
h e w a s a n n o y e d t o find s o m e l o n g - b u r i e d d i s -
to a v o i d ,
thought or experience
what
unpleasant
h e is s u p p r e s s i n g .
matter h o w he tries to c a m o u f l a g e
No
it, e v e r y -
agreeable topics get a n d
had
t h i n g s h e h a d w i s h e d t o for-
forgotten
consciously.
He
had
thing he says p o i n t s to t h e c o r e of his p r e d i c a -
fact a r r i v e d at w h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s w o u l d
m e n t . A d o c t o r s e e s so m a n y t h i n g s f r o m
h i s " c o m p l e x e s " — t h a t is, r e p r e s s e d
the
them
in call
emotional
s e a m y s i d e o f life t h a t h e is s e l d o m f a r f r o m t h e
themes that can cause constant
truth
d i s t u r b a n c e s o r e v e n , in m a n y c a s e s , t h e s y m p -
when
he
interprets
patient p r o d u c e s
the
hints
as s i g n s o f a n
that
uneasy
science. W h a t h e e v e n t u a l l y d i s c o v e r s ,
his con-
unfor-
tunately, c o n f i r m s his e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h u s
psychological
t o m s of neurosis. T h i s e p i s o d e o p e n e d m v e v e s to t h e f a r !
thai
far,
it w a s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o u s e a d r e a m a s t h e p o i n t
nobody c a n say a n y t h i n g a g a i n s t F r e u d ' s t h e o r y
o f d e p a r t u r e for t h e p r o c e s s o f " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n "
of r e p r e s s i o n a n d w i s h f u l f i l l m e n t as a p p a r e n t
if o n e w i s h e d
causes of d r e a m s y m b o l i s m .
p a t i e n t . It s h o w e d m e t h a t o n e c a n r e a c h
Freud
attached
particular
importance
to
d r e a m s as t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e for a p r o c e s s
Left, m a n y of t h e great p i o n e e r s of modern p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , p h o t o graphed at a C o n g r e s s o f Psychoanalysis in i 9 1 1 at W e i m a r , Germany. T h e key, b e l o w left, identifies s o m e of t h e m a j o r f i g u r e s .
Right, the " i n k b l o t " test d e v i s e d by the S w i s s p s y c h i a t r i s t H e r m a n n Rorschach. T h e s h a p e of t h e b l o t can serve as a s t i m u l u s f o r free association; in fact, a l m o s t a n y irregular free s h a p e c a n spark off the associative p r o c e s s . L e o n a r d o da Vinci w r o t e in his Notebooks: "It should not b e hard f o r y o u t o stop s o m e t i m e s a n d l o o k i n t o t h e stains of w a l l s , or ashes of a fire, or clouds, or m u d or like p l a c e s , in w h i c h . . . y o u m a y f i n d really marvelous i d e a s . "
to d i s c o v e r the c o m p l e x e s of a the
c e n t e r d i r e c t l y from a n y p o i n t of t h e c o m p a s s . One
could
begin
from
Cyrillic
letters,
from
meditations u p o n a crystal ball, a p r a y e r wheel,
n i q u e w a s o n e t h a t c o u l d t a k e a c c o u n t o f all
or a m o d e r n p a i n t i n g , or even from casual c o n -
the v a r i o u s w i d e r aspects of a d r e a m . A story
versation a b o u t s o m e q u i t e trivial event. T h e
told by t h e conscious m i n d has a b e g i n n i n g , a
d r e a m w a s n o m o r e a n d n o less useful in t h i s
d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d a n e n d , b u t t h e s a m e is n o t
respect t h a n a n y o t h e r possible starting point.
t r u e of a d r e a m .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , d r e a m s h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r signifi-
s p a c e a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ; t o u n d e r s t a n d it y o u
cance, even though
they often arise from
Its d i m e n s i o n s in t i m e
and
an
m u s t e x a m i n e it f r o m e v e r y a s p e c t — j u s t as y o u
e m o t i o n a l u p s e t in w h i c h t h e h a b i t u a l c o m p l e x e s
m a y t a k e a n u n k n o w n o b j e c t in y o u r h a n d s a n d
a r e also involved. ( T h e h a b i t u a l c o m p l e x e s a r e
turn
t h e t e n d e r spots of t h e p s y c h e , w h i c h r e a c t most
w i t h e v e r y d e t a i l o f its s h a p e .
quickly to a n external stimulus or d i s t u r b a n c e . )
it o v e r a n d o v e r u n t i l y o u a r e
familiar
P e r h a p s I h a v e n o w said e n o u g h to s h o w h o w
T h a t is w h y free a s s o c i a t i o n c a n l e a d o n e f r o m
I came
a n y d r e a m to t h e critical secret t h o u g h t s .
a s s o c i a t i o n a s F r e u d first e m p l o y e d i t : I w a n t e d
increasingly
to disagree with
"free"
A t t h i s p o i n t , h o w e v e r , it o c c u r r e d t o m e t h a t
t o k e e p a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e t o t h e d r e a m itself,
(if I w a s r i g h t so f a r ) it m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y f o l l o w
a n d t o e x c l u d e all t h e i r r e l e v a n t i d e a s a n d a s s o -
that d r e a m s h a v e s o m e special a n d m o r e signi-
c i a t i o n s t h a t it m i g h t e v o k e . T r u e , t h e s e c o u l d
ficant
lead one t o w a r d
function of their o w n . V e r y often d r e a m s
have a definite, evidently purposeful structure,
the c o m p l e x e s of a
patient,
b u t I h a d a m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g p u r p o s e in m i n d that
cause
t h o u g h , a s a r u l e , t h e l a t t e r is n o t i m m e d i a t e l y
neurotic disturbances. There are m a n y
other
c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . I t h e r e f o r e b e g a n to c o n s i d e r
m e a n s by which these can be identified:
w h e t h e r o n e s h o u l d p a y m o r e a t t e n t i o n to t h e
p s y c h o l o g i s t , for i n s t a n c e , c a n g e t a l l t h e h i n t s
a c t u a l form a n d c o n t e n t of a d r e a m , r a t h e r t h a n
h e n e e d s b y u s i n g w o r d - a s s o c i a t i o n tests ( b y ask-
indicating an underlying idea or
than
intention
the discovery
of c o m p l e x e s
The
off
ing t h e p a t i e n t w h a t h e associates to a given
t h r o u g h a train of ideas to c o m p l e x e s that could
set of w o r d s , a n d b y s t u d y i n g h i s r e s p o n s e s ) .
as easily b e r e a c h e d by o t h e r m e a n s .
B u t t o k n o w a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e p s y c h i c life-
allowing ""free"
association
to lead
one
T h i s n e w t h o u g h t w a s a t u r n i n g p o i n t in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of m y p s y c h o l o g y . It m e a n t t h a t I gradually gave u p following associations
that
l e d far a w a y f r o m t h e t e x t o f a d r e a m . I c h o s e to c o n c e n t r a t e r a t h e r o n t h e associations to t h e d r e a m itself, b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e l a t t e r e x p r e s s e d s o m e t h i n g specific
that
the unconscious
was
trying to say. T h e c h a n g e in m y a t t i t u d e t o w a r d involved a c h a n g e of m e t h o d ;
dreams
the new tech-
T w o different possible stimuli of free a s s o c i a t i o n : t h e w h i r l i n g prayer w h e e l of a T i b e t a n b e g g a r ( l e f t ) , or a f o r t u n e teller's c r y s t a l ball ( r i g h t , a m o d e r n c r y s t a l gazer at a B r i t i s h f a i r ) .
process of a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s w h o l e p e r s o n a l i t y , it
f o r m itself tells u s w h a t b e l o n g s t o it a n d w h a t
is i m p o r t a n t t o r e a l i z e t h a t h i s d r e a m s a n d t h e i r
leads a w a y from
symbolic images h a v e a m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t
l u r e s o n e a w a y f r o m t h a t m a t e r i a l i n a k i n d of
role to p l a y .
z i g z a g l i n e , t h e m e t h o d I e v o l v e d is m o r e l i k e a
A l m o s t e v e r y o n e k n o w s , for e x a m p l e ,
that
it. W h i l e " f r e e "
circumambulation
association
w h o s e c e n t e r is t h e d r e a m
t h e r e is a n e n o r m o u s v a r i e t y o f i m a g e s b y w h i c h
p i c t u r e . I w o r k all a r o u n d t h e d r e a m
picture
the s e x u a l a c t c a n b e s y m b o l i z e d ( o r , o n e m i g h t
and disregard every attempt that the d r e a m e r
allegory).
m a k e s t o b r e a k a w a y f r o m it. T i m e a n d t i m e
E a c h of t h e s e i m a g e s c a n l e a d , b y a p r o c e s s o f
a g a i n , in m y p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k , I h a v e h a d t o
say, r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e f o r m o f a n
association, to t h e i d e a of s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e a n d
repeat
to specific c o m p l e x e s t h a t a n y i n d i v i d u a l m a y
d r e a m . W h a t d o e s t h e dream
h a v e a b o u t his o w n s e x u a l a t t i t u d e s . B u t o n e
the words:
"Let's
get
back
to
your
say?"
F o r i n s t a n c e , a p a t i e n t of m i n e d r e a m e d of
could j u s t a s w e l l u n e a r t h s u c h c o m p l e x e s b y
a d r u n k e n a n d disheveled vulgar w o m a n .
d a y - d r e a m i n g o n a set o f i n d e c i p h e r a b l e R u s s i a n
t h e d r e a m , it s e e m e d t h a t t h i s w o m a n w a s his
In
letters. I w a s t h u s l e d t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a
wife, t h o u g h
dream can contain some message other than the
different. O n the surface, therefore, the d r e a m
sexual a l l e g o r y , a n d t h a t it d o e s s o for d e f i n i t e
was shockingly untrue, a n d the patient i m m e -
reasons. T o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t :
d i a t e l y r e j e c t e d it a s d r e a m n o n s e n s e . I f I, a s his
in r e a l life h i s w i f e w a s t o t a l l y
A m a n m a y d r e a m o f i n s e r t i n g a k e y in a
d o c t o r , h a d let h i m s t a r t a p r o c e s s o f a s s o c i a -
lock, of w i e l d i n g a h e a v y s t i c k , o r o f b r e a k i n g
t i o n , h e w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y h a v e t r i e d t o g e t a s far
down a d o o r w i t h a b a t t e r i n g r a m . E a c h
of
a w a y as possible from (he u n p l e a s a n t suggestion
these c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s a s e x u a l a l l e g o r y . B u t
of his d r e a m . In t h a t case, he w o u l d h a v e e n d e d
the fact t h a t h i s u n c o n s c i o u s for its o w n
w i t h o n e o f his s t a p l e c o m p l e x e s
pur-
a complex,
poses h a s c h o s e n o n e o f t h e s e s p e c i f i c i m a g e s
p o s s i b l y , t h a t h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h his w i f e
it m a y b e t h e k e y , t h e s t i c k , o r t h e b a t t e r i n g
and we should have learned nothing about the
ram
s p e c i a l m e a n i n g of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r d r e a m .
is a l s o o f m a j o r
task is to u n d e r s t a n d
significance.
The
why t h e k e y h a s
real been
preferred t o t h e s t i c k , o r t h e s t i c k t o t h e r a m . And s o m e t i m e s t h i s m i g h t e v e n l e a d o n e t o d i s cover t h a t it is n o t t h e s e x u a l a c t a t all t h a t is represented, b u t s o m e q u i t e different
psycholo-
gical p o i n t . F r o m this l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g , I c o n c l u d e d t h a t only t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t is c l e a r l y a n d v i s i b l y p a r t of a d r e a m s h o u l d
b e u s e d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g it.
T h e d r e a m h a s its o w n l i m i t a t i o n . I t s s p e c i f i c
One of the c o u n t l e s s s y m b o l i c or allegorical i m a g e s of t h e s e x u a l act isa deer h u n t : R i g h t , a d e t a i l from a p a i n t i n g b y t h e 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y German artist C r a n a c h . T h e s e x u a l implication of t h e deer h u n t is underlined b y a m e d i e v a l E n g l i s h folk song called " T h e K e e p e r " : The first doe that he shot at he missed. And the second doe he trimmed he kissed,
And the third ran away in a man's heart. She's amongst green 0
young
the leaves of the
A key in a l o c k may be a s e x u a l s y m b o l — b u t n o t i n v a r i a b l y . Left, a s e c t i o n of an a l t a r p i e c e b y t h e 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y F l e m i s h artist C a m p i n . The door was intended to symbolize hope, the lock to symbolize charity, a n d t h e k e y to s y m b o l i z e t h e d e s i r e for G o d . B e l o w , a British b i s h o p d u r i n g the consecration of a c h u r c h carries o u t a t r a d i t i o n a l c e r e m o n y by k n o c k i n g o n t h e c h u r c h d o o r w i t h a s t a f f — w h i c h is o b v i o u s l y n o t a p h a l l i c s y m b o l b u t a s y m b o l of authority and the shepherd's crook. N o i n d i v i d u a l s y m b o l i c i m a g e c a n be said t o h a v e a d o g m a t i c a l l y f i x e d , generalized m e a n i n g .
The " a n i m a " is t h e f e m a l e e l e m e n t in t h e m a l e u n c o n s c i o u s . (It a n d t h e " a n i m u s " in t h e f e m a l e u n c o n s c i o u s are d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3.) T h i s i n n e r d u a l i t y is o f t e n s y m b o l i z e d by a h e r m a p h r o d i t i c f i g u r e , like the c r o w n e d hermaphrodite, above right, from a 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y alchemical manuscript. Right, a physical image of m a n ' s p s y c h i c " b i s e x u a l i t y " : a h u m a n cell w i t h its c h r o m o s o m e s . A l l o r g a n i s m s h a v e t w o sets of c h r o m o s o m e s — o n e f r o m each parent.
,30
W h a t , t h e n , w a s his u n c o n s c i o u s t r y i n g
to
f e m a l e e l e m e n t s in all o f u s , it w a s s a i d
that
convey by s u c h a n o b v i o u s l y u n t r u e s t a t e m e n t ?
"every m a n carries a w o m a n within
C l e a r l y , it s o m e h o w
It is t h i s f e m a l e e l e m e n t i n e v e r y m a l e t h a t I
expressed
the idea of a
himself
degenerate female w h o w a s closely c o n n e c t e d
have
with t h e d r e a m e r ' s l i f e ; b u t s i n c e t h e p r o j e c t i o n
a s p e c t is e s s e n t i a l l y a c e r t a i n i n f e r i o r k i n d of
of this i m a g e o n t o h i s w i f e w a s u n j u s t i f i e d factually
untrue,
I
had
to
look
and
elsewhere
before I f o u n d o u t w h a t t h i s r e p u l s i v e
image
represented.
the
"anima."
This
"feminine"
relatedness to the s u r r o u n d i n g s , a n d
particu-
l a r l y t o w o m e n , w h i c h is k e p t c a r e f u l l y cealed
from
others
as well
as from
con-
oneself.
I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h o u g h a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s visible-
In t h e M i d d l e A g e s , l o n g b e f o r e t h e p h y s i o logists d e m o n s t r a t e d
called
that
by
reason
of
our
glandular structure there are both male
and
personality
m a y seem quite n o r m a l , he
well b e c o n c e a l i n g f r o m o t h e r s himself—the woman
deplorable
may from
or even
condition
of
"the
within."
That patient:
was
the
His
female
case
with
this
side w a s
particular
not
nice.
His
d r e a m w a s a c t u a l l y s a y i n g t o h i m : " Y o u a r e in some
respects
female,"
and
behaving thus gave
like him
a
degenerate
an
appropriate
shock. ( A n e x a m p l e of this k i n d , of c o u r s e , m u s t n o t be t a k e n as e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s is c o n c e r n e d
with
"moral"
injunctions.
d r e a m was not telling the p a t i e n t to
The
"behave
b e t t e r , " b u t w a s s i m p l y t r y i n g to b a l a n c e the l o p s i d e d n a t u r e of his c o n s c i o u s m i n d , was
maintaining
perfect g e n t l e m a n
the
fiction
that
he
which was
a
throughout.)
I t is e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y d r e a m e r s
tend
to i g n o r e a n d e v e n d e n y t h e m e s s a g e of t h e i r dreams.
Consciousness
naturally
resists
any-
thing unconscious and unknown. I have already pointed
out
peoples
of w h a t
the
existence
among
anthropologists
primitive
call
"miso-
n c i s m , " a d e e p a n d s u p e r s t i t i o u s fear of n o v e l t y . T h e p r i m i t i v e s m a n i f e s t all t h e r e a c t i o n s o f t h e wild
animal
against
untoward
events.
" c i v i l i z e d " m a n r e a c t s to n e w i d e a s in
But much
t h e s a m e w a y , e r e c t i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r s to p r o t e c t himself from the shock of facing s o m e t h i n g n e w . T h i s c a n easily b e o b s e r v e d in a n y i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e a c t i o n to his o w n d r e a m s
when
obliged to a d m i t a surprising t h o u g h t .
Many
p i o n e e r s in p h i l o s o p h y , s c i e n c e , a n d e v e n l i t e r a ture h a v e b e e n victims of t h e i n n a t e atism
of t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s .
conserv-
Psychology
is
o n e o f t h e y o u n g e s t o f t h e s c i e n c e s ; b e c a u s e it a t t e m p t s to d e a l w i t h t h e w o r k i n g of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , it h a s i n e v i t a b l y e n c o u n t e r e d m i s o n e i s m in a n e x t r e m e f o r m .
:5>
Past and future in the unconscious
S o far, I h a v e b e e n s k e t c h i n g s o m e of t h e p r i n -
c o n t e n t s of t h e m i n d a r e l i n k e d t o g e t h e r . T a k e
ciples o n w h i c h I a p p r o a c h e d the p r o b l e m of
a n e x a m p l e w i t h w h i c h e v e r y o n e is f a m i l i a r .
d r e a m s , for w h e n w e w a n t t o i n v e s t i g a t e m a n ' s
S u d d e n l y y o u find y o u c a n n o t r e m e m b e r w h a t
faculty to p r o d u c e s y m b o l s , d r e a m s p r o v e to b e
y o u w e r e g o i n g to say next, t h o u g h a m o m e n t
t h e m o s t b a s i c a n d a c c e s s i b l e m a t e r i a l for t h i s
ago the t h o u g h t was perfectly clear. O r p e r h a p s
p u r p o s e . T h e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l p o i n t s in d e a l -
y o u w e r e a b o u t t o i n t r o d u c e a f r i e n d , a n d his
ing w i t h d r e a m s a r e t h e s e : First, the
n a m e e s c a p e d y o u a s y o u w e r e a b o u t t o u t t e r it.
dream
s h o u l d be t r e a t e d as a fact, a b o u t w h i c h
one
Y o u say y o u c a n n o t r e m e m b e r ; in fact, t h o u g h ,
must m a k e no previous assumption except that
the
it s o m e h o w m a k e s s e n s e ; a n d s e c o n d , t h e d r e a m
least
is a s p e c i f i c e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s .
n e s s . W e find t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n w i t h o u r
O n e could scarcely put these principles m o r e m o d e s t l y . N o m a t t e r h o w low a n y o n e ' s o p i n i o n
thought
has
become
momentarily
unconscious,
separated
from
or
at
conscious-
s e n s e s . If w e l i s t e n t o a c o n t i n u o u s n o t e o n t h e fringe of a u d i b i l i t y ,
t h e s o u n d s e e m s to
stop
concede
at r e g u l a r intervals a n d then start again. Such
t h a t it is w o r t h i n v e s t i g a t i n g ; t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
oscillations a r e d u e to a p e r i o d i c d e c r e a s e a n d
of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s m a y b e , h e m u s t
is a t l e a s t o n a l e v e l w i t h t h e l o u s e , w h i c h , a f t e r
i n c r e a s e in o n e ' s a t t e n t i o n , n o t to a n y
all, e n j o y s t h e h o n e s t i n t e r e s t of t h e e n t o m o l o -
in t h e n o t e .
gist.
If s o m e b o d y
with
k n o w l e d g e of d r e a m s
little e x p e r i e n c e
and
t h i n k s t h a t d r e a m s arc-
just c h a o t i c o c c u r r e n c e s w i t h o u t m e a n i n g , is a t l i b e r t y t o d o s o . B u t if o n e a s s u m e s
he that
But
w h e n s o m e t h i n g slips o u t o f o u r
s c i o u s n e s s it d o c s n o t c e a s e t o e x i s t , a n y
h a s v a n i s h e d i n t o t h i n a i r . I t is s i m p l y o u t o f s i g h t . J u s t a s w e m a y l a t e r see t h e c a r
f a c t , t h e y a r e ) , o n e is b o u n d t o c o n s i d e r
that
so w e c o m e
they
is
p o r a r i l y lost t o u s .
either
causal
i.e.
that
r a t i o n a l c a u s e for t h e i r e x i s t e n c e
there
a
o r in a c e r -
tain way purposive, or both.
w a y s in w h i c h t h e c o n s c i o u s a n d
across
thoughts
unconscious
that
were
again, tem-
T h u s , p a r t o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s c o n s i s t s of a m u l t i t u d e of t e m p o r a r i l y
L e t us n o w l o o k a l i t t l e m o r e c l o s e l y a t t h e
conmore
than a car that has disappeared r o u n d a corner
t h e y a r e n o r m a l e v e n t s ( w h i c h , as a m a t t e r of arc
change
obscured
thoughts,
i m p r e s s i o n s , a n d i m a g e s t h a t , in s p i t e o f b e i n g lost, c o n t i n u e t o i n f l u e n c e o u r c o n s c i o u s m i n d s .
A m a n w h o is d i s t r a c t e d o r
"absent-minded""
will w a l k a c r o s s t h e r o o m t o f e t c h
something.
b e h a v i o r b e c a u s e t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s is l i a b l e to u n p r e d i c t a b l e eclipse by a n i n t e r f e r e n c e from
He s t o p s , s e e m i n g l y p e r p l e x e d ; h e h a s f o r g o t t e n
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . E v e n their skin s e n s a t i o n s m a y
what
reveal similar f l u c t u a t i o n s of a w a r e n e s s . At o n e
he was
after.
His
hands
grope
about
a m o n g t h e o b j e c t s o n t h e t a b l e a s if h e sleepwalking;
he
is o b l i v i o u s
of his
were
m o m e n t t h e h y s t e r i c a l p e r s o n m a y feel a n e e d l e
original
p r i c k in t h e a r m ; a t t h e n e x t it m a y p a s s u n n o -
p u r p o s e , yet h e is u n c o n s c i o u s l y g u i d e d b y it.
t i c e d . If h i s a t t e n t i o n c a n b e f o c u s e d o n a c e r -
T h e n h e r e a l i z e s w h a t it is t h a t h e w a n t s . H i s
tain
unconscious has p r o m p t e d
completely anesthetized until the tension
If y o u o b s e r v e
him.
the b e h a v i o r of a
person, y o u c a n s e e h i m
neurotic
doing many
things
that h e a p p e a r s t o b e d o i n g c o n s c i o u s l y p u r p o s e f u l l y . Y e t if y o u a s k h i m a b o u t
and them,
you will d i s c o v e r t h a t h e is e i t h e r u n c o n s c i o u s of t h e m o r h a s s o m e t h i n g mind. H e h e a r s a n d
q u i t e different
does not h e a r ;
in
h e sees,
yet is b l i n d ; h e k n o w s a n d is i g n o r a n t .
Such
point,
the
whole
of
his
body
can
be that
c a u s e s this b l a c k o u t of t h e senses h a s b e e n relaxed.
Sense perception
is t h e n
immediately
r e s t o r e d . All t h e t i m e , h o w e v e r , h e h a s
been
u n c o n s c i o u s l y a w a r e of w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g . The
physician
can
see
this
process
quite
clearly w h e n he hypnotizes such a patient.
It
is e a s y t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e p a t i e n t h a s b e e n a w a r e o f e v e r y d e t a i l . T h e p r i c k in t h e a r m o r
e x a m p l e s a r e so c o m m o n t h a t t h e s p e c i a l i s t s o o n
the
realizes t h a t u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s o f t h e m i n d
s c i o u s n e s s c a n b e r e c a l l e d as a c c u r a t e l y as if
b e h a v e as if t h e y w e r e c o n s c i o u s a n d t h a t y o u
there had been no anesthesia or "forgetfulness."
can
never
be
sure,
in
such
cases,
whether
t h o u g h t , s p e e c h , o r a c t i o n is c o n s c i o u s o r n o t .
remark
made
during
an
eclipse of c o n -
I recall a w o m a n w h o w a s o n c e a d m i t t e d to t h e c l i n i c in a s t a t e of c o m p l e t e s t u p o r . W h e n s h e
so
r e c o v e r e d consciousness next d a y . she k n e w w h o
many physicians d i s m i s s s t a t e m e n t s by h y s t e r i -
she was but did not k n o w w h e r e she was. how
cal p a t i e n t s as u t t e r lies. S u c h p e r s o n s c e r t a i n l y
or w h y she h a d c o m e there, or even the d a t e .
produce m o r e u n t r u t h s t h a n
m o s t of us, b u t
Yet after I h a d h y p n o t i z e d h e r , she told m e w h y
" l i e " is s c a r c e l y t h e r i g h t w o r d t o u s e . I n f a c t ,
s h e h a d f a l l e n ill. h o w s h e h a d g o t t o t h e c l i n i c ,
their m e n t a l
and
It is this k i n d
state
of b e h a v i o r
causes
an
that
makes
uncertainty
of
who had admitted
h e r . All t h e s e
details
" M i s o n e i s m . " an u n r e a s o n i n g fear a n d h a t r e d of n e w ideas, w a s a m a j o r b l o c k to p u b l i c a c c e p t a n c e of m o d e r n p s y c h S t o g y It also o p p o s e d D a r w i n ' s t h e o r i e s of e v o l u t i o n — as w h e n an American schoolteacher named S c o p e s w a s t r i e d in 1 9 2 5 for t e a c h i n g e v o l u t i o n . Far left, at t h e trial, t h e lawyer Clarence Darrow defending S c o p e s ; c e n t e r left, S c o p e s h i m s e l f E g u a l l y a n t e D a r w i n is t h e c a r t o o n , left, f r o m an 1 8 6 1 issue of B r i t a i n ' s m a g a z i n e Punch Right, a lighth e a r t e d l o o k at m i s o n e i s m by t h e American humorist James Thurber, w h o s e aunt (he w r o t e ) w a s afraid t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y w a s "leaking all over the place.''
33
c o u l d b e v e r i f i e d . S h e w a s e v e n a b l e t o tell t h e t i m e at w h i c h s h e h a d b e e n a d m i t t e d ,
because
ideas h a v e not ceased
io
exist. A l t h o u g h t h e y c a n n o t be r e p r o d u c e d
But t h e f o r g o t t e n
al
s h e h a d s e e n a c l o c k in t h e e n t r a n c e h a l l . U n d e r
w i l l , t h e y a r e p r e s e n t in a s u b l i m i n a l s t a t e
hypnosis, her m e m o r y
beyond
w a s as c l e a r a s if s h e
we discuss such m a t t e r s , we
threshold
of
recall
from
which
t h e y c a n rise a g a i n s p o n t a n e o u s l y a t a n y t i m e ,
h a d b e e n c o m p l e t e l y c o n s c i o u s all t h e t i m e . When
the
just
usually
h a v e to d r a w on e v i d e n c e s u p p l i e d b y clinical
often
alter
many
years
of
apparently
total
oblivion.
critics
I a m s p e a k i n g h e r e of t h i n g s w e h a v e c o n -
a s s u m e t h a t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d all its s u b t l e
sciously seen or h e a r d , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y forgot-
manifestations
of
t e n . B u t w e all s e e , h e a r , s m e l l , a n d t a s t e m a n y
psychopathology. T h e y consider any expression
things w i t h o u t n o t i c i n g t h e m at the t i m e , either
observation.
For
this
reason,
many
b e l o n g solely to the s p h e r e
of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s as s o m e t h i n g
neurotic
or
b e c a u s e o u r a t t e n t i o n is d e f l e c t e d o r
because
psychotic, w h i c h has n o t h i n g to d o with a nor-
t h e s t i m u l u s t o o u r s e n s e s is t o o s l i g h t t o l e a v e
m a l m e n t a l state. But n e u r o t i c p h e n o m e n a a r e
a conscious impression.
b y n o m e a n s t h e p r o d u c t s e x c l u s i v e l y of d i s e a s e .
e v e r , h a s t a k e n n o t e of t h e m , a n d s u c h s u b l i m i -
They
a r e in fact
no more than
pathological
n a l s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n s p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t in
e x a g g e r a t i o n s o f n o r m a l o c c u r r e n c e s ; it is o n l y
our everyday
because they are exaggerations that they
they influence
more obvious t h a n their n o r m a l Hysterical
symptoms
can
are
counterparts.
be observed
in
all
The u n c o n s c i o u s , h o w -
lives. W i t h o u t
our realizing
it,
t h e w a y in w h i c h w e r e a c t
to
both events and people. A n e x a m p l e of t h i s t h a t I f o u n d
particularly
n o r m a l p e r s o n s , b u t t h e y a r e so s l i g h t t h a t t h e y
r e v e a l i n g was p r o v i d e d by a professor w h o h a d
usually pass u n n o t i c e d .
b e e n w a l k i n g in t h e c o u n t r y w i t h o n e o f his
F o r g e t t i n g , for i n s t a n c e , is a n o r m a l p r o c e s s ,
p u p i l s , a b s o r b e d in s e r i o u s c o n v e r s a t i o n .
Sud-
in w h i c h c e r t a i n c o n s c i o u s i d e a s lose t h e i r s p e c i -
d e n l y h e n o t i c e d t h a t his t h o u g h t s w e r e b e i n g
fic e n e r g y
i n t e r r u p t e d b y a n u n e x p e c t e d flow of m e m o r i e s
deflected.
because When
one's attention
interest
turns
has
been
elsewhere,
it
from his e a r l y c h i l d h o o d . H e c o u l d not a c c o u n t
l e a v e s in s h a d o w t h e t h i n g s w i t h w h i c h o n e w a s
for t h i s d i s t r a c t i o n . N o t h i n g in w h a t h a d
p r e v i o u s l y c o n c e r n e d , just as a s e a r c h l i g h t lights
said s e e m e d to have a n y c o n n e c t i o n w i t h these
been
-
dark-
m e m o r i e s . O n looking back, he saw that he had
n e s s . This is u n a v o i d a b l e , for c o n s c i o u s n e s s c a n
b e e n w a l k i n g p a s t a f a r m w h e n t h e first o f t h e s e
k e e p o n l y a few i m a g e s in full c l a r i t y at
childhood
up a
new
area
by
leaving another
time, a n d even this clarity fluctuates.
in
one
mind.
He
recollections had surged suggested
to
his
pupil
u p in that
his they
In cases of e x t r e m e m a s s h y s t e r i a ( w h i c h w a s in t h e past c a l l e d " p o s s e s s i o n " ) , the consci ous m i n d a n d o r d i n a r y sense p e r c e p t i o n s e e m e c l i p s e d . Left, t h e f r e n z y of a B a l i n e s e s w o r d dance causes the dancers to fall i n t o t r a n c e s a n d , s o m e t i m e s , t o t u r n their w e a p o n s a g a i n s t t h e m s e l v e s . R i g h t , rock a n d roll m u s i c in its h e y d a y s e e m e d t o i n d u c e an a l m o s t c o m p a r a b l e t r a n c e - like e x c i t e m e n t .
A m o n g primitives, " p o s s e s s i o n " i m p l i e s t h a t a g o d or d e m o n has t a k e n o v e r a h u m a n b o d y A b o v e left, a H a i t i a n w o m a n c o l l a p s e s in a religious ecstasy A b o v e center a n d right, H a i t i a n s p o s s e s s e d by t h e g o d G h e d e , w h o is i n v a r i a b l y m a n i f e s t e d in this p o s i t i o n , legs c r o s s e d , c i g a r e t t e in m o u t h .
Left, a r e l i g i o u s c u l t in T e n n e s s e e . U.S.A., t o d a y , w h o s e c e r e m o n i e s i n c l u d e t h e h a n d l i n g of p o i s o n o u s s n a k e s . H y s t e r i a is i n d u c e d b y music, singing, and hand clapping; t h e n t h e p e o p l e pass t h e s n a k e s f r o m h a n d to h a n d . ( S o m e t i m e s p a r t i c i p a n t s are f a t a l l y b i t t e n )
s h o u l d walk b a c k to the point w h e r e t h e
fan-
it, s h e h a s h e a r d t h e f o g h o r n o f a d i s t a n t s h i p ,
tasies h a d b e g u n . O n c e t h e r e , h e n o t i c e d
the
a n d t h i s h a s u n c o n s c i o u s l y r e m i n d e d h e r of a n
s m e l l o f g e e s e , a n d i n s t a n t l y h e r e a l i z e d t h a t it
unhappy
w a s t h i s s m e l l t h a t h a d t o u c h e d off t h e flow o f
b e e n d o i n g h e r best to forget.
memories.
Aside
In his y o u t h h e h a d lived o n a f a r m
where
p a r t i n g with a lover w h o m she has from
normal
forgetting,
Freud
d e s c r i b e d several cases t h a t involve the
has "for-
geese w e r e kept, a n d their characteristic smell
g e t t i n g " of d i s a g r e e a b l e m e m o r i e s
h a d left a l a s t i n g t h o u g h f o r g o t t e n
t h a t o n e is o n l y t o o r e a d y t o l o s e . A s N i e t z s c h e
As h e p a s s e d
the farm
impression.
o n his w a l k ,
he
had
remarked,
where
pride
memories
is i n s i s t e n t
enough,
n o t i c e d t h e smell s u b l i m i n a l l y , a n d this u n c o n -
m e m o r y prefers to give way. T h u s , a m o n g the
scious p e r c e p t i o n h a d called b a c k
long-forgot-
lost m e m o r i e s , w e e n c o u n t e r n o t a few t h a t o w e
t e n e x p e r i e n c e s of his c h i l d h o o d . The p e r c e p t i o n
their s u b l i m i n a l state ( a n d their i n c a p a c i t y to
was subliminal, because the attention was en-
be v o l u n t a r i l y r e p r o d u c e d ) to their d i s a g r e e a b l e
gaged
a n d i n c o m p a t i b l e n a t u r e . T h e p s y c h o l o g i s t calls
elsewhere,
and
the
stimulus
was
s t r o n g e n o u g h t o d e f l e c t it a n d t o r e a c h
not con-
s c i o u s n e s s d i r e c t l y . Y e t it h a d b r o u g h t u p t h e "forgotten"
memories.
t h e s e repressed
contents.
A case in p o i n t m i g h t b e t h a t of a s e c r e t a r y w h o is j e a l o u s o f o n e o f h e r e m p l o y e r ' s a s s o c i -
S u c h a " c u e " o r " t r i g g e r " effect c a n e x p l a i n
ates. S h e h a b i t u a l l y forgets to invite this person
the o n s e t of n e u r o t i c s y m p t o m s as well as m o r e
t o m e e t i n g s , t h o u g h t h e n a m e is c l e a r l y m a r k e d
benign m e m o r i e s w h e n a sight, smell, or sound
o n t h e list s h e is u s i n g . B u t , if c h a l l e n g e d o n t h e
r e c a l l s a c i r c u m s t a n c e in t h e p a s t . A g i r l , for
point,
i n s t a n c e , m a y b e b u s y in h e r office, a p p a r e n t l y
"interrupted." She never admits
in g o o d h e a l t h a n d spirits. A m o m e n t l a t e r she
h e r s e l f — t h e r e a l r e a s o n for h e r o m i s s i o n .
develops a blinding h e a d a c h e a n d shows other s i g n s of d i s t r e s s . W i t h o u t c o n s c i o u s l y
noticing
she
Many
simply
people
says she
mistakenly
"forgot"
or
was
not even to
overestimate^the
r o l e of w i l l p o w e r a n d t h i n k t h a t n o t h i n g
can
T h e t o y cars f o r m i n g t h e V o l k s w a g e n t r a d e - m a r k in t h i s a d v e r t i s e m e n t may have a " t r i g g e r " effect o n a reader's m i n d , s t i r r i n g u n c o n s c i o u s m e m o r i e s of c h i l d h o o d . If t h e s e m e m o r i e s are p l e a s a n t , t h e p l e a s u r e m a y be a s s o c i a t e d ( u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) w i t h the product and brand name.
36
h a p p e n to t h e i r m i n d s t h a t t h e y d o n o t d e c i d e
I n t h i s t y p e o f c a s e t h e r e is g e n u i n e , if u n r e -
and i n t e n d . B u t o n e m u s t l e a r n to d i s c r i m i n a t e
alized, r e c o l l e c t i o n . M u c h t h e s a m e sort of t h i n g
carefully b e t w e e n i n t e n t i o n a l a n d u n i n t e n t i o n a l
may happen
c o n t e n t s of t h e m i n d . T h e f o r m e r a r e d e r i v e d
p e a s a n t t u n e o r p o p u l a r song in c h i l d h o o d a n d
from t h e e g o p e r s o n a l i t y ; t h e l a t t e r ,
f i n d s it c r o p p i n g
however,
to a musician w h o has h e a r d u p as t h e t h e m e of a
a
sym-
arise from a s o u r c e t h a t is n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e
p h o n i c m o v e m e n t t h a t h e is c o m p o s i n g i n a d u l t
ego, b u t is its " o t h e r s i d e . " I t is t h i s " o t h e r s i d e "
life. A n i d e a o r a n i m a g e h a s m o v e d b a c k f r o m
that w o u l d h a v e m a d e t h e s e c r e t a r y f o r g e t t h e
the unconscious into the conscious mind.
invitations.
What
I h a v e so f a r s a i d a b o u t t h e
uncon-
There are m a n y reasons w h y w e forget things
s c i o u s is n o m o r e t h a n a c u r s o r y s k e t c h o f t h e
t h a t w e h a v e n o t i c e d o r e x p e r i e n c e d ; a n d there-
n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n i n g of this c o m p l e x p a r t of
are j u s t as m a n y w a y s i n w h i c h t h e y m a y
t h e h u m a n p s y c h e . B u t it s h o u l d h a v e i n d i c a t e d
be
recalled to m i n d . A n i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e is t h a t
the k i n d of s u b l i m i n a l m a t e r i a l from w h i c h the
of c r y p t o m n e s i a , o r " c o n c e a l e d
recollection."
symbols of o u r d r e a m s m a y be s p o n t a n e o u s l y
An a u t h o r m a y b e w r i t i n g s t e a d i l y t o a p r e c o n -
p r o d u c e d . T h i s s u b l i m i n a l m a t e r i a l c a n consist
ceived p l a n , w o r k i n g o u t a n a r g u m e n t o r d e -
o f all u r g e s , i m p u l s e s , a n d i n t e n t i o n s : a l l p e r -
veloping the line of a story, w h e n h e s u d d e n l y
c e p t i o n s a n d i n t u i t i o n s ; all r a t i o n a l o r i r r a t i o n a l
r u n s off a t a t a n g e n t . P e r h a p s a f r e s h i d e a h a s
thoughts, conclusions, inductions, deductions,
occurred to h i m , o r a different
a n d p r e m i s e s ; a n d all v a r i e t i e s of feeling. A n y
whole n e w
sub-plot.
If y o u
image, or
ask
him
a
what
prompted the digression, h e will n o t b e a b l e to tell y o u . H e m a y n o t e v e n h a v e n o t i c e d
the
change, t h o u g h he has n o w p r o d u c e d
material
t h a t is e n t i r e l y fresh a n d a p p a r e n t l y
unknown
o r a l l o f t h e s e ca n t a k e t h e f o r m #
of p a r t i a l ,
temporary, or constant unconsciousness. Such scious
material
has mostly
b e c a u s e — in
a
become
manner
uncon-
of s p e a k i n g —
t h e r e is n o r o o m for it i n t h e c o n s c i o u s
mind.
to h i m b e f o r e . Y e t it c a n s o m e t i m e s b e s h o w n
S o m e of o n e ' s t h o u g h t s
convincingly t h a t w h a t h e h a s w r i t t e n b e a r s a
e n e r g y a n d b e c o m e s u b l i m i n a l ( t h a t is t o s a y ,
lose t h e i r
emotional
striking s i m i l a r i t y t o t h e w o r k o f a n o t h e r a u t h o r
t h e y n o l o n g e r r e c e i v e so m u c h o f o u r c o n s c i o u s
—a w o r k t h a t h e b e l i e v e s h e h a s n e v e r s e e n .
a t t e n t i o n ) b e c a u s e they h a v e c o m e to seem u n -
I myself f o u n d a f a s c i n a t i n g e x a m p l e o f t h i s in N i e t z s c h e ' s
book
Thus
Spake
£arathustra,
where the a u t h o r r e p r o d u c e s a l m o s t w o r d
for
i n t e r e s t i n g o r i r r e l e v a n t , o r b e c a u s e t h e r e is s o m e r e a s o n w h y w e w i s h t o p u s h t h e m o u t of sight.
word a n i n c i d e n t r e p o r t e d i n a s h i p ' s l o g for
I t is, i n f a c t , n o r m a l a n d n e c e s s a r y for u s t o
the y e a r 1686. By s h e e r c h a n c e I h a d r e a d t h i s
" f o r g e t " in this fashion, in o r d e r to m a k e r o o m
seaman's y a r n in a b o o k p u b l i s h e d a b o u t
1835
i n o u r c o n s c i o u s m i n d s for n e w i m p r e s s i o n s a n d
(half a c e n t u r y b e f o r e N i e t z s c h e w r o t e ) ;
and
when I f o u n d t h e s i m i l a r p a s s a g e i n Thus ^arathuslra,
Spake
I w a s s t r u c k b y its p e c w l i a r s t y l e ,
which w a s d i f f e r e n t
from
Nietzsche's
usual
language. I was c o n v i n c e d t h a t N i e t z s c h e m u s t also h a v e s e e n t h e o l d b o o k , t h o u g h h e
made
no r e f e r e n c e t o it. I w r o t e t o h i s s i s t e r , w h o w a s still alive, a n d s h e c o n f i r m e d t h a t s h e a n d h e r brother had
in f a c t
read
the book
together
when h e w a s 11 y e a r s o l d . I t h i n k , f r o m
the
i d e a s . If this d i d n o t h a p p e n , e v e r y t h i n g
we
experienced would remain above the threshold of consciousness a n d o u r m i n d s w o u l d
become
impossibly cluttered. This p h e n o m e n o n
is so
widely recognized today that most people who know anything
about
psychology
t a k e it for
granted. But just
as c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s
can
vanish
into the unconscious, new contents, which have never
yet b e e n
conscious, can
arise
from
it.
context, it is i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t N i e t z s c h e h a d
O n e m a y h a v e a n i n k l i n g , for i n s t a n c e ,
any i d e a t h a t h e w a s p l a g i a r i z i n g t h i s s t o r y . I
s o m e t h i n g is o n t h e p o i n t o f b r e a k i n g i n t o c o n -
believe t h a t fifty y e a r s l a t e r it h a d u n e x p e c t e d l y
s c i o u s n e s s — t h a t " s o m e t h i n g is i n t h e a i r , " o r
slipped i n t o focus i n h i s c o n s c i o u s m i n d .
that one "smells a rat." T h e discovery that the
that
37
u n c o n s c i o u s is n o m e r e d e p o s i t o r y o f t h e p a s t ,
mathematician
b u t is a l s o full o f g e r m s o f f u t u r e p s y c h i c s i t u a -
K c k u l c o w e d i m p o r t a n t s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s (as
tions
they themselves a d m i t i to s u d d e n pictorial " r e -
and
ideas,
led
me
to
my
own
new
Poincarc
and
the
chemist
a p p r o a c h t o p s y c h o l o g y . A g r e a t d e a l ol c o n t r o -
v e l a t i o n s " from the u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e so-called
versial discussion h a s arisen a r o u n d this p o i n t .
"mystical" cxpcrienceofthc French philosopher
B u t it is a fact t h a t , in a d d i t i o n t o
Descartes involved a similar sudden
memories
in w h i c h
new t h o u g h t s a n d creative ideas can also pre-
sciences."
sent t h e m s e l v e s from the u n c o n s c i o u s
S t e v e n s o n h a d s p e n t y e a r s l o o k i n g for a s t o r y
thoughts
h e s a w in a flash
revelation
from a l o n g - d i s t a n t c o n s c i o u s past, c o m p l e t e l y
The
British
t h e " o r d e r o f all
author
Robert
Louis
a n d ideas that have never been conscious before.
t h a t w o u l d lit his " s t r o n g s e n s e o f m a n ' s d o u b l e
They
being," when
grow
up
from
the dark
d e p t h s of
m i n d like a l o t u s a n d f o r m a m o s t
the
t h e p l o t of Dr.
Jfkyll
and
Mr.
important
Hyde w a s s u d d e n l y r e v e a l e d to h i m in a d r e a m .
W e find t h i s in e v e r y d a y life, w h e r e d i l e m m a s
m a t e r i a l arises from the u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d I shall
are sometimes solved by the most surprising new
e x a m i n e t h e f o r m in w h i c h it is e x p r e s s e d . At
p a r t ol t h e s u b l i m i n a l p s y c h e .
I . a t e r I s h a l l d e s c r i b e in m o r e d e t a i l h o w s u c h
and
t h e m o m e n t I s i m p l y w a n t to p o i n t o u t t h a t the
e v e n s c i e n t i s t s o w e s o m e o f t h e i r best i d e a s t o
c a p a c i t y of t h e h u m a n p s y c h e to p r o d u c e such
propositions; m a n y artists, philosophers, inspirations
from
the
new
material
The a b i l i t y to t e a c h a rich
vein
one
is d e a l i n g
that
unconscious.
appear
suddenly
o f s u c h m a t e r i a l a n d to t r a n s l a t e it
effectively
is p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t with
dream
h a v e f o u n d a g a i n a n d a g a i n in my
i n t o p h i l o s o p h y , l i t e r a t u r e , m u s i c , o r scientific
work
c o n t a i n c a n n o t p o s s i b l y b e e x p l a i n e d solely in
is
find
c l e a r p r o o f ol t h i s fact
ideas that
t e r m s of m e m o r y . T h e y e x p r e s s n e w
commonly called genius. We can
the images a n d
for I
professional
discovery
is o n e of t h e h a l l m a r k s o f w h a t
that
when
symbolism,
in
the
h i s t o r y ol s c i e n c e itself, f o r e x a m p l e , t h e F r e n c h
lint
h a v e n e v e r vet r e a c h e d
dreams thoughts
the threshold
ol
consciousness.
The 19th century German chemist Kekule, researching into the m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e of b e n z e n e , d r e a m e d of a s n a k e w i t h its tail in its m o u t h ( T h i s is an a g e - o l d s y m b o l : left, a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f it f r o m a t h i r d - c e n t u r y B . C . G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t . ) He i n t e r p r e t e d t h e d r e a m to m e a n that t h e s t r u c t u r e w a s a closed carbon ring as o n t h e p a g e , far left, f r o m his Textbook of Organic Chemistry (1861)
R i g h t , an o r d i n a r y E u r o p e a n h i g h w a y w i t h a familiar sign that means "look o u t f o r a n i m a l s c r o s s i n g . " But the motorists (their s h a d o w s a p p e a r In t h e f o r e g r o u n d as t h e y leave t h e i r c a r ) see an e l e p h a n t , a rhinoceros, even a dinosaur. This p a i n t i n g of a d r e a m ( b y t h e m o d e r n S w i s s artist Erhard J a c o b y ) accurately depicts the apparently i l l o g i c a l , i n c o h e r e n t n a t u r e of dream imagery.
|8
The function of dreams
I have gone into s o m e detail a b o u t the origins of o u r d r e a m
life, b e c a u s e it is t h e soil
which most s y m b o l s o r i g i n a l l y g r o w .
from
c a n i m p o s e o n o u r t h o u g h t s in w a k i n g life. Y e t anyone
w h o s t o p s for a m o m e n t
to recall
a
Unfor-
d r e a m w i l l b e a w a r e o f t h i s c o n t r a s t , w h i c h is
tunately, d r e a m s a r e difficult to u n d e r s t a n d . As
in f a c t o n e o f t h e m a i n r e a s o n s w h y t h e o r d i n a r y
I h a v e a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , a d r e a m is q u i t e
person
unlike a s t o r y t o l d b y t h e c o n s c i o u s m i n d .
In
T h e y d o n o t m a k e s e n s e in t e r m s o f h i s n o r m a l
finds
dreams
so h a r d
to
understand.
e v e r y d a y life o n e t h i n k s o u t w h a t o n e w a n t s t o
w a k i n g e x p e r i e n c e , a n d t h e r e f o r e h e is i n c l i n e d
say, selects t h e m o s t t e l l i n g w a y o f s a y i n g it, a n d
e i t h e r to d i s r e g a r d t h e m or to confess t h a t t h e y
tries to m a k e o n e ' s r e m a r k s l o g i c a l l y c o h e r e n t .
baffle h i m .
For i n s t a n c e , a n e d u c a t e d p e r s o n will s e e k t o
P e r h a p s it m a y b e e a s i e r t o u n d e r s t a n d
this
avoid a m i x e d m e t a p h o r b e c a u s e it m a y g i v e a
p o i n t if w e first r e a l i z e t h e fact t h a t t h e i d e a s
m u d d l e d i m p r e s s i o n of his p o i n t . B u t
w i t h w h i c h w e d e a l in o u r a p p a r e n t l y
dreams
disci-
have a different t e x t u r e . I m a g e s t h a t s e e m c o n -
p l i n e d w a k i n g life a r e b y n o m e a n s a s p r e c i s e
tradictory
as w e like to b e l i e v e . O n
and
ridiculous
crowd
in
on
the
the contrary,
their
d r e a m e r , t h e n o r m a l s e n s e o f t i m e is l o s t , a n d
m e a n i n g (and their emotional significance
commonplace things can assume a
us) b e c o m e s m o r e i m p r e c i s e t h e m o r e
fascinating
or t h r e a t e n i n g a s p e c t . It m a y s e e m s t r a n g e t h a t
for
closely
w e e x a m i n e t h e m . T h e r e a s o n for t h i s is t h a t the
mind s h o u l d o r d e r its m a t e r i a l so
unconscious differently
from t h e s e e m i n g l y d i s c i p l i n e d p a t t e r n t h a t w e
anything we have heard or experienced become subliminal
can
t h a t is t o s a y , c a n p a s s i n t o
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . A n d e v e n w h a t w e r e t a i n in
39
o u r c o n s c i o u s m i n d a n d c a n r e p r o d u c e a t will
p s y c h i c e v e n t a n d as s u c h p a r t l y
has acquired
that
T h e v e r y n u m b e r s y o u u s e in c o u n t i n g a r e m o r e
w i l l c o l o r t h e i d e a e a c h t i m e it is r e c a l l e d . O u r
t h a n you t a k e t h e m to be. T h e y a r e at t h e s a m e
c o n s c i o u s i m p r e s s i o n s , in f a c t , q u i c k l y
assume
time
an
that
element
an
unconscious
of u n c o n s c i o u s
undertone
meaning
is
mythological
elements
(for
unknowable.
the
Pytha-
goreans, they were even divine); but you
are
p s y c h i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t for u s , t h o u g h w e a r e n o t
c e r t a i n l y u n a w a r e of this w h e n y o u use n u m b e r s
consciously a w a r e of the existence of this s u b -
for a p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e .
l i m i n a l m e a n i n g o r o f t h e w a y in w h i c h it b o t h e x t e n d s a n d confuses the c o n v e n t i o n a l m e a n i n g .
Every
concept
in o u r
conscious
mind,
s h o r t , h a s its o w n p s y c h i c a s s o c i a t i o n s .
in
While
differ
such associations m a y v a r y in intensity (accord-
f r o m o n e p e r s o n t o a n o t h e r . E a c h of us r e c e i v e s
i n g to t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e c o n c e p t to
a n y a b s t r a c t o r g e n e r a l n o t i o n in t h e c o n t e x t o f
o u r w h o l e p e r s o n a l i t y , or a c c o r d i n g to t h e o t h e r
O f course, such
psychic
undertones
the individual m i n d , a n d we therefore stand
and
apply
it in o u r
under-
i d e a s a n d e v e n c o m p l e x e s t o w h i c h it is a s s o -
ways.
c i a t e d in o u r u n c o n s c i o u s ) , t h e y a r e c a p a b l e of
individual
W h e n , in c o n v e r s a t i o n , I u s e a n y s u c h t e r m s a s "'state," " m o n e y , "
"health,"
or "society,"
assume that m y listeners u n d e r s t a n d
I
more or
less t h e s a m e t h i n g a s I d o . B u t t h e p h r a s e " m o r e or less" m a k e s m y
point.
Each
word
means
s o m e t h i n g slightly different to e a c h p e r s o n , even a m o n g those w h o share the s a m e cultural backg r o u n d . T h e r e a s o n for t h i s v a r i a t i o n is t h a t a g e n e r a l n o t i o n is r e c e i v e d i n t o a n
individual
c o n t e x t a n d is t h e r e f o r e u n d e r s t o o d a n d a p p l i e d in a slightly i n d i v i d u a l w a y . A n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f m e a n i n g is n a t u r a l l y g r e a t e s t w h e n
people
h a v e widely different social, political, religious or psychological experiences. As l o n g as c o n c e p t s a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h
mere
w o r d s , t h e v a r i a t i o n is a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l e a n d plays n o p r a c t i c a l role. But w h e n a n e x a c t defin i t i o n o r a c a r e f u l e x p l a n a t i o n is n e e d e d , o n e can
occasionally
discover
the
most
v a r i a t i o n s , n o t o n l y in t h e p u r e l y
amazing
intellectual
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e r m , b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y in its e m o t i o n a l t o n e a n d its a p p l i c a t i o n . A s a r u l e , these variations are subliminal a n d
therefore
v
never realized.
O n e m a y t e n d t o d i s m i s s s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s as r e d u n d a n t o r e x p e n d a b l e n u a n c e s of m e a n i n g t h a t h a v e little r e l e v a n c e to e v e r y d a y n e e d s . But t h e fact t h a t t h e y e x i s t s h o w s t h a t e v e n t h e m o s t matter-of-fact c o n t e n t s of consciousness h a v e a p e n u m b r a of u n c e r t a i n t y a r o u n d t h e m . the
most
carefully
defined
Even
philosophical
or
m a t h e m a t i c a l concept, which we are sure does n o t c o n t a i n m o r e t h a n w e h a v e p u t i n t o it, is nevertheless 4"
more
than
we
assume.
It
is
a
Le temps n'a p o i n t d e r i v e . 1 9 3 0 - 3 9 . O i l o n c a n v a s , 3 9 | " x 3 2 " . Collection.
On these pages, f u r t h e r e x a m p l e s of the irrational, f a n t a s t i c n a t u r e of dreams. A b o v e left, o w l s a n d bats s w a r m over a d r e a m i n g m a n in an e t c h i n g by the 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y Spanish artist G o y a .
The Museum
ol Modem
D r a g o n s or s i m i l a r m o n s t e r s are c o m m o n d r e a m i m a g e s Left, a d r a g o n , p u r s u e s a d r e a m e r in a w o o d c u t f r o m The Dream of Poliphilo, a fantasy written by a 1 5th-century Italian m o n k , F r a n c e s c o C o l o n n a .
Art New
York
A b o v e , a p a i n t i n g e n t i t l e d Time is a River without Banks b y t h e m o d e r n artist M a r c C h a g a l l . T h e u n e x p e c t e d a s s o c i a t i o n of t h e s e i m a g e s — f i s h , v i o l i n , c l o c k , l o v e r s — h a s all t h e s t r a n g e n e s s of a d r e a m .
,
4'
T h e m y t h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t of o r d i n a r y n u m b e r s a p p e a r s in M a y a n reliefs ( t o p of p a g e , c. A D 7 3 0 ) , w h i c h p e r s o n i f y n u m e r i c a l d i v i s i o n s of t i m e as g o d s T h e p y r a m i d of d o t s , a b o v e , represents t h e tetraktys
of
Greek P y t h a g o r e a n p h i l o s o p h y ( s i x t h c e n t u r y B.C.). It i n c l u d e s f o u r n u m b e r s — 1 , 2. 3, 4 — m a k i n g a t o t a l of 1 0 Both four and 10 were w o r s h i p e d as d i v i n i t i e s by the P y t h a g o r e a n s .
I-
c h a n g i n g t h e " n o r m a l " c h a r a c t e r ol t h a t c o n -
c o u l d n o t sec t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h i s fact
cept.
a n d h i s a t t e m p t in t h e d r e a m t o j u m p o n m e .
It
different
may
even
as it d r i f t s
become
something
quite
below
t h e level of
con-
sciousness.
In m y professional happened
These s u b l i m i n a l a s p e c t s of e v e r y t h i n g that
that
life, h o w e v e r , it h a s
someone
what I have said
has
often
misrepresented
so often t h a t I h a v e s c a r c e l y
h a p p e n s t o us m a y s e e m t o p l a y v e r y l i t t l e p a r t
b o t h e r e d to w o n d e r w h e t h e r this k i n d of mis-
in o u r d a i l y l i v e s . B u t in d r e a m a n a l y s i s , w h e r e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n m a k e s m e a n g r y . N o w t h e r e is a
the p s y c h o l o g i s t is d e a l i n g w i t h e x p r e s s i o n s of
certain
the u n c o n s c i o u s , t h e y a r c v e r y r e l e v a n t , for t h e y
over one's e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s : a n d this. I soon
value
in k e e p i n g a c o n s c i o u s
arc the a l m o s t i n v i s i b l e roots of o u r c o n s c i o u s
r e a l i z e d , w a s t h e p o i n t t h e d r e a m h a d m a d e . It
t h o u g h t s . T h a i is w h y c o m m o n p l a c e o b j e c t s o r
had taken an Austrian colloquialism and trans-
ideas c a n a s s u m e s u c h p o w e r f u l p s y c h i c s i g n i f i -
lated
c a n c e in a d r e a m t h a t w e m a y a w a k e s e r i o u s l y
common
d i s t u r b e d , in s p i t e o f h a v i n g d r e a m e d o f n o t h i n g
kannst
worse t h a n a l o c k e d r o o m o r a m i s s e d
climb on my back), which m e a n s "I don't care
The images produced
train.
in d r e a m s a r e
much
it i n t o a p i c t o r i a l
control
enough
mir
auj
in
den
image. This
ordinary Bucket
phrase,
speech,
steigen
is
(You
w h a t you say a b o u t m e . " A n A m e r i c a n equiva-
more p i c t u r e s q u e a n d vivid t h a n t h e c o n c e p t s
lent, w h i c h
and experiences t h a t a r c their w a k i n g c o u n t e r -
d r e a m , w o u l d b e " G o j u m p in t h e l a k e . "
p a r t s . O n e ol t h e r e a s o n s for t h i s is t h a t , in a
Ihi can
could
easily a p p e a r
in a
similar
O n e c o u l d say t h a t this d r e a m p i c t u r e was
dream, such concepts c a n express their u n c o n -
symbolic,
scious m e a n i n g . I n o u r c o n s c i o u s t h o u g h t s , w e
directly but expressed the point indirectly
l>v
restrain o u r s e l v e s w i t h i n t h e limits of r a t i o n a l
m e a n s of a m e t a p h o r t h a t I c o u l d not at
first
statements
s t a t e m e n t s t h a t a r e m u c h less c o l o r -
ful b e c a u s e w e h a v e s t r i p p e d t h e m of m o s t of their p s y c h i c a s s o c i a t i o n s . I r e c a l l o n e d r e a m ol i m difficult
to i n t e r p r e t .
for
it
did
not
state
the
u n d e r s t a n d . W h e n this h a p p e n s
situation
as it so o f t e n
d o e s i it is n o t d e l i b e r a t e " d i s g u i s e " by a d r e a m ; it s i m p l v r e f l e c t s t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s in o u r
own that
I found
In this d r e a m , a c e r t a i n
under-
standing ofcmotionally charged pictorial langua g e . F o r in o u r d a i l y
experience
m a n w a s t r y i n g t o get b e h i n d m e a n d j u m p o n
state t h i n g s as a c c u r a t e l y
m\ b a c k . I k n e w
n o t h i n g of this m a n
except
have
that I w a s a w a r e t h a t h e h a d s o m e h o w
picked
fantasy
learned both
in
discard our
the
language
I
that
in
of our
thoughts
But
quality
and
we
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ol t h e p r i m i t i v e m i n d . M o s t o f us
meaning.
a
trimmings
u p a r e m a r k I h a d m a d e a n d h a d t w i s t e d it i n t o o f mv
losing
as possible, a n d
to
a grotesque
travesty
thus
to
we need
is still
Not o n l y n u m b e r s b u t s u c h f a m i l i a r objects as s t o n e s a n d trees c a n have s y m b o l i c i m p o r t a n c e f o r m a n y people Left, r o u g h s t o n e s p l a c e d on the roadside by travelers in India represent t h e linyam, t h e Hindu phallic s y m b o l of c r e a t i v i t y . Right, a tree in W e s t A f r i c a t h a t the t r i b e s m e n call a "|u j u " or spirit tree, a n d t o w h i c h t h e y ascribe m a g i c a l p o w e r .
43
14
have c o n s i g n e d t o t h e u n c o n s c i o u s all t h e fan-
a s s u m e d t h a t n o o n e w h o is i n a s o u n d s t a t e o f
tastic p s y c h i c a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t e v e r y o b j e c t o r
m i n d c o u l d suffer from s u c h t h i n g s , a n d
idea possesses. T h e p r i m i t i v e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
anyone
is still a w a r e o f t h e s e p s y c h i c p r o p e r t i e s ;
p a t h o l o g i c a l l y d i s t u r b e d . A t h e o l o g i a n o n c e told
he
who
actually
sees a
vision
that
must
be
endows a n i m a l s , plants, or stones w i t h p o w e r s
m e t h a t Ezekiel's visions w e r e n o t h i n g
t h a t w e find s t r a n g e a n d
than morbid symptoms, and that, when Moses
unacceptable.
A n A f r i c a n j u n g l e d w e l l e r , for i n s t a n c e , s e e s
a n d o t h e r p r o p h e t s h e a r d " v o i c e s " s p e a k i n g to
a n o c t u r n a l c r e a t u r e b y d a y l i g h t a n d k n o w s it
t h e m , they w e r e suffering from
to b e a m e d i c i n e
man
who
has
more
hallucinations.
temporarily
Y o u c a n i m a g i n e t h e p a n i c h e felt w h e n s o m e -
t a k e n its s h a p e . O r h e m a y r e g a r d it a s t h e b u s h
t h i n g of this k i n d " s p o n t a n e o u s l y " h a p p e n e d to
soul o r a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t o f o n e o f h i s t r i b e .
h i m . W e a r e so a c c u s t o m e d t o t h e a p p a r e n t l y
A
tree m a y p l a y a v i t a l p a r t i n t h e life o f a p r i m i -
rational
tive, a p p a r e n t l y p o s s e s s i n g for h i m its o w n s o u l
scarcely i m a g i n e a n y t h i n g h a p p e n i n g that can-
a n d v o i c e , a n d t h e m a n c o n c e r n e d w i l l feel t h a t
not be e x p l a i n e d by c o m m o n sense. T h e p r i m i -
he s h a r e s its f a t e . T h e r e a r e s o m e I n d i a n s i n
tive m a n confronted
South A m e r i c a w h o will assure you t h a t
w o u l d n o t d o u b t his s a n i t y ; h e w o u l d t h i n k of
they
are R e d A r a r a p a r r o t s , t h o u g h t h e y a r e well
nature
of o u r
world
that
we
b y a s h o c k of this
can
kind
fetishes, spirits, or g o d s .
aware that they lack feathers, wings, a n d beaks.
Y e t t h e e m o t i o n s t h a t a f f e c t us a r e j u s t
the
For in t h e p r i m i t i v e ' s w o r l d t h i n g s d o n o t h a v e
s a m e . I n fact, t h e t e r r o r s t h a t s t e m from
our
the s a m e
e l a b o r a t e c i v i l i z a t i o n m a y b e far m o r e t h r e a t e n -
sharp
boundaries
they
do
in
our
" r a t i o n a l " societies.
ing t h a n those that primitive people attribute
W h a t psychologists call p s y c h i c i d e n t i t y , or
to d e m o n s . T h e a t t i t u d e of m o d e r n
civilized
" m y s t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , " h a s b e e n s t r i p p e d oir
man
o u r w o r l d of t h i n g s . B u t it is e x a c t l y t h i s h a l o
p a t i e n t in m y clinic w h o w a s himself a d o c t o r .
sometimes
reminds
me
of a
psychotic
of u n c o n s c i o u s a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t g i v e s a c o l o r f u l
One
and fantastic a s p e c t to t h e p r i m i t i v e ' s
replied t h a t he h a d h a d a wonderful night dis-
world.
W e h a v e lost it t o s u c h a d e g r e e t h a t w e d o n o t
morning
I asked him
h o w he was.
infecting t h e w h o l e of h e a v e n w i t h
He
mercuric
us
c h l o r i d e , b u t t h a t in t h e c o u r s e of this t h o r o u g h -
such t h i n g s a r e k e p t b e l o w t h e t h r e s h o l d ; w h e n
g o i n g s a n i t a r y p r o c e s s h e h a d f o u n d n o t r a c e of
they o c c a s i o n a l l y r e a p p e a r , w e e v e n i n s i s t t h a t
God.
s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g .
w o r s e . I n s t e a d of G o d or t h e " f e a r of G o d , "
r e c o g n i z e it w h e n w e m e e t it a g a i n . W i t h
I have more t h a n once been consulted
by
well-educated a n d intelligent people w h o h a v e
Here
we
see a
neurosis or
something
t h e r e is a n a n x i e t y n e u r o s i s o r s o m e k i n d
had p e c u l i a r d r e a m s , f a n t a s i e s , o r e v e n v i s i o n s ,
b u t its o b j e c t h a s c h a n g e d b o t h its n a m e
which h a v e s h o c k e d t h e m d e e p l y . T h e y
n a t u r e for t h e w o r s e .
have
of
phobia. T h e emotion has r e m a i n e d the same, and
Left, a w i t c h d o c t o r f r o m Cameroon w e a r i n g a l i o n m a s k . He isn't p r e t e n d i n g to b e a l i o n ; he is c o n v i n c e d t h a t he is a l i o n . Like the N y a n g a t r i b e s m a n a n d his bird mask (p. 2 5 ) , he shares a "psychic identity"' w i t h t h e a n i m a l — an identity that exists in t h e r e a l m of myth and s y m b o l i s m . M o d e r n "rational" m a n has tried t o c u t himself off f r o m s u c h p s y c h i c associations ( w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s survive in the u n c o n s c i o u s ) ; t o him, a spade is a s p a d e a n d a l i o n is only w h a t the d i c t i o n a r y ( r i g h t ) says it is.
V
45
4
6
Left, St. Paul s t r u c k d o w n by t h e impact of his v i s i o n of Christ ( i n a painting by the 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y Italian artist C a r a v a g g i o ) .
A b o v e , Javanese farmers sacrifice a c o c k t o p r o t e c t their f i e l d s f r o m spirits. S u c h b e l i e f s a n d p r a c t i c e s are f u n d a m e n t a l in p r i m i t i v e life
I recall a professor of p h i l o s o p h y w h o o n c e
A b o v e , in a m o d e r n s c u l p t u r e by B r i t a i n ' s J a c o b E p s t e i n , m a n is seen as a m e c h a n i z e d m o n s t e r — p e r h a p s an i m a g e of t o d a y ' s "evil s p i r i t s . "
a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the s y m b o l - m a k i n g
c o n s u l t e d m e a b o u t h i s c a n c e r p h o b i a . H e suf-
pensities of m a n , a n d of t h e p a r t t h a t
fered from a c o m p u l s i v e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t h e h a d
play
a malignant
m a n y dreams present images and
tumor, although
kind w a s e v e r f o u n d
n o t h i n g of t h e
in d o z e n s o f X - r a y
pic-
in e x p r e s s i n g
them.
pro-
dreams
F o r o n e finds
that
associations
t h a t a r c a n a l o g o u s to p r i m i t i v e i d e a s , m y t h s ,
tures. " O h . I k n o w t h e r e is n o t h i n g . ' " h e w o u l d
and
say. " b u t t h e r e might
" a r c h a i c r e m n a n t s " by F r e u d ; the phrase sug-
be s o m e t h i n g . " W h a t was
it that p r o d u c e d t h i s i d e a ? It o b v i o u s l v
tame
rites. T h e s e
dream
images
were
called
g e s t s t h a t t h e y a r e p s y c h i c e l e m e n t s s u r v i v i n g in
from a fear t h a t w a s n o t i n s t i l l e d b y c o n s c i o u s
the h u m a n m i n d from ages long a g o . I b i s point
deliberation.
suddenly
o f v i e w is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h o s e w h o r e g a r d t h e
o v e r c a m e h i m . a n d it h a d a p o w e r o f its o w n
u n c o n s c i o u s a s a m e r e a p p e n d i x of c o n s c i o u s -
The
morbid
though)
ness (or, m o r e p i c t u r e s q u e l y , as a trash c a n that
that he c o u l d n o t c o n t r o l . I I w a s far m o r e d i l l i c u l t
lor this
educated
man to m a k e a n a d m i s s i o n o f t h i s k i n d t h a n it
c o l l e c t s all t h e r e f u s e o f t h e c o n s c i o u s m i n d I . F u r t h e r investigation suggested to m e
that
would h a v e b e e n l o r a p r i m i t i v e t o s a y t h a t h e
t h i s a t t i t u d e is u n t e n a b l e a n d s h o u l d
was p l a g u e d by a g h o s t . T h e m a l i g n
c a r d e d . I f o u n d t h a t a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d i m a g e s of
influence
be dis-
ol evil s p i r i t s is at least a n a d m i s s i b l c h y p o t h c s i s
this kind a r c a n
integral
in a p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e , b u t il is a s h a t t e r i n g e x -
scious,
be
p e r i e n c e lor a c i v i l i z e d p e r s o n to a d m i t t h a i h i s
w h e t h e r t h e d r e a m e r is e d u c a t e d o r i l l i t e r a t e ,
troubles a n n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a f o o l i s h p r a n k
i n t e l l i g e n t o r s t u p i d . T h e y a r e n o t in a n y s e n s e
ol the i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e p r i m i t i v e p h e n o m e n o n
lifeless o r m e a n i n g l e s s " r e m n a n t s . " T h e y still
ol obsession h a s n o t v a n i s h e d : il is t h e s a m e a s
f u n c t i o n , a n d they a r e especially
ever, li is only
and
D r . H e n d e r s o n s h o w s in a l a t e r c h a p t e r o f t h i s
interpreted
in a d i f f e r e n t
more o b n o x i o u s w a v .
and
can
part
of t h e
observed
uncon-
everywhere
valuable
as
b o o k I j u s t b e c a u s e of t h e i r " h i s t o r i c a l " n a t u r e .
I have m a d e several c o m p a r i s o n s of this kind
T h e y f o r m a b r i d g e b e t w e e n t h e w a y s in w h i c h
between m o d e r n a n d p r i m i t i v e m a n . S u c h c o m -
we consciously express our thoughts a n d a more
p a r i s o n s , as I s h a l l s h o w l a t e r , a r e e s s e n t i a l t o
p r i m i t i v e , m o r e colorful a n d p i c t o r i a l form of
17
e x p r e s s i o n . It is t h i s f o r m , a s w e l l , t h a t a p p e a l s
f r i e n d s a r e h e r e , a n d t h e y a r e w a i t i n g for y o u . "
directly to feeling a n d e m o t i o n . T h e s e " h i s t o r i -
T h e hostess t h e n led h e r to t h e d o o r a n d o p e n e d
cal"
associations
are
the
link
between
the
rational w o r l d of c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h e w o r l d
it, a n d t h e d r e a m e r s t e p p e d t h r o u g h — i n t o a cowshed!
of instinct".
T h i s d r e a m l a n g u a g e w a s s i m p l e e n o u g h to
I have already discussed the interesting con-
be
understood
even
by
a
blockhead.
The
trast b e t w e e n t h e " c o n t r o l l e d " t h o u g h t s w e h a v e
w o m a n w o u l d n o t a t first a d m i t t h e p o i n t o f a
in w a k i n g life a n d t h e w e a l t h o f i m a g e r y p r o -
d r e a m t h a t s t r u c k so d i r e c t l y a t h e r s e l f - i m p o r t -
d u c e d in d r e a m s . N o w
a n c e ; b u t its m e s s a g e n e v e r t h e l e s s w e n t h o m e ,
reason
for
this
y o u c a n see
difference:
another
Because,
our
a n d a f t e r a t i m e s h e h a d t o a c c e p t it b e c a u s e
ideas
she c o u l d not h e l p seeing t h e self-inflicted joke.
really
S u c h m e s s a g e s from t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a r e of
in
civilized life, w c h a v e s t r i p p e d so m a n y of t h e i r e m o t i o n a l
energy,
we d o not
respond t o t h e m a n y m o r e . W e u s e s u c h i d e a s
greater i m p o r t a n c e than most people
in o u r s p e e c h , a n d w e s h o w a c o n v e n t i o n a l r e -
I n o u r c o n s c i o u s life, w e a r e e x p o s e d t o all k i n d s
action w h e n o t h e r s u s e t h e m , b u t t h e y d o n o t
of i n f l u e n c e s . O t h e r p e o p l e s t i m u l a t e o r d e p r e s s
realize.
make a very d e e p i m p r e s s i o n o n us. S o m e t h i n g
u s , e v e n t s a t t h e office o r i n o u r s o c i a l life d i s -
more is n e e d e d t o b r i n g c e r t a i n t h i n g s h o m e t o
t r a c t us. S u c h t h i n g s s e d u c e us i n t o
us effectively e n o u g h t o m a k e u s c h a n g e
w a y s t h a t a r e u n s u i t a b l e to o u r
attitude a n d
b e h a v i o r . T h i s is w h a t
l a n g u a g e " d o e s ; its s y m b o l i s m
our
"dream
h a s so
much
following
individuality.
W h e t h e r o r n o t w e a r e a w a r e o f t h e effect t h e y h a v e o n o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s , it is d i s t u r b e d
by
psychic e n e r g y t h a t w e a r e f o r c e d t o p a y a t t e n -
a n d e x p o s e d to t h e m a l m o s t w i t h o u t
tion to it.
T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t h e c a s e w i t h a p e r s o n w h o s e
T h e r e w a s , for i n s t a n c e , a l a d y w h o w a s w e l l
defense.
e x t r a v e r t e d a t t i t u d e of m i n d lays all t h e e m -
known for h e r s t u p i d p r e j u d i c e s a n d h e r s t u b -
phasis u p o n external objects, or w h o
born r e s i s t a n c e
f e e l i n g s o f i n f e r i o r i t y a n d d o u b t c o n c e r n i n g his
to r e a s o n e d
could h a v e a r g u e d
with
argument.
h e r all n i g h t
One to
no
effect; s h e w o u l d h a v e t a k e n n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t notice. H e r d r e a m s , h o w e v e r , t o o k a
different
harbors
own innermost personality. T h e m o r e t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s is i n f l u e n c e d b y prejudices,
errors,
fantasies,
and
infantile
line of a p p r o a c h . O n e n i g h t , s h e d r e a m e d s h e
w i s h e s , t h e m o r e t h e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g g a p will
was a t t e n d i n g a n
w i d e n i nto a n e u r o t i c dissociation a n d lead to
important
social
occasion.
She was g r e e t e d b y t h e h o s t e s s w i t h t h e w o r d s :
a m o r e o r less a r t i f i c i a l life, f a r r e m o v e d
"How
healthy instincts, n a t u r e , a n d truth.
nice t h a t
you
could
come.
All
your
from
Left, t w o further v i s u a l i z a t i o n s of spirits: Top, hellish d e m o n s descend on St. A n t h o n y (a p a i n t i n g by the 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n artist Grunewald). B e l o w , in t h e c e n t e r panel of a 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y J a p a n e s e triptych, the g h o s t of a m u r d e r e d man strikes d o w n his killer. Ideological c o n f l i c t b r e e d s m a n y of modern m a n ' s " d e m o n s . " R i g h t , a cartoon by A m e r i c a ' s G a h a n W i l s o n depicts the s h a d o w of t h e f o r m e r Russian leader K h r u s h c h e v as a monstrous d e a t h - m a c h i n e . Far r i g h t , a cartoon from the Russian m a g a z i n e Krokodilshows " c o l o n i a l i s m " as a demonic w o l f b e i n g d r i v e n i n t o the sea by the flags of v a r i o u s independent A f r i c a n n a t i o n s .
49
T h e g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n o f d r e a m s is t o t r y t o
s h a d o w e d h i s d e a t h in a m o u n t a i n a c c i d e n t . I t
restore o u r psychological b a l a n c e by p r o d u c i n g
w a s in v a i n . Six m o n t h s l a t e r h e " s t e p p e d
d r e a m m a t e r i a l t h a t r e - e s t a b l i s h e s , in a s u b t l e
into space." A m o u n t a i n guide watched
w a y , t h e t o t a l p s y c h i c e q u i l i b r i u m . T h i s is w h a t
a n d a friend letting themselves d o w n on a rope
I call t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y
in a d i f f i c u l t
(or
compensatory)
place. T h e friend
temporary
ideas
d r e a m e r was following him d o w n . S u d d e n l y he
o r t o o h i g h a n o p i n i o n of t h e m s e l v e s , o r w h o
let g o o f t h e r o p e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g u i d e , " a s
m a k e g r a n d i o s e p l a n s o u t of p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i r
if h e w e r e j u m p i n g i n t o t h e a i r . " H e fell u p o n
real c a p a c i t i e s , h a v e d r e a m s of flying o r falling.
his f r i e n d , a n d b o t h w e n t d o w n a n d w e r e k i l l e d .
warns
personalities, them
and
at
the same
of t h e d a n g e r s
in
their
time
il
present
c o u r s e . If t h e w a r n i n g s of t h e d r e a m a r e dis-
a
ledge,
and
a
plains w h y people w h o have unrealistic
their
on
found
role of d r e a m s in o u r p s y c h i c m a k e - u p . It e x -
T h e d r e a m c o m p e n s a t e s for t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s o f
foothold
had
off him
the
A n o t h e r t y p i c a l case w a s t h a t of a l a d y w h o was living a b o v e
herself. S h e w a s
high
m i g h t y i n h e r d a i l y life, b u t s h e h a d
and
shocking
d r e a m s , r e m i n d i n g h e r of all sorts of u n s a v o r y
regarded, real accidents m a y take their place.
things.
When
T h e v i c t i m m a y fall d o w n s t a i r s o r m a y h a v e a
nantly
refused
motor accident.
dreams
then
I discovered to
them,
acknowledge
became
menacing,
she
indig-
them. and
full
The of
I r e m e m b e r t h e c a s e of a m a n w h o w a s i n e x -
r e f e r e n c e s to t h e w a l k s s h e u s e d to t a k e b y h e r -
t r i c a b l y i n v o l v e d in a n u m b e r of s h a d y affairs.
self i n t h e w o o d s , w h e r e s h e i n d u l g e d i n s o u l f u l
He developed
fantasies. I saw her d a n g e r , b u t she w o u l d not
an almost
morbid
passion
for
d a n g e r o u s m o u n t a i n c l i m b i n g , as a sort of c o m -
listen to m y m a n y w a r n i n g s . S o o n
pensation. H e w a s seeking " t o get a b o v e h i m -
she w a s s a v a g e l y a t t a c k e d in t h e w o o d s b y a
self." I n a d r e a m
himself
s e x u a l p e r v e r t ; b u t for t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f s o m e
mountain
people w h o heard her screams, she would have
one night, he saw
s t e p p i n g off t h e s u m m i t o f a h i g h
i n t o e m p t y s p a c e . W h e n he told m e his d r e a m , I i n s t a n t l y s a w his d a n g e r a n d tried to e m p h a -
afterwards,
b e e n killed. What
her
size t h e w a r n i n g a n d p e r s u a d e h i m t o r e s t r a i n
d r e a m s h a d told m e was t h a t this w o m a n
had
himself. I e v e n told h i m t h a t t h e d r e a m
a s e c r e t l o n g i n g for s u c h a n a d v e n t u r e — j u s t a s
50
fore-
There
was
no
magic
in
this.
Left, t w o i n f l u e n c e s t o w h i c h an individual's c o n s c i o u s n e s s is subjected: A d v e r t i s i n g (a 1 9 6 0 s American a d v e r t i s e m e n t s t r e s s i n g "sociability") a n d p o l i t i c a l propaganda (a F r e n c h p o s t e r f o r a 1962 r e f e r e n d u m , u r g i n g a v o t e of " y e s " but plastered w i t h t h e opposition's " n o " ) . T h e s e a n d o t h e r influences m a y c a u s e us t o live in ways u n s u i t e d t o o u r i n d i v i d u a l natures: and the p s y c h i c i m b a l a n c e that can f o l l o w m u s t be c o m p e n s a t e d for by the u n c o n s c i o u s .
The l i g h t h o u s e keeper, r i g h t ( i n a cartoon by A m e r i c a ' s R o l a n d B Wilson), has a p p a r e n t l y b e c o m e a little d i s t u r b e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y by his isolation H i s u n c o n s c i o u s , in its c o m p e n s a t o r y f u n c t i o n , h a s produced a h a l l u c i n a t o r y c o m p a n i o n , to w h o m the keeper c o n f e s s e s ( i n thecartoon c a p t i o n ) : " N o t only that, Bill, but I c a u g h t m y s e l f talking to m y s e l f a g a i n y e s t e r d a y I "
the m o u n t a i n climber unconsciously sought the The Delphic o r a c l e , b e l o w , b e i n g consulted by K i n g A e g e u s o f A t h e n s (from a vase p a i n t i n g ) . " M e s s a g e s " from the u n c o n s c i o u s are o f t e n as cryptic and a m b i g u o u s as w e r e t h e oracle's u t t e r a n c e s .
s a t i s f a c t i o n of
finding
a d e f i n i t e w a y o u t o f his
difficulties. O b v i o u s l y , n e i t h e r of t h e m e x p e c t e d t h e stiff p r i c e i n v o l v e d : S h e h a d s e v e r a l b o n e s b r o k e n , a n d h e p a i d w i t h h i s life. T h u s d r e a m s m a y sometimes a n n o u n c e certain situations long before they actually h a p p e n . T h i s is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a m i r a c l e o r a f o r m
of
p r e c o g n i t i o n . M a n y crises in o u r lives h a v e a long
unconscious
history.
We
move
toward
t h e m step by step, u n a w a r e of t h e d a n g e r s t h a t a r e a c c u m u l a t i n g . B u t w h a t w e c o n s c i o u s l y fail t o s e e is f r e q u e n t l y
perceived by our
scious,
pass
which
can
the
uncon-
information
on
through dreams. D r e a m s m a y o f t e n w a r n u s in t h i s w a y ; b u t j u s t a s o f t e n , it s e e m s , t h e y d o n o t . T h e r e f o r e , a n y a s s u m p t i o n of a b e n e v o l e n t h a n d r e s t r a i n i n g us i n t i m e is d u b i o u s . O r , t o s t a t e it m o r e p o s i t i v e l y , it s e e m s t h a t a b e n e v o l e n t a g e n c y is sometimes
at work
mysterious h a n d
and
sometimes
not.
The
m a y even point the way
to
p e r d i t i o n ; d r e a m s sometimes prove to be traps, o r a p p e a r to b e so. T h e y s o m e t i m e s b e h a v e like the D e l p h i c oracle t h a t told K i n g Croesus that if h e c r o s s e d t h e H a l y s R i v e r h e w o u l d d e s t r o y a large k i n g d o m . It was only after he h a d b e e n c o m p l e t e l y d e f e a t e d in b a t t l e after t h e crossing
that he discovered that the k i n g d o m m e a n t by
understanding
t h e o r a c l e w a s his o w n ! One cannot
afford
n o t i c e d o r u n c o m p r e h e n d e d . I n n o r m a l life, t h e
to b e n a i v e in
dealing
o f d r e a m s is o f t e n
considered
superfluous. I c a n illustrate this by m y experi-
w i t h d r e a m s . T h e y o r i g i n a t e i n a s p i r i t t h a t is
e n c e w i t h a p r i m i t i v e t r i b e in E a s t Africa.
not quite
my amazement,
human,
but
is r a t h e r
a breath
n a t u r e — a spirit of t h e beautiful a n d
of
generous
these tribesmen denied
To that
t h e y h a d a n y d r e a m s . But t h r o u g h p a t i e n t , in-
as w e l l a s o f t h e c r u e l g o d d e s s . If w e w a n t t o
direct talks with t h e m I soon found that
they
c h a r a c t e r i z e this spirit, we shall certainly get
h a d d r e a m s just like e v e r y o n e else, b u t
that
c l o s e r t o it i n t h e s p h e r e o f a n c i e n t m y t h o l o g i e s ,
they
o r t h e f a b l e s o f t h e p r i m e v a l f o r e s t , t h a n in t h e
meaning.
c o n s c i o u s n e s s of m o d e r n m a n . I a m n o t d e n y -
nothing,"' they told m e . T h e y t h o u g h t t h a t the
ing that
the
o n l y d r e a m s t h a t m a t t e r e d w e r e those of chiefs
gains
a n d medicine m e n ; these, which concerned the
great
gains have
resulted
from
e v o l u t i o n of civilized s o c i e t y . B u t t h e s e
were
convinced "Dreams
their
dreams
of o r d i n a r y
had
men
no
mean
h a v e b e e n m a d e a t t h e p r i c e o f e n o r m o u s losses,
welfare of t h e t r i b e , w e r e h i g h l y
w h o s e e x t e n t w e h a v e scarcely b e g u n to esti-
T h e only d r a w b a c k was that the chief a n d the
m a t e . P a r t of t h e p u r p o s e of m y
comparisons
medicine
man
both
claimed
appreciated.
that
they
had
b e t w e e n t h e p r i m i t i v e a n d t h e civilized s t a t e s of
ceased having meaningful dreams. T h e y dated
man
this c h a n g e from the t i m e t h a t the British c a m e
has been
to s h o w
t h e b a l a n c e of these
to their c o u n t r y . T h e district
losses a n d g a i n s . Primitive m a n w a s m u c h m o r e g o v e r n e d by his i n s t i n c t s t h a n a r e his " r a t i o n a l * " m o d e r n d e s c e n d a n t s , w h o h a v e l e a r n e d to " c o n t r o l " t h e m selves.
In
this
civilizing
process,
we
have
the
British
official
in
charge
commissioner of t h e m
t a k e n o v e r t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e " g r e a t
had
dreams"
that had hitherto guided the tribe's behavior. W h e n these tribesmen c o n c e d e d that they did
increasingly divided o u r consciousness from the
have dreams, but thought them
d e e p e r i n s t i n c t i v e s t r a t a of t h e h u m a n
t h e y w e r e like t h e m o d e r n m a n w h o t h i n k s t h a t
psyche,
meaningless,
a n d even u l t i m a t e l y from the s o m a t i c basis of
a d r e a m h a s n o s i g n i f i c a n c e for h i m s i m p l y b e -
the psychic p h e n o m e n o n . Fortunately, we have
cause he does not understand
n o t lost t h e s e b a s i c i n s t i n c t i v e s t r a t a ; t h e y r e -
civilized
main
though
d r e a m (which he m a y not even r e m e m b e r ) can
t h e y m a y e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s o n l y in t h e form of
a l t e r h i s m o o d for b e t t e r o r w o r s e . T h e d r e a m
part
of t h e
unconscious,
d r e a m images. These instinctive one
may
not, incidentally,
even
phenomena-
always
recognize
t h e m for w h a t t h e y a r e , for t h e i r c h a r a c t e r is symbolic
play a vital
part
in w h a t
I
have
called the c o m p e n s a t i n g function of d r e a m s . F o r t h e sake of m e n t a l stability a n d physiological health, the unconscious a n d
even the
conscious must be integrally connected a n d thus m o v e o n p a r a l l e l lines. If t h e y a r e split a p a r t o r " d i s s o c i a t e d , " p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e follows. In this r e s p e c t , d r e a m s y m b o l s a r e
the
essential message c a r r i e r s from the instinctive to the r a t i o n a l p a r t s of the h u m a n m i n d , a n d their i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e n r i c h e s t h e p o v e r t y of c o n s c i o u s ness so t h a t it l e a r n s t o u n d e r s t a n d a g a i n
the
forgotten l a n g u a g e of t h e instincts. Of course, people are b o u n d function,
52
to q u e r y
s i n c e its s y m b o l s s o o f t e n
pass
this un-
man
it. B u t e v e n
can sometimes observe
that
a a
has b e e n " c o m p r e h e n d e d , " b u t o n l y i n a s u b -
t h a t a r e typical a n d often occur. A m o n g s u c h
liminal w a y . A n d t h a t is w h a t u s u a l l y h a p p e n s .
motifs a r e falling, flying, b e i n g p e r s e c u t e d
It is o n l y o n t h e r a r e o c c a s i o n s w h e n a d r e a m
d a n g e r o u s a n i m a l s o r h o s t i l e m e n , b e i n g insuffi-
is p a r t i c u l a r l y
i m p r e s s i v e o r r e p e a t s itself a t
c i e n t l y o r a b s u r d l y c l o t h e d in p u b l i c
places,
regular intervals t h a t m o s t p e o p l e c o n s i d e r a n
b e i n g in a h u r r y o r lost i n a m i l l i n g
crowd,
fighting w i t h useless w e a p o n s o r b e i n g w h o l l y
interpretation desirable. Here against
I ought
to a d d
unintelligent
or
by
a word
of
warning
defenseless, r u n n i n g h a r d yet g e t t i n g n o w h e r e .
dream
A t y p i c a l i n f a n t i l e m o t i f is t h e d r e a m o f g r o w -
incompetent
analysis. T h e r e a r e s o m e p e o p l e w h o s e m e n t a l
ing infinitely small or infinitely big, or
c o n d i t i o n is so u n b a l a n c e d t h a t t h e i n t e r p r e t a -
t r a n s f o r m e d from o n e to t h e o t h e r
being
a s y o u find
tion of t h e i r d r e a m s c a n b e e x t r e m e l y r i s k y ; i n
it, for i n s t a n c e , i n L e w i s C a r r o l l ' s Alice in
such a c a s e , a v e r y o n e - s i d e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s is
derland.
cut off f r o m
or
motifs t h a t m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d in t h e c o n t e x t of
not
t h e d r e a m itself, n o t a s s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y c i p h e r s .
a correspondingly
irrational
"crazy" unconscious, a n d the two should be b r o u g h t
together
without
taking
special
precautions.
Won-
B u t I m u s t stress a g a i n t h a t t h e s e a r e
T h e r e c u r r i n g d r e a m is a n o t e w o r t h y p h e n o m e n o n . T h e r e a r e cases in w h i c h p e o p l e h a v e
A n d , s p e a k i n g m o r e g e n e r a l l y , it is p l a i n foolishness to b e l i e v e
in
ready-made
systematic
guides t o d r e a m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a s if o n e c o u l d
d r e a m e d the s a m e d r e a m from c h i l d h o o d into t h e l a t e r y e a r s of a d u l t
life. A d r e a m
of t h i s
k i n d is u s u a l l y a n a t t e m p t t o c o m p e n s a t e for a
simply buy a r e f e r e n c e b o o k a n d look u p a p a r -
p a r t i c u l a r defect in t h e d r e a m e r ' s a t t i t u d e
ticular s y m b o l . N o d r e a m s y m b o l c a n b e s e p a -
l i f e ; o r it m a y d a t e f r o m a t r a u m a t i c
r a t e d f r o m t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o d r e a m s it, a n d
t h a t h a s left b e h i n d s o m e s p e c i f i c p r e j u d i c e . I t
t h e r e is n o d e f i n i t e o r s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
interpre-
t a t i o n of a n y d r e a m . E a c h i n d i v i d u a l v a r i e s s o m u c h in t h e w a y t h a t h i s u n c o n s c i o u s c o m p l e ments or c o m p e n s a t e s his c o n s c i o u s m i n d
that
to
moment
m a y also sometimes anticipate a future
event
of i m p o r t a n c e . I myself d r e a m e d
of a m o t i f o v e r
several
y e a r s , in w h i c h I w o u l d " d i s c o v e r " a p a r t of m y
it is i m p o s s i b l e t o b e s u r e h o w f a r d r e a m s a n d
house that I did not k n o w existed.
their s y m b o l s c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d a t a l l .
it w a s t h e q u a r t e r s w h e r e m y l o n g - d e a d p a r e n t s single
l i v e d , in w h i c h m y f a t h e r , t o m y s u r p r i s e , h a d
"motifs")
a laboratory w h e r e he studied the c o m p a r a t i v e
It is t r u e t h a t t h e r e a r e d r e a m s a n d symbols (I s h o u l d p r e f e r t o c a l l t h e m
Sometimes
Left, a p h o t o g r a p h of J u n g ( f o u r t h from the r i g h t ) in 1 9 2 6 w i t h t h e tribesmen of M t . E l g o n , K e n y a . Jung's f i r s t h a n d s t u d y of p r i m i t i v e societies led t o m a n y of his m o s t valuable p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s .
Right, t w o d r e a m b o o k s — o n e f r o m 20th-century Britain and the other from ancient E g y p t ( t h e latter is among the o l d e s t w r i t t e n d o c u m e n t s extant, c. 2 0 0 0 B.C.). S u c h r e a d y made, r u l e - o f - t h u m b of dreams
interpretation
is w o r t h l e s s ;
dreams
are
highly i n d i v i d u a l i z e d , a n d t h e i r symbolism c a n n o t be p i g e o n h o l e d .
53
a n a t o m y o f f i s h a n d m y m o t h e r r a n a h o t e l for ghostly visitors. U s u a l l y this u n f a m i l i a r
guest
wing was an ancient historical building,
long
forgotten, yet m y i n h e r i t e d p r o p e r t y . It
con-
tained interesting antique furniture, and toward t h e e n d of this series of d r e a m s I d i s c o v e r e d a n old library whose books w e r e u n k n o w n to m e . F i n a l l y , in t h e last d r e a m , I o p e n e d o n e of t h e b o o k s a n d f o u n d i n it a p r o f u s i o n o f t h e m o s t marvelous symbolic pictures. W h e n
I awoke,
my heart was palpitating with excitement. S o m e t i m e before I h a d this p a r t i c u l a r last d r e a m of t h e series, I h a d p l a c e d a n o r d e r w i t h a n a n t i q u a r i a n b o o k s e l l e r for o n e o f t h e c l a s s i c compilations
of m e d i e v a l
alchemists.
I
had
found a q u o t a t i o n in l i t e r a t u r e t h a t I t h o u g h t might have some connection with early Byzant i n e a l c h e m y , a n d I w i s h e d t o c h e c k it. S e v e r a l weeks after
I h a d h a d the d r e a m of t h e
un-
k n o w n book, a parcel arrived from the bookseller. I n s i d e w a s a p a r c h m e n t v o l u m e d a t i n g from
the
16th c e n t u r y .
It was illustrated
by
fascinating symbolic pictures that instantly rem i n d e d m e of t h o s e I h a d seen in m y
dream.
As t h e r e d i s c o v e r y of t h e p r i n c i p l e s of a l c h e m y c a m e to b e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of m y w o r k as a p i o n e e r of p s y c h o l o g y , t h e m o t i f of m y ring
dream
can
easily
be
recur-
understood.
h o u s e , of c o u r s e , w a s a s y m b o l of m y
The
person-
a l i t y a n d its c o n s c i o u s field o f i n t e r e s t s ; a n d t h e u n k n o w n a n n e x r e p r e s e n t e d t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n of a n e w field o f i n t e r e s t a n d r e s e a r c h o f w h i c h m y conscious m i n d was at that time u n a w a r e . F r o m that moment,
30 years ago, I never h a d
the
dream again.
T o p of p a g e , a f a m o u s e x a m p l e o f t h e c o m m o n d r e a m of g r o w i n g larger: a d r a w i n g f r o m Alice in Wonderland (1 8 7 7 ) s h o w s A l i c e g r o w i n g t o fill a house. Center, the equally c o m m o n d r e a m o f f l y i n g , in a 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y d r a w i n g ( b y t h e B r i t i s h artist William Blake) entitled: " 0 , H o w I D r e a m t of T h i n g s I m p o s s i b l e . "
54
The analysis of dreams
I began this essay by n o t i n g t h e difference b e -
the king died.
t w e e n a s i g n a n d a s y m b o l . T h e s i g n is a l w a y s
those of a m i r r o r t h a t b r e a k s , or a p i c t u r e t h a t
less t h a n t h e c o n c e p t it r e p r e s e n t s , w h i l e a s y m -
falls, w h e n a d e a t h o c c u r s ; o r m i n o r b u t u n e x -
bol a l w a y s s t a n d s for s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n its
p l a i n e d b r e a k a g e s i n a h o u s e w h e r e s o m e o n e is
obvious
and
immediate
meaning.
Symbols,
moreover, are n a t u r a l a n d s p o n t a n e o u s
pro-
Other
passing through
common
examples
are
a n e m o t i o n a l crisis. E v e n
if
skeptics refuse to c r e d i t s u c h r e p o r t s , stories of
ducts. N o g e n i u s h a s e v e r sat d o w n w i t h a p e n
this kind a r e a l w a y s c r o p p i n g u p , a n d this a l o n e
or a b r u s h in his h a n d a n d s a i d : " N o w I a m
s h o u l d s e r v e as a m p l e p r o o f of t h e i r
going to i n v e n t a s y m b o l . " N o o n e c a n t a k e a
logical i m p o r t a n c e .
m o r e o r less r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t , r e a c h e d a s a l o g i -
T h e r e are m a n y symbols, however
psycho-
(among
cal c o n c l u s i o n o r b y d e l i b e r a t e i n t e n t , a n d t h e n
them the most i m p o r t a n t ) , that are not indi-
give it " s y m b o l i c " f o r m . N o m a t t e r w h a t
v i d u a l b u t collective
fan-
in their n a t u r e a n d origin.
tastic t r a p p i n g s o n e m a y p u t u p o n a n i d e a o f
T h e s e a r e chiefly religious i m a g e s . T h e believer
this k i n d , it w i l l still r e m a i n a s i g n , l i n k e d t o
assumes that
the c o n s c i o u s t h o u g h t b e h i n d it, n o t a s y m b o l
they h a v e been revealed to m a n . T h e
that
In
says flatly t h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n i n v e n t e d . B o t h
for
a r e w r o n g . I t is t r u e , a s t h e s k e p t i c n o t e s , t h a t
hints at
dreams,
something
symbols
occur
not
yet
known.
spontaneously,
t h e y a r e of d i v i n e origin — t h a t skeptic
dreams h a p p e n and are not invented; they are,
r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l s a n d c o n c e p t s h a v e for
therefore, t h e m a i n s o u r c e of all o u r k n o w l e d g e
turies b e e n t h e object of careful a n d q u i t e c o n -
about symbolism.
s c i o u s e l a b o r a t i o n . I t is e q u a l l y t r u e , a s t h e b e -
But s y m b o l s , I m u s t p o i n t o u t , d o n o t o c c u r
cen-
l i e v e r i m p l i e s , t h a t t h e i r o r i g i n is s o f a r b u r i e d
solely in d r e a m s . T h e y a p p e a r in a l l k i n d s o f
in t h e m y s t e r y of t h e p a s t t h a t t h e y s e e m
psychic
have no h u m a n
manifestations.
There
are
symbolic
source. But they are in
to fact
thoughts a n d feelings, s y m b o l i c acts a n d situa-
"collective representations," e m a n a t i n g
tions. I t o f t e n s e e m s t h a t e v e n i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t s
primeval
c o - o p e r a t e w i t h t h e u n c o n s c i o u s in t h e a r r a n g e -
such, these images are involuntary spontaneous
m e n t of s y m b o l i c p a t t e r n s . T h e r e a r c n u m e r o u s
manifestations
well-authenticated stories of clocks s t o p p i n g at
inventions.
the m o m e n t of t h e i r o w n e r ' s d e a t h ; o n e
dreams and
and
creative
fantasies.
by no m e a n s
from As
intentional
was
T h i s fact, as I shall l a t e r e x p l a i n , h a s a direct
the p e n d u l u m c l o c k i n t h e p a l a c e o f F r e d e r i c k
and important bearing upon the interpretation
the G r e a t a t S a n s S o u c i , w h i c h s t o p p e d
o f d r e a m s . I t is o b v i o u s t h a t if y o u a s s u m e t h e
when
Inanimate o b j e c t s s o m e t i m e s s e e m to " a c t " s y m b o l i c a l l y : left, t h e clock of Frederick t h e Great, w h i c h stopped w h e n its o w n e r d i e d in 1 7 8 6 .
Symbols are p r o d u c e d s p o n t a n e o u s l y from the u n c o n s c i o u s ( t h o u g h t h e y may later be c o n s c i o u s l y e l a b o r a t e d ) . Right, the ankh, a n c i e n t E g y p t ' s symbol of life, t h e u n i v e r s e , a n d man. By c o n t r a s t , t h e a i r w a y s insignia (far r i g h t ) are c o n s c i o u s l y contrived signs, n o t s y m b o l s .
55
d r e a m t o b e s y m b o l i c , y o u w i l l i n t e r p r e t it dif-
furniture d a t i n g from the 16th c e n t u r y or even
ferently from a person w h o believes that
the
earlier. M y surprise a n d curiosity increased. I
is
w a n t e d to see m o r e of t h e w h o l e s t r u c t u r e of
k n o w n a l r e a d y a n d is m e r e l y " d i s g u i s e d " b y t h e
this h o u s e . So I w e n t d o w n to t h e cellar, w h e r e
essential
energizing
thought
or
emotion
'dream. In the latter case, d r e a m interpretation
I f o u n d a d o o r o p e n i n g o n t o a flight of s t o n e
m a k e s l i t t l e s e n s e , for y o u f i n d o n l y w h a t y o u
s t e p s t h a t l e d t o a l a r g e v a u l t e d r o o m . T h e floor
already know.
c o n s i s t e d of l a r g e s l a b s of s t o n e a n d t h e walls
I t is for t h i s r e a s o n t h a t I h a v e a l w a y s s a i d
seemed very ancient. I examined
the
mortar
as y o u
can
a n d f o u n d it w a s m i x e d w i t h s p l i n t e r s o f b r i c k .
a b o u t s y m b o l i s m ; t h e n f o r g e t it a l l w h e n
you
O b v i o u s l y the walls w e r e of R o m a n origin. I
to m y
pupils:
"Learn
as m u c h
a r e a n a l y z i n g a d r e a m . " T h i s a d v i c e is o f s u c h
b e c a m e increasingly excited. In one corner, I
p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e t h a t I h a v e m a d e it a r u l e
saw an iron ring on a stone slab. I pulled
to r e m i n d myself t h a t I c a n n e v e r
understand
t h e s l a b a n d s a w yet a n o t h e r n a r r o w flight of
s o m e b o d y else's d r e a m well e n o u g h to i n t e r p r e t
steps l e a d i n g to a k i n d of c a v e , w h i c h s e e m e d
up
il c o r r e c t l y . I h a v e d o n e t h i s in o r d e r t o c h e c k
to b e a p r e h i s t o r i c t o m b , c o n t a i n i n g t w o skulls,
t h e flow o f m y o w n a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d r e a c t i o n s ,
s o m e b o n e s , a n d b r o k e n s h a r d s of p o t t e r y . T h e n
which might otherwise prevail over my patient's
I woke up.
uncertainties and
h e s i t a t i o n s . A s it is o f
the
If F r e u d , w h e n h e a n a l y z e d this d r e a m , h a d
g r e a t e s t t h e r a p e u t i c i m p o r t a n c e for a n a n a l y s t
followed
to get t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e s s a g e of a d r e a m
(that
associations a n d context, he would have heard
is, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t h a t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s is m a k -
a far-reaching story. But I a m afraid he would
my
m e t h o d o f e x p l o r i n g its s p e c i f i c
i n g to t h e c o n s c i o u s m i n d ) as a c c u r a t e l y as pos-
have dismissed
s i b l e , it is e s s e n t i a l for h i m t o e x p l o r e t h e c o n -
from a p r o b l e m t h a t w a s really his o w n .
tent of a d r e a m w i t h the u t m o s t t h o r o u g h n e s s .
d r e a m is i n f a c t a s h o r t s u m m a r y o f m y life,
I had
a dream
when
I was working
with
F r e u d t h a t illustrates this p o i n t . I d r e a m e d t h a t I w a s in " m y h o m e , " a p p a r e n t l y o n t h e
first
it a s a m e r e e f f o r t
m o r e specifically
to
of the d e v e l o p m e n t
escape
of
The my
m i n d . I g r e w u p in a h o u s e 2 0 0 years old, o u r f u r n i t u r e c o n s i s t e d m o s t l y of p i e c e s a b o u t 3 0 0
floor, in a cosy, p l e a s a n t s i t t i n g r o o m f u r n i s h e d
years old, a n d mentally m y hitherto
in t h e m a n n e r o f t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . I w a s a s t o n -
spiritual a d v e n t u r e h a d b e e n to s t u d y t h e philo-
ished t h a t I h a d n e v e r seen this r o o m
sophies of K a n t a n d S c h o p e n h a u e r .
before,
a n d b e g a n to w o n d e r w h a t the g r o u n d
floor
greatest
The great
n e w s of t h e d a y w a s t h e w o r k of C h a r l e s
Dar-
w a s like. I w e n t d o w n s t a i r s a n d f o u n d t h e p l a c e
win. S h o r t l y before this, I h a d b e e n living with
was rather dark, with paneled walls a n d heavy
t h e still m e d i e v a l c o n c e p t s o f m y p a r e n t s , for
Right, J u n g ' s mother and father. J u n g ' s interest in a n c i e n t r e l i g i o n and m y t h o l o g y d r e w him away from t h e r e l i g i o u s w o r l d of his p a r e n t s (hisfather w a s a p a s t o r ) — a s s h o w n by the dream, discussed o n t h i s p a g e , t h a t he h a d w h i l e w o r k i n g w i t h F r e u d . Far r i g h t , J u n g at B u r g h b l z l i H o s p i t a l , Z u r i c h , w h e r e he w o r k e d in 1 9 0 0 as a psychiatrist.
56
w h o m t h e w o r l d a n d m e n w e r e still p r e s i d e d
my own inner world, which, I surmised, would
over b y d i v i n e o m n i p o t e n c e a n d
look very q u e e r to h i m . Feeling q u i t e u n c e r t a i n
providence.
This world h a d b e c o m e a n t i q u a t e d a n d obso-
about my own psychology, I almost automati-
lete. M y C h r i s t i a n f a i t h h a d b e c o m e
relative
c a l l y t o l d h i m a lie a b o u t m y " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n s "
through
religions
in o r d e r to e s c a p e t h e i m p o s s i b l e task of e n l i g h t -
a n d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y . I t is for t h i s r e a s o n t h a t
its e n c o u n t e r
with
Eastern
ening him about my very personal and utterly
the g r o u n d floor w a s so still, d a r k , a n d
different
obvi-
ously u n i n h a b i t e d . M y then historical interests h a d
developed
r a t i o n of t h e j a m
I got into t h r o u g h
telling
from a n o r i g i n a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h c o m p a r a -
F r e u d m y d r e a m . B u t it is a g o o d e x a m p l e o f
tive a n a t o m y
t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s in w h i c h o n e g e t s i n v o l v e d
and
paleontology
while
I
w o r k i n g as a n assistant a t t h e A n a t o m i c a l
was In-
t h e c o u r s e of a real d r e a m analysis. So
in
much
s t i t u t e . I w a s f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e b o n e s o f fossil
d e p e n d s u p o n the personal differences b e t w e e n
man, particularly by the m u c h discussed
the analyst a n d the analyzed.
derthalensis
and
skull o f D u b o i s '
the
still
more
Pithecanthropus.
Nean-
controversial As a
matter
I s o o n r e a l i z e d t h a t F r e u d w a s l o o k i n g for s o m e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i s h o f m i n e . A n d so I s u g -
of f a c t t h e s e w e r e m y r e a l a s s o c i a t i o n s t o t h e
gested t e n t a t i v e l y t h a t t h e skulls I h a d d r e a m e d
d r e a m ; b u t I did not d a r e to m e n t i o n the s u b -
of m i g h t refer to c e r t a i n m e m b e r s of m y family
ject of skulls, s k e l e t o n s , o r c o r p s e s t o
Freud,
w h o s e d e a t h , for s o m e r e a s o n , I m i g h t d e s i r e .
because I h a d l e a r n e d t h a t this t h e m e w a s not
T h i s p r o p o s a l m e t w i t h his a p p r o v a l , b u t I w a s
popular with him. H e cherished the
n o t satisfied w i t h s u c h a " p h o n e y " s o l u t i o n .
peculiar
idea t h a t I a n t i c i p a t e d his e a r l y d e a t h . A n d h e
W h i l e I w a s t r y i n g t o find a s u i t a b l e a n s w e r
d r e w this c o n c l u s i o n from t h e fact t h a t I h a d
to F r e u d ' s q u e s t i o n s , I w a s s u d d e n l y
shown m u c h i n t e r e s t in t h e m u m m i f i e d
by a n intuition a b o u t the role that t h e subjec-
corpses
confused
in t h e s o - c a l l e d B l e i k e l l e r i n B r e m e n , w h i c h w e
tive f a c t o r p l a y s in p s y c h o l o g i c a l
visited t o g e t h e r i n 1 9 0 9 o n o u r w a y t o t a k e t h e
i n g . M y i n t u i t i o n w a s so o v e r w h e l m i n g t h a t I
boat to A m e r i c a . T h u s I felt r e l u c t a n t t o c o m e o u t w i t h
•
constitution.
I m u s t a p o l o g i z e for t h i s r a t h e r l e n g t h y n a r -
understand-
t h o u g h t o n l y of h o w to get o u t of this i m p o s my
sible snarl, a n d I took the easy w a y o u t by a
own t h o u g h t s , since t h r o u g h r e c e n t e x p e r i e n c e
lie. T h i s w a s n e i t h e r e l e g a n t n o r m o r a l l y d e f e n -
I was d e e p l y i m p r e s s e d by t h e a l m o s t u n b r i d g e -
sible, b u t o t h e r w i s e I s h o u l d h a v e risked a fatal
able g a p b e t w e e n F r e u d ' s m e n t a l o u t l o o k a n d
r o w w i t h F r e u d — a n d I d i d n o t feel u p t o t h a t
b a c k g r o u n d a n d m y o w n . I w a s afraid of losing
for m a n y r e a s o n s .
his f r i e n d s h i p if I s h o u l d o p e n u p t o h i m a b o u t
My
intuition
consisted of t h e s u d d e n
and
m o s t u n e x p e c t e d insight i n t o t h e fact t h a t
my
d r e a m m e a n t myself, my life a n d my w o r l d ,
my
whole
reality
against
a theoretical
structure
e r e c t e d b y a n o t h e r , s t r a n g e m i n d for
reasons
and
Freud's
p u r p o s e s o f its o w n .
It w a s n o t
d r e a m , it w a s m i n e ; a n d I u n d e r s t o o d s u d d e n l y i n a flash w h a t m y d r e a m
meant.
T h i s conflict illustrates a vital p o i n t
about
d r e a m a n a l y s i s . It is n o t so m u c h a t e c h n i q u e t h a t c a n be l e a r n e d a n d a p p l i e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e r u l e s a s it is a d i a l e c t i c a l e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n t w o p e r s o n a l i t i e s . I f it is h a n d l e d a s a m e c h a n i cal t e c h n i q u e , the individual psychic a l i t y o f t h e d r e a m e r g e t s lost a n d
the
personthera-
p e u t i c p r o b l e m is r e d u c e d t o t h e s i m p l e q u e s -
57
t i o n : W h i c h of t h e t w o p e o p l e c o n c e r n e d — t h e analyst
or
the
dreamer—will
dominate
The problem of types
the
o t h e r ? I g a v e u p h y p n o t i c t r e a t m e n t for t h i s very reason, because I did not w a n t to impose m y will o n o t h e r s . I w a n t e d t h e h e a l i n g p r o cesses t o g r o w o u t o f t h e p a t i e n t ' s o w n p e r s o n -
I n a l l o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f s c i e n c e , it is l e g i t i m a t e
ality, not from suggestions by m e t h a t
to a p p l y a h y p o t h e s i s to a n i m p e r s o n a l subject.
would
h a v e o n l y a p a s s i n g effect. M y a i m w a s t o p r o -
Psychology,
tect a n d p r e s e r v e m y p a t i e n t ' s d i g n i t y a n d free-
you with the living relations b e t w e e n two indi-
however,
inescapably
confronts
d o m , s o t h a t h e c o u l d l i v e h i s life a c c o r d i n g t o
v i d u a l s , n e i t h e r of w h o m c a n b e d i v e s t e d of his
h i s o w n w i s h e s . I n t h i s e x c h a n g e w i t h F r e u d , it
subjective personality, nor, indeed, depersonal-
d a w n e d o n m e for t h e first t i m e t h a t b e f o r e w e
ized in a n y o t h e r w a y . T h e
construct general theories about m a n and
his
p a t i e n t m a y set o u t b y a g r e e i n g t o d e a l w i t h a
p s y c h e w e s h o u l d l e a r n a lot m o r e a b o u t
the
c h o s e n p r o b l e m in a n i m p e r s o n a l a n d o b j e c t i v e
T h e i n d i v i d u a l is t h e o n l y r e a l i t y . T h e f u r t h e r
w h o l e personalities a r e i n v o l v e d in their discus-
we m o v e a w a y from the individual t o w a r d a b -
s i o n . A t t h i s p o i n t , f u r t h e r p r o g r e s s is. p o s s i b l e
s t r a c t i d e a s a b o u t Homo sapiens,
o n l y if m u t u a l a g r e e m e n t c a n b e r e a c h e d .
real h u m a n b e i n g w e h a v e to d e a l w i t h .
t h e m o r e likely
manner;
but
once
they
analyst and
are
engaged,
his
their
w e a r e t o fall i n t o e r r o r . I n t h e s e t i m e s o f s o c i a l
C a n w e m a k e a n y sort of o b j e c t i v e j u d g m e n t
u p h e a v a l a n d r a p i d c h a n g e , it is d e s i r a b l e t o
a b o u t t h e final r e s u l t ? O n l y if w e m a k e a c o m -
know m u c h more than we do about the indi-
parison between our conclusions and the stan-
v i d u a l h u m a n b e i n g , for so m u c h d e p e n d s u p o n
dards
that
are generally
valid
in t h e
h i s m e n t a l a n d m o r a l q u a l i t i e s . B u t if w e a r e
milieu to w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l s b e l o n g .
to see t h i n g s in t h e i r r i g h t p e r s p e c t i v e , w e n e e d
then, we must take into account the
to u n d e r s t a n d
social Even mental
t h e p a s t of m a n as w e l l as his
e q u i l i b r i u m (or " s a n i t y " ) of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n -
p r e s e n t . T h a t is w h y a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m y t h s
cerned. For the result c a n n o t be a completely
a n d s y m b o l s is o f e s s e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e .
collective
leveling
out
of t h e
individual
A n assertive e x t r a v e r t o v e r p o w e r s a w i t h d r a w n i n t r o v e r t in a c a r t o o n b y A m e r i c a ' s J u l e s Feiffer. T h e s e J u n g i a n terms for h u m a n " t y p e s " are n o t d o g m a t i c : For i n s t a n c e , G a n d h i , r i g h t , w a s b o t h an a s c e t i c ( i n t r o v e r t ) a n d a p o l i t i c a l leader (extravert). A n i n d i v i d u a l — a n y face in t h e c r o w d (far r i g h t ) — c a n o n l y more or less be c a t e g o r i z e d .
to
adjust h i m to t h e " n o r m s " o f his society. T h i s would amount
to a m o s t
A sane a n d n o r m a l people
habitually
unnatural
condition.
s o c i e t y is o n e i n
disagree,
because
which general
formulate a n y psychological theory, or to teach it, b y d e s c r i b i n g l a r g e n u m b e r s o f s e p a r a t e c a s e s without common
a n y effort
to see w h a t
a n d h o w they
differ.
they have in A n y general
a g r e e m e n t is r e l a t i v e l y r a r e o u t s i d e t h e s p h e r e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c a n b e chosen as a basis. O n e
of i n s t i n c t i v e h u m a n q u a l i t i e s .
c a n , for i n s t a n c e , m a k e a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e disof
tinction between individuals w h o have "extra-
m e n t a l life i n s o c i e t y , b u t it is n o t a g o a l ; a g r e e -
verted" personalities a n d others w h o a r e "intro-
m e n t is e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t . B e c a u s e p s y c h o l o g y
verted."
basically d e p e n d s u p o n b a l a n c e d o p p o s i t e s , n o
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , b u t it e n a b l e s o n e t o s e e i m m e -
judgment
d i a t e l y t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t c a n a r i s e if t h e a n a -
Disagreement
functions
as
can be considered
a
vehicle
t o b e final
in
This
is o n l y
w h i c h its r e v e r s i b i l i t y h a s n o t b e e n t a k e n i n t o
lyst s h o u l d
a c c o u n t . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y lies i n
patient the other.
t h e fact t h a t t h e r e is n o s t a n d p o i n t a b o v e o r outside p s y c h o l o g y
that
form
judgment
an
ultimate
would
enable of
what
us to the
p s y c h e is. In s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t d r e a m s d e m a n d i n d i -
happen
o n e of m a n y
to be one type
possible
a n d his
Since a n y d e e p e r analysis of d r e a m s leads to the confrontation
of t w o individuals,
it w i l l
obviously m a k e a great difference w h e t h e r their types of a t t i t u d e a r e t h e s a m e o r n o t . If both b e l o n g t o t h e s a m e t y p e , t h e y m a y sail a l o n g
vidual t r e a t m e n t , s o m e generalities a r e neces-
h a p p i l y for a l o n g t i m e . B u t if o n e is a n e x t r a -
sary i n o r d e r t o classify a n d c l a r i f y t h e m a t e r i a l
vert a n d t h e o t h e r a n introvert, their different
that t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t collects b y s t u d y i n g m a n y
a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y standpoints m a y clash right
individuals. It w o u l d obviously b e impossible to
a w a y , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n they a r e u n a w a r e of
59
their own
t y p e of p e r s o n a l i t y , o r w h e n
they
a m o u n t to m o r e t h a n m e r e a d v a n t a g e s on the
a r e c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e i r o w n is t h e o n l y r i g h t
side of t h e a n a l y s t .
t y p e . T h e e x t r a v e r t , for i n s t a n c e , w i l l
s i d e t h e f r a y , i n w h i c h h e is b o u n d t o b e t e s t e d
choose
They do not keep him out-
t h e m a j o r i t y v i e w ; t h e i n t r o v e r t w i l l r e j e c t it
j u s t as m u c h as his p a t i e n t .
s i m p l y b e c a u s e it is f a s h i o n a b l e . S u c h a m i s -
good deal whether their personalities are har-
u n d e r s t a n d i n g is e a s y e n o u g h b e c a u s e t h e v a l u e
m o n i o u s , in c o n f l i c t , o r c o m p l e m e n t a r y .
of t h e o n e is t h e n o n - v a l u e of t h e o t h e r .
Freud
h i m s e l f , for i n s t a n c e , i n t e r p r e t e d t h e i n t r o v e r t e d
Fxtravcrsion
and
But t h e y a r c often
himself. But i n t r o s p e c t i o n a n d
recognizable.
c a n j u s t as well b e of t h e g r e a t e s t v a l u e
and
importance. differences of p e r s o n a l i t y in d r e a m
interpreta-
t i o n . I t c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e a n a l y s t is a
a r e just
rather obvious and
If o n e studies e x t r a v e r t e d
in m a n y w a y s f r o m
two
behavior.
v i d u a l s , for i n s t a n c e , o n e s o o n d i s c o v e r s t h e y differ
It is v i t a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f s u c h
introversion
a m o n g m a n y p e c u l i a r i t i e s of h u m a n
t y p e as a n i n d i v i d u a l m o r b i d l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h self-knowledge
T h u s it m a t t e r s a
one
easily indithat
another,
a n d t h a t b e i n g e x t r a v e r t e d is t h e r e f o r e a s u p e r ficial
and
too general
criterion
to be
really
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . T h a t is w h y , l o n g a g o , I t r i e d t o
s u p e r m a n w h o is a b o v e s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s , j u s t
find s o m e f u r t h e r b a s i c p e c u l i a r i t i e s
because
a
ties t h a t m i g h t s e r v e t h e p u r p o s e o f g i v i n g s o m e
psychological theory and a corresponding tech-
o r d e r t o t h e a p p a r e n t l y l i m i t l e s s v a r i a t i o n s in
nique.
human
h e is a d o c t o r He
can
only
w h o has acquired
imagine
himself
to
be
s u p e r i o r i n so f a r a s h e a s s u m e s t h a t h i s t h e o r y
peculiari-
individuality.
I h a d a l w a y s b e e n i m p r e s s e d b y t h e fact t h a t
a n d t e c h n i q u e a r e a b s o l u t e t r u t h s , c a p a b l e of
t h e r e a r e a s u r p r i s i n g n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l s
embracing
psyche.
w h o n e v e r u s e t h e i r m i n d s if t h e y c a n a v o i d it,
S i n c e s u c h a n a s s u m p t i o n is m o r e t h a n d o u b t -
a n d a n e q u a l n u m b e r w h o d o use their m i n d s ,
t h e w h o l e of the
human
ful, h e c a n n o t r e a l l y b e s u r e o f it. C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
b u t in a n a m a z i n g l y s t u p i d w a y .
h e w i l l b e a s s a i l e d b y s e c r e t d o u b t s if h e c o n -
surprised
m a n y intelligent a n d
wide-
fronts t h e h u m a n w h o l e n e s s of his p a t i e n t w i t h
a w a k e p e o p l e w h o lived (as far as o n e
could
a t h e o r y o r t e c h n i q u e ( w h i c h is m e r e l y a h y p o -
m a k e o u t ) a s if t h e y h a d n e v e r l e a r n e d t o u s e
thesis or a n a t t e m p t )
i n s t e a d of w i t h his o w n
living wholeness.
to
find
I was
also
t h e i r sense o r g a n s : T h e y d i d n o t see t h e t h i n g s before t h e i r eyes, h e a r t h e w o r d s s o u n d i n g in
T h e a n a l y s t ' s w h o l e p e r s o n a l i t y is t h e o n l y
their ears, or notice the things they touched or
a d e q u a t e e q u i v a l e n t of his p a t i e n t ' s p e r s o n a l i t y .
tasted. S o m e lived w i t h o u t b e i n g a w a r e of the
Psychological experience and knowledge do not
s t a t e of t h e i r o w n b o d i e s .
T h e " c o m p a s s " of t h e p s y c h e — a n o t h e r J u n g i a n w a y of l o o k i n g at p e o p l e in g e n e r a l . Each p o i n t o n t h e c o m p a s s has its o p p o s i t e : f o r a " t h i n k i n g " t y p e , t h e " f e e l i n g " side w o u l d be least d e v e l o p e d . ( " F e e l i n g " here m e a n s t h e f a c u l t y o f w e i g h i n g and evaluating e x p e r i e n c e — i n the w a y t h a t o n e m i g h t say " I feel t h a t is a g o o d thing to d o , " w i t h o u t needing t o a n a l y z e or r a t i o n a l i z e t h e " w h y " of '.he a c t i o n . ) Of c o u r s e , t h e r e is o v e r l a p p i n g in e a c h i n d i v i d u a l : In a " s e n s a t i o n " person the t h i n k i n g or t h e f e e l i n g s i d e c o u l d b e a l m o s t as s t r o n g ( a n d " i n t u i t i o n , " t h e o p p o s i t e , w o u l d be w e a k e s t ) .
Go
There were others who seemed to live in a most curious condition of consciousness, as if the state they had arrived at today were final, with no possibility of change, or as if the world and the psyche were static and would remain so forever. T h e y seemed devoid of all imagination, and they entirely and exclusively depended upon their sense-perception. Chances and possibilities did not exist in their world, and in " t o d a y " there was no real " t o m o r r o w . " The future was just the repetition of the past. I am trying here to give the reader a glimpse of my own first impressions when I began to observe the many people I met. It soon became clear to me, however, that the people who used their minds were those who thought — that is, who applied their intellectual faculty in trying to adapt, themselves to people and circumstances. And the equally intelligent people who did not think were those who sought and found their way by feeling. " F e e l i n g " is a word that needs some explanation. For instance, one speaks of "feeling" when it is a matter of " s e n t i m e n t " (corresponding to the French term sentiment). But one also applies the same word to define an opinion; for example, a communication from the White House may begin: " T h e President feels . . . . " Furthermore, the word may be used to express an intuition: " I had a feeling as if. . . . " When I use the word "feeling" in contrast to "thinking," I refer to a j u d g m e n t of value — for instance, agreeable or disagreeable, good or bad, and so on. Feeling according to this definition is not an emotion (which, as the word conveys, is involuntary). Feeling as I mean it is (like thinking) a rational (i.e. ordering) function, whereas intuition is an irrational (i.e. perceiving) function. In so far as intuition is a " h u n c h , " it is not the product of a voluntary act; it is rather an involuntary event, which depends upon different external or internal circumstances instead of an act of judgment. Intuition is more like a sense-perception, which is also an irrational event in so far as it depends essentially upon objective stimuli, which owe their existence to physical and not to mental causes.
These four functional types correspond to the obvious means by which consciousness obtains its orientation to experience. Sensation (i.e. sense-perception) tells you that something exists; thinking tells you what it is; feeling tells you whether it is agreeable or not; and intuition tells you whence it comes and where it is going. T h e reader should understand that these four criteria of types of human behavior are just four viewpoints among many others, like will power, temperament, imagination, memory, and so on. T h e r e is nothing dogmatic about them, but their basic nature recommends them as suitable criteria for a classification. I find them particularly helpful when I am called upon to explain parents to children and husbands to wives, and vice versa. T h e y are also useful in understanding one's own prejudices. T h u s , if you want to understand another person's d r e a m , you have to sacrifice your own predilections and suppress your prejudices. This is not easy or comfortable, because it means a moral effort that is not to everyone's taste. But if the analyst does not make the effort to criticize his own standpoint (and to admit its relativity, he will get neither the right information about, nor sufficient insight into, his patient's mind. T h e analyst expects at least a certain willingness on the patient's part to listen to his opinion and to take it seriously, and the patient must be granted the same right. Although such a relationship is indispensable for any understanding and is therefore of self-evident necessity, one must remind oneself again and again that it is more important in therapy for the patient to understand than for the analyst's theoretical expectations to be satisfied. T h e patient's resistance to the analyst's interpretation is not necessarily w r o n g ; it is rather a sure sign that something does not " c l i c k . " Either the patient has not yet reached the point where he understands, or the interpretation does not fit. In our efforts to interpret the dream symbols of another person, we are almost invariabl hampered by our tendency to fill in the unavoidable gaps in our understanding by projection that is, by the assumption that what the analyst perceives or thinks is equally per6i
ceived or t h o u g h t by the d r e a m e r . T o o v e r c o m e
her hidden motivations — unconscious
this s o u r c e of e r r o r , I h a v e a l w a y s insisted o n
ces t h a t h a d m o r e t h a n o n c e led to d i s a g r e e a b l e
influen-
t h e i m p o r t a n c e of s t i c k i n g t o t h e c o n t e x t of t h e
rows with h e r friends. S h e h a d a l w a y s b l a m e d
p a r t i c u l a r d r e a m a n d e x c l u d i n g all t h e o r e t i c a l
o t h e r s for t h e s e , n o t h e r s e l f .
a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t d r e a m s in g e n e r a l — e x c e p t for t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t d r e a m s i n s o m e
way
m a k e sense.
I t is n o t m e r e l y t h e " s h a d o w " s i d e o f o u r p e r sonalities that we overlook, disregard, a n d repress. W e m a y also d o the s a m e to o u r positive
It will b e c l e a r f r o m all I h a v e s a i d t h a t w e
q u a l i t i e s . A n e x a m p l e t h a t c o m e s t o m i n d is
c a n n o t l a y d o w n g e n e r a l r u l e s for i n t e r p r e t i n g
t h a t of a n a p p a r e n t l y m o d e s t a n d
self-effacing
dreams. W h e n I suggested earlier that the over-
man,
He
all f u n c t i o n of d r e a m s s e e m s t o b e t o c o m p e n -
seemed c o n t e n t with a back seat, b u t discreetly
sate
insisted o n b e i n g p r e s e n t . W h e n asked to speak
for
deficiencies
or
distortions
in
the
with
charming
manners.
always
conscious m i n d , I m e a n t t h a t this a s s u m p t i o n
h e w o u l d offer a w e l l - i n f o r m e d o p i n i o n , t h o u g h
o p e n e d u p t h e most p r o m i s i n g a p p r o a c h to the
h e n e v e r i n t r u d e d it. B u t h e s o m e t i m e s h i n t e d
n a t u r e o f particular
d r e a m s . I n s o m e cases y o u
t h a t a g i v e n m a t t e r c o u l d b e d e a l t w i t h in a far
c a n see this f u n c t i o n p l a i n l y d e m o n s t r a t e d . O n e of m y p a t i e n t s h a d a v e r y h i g h o p i n i o n of h i m s e l f a n d w a s u n a w a r e t h a t a l m o s t e v e r y -
superior
way
at
a
certain
higher
level
(though he never explained how). I n his d r e a m s , h o w e v e r , h e c o n s t a n t l y
had
o n e w h o k n e w h i m w a s i r r i t a t e d b y his air of
e n c o u n t e r s w i t h g r e a t historical figures,
m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y . H e c a m e to m e w i t h a d r e a m
as N a p o l e o n a n d A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t .
in w h i c h h e h a d seen a d r u n k e n t r a m p r o l l i n g
d r e a m s w e r e c l e a r l y c o m p e n s a t i n g for a n
in a d i t c h — a s i g h t t h a t e v o k e d f r o m h i m o n l y
feriority c o m p l e x . But they h a d a n o t h e r impli-
such These in-
t h e p a t r o n i z i n g c o m m e n t : " I t ' s t e r r i b l e to see
c a t i o n . W h a t sort of m a n m u s t I b e , t h e d r e a m
h o w low a m a n c a n fall." It w a s e v i d e n t
w a s asking, to h a v e such illustrious callers? In
the
unpleasant
nature
of t h e d r e a m
l e a s t in p a r t a n a t t e m p t t o offset h i s
that
was
at
inflated
o p i n i o n of his o w n m e r i t s . B u t t h e r e w a s s o m e t h i n g m o r e t o it t h a n t h i s . I t t u r n e d o u t
that
he h a d a b r o t h e r w h o was a d e g e n e r a t e alcoholic. W h a t the d r e a m also revealed was t h a t his s u p e r i o r
attitude
was
compensating
the
b r o t h e r , as b o t h a n o u t e r a n d a n i n n e r figure. In a n o t h e r case I recall, a w o m a n w h o was proud
of
her
intelligent
understanding
of
psychology had recurringdreams about another woman.
When
in o r d i n a r y
life s h e m e t
this
w o m a n , she d i d n o t like h e r , t h i n k i n g h e r
a
v a i n a n d d i s h o n e s t i n t r i g u e r . B u t in t h e d r e a m s t h e w o m a n a p p e a r e d a l m o s t as a sister, friendly a n d likeable. M y patient could not u n d e r s t a n d w h y s h e s h o u l d d r e a m so f a v o r a b l y
about
a
person she disliked. But these d r e a m s w e r e trying to convey
the idea
that she herself
was
" s h a d o w e d " by an unconscious character that resembled the other w o m a n .
It was h a r d
for
m y patient, w h o h a d very clear ideas a b o u t her o w n personality, to realize t h a t the d r e a m was telling her a b o u t her o w n p o w e r c o m p l e x
62
and
this respect t h e d r e a m s p o i n t e d to a secret m e g -
a l o m a n i a , w h i c h offset t h e d r e a m e r ' s f e e l i n g o f
images a n d m a d e t h e m unrecognizable or mis-
inferiority. T h i s u n c o n s c i o u s i d e a of g r a n d e u r
l e a d i n g in o r d e r to decei ve t h e d r e a m i n g c o n -
insulated h i m from t h e r e a l i t y of his e n v i r o n -
sciousness a b o u t t h e real subject of t h e d r e a m .
ment a n d e n a b l e d h i m to r e m a i n aloof
from
By c o n c e a l i n g
the critical
o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t w o u l d b e i m p e r a t i v e for o t h e r
dreamer,
"censor"
p e o p l e . H e felt n o n e e d
a g a i n s t t h e shock of a d i s a g r e e a b l e r e m i n i s c e n c e .
to p r o v e — e i t h e r
to
the
thought
protected
from his
the sleep
himself or to o t h e r s — t h a t his s u p e r i o r j u d g -
But I a m skeptical a b o u t the theory t h a t
ment was based on superior merit.
d r e a m is a g u a r d i a n o f s l e e p ; d r e a m s j u s t a s
H e w a s , in fact, u n c o n s c i o u s l y p l a y i n g
an
the
often d i s t u r b sleep.
insane g a m e , a n d the d r e a m s w e r e seeking to
I t r a t h e r l o o k s a s if t h e a p p r o a c h
to
con-
b r i n g it t o t h e l e v e l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n a c u r i -
s c i o u s n e s s h a s a " b l o t t i n g - o u t " effect u p o n t h e
ously a m b i g u o u s w a y . H o b n o b b i n g w i t h N a p o -
s u b l i m i n a l c o n t e n t s of t h e p s y c h e . T h e s u b l i m i -
leon
and
being
on
speaking
terms
with
Alexander the Great are exactly the kind fantasies p r o d u c e d b y a n i n f e r i o r i t y But w h y , o n e a s k s , c o u l d
of
complex.
not the d r e a m
nal state retains ideas a n d images at a
much
l o w e r level of t e n s i o n t h a n t h e y possess in c o n sciousness.
In
the subliminal
condition
they
be
lose clarity of d e f i n i t i o n ; t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n
o p e n a n d d i r e c t a b o u t it a n d s a y w h a t it h a d
t h e m a r e less c o n s e q u e n t i a l a n d m o r e v a g u e l y
to s a y w i t h o u t a m b i g u i t y ?
a n a l o g o u s , less r a t i o n a l a n d t h e r e f o r e m o r e " i n -
I h a v e frequently b e e n asked this q u e s t i o n ,
c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . " T h i s c a n also be o b s e r v e d in
a n d I h a v e a s k e d it m y s e l f . I a m o f t e n s u r p r i s e d
all
dreamlike
conditions,
whether
due
to
at t h e t a n t a l i z i n g w a y d r e a m s s e e m t o e v a d e
f a t i g u e , f e v e r , o r t o x i n s . B u t if s o m e t h i n g h a p -
definite i n f o r m a t i o n o r o m i t t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t .
p e n s to e n d o w a n y of these i m a g e s w i t h g r e a t e r
Freud a s s u m e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of a special func-
t e n s i o n , t h e y b e c o m e less s u b l i m i n a l a n d ,
tion o f t h e p s y c h e , w h i c h h e c a l l e d t h e
t h e y c o m e close to t h e t h r e s h o l d of conscious-
sor." T h i s ,
he supposed,
Left, a d o w n - a n d - o u t a l c o h o l i c in a New York slum (from the 1 9 5 5 film On the Bowery). Such a figure might appear in t h e d r e a m s of a m a n w h o felt himself to be s u p e r i o r t o others. In t h i s w a y his u n c o n s c i o u s w o u l d be c o m p e n s a t i n g f o r his conscious m i n d ' s onesidedness.
Right, The Nightmare, painted by the 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y S w i s s - b o r n artist Henry Fuseli. A l m o s t e v e r y o n e has been a w a k e n e d , u p s e t , or d i s t u r b e d by his d r e a m s ; o u r s l e e p d o e s n o t appear to be p r o t e c t e d f r o m t h e contents of the u n c o n s c i o u s .
twisted
the
"cendream
ness, m o r e s h a r p l y defined.
as
It is from this fact that one may understand why dreams often express themselves as analogies, why one dream image slides into another, and why neither the logic nor the time scale of our waking life seems to apply. T h e form that dreams take is natural to the unconscious because the material from which they are produced is retained in the subliminal state in precisely this fashion. Dreams do not guard sleep from what Freud called the "incompatible w i s h . " What he called " d i s g u i s e " is actually the shape all "impulses naturally take in the unconscious. Thus, a dream cannot produce a definite thought. If it begins to do so, it ceases to be a dream because it crosses the threshold of consciousness. T h a t is why dreams seem to skip the very points that are most important to the conscious mind, and seem rather to manifest the "fringe of consciousness," like the faint gleam of stars during a total eclipse of the sun. We should understand that dream symbols are for the most part manifestations of a psyche that is beyond the control of the conscious mind. M e a n i n g and purposefulness are not the prerogatives of the m i n d ; they operate in the whole of living nature. There is no difference in principle between organic and psychic growth. As a plant produces its flower, so the psyche creates its symbols. Every dream is evidence of this process. So, by means of dreams (plus all sorts of intuitions, impulses, and other spontaneous events), instinctive forces influence the activity of consciousness. Whether that influence is for better or for worse depends upon the actual contents of the unconscious. If it contains too many things that normally ought to be conscious, then its function becomes twisted and prejudiced; motives appear that are not based upon true instincts, but that owe their existence and psychic importance to the fact that they have been consigned to the unconscious by repression or neglect. T h e y overlay, as it were, the normal unconscious psyche and distort its natural tendency to express basic symbols and motifs. Therefore it is reasonable for a psychoanalyst, concerned with the causes of a mental disturbance, to begin by eliciting from his
64
patient a more or less voluntary confession and realization of everything that the patient dislikes or fears. This is like the much older confession of the Church, which in many ways anticipated modern psychological techniques. At least this is the general rule. In practice, however, it may work the other way r o u n d ; overpowering feelings of inferiority or serious weakness may make it very difficult, even impossible, for the patient to face fresh evidence of his own inadequacy. So I have often found it profitable to begin by giving a positive outlook to the patient; this provides a helpful sense of security when he approaches the more painful insights. T a k e as an example a dream of "personal exaltation" in which, for instance, one has tea with the queen of England, or finds oneself on intimate terms with the pope. If the dreamer is not a schizophrenic, the practical interpretation of the symbol depends very much upon his present state of mind — that is, the condition of his ego. If the dreamer overestimates his own value, it is easy to show (from the material produced by association of ideas) how inappropriate and childish the dreamer's intentions are, and how much they emanate from childish wishes to be equal to or superior to his parents. But if it is a case of inferiority, where an allpervading feeling of worthlessness has already overcome every positive aspect of the dreamer's personality, it would be quite wrong to depress him still more by showing how infantile, ridiculous, or even perverse he is. T h a t would cruelly increase his inferiority, as well as cause an unwelcome and quite unnecessary resistance to the treatment. T h e r e is no therapeutic technique or doctrine that is of general application, since every case that one receives for treatment is an individual in a specific condition. I remember a patient I once had to treat over a period of nine years.
Right, the heroic dreams with which Walter Mitty (in the 1947 film of JamesThurber's story) compensates his sense of inferiority.
I s a w h i m o n l y for a f e w w e e k s e a c h y e a r , s i n c e
If I h a d
he lived a b r o a d . F r o m t h e s t a r t I k n e w w h a t his
w o u l d h a v e t o l d y o u w h a t it w a s a t m y
b e e n a b l e t o t a l k f r e e l y a b o u t it, I
real t r o u b l e w a s , b u t I also s a w t h a t t h e least
consultation.
But that would
have
first
destroyed
a t t e m p t to get close to t h e t r u t h w a s m e t b y a
my rapport with you. W h e r e should I have been
violent
a
then? I should have been morally bankrupt. In
c o m p l e t e r u p t u r e b e t w e e n us. W h e t h e r I liked
t h e c o u r s e o f 10 y e a r s I h a v e l e a r n e d t o t r u s t
it o r n o t , I h a d t o d o m y b e s t t o m a i n t a i n o u r
y o u ; a n d as m y confidence g r e w , m y
r e l a t i o n a n d to follow his i n c l i n a t i o n , w h i c h w a s
tion i m p r o v e d .
defensive
reaction
that
threatened
condi-
I i m p r o v e d b e c a u s e this slow
our
p r o c e s s r e s t o r e d m y belief in myself. N o w I a m
discussion a w a y from t h e root of his neurosis.
s t r o n g e n o u g h to discuss t h e p r o b l e m t h a t w a s
W e r a n g e d so w i d e l y t h a t I o f t e n a c c u s e d m y s e l f
destroying m e . "
supported
b y his d r e a m s a n d w h i c h led
of l e a d i n g m y p a t i e n t a s t r a y . N o t h i n g b u t t h e fact
that
his
condition
slowly
but
clearly
i m p r o v e d p r e v e n t e d m e from confronting
him
brutally with the truth.
H e then m a d e a devastatingly frank
o n s for t h e p e c u l i a r c o u r s e o u r t r e a t m e n t had
I n t h e 10th y e a r , h o w e v e r , t h e p a t i e n t d e -
confes-
sion of his p r o b l e m , w h i c h s h o w e d m e t h e r e a s to follow.
T h e original shock h a d
had been
s u c h t h a t a l o n e h e h a d b e e n u n a b l e to face it.
all
H e n e e d e d the help of a n o t h e r , a n d the t h e r a -
his s y m p t o m s . I w a s s u r p r i s e d b e c a u s e t h e o r e t i -
p e u t i c task w a s the slow e s t a b l i s h m e n t of c o n -
cally his c o n d i t i o n w a s i n c u r a b l e . N o t i c i n g m y
fidence,
a s t o n i s h m e n t , h e s m i l e d a n d said (in
clinical theory.
c l a r e d h i m s e l f to b e c u r e d a n d freed from
effect):
" A n d I w a n t t o t h a n k y o u a b o v e a l l for y o u r unfailing t a c t a n d p a t i e n c e in h e l p i n g m e
rather
than
the demonstration
F r o m cases like this I l e a r n e d to a d a p t
of a my
to
m e t h o d s to t h e n e e d s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a t i e n t ,
neurosis.
r a t h e r t h a n to c o m m i t myself to g e n e r a l t h e o r e -
I a m n o w r e a d y t o tell y o u e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t i t .
tical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t m i g h t be i n a p p l i c a b l e
c i r c u m v e n t the painful c a u s e of m y
The Madhouse, p a i n t e d by G o y a N o t e the " k i n g " and the " b i s h o p " on the right'. S c h i z o p h r e n i a o f t e n t a k e s t h e f o r m of " p e r s o n a l e x a l t a t i o n "
65
in
any
particular
case.
The
knowledge
of
An
example
comes
to m y
dream
c o u r s e of 60 y e a r s of p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e
riding on horseback across a wide
has
t a u g h t m e to c o n s i d e r e a c h case as a n e w o n e
in w h i c h
that
h u m a n n a t u r e t h a t I h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d in t h e
mind
a g r o u p of y o u n g
is a
men field.
are The
d r e a m e r is in t h e l e a d a n d h e j u m p s a d i t c h
in w h i c h , first ol a l l , I h a v e h a d t o s e e k t h e i n -
full o f w a t e r , j u s t c l e a r i n g t h i s h a z a r d . T h e r e s t
d i v i d u a l a p p r o a c h . S o m e t i m e s I h a v e not hesi-
o f t h e p a r t y fall i n t o t h e d i t c h . N o w t h e y o u n g
tated to p l u n g e i n t o a careful s t u d y of infantile
man
events a n d fantasies; at o t h e r times I h a v e be-
c a u t i o u s , i n t r o v e r t e d type. But I also h e a r d the
g u n a t t h e l o p , e v e n if t h i s h a s m e a n t
soaring
s a m e d r e a m f r o m a n o l d m a n of d a r i n g c h a r -
metaphysical
a c t e r , w h o h a d lived a n active a n d e n t e r p r i s i n g
learning
life. A t t h e t i m e h e h a d t h i s d r e a m , h e w a s a n
straight
into
speculations.
the
most
remote
It a l l d e p e n d s o n
l a n g u a g e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a t i e n t a n d
the
follow-
who
first
told
me
this
dream
was
a
i n v a l i d w h o g a v e his d o c t o r a n d n u r s e a g r e a t
i n g t h e g r o p i n g s of his u n c o n s c i o u s t o w a r d t h e
deal of t r o u b l e ; h e h a d a c t u a l l y i n j u r e d
light. S o m e cases d e m a n d o n e m e t h o d a n d s o m e
self b y h i s d i s o b e d i e n c e o f m e d i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s .
another.
him-
It w a s c l e a r t o m e t h a t t h i s d r e a m w a s t e l l i n g
l i t i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e w h e n o n e s e e k s t o i n -
t h e y o u n g m a n w h a t h e ought t o d o . B u t it w a s
terpret symbols. T w o different individuals m a y
t e l l i n g t h e o l d m a n w h a t h e a c t u a l l y w a s still
have almost exactly the s a m e d r e a m .
lining. W h e r e a s it e n c o u r a g e d t h e h e s i t a n t y o u n g
T h i s , as
o n e s o o n d i s c o v e r s in c l i n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , is less
m a n . t h e o l d m a n w a s in n o s u c h n e e d o f e n -
uncommon
c o u r a g e m e n t ; t h e s p i r i t o f e n t e r p r i s e t h a t still
than the l a y m a n m a y think.)
Yet
if. for i n s t a n c e , o n e d r e a m e r is y o u n g a n d
the
flickered w i t h i n h i m w a s . i n d e e d , his g r e a t e s t
is
trouble. This e x a m p l e shows how the interpre-
be
t a t i o n of d r e a m s a n d s y m b o l s l a r g e l y d e p e n d s
other old. the p r o b l e m correspondingly
that disturbs them
different,
and
it
would
o b v i o u s l y a b s u r d t o i n t e r p r e t b o t h d r e a m s in
upon
the same wav.
d r e a m e r a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n of his m i n d .
the
individual
circumstances
of
the
As this m u s e u m display s h o w s , the f e t u s of m a n r e s e m b l e s t h o s e of other animals (and thus provides an i n d i c a t i o n of m a n ' s p h y s i c a l e v o l u t i o n ) T h e p s y c h e , t o o , has " e v o l v e d "; a n d s o m e c o n t e n t s o f m o d e r n man's u n c o n s c i o u s resemble p r o d u c t s of t h e m i n d of a n c i e n t m a n J u n g termed these p r o d u c t s archetypal images
66
The archetype in dream symbolism
I have already suggested that dreams serve the purpose of compensation. This assumption means that the dream is a normal psychic phenomenon that transmits unconscious reactions orspontaneousimpulses to consciousness. M a n y dreams can be interpreted with the help of the dreamer, who provides both the associations to and the context of the dream image, by means of which one can look at all its aspects.
our body is based on the general anatomical pattern of the m a m m a l . T h e trained eye of the anatomist or the biologist finds many traces of this original pattern in our bodies. T h e experienced investigator of the mind can similarly see the analogies between the dream pictures of modern man and the products of the primitive mind, its "collective i m a g e s , " and its mythological motifs.
This method is adequate in all ordinary cases, such as those when a relative, a friend, or a patient tells you a dream more or less in the course of conversation. But when it is a matter of obsessive dreaming or of highly emotional dreams, the personal associations produced by the dreamer do not usually suffice for a satisfactory interpretation. In such cases, we have to take into consideration the fact (first observed and commented on by Freud J that elements often occur in a dream that are not individual and that cannot be derived from the dreamer's personal experience. These elements, as I have previously mentioned, are what Freud called " a r c h a i c remnants" mental forms whose presence cannot be explained by anything in the individual's own life and which seem to be aboriginal, innate, and inherited shapes of the human mind.
J u s t as the biologist needs the science of comparative anatomy, however, the psychologist cannot do without a " c o m p a r a t i v e anatomy of the p s y c h e . " In practice, to put it differently, the psychologist must have a sufficient experience not only of dreams and other products of unconscious activity, but also of mythology in its widest sense. Without this equipment, nobody can spot the important analogies; it is not possible, for instance, to see the analogy between a case of compulsion neurosis and that of a classical demonic possession without a working knowledge of both.
Just as the human body represents a whole museum of organs, each with a long evolutionary history behind it, so we should expect to find that the mind is organized in a similar way. It can no more be a product without history than is the body in which it exists. By "history" I do not mean the fact that the mind builds itself up by conscious reference to the past through language and other cultural traditions. I am referring to the biological, prehistoric, and unconscious development of the mind in archaic man, whose psyche was still close to that of the animal. This immensely old psyche forms the basis of our mind, just as much as the structure of
M y views about the " a r c h a i c remnants," which I call " a r c h e t y p e s " or "primordial i m a g e s , " have been constantly criticized by people who lack a sufficient knowledge of the psychology of dreams and of mythology. T h e term " a r c h e t y p e " is often misunderstood as meaning certain definite mythological images or motifs. But these are nothing more than conscious representations; it would be absurd to assume that such variable representations could be inherited. T h e archetype is a tendency to form such representations ofa motif—representations that can vary a great deal in detail without losing their basic pattern. T h e r e are, for instance, many representations of the motif of the hostile brethren, but the motif itself remains the same. M y critics have incorrectly assumed that I am dealing with "inherited representations," and on that ground they have dismissed the idea of the archetype as mere superstition. They have 67
M a n ' s unconscious archetypal images are as i n s t i n c t i v e as t h e a b i l i t y of g e e s e t o m i g r a t e ( i n f o r m a t i o n ) ; as a n t s ' f o r m i n g o r g a n i z e d s o c i e t i e s ; as b e e s ' t a i l - w a g g i n g d a n c e ( a b o v e ) t h a t c o m m u n i c a t e s to t h e h i v e t h e e x a c t l o c a t i o n of a f o o d s o u r c e
A m o d e r n professor had a " v i s i o n " e x a c t l y like a w o o d c u t in an o l d b o o k t h a t he h a d n e v e r s e e n . R i g h t , the b o o k ' s title page; and another w o o d c u t , symbolizing the male and female principles united. Such a r c h e t y p a l s y m b o l s arise f r o m t h e p s y c h e ' s a g e - o l d c o l l e c t i v e basis.
68
if
relate
to a n y t h i n g
archetypes were representations that originated
could
have passed on
in o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o r w e r e a c q u i r e d b y c o n -
s o m e of these p a t i e n t s w e r e h i g h l y e d u c a t e d : A
failed
to t a k e
into
account
the
fact
that
they
could
remember
sciousness), w e s h o u l d surely u n d e r s t a n d t h e m ,
few of t h e m w e r e a c t u a l l y p s y c h i a t r i s t s
and not be b e w i l d e r e d
selves.
and astonished
they p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s i n o u r They
are,
indeed,
an
when
consciousness.
instinctive
trend,
or
to their c h i l d r e n .
Yet
them-
I v i v i d l y r e c a l l t h e c a s e of a professor
who
as
h a d h a d a s u d d e n vision a n d t h o u g h t he w a s
m a r k e d as t h e i m p u l s e of b i r d s to b u i l d nests,
i n s a n e . H e c a m e t o s e e m e in a s t a t e o f c o m -
or a n t s t o f o r m o r g a n i z e d c o l o n i e s .
plete panic. I simply took a 400-year-old
book
between
from the shelf a n d s h o w e d h i m a n old w o o d c u t
instincts a n d a r c h e t y p e s : W h a t w e p r o p e r l y call
d e p i c t i n g h i s v e r y v i s i o n . " T h e r e ' s n o r e a s o n for
instincts a r e p h y s i o l o g i c a l u r g e s , a n d a r e p e r -
you to believe that y o u ' r e i n s a n e , " I said
ceived b y t h e s e n s e s . B u t a t
time,
h i m . " T h e y k n e w a b o u t y o u r vision 4 0 0 years
they a l s o m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s in f a n t a s i e s a n d
a g o . " W h e r e u p o n he sat d o w n entirely deflated,
often r e v e a l t h e i r p r e s e n c e o n l y b y
but once more normal.
Here
I must
clarify
the
relation
the same
symbolic
images. T h e s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s a r e w h a t
I call
the a r c h e t y p e s . T h e y a r e w i t h o u t k n o w n o r i g i n ;
to
A very i m p o r t a n t case c a m e to m e from m a n w h o was himself a psychiatrist. O n e
a
day
a n d t h e y r e p r o d u c e t h e m s e l v e s in a n y t i m e o r
he brought m e a h a n d w r i t t e n booklet he h a d
in a n y p a r t o f t h e w o r l d — e v e n w h e r e
r e c e i v e d as a C h r i s t m a s p r e s e n t from
trans-
h i s 10-
mission b y d i r e c t d e s c e n t o r " c r o s s f e r t i l i z a t i o n "
\ e a r - o l d d a u g h t e r . It c o n t a i n e d a w h o l e s e r i e s
through migration must be ruled out.
of d r e a m s s h e
I can r e m e m b e r m a n y cases of p e o p l e have c o n s u l t e d m e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e
who
They
had
had
when
she was
eight.
m a d e u p t h e w e i r d e s t series of d r e a m s
baflled
t h a t I h a v e ever seen, a n d I c o u l d well u n d e r -
children's.
stand why the father was more than just puz-
T h e y w e r e a t a c o m p l e t e loss t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e
zled by t h e m . T h o u g h childlike, they w e r e u n -
t e r m s of t h e d r e a m s . T h e r e a s o n w a s t h a t
the
cannv. and they contained images whose origin
dreams contained images that they could
not
was
by t h e i r o w n
d r e a m s or bv their
whollv
incomprehensible
to
the
father.
69
H e r e are the relevant motifs from the d r e a m s :
b i t s of it a t e v e r y o n e w h o p a s s e s . I n t h i s w a y
1. " T h e evil a n i m a l . " a s n a k e l i k e m o n s t e r w i t h
all t h e p a s s e r s - b y b e c o m e b a d .
m a n y h o r n s , kills a n d d e v o u r s a l l o t h e r a n i m a l s .
7. A d r u n k e n w o m a n falls i n t o t h e w a t e r
B u t G o d c o m e s f r o m t h e f o u r c o r n e r s , b e i n g in
comes out renewed a n d sober.
and
fact f o u r s e p a r a t e g o d s , a n d g i v e s r e b i r t h t o a l l
8. T h e s c e n e is in A m e r i c a , w h e r e m a n y p e o p l e
the dead animals.
are rolling on an ant
2. A n a s c e n t i n t o h e a v e n , w h e r e p a g a n d a n c e s
a n t s . T h e d r e a m e r , in a p a n i c , falls i n t o a r i v e r .
heap, attacked
by
a r e b e i n g c e l e b r a t e d ; a n d a descent i n t o hell,
9 . T h e r e is a d e s e r t o n t h e m o o n
where angels are doing good deeds.
d r e a m e r s i n k s so d e e p l y i n t o t h e g r o u n d
3.
A
horde
of s m a l l
animals
frightens
the
where
the the that
she r e a c h e s hell.
d r e a m e r . T h e a n i m a l s increase to a t r e m e n d o u s
10. I n
s i z e , a n d o n e of t h e m d e v o u r s t h e l i t t l e g i r l .
l u m i n o u s b a l l . S h e t o u c h e s it. V a p o r s e m a n a t e
4.
A small
mouse
s n a k e s , fishes, a n d
is p e n e t r a t e d human
by
beings.
worms, Thus
this d r e a m
t h e girl h a s a vision of a
f r o m it. A m a n c o m e s a n d kills h e r .
the
1 1. T h e g i r l d r e a m s s h e is d a n g e r o u s l y ill. S u d -
m o u s e b e c o m e s h u m a n . T h i s p o r t r a y s the four
d e n l y b i r d s c o m e o u t of h e r skin a n d c o v e r h e r
s t a g e s of t h e o r i g i n o f m a n k i n d .
completely.
5. A d r o p o f w a t e r is s e e n , as it a p p e a r s w h e n
12. S w a r m s of g n a t s o b s c u r e t h e s u n . t h e m o o n ,
l o o k e d at t h r o u g h a m i c r o s c o p e .
a n d all t h e s t a r s , e x c e p t o n e . T h a t o n e s t a r falls
T h e g i r l sees
t h a t t h e d r o p is lull o f t r e e b r a n c h e s . T h i s p o r t r a y s t h e o r i g i n of t h e w o r l d . 6. A b a d b o v h a s a c l o d o f e a r t h a n d
7"
upon the dreamer. In
throws
dream
the unabridged
German
original,
each
b e g i n s w i t h t h e w o r d s of t h e o l d
fairv
Parallels to a r c h e t y p a l m o t i f s in the girl's first d r e a m ( p . 7 0 ) : Left, f r o m S t r a s b o u r g C a t h e d r a l , Christ c r u c i f i e d o n A d a m ' s g r a v e symbolizing t h e t h e m e of r e b i r t h (Christ as t h e s e c o n d A d a m ) . In a Navaho s a n d p a i n t i n g , a b o v e , t h e horned heads are t h e f o u r c o r n e r s of the w o r l d . In B r i t a i n ' s r o y a l coronation ceremony, the m o n a r c h (right. Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h II in 1 9 5 3 ) is presented to t h e p e o p l e at t h e four d o o r s of W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y .
tale: " O n c e u p o n a t i m e . . . . " By these w o r d s the little d r e a m e r suggests that she feels as if each d r e a m w e r e a sort of fairy tale, which she wants to tell her father as a C h r i s t m a s present, flic l a t h e r tried to e x p l a i n the d r e a m s in terms of their c o n t e x t . But he could not d o so, lor there seemed to he no personal associations to t h e m . T h e possibility t h a t these d r e a m s w e r e conscious e l a b o r a t i o n s can of course be ruled out only by s o m e o n e w h o knew the child well enough to be absolutely sure of her truthfulness. (They w o u l d , h o w e v e r , r e m a i n a c h a l l e n g e to our u n d e r s t a n d i n g even if they w e r e fantasies. | In this case, the l a t h e r was c o n v i n c e d t h a t the d r e a m s w e r e a u t h e n t i c , a n d I h a v e no reason to doubt it. I knew the little girl myself, but this was before she g a v e her d r e a m s to her l a t h e r , so that I had no c h a n c e to ask her a b o u t t h e m . She lived a b r o a d a n d died of an infectious disease a b o u t a y e a r after that C h r i s t m a s .
7"
Her dreams have a decidedly peculiar character. T h e i r l e a d i n g t h o u g h t s are m a r k e d l y philosophic in c o n c e p t . T h e first o n e , for i n s t a n c e , speaks of a n evil m o n s t e r killing o t h e r a n i m a l s , b u t G o d gives r e b i r t h to t h e m all t h r o u g h a d i v i n e Apokatastasis, or restitution. In the W e s t e r n w o r l d this i d e a is k n o w n t h r o u g h the C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n . It c a n be found in the Acts of the Apostles r n : 2 1 : " [ C h r i s t ] w h o m the h e a v e n m u s t receive until the t i m e of restitution of all things. . . . " T h e early G r e e k F a t h e r s of t h e C h u r c h (for i n s t a n c e , O r i g e n ) p a r t i c u l a r l y insisted u p o n the idea t h a t , at the end of t i m e , e v e r y t h i n g will b e restored by t h e R e d e e m e r to its original a n d perfect s t a t e . But, a c c o r d i n g to St. M a t t h e w x v n : l l , t h e r e was a l r e a d y a n old J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n t h a t Elias " t r u l y shall first c o m e , a n d restore all t h i n g s . " I C o r i n t h i a n s x v : 2 2 refers to the s a m e i d e a in the following w o r d s : " F o r as in A d a m all die, even so in Christ shall all b e m a d e a l i v e . " O n e m i g h t guess t h a t t h e child h a d e n c o u n tered this t h o u g h t in h e r religious e d u c a t i o n .
A b o v e , the h e r o - g o d Raven (of the H a i d a I n d i a n s of A m e r i c a ' s P a c i f i c C o a s t ) in t h e b e l l y of a w h a l e — c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the " d e v o u r i n g m o n s t e r " m o t i f in t h e g i r l ' s first dream (p. 7 0 ) .
T h e girl's s e c o n d d r e a m — o f a n g e l s in hell a n d d e m o n s in h e a v e n — seems t o e m b o d y t h e idea of t h e relativity of morality. The same c o n c e p t is e x p r e s s e d in t h e d u a l a s p e c t of t h e f a l l e n a n g e l w h o is both Satan, the devil, and (right) Lucifer, t h e r e s p l e n d e n t b r i n g e r of l i g h t . T h e s e o p p o s i t e s c a n also be seen in t h e f i g u r e of G o d , far r i g h t ( i n a d r a w i n g b y B l a k e ) : He a p p e a r s to J o b , in a d r e a m , w i t h a c l o v e n h o o f like a d e m o n ' s .
72
But she h a d very little religious b a c k g r o u n d . H e r p a r e n t s w e r e P r o t e s t a n t s in n a m e ; b u t in fact they k n e w the Bible only from h e a r s a y . It is p a r t i c u l a r l y unlikely t h a t the r e c o n d i t e i m a g e of Apokataslasis h a d b e e n fully e x p l a i n e d to the girl. C e r t a i n l y h e r father h a d n e v e r h e a r d of this m y t h i c a l idea. N i n e of the 12 d r e a m s a r e influenced by the t h e m e of d e s t r u c t i o n a n d r e s t o r a t i o n . A n d n o n e of these d r e a m s shows traces of specific C h r i s tian e d u c a t i o n or influence. O n the c o n t r a r y , they a r e m o r e closely related to p r i m i t i v e m y t h s . T h i s relation is c o r r o b o r a t e d by the o t h e r m o t i f — t h e " c o s m o g o n i c m y t h " (the crea t i o n of the world a n d of m a n ) t h a t a p p e a r s in the fourth a n d fifth d r e a m s . T h e s a m e c o n n e c tion is found in I C o r i n t h i a n s x v : 2 2 , w h i c h I h a v e j u s t q u o t e d . In this passage too, A d a m a n d Christ ( d e a t h a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n ) a r e linked together. T h e g e n e r a l idea of Christ the R e d e e m e r belongs to the w o r l d - w i d e a n d p r e - C h r i s t t h e m e of the h e r o a n d rescuer w h o , a l t h o u g h he has
been d e v o u r e d by a m o n s t e r , a p p e a r s a g a i n in a miraculous way, having overcome whatever monster it was t h a t swallowed h i m . W h e n a n d where such a motif o r i g i n a t e d n o b o d y knows. We d o not even k n o w h o w to go a b o u t investigating the p r o b l e m . T h e o n e a p p a r e n t c e r t a i n t y is that every g e n e r a t i o n seems to h a v e k n o w n it as a t r a d i t i o n h a n d e d d o w n from s o m e p r e c e d ing time. T h u s w e c a n safely a s s u m e t h a t it " o r i g i n a t e d " at a p e r i o d w h e n m a n did not yet know t h a t he possessed a h e r o m y t h ; in a n age, that is to say, w h e n h e did not yet consciously reflect on w h a t h e was saying. T h e h e r o figure is an a r c h e t y p e , w h i c h has existed since t i m e immemorial. T h e p r o d u c t i o n of a r c h e t y p e s by c h i l d r e n is especially significant, b e c a u s e o n e c a n s o m e times be q u i t e c e r t a i n t h a t a child has h a d n o direct access to the t r a d i t i o n c o n c e r n e d . In this case, the girl's family h a d n o m o r e t h a n a superficial a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h the C h r i s t i a n t r a dition. C h r i s t i a n t h e m e s m a y , of course, b e represented by such ideas as G o d , angels, h e a -
ven, hell, a n d evil. But the w a y in w h i c h they a r e t r e a t e d by this child points to a totally n o n - C h r i s t i a n origin. Let us take the first d r e a m of the G o d w h o really consists of four gods, c o m i n g from the " f o u r c o r n e r s . " T h e c o r n e r s of w h a t ? T h e r e is n o r o o m m e n t i o n e d in the d r e a m . A r o o m w o u l d not even fit in w i t h the p i c t u r e of w h a t is obviously a cosmic e v e n t , in w h i c h the U n i versal Being himself i n t e r v e n e s . T h e q u a t e r n i t y (or e l e m e n t of " f o u r n e s s " ) itself is a s t r a n g e i d e a , b u t o n e t h a t plays a g r e a t role in m a n y religions a n d philosophies. I n t h e C h r i s t i a n r e ligion, it has b e e n s u p e r s e d e d by the T r i n i t y , a notion t h a t we must a s s u m e was k n o w n to the child. But w h o in a n o r d i n a r y middle-class family of t o d a y w o u l d be likely to k n o w of a d i v i n e q u a t e r n i t y ? It is a n idea t h a t was o n c e fairly familiar a m o n g s t u d e n t s of the H e r m e t i c p h i l o s o p h y in the M i d d l e Ages, b u t it p e t e r e d out w i t h the b e g i n n i n g of the 18th c e n t u r y , a n d it has b e e n entirely obsolete for at least 200 years. W h e r e , t h e n , did the little girl pick it u p ?
V / j t k D r e a m s upon my b e d t h o a n e a r e s t i n e ^ a l f n g k e s t m e with. V i s i o n s
73
F r o m EzekieFs vision? But t h e r e is no C h r i s t i a n t e a c h i n g t h a t identifies t h e s e r a p h i m with G o d . T h e s a m e q u e s t i o n m a y he asked a b o u t the h o r n e d s e r p e n t . In the Bible, it is t r u e , t h e r e are m a n y h o r n e d a n i m a l s in the Book of R e v e l a t i o n , for i n s t a n c e . But all these seem to be q u a d r u p e d , a l t h o u g h their overlord is the d r a g o n , the G r e e k w o r d for w h i c h (drakon) also m e a n s s e r p e n t . The h o r n e d serpent a p p e a r s in 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y L a t i n a l c h e m y as the quadricornulus serpens f o u r - h o r n e d s e r p e n t ) , a symbol of M e r c u r y a n d a n a n t a g o n i s t of the C h r i s t i a n Trinity. But this is an o b s c u r e reference. So far as I can discover, it is m a d e by only o n e a u t h o r ; a n d this child h a d n o m e a n s of k n o w ing it. In the second d r e a m , a motif a p p e a r s that is definitely n o n - C h r i s t i a n a n d that c o n t a i n s a reversal of a c c e p t e d values for i n s t a n c e , p a g a n d a n c e s by m e n in h e a v e n a n d good deeds by angels in hell. This symbol suggests a relativity of m o r a l values. W h e r e did the child find such a r e v o l u t i o n a r y n o t i o n , w o r t h y of Nietzsche's genius? These q u e s t i o n s lead us to a n o t h e r : W h a t is the c o m p e n s a t o r y m e a n i n g of these d r e a m s , to which the little girl obviously a t t r i b u t e d so
m u c h i m p o r t a n c e t h a t she p r e s e n t e d t h e m to her father as a C h r i s t m a s p r e s e n t ? If the d r e a m e r h a d b e e n a p r i m i t i v e m e d i cine m a n , o n e could r e a s o n a b l y a s s u m e that they represent v a r i a t i o n s of the philosophical t h e m e s ol d e a t h , of resurrection or restitution, of the origin of the w o r l d , the c r e a t i o n of m a n . a n d the relativity of values. But o n e m i g h t give u p such d r e a m s as hopelessly difficult if one tried to i n t e r p r e t t h e m from a personal level. They u n d o u b t e d l y c o n t a i n '"collective i m a g e s . " a n d they a r e in a w a y a n a l o g o u s to the d o c trines t a u g h t to y o u n g people in p r i m i t i v e tribes w h e n they a r e a b o u t to be initiated as m e n . At such times they learn a b o u t w h a t G o d , or the gods, or the " f o u n d i n g " a n i m a l s h a v e d o n e , how the world a n d m a n w e r e c r e a t e d , how the end of the world will c o m e , a n d the m e a n i n g ol d e a t h . Is t h e r e a n y occasion w h e n we, in Christian civilization, h a n d out similar instructions? There is: in adolescence. But m a n y people begin to think a g a i n of things like this in old a g e . at the a p p r o a c h of d e a t h . The little girl, as it h a p p e n e d , was in both these situations. She was a p p r o a c h i n g p u b e r t y a n d , at the s a m e t i m e , the e n d of her life. Little or n o t h i n g in the symbolism of h e r d r e a m s
T h e little g i r l ' s d r e a m s (p. 7 0 ) c o n t a i n s y m b o l s of c r e a t i o n , d e a t h , and rebirth, w h i c h resemble the t e a c h i n g s g i v e n t o a d o l e s c e n t s in p r i m i t i v e i n i t i a t i o n rituals. Left, t h e e n d of a N a v a h o c e r e m o n y : A girl, having b e c o m e a w o m a n , g o e s i n t o t h e desert t o m e d i t a t e .
D e a t h a n d r e b i r t h s y m b o l i s m also a p p e a r s in d r e a m s at t h e e n d of life, w h e n t h e a p p r o a c h of d e a t h casts a s h a d o w b e f o r e it. R i g h t , o n e of G o y a ' s last p a i n t i n g s : T h e strange creature, apparently a d o g , that emerges f r o m the dark c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e artist's f o r e s h a d o w i n g of his d e a t h In m a n y m y t h o l o g i e s d o g s a p p e a r as g u i d e s to t h e l a n d of t h e d e a d
74
points to the b e g i n n i n g of a n o r m a l a d u l t life, but t h e r e a r e m a n y allusions to d e s t r u c t i o n a n d restoration. W h e n I first r e a d h e r d r e a m s , indeed, I h a d the u n c a n n y feeling that they suggested i m p e n d i n g disaster. T h e reason I felt like that was the p e c u l i a r n a t u r e of the c o m pensation that I d e d u c e d from the s y m b o l i s m . It was the o p p o s i t e of w h a t o n e w o u l d expect to find in the consciousness of a girl of t h a t age. T h e s e d r e a m s o p e n u p a new a n d r a t h e r terrifying aspect of life a n d d e a t h . O n e w o u l d expect to find such i m a g e s in a n a g i n g person who looks back u p o n life, r a t h e r t h a n to be given t h e m by a child w h o w o u l d n o r m a l l y be looking f o r w a r d . T h e i r a t m o s p h e r e recalls the old R o m a n saying, "Life is a short d r e a m , " rather t h a n the j o y a n d e x u b e r a n c e of its springtime. For this c h i l d ' s life was like a ver sacrum vovendum (vow of a v e r n a l sacrifice), as the R o m a n poet p u t s it. E x p e r i e n c e shows that the u n k n o w n a p p r o a c h of d e a t h casts an adumbratio (an a n t i c i p a t o r y s h a d o w ; over the life a n d d r e a m s of the victim. Even the a l t a r in C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s r e p r e s e n t s , o n the one h a n d , a t o m b a n d , on the o t h e r , a p l a c e of resurrection the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of d e a t h into e t e r n a l life.
S u c h a r e the ideas t h a t the d r e a m s b r o u g h t h o m e to the child. T h e y w e r e a p r e p a r a t i o n for d e a t h , expressed t h r o u g h short stories, like the tales told at p r i m i t i v e initiations or the Koans of Z e n B u d d h i s m . T h i s message is unlike the o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e a n d m o r e like a n c i e n t p r i m i t i v e t h o u g h t . It seems to h a v e o r i g i n a t e d o u t s i d e historical t r a d i t i o n in the long-forgotten psychic sources t h a t , since p r e historic times, h a v e n o u r i s h e d philosophical a n d religious s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t life a n d d e a t h . It was as if future events w e r e casting their s h a d o w back by a r o u s i n g in the child certain t h o u g h t forms t h a t , t h o u g h n o r m a l l y d o r m a n t , describe or a c c o m p a n y the a p p r o a c h of a fatal issue. A l t h o u g h the specific s h a p e in w h i c h they express themselves is m o r e or less p e r s o n a l , their g e n e r a l p a t t e r n is collective. T h e y a r e found e v e r y w h e r e a n d at all times, just as a n i m a l instincts vary a good d e a l in the different species a n d yet serve the s a m e general p u r poses. W e d o not a s s u m e t h a t e a c h n e w - b o r n a n i m a l creates its o w n instincts as a n i n d i v i d u a l a c q u i s i t i o n , a n d we must not suppose t h a t h u m a n i n d i v i d u a l s invent their specific h u m a n ways with every n e w b i r t h . Like the instincts, the collective t h o u g h t p a t t e r n s of the h u m a n m i n d a r e i n n a t e a n d i n h e r i t e d . T h e y function, w h e n the occasion arises, in m o r e or less the s a m e way in all of us. E m o t i o n a l manifestations, to w h i c h such t h o u g h t p a t t e r n s belong, a r e r e c o g n i z a b l y the s a m e all over the e a r t h . W e c a n identify t h e m even in a n i m a l s , a n d the a n i m a l s themselves u n d e r s t a n d o n e a n o t h e r in this respect, even t h o u g h they m a y b e l o n g to different species. A n d w h a t a b o u t insects, with their c o m p l i c a t e d s y m b i o t i c functions? Most of t h e m d o not even know their p a r e n t s a n d h a v e n o b o d y to teach t h e m . W h y should o n e a s s u m e , t h e n , t h a t m a n is the only living b e i n g d e p r i v e d of specific instincts, or that his psyche is devoid of all traces of its e v o l u t i o n ? .Naturally, if you identify the psyche with consciousness, you can easily fall into the e r r o neous idea that m a n c o m e s i n t o the world with a psyche that is e m p t y , a n d t h a t in later years it c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n w h a t it has 7.-,
l e a r n e d by i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e . But the psyche is m o r e t h a n consciousness. A n i m a l s h a v e little consciousness, b u t m a n y impulses a n d reactions t h a t d e n o t e the existence of a p s y c h e ; a n d p r i m i t i v e s d o a lot of things whose m e a n i n g is u n k n o w n to t h e m . You m a y ask m a n y civilized p e o p l e in vain for the real m e a n i n g of the C h r i s t m a s tree or of the E a s t e r egg. T h e fact is, they d o things w i t h o u t k n o w i n g w h y they d o t h e m . I a m inclined to the view t h a t things w e r e generally d o n e first a n d t h a t it was only a long t i m e a f t e r w a r d t h a t s o m e b o d y asked w h y they w e r e d o n e . T h e m e d i c a l psychologist is c o n s t a n t l y confronted w i t h o t h e r w i s e intelligent p a t i e n t s who b e h a v e in a peculiar a n d u n p r e d i c t a b l e w a y a n d w h o h a v e n o inkling of w h a t they say or d o . T h e y a r e s u d d e n l y c a u g h t by u n r e a s o n able m o o d s for w h i c h they themselves c a n n o t account. Superficially, such reactions a n d impulses seem to be of a n i n t i m a t e l y personal n a t u r e , a n d so we dismiss t h e m as i d i o s y n c r a t i c behavior. In fact, they a r e based u p o n a p r e formed a n d e v e r - r e a d y instinctive system t h a t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of m a n . T h o u g h t forms, u n i v e r sally u n d e r s t a n d a b l e gestures, a n d m a n y a t t i tudes follow a p a t t e r n t h a t was established long before m a n d e v e l o p e d a reflective consciousness. It is even c o n c e i v a b l e that the early origins of m a n ' s c a p a c i t y to reflect c o m e from the p a i n ful c o n s e q u e n c e s of violent e m o t i o n a l clashes. Let me take, p u r e l y as a n illustration of this point, the b u s h m a n w h o , in a m o m e n t of a n g e r
a n d d i s a p p o i n t m e n t at his failure to c a t c h a n y fish, strangles his m u c h beloved only son, a n d is then seized with i m m e n s e regret as he holds the little d e a d b o d y in his a r m s . S u c h a m a n m i g h t r e m e m b e r this m o m e n t of p a i n for ever. W e c a n n o t k n o w w h e t h e r this kind of experie n c e was a c t u a l l y the initial cause of the d e v e l o p m e n t of h u m a n consciousness. But t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t the shock of a similar e m o tional e x p e r i e n c e is often n e e d e d to m a k e people w a k e u p a n d p a y a t t e n t i o n to w h a t they a r e d o i n g . T h e r e is a famous case of a 13thc e n t u r y S p a n i s h h i d a l g o , R a i m o n Lull, w h o finally (after a long chase) succeeded in m e e t i n g the lady he a d m i r e d at a secret r e n d e z v o u s . S h e silently o p e n e d her dress a n d showed h i m her breast, r o t t e n with c a n c e r . T h e shock c h a n g e d Lull's life; he e v e n t u a l l y b e c a m e a n e m i n e n t theologian a n d o n e of the C h u r c h ' s greatest missionaries. In the case of such a s u d d e n c h a n g e o n e c a n often p r o v e t h a t a n a r c h e t y p e has b e e n at work for a long t i m e in the u n c o n scious, skillfully a r r a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t will lead to the crisis. S u c h e x p e r i e n c e s seem to show t h a t a r c h e typal forms a r e not j u s t static p a t t e r n s . T h e y are d y n a m i c factors t h a t manifest themselves in impulses, j u s t as s p o n t a n e o u s l y as the instincts. C e r t a i n d r e a m s , visions, or t h o u g h t s can s u d d e n l y a p p e a r ; a n d h o w e v e r carefully one investigates, o n e c a n n o t find o u t w h a t causes t h e m . T h i s does not m e a n t h a t they h a v e n o c a u s e ; they c e r t a i n l y h a v e . But it is so r e m o t e or o b s c u r e t h a t o n e c a n n o t see w h a t it is. In
S o m e d r e a m s s e e m to p r e d i c t t h e f u t u r e ( p e r h a p s d u e to u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e of f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s ) ; t h u s d r e a m s w e r e l o n g u s e d as d i v i n a t i o n . In G r e e c e t h e sick w o u l d ask t h e h e a l i n g g o d A s k l e p i o s f o r a d r e a m i n d i c a t i n g a c u r e . Left, a relief d e p i c t s s u c h a d r e a m c u r e : A snake (the g o d ' s s y m b o l ) bites a man's diseased shoulder and the g o d (far left) heals t h e s h o u l d e r . R i g h t , C o n s t a n t i n e ( a n Italian painting c 1 4 6 0 ) dreaming before a battle that w a s to make him R o m a n E m p e r o r . He d r e a m e d of t h e cross, a s y m b o l of C h r i s t , a n d a v o i c e said: " I n this sign c o n q u e r . " He t o o k t h e s i g n as his e m b l e m , w o n the battle, and w a s thus converted to Christianity
such a case, o n e must wait either until the d r e a m a n d its m e a n i n g a r e sufficiently u n d e r stood, or until s o m e e x t e r n a l event occurs that will e x p l a i n the d r e a m . At the m o m e n t of the d r e a m , this event m a y still lie in the future. But just as o u r conscious t h o u g h t s often o c c u p y themselves with the future a n d its possibilities, so d o the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d its d r e a m s . There has long been a general belief t h a t the chief function of d r e a m s is p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n of t h e future. In a n t i q u i t y , a n d as late as the M i d d l e Ages, d r e a m s p l a y e d their p a r t in m e d i c a l prognosis. I c a n confirm by a m o d e r n d r e a m the e l e m e n t of prognosis (or p r e cognition that c a n be found in a n old d r e a m rpioted by A r t e m i d o r u s of Daldis, in the second c e n t u r y A . O . A m a n d r e a m e d t h a t he saw his l a t h e r die in the flames of a house on (ire. Not long a f t e r w a r d s , he himself died in a phlegmon? (fire, or high lexer:, which I p r e s u m e was pneumonia. It so h a p p e n e d that a colleague of m i n e was once suffering from a d e a d l y g a n g r e n o u s fever in fact, a phlegmone. A former patient of his, w h o h a d no k n o w l e d g e of the n a t u r e of his d o c t o r ' s illness, d r e a m e d t h a t the d o c t o r died in a g r e a t fire. At that time the d o c t o r h a d just e n t e r e d a hospital a n d the disease was only b e g i n n i n g . T h e d r e a m e r knew n o t h i n g but the b a r e fact that his d o c t o r was ill a n d in a hospital. Three weeks later, the d o c t o r d i e d . As this e x a m p l e shows, d r e a m s m a y h a v e a n a n t i c i p a t o r y or prognostic aspect, a n d a n y b o d y trying to i n t e r p r e t t h e m must take this into c o n s i d e r a t i o n , especially w h e r e a n obviously meaningful d r e a m does not p r o v i d e a context
sufficient to e x p l a i n it. S u c h a d r e a m often comes right out of the b l u e , a n d o n e w o n d e r s w h a t could h a v e p r o m p t e d it. O f course, if one knew its ulterior message, its c a u s e would be clear. For it is only o u r consciousness that does not yet k n o w ; the unconscious seems a l r e a d y informed, a n d to h a v e c o m e to a conclusion that is expressed in the d r e a m . In fact, the unconscious seems to be a b l e to e x a m i n e a n d to d r a w conclusions from facts, m u c h as consciousness does. It can even use c e r t a i n facts, a n d a n t i c i p a t e their possible results, just because we a r e not conscious of t h e m . But as far as o n e can m a k e out from d r e a m s , the u n c o n s c i o u s makes its d e l i b e r a t i o n s instinctively. The distinction is i m p o r t a n t . Logical analysis is the p r e r o g a t i v e of consciousness; we select with reason a n d k n o w l e d g e . The u n c o n scious, h o w e v e r , seems to be g u i d e d chiefly by instinctive t r e n d s , r e p r e s e n t e d by c o r r e s p o n d i n g t h o u g h t forms that is. by the a r c h e t y p e s . A d o c t o r w h o is asked to describe the course of an illness will use such r a t i o n a l concepts as " i n f e c t i o n " or " f e v e r . " The d r e a m is more poetic. It presents the diseased b o d y as a m a n ' s e a r t h l y house, a n d the fever as the fire that is d e s t r o y i n g it. As the a b o v e d r e a m shows, the a r c h e t y p a l m i n d has h a n d l e d the situation in the s a m e way as it did in the t i m e of A r t e m i d o r u s . S o m e t h i n g that is of a m o r e or less u n k n o w n n a t u r e has been intuitively g r a s p e d In the unconscious a n d s u b m i t t e d to an a r c h e t y p a l t r e a t m e n t . This suggests t h a t , instead of the process of reasoning t h a t conscious t h o u g h t w o u l d h a v e a p p l i e d , the a r c h e t y p a l m i n d has s t e p p e d in a n d t a k e n over
In a d r e a m q u o t e d f r o m A r t e m i d o r u s on this page, a b u r n i n g house s y m b o l i z e s a fever T h e h u m a n b o d y is o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d as a h o u s e : Left, f r o m an 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y H e b r e w encyclopedia, the body and a house are c o m p a r e d in d e t a i l — t u r r e t s as ears, w i n d o w s as eyes, a f u r n a c e as s t o m a c h , etc. R i g h t , in a c a r t o o n by J a m e s T h u r b e r , a h e n p e c k e d h u s b a n d sees his h o m e a n d his w i f e as the s a m e b e i n g
the task of p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n . The a r c h e t y p e s thus have their o w n initiative a n d their o w n specific energy. T h e s e p o w e r s e n a b l e t h e m b o t h to p r o d u c e a m e a n i n g f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (in t h e i r o w n symbolic style) a n d to interfere in a given situation with their o w n impulses a n d their o w n t h o u g h t formations. In this respect, they function like c o m p l e x e s ; they c o m e a n d g o very much as they please, a n d often they o b s t r u c t or modify o u r conscious i n t e n t i o n s in a n e m b a r rassing w a y . W e can perceive the specific e n e r g v of a r c h e t y p e s w h e n we e x p e r i e n c e the p e c u l i a r fascination that a c c o m p a n i e s t h e m . T h e y seem to hold a special spell. S u c h a p e c u l i a r q u a l i t y is also c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ol the personal c o m p l e x e s ; and just as personal c o m p l e x e s h a v e their individual history, so d o social c o m p l e x e s of a n a r c h e t y p a l c h a r a c t e r . But while personal c o m plexes never p r o d u c e m o r e t h a n a personal bias, a r c h e t y p e s c r e a t e m y t h s , religions, a n d philosophies that influence a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e whole nations a n d epochs of history. W e r e g a r d the personal c o m p l e x e s as c o m p e n s a t i o n s for o n e sided or faulty a t t i t u d e s of consciousness; in the saine w a y . m y t h s of a religious n a t u r e can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a sort of m e n t a l t h e r a p y for the sufferings a n d anxieties of m a n k i n d in general h u n g e r , w a r , disease, old a g e , d e a t h . The universal h e r o m y t h , lot e x a m p l e , always refers to a powerful m a n or g o d - m a n who v a n q u i s h e s evil in the form of d r a g o n s , serpents, monsters, d e m o n s , a n d so on, a n d w h o liberates his p e o p l e from d e s t r u c t i o n a n d d e a t h , fhe n a r r a t i o n or ritual r e p e t i t i o n of sacred texts and c e r e m o n i e s , a n d the w o r s h i p of such a
The e n e r g y of a r c h e t y p e s c a n be focused ( t h r o u g h rituals a n d o t h e r appeals to m a s s e m o t i o n ) t o m o v e people to c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n T h e Nazis k n e w this, a n d u s e d v e r s i o n s of T e u t o n i c m y t h s t o h e l p rally the c o u n t r y to their c a u s e Far r i g h t , a p r o p a g a n d a p a i n t i n g of H i t l e r as a heroic c r u s a d e r ; r i g h t , a s o l s t i c e festival c e l e b r a t e d in s u m m e r by the Hitler Y o u t h , a revival of an ancient p a g a n f e s t i v a l
figure with d a n c e s , music, h y m n s , p r a y e r s , a n d sacrifices, g r i p the a u d i e n c e with n u m i n o u s e m o t i o n s (as if with m a g i c spells) a n d exalt the i n d i v i d u a l to a n identification with the h e r o . II we try to see such a situation with the eyes of a believer, we c a n p e r h a p s u n d e r s t a n d how the o r d i n a r y m a n can be l i b e r a t e d from his personal i m p o t e n c e a n d misery a n d end o w e d (at least t e m p o r a r i l y ) with a n almost s u p e r h u m a n q u a l i t y . Often e n o u g h such a conviction will sustain him for a long t i m e a n d give a c e r t a i n style to his life. It m a y even set the tone of a w h o l e society. A r e m a r k a b l e instance of this can be found in the Eleusinian mysteries, w h i c h w e r e finally suppressed at the b e g i n n i n g of the seventh c e n t u r y of the Christian era. They expressed, t o g e t h e r with the Delphic o r a c l e , the essence a n d spirit of a n c i e n t G r e e c e . O n a m u c h g r e a t e r scale, the C h r i s t i a n era itself owes its n a m e a n d significance to the a n t i q u e mystery of t h e g o d - m a n . w h i c h has its roots in the a r c h e t y p a l O s i r i s - H o r u s m y t h of a n c i e n t Egypt. It is c o m m o n l y a s s u m e d that on s o m e given occasion in prehistoric times, the basic m y t h o logical ideas w e r e " i n v e n t e d " by a clever old p h i l o s o p h e r or p r o p h e t , a n d ever afterward " b e l i e v e d " by a c r e d u l o u s a n d uncritical p e o p l e . It is said t h a t stories told by a p o w e r seeking priesthood are not " t r u e . " but merely "'wishful t h i n k i n g . " But the very word " i n v e n t " is derived from the L a t i n invenirt, a n d m e a n s to " i i n d " a n d h e n c e to find s o m e t h i n g by •"seeki n g " it. In the latter case the w o r d itself hints at some foreknowledge of w h a t you a r e going to find.
T o p , a c h i l d ' s p a i n t i n g of C h r i s t m a s i n c l u d e s t h e f a m i l i a r tree d e c o r a t e d w i t h c a n d l e s . T h e e v e r g r e e n tree is c o n n e c t e d w i t h Christ t h r o u g h t h e s y m b o l i s m of t h e w i n t e r s o l s t i c e a n d t h e " n e w y e a r " ( t h e n e w a e o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y ) There are m a n y l i n k s b e t w e e n Christ a n d t h e tree s y m b o l : T h e c r o s s is o f t e n seen as a tree, as in a m e d i e v a l Italian f r e s c o , left, of Christ c r u c i f i e d o n t h e tree of k n o w l e d g e . C a n d l e s in C h r i s t i a n c e r e m o n i e s s y m b o l i z e d i v i n e l i g h t , as in t h e S w e d i s h festival of St L u c i a ( a b o v e ) , w h e r e girls w e a r c r o w n s of burning candles.
8o
Let me go b a c k to the s t r a n g e ideas contained in the d r e a m s of the little girl. It seems unlikely t h a t she s o u g h t t h e m o u t , since she was surprised to find t h e m . T h e y o c c u r r e d to h e r rather as p e c u l i a r a n d u n e x p e c t e d stories, w h i c h seemed n o t e w o r t h y e n o u g h to be given to h e r father as a C h r i s t m a s p r e s e n t . I n d o i n g so, h o w ever, she lifted t h e m u p i n t o t h e s p h e r e of o u r still living C h r i s t i a n m y s t e r y — t h e b i r t h of o u r Lord, m i x e d w i t h the secret of the e v e r g r e e n tree t h a t carries the n e w - b o r n L i g h t . ( T h i s is the reference of t h e fifth d r e a m . )
similar t e r m s d e s i g n a t e a " p o w e r " of e x t r a o r d i n a r y efficiency a n d pervasiveness, w h i c h we s h o u l d call d i v i n e . T h u s the w o r d mungu is their e q u i v a l e n t for A l l a h or G o d . ) W h e n I asked t h e m w h a t they m e a n t by this act, or w h y they did it, they w e r e c o m p l e t e l y baffled. T h e y c o u l d only s a y : " W e h a v e always d o n e it. I t has a l w a y s b e e n d o n e w h e n the sun rises." T h e y l a u g h e d a t t h e obvious conclusion t h a t the sun is mungu. T h e sun i n d e e d is not mungu w h e n it is a b o v e the h o r i z o n ; mungu is the a c t u a l m o m e n t of t h e sunrise.
A l t h o u g h t h e r e is a m p l e historical e v i d e n c e for the s y m b o l i c r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n C h r i s t a n d the tree s y m b o l , t h e little girl's p a r e n t s w o u l d have b e e n g r a v e l y e m b a r r a s s e d h a d they b e e n asked to e x p l a i n exactly w h a t they m e a n t by decorating a tree w i t h b u r n i n g c a n d l e s to celebrate the n a t i v i t y of Christ. " O h , it's j u s t a Christmas c u s t o m ! " t h e y w o u l d h a v e said. A serious a n s w e r w o u l d r e q u i r e a f a r - r e a c h i n g dissertation a b o u t the a n t i q u e symbolism of the dying god, a n d its r e l a t i o n to t h e cult of the Great M o t h e r a n d h e r s y m b o l , the t r e e — t o mention only one aspect of this c o m p l i c a t e d problem. f
W h a t they w e r e d o i n g was obvious to m e , b u t n o t to t h e m ; they j u s t did it, n e v e r reflecting o n w h a t they d i d . T h e y w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y u n a b l e to e x p l a i n themselves. I c o n c l u d e d t h a t they w e r e offering t h e i r souls to mungu, because the b r e a t h (of life) a n d the spittle m e a n " s o u l - s u b s t a n c e . " T o b r e a t h e or spit u p o n s o m e t h i n g conveys a " m a g i c a l " effect, as, for i n s t a n c e , w h e n C h r i s t used spittle to c u r e the b l i n d , or w h e r e a son inhales his d y i n g father's last b r e a t h in o r d e r to take over the father's soul. It is most unlikely t h a t these Africans ever, even in t h e r e m o t e past, k n e w a n y m o r e a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g of their c e r e m o n y . I n fact, their ancestors p r o b a b l y knew even less, because they w e r e even m o r e p r o f o u n d l y u n c o n s c i o u s of their motives a n d t h o u g h t less a b o u t their doings.
T h e further we delve into the origins of a "collective i m a g e " (or, to express it in ecclesiastical l a n g u a g e , of a d o g m a ) , the m o r e we u n cover a seemingly u n e n d i n g w e b of a r c h e t y p a l patterns t h a t , before m o d e r n times, w e r e n e v e r the object of conscious reflection. T h u s , p a r a doxically e n o u g h , we k n o w m o r e a b o u t m y t h o logical s y m b o l i s m t h a n did a n y g e n e r a t i o n before o u r o w n . T h e fact is t h a t in former times men did not reflect u p o n their s y m b o l s ; they lived t h e m a n d w e r e unconsciously a n i m a t e d by their m e a n i n g . I will illustrate this by a n e x p e r i e n c e I o n c e had w i t h the p r i m i t i v e s of M o u n t E l g o n in Africa. E v e r y m o r n i n g at d a w n , they leave their huts a n d b r e a t h e or spit i n t o t h e i r h a n d s , w h i c h they t h e n stretch o u t to t h e first rays of the s u n , as if they w e r e offering e i t h e r their b r e a t h or their spittle to the rising god — to mungu. ( T h i s Swahili w o r d , w h i c h t h e y used in e x p l a i n i n g the ritual act, is d e r i v e d from a Polynesian root equivalent to mana or mulungu. T h e s e a n d
G o e t h e ' s F a u s t a p t l y says: "Im Anfang war die Tat [ I n the b e g i n n i n g was t h e d e e d ] . " " D e e d s " w e r e n e v e r i n v e n t e d , they w e r e d o n e ; t h o u g h t s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , are a relatively late discovery of m a n . First he was m o v e d to deeds by u n c o n s c i o u s factors; it was only a long t i m e a f t e r w a r d t h a t he b e g a n to reflect u p o n the causes t h a t h a d m o v e d h i m ; a n d it took h i m a very long t i m e i n d e e d to arrive at the p r e p o s t e r o u s idea t h a t he must h a v e moved himself—his m i n d b e i n g u n a b l e to identify a n y o t h e r m o t i v a t i n g force t h a n his o w n . W e s h o u l d l a u g h at the idea of a p l a n t or a n a n i m a l i n v e n t i n g itself, yet t h e r e a r e m a n y p e o p l e w h o believe t h a t the psyche or m i n d i n v e n t e d itself a n d thus was t h e c r e a t o r of its o w n existence. As a m a t t e r of fact, the m i n d has g r o w n to its present state of consciousness as a n a c o r n grows i n t o a n oak or as s a u r i a n s 81
d e v e l o p e d into m a m m a l s . As it has for so long been d e v e l o p i n g , so it still develops, a n d thus we a r e m o v e d by forces from w i t h i n as well as by stimuli from w i t h o u t . T h e s e i n n e r motives s p r i n g from a d e e p source t h a t is not m a d e by consciousness a n d is not u n d e r its c o n t r o l . In the m y t h o l o g y of earlier times, these forces w e r e called mana, or spirits, d e m o n s , a n d gods. T h e y a r e as active t o d a y as they ever w e r e . If they c o n f o r m to o u r wishes, we call t h e m h a p p y h u n c h e s or impulses a n d p a t ourselves o n the back for b e i n g s m a r t fellows. If they go a g a i n s t us, t h e n we say t h a t it is j u s t b a d luck, or t h a t c e r t a i n p e o p l e a r e against us, or t h a t t h e cause of o u r misfortunes must be p a t h o l o g i c a l . T h e o n e t h i n g we refuse to a d m i t is t h a t we a r e d e p e n d e n t u p o n " p o w e r s " that are beyond our control. It is t r u e , h o w e v e r , t h a t in r e c e n t times civilized m a n has a c q u i r e d a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of will p o w e r , w h i c h he c a n a p p l y w h e r e he pleases. H e has l e a r n e d to d o his work efficiently w i t h out h a v i n g recourse to c h a n t i n g a n d d r u m m i n g to h y p n o t i z e h i m i n t o t h e state of d o i n g . Hec a n even dispense w i t h a daily p r a y e r for d i v i n e aid. H e c a n c a r r y o u t w h a t he proposes to d o , a n d he c a n a p p a r e n t l y t r a n s l a t e his ideas into
a c t i o n w i t h o u t a h i t c h , w h e r e a s the p r i m i t i v e seems to be h a m p e r e d at e a c h step by fears, superstitions, a n d o t h e r unseen obstacles to a c t i o n . T h e m o t t o " W h e r e t h e r e ' s a will, t h e r e ' s a w a y " is the superstition of m o d e r n m a n . Yet in o r d e r to sustain his c r e e d , c o n t e m p o r a r y m a n pays the price in a r e m a r k a b l e lack of i n t r o s p e c t i o n . H e is blind to the fact t h a t , with all his r a t i o n a l i t y a n d efficiency, he is possessed by " p o w e r s " t h a t a r e b e y o n d his control. His gods a n d d e m o n s h a v e not d i s a p p e a r e d at a l l ; they h a v e merely got n e w n a m e s . They keep him on the r u n w i t h restlessness, v a g u e a p p r e h e n s i o n s , psychological c o m p l i c a t i o n s , a n i n s a t i a b l e need for pills, alcohol, t o b a c c o , food a n d , a b o v e all, a large a r r a y of neuroses.
T w o e x a m p l e s of belief in t h e " m a g i c a l " g u a l i t y of b r e a t h : B e l o w left, a Z u l u w i t c h d o c t o r c u r e s a p a t i e n t by b l o w i n g i n t o his ear t h r o u g h a c o w ' s horn (to drive the spirits o u t ) ; b e l o w , a m e d i e v a l p a i n t i n g of t h e c r e a t i o n d e p i c t s G o d b r e a t h i n g life i n t o A d a m . R i g h t , in a 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y Italian p a i n t i n g , Christ heals a b l i n d m a n w i t h s p i t t l e — w h i c h , like b r e a t h , has l o n g been believed to have a lifegiving ability
The soul of man
What we call civilized consciousness has steadily separated itself from the basic instincts. But these instincts h a v e not d i s a p p e a r e d . T h e y h a v e merely lost their c o n t a c t w i t h o u r consciousness and are thus forced to assert themselves in an indirect fashion. T h i s m a y be by m e a n s of physical s y m p t o m s in the case of a neurosis, or by means of i n c i d e n t s of v a r i o u s kinds, such as unaccountable m o o d s , u n e x p e c t e d forgetfulness, or mistakes in speech. A m a n likes to believe that he is the m a s t e r of his soul. But as long as he is u n a b l e to c o n t r o l his moods a n d e m o t i o n s , or to be conscious of the myriad secret w a y s in w h i c h unconscious factors insinuate themselves into his a r r a n g e ments and decisions, he is c e r t a i n l y not his o w n master. T h e s e u n c o n s c i o u s factors owe their existence to the a u t o n o m y of the a r c h e t y p e s . Modern m a n protects himself against seeing his own split state by a system of c o m p a r t m e n t s . Certain areas of o u t e r life a n d of his o w n behavior are kept, as it w e r e , in s e p a r a t e
d r a w e r s a n d a r c never confronted with o n e another. As an e x a m p l e of this so-called c o m p a r t m e n t psychology, I r e m e m b e r the case of an alcoholic w h o h a d c o m e u n d e r the l a u d a b l e influence of a c e r t a i n religious m o v e m e n t , a n d , fascinated by its e n t h u s i a s m , h a d forgotten that he n e e d e d a d r i n k . H e was obviously a n d m i r a c u l o u s l y c u r e d by J e s u s , a n d he was c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y displayed as a witness to divine g r a c e or to the efficiency of the said religious o r g a n i z a t i o n . But after a few weeks of p u b l i c confessions, the novelty b e g a n to pale a n d some alcoholic refreshment seemed to be i n d i c a t e d , a n d so he d r a n k a g a i n . But this t i m e the helpful o r g a n ization c a m e to the conclusion t h a t the case was " p a t h o l o g i c a l " a n d obviously not s u i t a b l e for a n i n t e r v e n t i o n by J e s u s , so they p u t him into a clinic to let the d o c t o r d o b e t t e r t h a n the div ine healer. T h i s is a n aspect of the m o d e r n " c u l t u r a l " m i n d t h a t is w o r t h looking into. It shows a n
«3
84
alarming d e g r e e of dissociation a n d p s y c h o logical confusion. If, for a m o m e n t , we r e g a r d m a n k i n d as o n e individual, we see t h a t the h u m a n r a c e is like a person c a r r i e d a w a y b y u n c o n s c i o u s p o w e r s ; and the h u m a n r a c e also likes to k e e p c e r t a i n problems t u c k e d a w a y in s e p a r a t e d r a w e r s . But this is why we s h o u l d give a g r e a t d e a l of consideration to w h a t we a r e d o i n g , for m a n k i n d is now t h r e a t e n e d by self-created a n d d e a d l y dangers t h a t a r e g r o w i n g b e y o n d o u r control. Our world is, so to speak, dissociated like a neurotic, w i t h the I r o n C u r t a i n m a r k i n g the symbolic line of division. W e s t e r n m a n , b e c o m ing a w a r e of the aggressive will to p o w e r of the East, sees himself forced to t a k e e x t r a o r d i n ary measures of defense, at the s a m e t i m e as he prides himself on his v i r t u e a n d good intentions. W h a t he fails to see is t h a t it is his o w n vices, which he has covered u p by good i n t e r n a t i o n a l manners, t h a t are t h r o w n b a c k in his face by the c o m m u n i s t w o r l d , shamelessly a n d m e t h odically. W h a t the W e s t has t o l e r a t e d , b u t secretly a n d with a slight sense of s h a m e (the diplomatic lie, systematic d e c e p t i o n , veiled threats), comes b a c k i n t o the o p e n a n d in full measure from the East a n d ties us u p in n e u rotic knots. It is the face of his o w n evil s h a d o w that grins at W e s t e r n m a n from the o t h e r side of the I r o n C u r t a i n . It is this state of affairs t h a t explains the peculiar feeling of helplessness of so m a n y people in W e s t e r n societies. T h e y h a v e b e g u n to realize t h a t the difficulties confronting us are moral p r o b l e m s , a n d t h a t the a t t e m p t s to answer t h e m by a policy of piling u p n u c l e a r arms or by e c o n o m i c " c o m p e t i t i o n " is achieving little, for it cuts b o t h ways. M a n y of us now u n d e r s t a n d t h a t m o r a l a n d m e n t a l m e a n s would be m o r e efficient, since they could p r o vide us with psychic i m m u n i t y a g a i n s t the everincreasing infection.
"Our world is dissociated like a neurotic." Left, the Berlin Wall.
But all such a t t e m p t s h a v e p r o v e d singularly ineffective, a n d will d o so as long as we try to c o n v i n c e ourselves a n d the w o r l d t h a t it is only they (i.e. o u r o p p o n e n t s ) w h o a r e w r o n g , ft w o u l d be m u c h m o r e to the p o i n t for us to m a k e a serious a t t e m p t to recognize o u r o w n s h a d o w a n d its nefarious doings. If we could see o u r s h a d o w (the d a r k side of o u r n a t u r e ) , we s h o u l d be i m m u n e to a n y m o r a l a n d m e n t a l infection a n d i n s i n u a t i o n . As m a t t e r s n o w s t a n d , we lay ourselves o p e n to every infection, b e c a u s e we a r e really d o i n g p r a c t i c a l l y the s a m e t h i n g as they. O n l y we h a v e the a d d i tional d i s a d v a n t a g e t h a t we n e i t h e r see n o r w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t we ourselves are d o i n g , u n d e r the cover of good m a n n e r s . T h e c o m m u n i s t w o r l d , it m a y be n o t e d , has o n e big m y t h (which we call a n illusion, in the v a i n h o p e t h a t o u r s u p e r i o r j u d g m e n t will m a k e it d i s a p p e a r ) . It is the t i m e - h a l l o w e d a r c h e t y p a l d r e a m of a G o l d e n A g e (or P a r a dise), w h e r e e v e r y t h i n g is p r o v i d e d in a b u n d a n c e for e v e r y o n e , a n d a g r e a t , j u s t , a n d wise chief rules over a h u m a n k i n d e r g a r t e n . T h i s powerful a r c h e t y p e in its infantile form has g r i p p e d t h e m , b u t it will n e v e r d i s a p p e a r from the w o r l d at the m e r e sight of o u r superior p o i n t of view. W e even s u p p o r t it by o u r o w n childishness, for o u r W e s t e r n civilization is in the g r i p of the s a m e m y t h o l o g y . Unconsciously, we cherish the s a m e prejudices, h o p e s , a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s . W e too believe in the welfare state, in universal p e a c e , in the e q u a l i t y of m a n , in his e t e r n a l h u m a n rights, in j u s t i c e , t r u t h , a n d (do not say it too loudly) in the K i n g d o m of G o d on E a r t h . T h e sad t r u t h is t h a t m a n ' s real life consists of a c o m p l e x of i n e x o r a b l e o p p o s i t e s — d a y a n d night, b i r t h a n d d e a t h , h a p p i n e s s a n d misery, good a n d evil. W e are n o t even sure t h a t one will prevail against the o t h e r , t h a t good will o v e r c o m e evil, or j o y defeat p a i n . Life is a b a t t l e g r o u n d . It always has b e e n , a n d always will b e ; a n d if it w e r e n o t so, existence w o u l d c o m e to a n e n d . It was precisely this conflict w i t h i n m a n t h a t led the early C h r i s t i a n s to e x p e c t a n d h o p e for a n early e n d to this w o r l d , or the B u d d h i s t s to 85
Every s o c i e t y has its idea of t h e a r c h e t y p a l p a r a d i s e or g o l d e n age t h a t , it is b e l i e v e d , o n c e e x i s t e d a n d w i l l exist a g a i n . Left, a 1 9 t h century American painting embodies t h e idea of a past U t o p i a : It s h o w s W i l l i a m Penn's treaty w i t h the I n d i a n s in 1 6 8 2 o c c u r r i n g in an ideal s e t t i n g w h e r e all is h a r m o n y a n d peace. B e l o w left, a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e idea of a U t o p i a yet to c o m e : A p o s t e r in a M o s c o w park s h o w s L e n i n l e a d i n g t h e Russian p e o p l e t o w a r d the future
A b o v e , the G a r d e n of E d e n , d e p i c t e d as a w a l l e d ( a n d w o m b - l i k e ) g a r d e n in a 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y ' F r e n c h p a i n t i n g a n d s h o w i n g t h e e x p u l s i o n of A d a m a n d Eve. R i g h t , a " g o l d e n a g e " of p r i m i t i v e n a t u r a l n e s s is p i c t u r e d in a 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g by C r a n a c h ( e n t i t l e d Earthly Paradise). Far r i g h t , t h e 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y F l e m i s h artist Brueghel's Land of Cokaygne, a m y t h i c a l l a n d of s e n s u a l d e l i g h t s a n d easy l i v i n g . ( s t o r i e s of w h i c h w e r e w i d e l y p o p u l a r in m e d i e v a l Europe, especially a m o n g the hardw o r k i n g peasants and serfs).
reject all e a r t h l y desires a n d a s p i r a t i o n s . T h e s e basic answers w o u l d be frankly suicidal if they were not linked u p with p e c u l i a r m e n t a l a n d moral ideas a n d practices t h a t c o n s t i t u t e the bulk of both religions a n d t h a t , to a c e r t a i n extent, modify their r a d i c a l d e n i a l of the world. I stress this point b e c a u s e , in o u r t i m e , t h e r e are millions of p e o p l e w h o h a v e lost faith in any kind of religion. S u c h p e o p l e d o not u n d e r stand their religion a n y longer. W h i l e life r u n s smoothly w i t h o u t religion, t h e loss r e m a i n s as good as u n n o t i c e d . But w h e n suffering c o m e s , it is a n o t h e r m a t t e r . T h a t is w h e n p e o p l e begin to seek a w a y o u t a n d to reflect a b o u t the meaning of life a n d its b e w i l d e r i n g a n d painful experiences. It is significant t h a t the psychological d o c t o r (within my e x p e r i e n c e ) is c o n s u l t e d m o r e by Jews and P r o t e s t a n t s t h a n by C a t h o l i c s . T h i s might be e x p e c t e d , for t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h still feels responsible for t h e cura animarum (the care a n d welfare of souls). But in this scientific age, the psychiatrist is a p t to b e asked the questions t h a t o n c e b e l o n g e d in the d o m a i n of the theologian. P e o p l e feel t h a t it m a k e s , or would m a k e , a g r e a t difference if only they h a d a positive belief in a m e a n i n g f u l w a y of life or in God a n d i m m o r t a l i t y . T h e s p e c t e r of a p proaching d e a t h often gives a powerful i n c e n tive to such t h o u g h t s . F r o m t i m e i m m e m o r i a l , men have h a d ideas a b o u t a S u p r e m e Being (one or several) a n d a b o u t t h e L a n d of the
H e r e a f t e r . O n l y t o d a y d o they t h i n k they c a n d o w i t h o u t such ideas. Because we c a n n o t discover G o d ' s t h r o n e in the sky w i t h a r a d i o telescope or establish (for c e r t a i n ) t h a t a beloved father or m o t h e r is still a b o u t in a m o r e or less c o r p o r e a l form, p e o p l e a s s u m e t h a t such ideas a r e " n o t t r u e . " I w o u l d r a t h e r say t h a t they a r e not " t r u e " enough, for these a r e c o n c e p t i o n s of a kind t h a t h a v e a c c o m p a n i e d h u m a n life from p r e historic times, a n d t h a t still b r e a k t h r o u g h i n t o consciousness at a n y p r o v o c a t i o n . M o d e r n m a n m a y assert t h a t he can dispense w i t h t h e m , a n d h e m a y bolster his o p i n i o n by insisting t h a t t h e r e is n o scientific e v i d e n c e of their t r u t h . O r he m a y even regret the loss of his convictions. But since we a r e d e a l i n g w i t h invisible a n d u n k n o w a b l e things (for G o d is b e y o n d h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d ing, a n d t h e r e is n o m e a n s of p r o v i n g i m m o r tality), w h y s h o u l d we b o t h e r a b o u t e v i d e n c e ? Even if we did not k n o w by reason o u r need for salt in o u r food, we s h o u l d nonetheless profit from its use. W e m i g h t a r g u e t h a t the use of salt is a m e r e illusion of taste or a s u p e r s t i t i o n ; b u t it w o u l d still c o n t r i b u t e to o u r well-being. W h y , t h e n , should we d e p r i v e ourselves of views t h a t w o u l d p r o v e helpful in crises a n d w o u l d give a m e a n i n g to o u r existence? A n d h o w d o we k n o w t h a t such ideas a r e not t r u e ? M a n y p e o p l e w o u l d a g r e e w i t h m e
87
if I stated flatly t h a t such ideas a r e p r o b a b l y illusions. W h a t they fail to realize is t h a t the denial is as impossible to " p r o v e " as the assertion of religious belief. W e a r e entirely free to choose w h i c h point of view we t a k e ; it will in a n y case be a n a r b i t r a r y decision. T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a s t r o n g e m p i r i c a l reason why we should c u l t i v a t e t h o u g h t s t h a t can never be p r o v e d . It is t h a t they a r e k n o w n to be useful. M a n positively needs g e n e r a l ideas and convictions t h a t will give a m e a n i n g to his life a n d e n a b l e him to find a p l a c e for himself in the universe. H e c a n s t a n d t h e most incredible h a r d s h i p s w h e n he is c o n v i n c e d that they m a k e sense; he is c r u s h e d w h e n , on t o p of all his misfortunes, h e has to a d m i t t h a t he is taking p a r t in a " t a l e told by a n i d i o t . " It is the role of religious symbols to give a meaning to the life of m a n . T h e P u e b l o Indians believe t h a t they a r e t h e sons of Father S u n , a n d this belief e n d o w s their life with a perspective ( a n d a goal) t h a t goes far beyond their limited existence. It gives t h e m ample space for the unfolding of personality and p e r m i t s t h e m a full life as c o m p l e t e persons. T h e i r plight is infinitely m o r e satisfactory t h a n t h a t of a m a n in o u r o w n civilization w h o knows t h a t he is ( a n d will r e m a i n ) nothing m o r e t h a n a n u n d e r d o g with n o i n n e r meaning to his life. A sense of a w i d e r m e a n i n g to one's existence is w h a t raises a m a n b e y o n d m e r e g e t t i n g and s p e n d i n g . If he lacks this sense, he is lost and miserable. H a d St. Paul been convinced t h a t he was n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a
Left, the burial c o f f i n of a S o u t h American C a y a p a s I n d i a n . T h e d e a d man is p r o v i d e d w i t h f o o d a n d c l o t h i n g for his life after d e a t h . Religious s y m b o l s a n d beliefs of e v e r y kind give m e a n i n g t o m e n ' s lives ancient p e o p l e s g r i e v e d o v e r d e a t h (right, an E g y p t i a n f i g u r i n e representing m o u r n i n g , w h i c h w a s f o u n d in a t o m b ) ; y e t t h e i r b e l i e f s made t h e m also t h i n k of d e a t h as a positive t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
w a n d e r i n g t e n t - m a k e r he c e r t a i n l y w o u l d not h a v e been the m a n he was. His real a n d m e a n i n g f u l life lay in the i n n e r c e r t a i n t y t h a t he was the messenger of the L o r d . O n e m a y accuse him of suffering from m e g a l o m a n i a , b u t this o p i n i o n pales before the testim o n y of history a n d the j u d g m e n t of s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n s . T h e m y t h that took possession of him m a d e h i m s o m e t h i n g g r e a t e r than a mere craftsman. S u c h a m y t h , h o w e v e r , consists of symbols t h a t h a v e not b e e n i n v e n t e d consciously. T h e y h a v e h a p p e n e d . It was not the m a n J e s u s w h o c r e a t e d the m y t h of the g o d - m a n . It existed for m a n y c e n t u r i e s before his b i r t h . H e himself was seized by this s y m b o l i c idea, w h i c h , as St. M a r k tells us, lifted h i m o u t of the n a r r o w life of t h e N a z a r e n e c a r p e n t e r .
M y t h s go back to the p r i m i t i v e storyteller a n d his d r e a m s , to m e n m o v e d by the stirring of their fantasies. T h e s e p e o p l e w e r e not very different from those w h o m later g e n e r a t i o n s h a v e called poets or p h i l o s o p h e r s . P r i m i t i v e storytellers did not c o n c e r n themselves with the origin of t h e i r fantasies; it was very m u c h later t h a t p e o p l e b e g a n to w o n d e r w h e r e a story o r i g i n a t e d . Vet. c e n t u r i e s a g o , in w h a t we now call "ancient"" G r e e c e , m e n ' s m i n d s w e r e a d v a n c e d e n o u g h t o surmise that the tales of the gods were n o t h i n g but a r c h a i c a n d e x a g g e r a t e d t r a d i t i o n s o f l o n g - b u r i e d kings or chieftains. M e n a l r e a d y t o o k t h e view that the m y t h was too i m p r o b a b l e to m e a n what it said. T h e y therefore tried to r e d u c e it to a g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e form. In m o r e recent times, we h a v e seen the s a m e thing h a p p e n with d r e a m s y m b o l i s m . W e b e c a m e a w a r e , in the years w h e n psychology was in its infancy, that d r e a m s h a d some i m p o r t a n c e . But j u s t as the G r e e k s p e r s u a d e d themselves t h a t t h e i r m y t h s w e r e m e r e l y e l a b o r a t i o n s of r a t i o n a l or " n o r m a l " history, so some of the pioneers of psychology c a m e to the conclusion t h a t d r e a m s did not m e a n w h a t they a p p e a r e d to m e a n . T h e i m a g e s or symbols t h a t they p r e s e n t e d w e r e dismissed as b i z a r r e forms in w h i c h repressed c o n t e n t s o f the psyche a p p e a r e d to the c o n s c i o u s m i n d . It thus c a m e to be t a k e n for g r a n t e d t h a t a d r e a m m e a n t s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n its o b v i o u s s t a t e m e n t . I h a v e a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d my d i s a g r e e m e n t with this idea — a d i s a g r e e m e n t t h a t led m c to s t u d y the form as well as the c o n t e n t of d r e a m s . W h y should they m e a n s o m e t h i n g different from their c o n t e n t s ? Is t h e r e a n y t h i n g in n a t u r e t h a t is o t h e r t h a n it is? T h e d r e a m is a n o r m a l a n d n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n , a n d it does not m e a n s o m e t h i n g it is not. T h e T a l m u d even s a y s : " T h e d r e a m is its o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . " T h e confusion arises b e c a u s e the d r e a m ' s c o n t e n t s a r e s y m b o l i c a n d thus h a v e m o r e t h a n o n e m e a n i n g . T h e symbols point in different directions from those we a p p r e h e n d with the conscious m i n d ; a n d t h e r e fore they r e l a t e to s o m e t h i n g either u n c o n s c i o u s or at least not entirely conscious.
'I"
A b o v e , a c h i l d ' s d r a w i n g of a tree ( w i t h t h e s u n a b o v e i t ) . A tree is o n e of t h e best e x a m p l e s of a m o t i f t h a t o f t e n a p p e a r s in d r e a m s ( a n d e l s e w h e r e ) a n d t h a t c a n have an i n c r e d i b l e v a r i e t y o f m e a n i n g s . It might symbolize evolution, physical g r o w t h , or p s y c h o l o g i c a l m a t u r a t i o n ; it m i g h t s y m b o l i z e s a c r i f i c e or death (Christ's crucifixion on the t r e e ) ; it m i g h t be a p h a l l i c s y m b o l ; it m i g h t be a great deal m o r e . A n d such other c o m m o n dream motifs as t h e cross ( r i g h t ) or t h e lingam (far r i g h t ) c a n also have a vast array of s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g s .
T o the scientific m i n d , such p h e n o m e n a as symbolic ideas a r e a n u i s a n c e b e c a u s e they c a n n o t be f o r m u l a t e d in a w a y t h a t is satisfactory to intellect a n d logic. T h e y a r e by no m e a n s the only case of this kind in psychology. T h e t r o u b l e begins with the p h e n o m e n o n of "affect" or e m o t i o n , w h i c h evades all the a t t e m p t s of the psychologist to pin it d o w n with a final definition. T h e cause of t h e difficulty is the s a m e in b o t h cases — the i n t e r v e n tion of the unconscious. I know e n o u g h of the scientific point of view to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t it is most a n n o y i n g to have to d e a l with facts t h a t c a n n o t b e c o m pletely or a d e q u a t e l y g r a s p e d . T h e t r o u b l e with these p h e n o m e n a is t h a t the facts a r e u n d e n i a b l e a n d yet c a n n o t be f o r m u l a t e d in intellectual t e r m s . F o r this o n e w o u l d h a v e to be able to c o m p r e h e n d life itself, for it is life t h a t p r o d u c e s e m o t i o n s a n d symbolic ideas. T h e a c a d e m i c psychologist is perfectly free to dismiss the p h e n o m e n o n of e m o t i o n or the concept of the u n c o n s c i o u s (or b o t h ) from his consideration. Yet they r e m a i n facts to w h i c h the m e d i c a l psychologist at least has to p a y d u e a t t e n t i o n ; for e m o t i o n a l conflicts a n d the intervention of the unconscious a r e the classical features of his science. If he treats a p a t i e n t at all, he comes u p against these irrationalities as
h a r d facts, irrespective of his ability to formulate t h e m in intellectual terms. It is. therefore, epiite n a t u r a l t h a t p e o p l e w h o h a v e not had the m e d i c a l psychologist's e x p e r i e n c e find it difficult to follow w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n psychology ceases to be a t r a n q u i l pursuit for the scientist in his l a b o r a t o r y a n d b e c o m e s a n active p a r t of the a d v e n t u r e of real life. Target p r a c t i c e on a s h o o t i n g r a n g e is far from the battlefield; the d o c t o r has to deal with casualties in a g e n u i n e w a r . H e must c o n c e r n himself with psychic realities, even if he c a n n o t e m b o d y t h e m in scientific definitions. T h a t is w h y no textbook can teach p s y c h o l o g y ; one learns only by a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e . W e c a n see this point clearly w h e n we examine certain well-known symbols: T h e cross in t h e C h r i s t i a n religion, for ins t a n c e , is a m e a n i n g f u l s y m b o l t h a t expresses a m u l t i t u d e of aspects, ideas, a n d e m o t i o n s : b u t a cross after a n a m e on a list simply indicates t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l is d e a d . T h e p h a l l u s functions as a n a l l - e m b r a c i n g s y m b o l in the H i n d u religion, but if a street u r c h i n d r a w s o n e on a wall, it just reflects an interest in his penis. Because infantile a n d adolescent fantasies often c o n t i n u e far into a d u l t life, m a n y d r e a m s o c c u r in which t h e r e are u n m i s t a k a b l e sexual allusions. It w o u l d be a b s u r d to u n d e r -
9i
s t a n d t h e m as a n y t h i n g else. But w h e n a m a s o n speaks of m o n k s a n d n u n s to be laid u p o n each o t h e r , or a n electrician of m a l e plugs a n d female sockets, it w o u l d be l u d i c r o u s to suppose t h a t he is i n d u l g i n g in g l o w i n g adolescent fantasies. H e is simply using colorful descriptive n a m e s for his m a t e r i a l s . W h e n an e d u c a t e d H i n d u talks to you a b o u t t h e ling a m (the p h a l l u s t h a t represents t h e god Siva in H i n d u m y t h o l o g y ) , you will h e a r things we W e s t e r n e r s w o u l d n e v e r c o n n e c t w i t h the penis. T h e l i n g a m is certainly n o t a n obscene allusion; n o r is the cross m e r e l y a sign of d e a t h . M u c h d e p e n d s u p o n t h e m a t u r i t y of the d r e a m e r w h o p r o d u c e s such a n i m a g e . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d r e a m s a n d symbols d e m a n d s intelligence. It c a n n o t be t u r n e d into a m e c h a n i c a l system a n d t h e n c r a m m e d i n t o u n i m a g i n a t i v e b r a i n s . It d e m a n d s b o t h a n i n c r e a s i n g k n o w l e d g e of t h e d r e a m e r ' s indiv i d u a l i t y a n d a n i n c r e a s i n g self-awareness on t h e p a r t of t h e i n t e r p r e t e r . N o e x p e r i e n c e d w o r k e r in this field will d e n y t h a t t h e r e a r e rules of t h u m b t h a t c a n p r o v e helpful, b u t they m u s t be a p p l i e d with p r u d e n c e a n d intelligence. O n e m a y follow all t h e right rules a n d yet get bogged d o w n in t h e most a p p a l l i n g nonsense, simply by o v e r l o o k i n g a seemingly u n i m p o r t a n t detail t h a t a b e t t e r intelligence w o u l d n o t h a v e missed. Even a m a n of high intellect c a n go b a d l y a s t r a y for lack of i n t u i t i o n or feeling. W h e n we a t t e m p t to u n d e r s t a n d symbols, we a r e not only confronted with t h e symbol itself, b u t we a r e b r o u g h t u p a g a i n s t the wholeness of t h e s y m b o l - p r o d u c i n g i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s includes a study of his c u l t u r a l backg r o u n d , a n d in t h e process o n e fills in m a n y gaps in one's o w n e d u c a t i o n . I h a v e m a d e it a rule myself to consider every case as a n entirely n e w p r o p o s i t i o n a b o u t w h i c h I d o not even k n o w t h e A B C . R o u t i n e responses m a y be p r a c t i c a l a n d useful while o n e is dealing with the surface, b u t as soon as o n e gets in touch with t h e vital p r o b l e m s , life itself takes over a n d even t h e most b r i l l i a n t t h e o r e t i cal premises b e c o m e ineffectual w o r d s . I m a g i n a t i o n a n d i n t u i t i o n a r e vital to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A n d t h o u g h t h e usual p o p u l a r
9
2
o p i n i o n is t h a t they a r e chiefly v a l u a b l e to poets a n d artists ( t h a t in " s e n s i b l e " m a t t e r s o n e s h o u l d mistrust t h e m ) , they a r e in fact e q u a l l y vital in all t h e h i g h e r g r a d e s of science. H e r e t h e y play a n increasingly i m p o r t a n t role, w h i c h s u p p l e m e n t s t h a t of t h e " r a t i o n a l " intellect a n d its a p p l i c a t i o n to a specific p r o b l e m . E v e n physics, t h e strictest of all a p p l i e d sciences, d e p e n d s to a n a s t o n i s h i n g d e g r e e u p o n intuition, w h i c h works by w a y of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ( a l t h o u g h it is possible to d e m o n s t r a t e afterw a r d t h e logical p r o c e d u r e s t h a t could h a v e led o n e to t h e s a m e result as i n t u i t i o n ) . I n t u i t i o n is a l m o s t i n d i s p e n s a b l e in t h e int e r p r e t a t i o n of symbols, a n d it c a n often e n s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e i m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r s t o o d by the d r e a m e r . But while such a lucky h u n c h m a y be subjectively c o n v i n c i n g , it c a n also be r a t h e r d a n g e r o u s . It c a n so easily lead to a false feeling of security. I t m a y , for i n s t a n c e , seduce b o t h t h e i n t e r p r e t e r a n d t h e d r e a m e r into c o n t i n u i n g a cosy a n d relatively easy r e l a t i o n , w h i c h m a y e n d in a sort of s h a r e d d r e a m . T h e safe basis of real intellectual k n o w l e d g e a n d m o r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g gets lost if o n e is c o n t e n t w i t h t h e v a g u e satisfaction of h a v i n g understood by " h u n c h . " O n e can explain and k n o w only if o n e has r e d u c e d i n t u i t i o n s to a n exact k n o w l e d g e of facts a n d their logical connections. An honest i n v e s t i g a t o r will h a v e to a d m i t t h a t he c a n n o t always d o this, b u t it w o u l d be dishonest n o t to keep it a l w a y s in m i n d . Even a scientist is a h u m a n b e i n g . So it is n a t u r a l for h i m , like o t h e r s , to h a t e t h e things he c a n n o t e x p l a i n . It is a c o m m o n illusion to believe t h a t w h a t w e k n o w t o d a y is all we ever c a n k n o w . N o t h i n g is m o r e v u l n e r a b l e t h a n scientific t h e o r y , w h i c h is a n e p h e m e r a l a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n facts a n d n o t a n everlasting t r u t h in itself. Ancient mythological beings are now curiosities in museums (right). But the archetypes they expressed have not lost their power to affect men's minds. Perhaps the monsters of modern "horror" films (far right) are distorted versions of archetypes that will no longer be repressed.
The role of symbols
W h e n the m e d i c a l psychologist takes a n interest in symbols, he is p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d with " n a t u r a l " symbols, as distinct from " c u l t u r a l " symbols. T h e former a r e d e r i v e d from the unconscious c o n t e n t s of the p s y c h e , a n d they therefore r e p r e s e n t a n e n o r m o u s n u m b e r of variations on the essential a r c h e t y p a l images. In m a n y cases they c a n still be t r a c e d back to their a r c h a i c roots i.e. to ideas a n d i m a g e s that we meet in the most a n c i e n t records a n d in p r i m i t i v e societies. T h e c u l t u r a l symbols, on the o t h e r h a n d , a r e those t h a t h a v e b e e n used to express " e t e r n a l t r u t h s , " a n d t h a t a r e still used in m a n y religions. T h e y h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h m a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a n d even a long process of m o r e or less conscious d e v e l o p m e n t , and h a v e t h u s b e c o m e collective images accepted by civilized societies. S u c h c u l t u r a l symbols nevertheless retain m u c h of their original n u m i n o s i t y or " s p e l l . " O n e is a w a r e t h a t they c a n evoke a d e e p e m o tional response in s o m e i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d this psychic c h a n g e m a k e s t h e m function in m u c h the s a m e w a y as prejudices. T h e y a r e a factor with w h i c h the psychologist must r e c k o n ; it is folly to dismiss t h e m b e c a u s e , in r a t i o n a l t e r m s , they seem to be a b s u r d or i r r e l e v a n t . T h e y a r e i m p o r t a n t c o n s t i t u e n t s of o u r m e n t a l m a k e - u p
a n d vital forces in the b u i l d i n g u p of h u m a n society; a n d they c a n n o t be e r a d i c a t e d w i t h o u t serious loss. W h e r e they a r e repressed or neglected, their specific cnergv d i s a p p e a r s into the u n c o n s c i o u s with u n a c c o u n t a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h e psychic e n e r g y t h a t a p p e a r s to h a v e been lost in this w a y in fact serves to revive a n d intensify w h a t e v e r is u p p e r m o s t in the u n c o n scious— t e n d e n c i e s , p e r h a p s , t h a t h a v e h i t h e r t o h a d no c h a n c e to express themselves or at least h a v e not been allowed a n u n i n h i b i t e d existence in o u r consciousness. S u c h t e n d e n c i e s form a n e v e r - p r e s e n t a n d p o t e n t i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e " s h a d o w " to o u r conscious m i n d . Even t e n d e n c i e s t h a t m i g h t in some c i r c u m s t a n c e s be a b l e to exert a beneficial influence a r e t r a n s f o r m e d into d e m o n s w h e n they a r e repressed. T h i s is w h y m a n y wellm e a n i n g p e o p l e a r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y afraid of the unconscious, a n d i n c i d e n t a l l y of psychology. O u r times h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d w h a t it m e a n s for the gates of the u n d e r w o r l d to be o p e n e d . Things whose e n o r m i t y n o b o d y could h a v e i m a g i n e d in the idyllic harmlessness of the first d e c a d e of o u r c e n t u r y h a v e h a p p e n e d a n d h a v e t u r n e d o u r world upside d o w n . E v e r since, the world has r e m a i n e d in a state of s c h i z o p h r e n i a . Not only has civilized G e r m a n y disgorged its
93
terrible p r i m i t i v i t y , but Russia is also ruled by it, a n d Africa has b e e n set on fire. N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e W e s t e r n world feels uneasy. M o d e r n m a n does not u n d e r s t a n d h o w m u c h his " r a t i o n a l i s m " (which h a s d e s t r o y e d his c a p a city to respond to n u m i n o u s symbols a n d ideas I has put him at the m e r c y of the psychic " u n d e r w o r l d . " H e has freed himself frqm " s u p e r s t i t i o n " ( o r s o h e believes), but in the p r o cess he has lost his spiritual values to a positively d a n g e r o u s d e g r e e . His m o r a l a n d spiritual t r a d i tion has d i s i n t e g r a t e d , a n d he is now p a y i n g the price for this b r e a k - u p in w o r l d - w i d e diso r i e n t a t i o n a n d dissociation. A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e often described w h a t h a p p e n s to a p r i m i t i v e society w h e n its spiritual values a r e exposed to t h e i m p a c t of m o d e r n civilization. Its p e o p l e lose the m e a n i n g of their lives, theirsocial o r g a n i z a t i o n d i s i n t e g r a t e s , a n d they themselves m o r a l l y d e c a y . W e are now in the s a m e c o n d i t i o n . But we h a v e never really u n d e r s t o o d w h a t we h a v e lost, for o u r spiritual leaders u n f o r t u n a t e l y w e r e m o r e interested in p r o t e c t i n g their institutions t h a n in u n d e r s t a n d ing the mystery t h a t symbols present. In m y o p i n i o n , faith docs not e x c l u d e t h o u g h t (which
94
is m a n ' s strongest w e a p o n ) , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y m a n y believers seem to b e so afraid of science ( a n d i n c i d e n t a l l y of psychology) that they t u r n a blind eye to the n u m i n o u s psychic powers t h a t forever control m a n ' s fate. W e h a v e stripped all things of their mystery a n d n u m i n o s i t y : n o t h i n g is holy a n y longer. I n earlier ages, as instinctive c o n c e p t s welled u p in the m i n d of m a n , his conscious m i n d could no d o u b t i n t e g r a t e t h e m into a c o h e r e n t psychic p a t t e r n . But the " c i v i l i z e d " m a n is no longer a b l e to d o this. His " a d v a n c e d " consciousness has d e p r i v e d itself of t h e m e a n s by w h i c h the auxiliary c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the instincts a n d the unconscious can be assimilated. These o r g a n s of assimilation a n d i n t e g r a t i o n were n u m i n o u s symbols, held holy by c o m m o n consent. T o d a y , for i n s t a n c e , we talk of " m a t t e r . " W e describe its physical p r o p e r t i e s . W e c o n d u c t l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s to d e m o n s t r a t e some ol its aspects. But the word " m a t t e r " r e m a i n s a d r y , i n h u m a n , a n d purely intellectual c o n c e p t , w i t h o u t a n y psychic significance for us. How different was the former i m a g e of m a t t e r the Great Mother that could e n c o m p a s s a n d cx-
press the p r o f o u n d e m o t i o n a l m e a n i n g of M o t h e r E a r t h . In t h e s a m e w a y , w h a t was the spirit is n o w identified w i t h intellect a n d thus ceases to be the F a t h e r of All. It has d e g e n erated to the limited e g o - t h o u g h t s of m a n ; the immense e m o t i o n a l e n e r g y expressed in the image of " o u r F a t h e r " vanishes into the sand of an intellectual desert. T h e s e t w o a r c h e t y p a l principles lie at the foundation of the c o n t r a s t i n g systems of East and West. T h e masses a n d t h e i r leaders d o not realize, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e is n o s u b s t a n t i a l difference b e t w e e n c a l l i n g the world p r i n c i p l e male a n d a father (spirit), as the West does, or female a n d a m o t h e r ( m a t t e r ) , as t h e C o m munists d o . Essentially, we k n o w as little of the one as of the o t h e r . In earlier times, these p r i n ciples w e r e w o r s h i p e d in all sorts of rituals, which at least s h o w e d the psychic significance they held for m a n . But n o w they h a v e b e c o m e mere a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s . As scientific u n d e r s t a n d i n g has g r o w n , so o u r world has b e c o m e d e h u m a n i z e d . M a n feels h i m self isolated in the cosmos, b e c a u s e he is n o longer involved in n a t u r e a n d has lost his e m o tional " u n c o n s c i o u s i d e n t i t y " with n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . These h a v e slowly lost t h e i r symbolic implications. T h u n d e r is n o l o n g e r the voice of an a n g r y god, n o r is l i g h t n i n g his a v e n g i n g missile. N o river c o n t a i n s a spirit, no tree is the life p r i n c i p l e of a m a n , n o s n a k e the e m b o d i ment of w i s d o m , no m o u n t a i n cave the h o m e of a great d e m o n . No voices now speak to man from stones, p l a n t s , a n d a n i m a l s , n o r does he speak to t h e m believing they can h e a r . His contact with n a t u r e has g o n e , a n d with it has gone the p r o f o u n d e m o t i o n a l e n e r g y that this symbolic c o n n e c t i o n s u p p l i e d .
This e n o r m o u s loss is c o m p e n s a t e d for by the symbols of o u r d r e a m s . T h e y b r i n g u p o u r original n a t u r e its instincts a n d p e c u l i a r t h i n k i n g . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , they express their c o n t e n t s in the l a n g u a g e of n a t u r e , w h i c h is s t r a n g e a n d i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e to us. It t h e r e fore confronts us with the task of t r a n s l a t i n g it into the r a t i o n a l w o r d s a n d c o n c e p t s of m o d e r n speech, w h i c h has l i b e r a t e d itself from its p r i m i tive e n c u m b r a n c e s n o t a b l y from its mystical p a r t i c i p a t i o n with the things it describes. N o w a d a y s , w h e n we talk of ghosts a n d o t h e r n u m i nous figures, we a r e n o l o n g e r c o n j u r i n g t h e m u p . 'The p o w e r as well as t h e glory is d r a i n e d out of such o n c e - p o t e n t w o r d s . W e h a v e ceased to believe in m a g i c f o r m u l a s ; not m a n y taboos a n d similar restrictions a r e left; a n d o u r world seems to be disinfected of all such " s u p e r s t i t i o u s " m i n i m a as " w i t c h e s , warlocks, a n d worr i c o w s , " to say n o t h i n g ol werewolves, v a m p i r e s , bush souls, a n d all the o t h e r b i z a r r e beings that p o p u l a t e d the p r i m e v a l forest. T o be m o r e a c c u r a t e , the surface of o u r world seems to be cleansed ol all superstitious a n d i r r a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s . W h e t h e r , however, the real inner h u m a n w o r l d mil inn wish-fullilling
Repressed u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s c a n erupt d e s t r u c t i v e l y in the f o r m of negative e m o t i o n s as in W o r l d W a r II Far left, J e w i s h p r i s o n e r s in W a r s a w after the 1 9 4 3 u p r i s i n g ; left, f o o t w e a r of t h e d e a d s t a c k e d at A u s c h w i t z . Right, A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g i n e s w h o have d i s i n t e g r a t e d s i n c e t h e y lost their r e l i g i o u s beliefs t h r o u g h contact w i t h c i v i l i z a t i o n T h i s t r i b e now numbers only a few hundred
95
fiction a b o u t it) is also freed from p r i m i t i v i t y is a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n . Is the n u m b e r 13 n o t still t a b o o for m a n y p e o p l e ? A r e t h e r e not still m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s possessed by i r r a t i o n a l prejudices, projections, a n d childish illusions? A realistic p i c t u r e of the h u m a n m i n d reveals m a n y such p r i m i t i v e traits a n d survivals, w h i c h a r e still p l a y i n g their roles just as if n o t h i n g h a d h a p p e n e d d u r i n g the last 500 years. It is essential to a p p r e c i a t e this p o i n t . M o d e r n m a n is in fact a c u r i o u s m i x t u r e of c h a r a c t e r i s tics a c q u i r e d over the long ages of his m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s m i x e d - u p b e i n g is the m a n a n d his symbols t h a t we h a v e to d e a l w i t h , a n d we must scrutinize his m e n t a l p r o d u c t s very carefully i n d e e d . Skepticism a n d scientific conviction exist in h i m side by side w i t h old-fashioned prejudices, o u t d a t e d h a b i t s of t h o u g h t a n d feeling, o b s t i n a t e m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , a n d blind i g n o r a n c e . S u c h are the c o n t e m p o r a r y h u m a n beings w h o p r o d u c e the symbols we psychologists investigate. In o r d e r to e x p l a i n these symbols a n d their m e a n i n g , it is vital to l e a r n w h e t h e r their r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s are r e l a t e d to p u r e l y personal e x p e r i e n c e , or w h e t h e r they h a v e b e e n chosen by a d r e a m for its p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e from a store of g e n e r a l conscious k n o w l e d g e . T a k e , for i n s t a n c e , a d r e a m in w h i c h the n u m b e r 13 occurs. T h e q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r the d r e a m e r himself h a b i t u a l l y believes in the u n lucky q u a l i t y of the n u m b e r , or w h e t h e r the d r e a m m e r e l y alludes to p e o p l e w h o still ind u l g e in such superstitions. T h e a n s w e r m a k e s a g r e a t difference to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n the former case, you h a v e to reckon w i t h t h e fact t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l is still u n d e r the spell of the u n l u c k y 13, a n d therefore will feel most u n c o m f o r t a b l e in R o o m 13 in a hotel or sitting at a t a b l e w i t h 13 p e o p l e . I n t h e l a t t e r case, 13 m a y not m e a n a n y m o r e t h a n a d i s c o u r t e o u s or abusive r e m a r k . T h e " s u p e r s t i t i o u s " d r e a m e r still feels the " s p e l l " of 1 3 ; t h e m o r e " r a t i o n a l " d r e a m e r has s t r i p p e d 13 of its original e m o tional o v e r t o n e s . T h i s a r g u m e n t illustrates the w a y in w h i c h a r c h e t y p e s a p p e a r in p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e : T h e y a r e , at the s a m e t i m e , b o t h i m a g e s a n d 96
e m o t i o n s . O n e can speak of a n a r c h e t y p e only w h e n these two aspects a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s . W h e n t h e r e is m e r e l y the i m a g e , t h e n t h e r e is simply a w o r d - p i c t u r e of little c o n s e q u e n c e . But by b e i n g c h a r g e d w i t h e m o t i o n , t h e i m a g e gains n u m i n o s i t y (or psychic e n e r g y ) ; it b e c o m e s d y n a m i c , a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s of some kind m u s t flow from it. I a m a w a r e t h a t it is difficult to g r a s p this c o n c e p t , b e c a u s e I a m t r y i n g to use w o r d s to describe s o m e t h i n g whose very n a t u r e m a k e s it i n c a p a b l e of precise definition. But since so m a n y p e o p l e h a v e chosen to t r e a t a r c h e t y p e s as if they w e r e p a r t of a m e c h a n i c a l system t h a t c a n be l e a r n e d by rote, it is essential to insist t h a t they are not m e r e n a m e s , or even p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c e p t s . T h e y a r e pieces of life itself- i m a g e s t h a t a r e i n t e g r a l l y c o n n e c t e d to the living i n d i v i d u a l by the b r i d g e of the e m o t i o n s . T h a t is w h y it is impossible to give a n a r b i t r a r y (or universal) i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a n y a r c h e t y p e . It m u s t be e x p l a i n e d in the m a n n e r i n d i c a t e d by the w h o l e life-situation of the p a r ticular i n d i v i d u a l to w h o m it relates. T h u s , in the case of a d e v o u t C h r i s t i a n , the s y m b o l of the cross can b e i n t e r p r e t e d only in its C h r i s t i a n c o n t e x t — unless the d r e a m p r o duces a very s t r o n g reason to look b e y o n d it. E v e n t h e n , the specific C h r i s t i a n m e a n i n g should be k e p t in m i n d . But o n e c a n n o t say t h a t , at all times a n d in all c i r c u m s t a n c e s , the symbol of the cross has the s a m e m e a n i n g . If t h a t w e r e so, it w o u l d b e s t r i p p e d of its n u m i n osity, lose its vitality, a n d b e c o m e a m e r e w o r d . T h o s e w h o d o not realize the special feeling t o n e of the a r c h e t y p e e n d w i t h n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a j u m b l e of m y t h o l o g i c a l concepts, w h i c h c a n be s t r u n g t o g e t h e r to show t h a t e v e r y t h i n g m e a n s a n y t h i n g — or n o t h i n g at all. All the corpses in the w o r l d a r e c h e m i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l , b u t living i n d i v i d u a l s a r e not. A r c h e t y p e s c o m e to life only w h e n o n e p a t i e n t l y tries to discover w h y a n d in w h a t fashion they a r e m e a n i n g f u l to a living i n d i v i d u a l . T h e m e r e use of w o r d s is futile w h e n you d o not k n o w w h a t they s t a n d for. T h i s is p a r t i c u larly t r u e in psychology, w h e r e we speak of a r c h e types such as the a n i m a a n d a n i m u s , the wise
The ancient Chinese connected the m o o n w i t h the goddess K w a n - Y i n (pictured above) Other societies h a v e p e r s o n i f i e d t h e m o o n as a divinity. A n d t h o u g h modern space f l i g h t has p r o v e d t h a t t h e m o o n is o n l y a c r a t e r e d ball of dirt ( l e f t ) , w e have r e t a i n e d s o m e t h i n g of t h e a r c h e t y p a l a t t i t u d e in o u r f a m i l i a r a s s o c i a t i o n of t h e m o o n w i t h l o v e and romance
97
In a c h i l d ' s u n c o n s c i o u s w e c a n see t h e p o w e r ( a n d u n i v e r s a l i t y ) of archetypal symbols A seven-yearold's painting (left) — a huge sun d r i v i n g a w a y b l a c k birds, d e m o n s of t h e n i g h t — h a s t h e f l a v o r of a true m y t h C h i l d r e n at p l a y ( r i g h t ) s p o n t a n e o u s l y d a n c e in as n a t u r a l a f o r m of s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n as t h e c e r e m o n i a l d a n c e s of p r i m i t i v e s . A n c i e n t f o l k l o r e still exists in c h i l d r e n ' s " r i t u a l " b e l i e f s : For i n s t a n c e , c h i l d r e n all o v e r B r i t a i n ( a n d e l s e w h e r e ) b e l i e v e it is l u c k y to see a w h i t e h o r s e — w h i c h is a w e l l - k n o w n s y m b o l of life A C e l t i c g o d d e s s of c r e a t i v i t y , E p o n a , s h o w n (far r i g h t ) r i d i n g a horse, w a s o f t e n p e r s o n i f i e d as a w h i t e m a r e .
m a n . the G r e a t M o t h e r , a n d so o n . You c a n know all a b o u t the saints, sages, p r o p h e t s , a n d o t h e r godly m e n , a n d all the great m o t h e r s of the world. But if they a r e m e r e i m a g e s whose n u m i n o s i t y you h a v e never e x p e r i e n c e d , it will be as if you w e r e t a l k i n g in a d r e a m , for you will not k n o w w h a t you a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t . T h e m e r e w o r d s you use will be e m p t y a n d valueless. T h e y g a i n life a n d m e a n i n g only w h e n you try to take i n t o a c c o u n t their n u m i n o s i t y — i.e. their r e l a t i o n s h i p to the living i n d i v i d u a l . O n l y then d o you begin to u n d e r s t a n d that their n a m e s m e a n very little, w h e r e a s the way they are related to you is a l l - i m p o r t a n t . The s y m b o l - p r o d u c i n g function of o u r d r e a m s is thus a n a t t e m p t to b r i n g the original m i n d of m a n into " a d v a n c e d ' " or differentiated consciousness, w h e r e it has never b e e n before a n d w h e r e , therefore, it has never b e e n s u b jected to critical self-reflection. For, in ages long past, t h a t original m i n d was the w h o l e of m a n ' s personality. As he d e v e l o p e d consciousness, so his conscious m i n d lost c o n t a c t with some of t h a t p r i m i t i v e psychic e n e r g y . A n d the conscious m i n d has n e v e r k n o w n t h a t original m i n d ; for it was d i s c a r d e d in the process of evolving the very differentiated consciousness t h a t a l o n e could be a w a r e of it. Yet it seems t h a t w h a t we call the u n c o n scious has preserved p r i m i t i v e characteristics that formed p a r t of the original m i n d . It is to 98
these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that the symbols of d r e a m s c o n s t a n t l y refer, as if the u n c o n s c i o u s sought to b r i n g back all the old things from which the m i n d freed itself as it evolved illusions, fantasies, a r c h a i c t h o u g h t forms, f u n d a m e n t a l instincts, a n d so on. This is w h a t e x p l a i n s the resistance, even fear, t h a t p e o p l e often e x p e r i e n c e in a p p r o a c h ing u n c o n s c i o u s m a t t e r s . T h e s e relict c o n t e n t s a r e not m e r e l y n e u t r a l or indifferent. O n the c o n t r a r y , they are so highly c h a r g e d that they a r e often m o r e t h a n merely u n c o m f o r t a b l e . They can cause real fear. The m o r e they are repressed, the m o r e they s p r e a d t h r o u g h the whole p e r s o n a l i t y in the form of a neurosis. It is this psychic e n e r g y t h a t gives t h e m such vital i m p o r t a n c e . It is just as if a m a n w h o has lived t h r o u g h a period of unconsciousness should s u d d e n l y realize that t h e r e is a g a p in his m e m o r y — t h a t i m p o r t a n t events seem to h a v e t a k e n p l a c e t h a t he c a n n o t r e m e m b e r . I n so far as he assumes t h a t the psyche is a n exclusively personal affair (and this is the usual a s s u m p t i o n ) , he will try to retrieve the a p p a r ently lost infantile m e m o r i e s . But the gaps in his c h i l d h o o d m e m o r y a r e merely the s y m p toms of a m u c h g r e a t e r loss the loss of the p r i m i t i v e psyche. As the evolution of the e m b r y o n i c b o d y repeats its p r e h i s t o r y , so the m i n d also develops t h r o u g h a series of p r e h i s t o r i c stages. The m a i n
task of d r e a m s is to b r i n g b a r k a sort b f " r e c o l lection" of the p r e h i s t o r i c , as well as the infantile world, right d o w n to the level of the most primitive instincts. S u c h recollections c a n h a v e a r e m a r k a b l y h e a l i n g effect in c e r t a i n cases, as Freud saw long a g o . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n confirms the view that a n infantile m e m o r y g a p (a socalled amnesia) r e p r e s e n t s a positive loss a n d its recovery can b r i n g a positive increase in life and well-being. Because a child is physically small a n d its conscious t h o u g h t s a r e scarce a n d simple, we do not realize the f a r - r e a c h i n g c o m p l i c a t i o n s ol the infantile m i n d that a r e based on its original identity with the prehistoric psyche. T h a t "original m i n d " is just as m u c h present a n d still functioning in the child as the e v o l u t i o n a r y stages of m a n k i n d a r e in its e m b r y o n i c b o d y . II the r e a d e r r e m e m b e r s w h a t I said earlier about the r e m a r k a b l e d r e a m s ol the child w h o made a present of her d r e a m s to her father, he will get a good idea of w h a t 1 m e a n . In infantile a m n e s i a , o n e f i n d s s t r a n g e m y t h o logical fragments that also often a p p e a r in later psychoses. I m a g e s of this kind are highly n u m i nous and therefore verv i m p o r t a n t . If such recollections r e a p p e a r in a d u l t life, they m a y in some cases cause profound psychological disturbance, while in o t h e r people they can p r o duce miracles of healing or religious c o n v e r sions. Often they b r i n g back a piece of life,
missing for a long t i m e , that gives p u r p o s e to a n d thus e n r i c h e s h u m a n life. T h e recollection of infantile m e m o r i e s a n d the r e p r o d u c t i o n of a r c h e t y p a l ways of psychic b e h a v i o r can c r e a t e a w i d e r horizon a n d a g r e a t e r extension of consciousness on c o n d i tion t h a t o n e succeeds in assimilating a n d integ r a t i n g in the conscious m i n d the lost a n d r e g a i n e d c o n t e n t s . Since they a r c not n e u t r a l , their assimilation will modify the personality, just as they themselves will h a v e to u n d e r g o c e r t a i n a l t e r a t i o n s . In this p a r t of w h a t is called " t h e i n d i v i d u a t i o n p r o c e s s " (which Dr. M . - L . von F r a n z describes in a later section of this b o o k ) , the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of svmbols plavs a n i m p o r t a n t p r a c t i c a l role. For the symbols are n a t u r a l attempts to reconcile a n d u n i t e o p p o sites w i t h i n the psyche. N a t u r a l l y , just seeing a n d then b r u s h i n g aside the symbols w o u l d h a v e n o such effect a n d w o u l d merely re-establish the old n e u r o t i c condition a n d destroy the a t t e m p t at a synthesis. Bttt. u n f o r t u n a t e l y , those r a r e p e o p l e w h o d o not d e n y the very existence of the a r c h e t y p e s almost i n v a r i a b l y treat t h e m as m e r e words a n d forget their living reality. W h e n their n u m i n o sity has thus (illegitimately) been b a n i s h e d , the process of limitless s u b s t i t u t i o n begins in o t h e r w o r d s , o n e glides easily from archetype to a r c h e t y p e , with e v e r y t h i n g m e a n i n g everything. It is t r u e e n o u g h t h a t the forms of a r c h e types are to a c o n s i d e r a b l e extent e x c h a n g e a b l e . But their n u m i n o s i t y is a n d r e m a i n s a fact, a n d represents the value of an a r c h e t y p a l event. T h i s e m o t i o n a l v a l u e must be kept in mind a n d allowed for t h r o u g h o u t the whole intellectual process of d r e a m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . It is only too easy to lose this v a l u e , because thinking a n d feeling a r e so d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed that t h i n k i n g almost a u t o m a t i c a l l y throws out feeling values a n d vice versa. Psychology is the only science t h a t has to take the factor of value (i.e. feeling) into a c c o u n t , because it is the link b e t w e e n physical events a n d life. Psychology is often accused of not b e i n g scientific on this a c c o u n t ; but its critics fail to u n d e r s t a n d the scientific a n d p r a c t i c a l necessity of giving d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n to feeling.
9<)
IOO
Healing the split
O u r intellect has c r e a t e d a n e w w o r l d t h a t dominates n a t u r e , a n d has p o p u l a t e d it with monstrous m a c h i n e s . T h e l a t t e r a r e so i n d u bitably useful t h a t w e c a n n o t see even a possibility of g e t t i n g rid of t h e m or o u r subservience to t h e m . M a n is b o u n d to follow t h e a d v e n t u r ous p r o m p t i n g s of his scientific a n d i n v e n t i v e mind a n d to a d m i r e himself for his s p l e n d i d achievements. At t h e s a m e t i m e , his genius shows the u n c a n n y t e n d e n c y to i n v e n t things that b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e d a n g e r o u s , because they r e p r e s e n t b e t t e r a n d b e t t e r m e a n s for wholesale suicide. In view of the r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g a v a l a n c h e of world p o p u l a t i o n , m a n has a l r e a d y b e g u n to seek ways a n d m e a n s of k e e p i n g the rising flood at b a y . But n a t u r e m a y a n t i c i p a t e all o u r a t t e m p t s by t u r n i n g a g a i n s t m a n his o w n creative m i n d . T h e H - b o m b , for i n s t a n c e , w o u l d put a n effective stop to o v e r p o p u l a t i o n . I n spite of o u r p r o u d d o m i n a t i o n of n a t u r e , we a r e still her victims, for we h a v e n o t even l e a r n e d to control o u r o w n n a t u r e . Slowly b u t , it a p p e a r s , inevitably, we a r e c o u r t i n g disaster. T h e r e a r e n o longer a n y gods w h o m we can invoke to h e l p us. T h e g r e a t religions of t h e world suffer from i n c r e a s i n g a n e m i a , b e c a u s e the helpful n u m i n a h a v e fled from t h e woods, rivers, a n d m o u n t a i n s , a n d from a n i m a l s , a n d the g o d - m e n h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d u n d e r g r o u n d into the u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e r e we fool ourselves
A b o v e left, t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y ' s greatest c i t y — N e w Y o r k . B e l o w , the e n d of a n o t h e r c i t y — H i r o s h i m a , 1 9 4 5 . T h o u g h m a n m a y s e e m to h a v e gained ascendance over nature, Jung always pointed out that man has n o t yet g a i n e d c o n t r o l o v e r his own n a t u r e .
t h a t t h e y lead a n i g n o m i n i o u s existence a m o n g the relics of o u r past. O u r p r e s e n t lives are d o m i n a t e d by the goddess R e a s o n , w h o is o u r greatest a n d most t r a g i c illusion. By the aid of reason, so we assure ourselves, we h a v e " c o n quered nature." But this is a m e r e slogan, for the so-called c o n q u e s t of n a t u r e o v e r w h e l m s us w i t h the n a t u r a l fact of o v e r p o p u l a t i o n a n d a d d s to o u r t r o u b l e s by o u r psychological i n c a p a c i t y to m a k e the necessary political a r r a n g e m e n t s . It r e m a i n s q u i t e n a t u r a l for m e n to q u a r r e l a n d to struggle for s u p e r i o r i t y over o n e a n o t h e r . H o w t h e n h a v e we " c o n q u e r e d n a t u r e " ? As a n y c h a n g e m u s t begin s o m e w h e r e , it is the single i n d i v i d u a l w h o will e x p e r i e n c e it a n d c a r r y it t h r o u g h . T h e c h a n g e m u s t i n d e e d b e gin with a n i n d i v i d u a l ; it m i g h t be a n y o n e of us. N o b o d y c a n afford to look a r o u n d a n d to w a i t for s o m e b o d y else to d o w h a t he is l o a t h to d o himself. But since n o b o d y seems to k n o w w h a t to d o , it m i g h t b e w o r t h while for e a c h of us to ask himself w h e t h e r by a n y c h a n c e his or her u n c o n s c i o u s m a y k n o w s o m e t h i n g t h a t will h e l p us. C e r t a i n l y the conscious m i n d seems u n a b l e to d o a n y t h i n g useful in this respect. M a n t o d a y is painfully a w a r e of the fact t h a t n e i t h e r his g r e a t religions n o r his v a r i o u s philosophies seem to p r o v i d e h i m w i t h those p o w e r ful a n i m a t i n g ideas t h a t w o u l d give him the security h e needs in face of t h e p r e s e n t c o n d i tion of the w o r l d . I k n o w w h a t the B u d d h i s t s w o u l d s a y : T h i n g s w o u l d go r i g h t if p e o p l e w o u l d only follow the " n o b l e eightfold p a t h " of t h e Dharma ( d o c t r i n e , law) a n d h a d t r u e insight i n t o the Self T h e C h r i s t i a n tells us t h a t if only pcople h a d faith in G o d , we s h o u l d h a v e a b e t t e r w o r l d . T h e rationalist insists t h a t if p e o p l e w e r e intelligent a n d r e a s o n a b l e , all o u r p r o b l e m s w o u l d be m a n a g e a b l e . T h e t r o u b l e is t h a t n o n e of t h e m m a n a g e s to solve these problems himself
IOI
C h r i s t i a n s often ask w h y G o d does not speak to t h e m , as he is believed to h a v e d o n e in form e r days. W h e n I h e a r such questions, it always makes m e think of the r a b b i w h o was asked h o w it could be t h a t G o d often s h o w e d himself to p e o p l e in the olden d a y s w h e r e a s n o w a d a y s n o b o d y ever sees h i m . T h e r a b b i r e p l i e d : " N o w a d a y s t h e r e is no longer a n y b o d y w h o can b o w low e n o u g h . " T h i s a n s w e r hits the nail on the h e a d . W e are so c a p t i v a t e d by a n d e n t a n g l e d in o u r s u b jective consciousness t h a t we h a v e forgotten the age-old fact t h a t G o d speaks chiefly t h r o u g h d r e a m s a n d visions. T h e B u d d h i s t discards the world of u n c o n s c i o u s fantasies as useless illusions; the C h r i s t i a n p u t s his C h u r c h a n d his Bible b e t w e e n himself a n d his u n c o n s c i o u s ; a n d the r a t i o n a l intellectual does not yet k n o w t h a t his consciousness is not his total psyche. T h i s i g n o r a n c e persists t o d a y in spite of the fact that for m o r e t h a n 70 years the u n c o n scious has been a basic scientific c o n c e p t t h a t is i n d i s p e n s a b l e to a n y serious psychological investigation. W e c a n no longer afford to be so G o d A l m i g h t y - l i k e as to set ourselves u p as judges of the merits or d e m e r i t s of n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . W e d o not base o u r b o t a n y u p o n the oldfashioned division into useful a n d useless p l a n t s , or o u r zoology u p o n the n a i v e distinction between h a r m l e s s a n d d a n g e r o u s a n i m a l s . But we still c o m p l a c e n t l y assume t h a t consciousness is sense a n d the u n c o n s c i o u s is nonsense. I n science such an a s s u m p t i o n w o u l d be l a u g h e d out of c o u r t . Do m i c r o b e s , for i n s t a n c e , m a k e sense or nonsense? W h a t e v e r the u n c o n s c i o u s m a y be, it is a n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n p r o d u c i n g symbols t h a t p r o v e to be m e a n i n g f u l . W e c a n n o t expect s o m e o n e w h o has never looked t h r o u g h a m i c r o scope to be a n a u t h o r i t y on m i c r o b e s ; in the s a m e w a y , no one w h o has not m a d e a serious study of n a t u r a l symbols c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a c o m p e t e n t j u d g e in this m a t t e r . But the g e n e r a l u n d e r v a l u a t i o n of the h u m a n soul is so g r e a t that n e i t h e r the g r e a t religions n o r the philosophies nor scientific r a t i o n a l i s m h a v e been willing to look at it twice. 102
I n spite of the fact t h a t the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h a d m i t s the o c c u r r e n c e of somma a Deo missa ( d r e a m s sent by G o d ) , most of its thinkers m a k e no serious a t t e m p t to u n d e r s t a n d d r e a m s . I d o u b t w h e t h e r t h e r e is a P r o t e s t a n t treatise or d o c t r i n e t h a t w o u l d stoop so low as to a d m i t the possibility t h a t the vox Dei m i g h t be perceived in a d r e a m . But if a t h e o l o g i a n really believes in G o d , by w h a t a u t h o r i t y does he suggest t h a t G o d is u n a b l e to speak t h r o u g h dreams? I h a v e spent m o r e t h a n half a c e n t u r y in i n v e s t i g a t i n g n a t u r a l symbols, a n d I h a v e c o m e to t h e conclusion t h a t d r e a m s a n d their symbols a r e not s t u p i d a n d m e a n i n g l e s s . O n the cont r a r y , d r e a m s p r o v i d e the most i n t e r e s t i n g inf o r m a t i o n for those w h o take the t r o u b l e to u n d e r s t a n d their symbols. T h e results, it is true, h a v e little to d o w i t h such w o r l d l y concerns as b u y i n g a n d selling. But the m e a n i n g of life is not exhaustively e x p l a i n e d by one's business life, n o r is the d e e p desire of the h u m a n h e a r t a n s w e r e d by a b a n k a c c o u n t . In a p e r i o d of h u m a n history w h e n all available e n e r g y is spent in the investigation of n a t u r e , very little a t t e n t i o n is p a i d to the essence of m a n , which is his psyche, a l t h o u g h m a n y researches a r e m a d e into its conscious functions. But the really c o m p l e x a n d u n f a m i l i a r p a r t of the m i n d , from w h i c h symbols are p r o d u c e d , is still virtually u n e x p l o r e d . It seems almost inc r e d i b l e t h a t t h o u g h we receive signals from it every n i g h t , d e c i p h e r i n g these c o m m u n i c a t i o n s seems too tedious for a n y b u t a very few people to be b o t h e r e d with it. M a n ' s greatest instrum e n t , his psyche, is little t h o u g h t of, a n d it is often directly mistrusted a n d despised. " I t ' s only p s y c h o l o g i c a l " too often m e a n s : It is nothing. W h e r e , exactly, does this i m m e n s e prejudice c o m e from ? W e h a v e obviously b e e n so busy with the q u e s t i o n of w h a t we think that we entirely forget to ask w h a t the unconscious psyche thinks a b o u t us. T h e ideas of S i g m u n d F r e u d confirmed for most p e o p l e the existing c o n t e m p t for the psyche. Before h i m it h a d been m e r e l y overlooked a n d n e g l e c t e d ; it has n o w b e c o m e a d u m p for m o r a l refuse.
This m o d e r n s t a n d p o i n t is surely one-sided and unjust. It does not even a c c o r d with the known facts. O u r a c t u a l k n o w l e d g e of the u n conscious shows t h a t it is a n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n and that, like N a t u r e herself, it is at least neutral. It c o n t a i n s all aspects of h u m a n n a t u r e light a n d d a r k , beautiful a n d ugly, good a n d evil, profound a n d silly. T h e study of i n d i v i d u a l , as well as of collective, symbolism is a n e n o r mous task, a n d o n e t h a t has not yet b e e n m a s t ered. But a b e g i n n i n g has been m a d e at last. The early results a r e e n c o u r a g i n g , a n d they seem to i n d i c a t e a n a n s w e r to m a n y so far unanswered questions of p r e s e n t - d a y m a n k i n d .
Above, R e m b r a n d t ' s Philosopher with an Open Book (1 6 3 3 ) . T h e i n w a r d - l o o k i n g o l d m a n p r o v i d e s an image of J u n g ' s belief t h a t e a c h of us must explore his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s . The u n c o n s c i o u s m u s t not be i g n o r e d ; it is as natural, as limitless, a n d as p o w e r f u l as t h e stars.
io3
2
A n c i e n t m y t h s and m o d e r n m a n
J o s e p h L. H e n d e r s o n
A c e r e m o n i a l m a s k f r o m t h e island of N e w I r e l a n d ( N e w G u i n e a )
Ancient myths and modern man
The eternal symbols
T h e a n c i e n t history of m a n is b e i n g m e a n i n g fully rediscovered t o d a y in the s y m b o l i c i m a g e s a n d m y t h s t h a t h a v e survived a n c i e n t m a n . As archaeologists dig d e e p into the past, it is less the events of historical t i m e t h a t we l e a r n to t r e a s u r e t h a n the statues, designs, t e m p l e s , a n d l a n g u a g e s that tell of old beliefs. O t h e r symbols are revealed to us by the philologists a n d religious historians, w h o c a n t r a n s l a t e these beliefs into intelligible m o d e r n c o n c e p t s . T h e s e in t u r n are b r o u g h t to life by the c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o gists. T h e y c a n show t h a t the s a m e symbolic p a t t e r n s c a n be found in the rituals or m y t h s of small tribal societies still existing, u n c h a n g e d for c e n t u r i e s , on the outskirts of civilization. All such researches h a v e d o n e m u c h to correct the one-sided a t t i t u d e ol those m o d e r n m e n w h o m a i n t a i n t h a t such symbols b e l o n g to the peoples of a n t i q u i t y or to " b a c k w a r d " " m o d e r n tribes a n d a r e therefore i r r e l e v a n t to the c o m plexities of m o d e r n life. In L o n d o n or N e w York we m a y dismiss the fertility rites of neolithic m a n as a r c h a i c superstition. If a n y o n e claims to h a v e seen a vision or h e a r d voices, he
is not t r e a t e d as a saint or as a n o r a c l e . It is said he is m e n t a l l y d i s t u r b e d . W e read the m y t h s of the a n c i e n t G r e e k s or the folk stories of A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s , b u t we fail to see a n y c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m a n d o u r a t t i t u d e s to the " h e r o e s " or d r a m a t i c events of t o d a y . Yet the c o n n e c t i o n s a r e t h e r e . A n d the symbols t h a t represent t h e m h a v e not lost their rel e v a n c e for m a n k i n d . O n e of the m a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n s of" o u r time to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d r e v a l u i n g of such e t e r n a l symbols has been m a d e by D r . J u n g ' s School of A n a l y t i c a l Psychology. It has helped to b r e a k d o w n the a r b i t r a r y distinction b e t w e e n p r i m i t i v e m a n . to w h o m symbols seem a n a t u r a l p a r t of e v e r y d a y life, a n d m o d e r n m a n , for w h o m symbols a r e a p p a r e n t l y meaningless a n d irrelevant. As Dr. J u n g has p o i n t e d out earlier in this book, the h u m a n m i n d has its o w n history a n d the psyche retains traces left from previous stages of its d e v e l o p m e n t . M o r e t h a n this, the c o n t e n t s of the unconscious exert a formative influence on the psyche. Consciously we
-
may ignore t h e m , h u t unconsciously we respond to t h e m , a n d to the s y m b o l i c forms including d r e a m s — i n which they express themselves. The i n d i v i d u a l m a y feel t h a t his d r e a m s a r e spontaneous a n d d i s c o n n e c t e d . But over a long period of time the a n a l y s t c a n observe a series of d r e a m i m a g e s a n d n o t e t h a t they h a v e a meaningful p a t t e r n ; a n d by u n d e r s t a n d i n g this his patient m a y e v e n t u a l l y a c q u i r e a new a t t i tude to life. S o m e of the symbols in such dreams derive from w h a t Dr. J u n g has called "the collective u n c o n s c i o u s " t h a t is, the p a r t of the psyche t h a t retains a n d t r a n s m i t s the common psychological i n h e r i t a n c e of m a n k i n d . These symbols a r e so a n c i e n t a n d u n f a m i l i a r to m o d e r n m a n t h a t he c a n n o t directly u n d e r stand or assimilate t h e m . It is here t h a t t h e analyst c a n h e l p . Possibly the patient must be freed from the e n c u m b r a n c e of symbols that h a v e g r o w n stale a n d i n a p p r o priate. O r possibly he must be assisted to discover the a b i d i n g v a l u e of a n old symbol t h a t , far from being d e a d , is seeking to be r e b o r n in modern form. Before the analyst c a n effectively e x p l o r e the meaning of symbols with a p a t i e n t , he must himself a c q u i r e a w i d e r k n o w l e d g e of their origins a n d significance. For the analogies between a n c i e n t m y t h s a n d the stories that a p p e a r
\
in the d r e a m s of m o d e r n p a t i e n t s a r e n e i t h e r trivial n o r a c c i d e n t a l . T h e y exist b e c a u s e the u n c o n s c i o u s m i n d of m o d e r n m a n preserves the s y m b o l - m a k i n g c a p a c i t y t h a t o n c e found expression in the beliefs a n d rituals of the p r i m i tive. A n d t h a t c a p a c i t y still plays a role of vital psychic i m p o r t a n c e . In m o r e ways t h a n we realize, we a r e d e p e n d e n t on the messages that a r e c a r r i e d by such symbols, a n d b o t h o u r a t t i tudes a n d o u r b e h a v i o r are profoundly influenced by t h e m . In w a r t i m e , for i n s t a n c e , o n e finds increased interest in the works of H o m e r , S h a k e s p e a r e , a n d Tolstoi, a n d we r e a d with a new u n d e r s t a n d i n g those passages t h a t give w a r its e n d u r i n g (or " a r c h e t y p a l " ) m e a n i n g . T h e y evoke a response from us t h a t is m u c h m o r e p r o f o u n d t h a n it could be from s o m e o n e w h o has never k n o w n the intense e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e of w a r . T h e battles on the plains of T r o y w e r e utterly unlike the fighting at A g i n c o u r t or B o r o d i n o , yet the great writers a r e a b l e to t r a n s c e n d the differences of time a n d place a n d to express t h e m e s that a r e universal. W e respond because these t h e m e s a r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y symbolic. A more to a n y o n e society. At feeling for
striking e x a m p l e should be familiar w h o has g r o w n u p in a C h r i s t i a n C h r i s t m a s we m a y express o u r i n n e r the m y t h o l o g i c a l b i r t h of a semi-
Far left, a s y m b o l i c c e r e m o n y of a n t i q u i t y in 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y f o r m : T h e A m e r i c a n a s t r o n a u t J o h n G l e n n in a W a s h i n g t o n parade after his o r b i t of t h e e a r t h in 1 9 6 2 - like a h e r o of o l d , after a v i c t o r y , r e t u r n i n g h o m e in a t r i u m p h a l p r o c e s s i o n
C e n t e r left, a c r o s s - l i k e s c u l p t u r e of a Greek f e r t i l i t y g o d d e s s (c 2 5 0 0 B.C.). Left, t w o v i e w s of 6 1 2 t h c e n t u r y S c o t s s t o n e cross t h a t retains s o m e p a g a n f e m a l e n e s s : t h e " b r e a s t s " at t h e c r o s s b a r Right, another age old archetype r e b o r n in a n e w g u i s e : a R u s s i a n p o s t e r for an " a t h e i s t i c " f e s t i v a l at Easter, to r e p l a c e t h e C h r i s t i a n festival |ust as the C h r i s t i a n Easter w a s s u p e r i m p o s e d o n earlier p a g a n s o l s t i c e rites
toy
d i v i n e child, even t h o u g h we m a y not believe in the d o c t r i n e of t h e virgin b i r t h of C h r i s t or h a v e a n y kind of conscious religious faith. U n k n o w i n g l y , we h a v e fallen in w i t h t h e s y m b o l ism of r e b i r t h . T h i s is a relic of a n i m m e n s e l y o l d e r solstice festival, w h i c h carries the h o p e t h a t the fading w i n t e r l a n d s c a p e of the n o r t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e will b e r e n e w e d . F o r all o u r sophistication we find satisfaction in this symbolic festival, j u s t as we j o i n w i t h o u r c h i l d r e n at Easter in the p l e a s a n t ritual of E a s t e r eggs a n d Easter r a b b i t s . But d o we u n d e r s t a n d w h a t we d o , or see the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the story of Christ's b i r t h , d e a t h , a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d the folk symbolism of E a s t e r ? U s u a l l y we d o not even c a r e to consider such things intellectually. Yet they c o m p l e m e n t e a c h o t h e r . Christ's crucifixion on G o o d F r i d a y seems at first sight to b e l o n g to t h e s a m e p a t t e r n of fertility symbolism t h a t o n e finds in the rituals of such o t h e r " s a v i o r s " as Osiris, T a m m u z , a n d O r p h e u s . T h e y , too, w e r e of d i v i n e or s e m i - d i v i n e b i r t h , they flourished, w e r e killed, a n d w e r e r e b o r n . T h e y b e l o n g e d , in fact, to cyclic religions in w h i c h t h e d e a t h a n d r e b i r t h of the g o d - k i n g was a n e t e r n a l l y r e c u r r i n g m y t h .
But the r e s u r r e c t i o n of Christ on E a s t e r S u n d a y is m u c h less satisfying from a ritual point of view t h a n is the s y m b o l i s m of the cyclic religions. F o r Christ ascends to sit at the right h a n d of G o d the F a t h e r : His resurrection occurs o n c e a n d for all. It is this finality of the C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t of t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n (the C h r i s t i a n i d e a of the Last J u d g m e n t has a similar " c l o s e d " t h e m e ) t h a t distinguishes C h r i s t i a n i t y from o t h e r g o d - k i n g m y t h s . It h a p p e n e d o n c e , a n d t h e ritual merely c o m m e m o r a t e s it. But this sense of finality is p r o b a b l y o n e reason w h y early C h r i s t i a n s , still influenced by p r e - C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n s , felt that C h r i s t i a n i t y n e e d e d to b e s u p p l e m e n t e d by some e l e m e n t s of a n o l d e r fertility r i t u a l . T h e y n e e d e d the r e c u r r i n g p r o m i s e of r e b i r t h ; a n d t h a t is w h a t is s y m b o l i z e d by t h e egg a n d the r a b b i t of Easter. I h a v e t a k e n two q u i t e different e x a m p l e s to show h o w m o d e r n m a n c o n t i n u e s to r e s p o n d to p r o f o u n d psychic influences of a kind t h a t , consciously, he dismisses as little m o r e t h a n the folk tales of superstitious a n d u n e d u c a t e d peoples. But it is necessary to go m u c h further t h a n this. T h e m o r e closely o n e looks at the history of s y m b o l i s m , a n d at t h e role t h a t sym-
Left, a 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y J a p a n e s e scroll p a i n t i n g of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of a city: b e l o w , similarly d o m i n a t e d by f l a m e a n d s m o k e , St. P a u l ' s C a t h e d r a l , L o n d o n , d u r i n g an air raid in W o r l d W a r II M e t h o d s o f warfare have c h a n g e d over the ages, b u t t h e e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t o f w a r is t i m e l e s s a n d a r c h e t y p a l .
bols h a v e p l a y e d in the life of m a n y different c u l t u r e s , the m o r e o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t h e r e is also a r e - c r e a t i v e m e a n i n g in these symbols. S o m e symbols r e l a t e to c h i l d h o o d a n d the t r a n s i t i o n to a d o l e s c e n c e , o t h e r s to m a t u r i t y , a n d o t h e r s a g a i n to the e x p e r i e n c e of old age, w h e n m a n is p r e p a r i n g for his i n e v i t a b l e d e a t h . D r . J u n g has described h o w the d r e a m s of a girl of eight c o n t a i n e d the symbols o n e n o r m a l l y associates with old a g e . H e r d r e a m s p r e s e n t e d aspects of initiation into life as b e l o n g i n g to the s a m e a r c h e t y p a l p a t t e r n as initiation into d e a t h . T h i s progression of symbolic ideas m a y take p l a c e , therefore, w i t h i n the u n c o n s c i o u s m i n d of m o d e r n m a n j u s t as it took p l a c e in the rituals of a n c i e n t societies. T h i s crucial link b e t w e e n a r c h a i c or p r i m i t i v e m y t h s a n d the symbols p r o d u c e d by the u n conscious is of i m m e n s e p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e to the analyst. It e n a b l e s h i m to identify a n d to i n t e r p r e t these symbols in a context t h a t gives t h e m historical p e r s p e c t i v e as well as psychological m e a n i n g . I shall n o w take some of the m o r e i m p o r t a n t m y t h s of a n t i q u i t y a n d show h o w — a n d to w h a t p u r p o s e — they a r e a n a l o gous to the s y m b o l i c m a t e r i a l t h a t we e n c o u n ter in o u r d r e a m s .
T o p left, C h r i s t ' s n a t i v i t y ; c e n t e r , his c r u c i f i x i o n ; b o t t o m , his a s c e n s i o n . His b i r t h , d e a t h , a n d rebirth f o l l o w s t h e p a t t e r n of m a n y a n c i e n t h e r o m y t h s — a p a t t e r n o r i g i n a l l y based o n s e a s o n a l f e r t i l i t y rites like t h o s e p r o b a b l y h e l d 3 0 0 0 years a g o at E n g l a n d ' s S t o n e h e n g e (seen b e l o w at d a w n at t h e s u m m e r s o l s t i c e ) .
Heroes and hero makers
T h e m y t h of the h e r o is the most c o m m o n a n d the b e s t - k n o w n m y t h in the world. W e find it in the classical m y t h o l o g y of G r e e c e a n d R o m e , in the M i d d l e Ages, in the F a r East, a n d a m o n g c o n t e m p o r a r y p r i m i t i v e tribes. It also a p p e a r s in o u r d r e a m s . It has a n o b v i o u s d r a m a t i c a p p e a l , a n d a less o b v i o u s , b u t nonetheless p r o found, psychological i m p o r t a n c e . T h e s e h e r o m y t h s v a r y e n o r m o u s l y in d e t a i l , but the m o r e closely o n e e x a m i n e s t h e m the m o r e o n e sees t h a t s t r u c t u r a l l y they a r e very similar. They h a v e , t h a t is to say, a universal p a t t e r n , even t h o u g h they w e r e d e v e l o p e d by g r o u p s or i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h o u t a n y direct cult u r a l c o n t a c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r — b y , for i n s t a n c e , tribes of Africans or N o r t h A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s , or the G r e e k s , or the I n c a s of P e r u . O v e r a n d over a g a i n o n e h e a r s a tale d e s c r i b i n g a hero's m i r a c u l o u s b u t h u m b l e b i r t h , his early proof of s u p e r h u m a n s t r e n g t h , his r a p i d rise to p r o m i nence or p o w e r , his t r i u m p h a n t struggle with
T h e h e r o ' s early p r o o f of s t r e n g t h o c c u r s in m o s t h e r o m y t h s B e l o w , the infant Hercules killing t w o serpents. T o p right, the y o u n g K i n g A r t h u r , a l o n e able to d r a w a magic sword from a stone Bottom right, A m e r i c a ' s D a v y C r o c k e t t , w h o k i l l e d a bear w h e n he w a s t h r e e .
I I C)
the forces of evil, his fallibility to the sin of p r i d e (kybris), a n d his fall t h r o u g h b e t r a y a l or a " h e r o i c " sacrifice t h a t ends in his d e a t h . I shall l a t e r e x p l a i n in m o r e detail w h y I believe t h a t this p a t t e r n has psychological m e a n ing b o t h for the i n d i v i d u a l , w h o is e n d e a v o r i n g to discover a n d assert his p e r s o n a l i t y , a n d for a w h o l e society, w h i c h has a n e q u a l need to establish its collective identity. But a n o t h e r imp o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the h e r o m y t h provides a clue. In m a n y of these stories the early weakness of the h e r o is b a l a n c e d by the a p p e a r a n c e of s t r o n g " t u t e l a r y " figures or g u a r d i a n s w h o e n a b l e him to perform the s u p e r h u m a n tasks t h a t he c a n n o t a c c o m p l i s h u n a i d e d . A m o n g the G r e e k heroes, T h e s e u s h a d Poseid o n , god of the sea, as his d e i t y ; Perseus h a d A t h e n a ; Achilles h a d C h e i r o n , the wise cent a u r , as his t u t o r . T h e s e godlike figures a r e in fact symbolic rep r e s e n t a t i v e s of the w h o l e psyche, the larger
A b o v e , t w o e x a m p l e s of t h e h e r o ' s betrayal: the biblical hero Samson ( t o p ) , betrayed by Delilah; and the Persian h e r o R u s t a m , led i n t o a t r a p b y a m a n he t r u s t e d B e l o w , a m o d e r n result of hybns ( o v e r c o n f i d e n c e ) : G e r m a n p r i s o n e r s in Stalingrad, 1 9 4 1 , after Hitler i n v a d e d Russia in w i n t e r
Above, three e x a m p l e s of t h e t u t e l a r y or guardian f i g u r e t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s the archetypal hero. T o p . f r o m Greek myth, the c e n t a u r C h e i r o n g i v i n g instruction to the y o u t h f u l A c h i l l e s . Center, King A r t h u r ' s g u a r d i a n , t h e magician M e r l i n ( h o l d i n g a s c r o l l ) . Bottom, an i n s t a n c e f r o m m o d e r n life: the trainer o n w h o s e k n o w l e d g e a n d experience a p r o f e s s i o n a l b o x e r often d e p e n d s
M o s t h e r o e s m u s t face a n d o v e r c o m e v a r i o u s m o n s t e r s a n d f o r c e s of evil Top, the Scandinavian hero Sigurd ( l o w e r right of p i c t u r e ) slays t h e s e r p e n t Fafnir C e n t e r , t h e a n c i e n t B a b y l o n i a n epic hero G i l g a m e s h battling w i t h a lion B o t t o m , the m o d e r n A m e r i c a n c o m i c - s t r i p hero Superman, whose one-man war a g a i n s t c r i m e o f t e n requires h i m t o rescue p r e t t y g i r l s
I I I
a n d m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e i d e n t i t y t h a t supplies t h e s t r e n g t h t h a t the p e r s o n a l ego lacks. T h e i r special role suggests t h a t the essential function of the heroic m y t h is t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the i n d i v i d u a l ' s ego-consciousness — his a w a r e n e s s of his o w n s t r e n g t h s a n d weaknesses—in a m a n n e r t h a t will e q u i p h i m for the a r d u o u s tasks with w h i c h life confronts h i m . O n c e the indiv i d u a l has passed his initial test a n d c a n e n t e r the m a t u r e p h a s e of life, the h e r o m y t h loses its r e l e v a n c e . T h e h e r o ' s symbolic d e a t h b e c o m e s , as it w e r e , the a c h i e v e m e n t of t h a t m a t u r i t y . I h a v e so far b e e n referring to t h e c o m p l e t e h e r o m y t h , in w h i c h t h e w h o l e cycle from b i r t h to d e a t h is e l a b o r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d . But it is essential to recognize t h a t at each of the stages in this cycle t h e r e a r e special forms of the h e r o story t h a t a p p l y to the p a r t i c u l a r point r e a c h e d by the i n d i v i d u a l in the d e v e l o p m e n t of his egoconsciousness, a n d to the specific p r o b l e m confronting h i m at a given m o m e n t . T h a t is to say, the i m a g e of t h e h e r o evolves in a m a n n e r t h a t reflects e a c h stage of the e v o l u t i o n of the h u m a n personality. T h i s c o n c e p t c a n b e m o r e easily u n d e r s t o o d if I present it in w h a t a m o u n t s to a d i a g r a m . I take this e x a m p l e from the o b s c u r e N o r t h A m e r i c a n tribe of W i n n e b a g o I n d i a n s , b e c a u s e it sets o u t q u i t e clearly four distinct stages in the evolution of the h e r o . In these stories (which D r . P a u l R a d i n p u b l i s h e d in 1948 u n d e r the
I I
2
title Hero Cycles of the Winnebago) w e c a n see the definite progression from the most p r i m i t i v e to the most sophisticated c o n c e p t of the h e r o . This progression is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of o t h e r h e r o cycles. T h o u g h t h e symbolic figures in t h e m n a t u r a l l y h a v e different n a m e s , t h e i r roles a r e similar, a n d we shall u n d e r s t a n d t h e m b e t t e r o n c e we h a v e g r a s p e d the point m a d e by this example. D r . R a d i n n o t e d four distinct cycles in the e v o l u t i o n of the h e r o m y t h . H e n a m e d t h e m the Trickster cycle, the Hare cycle, the Red Horn cycle, a n d t h e Twin cycle. H e correctly perceived the psychology of this evolution w h e n he s a i d : " I t represents o u r efforts to d e a l with the p r o b l e m of g r o w i n g u p , aided by the illusion of an eternal fiction." T h e T r i c k s t e r cycle c o r r e s p o n d s to the earliest a n d least d e v e l o p e d period of life. T r i c k s t e r is a figure whose physical a p p e t i t e s d o m i n a t e his b e h a v i o r ; he has the m e n t a l i t y of a n infant. L a c k i n g a n y p u r p o s e b e y o n d the gratification of his p r i m a r y needs, he is cruel, cynical, a n d unfeeling. ( O u r stories of Brer R a b b i t or R e y n a r d t h e Fox preserve the essentials of the T r i c k s t e r m y t h . ) T h i s figure, w h i c h at the outset assumes the form of a n a n i m a l , passes from o n e mischievous exploit to a n o t h e r . But, as hedoes so, a c h a n g e comes over h i m . At the end of his r o g u e ' s progress he is b e g i n n i n g to take on the physical likeness of a g r o w n m a n .
T h e next figure is H a r e . H e also, like Trickster (whose a n i m a l traits are r e p r e s e n t e d among some A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s by a c o y o t e ) , first a p p e a r s in a n i m a l form. H e has not yet attained m a t u r e h u m a n s t a t u r e , b u t all the same he a p p e a r s as t h e f o u n d e r of h u m a n c u l t u r e — t h e T r a n s f o r m e r . T h e W i n n e b a g o believe t h a t , in giving t h e m their famous M e d i c i n e Rite, he b e c a m e their savior as well as their culture-hero. T h i s m y t h was so powerful, D r . Radin tells us, t h a t the m e m b e r s of the P e y o t e Rite were r e l u c t a n t to give u p H a r e w h e n Christianity b e g a n to p e n e t r a t e the t r i b e . H e became m e r g e d w i t h the figure of C h r i s t , a n d some of t h e m a r g u e d t h a t they h a d n o need of Christ since they a l r e a d y h a d H a r e . T h i s a r c h e typal figure r e p r e s e n t s a distinct a d v a n c e on Trickster: O n e c a n see t h a t he is b e c o m i n g a socialized being, c o r r e c t i n g the i n s t i n c t u a l a n d infantile urges found in the T r i c k s t e r cycle. Red H o r n , the t h i r d of this series of h e r o figures, is a n a m b i g u o u s p e r s o n , said to be t h e youngest of 10 b r o t h e r s . H e meets the r e q u i r e ments of a n a r c h e t y p a l h e r o by passing such tests as w i n n i n g a r a c e a n d by p r o v i n g himself in battle. His s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r is s h o w n by his ability to defeat giants by guile (in a g a m e of dice) or by s t r e n g t h (in a wrestling m a t c h ) . He has a powerful c o m p a n i o n in the form of a t h u n d e r b i r d called "Storms-as-he-walks," whose strength c o m p e n s a t e s for w h a t e v e r weakness
R e d H o r n m a y display. W i t h R e d H o r n we h a v e r e a c h e d the w o r l d of m a n , t h o u g h a n a r c h a i c w o r l d , in w h i c h the aid of s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r s or t u t e l a r y gods is n e e d e d to ensure m a n ' s victory over t h e evil forces t h a t beset h i m . T o w a r d the e n d of the story the h e r o - g o d d e p a r t s , leaving R e d H o r n a n d his sons o n e a r t h . T h e d a n g e r to m a n ' s h a p p i n e s s a n d security n o w comes from m a n himself. T h i s basic t h e m e ( w h i c h is r e p e a t e d in the last cycle, t h a t of the T w i n s ) raises, in effect, the vital q u e s t i o n : H o w long c a n h u m a n beings, be successful w i t h o u t falling victims to their o w n p r i d e or, in m y t h o l o g i c a l t e r m s , to the j e a l o u s y of the gods? T h o u g h the T w i n s a r e said to be the sons of t h e S u n , they a r e essentially h u m a n a n d tog e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e a single p e r s o n . O r i g i n a l l y u n i t e d in the m o t h e r ' s w o m b , they w e r e forced a p a r t at b i r t h . Yet they b e l o n g t o g e t h e r , a n d it is necessary — t h o u g h exceedingly difficult— to r e u n i t e t h e m . In these two c h i l d r e n we see the t w o sides of m a n ' s n a t u r e . O n e of t h e m . Flesh, is a c q u i e s c e n t , mild, a n d w i t h o u t initiat i v e ; the o t h e r , S t u m p , is d y n a m i c a n d rebellious. In some of the stories of t h e T w i n H e r o e s these a t t i t u d e s a r c refined to the point w h e r e o n e figure r e p r e s e n t s the i n t r o v e r t , whose m a i n s t r e n g t h lies in his p o w e r s of reflection, a n d the o t h e r is a n e x t r a v e r t , a m a n of action w h o c a n a c c o m p l i s h g r e a t deeds.
" T r i c k s t e r " : t h e first, r u d i m e n t a r y stage in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e hero m y t h , in w h i c h t h e hero is instinctual, u n i n h i b i t e d , a n d o f t e n childish. Far left, t h e 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y Chinese epic hero M o n k e y , s h o w n (in a m o d e r n P e k i n g o p e r a ) t r i c k i n g a river k i n g i n t o g i v i n g u p a m a g i c staff. Left, o n a s i x t h - c e n t u r y B.C. jar, the i n f a n t H e r m e s in his cradle after h a v i n g s t o l e n A p o l l o ' s cattle. Right, t h e t r o u b l e - m a k i n g Norse g o d L o k i (a 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y s c u l p t u r e ) . Far r i g h t , C h a r l i e Chaplin c r e a t i n g a d i s t u r b a n c e in the 1 9 3 6 f i l m Modern Times—a 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y trickster.
113
F o r a long t i m e these t w o heroes a r e invinc i b l e : W h e t h e r they a r e p r e s e n t e d as t w o sepa r a t e figures or as t w o - i n - o n e , they c a r r y all before t h e m . Yet, like the w a r r i o r gods of N a v a h o I n d i a n m y t h o l o g y , they e v e n t u a l l y sicken from the a b u s e of their o w n p o w e r . T h e r e a r e n o m o n s t e r s left in h e a v e n or on e a r t h for t h e m to o v e r c o m e , a n d their c o n s e q u e n t wild b e h a v i o r brings r e t r i b u t i o n in its t r a i n . T h e W i n n e b a g o say t h a t n o t h i n g , in the e n d , was safe from t h e m — not even the s u p p o r t s on w h i c h the w o r l d rests. W h e n the T w i n s killed o n e of the four a n i m a l s t h a t u p h e l d the e a r t h , they h a d o v e r s t e p p e d all limits, a n d the t i m e h a d c o m e to p u t a stop to their c a r e e r . T h e p u n i s h m e n t they deserved was d e a t h . T h u s , in b o t h the R e d H o r n cycle a n d t h a t of the T w i n s , we see t h e t h e m e of sacrifice or d e a t h of the h e r o as a necessary c u r e for hybris, the p r i d e t h a t has o v e r - r e a c h e d itself. In the p r i m i t i v e societies whose levels of c u l t u r e corr e s p o n d to the R e d H o r n cycle, it a p p e a r s t h a t this d a n g e r m a y h a v e been forestalled by the institution of p r o p i t i a t o r y h u m a n sacrifice — a t h e m e t h a t has i m m e n s e symbolic i m p o r t a n c e a n d recurs c o n t i n u a l l y in h u m a n history. T h e W i n n e b a g o , like the I r o q u o i s a n d a few A l g o n q u i n tribes, p r o b a b l y a t e h u m a n flesh as a totemic ritual t h a t could t a m e their individualistic a n d d e s t r u c t i v e impulses.
In the e x a m p l e s of the h e r o ' s b e t r a y a l or d e feat t h a t o c c u r in E u r o p e a n m y t h o l o g y , the t h e m e of ritual sacrifice is m o r e specifically e m ployed as a p u n i s h m e n t for hybris. But the W i n n e b a g o , like the N a v a h o , d o not go so far. T h o u g h the T w i n s e r r e d , a n d t h o u g h the p u n i s h m e n t should h a v e been d e a t h , they themselves b e c a m e so frightened by their irresponsible p o w e r t h a t they c o n s e n t e d to live in a state of p e r m a n e n t rest: T h e conflicting sides of h u m a n n a t u r e w e r e a g a i n in e q u i l i b r i u m . I h a v e given this description of the four types of h e r o at s o m e , length b e c a u s e it provides a clear d e m o n s t r a t i o n of the p a t t e r n t h a t occurs b o t h in the historic m y t h s a n d in the hero d r e a m s of c o n t e m p o r a r y m a n . W i t h this in mind we can e x a m i n e the following d r e a m of a m i d d l e - a g e d p a t i e n t . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this d r e a m shows h o w the a n a l y t i c a l psychologist c a n , from his k n o w l e d g e of m y t h o l o g y , help his p a t i e n t find a n a n s w e r to w h a t m i g h t otherwise seem a n insoluble riddle. This m a n d r e a m e d hewas at a t h e a t r e , in the role of " a n i m p o r t a n t s p e c t a t o r whose o p i n i o n is r e s p e c t e d . " Therewas a n act in which a white m o n k e y was s t a n d ing on a pedestal with m e n a r o u n d h i m . In r e c o u n t i n g his d r e a m the m a n said :
My guide explains the theme to me.' It is the ordeal of a voting sailor who is exposed both to
T h e s e c o n d s t a g e in t h e e v o l u t i o n of the hero is t h e f o u n d e r of h u m a n c u l t u r e . Left, a N a v a h o s a n d p a i n t i n g of the m y t h of C o y o t e , w h o s t o l e fire f r o m t h e g o d s a n d g a v e it t o m a n . In Greek m y t h P r o m e t h e u s also s t o l e fire f r o m t h e g o d s f o r m a n — for w h i c h he w a s c h a i n e d to a r o c k a n d t o r t u r e d b y an eagle ( b e l o w , o n a s i x t h - c e n t u r y B.c c u p ) .
The hero in t h e t h i r d s t a g e is a p o w e r f u l m a n - g o d — like B u d d h a . In the f i r s t - c e n t u r y s c u l p t u r e a b o v e , Siddhartha begins the journey on w h i c h he w i l l receive e n l i g h t e n m e n t and b e c o m e B u d d h a .
B e l o w left, a m e d i e v a l Italian s c u l p t u r e of R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s , the t w i n s (raised by a w o l f ) w h o f o u n d e d R o m e — a n d w h o are t h e b e s t - k n o w n i n s t a n c e of t h e f o u r t h s t a g e of t h e h e r o m y t h .
In t h e f o u r t h s t a g e , t h e T w i n s often misuse their p o w e r — a s d i d the R o m a n heroes Castor and Pollux w h e n they a b d u c t e d the daughters of L e u c i p p u s ( b e l o w , in a p a i n t i n g by t h e F l e m i s h artist R u b e n s ) .
the wind and to being beaten up. I begin to object that this white monkey is not a sailor at all; but just at that moment a young man in black stands up and I think that he must be the true hero. But another handsome young man strides toward an altar and stretches himself out on it. They are making marks on his bare chest as a preparation to offering him as a human sacrifice. Then I find myself on a platform with several other people. We could get down by a small ladder, but I hesitate to do so because there are two young toughs standing by and I think that they will stop us. But when a woman in the group uses the ladder unmolested, I see that it is safe and all of us follow the woman down. N o w a d r e a m of this kind c a n n o t be quickly or simply i n t e r p r e t e d . W e h a v e to u n r a v e l it carefully in o r d e r to show b o t h its r e l a t i o n to the d r e a m e r ' s o w n life a n d its w i d e r symbolic i m p l i c a t i o n s . T h e p a t i e n t w h o p r o d u c e d it was a m a n w h o h a d a c h i e v e d m a t u r i t y in a physical sense. H e was successful in his c a r e e r , a n d he h a d a p p a r e n t l y d o n e p r e t t y well as a h u s b a n d a n d father. Yet psychologically h e was still i m m a t u r e , a n d h a d not c o m p l e t e d his youthful p h a s e of d e v e l o p m e n t . It was this psychic i m m a turity t h a t expressed itselfin his d r e a m s as different aspects of t h e h e r o m y t h . T h e s e i m a g e s still exerted a s t r o n g a t t r a c t i o n for his i m a g i n a t i o n even t h o u g h they h a d long since e x h a u s t e d a n y
of t h e i r m e a n i n g in t e r m s of the reality of his e v e r y d a y life. T h u s , in a d r e a m , we see a series of figures t h e a t r i c a l l y p r e s e n t e d as v a r i o u s aspects of a figure t h a t the d r e a m e r keeps e x p e c t i n g will t u r n o u t to be the t r u e h e r o . T h e first is a white m o n k e y , the second a sailor, the t h i r d a y o u n g m a n in black, a n d the last a " h a n d s o m e y o u n g m a n . " I n the early p a r t of the p e r f o r m a n c e , w h i c h is s u p p o s e d to r e p r e s e n t the sailor's o r d e a l , the d r e a m e r sees only t h e w h i t e m o n key. T h e m a n in black s u d d e n l y a p p e a r s a n d as s u d d e n l y d i s a p p e a r s ; he is a n e w figure w h o first c o n t r a s t s with the w h i t e m o n k e y a n d is then for a m o m e n t confused w i t h t h e h e r o p r o p e r . (Such confusion in d r e a m s is not u n u s u a l . T h e d r e a m e r is not usually p r e s e n t e d w i t h clear i m a g e s by the u n c o n s c i o u s . H e has to puzzle out a m e a n i n g from a succession of contrasts a n d paradoxes.) Significantly, these figures a p p e a r in the c o u r s e of a t h e a t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d this c o n t e x t seems to be a direct reference by the d r e a m e r to his o w n t r e a t m e n t by a n a l y s i s : T h e " g u i d e " he m e n t i o n s is p r e s u m a b l y his analyst. Yet h e does not see himself as a p a t i e n t w h o is b e i n g t r e a t e d by a d o c t o r b u t as " a n i m p o r t a n t s p e c t a t o r whose o p i n i o n is r e s p e c t e d . " T h i s is the v a n t a g e p o i n t from w h i c h he sees c e r t a i n figures w h o m he associates w i t h the e x p e r i e n c e
A n i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h e d e v e l o p s (as does the hero m y t h ) from a primitive, childish s t a g e — a n d often images of t h e early s t a g e s c a n a p p e a r in t h e d r e a m s of p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y i m m a t u r e a d u l t s . T h e first s t a g e m i g h t b e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e carefree p l a y of c h i l d r e n — like t h e p i l l o w f i g h t (far left) f r o m t h e 1 9 3 3 F r e n c h f i l m Zero de Conduite. The second s t a g e m i g h t b e t h e reckless t h r i l l s e e k i n g of early a d o l e s c e n c e : R i g h t , A m e r i c a n y o u t h s test t h e i r n e r v e s in a s p e e d i n g car. A later s t a g e c a n p r o d u c e i d e a l i s m , a n d selfs a c r i f i c e in late a d o l e s c e n c e , e x e m p l i f i e d in t h e p i c t u r e ( o p p o s i t e , far r i g h t ) t a k e n d u r i n g t h e East B e r l i n rising ( J u n e 1 9 5 3 ) w h e n y o u n g m e n f o u g h t Russian tanks w i t h stones.
Ilfi
of growing u p . T h e w h i t e m o n k e y , for i n s t a n c e , reminds him of t h e playful a n d s o m e w h a t lawless behavior of boys b e t w e e n t h e ' a g e s of seven and 12. T h e sailor suggests t h e a d v e n t u r o u s n e s s of early a d o l e s c e n c e , t o g e t h e r with t h e consequent p u n i s h m e n t by " b e a t i n g " for i r r e s p o n sible p r a n k s . T h e d r e a m e r could offer n o association to the y o u n g m a n in black, b u t in the handsome y o u n g m a n a b o u t to be sacrificed he saw a r e m i n d e r of t h e self-sacrificing idealism of late adolescence. At this stage it is possible to p u t t o g e t h e r the historical m a t e r i a l (or a r c h e t y p a l h e r o images) and the d a t a from t h e d r e a m e r ' s p e r s o n a l experience in o r d e r to see h o w they c o r r o b o r a t e , contradict, or qualify e a c h o t h e r . T h e first conclusion is t h a t the w h i t e m o n k e y seems to r e p r e s e n t T r i c k s t e r or at least those traits of personality t h a t the W i n n e b a g o a t t r i bute to T r i c k s t e r . But, to m e , the m o n k e y also stands for s o m e t h i n g t h a t the d r e a m e r has not personally a n d a d e q u a t e l y e x p e r i e n c e d for h i m self— he in fact says t h a t in the d r e a m he was a spectator. I found o u t t h a t as a boy he h a d been excessively a t t a c h e d to his p a r e n t s , a n d that he was n a t u r a l l y i n t r o s p e c t i v e . F o r these reasons he h a d n e v e r fully d e v e l o p e d t h e boisterous qualities n a t u r a l to late c h i l d h o o d ; n o r had he j o i n e d in t h e g a m e s of his schoolfellows. He had not, as the s a y i n g goes, " g o t u p to m o n -
key t r i c k s " or p r a c t i c e d " m o n k e y s h i n e s . " T h e saying provides t h e clue h e r e . T h e m o n k e y in the d r e a m is in fact a symbolic form of the Trickster figure. But w h y should T r i c k s t e r a p p e a r as a m o n key? A n d w h y s h o u l d it b e w h i t e ? As I h a v e a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , the W i n n e b a g o m y t h tells us t h a t , t o w a r d the end of the cycle, T r i c k s t e r begins to e m e r g e in the physical likeness of a m a n . A n d h e r e , in the d r e a m , is a m o n k e y so close to a h u m a n b e i n g t h a t it is a l a u g h a b l e a n d not too d a n g e r o u s c a r i c a t u r e of a m a n . T h e d r e a m e r himself could offer n o personal association t h a t could e x p l a i n w h y the m o n k e y was w h i t e . But from o u r k n o w l e d g e of p r i m i tive s y m b o l i s m we c a n c o n j e c t u r e t h a t w h i t e ness lends a special q u a l i t y of " g o d - l i k e n e s s " to this o t h e r w i s e b a n a l figure. ( T h e a l b i n o is reg a r d e d as sacred in m a n y p r i m i t i v e c o m m u n i ties.) T h i s fits in q u i t e well w i t h T r i c k s t e r ' s s e m i - d i v i n e or s e m i - m a g i c a l p o w e r s . T h u s , it seems, t h e w h i t e m o n k e y symbolizes for the d r e a m e r the positive q u a l i t y of childh o o d playfulness, w h i c h he h a d insufficiently a c c e p t e d at the t i m e , a n d w h i c h he n o w feels called u p o n to exalt. As the d r e a m tells us, he places it " o n a p e d e s t a l , " w h e r e it b e c o m e s s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n a lost c h i l d h o o d experie n c e . It is, for the a d u l t m a n , a symbol of creative experimentalism.
i
'7
Next we c o m e to t h e conclusion a b o u t the m o n k e y . Is it a m o n k e y , or is it a sailor w h o has to p u t u p with b e a t i n g s ? T h e d r e a m e r ' s o w n associations p o i n t e d to the m e a n i n g of this t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . But in a n y case the next stage in h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t is o n e in w h i c h the irresponsibility of c h i l d h o o d gives w a y to a period of socialization, a n d t h a t involves submission to painful discipline. O n e could say, therefore, t h a t the sailor is a n a d v a n c e d form of T r i c k s t e r , w h o is b e i n g c h a n g e d into a socially responsibleperson by m e a n s of a n initiation o r d e a l . D r a w ing on t h e history of s y m b o l i s m , we c a n assumet h a t the w i n d r e p r e s e n t s the n a t u r a l e l e m e n t s in this process, a n d the b e a t i n g s a r e those t h a t are humanly induced. At this p o i n t , t h e n , we h a v e a reference to the process t h a t the W i n n e b a g o describe in the H a r e cycle, w h e r e the c u l t u r e - h e r o is a weak yet struggling figure, r e a d y to sacrifice childishness for the sake of further d e v e l o p m e n t . O n c e a g a i n , in this p h a s e of the d r e a m , the p a t i e n t is a c k n o w l e d g i n g his failure to e x p e r i e n c e to the full a n i m p o r t a n t aspect of c h i l d h o o d a n d early a d o l e s c e n c e . H e missed out on the playfulness of the child, a n d also on the r a t h e r m o r e a d -
v a n c e d p r a n k s of the y o u n g t e e n a g e r , a n d he is seeking ways in w h i c h those lost experiences a n d personal qualities c a n be r e h a b i l i t a t e d . Next comes a c u r i o u s c h a n g e in the d r e a m . T h e y o u n g m a n in black a p p e a r s , a n d for a m o m e n t the d r e a m e r feels t h a t this is t h e " t r u e h e r o . " T h a t is all we a r e told a b o u t the m a n in b l a c k ; yet this fleeting glimpse i n t r o d u c e s a t h e m e of p r o f o u n d i m p o r t a n c e —a t h e m e t h a t occurs frequently in d r e a m s . T h i s is the c o n c e p t of the " s h a d o w , " which plays such a vital role in a n a l y t i c a l psychology. D r . J u n g has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the s h a d o w cast by the conscious m i n d of the i n d i v i d u a l contains the h i d d e n , repressed, a n d u n f a v o r a b l e (or nefarious) aspects of the personality. But this darkness is not jusl the simple ((inverse of the conscious ego. J u s t as the ego c o n t a i n s unfavora b l e a n d d e s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e s , so the s h a d o w has good qualities— n o r m a l instincts a n d c r e a t i v e impulses. Ego a n d s h a d o w , i n d e e d , a l t h o u g h s e p a r a t e , are i n e x t r i c a b l y linked tog e t h e r in m u c h the s a m e w a y t h a t t h o u g h t a n d feeling a r e r e l a t e d to each o t h e r . T h e ego, nevertheless, is in conflict with the s h a d o w , in w h a t D r . J u n g o n c e called " t h e b a t t l e for d e l i v e r a n c e . " In the struggle of p r i m i t i v e m a n to a c h i e v e consciousness, this conflict is expressed by the contest b e t w e e n the a r c h e t y p a l h e r o a n d the cosmic p o w e r s of evil, personified by d r a g o n s a n d o t h e r monsters. In the d e v e l o p i n g consciousness of the i n d i v i d u a l the h e r o figure is the symbolic m e a n s by which t h e e m e r g i n g ego o v e r c o m e s the inertia of the u n c o n s c i o u s m i n d , a n d liberates the m a t u r e The y o u n g , undifferentiated egop e r s o n a l i t y is p r o t e c t e d by t h e m o t h e r — a protection imaged by t h e s h e l t e r i n g M a d o n n a , left ( i n a painting by the 1 5th-century Italian artist Piero della F r a n c e s c a ) , or by t h e E g y p t i a n sky g o d d e s s N u t , r i g h t , b e n d i n g over t h e e a r t h ( i n a f i f t h - c e n t u r y B.C. r e l i e f ) . B u t t h e e g o m u s t e v e n t u a l l y free itself f r o m unconsciousness and immaturity; a n d its "battle f o r d e l i v e r a n c e " is often symbolized by a hero's battle w i t h a m o n s t e r — l i k e the Japanese g o d Susanoo's battle w i t h a serpent, t o p right (in a 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y p r i n t ) . T h e hero d o e s n ' t a l w a y s w i n at o n c e : For i n s t a n c e , J o n a h w a s s w a l l o w e d by t h e w h a l e (far right, from a 14th-century manuscript).
"9
m a n from a regressive longing to r e t u r n to the blissful state of infancy in a world d o m i n a t e d by his m o t h e r . Usually, in m y t h o l o g y , the h e r o wins his b a t t l e against the m o n s t e r . (I shall say m o r e a b o u t this in a m o m e n t . ) But t h e r e a r e o t h e r h e r o m y t h s in w h i c h the h e r o gives in to the m o n s t e r . A familiar type is t h a t of J o n a h a n d the w h a l e , in w h i c h the h e r o is swallowed by a sea m o n s t e r t h a t carries him on a night sea j o u r n e y from west to east, thus s y m b o l i z i n g the supposed transit of the sun from sunset to d a w n . The h e r o goes into d a r k n e s s , which represents a kind of d e a t h . I h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d this t h e m e in d r e a m s p r e s e n t e d in my o w n clinical e x p e r i e n c e . The b a t t l e b e t w e e n the h e r o a n d the d r a g o n is the m o r e active form of this m y t h , a n d it shows m o r e clearly the a r c h e t y p a l t h e m e of the ego's t r i u m p h over regressive t r e n d s . For most people the d a r k or n e g a t i v e side of the personality r e m a i n s u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e h e r o , on the c o n t r a r y , must realize t h a t the s h a d o w exists
The ego's e m e r g e n c e can be s y m b o l i z e d n o t by a b a t t l e but by a s a c r i f i c e : d e a t h l e a d i n g to r e b i r t h . R e v o l u t i o n is s a c r i f i c i a l in this w a y : D e l a c r o i x ' s p a i n t i n g ( b e l o w ) , Greece expiring on the Ruins of Missolonghi, p e r s o n i f i e s t h e c o u n t r y k i l l e d by c i v i l w a r to be l i b e r a t e d a n d r e b o r n . A s individual sacrifices: the British poet B y r o n ( a b o v e ) d i e d in G r e e c e d u r i n g t h e r e v o l u t i o n ( 1 8 2 4 ) . B e l o w left, t h e C h r i s t i a n m a r t y r St. L u c i a s a c r i f i c e d her eyes a n d her life for her r e l i g i o n .
and that he c a n d r a w s t r e n g t h from it. H e must
a n d its role in p r e p a r i n g the h e r o for the s t r u g -
c o m e to t e r m s w i t h its d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r s i f he
gles o f life, is a n essential t r a n s i t i o n f r o m the
is to b e c o m e s u f f i c i e n t l y t e r r i b l e to o v e r c o m e
e a r l i e r p a r t s o f the d r e a m to the t h e m e o f the
the d r a g o n
s a c r i f i c i a l h e r o : the h a n d s o m e y o u n g m a n w h o
i.e. b e f o r e t h e e g o c a n t r i u m p h , it
must m a s t e r a n d a s s i m i l a t e the s h a d o w . O n e c a n see this t h e m e , i n c i d e n t a l l y , in a well-known l i t e r a r y h e r o figure
( J o e t he's c h a r -
acter
the
of Faust.
In
accepting
wager
places h i m s e l f on an a l t a r .
I his figure r e p r e -
sents the f o r m o f h e r o i s m
that is c o m m o n l y
a s s o c i a t e d to the e g o - b u i l d i n g process o f late
of
a d o l e s c e n c e . A m a n expresses t h e ideal p r i n -
M e p h i s t o p h e l e s . F a u s t put h i m s e l f in the p o w e r
ciples o f his life at this t i m e , sensing t h e i r p o w e r
of a " s h a d o w " ' figure t h a t G o e t h e d e s c r i b e s as
b o t h to t r a n s f o r m h i m s e l f a n d to c h a n g e his r e -
'"part o f that p o w e r w h i c h , w i l l i n g evil, finds
l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s . H e is, so to s p e a k , in the
the g o o d . " ' L i k e the m a n w h o s e d r e a m I h a v e
b l o o m of y o u t h , a t t r a c t i v e , full o f e n e r g y a n d
been d i s c u s s i n g , F a u s t h a d failed to live out to
i d e a l i s m . W h y . t h e n , does he willingly
the full a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f his e a r l y life. He-
h i m s e l f as a h u m a n s a c r i f i c e ?
was, a c c o r d i n g l y , a n u n r e a l o r i n c o m p l e t e p e r son w h o lost himself
in a fruitless quest
offer
T h e r e a s o n , p r e s u m a b l y , is the s a m e as t h a t
for
w h i c h m a d e the Twins of the W i n n e b a g o m y t h
m e t a p h y s i c a l g o a l s t h a t failed to m a t e r i a l i z e .
give u p t h e i r p o w e r on p a i n o f d e s t r u c t i o n . T h e
He was still u n w i l l i n g to a c c e p t life's c h a l l e n g e
i d e a l i s m o f y o u t h , w h i c h drives o n e so h a r d , is
to live b o t h the g o o d a n d t h e b a d .
b o u n d to lead to o v e r - c o n f i d e n c e : T h e h u m a n
It is to this a s p e c t o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s that the
ego c a n be e x a l t e d to e x p e r i e n c e g o d l i k e a t t r i -
dream
b u t e s , but o n l y at the cost o f o v e r - r e a c h i n g itself
seems to refer. S u c h a r e m i n d e r o f t h e shadow
a n d f a l l i n g to d i s a s t e r . ( T h i s is t h e m e a n i n g o f
side o f his p e r s o n a l i t y , of its p o w e r f u l p o t e n t i a l
the story o f I c a r u s , the y o u t h w h o is c a r r i e d
young m a n
in b l a c k in m y p a t i e n t ' s
B e l o w , a m o n t a g e of W o r l d W a r I a c a l l - t o - a r m s poster, i n f a n t r y , a military c e m e t e r y . M e m o r i a l s a n d religious services for s o l d i e r s w h o gave their lives for their c o u n t r y often reflect t h e c y c l i c "death a n d r e b i r t h " t h e m e of t h e a r c h e t y p a l heroic s a c r i f i c e . A n i n s c r i p t i o n on one B r i t i s h m e m o r i a l to t h e d e a d of W o r l d W a r I reads: " A t t h e g o i n g d o w n of t h e s u n a n d in the m o r n i n g we will remember t h e m . "
In m y t h o l o g y , a h e r o ' s d e a t h is o f t e n d u e to his o w n hybris, w h i c h causes t h e g o d s to h u m b l e h i m . A s a m o d e r n e x a m p l e : In 1 9 1 2 t h e s h i p Titanic s t r u c k an i c e b e r g a n d sank. ( R i g h t , a m o n t a g e of s c e n e s of t h e s i n k i n g , f r o m t h e 1 9 4 3 f i l m Titanic.) Yet t h e Titanic h a d b e e n called " u n s i n k a b l e " : according to the A m e r i c a n a u t h o r W a l t e r L o r d , o n e sailor w a s h e a r d to say, " G o d h i m s e l f c o u l d n ' t sink this s h i p ! "
up to h e a v e n on his f r a g i l e , h u m a n l y c o n t r i v e d
m a n ' s h i s t o r y . H e r e , as t h e m a n lies s t r e t c h e d
w i n g s , b u t w h o flies t o o close to t h e sun a n d
o u t on a n a l t a r , we see a r e f e r e n c e to a n a c t
p l u n g e s to his d o o m . ) All t h e s a m e , t h e y o u t h -
e v e n m o r e p r i m i t i v e t h a n those p e r f o r m e d on
ful e g o m u s t a l w a y s r u n this risk, for i f a y o u n g
t h e a l t a r s t o n e in t h e t e m p l e at
m a n does n o t strive for a h i g h e r g o a l t h a n he
T h e r e , as on so m a n y p r i m i t i v e a l t a r s , w e c a n
Stonehenge.
c a n safely r e a c h , he c a n n o t s u r m o u n t t h e o b -
i m a g i n e a y e a r l y solstice rite c o m b i n e d
stacles b e t w e e n adolescence and m a t u r i t y .
the death and rebirth o f a mythological hero.
with
So far, I have been talking a b o u t the con-
T h e r i t u a l has a s o r r o w a b o u t it t h a t is also
clusions t h a t , a t t h e level o f his p e r s o n a l asso-
a kind o f j o y , a n i n w a r d a c k n o w l e d g m e n t t h a t
c i a t i o n s , m y p a t i e n t c o u l d d r a w f r o m his o w n
d e a t h also leads to a n e w life. W h e t h e r it is
d r e a m . Y e t t h e r e is a n a r c h e t y p a l level o f t h e
e x p r e s s e d in t h e prose e p i c o f t h e W i n n e b a g o
d r e a m — the mystery o f the proffered
human
I n d i a n s , in a l a m e n t for t h e d e a t h o f B a l d e r in
s a c r i f i c e . I t is p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it is a m y s t e r y
the N o r s e e d d a s , in W a l t W h i t m a n ' s p o e m s o f
t h a t it is e x p r e s s e d in a r i t u a l a c t t h a t , in its
mourning
s y m b o l i s m , c a r r i e s us a l o n g w a y b a c k
dream
I 22
into
for
Abraham
Lincoln,
or
in
the
r i t u a l w h e r e b y a m a n r e t u r n s to his
Heroes o f t e n f i g h t m o n s t e r s t o rescue " d a m s e l s In d i s t r e s s " ( w h o s y m b o l i z e t h e a n i m a ) . Left, St, George slays a d r a g o n to free a m a i d e n ( i n a 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y Italian p a i n t i n g ) . R i g h t , in t h e 1 9 1 6 f i l m The Great Secret, t h e d r a g o n has become a locomotive but the heroic rescue r e m a i n s t h e s a m e .
youthful h o p e s a n d fears, it is t h e s a m e t h e m e — the d r a m a o f n e w b i r t h t h r o u g h d e a t h . T h e e n d o f the d r e a m b r i n g s out a c u r i o u s epilogue in w h i c h t h e d r e a m e r at last b e c o m e s involved in t h e a c t i o n o f t h e d r e a m . H e a n d others a r e on a p l a t f o r m f r o m w h i c h t h e y h a v e to d e s c e n d . H e does n o t trust t h e l a d d e r b e c a u s e of the possible i n t e r f e r e n c e o f h o o d l u m s ,
but
a w o m a n e n c o u r a g e s h i m to b e l i e v e he c a n g o down safely a n d this is a c c o m p l i s h e d . S i n c e I found out f r o m his a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t t h e w h o l e performance
he
witnessed
was
part
of
his
As a g e n e r a l rule it c a n b e said t h a t t h e n e e d for h e r o s y m b o l s arises w h e n
the ego
needs
analysis — a p r o c e s s o f i n n e r c h a n g e t h a t h e w a s
strengthening
experiencing — he was p r e s u m a b l y thinking o f
scious m i n d n e e d s a s s i s t a n c e in s o m e task t h a t
the difficulty o f g e t t i n g b a c k to e v e r y d a y r e a l i t y
it c a n n o t a c c o m p l i s h u n a i d e d o r w i t h o u t d r a w -
a g a i n . His f e a r o f t h e " t o u g h s , " as he calls
i n g on t h e s o u r c e s o f s t r e n g t h t h a t lie in the u n -
t h e m , suggests his f e a r t h a t t h e T r i c k s t e r a r c h e -
c o n s c i o u s m i n d . I n the d r e a m I h a v e b e e n dis-
type m a y a p p e a r in a c o l l e c t i v e f o r m .
w h e n , t h a t is to s a y , t h e c o n -
c u s s i n g , for i n s t a n c e , t h e r e was n o r e f e r e n c e to
T h e s a v i n g e l e m e n t s in t h e d r e a m a r e the
o n e o f the m o r e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e m y t h
m a n - m a d e l a d d e r , w h i c h h e r e is p r o b a b l y a
o f the t y p i c a l
symbol o f the r a t i o n a l m i n d , a n d the p r e s e n c e
protect beautiful women from terrible danger.
hero —his capacity
to s a v e o r
of the w o m a n w h o e n c o u r a g e s t h e d r e a m e r to
( T h e d a m s e l in distress w a s a f a v o r i t e m y t h of
use it. H e r a p p e a r a n c e in the final s e q u e n c e of
m e d i e v a l E u r o p e . ) T h i s is o n e w a y in w h i c h
the d r e a m p o i n t s to a p s y c h i c n e e d to i n c l u d e
m y t h s or d r e a m s refer to t h e " a n i m a " — t h e
a f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e as a c o m p l e m e n t
feminine
to all
element
of
the
male
psyche
that
G o e t h e called " t h e Eternal F e m i n i n e . "
this excessively m a s c u l i n e a c t i v i t y . It s h o u l d not b e a s s u m e d f r o m w h a t I h a v e
T h e n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n o f this f e m a l e e l e -
said, or f r o m the fact t h a t I h a v e c h o s e n to use
m e n t will b e discussed l a t e r in this b o o k by D r .
the W i n n e b a g o m y t h to i l l u m i n a t e this p a r t i c u -
von F r a n z . B u t its r e l a t i o n to t h e h e r o figure
lar d r e a m , t h a t o n e m u s t seek for c o m p l e t e a n d
can be illustrated here by a d r e a m
wholly m e c h a n i c a l p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n a d r e a m
by a n o t h e r p a t i e n t , also a m a n o f m a t u r e y e a r s .
and the m a t e r i a l s o n e c a n find in the h i s t o r y o f
H e b e g a n by s a y i n g :
mythology.
produced
E a c h d r e a m is i n d i v i d u a l to the
" I had returned from a long hike through
d r e a m e r , a n d t h e p r e c i s e f o r m it takes is d e t e r -
India. A w o m a n had equipped myself and a
mined
friend for the j o u r n e y , a n d on m y r e t u r n
by
his o w n
situation.
What
I
have
I
sought to s h o w is t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h the un-
r e p r o a c h e d h e r for f a i l i n g to g i v e us b l a c k r a i n -
c o n s c i o u s d r a w s on this a r c h e t y p a l m a t e r i a l a n d
hats, t e l l i n g h e r t h a t t h r o u g h this o v e r s i g h t w e
modifies its p a t t e r n s to t h e d r e a m e r ' s
h a d b e e n s o a k e d by the r a i n . "
needs.
T h u s , in this p a r t i c u l a r d r e a m , o n e must not
This
introduction
to
the
dream,
it
later
look for a d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e to w h a t t h e W i n n e -
e m e r g e d , r e f e r r e d to a p e r i o d in this
b a g o d e s c r i b e in the R e d H o r n or T w i n c y c l e s ;
y o u t h w h e n he w a s g i v e n to t a k i n g
the r e f e r e n c e is r a t h e r to t h e essence o f those
walks t h r o u g h d a n g e r o u s m o u n t a i n c o u n t r y in
two t h e m e s — t o t h e s a c r i f i c i a l e l e m e n t in t h e m .
company
with a c o l l e g e f r i e n d .
man's
"heroic"
(As he
had
123
n e v e r b e e n to I n d i a , a n d in view o f his o w n
y o u n g m a n . H e is dressed in g r a y with a b l a c k
a s s o c i a t i o n s to this d r e a m , I c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e
hat. and
d r e a m j o u r n e y signified his e x p l o r a t i o n o f a
y o u n g m a n dressed in a b l a c k suit. I m m e d i a t e l y
n e w r e g i o n — n o t , t h a t is to s a y , a r e a l p l a c e b u t
a f t e r this s c e n e t h e d r e a m e r feels a n e w vigor,
the realm o f the unconscious.)
a n d finds that he is c a p a b l e o f r e j o i n i n g his
he sits d o w n
to talk w i t h
another
I n his d r e a m t h e p a t i e n t s e e m s to feel t h a t
p a r t y . T h e y all t h e n c l i m b o v e r t h e n e x t hill.
a w o m a n — p r e s u m a b l y a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f his
T h e r e , b e l o w t h e m , he sees t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n ; it
a n i m a — h a s failed to p r e p a r e h i m p r o p e r l y for
is a lovely h a r b o r t o w n . H e feels b o t h h e a r t e n e d
this e x p e d i t i o n . T h e l a c k o f a s u i t a b l e r a i n h a t
a n d r e j u v e n a t e d by t h e d i s c o v e r y .
suggests t h a t he feels in a n u n p r o t e c t e d s t a t e o f
H e r e , in c o n t r a s t to t h e restless, u n c o m f o r t -
m i n d , in w h i c h he is u n c o m f o r t a b l y a f f e c t e d by
a b l e , a n d l o n e l y j o u r n e y o f t h e first e p i s o d e ,
e x p o s u r e to n e w a n d n o t a l t o g e t h e r
the d r e a m e r
pleasant
is w i t h
a group. T h e
contrast
experiences. H e believes that the w o m a n should
marks a change
h a v e p r o v i d e d a r a i n h a t for h i m , just as his
i s o l a t i o n a n d y o u t h f u l p r o t e s t to the s o c i a l i z i n g
m o t h e r p r o v i d e d c l o t h e s for h i m to w e a r as a
i n f l u e n c e o f a r e l a t i o n to o t h e r s . S i n c e this i m -
b o y . T h i s e p i s o d e is r e m i n i s c e n t o f his e a r l y
plies a n e w c a p a c i t y for r e l a t e d n e s s , it suggests
picaresque wanderings, when he was sustained
t h a t his a n i m a must n o w be f u n c t i o n i n g b e t t e r
from
an
earlier
pattern
of
b y the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t his m o t h e r ( t h e o r i g i n a l
t h a n it was b e f o r e — s y m b o l i z e d by his d i s c o v -
f e m i n i n e i m a g e ) w o u l d p r o t e c t h i m a g a i n s t all
ery o f t h e missing h a t t h a t t h e a n i m a figure h a d
d a n g e r s . As he g r e w o l d e r , h e s a w t h a t this w a s
p r e v i o u s l y failed to p r o v i d e for h i m .
a c h i l d i s h illusion, a n d he n o w b l a m e s his m i s f o r t u n e on his o w n a n i m a , n o t his m o t h e r .
B u t t h e d r e a m e r is t i r e d , a n d t h e s c e n e at the r e s t a u r a n t reflects his n e e d to look at his
I n t h e n e x t s t a g e o f the d r e a m t h e p a t i e n t
e a r l i e r a t t i t u d e s in a n e w l i g h t , with the h o p e
speaks o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a h i k e w i t h a g r o u p of
o f r e n e w i n g his s t r e n g t h b y this regression. A n d
p e o p l e . H e g r o w s tired a n d r e t u r n s to a n o u t -
so it t u r n s o u t . W h a t he first sees is a poster
d o o r r e s t a u r a n t w h e r e he finds his r a i n c o a t , to-
s u g g e s t i n g the e n a c t m e n t o f a y o u t h f u l
gether with the r a i n h a t
role
t h a t he h a d
missed
a high-school
hero
b o y p l a y i n g the p a r t
of
e a r l i e r . H e sits d o w n to r e s t ; a n d , as he does so,
P e r s e u s . T h e n he sees the b o y , n o w a m a n , with
he n o t i c e s a p o s t e r s t a t i n g that a l o c a l h i g h -
a friend w h o m a k e s a s h a r p c o n t r a s t to h i m .
s c h o o l b o y is t a k i n g t h e p a r t o f Perseus in a
T h e o n e dressed
in light g r a y , the o t h e r in
p l a y . T h e n t h e b o y in q u e s t i o n a p p e a r s — w h o
black, can be recognized, from what
turns out to be not a b o y at all but a husky
p r e v i o u s l y s a i d , as a version o f t h e T w i n s . T h e y
I have
are h e r o - f i g u r e s e x p r e s s i n g t h e o p p o s i t e s o f e g o
locks t u r n e d all w h o g a z e d u p o n t h e m to s t o n e .
and a l t e r - e g o , w h i c h , h o w e v e r , a p p e a r h e r e in
He
a harmonious and unified relation.
g u a r d e d A n d r o m e d a . T h e s e u s r e p r e s e n t e d the
later had
to o v e r c o m e
the dragon
that
T h e p a t i e n t ' s a s s o c i a t i o n s c o n f i r m e d this a n d
y o u n g p a t r i a r c h a l spirit o f A t h e n s w h o h a d to
e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e figure in g r a y r e p r e s e n t s a
b r a v e t h e t e r r o r s o f t h e C r e t a n l a b y r i n t h with
w e l l - a d a p t e d , w o r l d l y a t t i t u d e to life, w h e r e a s
its m o n s t r o u s i n m a t e , t h e M i n o t a u r , w h i c h p e r -
the figure in b l a c k r e p r e s e n t s t h e s p i r i t u a l life,
haps symbolized the unhealthy d e c a d e n c e o f
in the sense t h a t a c l e r g y m a n w e a r s b l a c k . T h a t
m a t r i a r c h a l C r e t e . ( I n all c u l t u r e s , t h e l a b y -
they w o r e h a t s ( a n d he n o w h a d f o u n d his o w n )
r i n t h has t h e m e a n i n g o f a n e n t a n g l i n g
points to t h e i r h a v i n g a c h i e v e d
relatively
c o n f u s i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d oi m a t r i -
m a t u r e i d e n t i t y o f a k i n d t h a t he h a d felt to b e
a r c h a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; it c a n b e t r a v e r s e d o n l y
a
and
severely l a c k i n g in his o w n e a r l i e r a d o l e s c e n t
by those w h o a r e r e a d y for a s p e c i a l i n i t i a t i o n
years, w h e n t h e q u a l i t y o f " T r i c k s t e r i s m " still
into the mysterious world o f the collective un-
clung to h i m , in spite o f his i d e a l i s t i c s e l f - i m a g e
conscious.)
as a seeker o f w i s d o m .
T h e s e u s r e s c u e d A r i a d n e , a m a i d e n in distress.
Having
overcome
this
danger,
Perseus
This r e s c u e s y m b o l i z e s t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f the
was a c u r i o u s o n e , w h i c h p r o v e d e s p e c i a l l y sig-
a n i m a figure f r o m t h e d e v o u r i n g a s p e c t o f the
His a s s o c i a t i o n t o t h e G r e e k h e r o
nificant b e c a u s e it r e v e a l e d a g l a r i n g i n a c c u -
m o t h e r i m a g e . N o t until this is a c c o m p l i s h e d
racy. It t u r n e d o u t t h a t h e t h o u g h t Perseus was
c a n a m a n a c h i e v e his first t r u e c a p a c i t y for
the h e r o w h o slew t h e M i n o t a u r a n d r e s c u e d
r e l a t e d n e s s to w o m e n . T h e f a c t t h a t this m a n
A r i a d n e f r o m t h e C r e t a n l a b y r i n t h . As he w r o t e
h a d failed a d e q u a t e l y to s e p a r a t e the a n i m a
the n a m e d o w n for m e , h e d i s c o v e r e d his mis-
f r o m t h e m o t h e r w a s e m p h a s i z e d in a n o t h e r
t a k e — t h a t it w a s T h e s e u s , not P e r s e u s , w h o
d r e a m , in w h i c h he e n c o u n t e r e d a d r a g o n — a
slew the M i n o t a u r — a n d this m i s t a k e b e c a m e
s y m b o l i c i m a g e for t h e " d e v o u r i n g " a s p e c t o f
suddenly m e a n i n g f u l , as s u c h slips often d o , by
his a t t a c h m e n t to his m o t h e r . T h i s d r a g o n p u r -
m a k i n g h i m n o t i c e w h a t these t w o h e r o e s h a d
sued h i m , a n d b e c a u s e he h a d n o w e a p o n .he
in c o m m o n . T h e y b o t h h a d to o v e r c o m e t h e i r
b e g a n to get t h e w o r s t o f t h e s t r u g g l e .
fear o f u n c o n s c i o u s d e m o n i c m a t e r n a l p o w e r s and h a d to l i b e r a t e f r o m these p o w e r s a single youthful f e m i n i n e
figure.
t h e d r a g o n s m a l l e r a n d less t h r e a t e n i n g . T h i s
Perseus h a d to c u t o f f t h e h e a d o f t h e g o r g o n Medusa, whose horrifying visage and
Some h e r o i c b a t t l e s a n d r e s c u e s from Greek m y t h : Far left, Perseus slays M e d u s a ( o n a s i x t h - c e n t u r y B.C. v a s e ) ; left, Perseus w i t h A n d r o m e d a ( f r o m a f i r s t - c e n t u r y B.C. mural) w h o m he s a v e d f r o m a m o n s t e r . Right, T h e s e u s kills t h e M i n o t a u r (on a f i r s t - c e n t u r y B.C. j a r ) w a t c h e d by A r i a d n e ; b e l o w , o n a C r e t a n c o i n (67 B.C.), t h e M i n o t a u r ' s l a b y r i n t h .
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , h o w e v e r , his wife a p p e a r e d in the d r e a m , and her a p p e a r a n c e somehow made
snaky
c h a n g e in t h e d r e a m s h o w e d t h a t in his m a r riage the d r e a m e r was belatedly
overcoming
the a t t a c h m e n t to his m o t h e r . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
h e r o a r c h e t y p e r e p r e s e n t s ; he h a d c l a r i f i e d a n d
he h a d to find a m e a n s o f f r e e i n g t h e p s y c h i c
d e v e l o p e d t h a t p a r t o f h i m w h i c h was s y m b o l -
e n e r g y a t t a c h e d to t h e m o t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
ized by t h e w o m a n ; a n d he h a d , by his e g o ' s
in o r d e r to a c h i e v e a m o r e a d u l t r e l a t i o n to
h e r o i c a c t , l i b e r a t e d himself f r o m his m o t h e r .
women — and,
indeed,
to a d u l t
s o c i e t y as a
T h e s e and m a n y other examples o f the hero
whole. T h e h e r o - d r a g o n battle was the symbolic
m y t h in m o d e r n d r e a m s s h o w t h a t t h e e g o as
e x p r e s s i o n o f this p r o c e s s o f " g r o w i n g u p . "
h e r o is a l w a y s e s s e n t i a l l y a b e a r e r o f c u l t u r e
B u t t h e h e r o ' s task has a n a i m
that
goes
rather than a purely egocentric
exhibitionist.
b e y o n d b i o l o g i c a l a n d m a r i t a l a d j u s t m e n t . I t is
E v e n T r i c k s t e r , in his m i s g u i d e d o r u n p u r p o s i v e
to l i b e r a t e t h e a n i m a as t h a t i n n e r c o m p o n e n t
w a y , is a c o n t r i b u t o r to t h e c o s m o s as p r i m i t i v e
true
m a n sees it. In N a v a h o m y t h o l o g y , as C o y o t e ,
I n this m a n ' s c a s e w e
he h u r l e d t h e stars i n t o t h e sky as a n a c t o f
h a v e to guess t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f this o u t c o m e
c r e a t i o n , he i n v e n t e d the n e c e s s a r y c o n t i n g e n c y
b e c a u s e it is not d i r e c t l y s t a t e d in t h e d r e a m o f
o f d e a t h , a n d in t h e m y t h o f e m e r g e n c e
the I n d i a n journey. But I a m sure he would
h e l p e d lead the p e o p l e t h r o u g h t h e h o l l o w reed
o f the p s y c h e t h a t is n e c e s s a r y for a n y creative achievement.
he
c o n f i r m m y h y p o t h e s i s t h a t his j o u r n e y o v e r t h e
w h e r e b y t h e y e s c a p e d f r o m o n e w o r l d to a n -
hill a n d the sight o f his g o a l as a p e a c e f u l h a r -
o t h e r a b o v e it w h e r e t h e y w e r e safe f r o m t h e
b o r t o w n c o n t a i n e d t h e r i c h p r o m i s e t h a t he
t h r e a t o f flood.
w o u l d d i s c o v e r his a u t h e n t i c a n i m a
function.
H e w o u l d thus b e c u r e d o f his e a r l y r e s e n t m e n t at n o t b e i n g g i v e n p r o t e c t i o n ( t h e r a i n h a t ) b y t h e w o m a n for his j o u r n e y t h r o u g h I n d i a . ( I n d r e a m s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y p l a c e d t o w n s c a n often b e a n i m a symbols.)
W e h a v e h e r e a r e f e r e n c e to t h a t f o r m o f c r e a t i v e e v o l u t i o n w h i c h e v i d e n t l y b e g i n s on a c h i l d l i k e , p r e c o n s c i o u s , o r a n i m a l level o f existe n c e . T h e e g o ' s rise to e f f e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s a c t i o n b e c o m e s p l a i n in t h e t r u e c u l t u r e - h e r o . I n the s a m e fashion t h e c h i l d i s h o r a d o l e s c e n t e g o frees
T h e m a n h a d w o n this p r o m i s e o f s e c u r i t y
itself f r o m t h e o p p r e s s i o n o f p a r e n t a l e x p e c t a -
for h i m s e l f by his c o n t a c t w i t h t h e a u t h e n t i c
tions a n d b e c o m e s i n d i v i d u a l . As p a r t o f this
hero a r c h e t y p e , and had found a new c o - o p e r a -
rise to c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h e h e r o - d r a g o n b a t t l e m a y
tive a n d r e l a t e d a t t i t u d e to t h e g r o u p . His sense
have
of rejuvenation
e n e r g y for t h e m u l t i t u d e o f h u m a n tasks that
naturally
followed.
He
had
d r a w n on t h e i n n e r s o u r c e o f s t r e n g t h t h a t t h e
to be f o u g h t a n d
refought
to
can form a culture pattern out o f chaos.
liberate
T h e h e r o ' s rescue of a m a i d e n c a n s y m b o l i z e t h e f r e e i n g of t h e a n i m a f r o m t h e " d e v o u r i n g " a s p e c t of t h e m o t h e r . T h i s a s p e c t is r e p r e s e n t e d , far left, by B a l i n e s e d a n c e r s w e a r i n g t h e m a s k of R a n g d a ( l e f t ) , a m a l i g n f e m a l e s p i r i t ; or by t h e s e r p e n t t h a t s w a l l o w e d and then regurgitated the Greek hero J a s o n ( a b o v e ) . A s in t h e d r e a m d i s c u s s e d o n p 1 2 4 , a c o m m o n a n i m a s y m b o l is a h a r b o r t o w n B e l o w , a p o s t e r by M a r c C h a g a l l p e r s o n i f i e s N i c e as a m e r m a i d .
W h e n this is s u c c e s s f u l , w e see the full h e r o
The archetype of initiation
i m a g e e m e r g i n g as a kind o f e g o s t r e n g t h for, if we a r e s p e a k i n g in c o l l e c t i v e t e r m s , a t r i b a l i d e n t i t y ) t h a t has n o f u r t h e r n e e d to o v e r c o m e the m o n s t e r s a n d t h e g i a n t s . It has r e a c h e d t h e
In a p s y c h o l o g i c a l sense the h e r o i m a g e is n o t
p o i n t w h e r e these d e e p forces c a n b e p e r s o n -
to b e r e g a r d e d as i d e n t i c a l w i t h the e g o p r o p e r .
a l i z e d . T h e " f e m i n i n e e l e m e n t " no l o n g e r a p -
It is b e t t e r d e s c r i b e d as t h e s y m b o l i c m e a n s by
p e a r s in d r e a m s as a d r a g o n , b u t as a w o m a n ;
w h i c h the e g o s e p a r a t e s itself from t h e a r c h e -
s i m i l a r l y , the " s h a d o w " side o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y
types e v o k e d by t h e p a r e n t a l i m a g e s in e a r l y
takes on a less m e n a c i n g f o r m .
c h i l d h o o d . D r . J u n g has suggested t h a t e a c h the
h u m a n b e i n g has o r i g i n a l l y a feeling o f w h o l e -
d r e a m o f a m a n n e a r i n g 5 0 . All his life he h a d
ness, a p o w e r f u l a n d c o m p l e t e sense o f the Self.
suffered from p e r i o d i c a t t a c k s o f a n x i e t y asso-
And from the S e l f
the t o t a l i t y o f t h e p s y c h e —
c i a t e d with fear o f f a i l u r e ( o r i g i n a l l y
the i n d i v i d u a l i z e d
ego-consciousness
This i m p o r t a n t
point
is i l l u s t r a t e d
in
engen-
d e r e d by a d o u b t i n g m o t h e r ) . Y e t his a c t u a l a c h i e v e m e n t s , b o t h in his profession a n d in his p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , w e r e well a b o v e a v e r a g e . In
emerges
as the i n d i v i d u a l g r o w s up. Within
the
past
few
years,
the
works
of
c e r t a i n followers of J u n g h a v e b e g u n to d o c u -
his d r e a m his n i n e - y e a r - o l d son a p p e a r e d as a
m e n t the series o f e v e n t s by w h i c h the i n d i -
young man of about
18 o r 19, dressed in the
v i d u a l e g o e m e r g e s d u r i n g the t r a n s i t i o n from
s h i n i n g a r m o r o f a m e d i e v a l k n i g h t . The y o u n g
i n f a n c y t h r o u g h c h i l d h o o d . This s e p a r a t i o n c a n
m a n is called u p o n to fight a host o f m e n in
n e v e r b e c o m e final w i t h o u t severe i n j u r y to Un-
b l a c k , w h i c h he p r e p a r e s at first to d o . T h e n he
o r i g i n a l sense o f w h o l e n e s s . A n d t h e e g o must
s u d d e n l y r e m o v e s his h e l m e t , a n d smiles at the
c o n t i n u a l l y r e t u r n to r e - e s t a b l i s h its r e l a t i o n to
l e a d e r of the m e n a c i n g h o s t ; it is c l e a r
that
they will not
will
engage
in the b a t t l e b u t
b e c o m e friends. The son
in the d r e a m
is the
man's
own
y o u t h f u l e g o , w h i c h h a d f r e q u e n t l y felt t h r e a t e n e d by t h e s h a d o w in t h e f o r m o f s e l f - d o u b t . H e h a d , in a sense, w a g e d a successful c r u s a d e a g a i n s t this a d v e r s a r y all his m a t u r e life. N o w , partly through
the a c t u a l e n c o u r a g e m e n t
of
seeing his son g r o w up w i t h o u t such d o u b t s , but m a i n l y by f o r m i n g a s u i t a b l e i m a g e o f t h e h e r o in the f o r m closest to his o w n
environmental
p a t t e r n , he finds it n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y to fight t h e s h a d o w ; he c a n a c c e p t it. T h a t is w h a t is s y m b o l i z e d in t h e a c t o f f r i e n d s h i p . H e is n o l o n g e r d r i v e n to a c o m p e t i t i v e s t r u g g l e for i n d i vidual s u p r e m a c y , b u t is a s s i m i l a t e d to t h e c u l tural task o f f o r m i n g a d e m o c r a t i c sort o f c o m m u n i t y . S u c h a c o n c l u s i o n , r e a c h e d in t h e fullness o f life, goes b e y o n d the h e r o i c task a n d leads o n e to a t r u l y m a t u r e a t t i t u d e . This c h a n g e , h o w e v e r , does not t a k e p l a c e a u t o m a t i c a l l y . It r e q u i r e s a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n , w h i c h is expressed in the v a r i o u s f o r m s o f t h e a r c h e t y p e of i n i t i a t i o n . 1i 28 28
the S e l f in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n a c o n d i t i o n
of
psychic h e a l t h .
Ancient history a n d the rituals o f c o n t e m p o r a r y p r i m i t i v e societies h a v e p r o v i d e d us with
It w o u l d a p p e a r f r o m m y studies t h a t t h e
a w e a l t h o f m a t e r i a l a b o u t m y t h s a n d rites o f
hero m y t h is t h e first s t a g e in t h e d i f f e r e n t i a -
initiation, whereby young men and women are
tion o f t h e p s y c h e . I h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t it
weaned a w a y from their parents and forcibly
seems to g o t h r o u g h a fourfold c y c l e by w h i c h
m a d e m e m b e r s o f t h e i r c l a n o r t r i b e . B u t in
the ego seeks to a c h i e v e its r e l a t i v e a u t o n o m y
m a k i n g this b r e a k w i t h t h e c h i l d h o o d w o r l d ,
from the o r i g i n a l c o n d i t i o n o f w h o l e n e s s . U n l e s s
t h e o r i g i n a l p a r e n t a r c h e t y p e will b e i n j u r e d ,
some d e g r e e o f a u t o n o m y is a c h i e v e d , t h e i n d i -
a n d t h e d a m a g e must be m a d e g o o d by a h e a l -
vidual is u n a b l e to r e l a t e h i m s e l f to his a d u l t
i n g p r o c e s s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o t h e life o f the
environment.
not
g r o u p . ( T h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e g r o u p a n d the i n d i -
ensure t h a t this l i b e r a t i o n will o c c u r . It o n l y
But
the
hero
myth
does
v i d u a l is o f t e n s y m b o l i z e d by a t o t e m a n i m a l . )
shows h o w it is possible for it to o c c u r , so that
T h u s t h e g r o u p fulfills t h e c l a i m s o f t h e i n j u r e d
the ego m a y a c h i e v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e r e r e -
archetv pe a n d b e c o m e s a kind ol s e c o n d parent
mains the p r o b l e m o f m a i n t a i n i n g a n d d e v e l o p -
to w h i c h t h e y o u n g a r e first s y m b o l i c a l l y s a c r i -
ing that c o n s c i o u s n e s s in a m e a n i n g f u l w a y , so
ficed,
that the i n d i v i d u a l c a n live a useful life a n d can a c h i e v e t h e n e c e s s a r y sense o f s e l f - d i s t i n c tion in s o c i e t y .
o n l y to r e - e m e r g e i n t o a n e w life.
In this " d r a s t i c c e r e m o n y , w h i c h looks v e r y like a s a c r i f i c e to t h e p o w e r s t h a t m i g h t hold t h e y o u n g m a n b a c k , " as D r . J u n g has put it,
A primitive t r i b e ' s totem ( o f t e n an animal) s y m b o l i z e s e a c h t r i b e s m a n ' s identity w i t h t h e t r i b a l u n i t . Left, an A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g i n e i m i t a t i n g (in a ritual d a n c e ) his t r i b e ' s t o t e m — a n emu. M a n y modern groups use t o t e m - l i k e a n i m a l s as e m b l e m s : Below, a heraldic lion ( f r o m the Belgian c o a t of a r m s ) o n a 1 7 t h century a l l e g o r i c a l m a p of B e l g i u m . Right, t h e f a l c o n is t h e m a s c o t o f the A m e r i c a n A i r Force A c a d e m y ' s f o o t b a l l t e a m . Far r i g h t , m o d e r n totemistic e m b l e m s that aren't animals: a s h o p w i n d o w d i s p l a y of ties, b a d g e s , etc. of B r i t i s h schools a n d c l u b s .
I 2
9
w c sec h o w t h e p o w e r o f t h e o r i g i n a l a r c h e t y p e can
n e v e r be p e r m a n e n t l y o v e r c o m e , in
the
m a n n e r e n v i s a g e d by the h e r o - d r a g o n b a t t l e , w i t h o u t a c r i p p l i n g sense ol a l i e n a t i o n from the fruitful p o w e r s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . W e saw in the m y t h o f the
Twins h o w t h e i r hybris,
ex-
pressing e x c e s s i v e e g o - S e l f s e p a r a t i o n , was c o r r e c t e d by t h e i r o w n f e a r o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s , w h i c h forced t h e m b a c k i n t o a h a r m o n i o u s e g o Self relation. In t r i b a l societies it is the i n i t i a t i o n rite that most e f f e c t i v e l y solves this p r o b l e m . T h e ritual takes the n o v i c e b a c k to the deepesl
level ol
original mother-child identity or e g o - S e l f identity, thus f o r c i n g h i m to e x p e r i e n c e a s y m b o l i c d e a t h . In o t h e r w o r d s , his i d e n t i t y is t e m p o r a r i l y d i s m e m b e r e d o r dissolved in the c o l l e c t i v e u n c o n s c i o u s . F r o m this s t a t e he is then c e r e m o n i a l l y r e s c u e d by the rite ol the new b i r t h . This is the first act o f t r u e c o n s o l i d a t i o n ol the e g o with the l a r g e r g r o u p , e x p r e s s e d as t o t e m , c l a n , or t r i b e , o r all t h r e e c o m b i n e d . The
ritual,
whether
it is f o u n d
in
tribal
g r o u p s o r in m o r e c o m p l e x s o c i e t i e s , i n v a r i a b l y insists u p o n this rite o f d e a t h a n d r e b i r t h , w h i c h p r o v i d e s the n o v i c e with a " r i t e o f p a s s a g e " from o n e s t a g e o f life to the n e x t , w h e t h e r it is from e a r l y c h i l d h o o d to l a t e r c h i l d h o o d or from early
to late a d o l e s c e n c e
maturity.
and
from
then
to
Initiatory e v e n t s a r e n o t , o f c o u r s e , c o n f i n e d
a n a l y s i s . It is not s u r p r i s i n g that t h e r e should
to the p s y c h o l o g y o f y o u t h . E v e r y new p h a s e o f
a p p e a r , in the u n c o n s c i o u s o f s o m e o n e w h o is
development t h r o u g h o u t a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s life is
seeking
help
accompanied
psychic
d i s o r d e r s , i m a g e s that d u p l i c a t e
by a r e p e t i t i o n o f the
original
from
a
doctor
specializing
conflict b e t w e e n the c l a i m s o f the Sell a n d the
m a j o r p a t t e r n s o f i n i t i a t i o n as we know
claims ol the e g o . In f a c t , this c o n f l i c t m a y be
from h i s t o r y .
expressed
more
P e r h a p s t h e c o m m o n e s t ol these t h e m e s to be
transition from e a r l y m a t u r i t y to m i d d l e a g e
f o u n d in y o u n g p e o p l e is the o r d e a l , o r trial of
(between 3 5 a n d 4 0 in o u r society
s t r e n g t h . T h i s m i g h t s e e m to be i d e n t i c a l with
in
life. A n d
at
the
the
period
them
of
other time
powerfully
in the
t h a n at a n y
transition
from
what
we
have
already
noticed
in
modern
middle a g e to old a g e c r e a t e s a g a i n the need
d r e a m s i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e h e r o m y t h , such as the
for a f f i r m a t i o n of the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
the
s a i l o r w h o h a d to s u b m i t to t h e w e a t h e r a n d to
ego and the total p s y c h e ; the h e r o receives his
b e a t i n g s , or that p r o o f o f fitness r e p r e s e n t e d in
last call to a c t i o n in d e f e n s e o f e g o - c o n s c i o u s -
t h e h i k e t h r o u g h I n d i a o f the m a n w i t h o u t a
ness against the a p p r o a c h i n g dissolution o f life
r a i n h a t . W e c a n also sec this t h e m e o f physical
in death.
s u f f e r i n g c a r r i e d to its logical e n d in the first
At these c r u c i a l initiation
p e r i o d s , the a r c h e t y p e
is s t r o n g l y
meaningful
transition
activated that
to p r o v i d e
offers
of
d r e a m I discussed, w h e n the h a n d s o m e y o u n g
a
m a n b e c a m e a h u m a n s a c r i f i c e on an a l t a r .
something
This s a c r i f i c e r e s e m b l e d the a p p r o a c h to i n i t i a -
more s p i r i t u a l l y s a t i s f y i n g t h a n the a d o l e s c e n t
tion, but its end was o b s c u r e d . It s e e m e d to
rites with t h e i r s t r o n g s e c u l a r flavor. T h e a r c h e -
r o u n d o f f the h e r o c y c l e , to m a k e way
typal p a t t e r n s ol i n i t i a t i o n in this religious sense
new t h e m e .
lor a
known since a n c i e n t t i m e s as " t h e m y s t e r i e s "
T h e r e is o n e striking d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the
are w o v e n i n t o t h e t e x t u r e o f all e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
h e r o m y t h a n d the i n i t i a t i o n rite. T h e typical
rituals r e q u i r i n g a s p e c i a l m a n n e r o f w o r s h i p at
h e r o figures e x h a u s t t h e i r efforts in a c h i e v i n g
the time o f b i r t h , m a r r i a g e , o r d e a t h .
the
As in o u r study o f the h e r o m y t h , so in the
goal
of their
ambitions;
in s h o r t ,
b e c o m e successful even i f i m m e d i a t e l y are
punished
or
killed
for
after-
study o f i n i t i a t i o n we must look for e x a m p l e s
ward
in the s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s o f m o d e r n p e o p l e
hybris. In c o n t r a s t to this, the n o v i c e for i n i t i a -
and e s p e c i a l l y o f those w h o h a v e
tion is c a l l e d u p o n to give up willful a m b i t i o n
undergone
thev
they their
Primitive i n i t i a t i o n rituals b r i n g the y o u t h i n t o a d u l t h o o d a n d i n t o the tribe's c o l l e c t i v e i d e n t i t y . In many p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t i e s , i n i t i a t i o n is a c c o m p l i s h e d by c i r c u m c i s i o n (a symbolic s a c r i f i c e ) . Here are f o u r stages in a c i r c u m c i s i o n rite o f Australian a b o r i g i n e s . Far l e f t . t o p and center: T h e b o y s are p l a c e d under b l a n k e t s (a s y m b o l i c d e a t h from w h i c h t h e y w i l l be r e b o r n ) . Bottom, t h e y are r e m o v e d a n d h e l d by the m e n for t h e a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n . Left, the c i r c u m c i s e d b o y s are given m e n ' s c o n i c a l c a p s , a m a r k of their n e w s t a t u s . R i g h t , t h e y are finally i s o l a t e d f r o m the tribe t o be purified a n d g i v e n i n s t r u c t i o n .
'3
1
and all desire and to submit to the ordeal. He must be willing to experience this trial without hope of success. In fact, he must be prepared to die; and though the token of his ordeal may be mild (a period of fasting, the knocking out of a tooth, or tattooing) or agonizing (the infliction of the wounds of circumcision, subincision, or other mutilations), the purpose remains always the same: T o create the symbolic mood of death from which may spring the symbolic mood of rebirth. A young man of 25 dreams of climbing a mountain on top of which there is a kind of altar. Near the altar he sees a sarcophagus with a statue of himself upon it. T h e n a veiled priest approaches carrying a staff on which there glows a living sun-disk. (Discussing the dream later, the young man said that climbing a mountain reminded him of the effort he was making in his analysis to achieve self-mastery.) T o his surprise, he finds himself, as it were, dead, and instead of a sense of achievement he feels deprivation and fear. Then comes a feeling of strength and rejuvenation as he is bathed in the warm rays of the sun-disk. This dream shows quite succinctly the distinction we must make between initiation and the hero myth. T h e act of climbing the mountain seems to suggest a trial of strength: It is the will to achieve ego-consciousness in the heroic phase of adolescent development. T h e patient had evidently thought that his approach to therapy would be like his approach to other tests of manhood, which he had approached in the competitive manner characteristic of young men in our society. But the scene by the altar corrected this mistaken assumption, showing him that his task is rather to submit to a power greater than himself. He must see himself as if he were dead and entombed in a symbolic form (the sarcophagus) that recalls the archetypal mother as the original container of all life. Only by such an act of submission can he experience rebirth. An invigorating ritual brings him to life again as the symbolic son of a Sun Father. Here again we might confuse this with a hero cycle — that of the Twins, the "children of the S u n . " But in this case we have no indication I
3
2
that the initiate will over-reach himself. Instead, he has learned a lesson in humility by experiencing a rite of death and rebirth that marks his passage from youth to maturity. According to his chronological age he should already have made this transition, but a prolonged period of arrested development has held him back. This delay had plunged him into a neurosis for which he had come for treatment, and the dream offers him the same wise counsel that he could have been given by any good tribal medicine man — that he should give up scaling mountains to prove his strength and submit to the meaningful ritual of an initiatory change that could fit him for the new moral responsibilities of manhood. T h e theme of submission as an essential attitude toward promotion of the successful initiation rite can be clearly seen in the case of girls or women. Their rite of passage initially emphasizes their essential passivity, and this is reinforced by the psychological limitation on theirautonomyimposedby the menstrual cycle. It has been suggested that the menstrual cycle may actually be the major part of initiation from a woman's point of view, since it has the power to awaken the deepest sense of obedience to life's creative power over her. Thus she willingly gives herself to her womanly function, much as a man gives himself to his assigned role in the community life of his group. On the other hand, the woman, no less than the man, has her initial trials of strength that
A sarcophagus from second-century A . D . T h e b e s t h a t reveals a s y m b o l i c c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e a r c h e t y p a l Great M o t h e r ( t h e c o n t a i n e r of all l i f e ) . T h e i n s i d e of t h e c o v e r bears a p o r t r a i t of t h e E g y p t i a n g o d d e s s N u t ; thus the goddess w o u l d " e m b r a c e " t h e b o d y of t h e d e c e a s e d ( w h o s e p o r t r a i t is o n t h e base, far r i g h t ) .
'33
lead to a final s a c r i f i c e for the s a k e of e x p e r i e n c i n g the n e w b i r t h . T h i s s a c r i f i c e e n a b l e s a w o m a n to free h e r s e l f f r o m t h e e n t a n g l e m e n t o f p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s a n d fits h e r for a m o r e c o n scious role as an i n d i v i d u a l in h e r o w n r i g h t . In c o n t r a s t , a m a n ' s s a c r i f i c e is a s u r r e n d e r o f his s a c r e d
independence:
He becomes
more
c o n s c i o u s l y r e l a t e d to w o m a n . H e r e we c o m e to that a s p e c t o f i n i t i a t i o n which a c q u a i n t s m a n with w o m a n and w o m a n w i t h m a n in such a w a y as to c o r r e c t s o m e sort of
original
male-female
opposition.
knowledge (Logos) then encounters relatedness
Man's woman's
E r o s i a n d t h e i r u n i o n is r e p r e s e n t e d
as t h a t s y m b o l i c r i t u a l o f a s a c r e d
marriage
w h i c h has b e e n at t h e h e a r t o f i n i t i a t i o n s i n c e its origins in the m y s t e r y - r e l i g i o n s o f a n t i q u i t y . But
this is e x c e e d i n g l y
difficult
for
modern
p e o p l e to g r a s p , a n d it f r e q u e n t l y takes a special crisis in t h e i r lives to m a k e t h e m u n d e r s t a n d it. Several
patients
have
told
me dreams
in
w h i c h the m o t i f o f s a c r i f i c e is c o m b i n e d with the m o t i f o f the s a c r e d m a r r i a g e . O n e o f these was p r o d u c e d by a y o u n g m a n w h o h a d fallen in love but was u n w i l l i n g to m a r r y for fear that m a r r i a g e w o u l d b e c o m e a kind o f prison p r e sided o v e r by a p o w e r f u l m o t h e r figure.
His
o w n m o t h e r h a d b e e n a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e in his c h i l d h o o d , a n d his f u t u r e m o t h e r - i n - l a w p r e s e n t e d a s i m i l a r t h r e a t . W o u l d not his w i f e - t o -
Four v a r i e d i n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s : T o p left, n o v i c e s in a c o n v e n t p e r f o r m s u c h h u m b l e d u t i e s as s c r u b b i n g a f l o o r ( f r o m the 1 9 5 8 f i l m The Nun's Story), a n d h a v e their hair c u t off ( f r o m a m e d i e v a l p a i n t i n g ) . Center, ship's passengers crossing the equator must undergo a "rite of p a s s a g e . " B o t t o m , A m e r i c a n c o l l e g e f r e s h m e n in a t r a d i t i o n a l b a t t l e w i t h their s e n i o r s . M a r r i a g e c a n be seen as an i n i t i a t i o n rite in w h i c h t h e m a n a n d t h e w o m a n m u s t s u b m i t t o o n e a n o t h e r B u t in s o m e s o c i e t i e s t h e m a n o f f s e t s his submission by ritually " a b d u c t i n g " his b r i d e — as d o t h e D y a k s of M a l a y s i a and Borneo (right, from the 1955 f i l m The Lost Continent). A remnant of t h i s p r a c t i c e exists in t o d a y ' s c u s t o m of c a r r y i n g t h e bride a c r o s s t h e t h r e s h o l d (far r i g h t ) .
1
:Y\
be d o m i n a t e h i m in t h e s a m e w a y these m o t h e r s
H e felt d e e p l y a s h a m e d o f his c o w a r d l y failure
had d o m i n a t e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n ?
to s a c r i f i c e h i m s e l f with the o t h e r s . ritual
This d r e a m b r o u g h t h o m e to m y p a t i e n t the
dance a l o n g w i t h a n o t h e r m a n a n d t w o o t h e r
fact t h a t he was m o r e t h a n r e a d y to c h a n g e
In 11 is d r e a m
he was e n g a g e d
in a
The
his a t t i t u d e to life. H e h a d b e e n s e l f - c e n t e r e d ,
others w e r e a n o l d e r m a n a n d wife, w h o i m -
s e e k i n g t h e illusory safety o f p e r s o n a l i n d e p e n -
pressed t h e d r e a m e r b e c a u . s e . d e s p i t e t h e i r c l o s e -
d e n c e but
women, o n e o f w h o m
n e s s
was his
fiancee.
to e a c h o t h e r , t h e y s e e m e d to h a v e r o o m
inwardly dominated
by t h e
fears
c a u s e d by c h i l d h o o d s u b j e c t i o n to his m o t h e r .
nol
H e n e e d e d a c h a l l e n g e to his m a n h o o d in o r d e r
therefore
to see that unless he s a c r i f i c e d his c h i l d i s h s t a t e
represented to this y o u n g m a n a m a r r i e d state-
o f m i n d he w o u l d be left isolated a n d a s h a m e d .
that did not i m p o s e u n d u e c o n s t r a i n t on the
T h e d r e a m , a n d his s u b s e q u e n t insight i n t o its
development o f the individual n a t u r e of the two
m e a n i n g , dispelled his d o u b t s . H e h a d passed
partners. I f it w e r e possible for h i m to a c h i e v e
t h r o u g h the s y m b o l i c rite by w h i c h a y o u n g
this c o n d i t i o n , m a r r i a g e w o u l d t h e n
man
for their i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , a n d did appear to be possessive. T h e s e t w o
become
In
the
ritual
dance
gives
up
his
exclusive
autonomy
and
a c c e p t s his s h a r e d life in a r e l a t e d , not j u s t
a c c e p t a b l e to h i m . each
man
faced
his
woman p a r t n e r , a n d all f o u r t o o k t h e i r p l a c e s
heroic, form. A n d so he m a r r i e d a n d f o u n d
appropriate
at the c o r n e r s o f a s q u a r e d a n c i n g g r o u n d . As
fulfillment in his r e l a t i o n s h i p with his wife. F a r
they d a n c e d , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that this was
from i m p a i r i n g his e f f e c t i v e n e s s in the w o r l d ,
also a kind o f s w o r d d a n c e . E a c h d a n c e r h a d
his m a r r i a g e a c t u a l l y e n h a n c e d it.
in his h a n d a short s w o r d with w h i c h to p e r -
Quite
form a difficult a r a b e s q u e , m o v i n g a r m s a n d
invisible
legs in a series o f m o v e m e n t s that
behind
suggested
apart
from
the
neurotic
m o t h e r s or l a t h e r s the
marriage
may
veil, even
fear
that
be
lurking
the
normal
alternate i m p u l s e s ol a g g r e s s i o n a n d s u b m i s s i o n
voting m a n has g o o d reason to leel a p p r e h e n -
to each o t h e r . In the final s c e n e o f the d a n c e
sive a b o u t the w e d d i n g r i t u a l . It is essentially
all four d a n c e r s h a d to plunge- the swords i n t o
a w o m a n ' s i n i t i a t i o n rite, in w h i c h a m a n is
their own b r e a s t s a n d d i e . O n l y the d r e a m e r
b o u n d to feel like a n y t h i n g but a c o n q u e r i n g
refused to a c c o m p l i s h the final s u i c i d e , a n d was
h e r o . No w o n d e r we
left s t a n d i n g a l o n e a f t e r t h e o t h e r s h a d fallen.
such c o u n t e r p h o b i c rituals as the a b d u c t i o n o r
find,
in t r i b a l societies,
'35
rape o f the bride. T h e s e enable the m a n
to
w h i c h she c o u l d a c c e p t a b a l a n c e d a n d n a t u r a l
c l i n g to t h e r e m n a n t s o f his h e r o i c r o l e at the
r e l a t i o n t o t h e m a s c u l i n e p r i n c i p l e ) she h a d
v e r y m o m e n t t h a t h e m u s t s u b m i t to his b r i d e
w r o n g l y a s s u m e d t h a t she h a d to p u t h e r e n t i r e
and assume the responsibilities o f m a r r i a g e .
c o n s c i o u s (i.e. r i g h t - s i d e d )
i d e n t i t y in t h e ser-
B u t t h e t h e m e o f m a r r i a g e is a n i m a g e o f
vice o f the m a n . In fact, m a r r i a g e required her
such u n i v e r s a l i t y t h a t it also has a d e e p e r m e a n -
to s h a r e w i t h h i m o n l y t h a t s u b l i m i n a l , n a t u r a l
i n g . It is a n a c c e p t a b l e , e v e n n e c e s s a r y , s y m -
(i.e. left-sided)
bolic discovery o f the feminine c o m p o n e n t o f a
p r i n c i p l e o f u n i o n w o u l d h a v e a s y m b o l i c , not
m a n ' s o w n p s y c h e , j u s t as m u c h as it is t h e
a l i t e r a l o r a b s o l u t e , m e a n i n g . H e r f e a r was the
a c q u i s i t i o n o f a r e a l wife. S o o n e m a y e n c o u n -
fear o f the w o m a n
t e r this a r c h e t y p e
identity
in a m a n
o f any age
in
p a r t o f h e r s e l f in w h i c h
w h o d r e a d s to lose
in a s t r o n g l y
patriarchal
the
her
marriage,
w h i c h this w o m a n h a d g o o d r e a s o n to resist.
r e s p o n s e to a s u i t a b l e s t i m u l u s . N o t all w o m e n , h o w e v e r , r e a c t t r u s t i n g l y to the married state. A w o m a n patient who had
Nevertheless,
the
sacred
marriage
archetypal form has a particularly
as
an
important
unfulfilled l o n g i n g s f o r a c a r e e r , w h i c h she h a d
m e a n i n g for t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f w o m e n , a n d o n e
h a d to give u p for a v e r y difficult a n d s h o r t -
for w h i c h t h e y a r e p r e p a r e d d u r i n g t h e i r a d o -
lived m a r r i a g e , d r e a m e d t h a t she w a s k n e e l i n g
lescence
o p p o s i t e a m a n w h o w a s also k n e e l i n g . H e h a d
initiatory character.
by m a n y
preliminary
events o f an
a r i n g t h a t he p r e p a r e d to p u t o n h e r f i n g e r , b u t she s t r e t c h e d o u t h e r r i g h t - h a n d r i n g f i n g e r in
a
tense
manner—evidently
resisting
this
ritual of marital union. It w a s easy to p o i n t o u t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r . Instead o f offering the left-hand ring finger (by
The archetypal sacred marriage (the u n i o n of o p p o s i t e s , of t h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e p r i n c i p l e s ) r e p r e s e n t e d here by a 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y I n d i a n s c u l p t u r e of t h e d e i t i e s Siva a n d P a r v a t i .
Beauty and the Beast
Girls in o u r s o c i e t y s h a r e in t h e m a s c u l i n e h e r o
o f y o u n g w o m e n like herself, a n d as she l o o k e d
myths b e c a u s e , like b o y s , t h e y m u s t also d e -
a h e a d to w h e r e t h e y w e r e g o i n g she s a w t h a t as
velop a r e l i a b l e e g o - i d e n t i t y a n d a c q u i r e
e a c h c a m e to t h e h e a d o f t h e l i n e she was d e -
an
e d u c a t i o n . B u t t h e r e is a n o l d e r l a y e r o f t h e
capitated by a guillotine. W i t h o u t any fear the
mind t h a t s e e m s to c o m e to t h e s u r f a c e in t h e i r
d r e a m e r r e m a i n e d in t h e l i n e , p r e s u m a b l y q u i t e
feelings, w i t h t h e a i m o f m a k i n g t h e m
into
w i l l i n g to s u b m i t to t h e s a m e t r e a t m e n t w h e n
women, n o t i n t o i m i t a t i o n
this
her turn c a m e .
men.
When
ancient c o n t e n t o f t h e p s y c h e b e g i n s to m a k e
I e x p l a i n e d to h e r t h a t this m e a n t she was
its a p p e a r a n c e , t h e m o d e r n y o u n g w o m a n m a y
r e a d y to g i v e u p t h e h a b i t o f " l i v i n g in h e r
repress it b e c a u s e it t h r e a t e n s to c u t h e r o f f
h e a d " ; she m u s t l e a r n to free h e r b o d y to dis-
from the e m a n c i p a t e d e q u a l i t y o f f r i e n d s h i p
c o v e r its n a t u r a l s e x u a l r e s p o n s e a n d t h e fulfill-
and o p p o r t u n i t y
to c o m p e t e w i t h
men
that
have b e c o m e h e r m o d e r n p r i v i l e g e s .
m e n t o f its b i o l o g i c a l role in m o t h e r h o o d . T h e d r e a m e x p r e s s e d this as t h e n e e d to m a k e a
T h i s r e p r e s s i o n m a y b e so successful t h a t for a time she will m a i n t a i n a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h
d r a s t i c c h a n g e ; she h a d to s a c r i f i c e t h e " m a s c u l i n e " hero role.
the m a s c u l i n e i n t e l l e c t u a l goals she l e a r n e d at
As o n e m i g h t e x p e c t , this e d u c a t e d w o m a n
school or c o l l e g e . E v e n w h e n she m a r r i e s , she
h a d n o difficulty in a c c e p t i n g this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
will preserve s o m e illusion o f f r e e d o m , d e s p i t e
at a n i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l , a n d she set a b o u t t r y i n g
her ostensible a c t o f s u b m i s s i o n to t h e a r c h e t y p e
to c h a n g e h e r s e l f i n t o a m o r e s u b m i s s i v e k i n d
of m a r r i a g e — w i t h
to
o f w o m a n . S h e did t h e n i m p r o v e h e r love-life
b e c o m e a m o t h e r . A n d so t h e r e m a y o c c u r , as
and b e c a m e the m o t h e r of two very satisfactory
its i m p l i c i t i n j u n c t i o n
conflict
c h i l d r e n . As she g r e w to k n o w h e r s e l f b e t t e r ,
which in t h e e n d forces t h e w o m a n to redis-
she b e g a n to sec t h a t for a m a n (or t h e m a s c u -
cover h e r b u r i e d w o m a n h o o d in a p a i n f u l ( b u t
l i n e - t r a i n e d m i n d in w o m e n ) life is s o m e t h i n g
ultimately r e w a r d i n g ) m a n n e r .
t h a t has to be t a k e n by s t o r m , as a n a c t o f t h e
we very f r e q u e n t l y
see
today,
that
I saw a n e x a m p l e o f this in a y o u n g m a r r i e d woman w h o did n o t y e t h a v e a n y c h i l d r e n b u t who i n t e n d e d to h a v e o n e o r t w o e v e n t u a l l y , because it w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d o f h e r .
Mean-
h e r o i c w i l l ; b u t for a w o m a n to feel r i g h t a b o u t herself,
life is best r e a l i z e d
b y a p r o c e s s of
awakening. A
universal
myth
expressing
this k i n d
of
while h e r s e x u a l r e s p o n s e was u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .
a w a k e n i n g is f o u n d in t h e f a i r y t a l e o f B e a u t y
This w o r r i e d h e r a n d h e r h u s b a n d , t h o u g h t h e y
a n d t h e B e a s t . T h e b e s t - k n o w n v e r s i o n o f this
were u n a b l e to o f f e r a n y e x p l a n a t i o n for it.
story r e l a t e s h o w B e a u t y , t h e y o u n g e s t o f four
She h a d g r a d u a t e d w i t h h o n o r s f r o m a g o o d
daughters, becomes her father'sfavorite because
women's c o l l e g e a n d e n j o y e d a life o f i n t e l l e c -
o f h e r unselfish g o o d n e s s . W h e n she asks h e r
tual c o m p a n i o n s h i p w i t h h e r h u s b a n d a n d o t h e r
f a t h e r o n l y for a w h i t e r o s e , i n s t e a d o f t h e m o r e
men. A l t h o u g h this side o f h e r life w e n t well
c o s t l y p r e s e n t s d e m a n d e d b y t h e o t h e r s , she is
enough m u c h o f t h e t i m e , she h a d o c c a s i o n a l
a w a r e only of her i n n e r sincerity o f feeling. She
outbursts o f t e m p e r a n d t a l k e d in a n aggressive
does n o t k n o w t h a t she is a b o u t to e n d a n g e r
fashion t h a t a l i e n a t e d m e n a n d g a v e h e r a n i n -
h e r f a t h e r ' s life a n d h e r i d e a l r e l a t i o n w i t h h i m .
tolerable feeling o f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h herself.
F o r he steals t h e w h i t e rose f r o m t h e e n c h a n t e d
She h a d a d r e a m at this t i m e t h a t s e e m e d so
g a r d e n o f B e a s t , w h o is s t i r r e d to a n g e r b y t h e
i m p o r t a n t she s o u g h t
professional
advice
to
understand it. S h e d r e a m e d she w a s in a line
theft
and
requires
him
to
return
in
three
m o n t h s for his p u n i s h m e n t , p r e s u m a b l y d e a t h .
137
go
At this the c a s t l e is Idled with a b l a z e o f light
h o m e with his g i l t . Beast b e h a v e s out o f c h a r -
(In
allowing
the lather
this r e p r i e v e
to
a n d the s o u n d o f m u s i c , a n d Beast d i s a p p e a r s .
a c t e r , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n he also o i l e r s to send h i m
I n his p l a c e s t a n d s a h a n d s o m e p r i n c e , w h o
a t r u n k full o f gold w h e n he gets h o m e . As
tells Beauty that he h a d b e e n e n c h a n t e d by a
Beauty's father c o m m e n t s , the Beast seems cruel
w i t c h a n d t u r n e d i n t o the B e a s t . The spell was
a n d kind at the s a m e t i m e . )
o r d a i n e d to last until a b e a u t i f u l girl should
B e a u t y insists u p o n t a k i n g h e r f a t h e r ' s p u n -
love Beast for his g o o d n e s s a l o n e .
i s h m e n t a n d r e t u r n s a f t e r t h r e e m o n t h s to the
In this s t o r y , if we u n r a v e l the s y m b o l i s m , we
e n c h a n t e d c a s t l e . T h e r e she is g i v e n a b e a u t i f u l
a r e likely to see that B e a u t y is any y o u n g girl
r o o m w h e r e she has no w o r r i e s a n d n o t h i n g to
or w o m a n w h o has e n t e r e d i n t o an e m o t i o n a l
fear e x c e p t the o c c a s i o n a l visits o f B e a s t , w h o
b o n d with h e r l a t h e r , no less b i n d i n g b e c a u s e
r e p e a t e d l y c o m e s to ask h e r if she will s o m e d a y
o f its s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e . H e r g o o d n e s s is s y m b o l -
m a r r y h i m . S h e a l w a y s refuses. T h e n , s e e i n g in
ized by h e r r e q u e s t lor a w h i t e rose, but in a
a m a g i c m i r r o r a p i c t u r e o f h e r f a t h e r l y i n g ill.
significant
she begs Beast to a l l o w h e r to r e t u r n to c o m f o r t
i n t e n t i o n puts h e r l a t h e r a n d t h e n h e r s e l f in
twist o f m e a n i n g
her
unconscious
h i m , p r o m i s i n g to r e t u r n in a w e e k . B e a s t tells
the p o w e r o f a p r i n c i p l e
h e r that he will die if she deserts h i m . but she
g o o d n e s s a l o n e , but cruelty a n d kindness c o m -
m a y go for a w e e k .
that
expresses
not
b i n e d . It is as if she wished to be r e s c u e d from
At h o m e , h e r r a d i a n t p r e s e n c e b r i n g s joy to her l a t h e r a n d e n v y to h e r sisters, w h o plot to
a love h o l d i n g h e r to an e x c l u s i v e l y
virtuous
and unreal attitude.
d e t a i n h e r l o n g e r t h a n h e r p r o m i s e d stay. At
Bv l e a r n i n g to love Beast she a w a k e n s to the
length she d r e a m s that Beast is d y i n g o f d e s p a i r .
p o w e r o f h u m a n love c o n c e a l e d in its a n i m a l
S o . r e a l i z i n g she has o v e r s t a y e d h e r t i m e , she r e t u r n s to r e s u s c i t a t e h i m .
and therefore imperfect
but g e n u i n e l y
erotic
f o r m . P r e s u m a b l y this r e p r e s e n t s a n a w a k e n i n g
Q u i t e f o r g e t t i n g the d y i n g B e a s t ' s ugliness.
o f h e r true f u n c t i o n o f r e l a t c d n c s s , e n a b l i n g h e r
B e a u t y m i n i s t e r s to h i m . H e tells h e r t h a t _ h c
to a c c e p t the e r o t i c c o m p o n e n t o f h e r o r i g i n a l
was u n a b l e to live w i t h o u t h e r . a n d that he will
wish, w h i c h had to be repressed b e c a u s e ol a
die
fear o f incest.
happy
now
that
she
has
returned.
B e a u t y realizes that she c a n n o t
But
To l e a v e h e r f a t h e r she h a d . as
live w i t h o u t
it w e r e , lo a c c e p t the i n c c s l - l e a r . to allow her-
Beast, that she has fallen in love with h i m . S h e
self to live in its p r e s e n c e in f a n t a s y until she
tells h i m so. a n d p r o m i s e s to be his wile i f o n l y
c o u l d get to k n o w the a n i m a l m a n a n d d i s c o v e r
he will noi die.
h e r own true response to it as a w o m a n .
Three s c e n e s f r o m t h e 1 9 4 6 f i l m of Beauty and the Beast ( d i r e c t e d b y France's J e a n C o c t e a u ) : Left, B e a u t y ' s father c a u g h t s t e a l i n g t h e w h i t e rose f r o m t h e B e a s t ' s g a r d e n ; right, t h e Beast d y i n g ; far r i g h t , t h e Beast t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a P r i n c e , w a l k i n g w i t h Beauty. The story can be said to s y m b o l i z e a y o u n g g i r l ' s i n i t i a t i o n — i.e. her release f r o m her b o n d w i t h the father, in o r d e r to c o m e to t e r m s w i t h t h e e r o t i c a n i m a l side of her n a t u r e . U n t i l this is d o n e , she c a n n o t a c h i e v e a t r u e relationship w i t h a man.
In
ihis
way she
redeems
herself and
her
image ol the m a s c u l i n e from the forces o f re-
A woman of menopausal age reported
the
following d r e a m :
pression, b r i n g i n g to c o n s c i o u s n e s s h e r c a p a c i t y to trust h e r love as s o m e t h i n g that
combines
spirit a n d n a t u r e in the best sense o f the w o r d s . A d r e a m <>l an e m a n c i p a t e d w o m a n p a t i e n t ol mine r e p r e s e n t e d
this need to r e m o v e
incest-fear, a very real thoughts, attachment
because
ol
fear in this
her
father's
the
patient's over-close
to h e r f o l l o w i n g his wife's d e a t h .
I he d r e a m s h o w e d h e r b e i n g c h a s e d In a furious bull. S h e lied at first, but r e a l i z e d it was no use. S h e fell a n d the bull w a s u p o n h e r . S h e knew h e r o n l y h o p e was to sing to the b u l l , a n d when she d i d . t h o u g h in a q u a v e r i n g v o i c e , the hull c a l m e d d o w n a n d b e g a n l i c k i n g h e r h a n d with its t o n g u e . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h o w e d that she c o u l d n o w l e a r n to r e l a t e to m e n in a m o r e confidently f e m i n i n e w a y
not o n l y s e x u a l l y ,
hut e r o t i c a l l y in t h e w i d e r sense o f r e l a t e d n e s s on the level ol h e r c o n s c i o u s i d e n t i t y .
I am with several anonymous women whom I don't seem to know. W e go downstairs in a strange house, and are confronted suddenly by some grotesque " a p e - m e n ' ' with evil laces dressed in fur with trray and black rings, with tails, horrible and leering. W e arc completely in their power, but suddenly I feel the only way we can save ourselves is not to panic and run or fight, but to treat these creatures with humanity as il to make them aware of their better side. So one ol the ape-men comes up to me and I greet him like a dancing partner and begin to dance with him. Later. I have been given supernatural healing powers and there is a man who is at death's door. I have a kind of quill or perhaps a bird's beak through which I blow air into his nostrils and he begins to breathe again. D u r i n g the years o f h e r m a r r i a g e a n d
the
r a i s i n g o f h e r c h i l d r e n , this w o m a n b a d b e e n
But in the cases o f o l d e r w o m e n , the Beasi
o b l i g e d to n e g l e c t h e r c r e a t i v e g i l l , with w h i c h
theme m a y not i n d i c a t e the need to find the
she h a d o n c e m a d e a s m a l l but g e n u i n e r e p u t a -
answer
tion as a w r i t e r . At the l i m e o f h e r d r e a m she
to a
personal
fixation
or
to
release
a sexual i n h i b i t i o n , or a n y o f the things that
b a d b e e n t r y i n g to force h e r s e l f b a c k to work
the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y m i n d e d r a t i o n a l i s t m a y
a g a i n , at the s a m e t i m e c r i t i c i z i n g hersell un-
see in the m y t h . It c a n b e . in fact, (he e x p r e s -
m e r c i f u l l y lor not b e i n g a b e t t e r wife, f r i e n d ,
sion ol a c e r t a i n kind o f w o m a n ' s
initiation,
and m o t h e r . T h e d r e a m showed her problem
which may be just as m e a n i n g f u l al the onset
in the light o f o t h e r w o m e n w h o m i g h t b e g o i n g
of the m e n o p a u s e as at the h e i g h t o f a d o l e s -
t h r o u g h a s i m i l a r t r a n s i t i o n , d e s c e n d i n g , as the
c e n c e ; a n d it may a p p e a l at a n y a g e . w h e n the
dream
union ol spirit a n d n a t u r e has b e e n d i s t u r b e d .
s t r a n g e b o u s e from a too highly c o n s c i o u s level.
puts
il. i n t o
the
lower
regions
ol
a
T h i s w e c a n guess to b e t h e e n t r a n c e to s o m e
d i s c h a r g i n g h e r f e m i n i n e , wifely f u n c t i o n in a
meaningful aspect of the collective unconscious,
n a t u r a l w a y . ( I n a s s o c i a t i o n to this d r e a m she
w i t h its c h a l l e n g e to a c c e p t t h e m a s c u l i n e p r i n -
said: " W h e n
c i p l e as a n i m a l - m a n , t h a t s a m e h e r o i c , c l o w n -
c r e a t i v e side goes u n d e r g r o u n d a n d I b e c o m e
like T r i c k s t e r f i g u r e w e m e t at t h e b e g i n n i n g
the over-organized
o f the p r i m i t i v e h e r o c y c l e s .
my husband comes h o m e , housewife.")
Her
my
dream
takes this u n e x p e c t e d t u r n o f t r a n s f o r m i n g h e r
F o r h e r to r e l a t e t o this a p e - m a n , a n d h u -
spirit g o n e b a d i n t o t h e w o m a n she m u s t a c c e p t
m a n i z e h i m by b r i n g i n g out w h a t is g o o d in
a n d c u l t i v a t e in h e r s e l f ; in this w a y she c a n
h i m , m e a n t t h a t she w o u l d first h a v e t o a c c e p t
harmonize
some
with
unpredictable
element
o f her
natural
c r e a t i v e s p i r i t . W i t h this she c o u l d c u t a c r o s s
her creative
the i n s t i n c t s
that
intellectual enable
interests
h e r to
relate
w a r m l y to o t h e r s .
t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l b o n d s o f h e r life a n d l e a r n to
T h i s involves a new a c c e p t a n c e o f the dual
w r i t e in a n e w w a y , m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e for h e r
p r i n c i p l e o f life in n a t u r e , o f t h a t w h i c h is c r u e l
in t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f life.
b u t k i n d , o r , as w e m i g h t say in h e r c a s e , r u t h -
T h a t this i m p u l s e is r e l a t e d to t h e c r e a t i v e
lessly a d v e n t u r o u s b u t at t h e s a m e t i m e h u m b l y
m a s c u l i n e p r i n c i p l e is s h o w n in t h e s e c o n d s c e n e
and creatively domestic. T h e s e opposites obvi-
w h e r e she r e s u s c i t a t e s a m a n by b l o w i n g a i r
ously c a n n o t b e r e c o n c i l e d e x c e p t on a h i g h l y
t h r o u g h a k i n d o f b i r d ' s b e a k i n t o his nose.
s o p h i s t i c a t e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l level o f a w a r e n e s s ,
T h i s p n e u m a t i c p r o c e d u r e suggests the need for
a n d w o u l d o f c o u r s e b e h a r m f u l to t h a t i n n o -
a r e v i v a l o f t h e spirit r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r i n c i p l e
c e n t c h i l d in h e r S u n d a y - s c h o o l dress.
o f e r o t i c w a r m t h . It is a s y m b o l i s m k n o w n all over
the
world:
The
ritual
act
brings
the
c r e a t i v e b r e a t h o f life to a n y n e w a c h i e v e m e n t . T h e dream of another woman
emphasizes
the " n a t u r e " aspect o f Beauty and the B e a s t :
T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n e c o u l d p l a c e on this w o m a n ' s d r e a m is t h a t she n e e d e d to o v e r c o m e s o m e e x c e s s i v e l y n a i v e i m a g e o f herself. S h e h a d to b e w i l l i n g to e m b r a c e t h e full p o l a r i t y o f h e r feelings — just as B e a u t y h a d
to g i v e u p
the
i n n o c e n c e o f t r u s t i n g in a f a t h e r w h o c o u l d not Something flies or is thrown in through the window, like a large insect with whirling spiral legs, yellow and black. It then becomes a queer animal, striped yellow and black, like a tiger, with bear-like, almost human paws and a pointed wolflike face. It may run loose and harm children. It is Sunday afternoon, and I see a little girl all dressed in white on her way to Sunday school. I must get the police to help. But then I see the creature has become part woman, part animal. It fawns upon me, wants to be loved. I feel it's a fairy-tale situation, or a dream, and only kindness can transform it. I try to embrace it warmly, but I can't go through with it. I push it away. But I have the feeling I must keep it near and get used to it and maybe someday I'll be able to kiss it.
H e r e we have a different situation from the previous o n e . T h i s w o m a n h a d b e e n t o o i n t e n sively c a r r i e d a w a y b y t h e m a s c u l i n e c r e a t i v e f u n c t i o n w i t h i n herself, w h i c h h a d b e c o m e a c o m p u l s i v e , m e n t a l ( t h a t is, " a i r - b o r n e " ) p r e o c c u p a t i o n . T h u s she has b e e n p r e v e n t e d from
140
g i v e h e r t h e p u r e w h i t e rose o f his f e e l i n g w i t h o u t a w a k e n i n g t h e b e n e f i c e n t fury o f the B e a s t .
A b o v e , t h e Greek g o d D i o n y s u s e c s t a t i c a l l y p l a y i n g t h e lute ( i n a vase p a i n t i n g ) . T h e f r e n z i e d a n d o r g i a s t i c rites of t h e D i o n y s i a c cults symbolized initiation into nature's mysteries. Right, M a e n a d s w o r s h i p i n g D i o n y s u s ; far r i g h t , satyrs in t h e s a m e w i l d w o r s h i p .
Orpheus and the Son of Man
" B e a u t y a n d t h e B e a s t " is a f a i r y t a l e w i t h t h e
abandon
q u a l i t y o f a wild f l o w e r , a p p e a r i n g so u n e x p e c t -
t h e r e b y e x p e r i e n c e t h e full f e r t i l i z i n g p o w e r o f
h i m s e l f to his a n i m a l
nature
and
edly a n d c r e a t i n g in us s u c h a n a t u r a l sense o f
t h e E a r t h M o t h e r . T h e i n i t i a t i n g a g e n t for this
w o n d e r t h a t w e d o n o t n o t i c e for t h e m o m e n t
rite o f p a s s a g e in t h e D i o n y s i a c r i t u a l was w i n e .
that it b e l o n g s to a d e f i n i t e class, g e n u s , a n d
I t w a s s u p p o s e d to p r o d u c e t h e s y m b o l i c l o w e r -
species o f p l a n t . T h e k i n d o f m y s t e r y i n h e r e n t
i n g o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s n e c e s s a r y to i n t r o d u c e t h e
in s u c h a story is g i v e n a u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a t i o n
novice
not o n l y in a l a r g e r h i s t o r i c a l m y t h , b u t also in
n a t u r e , w h o s e e s s e n c e was e x p r e s s e d b y a s y m -
the r i t u a l s w h e r e b y t h e m y t h is e x p r e s s e d o r
bol
from w h i c h it m a y b e d e r i v e d .
j o i n e d w i t h A r i a d n e , his c o n s o r t , in a s a c r e d
T h e type o f ritual a n d myth
appropriately
into
o f erotic
the
closely
fulfillment:
guarded
secrets
the god
of
Dionysus
marriage ceremony.
expressing this t y p e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e
I n t i m e t h e rites o f D i o n y s u s lost t h e i r e m o -
is e x e m p l i f i e d in t h e G r e c o - R o m a n r e l i g i o n o f
tive religious p o w e r . T h e r e e m e r g e d a n a l m o s t
D i o n y s u s , a n d in its s u c c e s s o r , t h e r e l i g i o n o f
o r i e n t a l l o n g i n g for l i b e r a t i o n f r o m t h e i r e x c l u -
Orpheus. B o t h o f these religions provided
sive p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e p u r e l y n a t u r a l s y m -
a
significant i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e t y p e k n o w n as " m y s -
bols o f life a n d l o v e . T h e D i o n y s i a c
t e r i e s . " T h e y b r o u g h t forth s y m b o l s a s s o c i a t e d
s h i f t i n g c o n s t a n t l y f r o m s p i r i t u a l to p h y s i c a l
religion,
with a g o d - m a n o f a n d r o g y n o u s c h a r a c t e r w h o
a n d b a c k a g a i n , p e r h a p s p r o v e d t o o wild a n d
was s u p p o s e d to h a v e a n i n t i m a t e u n d e r s t a n d -
t u r b u l e n t for s o m e m o r e a s c e t i c souls. T h e s e
ing o f t h e a n i m a l o r p l a n t w o r l d a n d to b e
c a m e to e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r religious ecstasies i n -
the m a s t e r o f i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e i r s e c r e t s .
w a r d l y , in t h e w o r s h i p o f O r p h e u s .
orgiastic
O r p h e u s was p r o b a b l y a r e a l m a n , a s i n g e r ,
rites t h a t i m p l i e d t h e n e e d for a n i n i t i a t e to
prophet, a n d teacher, w h o was martyred and
T h e Dionysiac religion contained
I I 4
w h o s e t o m b b e c a m e a s h r i n e . N o w o n d e r the
act
e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h saw in O r p h e u s the p r o -
d e a t h , he r e t u r n e d to h e a v e n
of God's
incarnation
in
man.
t o t y p e o f C h r i s t . B o t h religions b r o u g h t to the
o n c e a n d for a l l . to reign on the right h a n d ol
late H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d the p r o m i s e o f a f u t u r e
G o d until t h e S e c o n d C o m i n g " w h e n the d e a d
d i v i n e life. B e c a u s e t h e y w e r e m e n , yet also
shall a r i s e . "
but
Alter
his
returned
m e d i a t o r s o f t h e d i v i n e , for t h e m u l t i t u d e s o f
O f c o u r s e the a s c e t i c i s m o f early C h r i s t i a n i t y
t h e d y i n g G r e c i a n c u l t u r e in t h e d a y s o f the
did not last. T h e m e m o r y o f t h e c y c l i c mysteries
R o m a n E m p i r e t h e y held t h e l o n g e d - f o r h o p e
haunted
o f a f u t u r e life.
C h u r c h eventually
its followers to the e x t e n t
that
h a d to i n c o r p o r a t e
the
many
differ-
p r a c t i c e s from the p a g a n past i n t o its rituals.
e n c e b e t w e e n the r e l i g i o n ol O r p h e u s a n d the
T h e most m e a n i n g f u l ol these may be f o u n d in
T h e r e was, h o w e v e r , o n e i m p o r t a n t
religion o f C h r i s t . T h o u g h s u b l i m a t e d i n t o a
the old r e c o r d s o f w h a t
m y s t i c a l f o r m , t h e O r p h i c m y s t e r i e s kept a l i v e
S a t u r d a y a n d E a s t e r S u n d a y in c e l e b r a t i o n o f
the old D i o n y s i a c r e l i g i o n . T h e s p i r i t u a l
im-
the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f C h r i s t
was d o n e on
Holy
the b a p t i s m a l ser-
was
vice that the m e d i e v a l c h u r c h m a d e i n t o a suit-
cpiality
of a
a b l e a n d d e e p l y m e a n i n g f u l i n i t i a t i o n rite. But
religion r o o t e d in t h e a r t o f a g r i c u l t u r e .
That
petus c a m e from a d e m i - g o d , in w h o m preserved
the
most
significant
t h a t r i t u a l has scarcely s u r v i v e d i n t o m o d e r n
cpiality was the old p a t t e r n o f t h e fertility gods
times,
w h o c a m e o n l y for t h e season
testantism.
in o t h e r w o r d s ,
the eternally recurrent cycle of birth, growth, fullness, a n d d e c a y .
and
it
is c o m p l e t e l y
absent
in
T h e r i t u a l t h a t has s u r v i v e d m u c h
Pro-
better,
a n d that still c o n t a i n s t h e m e a n i n g o f a c e n t r a l
C h r i s t i a n i t y , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , dispelled the
i n i t i a t i o n m y s t e r y for the d e v o u t , is t h e C a t h o l i c
m y s t e r i e s . C h r i s t was the p r o d u c t a n d r e f o r m e r
p r a c t i c e o f the e l e v a t i o n o f the c h a l i c e . It has
of a p a t r i a r c h a l ,
b e e n d e s c r i b e d by D r . J u n g in his " T r a n s f o r -
nomadic,
pastoral
religion,
whose p r o p h e t s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e i r M e s s i a h as a being of absolutely divine origin.
The Son o f
m a t i o n Symbolism in the M a s s " : " T h e lifting up o f the c h a l i c e in the a i r p r e -
M a n . t h o u g h b o r n o f a h u m a n v i r g i n , h a d his
p a r e s the s p i r i t u a l i z a t i o n . . . o f t h e w i n e .
b e g i n n i n g in h e a v e n , w h e n c e he c a m e in a n
is c o n f i r m e d
142
by the i n v o c a t i o n
to the
This Holy
Ghost that i m m e d i a t e l y follows. . . . T h e i n v o cation serves to infuse t h e w i n e w i t h holy spirit, lor it is t h e H o l y G h o s t w h o b e g e t s , fulfills, a n d transforms. . . . A f t e r t h e e l e v a t i o n , t h e c h a l i c e was, in f o r m e r t i m e s , set d o w n to the r i g h t o f the H o s t , to c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e b l o o d
that
flowed f r o m t h e right side o f C h r i s t . " T h e r i t u a l o f c o m m u n i o n is e v e r y w h e r e the same, w h e t h e r it is e x p r e s s e d by d r i n k i n g o f t h e
A b o v e , a D i o n y s i a c ritual d e p i c t e d o n t h e great f r e s c o in t h e V i l l a of the M y s t e r i e s at P o m p e i i . In t h e c e n t e r an i n i t i a t e is o f f e r e d t h e c e r e m o n i a l c u p of D i o n y s u s , in w h i c h he sees a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e g o d - m a s k h e l d b e h i n d . T h i s is a s y m b o l i c i n f u s i o n of t h e d r i n k w i t h t h e g o d ' s spirit — w h i c h can be said to parallel t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c c e r e m o n y of e l e v a t i n g the c h a l i c e during Mass ( b e l o w )
cup o f D i o n y s u s o r o f the holy C h r i s t i a n c h a lice; but t h e level ol a w a r e n e s s e a c h b r i n g s to (he i n d i v i d u a l
participant
is d i f f e r e n t .
The
Dionysiac p a r t i c i p a n t looks b a c k to the o r i g i n ol things, to the " s t o r m - b i r t h " o f t h e g o d w h o is blasted f r o m the resistant w o m b o f M o t h e r E a r t h . In t h e frescoes o f t h e V i l l a d e M i s t e r i in P o m p e i i , the e n a c t e d rite e v o k e d t h e god as a mask o f t e r r o r r e f l e c t e d in t h e c u p o f D i o n y s u s offered by the priest to t h e i n i t i a t e . E a t e r we find the w i n n o w i n g b a s k e t , with its p r e c i o u s fruits o f the e a r t h , a n d t h e p h a l l u s as c r e a t i v e symbols o f t h e g o d ' s m a n i f e s t a t i o n as the p r i n ciple o f b r e e d i n g a n d g r o w t h . In c o n t r a s t to this b a c k w a r d look, with its central focus on n a t u r e ' s e t e r n a l c y c l e o f b i r t h and d e a t h , the C h r i s t i a n m y s t e r y p o i n t s forward to the i n i t i a t e ' s u l t i m a t e h o p e of u n i o n with a t r a n s c e n d e n t g o d . M o t h e r N a t u r e , with
143
Left, O r p h e u s c h a r m i n g t h e b e a s t s w i t h his s o n g ( i n a R o m a n m o s a i c ) ; a b o v e , t h e m u r d e r of O r p h e u s b y Thracian w o m e n ( o n a Greek vase). B e l o w left, C h r i s t as t h e G o o d S h e p h e r d (a s i x t h - c e n t u r y m o s a i c ) . B o t h O r p h e u s a n d C h r i s t parallel t h e a r c h e t y p e of t h e m a n of n a t u r e — a l s o r e f l e c t e d in t h e p a i n t i n g b y Cranach ( b e l o w ) of "natural m a n ' s " i n n o c e n c e . F a c i n g p a g e , left, t h e 18th-century French philosopher R o u s s e a u , w h o p u t f o r w a r d t h e idea of t h e " n o b l e s a v a g e " — t h e s i m p l e c h i l d of n a t u r e free of sin a n d evil. Far r i g h t , t h e title p a g e of Walden, by the 19th -century American writer T h o r e a u , w h o b e l i e v e d in a n d f o l l o w e d a n a t u r a l w a y of life a l m o s t w h o l l y i n d e p e n d e n t of c i v i l i z a t i o n .
I
4
4
all her b e a u t i f u l s e a s o n a l c h a n g e s , has b e e n left
In a s t a t e o f h e a v y f a t i g u e a n d d e p r e s s i o n , a
b e h i n d , a n d the c e n t r a l figure o f C h r i s t i a n i t y
w o m a n u n d e r g o i n g a n a l y s i s h a d this f a n t a s y :
offers s p i r i t u a l c e r t a i n t y , for he is t h e S o n o f God in h e a v e n . Y e t the t w o s o m e h o w fuse in the figure o f O r p h e u s , t h e god w h o r e m e m b e r s D i o n y s u s but looks f o r w a r d
to
Christ.
sense o f this i n t e r m e d i a t e
The
psychological
figure
has b e e n d e -
scribed by t h e Swiss a u t h o r L i n d a F i e r z - D a v i d , in her i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e O r p h i c rite p i c t u r e d in the V i l l a d e M i s t e r i : " O r p h e u s t a u g h t w h i l e he s a n g a n d p l a y e d the lyre, a n d his s i n g i n g w a s so p o w e r f u l t h a t it m a s t e r e d all n a t u r e ; w h e n he s a n g to his lyre the birds flew a b o u t h i m , the fish left t h e water a n d s p r a n g to h i m . T h e w i n d a n d t h e sea b e c a m e still, t h e rivers flowed u p w a r d t o ward h i m . It did not s n o w a n d t h e r e w a s n o hail. T r e e s a n d t h e v e r y stones f o l l o w e d a f t e r O r p h e u s ; tiger a n d lion lay d o w n n e a r
him
next to the s h e e p , a n d t h e wolves n e x t to the stag a n d the r o e . N o w w h a t does this m e a n ? It surely m e a n s t h a t t h r o u g h a d i v i n e insight into the m e a n i n g o f n a t u r a l e v e n t s . . . n a t u r e ' s happenings b e c o m e h a r m o n i o u s l y o r d e r e d f r o m
I sit on the side of a long narrow table in a high vaulted room with no window. My body is hunched over and shrunken. T h e r e is nothing over me but a long white linen cloth that hangs from my shoulders to the floor. Something crucial has happened to me. T h e r e is not much life lelt in me. Red crosses on gold disks appear before my eyes. I recall that I have made some sort of commitment a long time ago and wherever I am now must be part of this. I sit there a long time. Now I slowly open my eyes and I see a man who sits beside me who is to heal me. He appears natural and kind and he is talking to me though I don't hear him. He seems to know all about where I have been. I am aware that I am very ugly and that there must be an odor of death around me. I wonder if he will be repelled. 1 look at him for a very long time. He does not turn away. I breathe more easily. T h e n I feel a cool breeze, or cool water, pour over my body. I wrap the white linen cloth across me now and prepare for a natural sleep. T h e man's healing bands are on my shoulders. I recall vaguely that there was a time when there were wounds there but the pressure of his hands seems to give me strength and healing.
within. E v e r y t h i n g b e c o m e s light a n d all c r e a tures a p p e a s e d
the
T h i s w o m a n h a d p r e v i o u s l y felt t h r e a t e n e d
act of w o r s h i p i n g , r e p r e s e n t s the light o f n a t u r e .
when
the
mediator,
in
bv d o u b t s a b o u t h e r o r i g i n a l religious affilia-
Orpheus is a n e m b o d i m e n t
tion. S h e had been brought
of devotion
and
u p as a d e v o u t
piety; he s y m b o l i z e s t h e religious a t t i t u d e t h a t solves all c o n f l i c t s , s i n c e t h e r e b y the w h o l e soul is turned t o w a r d t h a t w h i c h lies o n t h e o t h e r side of all c o n f l i c t . . . . A n d as he does this, h e is truly O r p h e u s ; t h a t is, a g o o d s h e p h e r d , his primitive e m b o d i m e n t . . . . " Both as g o o d
shepherd
and
as
mediator.
Orpheus strikes t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e D i o nysiac religion a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , s i n c e we find b o t h D i o n y s u s a n d C h r i s t in s i m i l a r roles, t h o u g h , as I h a v e s a i d , d i f f e r e n t l y o r i e n ted as to t i m e a n d d i r e c t i o n in s p a c e
one a
cyclic religion of t h e n e t h e r w o r l d , t h e o t h e r heavenly a n d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l , o r final. T h i s series of initiatory e v e n t s , d r a w n f r o m t h e c o n t e x t o f religious history, is r e p e a t e d endlessly a n d w i t h practically e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e i n d i v i d u a l twist o f meaning in the d r e a m s a n d f a n t a s i e s o f m o d e r n people.
'45
C a t h o l i c o f t h e old s c h o o l , b u t s i n c e h e r y o u t h she
herself from
the
f o r m a l r e l i g i o u s c o n v e n t i o n s f o l l o w e d by
had
struggled
to
free
her
family. Y e t the symbolic events o f the c h u r c h y e a r a n d t h e r i c h n e s s o f h e r insight i n t o t h e i r meaning
remained with her throughout
the
p r o c e s s o f h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a n g e ; a n d in h e r analysis
I found
this w o r k i n g
knowledge
of
religious s y m b o l i s m m o s t h e l p f u l . T h e s i g n i f i c a n t e l e m e n t s she singled out o f her fantasy were the white cloth, which
she
u n d e r s t o o d as a s a c r i f i c i a l c l o t h ; t h e v a u l t e d r o o m , w h i c h she c o n s i d e r e d to b e a t o m b ; a n d h e r c o m m i t m e n t , w h i c h she a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f s u b m i s s i o n . T h i s c o m m i t m e n t , as she c a l l e d it, s u g g e s t e d a r i t u a l o f i n i t i a t i o n w i t h a perilous descent into the vault o f d e a t h , which s y m b o l i z e d t h e w a y she h a d left c h u r c h
and
f a m i l y to e x p e r i e n c e G o d in h e r o w n f a s h i o n . S h e h a d u n d e r g o n e a n " i m i t a t i o n o f C h r i s t " in the t r u e s y m b o l i c s e n s e , a n d like h i m s h e h a d suffered t h e w o u n d s t h a t p r e c e d e d this d e a t h . The
s a c r i f i c i a l c l o t h suggests t h e
winding
s h e e t o r s h r o u d in w h i c h t h e c r u c i f i e d C h r i s t was w r a p p e d a n d t h e n p l a c e d in t h e t o m b . T h e e n d o f t h e f a n t a s y i n t r o d u c e s t h e h e a l i n g figure o f a m a n , loosely a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m e as h e r a n a l y s t b u t a p p e a r i n g also in his n a t u r a l role as a f r i e n d fully a w a r e o f h e r e x p e r i e n c e .
He
speaks to h e r in w o r d s she c a n n o t yet h e a r , b u t his h a n d s a r e r e a s s u r i n g a n d give a sense o f h e a l i n g . O n e senses in this figure t h e t o u c h a n d the word o f the good shepherd, O r p h e u s or Christ,
as m e d i a t o r
and
also, o f course,
as
h e a l e r . H e is o n t h e side of life a n d has to c o n vince her that she m a y now c o m e back from the vault o f death. S h a l l we c a l l this r e b i r t h o r
resurrection?
B o t h , p e r h a p s , o r n e i t h e r . T h e essential rite p r o c l a i m s i t s e l f at t h e e n d : T h e c o o l b r e e z e or w a t e r f l o w i n g o v e r h e r b o d y is t h e p r i m o r d i a l a c t o f p u r i f i c a t i o n o r c l e a n s i n g o f t h e sin o f d e a t h , the essence o f true baptism. T h e same woman
had a n o t h e r fantasy
in
w h i c h she felt t h a t h e r b i r t h d a y fell u p o n the day o f Christ's resurrection. ( T h i s was much m o r e m e a n i n g f u l for h e r t h a n t h e m e m o r y o f h e r m o t h e r , w h o h a d n e v e r g i v e n h e r t h e feel-
146
ing of r e a s s u r a n c e a n d r e n e w a l she so m u c h
depart too far from her family's conventional
wished for o n h e r c h i l d h o o d b i r t h d a y s . )
But
r e l i g i o n . B u t r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l i s m is s i g n i f i c a n t
this did not m e a n she i d e n t i f i e d h e r s e l f w i t h
b y its a b s e n c e . A l l is in t h e h a n d s o f n a t u r e ; w e
the figure o f C h r i s t .
are
F o r all his p o w e r
and
glory, s o m e t h i n g was l a c k i n g ; a n d as she tried to reach cross were
him
through
lifted
up
prayer,
to
heaven
he out
and
his
of
her
human r e a c h .
clearly
in
the
realm
of
the
shepherd
O r p h e u s r a t h e r t h a n t h e risen C h r i s t . A
dream
followed
this
sequence,
which
b r o u g h t h e r to a c h u r c h r e s e m b l i n g t h e c h u r c h in Assisi w i t h G i o t t o ' s frescoes o f S t . F r a n c i s .
In this s e c o n d f a n t a s y she fell b a c k u p o n t h e
S h e felt m o r e a t h o m e h e r e t h a n she w o u l d in
symbol o f r e b i r t h as a rising s u n , a n d a n e w
other
feminine s y m b o l b e g a n to m a k e its a p p e a r a n c e .
O r p h e u s , w a s a religious m a n o f n a t u r e . T h i s
churches
because
St.
Francis,
like
First o f all it a p p e a r e d as a n " e m b r y o in a
r e v i v e d h e r feelings a b o u t t h e c h a n g e in h e r
watery s a c k . " T h e n she w a s c a r r y i n g a n e i g h t -
religious a f f i l i a t i o n t h a t h a d b e e n so p a i n f u l to
a
u n d e r g o , b u t n o w s h e b e l i e v e d she c o u l d j o y -
danger p o i n t . " T h e n a n e w m o v e m e n t o c c u r r e d
fully f a c e t h e e x p e r i e n c e , i n s p i r e d b y t h e light
in which she n o l o n g e r felt t h r e a t e n e d o r u n d e r
of nature.
year-old b o y t h r o u g h
the water
"passing
the influence o f d e a t h . S h e w a s " i n a forest by
T h e series o f d r e a m s e n d e d w i t h a d i s t a n t
a little spring w a t e r f a l l . . . g r e e n vines g r o w all
echo o f the religion o f Dionysus. ( O n e could
around. I n m y h a n d s I h a v e a s t o n e b o w l in
say t h a t this w a s a r e m i n d e r t h a t e v e n O r p h e u s
which t h e r e is s p r i n g w a t e r , s o m e g r e e n moss,
c a n at t i m e s b e a little too f a r r e m o v e d f r o m
and violets. I b a t h e m y s e l f u n d e r t h e w a t e r f a l l .
the fecundating power of the animal-god
It is golden a n d ' s i l k y ' a n d I feel like a c h i l d . "
m a n . ) S h e d r e a m e d t h a t she w a s l e a d i n g a fair-
T h e sense o f t h e s e e v e n t s is c l e a r , t h o u g h it is
h a i r e d c h i l d by t h e h a n d . " W e a r e
in
happily
possible to miss t h e i n n e r m e a n i n g in t h e c r y p -
p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a festival t h a t i n c l u d e s t h e sun
tic description o f so m a n y c h a n g i n g
a n d t h e forests a n d flowers all a r o u n d .
images.
The
Here we h a v e , it s e e m s , a p r o c e s s o f r e b i r t h in
c h i l d has a l i t t l e w h i t e f l o w e r in h e r h a n d , a n d
which a l a r g e r s p i r i t u a l s e l f is r e b o r n a n d b a p -
she p l a c e s it o n t h e h e a d o f a b l a c k b u l l . T h e
tized in n a t u r e as a c h i l d . M e a n w h i l e she has
bull is p a r t o f t h e festival a n d is c o v e r e d with
rescued an o l d e r c h i l d w h o w a s , in s o m e w a y ,
festive d e c o r a t i o n s . " T h i s r e f e r e n c e r e c a l l s t h e
her own e g o a t t h e m o s t t r a u m a t i c p e r i o d o f
a n c i e n t rites t h a t c e l e b r a t e d D i o n y s u s in t h e
her c h i l d h o o d . S h e
guise o f a b u l l .
then
carried
it
through
water past t h e d a n g e r p o i n t , thus i n d i c a t i n g h e r fear of a p a r a l y z i n g sense of guilt i f she s h o u l d Above left, t h e Persian g o d M i t h r a s sacrificing t h e b u l l . T h e s a c r i f i c e (also part of D i o n y s i a c rites) c a n be seen as a s y m b o l of t h e v i c t o r y of man's spiritual n a t u r e o v e r his a n i m a l i t y — o f w h i c h t h e b u l l is a common s y m b o l . ( T h i s m a y e x p l a i n the popularity in s o m e c o u n t r i e s of b u l l f i g h t i n g , left.) R i g h t , an etching by Picasso (1 9 3 5 ) d e p i c t s a girl threatened by a M i n o t a u r — here, as in the m y t h of T h e s e u s , a symbol of m a n ' s u n c o n t r o l l a b l e instinctive f o r c e s .
But
the
dream
did
not
end
there.
The
w o m a n a d d e d : " S o m e t i m e l a t e r t h e b u l l is
pierced
besides
O n a f u n e r a l u r n f o u n d in a R o m a n g r a v e
D i o n y s u s , t h e r e is a n o t h e r p r e - C h r i s t i a n rite in
by
a
golden
arrow."
Now,
n e a r t h e C o l u m b a r i u m on t h e E s q u i l i n e Hill we
w h i c h t h e bull p l a y s a s y m b o l i c r o l e . T h e P e r -
find a c l e a r b a s - r e l i e f r e p r e s e n t i n g s c e n e s o f the
sian s u n - g o d M i t h r a s s a c r i f i c e s a b u l l . H e , like
final
O r p h e u s , r e p r e s e n t s t h e l o n g i n g for a life o f
a d m i t t e d to t h e p r e s e n c e a n d c o n v e r s e o f t h e
t h e spirit t h a t m i g h t t r i u m p h o v e r t h e p r i m i t i v e
goddesses. T h e rest o f t h e design is d e v o t e d to
stage of initiation where
the n o v i c e is
a n i m a l passions o f m a n a n d , a f t e r a c e r e m o n y
t w o p r e l i m i n a r y c e r e m o n i e s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n — the
o f i n i t i a t i o n , give h i m p e a c e .
s a c r i f i c e o f the " m y s t i c p i g , " a n d a m y s t i c i z e d
T h i s series o f i m a g e s c o n f i r m s a s u g g e s t i o n that
is
found
in
many
s e q u e n c e s o f this t y p e
fantasy
or
dream
t h a t t h e r e is n o
final
v e r s i o n o f t h e s a c r e d m a r r i a g e . T h i s all p o i n t s to a n i n i t i a t i o n i n t o d e a t h , b u t in a f o r m that lacks the
finality
o f m o u r n i n g . It h i n t s at t h a t
p e a c e , no r e s t i n g p o i n t . In t h e i r religious quest
element o f the later mysteries — especially
m e n a n d w o m e n — e s p e c i a l l y those w h o live in
Orphism
modern
C h r i s t i a n i z e d societies — a r e
o f i m m o r t a l i t y . Christianity went even further.
still in the p o w e r o f those e a r l y t r a d i t i o n s that
It promised something more than immortality
strive w i t h i n t h e m for s u p r e m a c y , It is a c o n -
( w h i c h in t h e old sense o f t h e c y c l i c mysteries
Western
of
which makes death carry a promise
flict o f p a g a n o r C h r i s t i a n beliefs, o r , o n e m i g h t
m i g h t m e r e l y m e a n r e i n c a r n a t i o n ) , for i t o f f e r e d
say, o f rebirth or resurrection.
t h e f a i t h f u l a n e v e r l a s t i n g life in h e a v e n .
A m o r e d i r e c t c l u e to t h e s o l u t i o n o f this d i l e m m a is to b e f o u n d , in this w o m a n ' s
first
S o we see a g a i n , in m o d e r n life, the t e n d e n c y to r e p e a t old p a t t e r n s . T h o s e w h o h a v e to l e a r n
f a n t a s y , in a c u r i o u s p i e c e o f s y m b o l i s m
that
to f a c e d e a t h m a y h a v e to r e l e a r n t h e old m e s -
c o u l d easily b e o v e r l o o k e d . T h e w o m a n
says
s a g e t h a t tells us t h a t d e a t h is a m y s t e r y for
t h a t in h e r d e a t h v a u l t s h e s a w b e f o r e h e r eyes
w h i c h we m u s t p r e p a r e ourselves in the s a m e
a vision o f red crosses o n g o l d disks. A s b e c a m e
spirit of s u b m i s s i o n a n d h u m i l i t y as we o n c e
c l e a r l a t e r in h e r a n a l y s i s , she was a b o u t to e x -
l e a r n e d to p r e p a r e ourselves for life.
perience
a profound
psychic
change
and
to
e m e r g e o u t o f this " d e a t h " i n t o a n e w kind o f life. W e
might
imagine, therefore,
that
this
i m a g e , w h i c h c a m e to h e r in t h e d e p t h o f h e r d e s p a i r o f life, s h o u l d in s o m e w a y h e r a l d h e r f u t u r e r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e . In h e r s u b s e q u e n t w o r k she did in f a c t p r o d u c e e v i d e n c e for t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e red crosses r e p r e s e n t e d h e r d e v o t i o n to the C h r i s t i a n a t t i t u d e , w h i l e t h e gold disks r e presented
her devotion
to t h e
pre-Christian
m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n s . H e r vision h a d told h e r t h a t she m u s t r e c o n c i l e these C h r i s t i a n a n d p a g a n e l e m e n t s in t h e n e w life t h a t lay a h e a d . O n e last, b u t i m p o r t a n t , o b s e r v a t i o n
con-
c e r n s t h e a n c i e n t i n i t i a t i o n rites a n d t h e i r r e l a tion to C h r i s t i a n i t y .
T h e i n i t i a t i o n rite c e l e -
b r a t e d in t h e E l e u s i n i a n m y s t e r i e s ( t h e rites o f w o r s h i p o f t h e fertility goddesses D e m e t e r a n d Persephone]
w a s not c o n s i d e r e d
appropriate
m e r e l y for those w h o s o u g h t to live life m o r e a b u n d a n t l y ; it was also used as a p r e p a r a t i o n for d e a t h , as i f d e a t h also r e q u i r e d a n i n i t i a tory rite o f p a s s a g e o f t h e s a m e k i n d .
i « 4
Symbols of transcendence
The symbols t h a t i n f l u e n c e m a n vary in t h e i r
t r a n s i t i o n in a p e r s o n s life. B u t these s y m b o l s
purpose. S o m e m e n n e e d to b e a r o u s e d , a n d
d o not seek to i n t e g r a t e the i n i t i a t e w i t h a n y
experience t h e i r i n i t i a t i o n in t h e v i o l e n c e o f a
religious d o c t r i n e o r s e c u l a r g r o u p - c o n s c i o u s -
Dionysiac " t h u n d e r r i t e . " O t h e r s n e e d to b e
ness. O n the c o n t r a r y , t h e y point to m a n ' s need
subdued, a n d t h e y a r e b r o u g h t to s u b m i s s i o n in
for l i b e r a t i o n f r o m a n y s t a t e o f b e i n g t h a t is
the ordered design o f t e m p l e p r e c i n c t o r s a c r e d
too i m m a t u r e , too fixed o r f i n a l . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
cave, suggestive o f t h e A p o l l o n i a n r e l i g i o n of
they c o n c e r n m a n ' s release from
later G r e e c e . A full i n i t i a t i o n e m b r a c e s
e n c e o f — a n y c o n f i n i n g p a t t e r n o f e x i s t e n c e , as
both
or t r a n s c e n d -
themes, as we c a n see w h e n w e look e i t h e r at
he m o v e s t o w a r d a s u p e r i o r o r m o r e
the m a t e r i a l d r a w n f r o m a n c i e n t texts o r at
s t a g e in his d e v e l o p m e n t .
living s u b j e c t s . B u t it is q u i t e c e r t a i n t h a t the
mature
A c h i l d , as I h a v e s a i d , possesses a sense o f
fundamental g o a l o f i n i t i a t i o n lies in t a m i n g the
c o m p l e t e n e s s , b u t o n l y b e f o r e t h e initial e m e r -
original T r i c k s t e r - l i k e wildness o f t h e j u v e n i l e
g e n c e o f his e g o - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . In t h e c a s e o f a n
nature. It t h e r e f o r e has a c i v i l i z i n g o r s p i r i t u -
adult,
alizing p u r p o s e , in s p i t e o f t h e v i o l e n c e o f t h e
t h r o u g h a u n i o n of" the c o n s c i o u s n e s s with the
a
sense
of completeness
is
achieved
rites that a r e r e q u i r e d to set this p r o c e s s in
u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s o f the m i n d . O u t o f this
motion.
u n i o n arises w h a t J u n g c a l l e d " t h e t r a n s c e n d -
T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r kind o f s y m b o l i s m ,
e n t f u n c t i o n o f t h e p s y c h e , " by w h i c h a m a n
belonging to t h e e a r l i e s t k n o w n s a c r e d t r a d i -
c a n a c h i e v e his h i g h e s t g o a l : t h e full r e a l i z a t i o n
tions, that is also c o n n e c t e d with the p e r i o d s of
o f the p o t e n t i a l o f his i n d i v i d u a l Self.
Both a bird a n d a s h a m a n (i.e. a primitive m e d i c i n e m a n ) are common s y m b o l s of t r a n s c e n d e n c e , and often are c o m b i n e d : Left, a prehistoric cave p a i n t i n g at L a s c a u x shows a s h a m a n in a bird m a s k . B e l o w , a shaman priestess of a S i b e r i a n people, in a bird c o s t u m e . R i g h t , a shaman's c o f f i n (also S i b e r i a n ) with bird f i g u r e s o n t h e p o s t s
149
T h u s , w h a t w e call " s y m b o l s of t r a n s c e n d ence" are the symbols that represent
man's
E v i d e n c e o f s u c h p o w e r s c a n b e f o u n d as far b a c k as t h e p a l e o l i t h i c p e r i o d o f p r e h i s t o r y , as
striving to a t t a i n this g o a l . T h e y p r o v i d e the
the A m e r i c a n
means by w h i c h t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
p o i n t e d o u t in c o m m e n t i n g u p o n o n e o f the
scholar Joseph
Campbell
has
can e n t e r t h e c o n s c i o u s m i n d , a n d t h e y also
f a m o u s c a v e p a i n t i n g s r e c e n t l y d i s c o v e r e d in
are t h e m s e l v e s a n a c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f those
F r a n c e . A t L a s c a u x , he w r i t e s , " t h e r e is a s h a -
contents.
m a n d e p i c t e d , lying in a t r a n c e , w e a r i n g a bird
These symbols are manifold inform. W h e t h e r
m a s k w i t h a f i g u r e o f a b i r d p e r c h e d on a s t a f f
we e n c o u n t e r t h e m in h i s t o r y or in t h e d r e a m s
beside him. T h e s h a m a n s o f S i b e r i a wear such
of c o n t e m p o r a r y m e n a n d w o m e n w h o a r e a t a
b i r d c o s t u m e s to this d a y , a n d m a n y a r e b e -
critical s t a g e in t h e i r lives, we c a n see
lieved to h a v e b e e n c o n c e i v e d by t h e i r m o t h e r s
their
i m p o r t a n c e . A t t h e m o s t a r c h a i c level o f this
f r o m t h e d e s c e n t o f a bird . . . .
symbolism we a g a i n m e e t t h e T r i c k s t e r t h e m e .
t h e n , is n o t o n l y a f a m i l i a r d e n i z e n , b u t even
T h e shaman,
But this t i m e he n o l o n g e r a p p e a r s as a lawless
t h e f a v o r e d scion o f those r e a l m s o f p o w e r t h a t
would-be h e r o . H e has b e c o m e t h e s h a m a n
a r e i n v i s i b l e to o u r n o r m a l w a k i n g c o n s c i o u s -
the m e d i c i n e m a n — w h o s e m a g i c a l
ness, w h i c h all m a y visit briefly in vision, b u t
practices
and flights o f i n t u i t i o n s t a m p h i m as a p r i m i t i v e master o f i n i t i a t i o n . H i s p o w e r resides in his
t h r o u g h w h i c h he r o a m s , a m a s t e r . " A t t h e h i g h e s t level o f this t y p e o f i n i t i a t o r y
supposed a b i l i t y to l e a v e his b o d y a n d fly a b o u t
a c t i v i t y , far f r o m those t r i c k s - o f - t h e - t r a d e
the universe as a b i r d .
w h i c h m a g i c so f r e q u e n t l y r e p l a c e s t r u e s p i r i t u a l
In this c a s e t h e b i r d is t h e most fitting s y m b o l of t r a n s c e n d e n c e . liar n a t u r e
It
represents
of intuition
working
the
pecu-
through
a
i n s i g h t , we
find
t h e H i n d u m a s t e r yogis.
by In
t h e i r t r a n c e s t a t e s t h e y g o far b e y o n d the n o r mal categories of thought.
" m e d i u m , " t h a t is, a n i n d i v i d u a l w h o is c a p a b l e
O n e o f t h e c o m m o n e s t d r e a m s y m b o l s for
of o b t a i n i n g k n o w l e d g e o f d i s t a n t e v e n t s — o r
this t y p e o f r e l e a s e t h r o u g h t r a n s c e n d e n c e is t h e
facts o f w h i c h he c o n s c i o u s l y k n o w s n o t h i n g —
theme
by going i n t o a t r a n c e l i k e s t a t e .
w h i c h s o m e h o w s e e m s to b e a s p i r i t u a l p i l g r i m -
o f the lonely j o u r n e y
or
pilgrimage,
ln myths or d r e a m s , a l o n e l y t o u r n e y often s y m b o l i z e s t h e l i b e r a t i o n of transcendence. A b o v e left, a 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y painting of the p o e t D a n t e holding his b o o k ( t h e Divine Comedy) which relates his d r e a m of a j o u r n e y to hell ( l o w e r left of p i c t u r e ) , purgatory, a n d h e a v e n . Far left, an engraving of t h e l o u r n e y m a d e by t h e pilgrim in the B r i t i s h a u t h o r J o h n Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1 6 7 8 ) . (Note that t h e j o u r n e y i s a c i r c u l a r movement t o w a r d an i n n e r c e n t e r . ) This b o o k , t o o , is t o l d as a d r e a m ; left, the p i l g r i m d r e a m i n g .
Many p e o p l e w a n t s o m e c h a n g e from a c o n t a i n i n g p a t t e r n of life; but the f r e e d o m g a i n e d by travel (urged by the " r u n a w a y t o s e a " poster, r i g h t ) is n o s u b s t i t u t e for a true inner l i b e r a t i o n .
'5
1
a g e on w h i c h the i n i t i a t e b e c o m e s a c q u a i n t e d
all free m e n to f a c e s o m e n e w d i s c o v e r y o r to
with t h e n a t u r e o f d e a t h . B u t this is not d e a t h
live t h e i r lives in a n e w w a y . T h i s c h a n g e m a y
as a last j u d g m e n t o r o t h e r i n i t i a t o r y trial o f
b e c o m e e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t in the p e r i o d b e -
s t r e n g t h ; it is a j o u r n e y o f r e l e a s e , r e n u n c i a -
t w e e n m i d d l e a g e a n d old a g e , w h i c h is the
t i o n , a n d a t o n e m e n t , p r e s i d e d o v e r a n d fostered
t i m e in life w h e n so m a n y p e o p l e a r e c o n s i d e r -
b y s o m e spirit o f c o m p a s s i o n . T h i s spirit is m o r e
i n g w h a t to d o in t h e i r r e t i r e m e n t
often r e p r e s e n t e d b y a " m i s t r e s s " r a t h e r t h a n a
w o r k o r to p l a y , w h e t h e r to stay at h o m e o r to
"master"
travel.
of initiation,
a
supreme
feminine
w h e t h e r to
(i.e. a n i m a ) f i g u r e s u c h as K w a n - Y i n in C h i n -
I f t h e i r lives h a v e b e e n a d v e n t u r o u s , i n s e c u r e ,
ese B u d d h i s m , S o p h i a in t h e C h r i s t i a n - G n o s t i c
o r full o f c h a n g e , t h e y m a y l o n g for a settled
doctrine,
life a n d t h e c o n s o l a t i o n s o f religious c e r t a i n t y .
or
the
ancient
Greek
goddess
of
wisdom Pallas A t h e n a .
B u t i f t h e y h a v e lived c h i e f l y w i t h i n t h e social
N o t o n l y t h e flight o f b i r d s o r t h e j o u r n e y i n t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s r e p r e s e n t s this s y m b o l i s m ,
p a t t e r n in w h i c h t h e y w e r e b o r n , t h e y
may
d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d a l i b e r a t i n g c h a n g e . T h i s need
but any strong m o v e m e n t exemplifying release.
m a y b e filled, t e m p o r a r i l y , b y a t r i p a r o u n d the
I n the first p a r t o f life, w h e n o n e is still a t t a c h e d
w o r l d , o r b y n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a m o v e to a
to t h e o r i g i n a l f a m i l y a n d social g r o u p , this
smaller
m a y be e x p e r i e n c e d as t h a t m o m e n t o f i n i t i a -
c h a n g e s will s e r v e unless t h e r e has b e e n s o m e
tion at w h i c h o n e m u s t l e a r n to t a k e t h e d e c i s i v e
i n n e r t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f old v a l u e s in c r e a t i n g ,
steps i n t o life a l o n e .
not j u s t i n v e n t i n g , a n e w p a t t e r n o f l i f e .
I t is t h e m o m e n t
T . S . E l i o t d e s c r i b e s in " T h e W a s t e
that
Land,"
w h e n o n e faces The awful
daring
house.
But
none
o f these
external
A c a s e o f this l a t t e r sort is a w o m a n
who
h a d lived in a style o f l i f e t h a t s h e , h e r f a m i l y , of a moment's
which an age of prudence
can never
surrender,
a n d friends h a d l o n g e n j o y e d b e c a u s e it was so
retract.
well r o o t e d , c u l t u r a l l y n o u r i s h i n g , a n d s e c u r e
A t a . l a t e r p e r i o d o f l i f e o n e m a y not n e e d to
f r o m t r a n s i t o r y f a s h i o n s . S h e h a d this d r e a m :
b r e a k all ties w i t h t h e s y m b o l s o f m e a n i n g f u l c o n t a i n m e n t . B u t n o n e t h e l e s s o n e c a n b e filled with t h a t spirit o f d i v i n e d i s c o n t e n t w h i c h forces
I found some strange pieces of wood, not carved but with natural beautiful shapes. Some-
Left, t h e B r i t i s h e x p l o r e r R. F. S c o t t a n d his c o m p a n i o n s , p h o t o g r a p h e d in t h e A n t a r c t i c in 1 9 1 1 . Explorers, venturing into the u n k n o w n , provide an apt i m a g e of t h e l i b e r a t i o n , t h e b r e a k i n g o u t of c o n t a i n m e n t , t h a t characterizes transcendence.
T h e s y m b o l of t h e s n a k e is c o m m o n l y linked w i t h transcendence, because it w a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c r e a t u r e of the u n d e r w o r l d — and thus w a s a " m e d i a t o r " b e t w e e n o n e w a y of life a n d a n o t h e r . R i g h t , t h e snake a n d staff s y m b o l of t h e G r e c o - R o m a n g o d of m e d i c i n e A s k l e p i o s o n a card u s e d to i d e n t i f y a d o c t o r ' s car in m o d e r n France.
>5
2
one said: '"Neanderthal man brought t h e m . " Then I saw at a distance these Neanderthal men looking like a dark mass, but I could not see one of them distinctly. I thought I would take back from this place a piece of their wood. Then I went on, as if on a journey by myself, and I looked down into an enormous abyss like an extinct volcano. T h e r e was water in part of it and there I expected to see more Neanderthal men. But instead I saw black water pigs that had come out of the water and were running in and out of the black volcanic rocks. In c o n t r a s t to this w o m a n ' s f a m i l y
attach-
ments a n d h e r h i g h l y c u l t i v a t e d style o f life, the d r e a m
takes h e r to a p r e h i s t o r i c
period
more p r i m i t i v e t h a n a n y t h i n g w e c a n v i s u a l i z e . She c a n
find
no social
group
among
these
ancient m e n : S h e sees t h e m as a n e m b o d i m e n t of a truly u n c o n s c i o u s , c o l l e c t i v e " d a r k m a s s " in the d i s t a n c e . Y e t t h e y a r e a l i v e , a n d she m a y carry a w a y a p i e c e o f t h e i r w o o d . T h e d r e a m emphasizes t h a t t h e w o o d is n a t u r a l , not c a r v e d ; therefore it c o m e s f r o m a p r i m o r d i a l , n o t a c u l turally c o n d i t i o n e d , level o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e piece o f w o o d , r e m a r k a b l e for its g r e a t a g e , links this w o m a n ' s c o n t e m p o r a r y e x p e r i e n c e to the distant o r i g i n s o f h u m a n life. We
know
from
many
examples
growth
and development
o f p s y c h i c life
(as
d i s t i n c t f r o m i n s t i n c t u a l life, c o m m o n l y s y m b o lized b y a n i m a l s ) . H e n c e , in this p i e c e o f w o o d , this w o m a n a c q u i r e d a s y m b o l o f h e r link with the deepest layers o f the collective unconscious. Next she speaks o f continuing her j o u r n e y a l o n e . T h i s t h e m e , as I h a v e a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , s y m b o l i z e s t h e n e e d for release as a n i n i t i a tory e x p e r i e n c e . S o here we have a n o t h e r symbol o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e . T h e n , in t h e d r e a m , she sees a h u g e c r a t e r o f a n e x t i n c t v o l c a n o , w h i c h h a s b e e n the c h a n n e l for a v i o l e n t e r u p t i o n o f fire f r o m t h e deepest l a y e r s o f t h e e a r t h . W e c a n s u r m i s e t h a t this refers to a s i g n i f i c a n t m e m o r y t r a c e , w h i c h leads b a c k to a t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s she assoc i a t e d to a p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e e a r l y in h e r life w h e n she h a d felt t h e d e s t r u c t i v e , yet c r e a t i v e , f o r c e o f h e r passions to s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t she f e a r e d she w o u l d g o o u t o f h e r m i n d . S h e h a d f o u n d , in l a t e a d o l e s c e n c e , a q u i t e u n e x p e c t e d need to b r e a k a w a y f r o m h e r f a m i l y ' s e x c e s sively
conventional
social
pattern.
She
had
a c h i e v e d this b r e a k w i t h o u t serious distress, a n d h a d b e e n a b l e to r e t u r n e v e n t u a l l y to m a k e h e r peace with the family. But there lingered a
that
an
ancient tree o r p l a n t r e p r e s e n t s s y m b o l i c a l l y the
p r o f o u n d wish to m a k e a still g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f r o m h e r f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d a n d to find freedom from her own pattern o f existence. T h i s d r e a m r e c a l l s a n o t h e r . It c a m e f r o m a young m a n who had a totally different problem b u t w h o s e e m e d to n e e d a s i m i l a r t y p e o f insight. H e too h a d t h e u r g e to a c h i e v e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . H e d r e a m e d o f a v o l c a n o , a n d f r o m its c r a t e r he s a w t w o b i r d s t a k i n g flight as if in f e a r t h a t t h e v o l c a n o was a b o u t to e r u p t . T h i s was in a s t r a n g e , l o n e l y p l a c e with a b o d y o f w a t e r b e t w e e n h i m a n d t h e v o l c a n o . In this case,
the
dream
initiation j o u r n e y . It is s i m i l a r
represented
an
individual
.
to cases r e p o r t e d
among
the
s i m p l e f o o d - g a t h e r i n g t r i b e s , w h i c h a r e the least family-conscious
groups
we
know.
In
these
societies t h e y o u n g i n i t i a t e must t a k e a lonely j o u r n e y to a s a c r e d p l a c e (in I n d i a n c u l t u r e s o f t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c c o a s t , it m a y a c t u a l l y b e a c r a t e r l a k e ) w h e r e , in a v i s i o n a r y o r t r a n c e l i k e s t a t e , he e n c o u n t e r s his " g u a r d i a n s p i r i t " in t h e
'53
form o f an a n i m a l , a bird, or natural object.
t h e c o l l e c t i v e u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e y b r i n g i n t o the
H e c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e s himself with this
"bush
field o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s p e c i a l c h t h o n i c ( u n d e r -
souT'and thereby becomesa man. Withoutsuch
w o r l d ) m e s s a g e t h a t is s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t from
a n e x p e r i e n c e h e is r e g a r d e d , as a n A c h u m a u i
t h e s p i r i t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s s y m b o l i z e d by the birds
m e d i c i n e m a n p u t it, as " a n o r d i n a r y
in t h e y o u n g m a n ' s d r e a m .
Indian,
nobody."
O t h e r t r a n s c e n d e n t s y m b o l s o f the d e p t h s a r e
T h e y o u n g m a n ' s d r e a m c a m e at t h e b e g i n -
rodents, lizards, snakes, and sometimes
fish.
n i n g o f his life, a n d it p o i n t e d to his f u t u r e
These a r e i n t e r m e d i a t e c r e a t u r e s t h a t c o m b i n e
independence
The
u n d e r w a t e r a c t i v i t y a n d t h e b i r d - f l i g h t with an
w o m a n I h a v e d e s c r i b e d was a p p r o a c h i n g the
i n t e r m e d i a t e t e r r e s t r i a l life. T h e wild d u c k or
e n d o f h e r life, a n d s h e e x p e r i e n c e d a s i m i l a r
t h e s w a n a r e cases in p o i n t . P e r h a p s t h e c o m -
and
identity
as a
man.
j o u r n e y a n d s e e m e d to n e e d to a c q u i r e a s i m i -
m o n e s t d r e a m s y m b o l o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e is the
l a r i n d e p e n d e n c e . S h e c o u l d live o u t t h e r e -
s n a k e , as r e p r e s e n t e d by the t h e r a p e u t i c s y m b o l
m a i n d e r o f h e r d a y s in h a r m o n y w i t h a n e t e r n a l
of t h e R o m a n
h u m a n l a w t h a t , b y its a n t i q u i t y , t r a n s c e n d e d
w h i c h has s u r v i v e d to m o d e r n t i m e s as a sign
the known symbols o f culture.
o f t h e m e d i c a l profession. T h i s w a s o r i g i n a l l y
g o d of m e d i c i n e
Aesculapius,
B u t s u c h i n d e p e n d e n c e does not e n d in a
a n o n p o i s o n o u s t r e e s n a k e ; as we sec it, coiled
state o f yogi-like d e t a c h m e n t that would mean
a r o u n d t h e s t a f f o f the h e a l i n g g o d , it s e e m s to
a r e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d w i t h all its i m p u r i -
e m b o d y a kind o f m e d i a t i o n b e t w e e n e a r t h a n d
ties. I n t h e o t h e r w i s e d e a d a n d b l a s t e d l a n d -
heaven.
s c a p e o f h e r d r e a m t h e w o m a n s a w signs of
A still m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d w i d e s p r e a d s y m -
a n i m a l life. T h e s e a r e " w a t e r p i g s , " u n k n o w n
b o l o f c h t h o n i c t r a n s c e n d e n c e is t h e motif of
to h e r as a s p e c i e s . T h e y t h e r e f o r e w o u l d c a r r y
the two entwined serpents. T h e s e are the famous
the m e a n i n g o f a special type o f a n i m a l , one
N a g a s e r p e n t s o f a n c i e n t I n d i a ; a n d w e also
t h a t c a n live in t w o e n v i r o n m e n t s , in w a t e r o r
find t h e m in G r e e c e as t h e e n t w i n e d serpents
on the e a r t h .
o n t h e e n d o f t h e s t a f f b e l o n g i n g to t h e god
T h i s is t h e u n i v e r s a l q u a l i t y o f t h e a n i m a l as a symbol of transcendence. These
creatures,
Hermes. An
early Grecian
herm
is a
stone
p i l l a r w i t h a bust o f t h e god a b o v e . O n o n e side
o f the
a r e t h e e n t w i n e d s e r p e n t s a n d on t h e o t h e r an
ancient Earth M o t h e r , are symbolic denizens of
e r e c t p h a l l u s . As t h e s e r p e n t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d
figuratively
1
54
coming
from
the depths
Left, a 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y F r e n c h p a i n t i n g reveals t h e s n a k e ' s role as m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n this w o r l d a n d t h e n e x t . Orpheus is p l a y i n g his lyre; h e and his a u d i e n c e fail t o n o t i c e that Eurydice ( c e n t e r of p i c t u r e ) has been b i t t e n by a s n a k e — a f a t a l w o u n d t h a t s y m b o l i z e s her d e s c e n t into t h e u n d e r w o r l d .
Above, the Egyptian g o d Thoth w i t h t h e h e a d of a b i r d ( a n i b i s ) , in a relief f r o m c. 3 5 0 B.C. T h o t h is an " u n d e r w o r l d " f i g u r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t r a n s c e n d e n c e ; it w a s he w h o j u d g e d t h e s o u l s of t h e d e a d . T h e Greek g o d Hermes, w h o w a s called " p s y c h o - p o m p " ( s o u l - g u i d e ) , had t h e f u n c t i o n of g u i d i n g t h e d e a d t o t h e u n d e r w o r l d . Left, a s t o n e herm, w h i c h w a s p l a c e d at c r o s s roads ( s y m b o l i z i n g t h e g o d ' s role as a m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n t w o w o r l d s ) O n t h e s i d e o f t h e h e r m is a s n a k e t w i n e d a r o u n d a staff; t h i s s y m b o l ( t h e caduceus) w a s carried over t o the R o m a n g o d M e r c u r y ( r i g h t , a 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y Italian b r o n z e ) , w h o also a c q u i r e d w i n g s , r e c a l l i n g t h e b i r d as a s y m b o l of spiritual transcendence.
'55
in t h e a c t o f s e x u a l u n i o n a n d the e r e c t p h a l l u s
H e r e w e see his full p o w e r o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e ,
is u n e q u i v o c a l l y s e x u a l , w e c a n d r a w c e r t a i n
w h e r e b y the l o w e r t r a n s c e n d e n c e f r o m u n d e r -
c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t the f u n c t i o n o f t h e h e r m as a
w o r l d s n a k e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , passing t h r o u g h the m e d i u m o f e a r t h l y r e a l i t y , finally a t t a i n s t r a n s -
s y m b o l o f fertility. B u t w e a r e m i s t a k e n i f we t h i n k this o n l y refers to b i o l o g i c a l f e r t i l i t y . H e r m e s is T r i c k s t e r in a d i f f e r e n t r o l e as a m e s s e n g e r , a g o d o f the
cendence
to
superhuman
or
transpersonal
r e a l i t y in its w i n g e d flight. S u c h a c o m p o s i t e s y m b o l is f o u n d in o t h e r
c r o s s - r o a d s , a n d finally the l e a d e r o f souls to
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s as t h e w i n g e d h o r s e o r w i n g e d
a n d f r o m t h e u n d e r w o r l d . His p h a l l u s t h e r e f o r e
d r a g o n o r o t h e r c r e a t u r e s t h a t a b o u n d in the
penetrates from the known into the unknown
a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n s of a l c h e m y , so fully illus-
world, seeking a spiritual message o f deliverance
t r a t e d in D r . J u n g ' s classic w o r k on this s u b j e c t .
and healing.
W e follow the i n n u m e r a b l e vicissitudes o f these
O r i g i n a l l y in E g y p t H e r m e s was k n o w n as
s y m b o l s in o u r w o r k with p a t i e n t s . T h e y show
the i b i s - h e a d e d god T h o t h , and t h e r e f o r e w a s
w h a t o u r t h e r a p y c a n e x p e c t to a c h i e v e w h e n
c o n c e i v e d as t h e b i r d f o r m o f t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t
it l i b e r a t e s t h e d e e p e r p s y c h i c c o n t e n t s so that
p r i n c i p l e . A g a i n , in the O l y m p i a n
they can b e c o m e part of our conscious equip-
period
of
Greek mythology, Hermes recovered attributes
m e n t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g life m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y .
o f the bird life to a d d to his c h t h o n i c n a t u r e as
I t is n o t easy for m o d e r n m a n to g r a s p the
s e r p e n t . His s t a f f a c q u i r e d wings a b o v e t h e ser-
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s y m b o l s t h a t c o m e d o w n to
p e n t s , b e c o m i n g t h e caduceus
us f r o m t h e past o r t h a t a p p e a r in o u r d r e a m s .
o r w i n g e d staff
o f M e r c u r y , a n d t h e g o d h i m s e l f b e c a m e the
N o r is it easy to see h o w t h e a n c i e n t
" f l y i n g m a n " w i t h his w i n g e d h a t a n d s a n d a l s .
between symbols o f c o n t a i n m e n t and liberation
Winged dragons (above, from a 15thcentury manuscript) combine the t r a n s c e n d e n t s y m b o l i s m of t h e s n a k e a n d the b i r d . R i g h t , an i m a g e o f spiritual t r a n s c e n d e n c e : M o h a m m e d o n t h e w i n g e d m a r e B u r a q flies t h r o u g h t h e celestial s p h e r e s
156
conflict
relates to o u r o w n p r e d i c a m e n t . Y e t it b e c o m e s easier w h e n w e r e a l i z e it is o n l y t h e specificforms o f these a r c h a i c p a t t e r n s t h a t
change,
not t h e i r p s y c h i c m e a n i n g . W e h a v e b e e n t a l k i n g o f wild b i r d s as s y m bols o f r e l e a s e o r l i b e r a t i o n . B u t t o d a y we c o u l d as well s p e a k o f j e t p l a n e s a n d s p a c e r o c k e t s , for t h e y a r e t h e p h y s i c a l e m b o d i m e n t o f the s a m e t r a n s c e n d e n t p r i n c i p l e , f r e e i n g us at least t e m p o r a r i l y f r o m g r a v i t y . I n t h e s a m e w a y the ancient symbols of containment, which
once
g a v e s t a b i l i t y a n d p r o t e c t i o n , n o w a p p e a r in modern
man's search
for e c o n o m i c
security
and social w e l f a r e . A n y o f us c a n see, o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e r e is a conflict in o u r lives b e t w e e n a d v e n t u r e a n d disc i p l i n e , o r evil a n d
virtue, or freedom
and
security. B u t these a r e o n l y p h r a s e s we use to d e s c r i b e a n a m b i v a l e n c e t h a t t r o u b l e s us, a n d to w h i c h w e n e v e r s e e m a b l e to find a n a n s w e r . T h e r e is an a n s w e r . T h e r e is a m e e t i n g point b e t w e e n c o n t a i n m e n t a n d l i b e r a t i o n , a n d we can find it in t h e rites o f i n i t i a t i o n t h a t I h a v e been discussing. T h e y c a n m a k e it possible for i n d i v i d u a l s , o r w h o l e g r o u p s o f p e o p l e , to u n i t e the
opposing
forces
within
themselves
and
a c h i e v e a n e q u i l i b r i u m in t h e i r lives. But t h e rites d o n o t o f f e r this o p p o r t u n i t y invariably, or a u t o m a t i c a l l y .
They
relate
to
p a r t i c u l a r p h a s e s in the life o f a n i n d i v i d u a l , o r of a g r o u p , a n d unless t h e y a r e p r o p e r l y u n d e r stood a n d t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a n e w w a y o f l i f e , t h e m o m e n t c a n pass. I n i t i a t i o n is, e s s e n t i a l l y , a process t h a t b e g i n s w i t h a rite o f s u b m i s s i o n , followed by a p e r i o d o f c o n t a i n m e n t , a n d t h e n by a f u r t h e r rite o f l i b e r a t i o n . I n this w a y e v e r y individual c a n r e c o n c i l e the c o n f l i c t i n g e l e m e n t s of his p e r s o n a l i t y : H e c a n strike a b a l a n c e t h a t makes h i m truly h u m a n , a n d truly t h e m a s t e r of himself.
In the d r e a m s a n d f a n t a s i e s of m a n y modern p e o p l e , t h e f l i g h t s of t h e great rockets of s p a c e r e s e a r c h have o f t e n a p p e a r e d as s y m b o l i c 20th-century e m b o d i m e n t s of t h e urge t o w a r d l i b e r a t i o n a n d release that is called t r a n s c e n d e n c e .
'57
3
The process of individuation
M.-L. von Franz
T h e rose w i n d o w of t h e c a t h e d r a l of N o t r e D a m e , Paris
The process of individuation
The pattern of psychic g r o w t h
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f this b o o k D r . C . G . J u n g i n t r o d u c e d t h e r e a d e r to t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , its p e r s o n a l a n d c o l l e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s , a n d its s y m b o l i c m o d e o f e x p r e s s i o n . O n c e o n e h a s seen t h e v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e ( t h a t is, the h e a l ing or destructive i m p a c t ) o f the symbols prod u c e d by t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , t h e r e r e m a i n s t h e difficult p r o b l e m o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . D r . J u n g has s h o w n t h a t e v e r y t h i n g d e p e n d s on w h e t h e r a n y p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " c l i c k s " a n d is m e a n ingful to t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n e d . I n this w a y he has i n d i c a t e d t h e possible m e a n i n g a n d f u n c tion o f d r e a m s y m b o l i s m . B u t , in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f J u n g ' s
theory,
this possibility raised a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n :
What
is the p u r p o s e o f t h e total d r e a m life o f t h e individual? W h a t role do d r e a m s play, not only in the i m m e d i a t e p s y c h i c e c o n o m y o f the h u m a n b e i n g , b u t in his life as a w h o l e ? By o b s e r v i n g a g r e a t m a n y p e o p l e a n d s t u d y ing t h e i r d r e a m s ( h e e s t i m a t e d t h a t he i n t e r preted at least 8 0 , 0 0 0 d r e a m s ) , J u n g d i s c o v e r e d not only t h a t all d r e a m s a r e r e l e v a n t in v a r y i n g degrees to t h e life o f t h e d r e a m e r , b u t t h a t they a r e all p a r t s o f o n e g r e a t w e b o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l factors, fcle also f o u n d t h a t , on t h e w h o l e , t h e y seem to follow a n a r r a n g e m e n t o r p a t t e r n . T h i s p a t t e r n J u n g c a l l e d " t h e process o f i n d i v i d u a tion." Since dreams produce different
scenes
and images every night, people who are not c a r e f u l o b s e r v e r s will p r o b a b l y b e u n a w a r e o f any pattern.
But
if o n e
watches
one's
own
d r e a m s o v e r a p e r i o d o f y e a r s a n d studies t h e e n t i r e s e q u e n c e , o n e will see t h a t c e r t a i n c o n tents e m e r g e ,
disappear,
and
then
turn
up
again. M a n y people even d r e a m repeatedly of the s a m e figures, l a n d s c a p e s , o r s i t u a t i o n s ; a n d if o n e follows these t h r o u g h a w h o l e series, o n e will see that t h e y c h a n g e slowly b u t p e r c e p t i b l y . T h e s e changes can be accelerated if the d r e a m e r ' s c o n s c i o u s a t t i t u d e is i n f l u e n c e d by a p p r o priate interpretation o f the d r e a m s and symbolic contents.
i bo
their
B e l o w , a " m e a n d e r " (a d e c o r a t i o n in a s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t ) . I n d i v i d u a l d r e a m s s e e m as s t r a n g e a n d f r a g m e n t e d as t h e d e t a i l , a b o v e , f r o m the decoration; but over a lifetime's dreaming, a meandering pattern appears - r e v e a l i n g the p r o c e s s of p s y c h i c g r o w t h
Thus
our
dream
life c r e a t e s
a
meandering
p a t t e r n in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s t r a n d s o r t e n d e n cies b e c o m e v i s i b l e , t h e n v a n i s h , t h e n r e t u r n a g a i n . I f o n e w a t c h e s this m e a n d e r i n g design over a long period o f time, one c a n observe a sort o f h i d d e n r e g u l a t i n g o r d i r e c t i n g t e n d e n c y at w o r k , c r e a t i n g a s l o w , i m p e r c e p t i b l e p r o c e s s of p s y c h i c g r o w t h
the p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n .
Gradually a wider and more mature personality e m e r g e s , a n d by d e g r e e s b e c o m e s e f f e c t i v e and e v e n visible to o t h e r s . T h e fact t h a t often s p e a k o f " a r r e s t e d d e v e l o p m e n t "
we
shows
that we a s s u m e t h a t s u c h a p r o c e s s o f g r o w t h and m a t u r a t i o n is possible w i t h e v e r y i n d i v i dual.
Since
brought
this
about
psychic
growth
cannot
be
b y a c o n s c i o u s effort o f will
power, but h a p p e n s i n v o l u n t a r i l y a n d
natur-
ally, it is in d r e a m s f r e q u e n t l y s y m b o l i z e d by the t r e e , w h o s e s l o w , p o w e r f u l ,
involuntary-
growth fulfills a d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n . T h e organizing center from which the regulatory effect s t e m s s e e m s to be a sort of " n u clear a t o m " in o u r p s y c h i c s y s t e m . O n e c o u l d also call it the i n v e n t o r , o r g a n i z e r , a n d s o u r c e of d r e a m i m a g e s . J u n g c a l l e d this c e n t e r t h e " S e l f " a n d d e s c r i b e d it as the t o t a l i t y of the whole
p s y c h e , in o r d e r to d i s t i n g u i s h it f r o m
the " e g o , " w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s o n l y a s m a l l p a r t o f the total p s y c h e . T h r o u g h o u t the ages m e n h a v e b e e n i n t u i tively a w a r e o f the e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h a n i n n e r center. T h e G r e e k s c a l l e d it m a n ' s i n n e r daimon; in E g y p t it w a s e x p r e s s e d by t h e c o n c e p t of the Ba-soul;
a n d t h e R o m a n s w o r s h i p e d it
as the " g e n i u s " n a t i v e to e a c h i n d i v i d u a l .
In
more p r i m i t i v e societies it was often t h o u g h t o f as a
protective
spirit
embodied
within
an
animal o r a fetish. T h i s i n n e r c e n t e r is r e a l i z e d in e x c e p t i o n a l l y pure, unspoiled f o r m by the N a s k a p i who still exist in t h e forests o f t h e
Indians, Labrador
peninsula. T h e s e s i m p l e p e o p l e a r e h u n t e r s w h o live in isolated f a m i l y g r o u p s , so far f r o m o n e
T h e p s y c h e c a n he c o m p a r e d t o a s p h e r e w i t h a b r i g h t f i e l d ( A ) o n its surface, representing consciousness T h e ego is t h e f i e l d ' s c e n t e r ( o n l y if " I " k n o w a t h i n g is it c o n s c i o u s ) T h e Self is at o n c e t h e n u c l e u s a n d t h e w h o l e s p h e r e ( B ) ; its i n t e r n a l regulating processes p r o d u c e dreams T h e p s y c h e c a n be c o m p a r e d t o a s p h e r e w i t h a b r i g h t f i e l d ( A ) o n its surface, representing consciousness T h e ego is t h e f i e l d ' s c e n t e r ( o n l y if " I " k n o w a t h i n g is it c o n s c i o u s ) T h e Self is at o n c e t h e n u c l e u s a n d t h e w h o l e s p h e r e ( B ) ; its i n t e r n a l regulating processes p r o d u c e dreams
a n o t h e r that they h a v e not b e e n a b l e to e v o l v e t r i b a l c u s t o m s o r c o l l e c t i v e religious beliefs a n d c e r e m o n i e s . In his lifelong s o l i t u d e the N a s k a p i h u n t e r has to rely on his o w n i n n e r voices a n d unconscious
revelations;
he has n o
religious
t e a c h e r s w h o tell h i m w h a t he s h o u l d b e l i e v e , no r i t u a l s , festivals, o r c u s t o m s to h e l p
him
a l o n g . I n his b a s i c view o f l i f e , t h e soul o f m a n is s i m p l y a n " i n n e r c o m p a n i o n , " w h o m he calls "my
friend"
or
Mista'peo,
meaning
"Great
M a n . " M i s t a ' p e o dwells in the h e a r t a n d is i m m o r t a l ; in t h e m o m e n t
of d e a t h , or shortly
b e f o r e , he leaves t h e i n d i v i d u a l , a n d l a t e r r e i n c a r n a t e s h i m s e l f in a n o t h e r b e i n g . T h o s e N a s k a p i w h o p a y a t t e n t i o n to t h e i r d r e a m s a n d w h o try to find t h e i r m e a n i n g a n d test t h e i r t r u t h c a n e n t e r i n t o a d e e p e r c o n n e c tion
with
the
Great
Man.
He
favors
such
p e o p l e a n d sends t h e m m o r e a n d b e t t e r d r e a m s . Thus
the m a j o r o b l i g a t i o n
o f an
individual
N a s k a p i is to follow the i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n by his d r e a m s , a n d t h e n to give p e r m a n e n t f o r m to t h e i r c o n t e n t s in a r t . Lies a n d d r i v e the ( b e a t
M a n away
dishonesty ib i
from o n e ' s i n n e r
rneeai gl m r eda so f gaenniemr oa sl si t ya t tar na d h b, o w r sh ae n c t love h i m aonfd ogniev' es
h i m life. D r e a m s give t h e N a s k a p i
complete
f a c t o r s , s u c h as t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e soil a n d the
a b i l i t y to find his w a y in life, n o t o n l y in t h e
s t o n e s , t h e s l o p e o f t h e l a n d , a n d its e x p o s u r e
i n n e r w o r l d b u t also in t h e o u t e r w o r l d o f n a -
to sun a n d w i n d . T h e l a t e n t t o t a l i t y o f t h e p i n e
t u r e . T h e y h e l p h i m to f o r e t e l l t h e w e a t h e r a n d
in t h e seed r e a c t s to these c i r c u m s t a n c e s
give h i m i n v a l u a b l e g u i d a n c e in his h u n t i n g ,
a v o i d i n g t h e stones a n d i n c l i n i n g t o w a r d the
u p o n w h i c h his life d e p e n d s . I m e n t i o n these
s u n , w i t h t h e result t h a t t h e t r e e ' s g r o w t h is
by
very primitive people because they are u n c o n -
s h a p e d . T h u s a n i n d i v i d u a l p i n e slowly c o m e s
t a m i n a t e d b y o u r c i v i l i z e d ideas a n d still h a v e
i n t o e x i s t e n c e , c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f its
n a t u r a l insight into the essence o f w h a t J u n g
t o t a l i t y , its e m e r g e n c e i n t o t h e r e a l m o f r e a l i t y .
calls t h e Self.
W i t h o u t t h e l i v i n g t r e e , t h e i m a g e o f t h e p i n e is
T h e S e l f c a n b e d e f i n e d as a n i n n e r g u i d i n g
o n l y a possibility o r a n a b s t r a c t i d e a . A g a i n , t h e
f a c t o r t h a t is d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e c o n s c i o u s p e r -
r e a l i z a t i o n o f this u n i q u e n e s s in t h e i n d i v i d u a l
sonality and that c a n be grasped only through
m a n is t h e g o a l o f t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n .
the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f o n e ' s o w n d r e a m s . T h e s e
F r o m o n e p o i n t o f v i e w this p r o c e s s takes
show it to b e t h e r e g u l a t i n g c e n t e r t h a t b r i n g s
p l a c e in m a n (as w e l l as in e v e r y o t h e r living
about a constant extension and m a t u r i n g o f the
b e i n g ) b y i t s e l f a n d in t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ; it is a
p e r s o n a l i t y . B u t this l a r g e r , m o r e n e a r l y t o t a l
p r o c e s s b y w h i c h m a n lives o u t his i n n a t e h u -
a s p e c t o f t h e p s y c h e a p p e a r s first as m e r e l y a n
m a n nature. Strictly speaking, however,
inborn possibility. It m a y e m e r g e very slightly,
p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n is r e a l o n l y i f t h e i n d i -
the
or it m a y d e v e l o p r e l a t i v e l y c o m p l e t e l y d u r i n g
v i d u a l is a w a r e o f it a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y m a k e s a
o n e ' s l i f e t i m e . H o w f a r it d e v e l o p s d e p e n d s o n
living c o n n e c t i o n
w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e e g o is w i l l i n g to listen to
whether
t h e m e s s a g e s o f t h e Self. J u s t as t h e N a s k a p i
g r o w t h , w h e t h e r it e n j o y s a n d suffers t h e dif-
h a v e n o t i c e d t h a t a p e r s o n w h o is r e c e p t i v e to
f e r e n t vicissitudes t h a t s h a p e it. B u t m a n c e r -
the hints o f the G r e a t M a n gets b e t t e r a n d m o r e
t a i n l y is a b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e c o n s c i o u s l y in his
helpful d r e a m s , we could add that the inborn
d e v e l o p m e n t . H e e v e n feels t h a t f r o m t i m e to
Great
time,
Man
becomes
more
real
within
the
by
the
pine
making
w i t h it. W e d o n o t t r e e is a w a r e
know
o f its
free d e c i s i o n s , h e c a n
own
co-
r e c e p t i v e p e r s o n t h a n in those w h o n e g l e c t h i m .
operate
S u c h a p e r s o n also b e c o m e s a m o r e c o m p l e t e
b e l o n g s to t h e process o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n in t h e
human being.
n a r r o w e r sense o f t h e w o r d .
I t e v e n s e e m s as i f t h e e g o has n o t b e e n p r o d u c e d b y n a t u r e to follow its o w n
actively
with
it.
This
co-operation
M a n , however, experiences something that
arbitrary
is n o t c o n t a i n e d in o u r m e t a p h o r o f t h e p i n e
i m p u l s e s to a n u n l i m i t e d e x t e n t , b u t to h e l p to
t r e e . T h e i n d i v i d u a t i o n p r o c e s s is m o r e t h a n a
m a k e real t h e t o t a l i t y — t h e w h o l e p s y c h e . I t is
c o m i n g to t e r m s b e t w e e n t h e i n b o r n g e r m o f
the e g o t h a t serves to l i g h t u p t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m ,
w h o l e n e s s a n d t h e o u t e r a c t s o f f a t e . Its s u b j e c -
a l l o w i n g it to b e c o m e c o n s c i o u s a n d thus to be
tive e x p e r i e n c e c o n v e y s the f e e l i n g t h a t s o m e
realized.
artistic
s u p r a - p e r s o n a l f o r c e is a c t i v e l y i n t e r f e r i n g in a
t a l e n t o f w h i c h m y e g o is n o t c o n s c i o u s , n o t h i n g
c r e a t i v e w a y . O n e s o m e t i m e s feels t h a t t h e u n -
will h a p p e n to it. T h e gift m a y as well b e n o n -
c o n s c i o u s is l e a d i n g t h e w a y in a c c o r d a n c e with
If, for e x a m p l e ,
I have an
e x i s t e n t . O n l y i f m y e g o n o t i c e s it c a n T b r i n g
a s e c r e t d e s i g n . I t is as i f s o m e t h i n g is l o o k i n g
it i n t o r e a l i t y . T h e i n b o r n b u t h i d d e n t o t a l i t y
a t m e , s o m e t h i n g t h a t I d o n o t see b u t t h a t sees
o f the p s y c h e is n o t t h e s a m e t h i n g as a w h o l e -
m e — p e r h a p s t h a t G r e a t M a n in t h e h e a r t , w h o
ness t h a t is fully r e a l i z e d a n d l i v e d .
tells m e his o p i n i o n s a b o u t m e b y m e a n s o f
O n e c o u l d p i c t u r e this in t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y : The
mountain
pine
contains
dreams.
the
B u t this c r e a t i v e l y a c t i v e a s p e c t o f t h e psy-
w h o l e f u t u r e t r e e in a l a t e n t f o r m ; b u t e a c h
c h i c n u c l e u s c a n c o m e i n t o p l a y o n l y w h e n the
seed falls at a c e r t a i n t i m e o n t o a p a r t i c u l a r
ego gets rid o f all p u r p o s i v e a n d wishful a i m s
p l a c e , in w h i c h t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f s p e c i a l
a n d tries to get to a d e e p e r , m o r e b a s i c f o r m
162
seed o f a
of existence. T h e e g o m u s t b e a b l e to listen attentively a n d to g i v e itself, w i t h o u t a n y further design o r p u r p o s e , to t h a t i n n e r u r g e toward g r o w t h . M a n y e x i s t e n t i a l i s t p h i l o s o p h e r s try to d e s c r i b e this s t a t e , b u t t h e y go o n l y as far as s t r i p p i n g o f f the illusions o f c o n s c i o u s ness: T h e y g o r i g h t u p to t h e d o o r o f t h e unconscious a n d t h e n fail to o p e n it. People living in c u l t u r e s m o r e s e c u r e l y r o o t e d than our o w n h a v e less t r o u b l e in u n d e r s t a n d ing that it is n e c e s s a r y to g i v e u p t h e u t i l i t a r i a n attitude o f c o n s c i o u s p l a n n i n g in o r d e r to m a k e way for t h e i n n e r g r o w t h o f the p e r s o n a l i t y . I once met a n e l d e r l y l a d y w h o h a d not a c h i e v e d much in h e r life, in t e r m s o f o u t w a r d a c h i e v e ment. But she h a d in fact m a d e a g o o d m a r riage with a difficult h u s b a n d , a n d h a d s o m e how d e v e l o p e d i n t o a m a t u r e p e r s o n a l i t y . W h e n she c o m p l a i n e d to m e t h a t she h a d not " d o n e " anything in h e r life, I told h e r a story r e l a t e d by a C h i n e s e s a g e , C h u a n g - T z u . S h e
under-
stood i m m e d i a t e l y a n d felt g r e a t relief. T h i s is the s t o r y :
A wandering carpenter, called Stone, saw on his travels a gigantic old oak tree standing in a field near an earth-altar. T h e carpenter said to his apprentice, who was admiring the o a k : " T h i s is
a useless tree. II you wanted to make a ship, it would soon rot; if you wanted to make tools, they would break. You can't do anything useful with this tree, and that's why it has become so o l d . " But in an inn, that same evening, when the carpenter went to sleep, the old oak tree appeared to him in his dream and said: " W h y do you compare me to your cultivated trees such as whitethorn, pear, orange, and apple trees, and all the others that bear fruit? Even before they can ripen their fruit, people attack and violate them. T h e i r branches are broken, their twigs are torn. T h e i r own gifts bring harm to them, and they cannot live out their natural span. T h a t is what happens everywhere, and that is why I have long since tried to become completely useless. You poor mortal! Imagine if I had been useful in any way, would I have reached this size? Furthermore, you and I are both creatures, and how can one creature set himself so high as to judge another creature? You useless mortal man, what do you know about useless t r e e s ? " T h e carpenter woke up and meditated upon his dream, and later, when his apprentice asked him why just this one tree served to protect the earthaltar, he answered, " K e e p your mouth shut! Let's hear no more about it! T h e tree grew here on purpose because anywhere else people would have ill-treated it. I f it were not the tree of the earthaltar, it might have been chopped d o w n . "
The
carpenter
obviously
understood
his
d r e a m . H e s a w t h a t s i m p l y to fulfill o n e ' s d e s An earth altar b e n e a t h a tree (In a 19th-century Chinese painting) Such r o u n d or s q u a r e s t r u c t u r e s usually s y m b o l i z e t h e Self, t o w h i c h the ego must s u b m i t t o f u l f i l l t h e process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n .
tiny is t h e g r e a t e s t h u m a n a c h i e v e m e n t ,
and
t h a t o u r u t i l i t a r i a n n o t i o n s h a v e to give w a y in the f a c e o f the d e m a n d s o f o u r
unconscious
p s y c h e ; I f we t r a n s l a t e this m e t a p h o r i n t o psychological
l a n g u a g e , t h e tree s y m b o l i z e s
the
p r o c e s s of i n d i v i d u a t i o n , g i v i n g a lesson to o u r shortsighted ego. U n d e r t h e t r e e t h a t fulfilled its d e s t i n y , t h e r e w a s — i n C h u a n g - T z u ' s story — a n
earth-altar.
T h i s was a c r u d e , u n w r o u g h t s t o n e u p o n w h i c h p e o p l e m a d e s a c r i f i c e s to t h e l o c a l god
who
" o w n e d " this p i e c e o f l a n d . T h e s y m b o l o f the e a r t h - a l t a r p o i n t s to t h e f a c t t h a t in o r d e r to b r i n g the i n d i v i d u a t i o n process i n t o r e a l i t y , o n e must s u r r e n d e r c o n s c i o u s l y to t h e p o w e r o f the u n c o n s c i o u s , i n s t e a d o f t h i n k i n g in t e r m s
of
w h a t o n e s h o u l d d o , o r o f w h a t is g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t r i g h t , o r o f w h a t usually h a p p e n s . O n e must s i m p l y listen, in o r d e r to l e a r n w h a t t h e
163
inner totality
the Self
w a n t s o n e to d o h e r e
tion.
The fact is that e a c h person has to do
s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t , s o m e t h i n g that is u n i q u e l y
a n d n o w in a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . O u r a t t i t u d e m u s t be like t h a t of the m o u n -
his o w n . the
Jungian
a n n o y e d w h e n its g r o w t h is o b s t r u c t e d b y a
a p p r o a c h for not p r e s e n t i n g p s y c h i c
material
s t o n e , n o r does it m a k e p l a n s a b o u t
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y . B u t these c r i t i c s forget t h a t the
tain p i n e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e :
It does not
get
h o w to
o v e r c o m e t h e o b s t a c l e s . It m e r e l y tries to feel
Many
people
have criticized
m a t e r i a l itself is a living e x p e r i e n c e
charged
w h e t h e r it s h o u l d g r o w m o r e t o w a r d t h e left o r
with e m o t i o n , by n a t u r e i r r a t i o n a l a n d e v e r -
the r i g h t , t o w a r d t h e s l o p e o r a w a y f r o m it.
c h a n g i n g , w h i c h does not l e n d i t s e l f to s y s t e m a -
L i k e the t r e e , we s h o u l d g i v e in to this a l m o s t
t i z a t i o n e x c e p t in the most s u p e r f i c i a l fashion.
i m p e r c e p t i b l e , yet p o w e r f u l l y d o m i n a t i n g , i m -
M o d e r n d e p t h p s y c h o l o g y has h e r e r e a c h e d the
pulse
s a m e limits t h a t c o n f r o n t m i c r o p h y s i c s . T h a t is,
an i m p u l s e t h a t c o m e s f r o m the u r g e to-
w a r d u n i q u e , c r e a t i v e s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n . A n d this
when w e a r e d e a l i n g with statistical a v e r a g e s ,
is a p r o c e s s in w h i c h o n e must r e p e a t e d l y seek
a r a t i o n a l a n d s y s t e m a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e facts
out a n d find s o m e t h i n g t h a t is not yet k n o w n
is possible. But w h e n we a r e a t t e m p t i n g to d e -
to a n y o n e . T h e g u i d i n g hints o r i m p u l s e s c o m e ,
s c r i b e a single p s y c h i c e v e n t , we c a n do no m o r e
not from the e g o , b u t f r o m the t o t a l i t y o f the
t h a n present an honest p i c t u r e of it f r o m as
p s y c h e : the Self.
m a n y a n g l e s as possible. I n the s a m e w a y , s c i e n -
It is, m o r e o v e r , useless to cast furtive g l a n c e s at the w a y s o m e o n e else is d e v e l o p i n g , b e c a u s e e a c h o f us has a u n i q u e task of s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n . Although many h u m a n problems are similar, they a r e n e v e r i d e n t i c a l . All p i n e trees a r e very m u c h a l i k e ( o t h e r w i s e we s h o u l d not r e c o g n i z e t h e m as p i n e s ) , yet n o n e is e x a c t l y t h e s a m e as a n o t h e r . B e c a u s e o f these f a c t o r s o f s a m e n e s s a n d d i f f e r e n c e , it is difficult to s u m m a r i z e t h e infinite v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a -
tists h a v e to a d m i t that they d o not know w h a t light is. They c a n say o n l y t h a t in c e r t a i n e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s it seems to consist o f p a r ticles, while in o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s it s e e m s to consist o f w a v e s . B u t w h a t it is " i n i t s e l f " is not k n o w n . T h e p s y c h o l o g y of the unc o n s c i o u s a n d a n y d e s c r i p t i o n o f the process o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n e n c o u n t e r c o m p a r a b l e difficulties o f d e f i n i t i o n . But I will try h e r e to g i v e a s k e t c h o f s o m e o f t h e i r most t y p i c a l f e a t u r e s .
The first approach of the unconscious
For most p e o p l e the y e a r s o f y o u t h a r e c h a r -
to h e r life. F r o m this single d r e a m it is possible
acterized by a s t a t e o f g r a d u a l a w a k e n i n g in
to d e d u c e t h e t r a g i c fate o f the d r e a m e r , w h i c h
which the i n d i v i d u a l slowly b e c o m e s a w a r e o f
was a n t i c i p a t e d by h e r p s y c h e in c h i l d h o o d .
the world a n d o f himself. C h i l d h o o d is a p e r i o d of great
emotional
intensity,
and
a
child's
S o m e t i m e s it is not a d r e a m but s o m e very i m p r e s s i v e a n d u n f o r g e t t a b l e real event
that,
earliest d r e a m s often m a n i f e s t in s y m b o l i c f o r m
like a p r o p h e c y , a n t i c i p a t e s the f u t u r e in s y m -
the basic s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p s y c h e , i n d i c a t i n g h o w
bolic f o r m . It is well k n o w n t h a t c h i l d r e n often
it will l a t e r s h a p e the d e s t i n y o f the i n d i v i d u a l
forget e v e n t s t h a t s e e m i m p r e s s i v e to a d u l t s but
c o n c e r n e d . F o r e x a m p l e , J ting o n c e told a g r o u p
k e e p a vivid r e c o l l e c t i o n of s o m e i n c i d e n t
or
of students a b o u t a y o u n g w o m a n w h o was so
story that no o n e else has n o t i c e d . W h e n
we
haunted by a n x i e t y t h a t she c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e
look i n t o o n e o f these c h i l d h o o d m e m o r i e s , we
at the a g e o f 26.
As a s m a l l c h i l d , she
dreamed that " J a c k
Frost"
had e n t e r e d
had
usually find t h a t it d e p i c t s (if i n t e r p r e t e d as if
her
it w e r e a s y m b o l ) a b a s i c p r o b l e m o f t h e c h i l d ' s
room while she was lyiilg in b e d a n d p i n c h e d her on the s t o m a c h . S h e w o k e a n d d i s c o v e r e d that she had p i n c h e d h e r s e l f with h e r o w n h a n d . T h e d r e a m did not f r i g h t e n h e r ; she m e r e l y r e m e m b e r e d that she h a d b a d such a d r e a m . Hut the fact that she did not r e a c t e m o t i o n a l l y to her s t r a n g e e n c o u n t e r with the d e m o n o f the cold
o f c o n g e a l e d life
did not a u g u r well for
the future a n d was itself a b n o r m a l . It was with a cold, u n f e e l i n g h a n d that she l a t e r put an e n d
psychic makeup. W h e n a c h i l d r e a c h e s s c h o o l a g e , the p h a s e o f b u i l d i n g up the e g o a n d of a d a p t i n g to the o u t e r w o r l d b e g i n s . T h i s p h a s e generally b r i n g s a n u m b e r o f p a i n f u l s h o c k s . At the s a m e t i m e , s o m e c h i l d r e n b e g i n to feel very d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r s , a n d this feeling of b e i n g u n i q u e b r i n g s a c e r t a i n sadness t h a t is p a r t o f the loneliness o f m a n y y o u n g s t e r s . T h e i m p e r f e c t i o n s o f the w o r l d , a n d the evil w i t h i n o n e s e l f as well as o u t -
A child, adapting to the outside w o r l d , receives m a n y p s y c h o l o g i c a l s h o c k s : far left, t h e f e a r f u l first d a y at s c h o o l ; center, t h e surprise and pain resulting from an attack by a n o t h e r c h i l d , left, t h e g r i e f a n d b e w i l d e r m e n t of t h e first e x p e r i e n c e of d e a t h A s in effect a protection from such shocks, the c h i l d m a y d r e a m or d r a w a c i r c u l a r , quadrangular, nuclear motif (above) t h a t s y m b o l i z e s t h e all i m p o r t a n t c e n t e r of t h e p s y c h e
'6
5
side, b e c o m e c o n s c i o u s p r o b l e m s ; t h e c h i l d must
a l o n g by t h e d y n a m i s m o f i n h e r i t e d a n d i n s t i n c -
try to c o p e w i t h u r g e n t ( b u t n o t y e t u n d e r s t o o d )
tive a r c h e t y p a l pat terns. T h e s e y o u n g p e o p l e a r e
i n n e r i m p u l s e s as well as t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e
not c o n c e r n e d a b o u t the deeper m e a n i n g oflife,
outer world.
because
I f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is dist u r b e d in its n o r m a l
unfolding, children
sport,
t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s with
and work contain
love,
nature,
an i m m e d i a t e a n d
fre-
satisfying m e a n i n g for t h e m . T h e y a r e n o t n e c e s -
q u e n t l y r e t i r e from o u t e r o r i n n e r difficulties
sarily m o r e s u p e r f i c i a l ; usually t h e y a r e c a r r i e d
into a n i n n e r " f o r t r e s s " ; a n d w h e n t h a t h a p -
by t h e s t r e a m of life with less friction a n d dis-
p e n s , t h e i r d r e a m s a n d s y m b o l i c d r a w i n g s of
t u r b a n c e t h a n t h e i r m o r e i n t r o s p e c t i v e fellows.
u n c o n s c i o u s m a t e r i a l often r e v e a l to a n u n u s u a l
I f I travel in a c a r o r train w i t h o u t l o o k i n g o u t ,
degree a type o f circular, q u a d r a n g u l a r , a n d
it is only t h e stops, s t a r t s , a n d s u d d e n t u r n s t h a t
" n u c l e a r " m o t i f ( w h i c h I will e x p l a i n l a t e r ) .
m a k e m e realise I a m moving at all.
This refers to t h e p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d p s y c h i c n u c l e u s , t h e vital c e n t e r of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y f r o m w h i c h t h e w h o l e s t r u c t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t of c o n sciousness s t e m s . It is n a t u r a l t h a t t h e i m a g e o f the ( C i l l e r s h o u l d a p p e a r in an especially
strik-
ing way w h e n t h e p s y c h i c life o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l is t h r e a t e n e d . F r o m this c e n t r a l n u c l e u s (as f a r as we k n o w t o d a y ) , t h e w h o l e b u i l d i n g u p o f e g o c o n s c i o u s n e s s is d i r e c t e d , t h e e g o a p p a r e n t l y b e ing a d u p l i c a t e o r s t r u c t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t ol t h e original center. I n this e a r l y p h a s e t h e r e a r e m a n y
T h e actual process o f individuation
the con-
scious c o m i n g - t o - t e r m s w i t h o n e ' s o w n i n n e r center (psychic nucleus) or Self—generally begins with a w o u n d i n g o f the p e r s o n a l i t y a n d t h e s u f f e r i n g that a c c o m p a n i e s it. T h i s initial shock a m o u n t s to a sort o f " c a l l , " a l t h o u g h it is not often r e c o g n i z e d as s u c h . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e e g o feels h a m p e r e d in its will o r its desire a n d usually p r o j e c t s t h e o b s t r u c t i o n o n t o s o m e t h i n g external.
T h a t is. t h e e g o a c c u s e s G o d o r Un-
e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n o r t h e boss o r t h e marriagechildren
w h o e a r n e s t l y seek f o r s o m e m e a n i n g in life t h a t
p a r t n e r o f b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e for w h a t e v e r is o b s t r u c t i n g it.
c o u l d h e l p t h e m to d e a l with t h e c h a o s b o t h
O r p e r h a p s e v e r y t h i n g s e e m s o u t w a r d l y all
within a n d outside themselves. T h e r e are others,
r i g h t , b u t b e n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e a person is suffer-
h o w e v e r , w h o a r e still u n c o n s c i o u s l y
ing from a deadly b o r e d o m t h a t m a k e s e v e r y -
166
carried
thing seem
meaningless
and
empty.
Many
It is e x a c t l y t h e s a m e in t h e i n i t i a l crisis in
myths a n d fairy tales s y m b o l i c a l l y d e s c r i b e this
t h e life o f a n i n d i v i d u a l . O n e is s e e k i n g s o m e -
initial stage in t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n b y
t h i n g t h a t is i m p o s s i b l e to find o r a b o u t w h i c h
telling o f a k i n g w h o has fallen ill or g r o w n o l d .
n o t h i n g is k n o w n . I n s u c h m o m e n t s all well-
Other f a m i l i a r story p a t t e r n s a r e t h a t a r o y a l
m e a n t , s e n s i b l e a d v i c e is c o m p l e t e l y u s e l e s s -
couple is b a r r e n ; o r t h a t a m o n s t e r steals all t h e
a d v i c e t h a t urges o n e to try to b e r e s p o n s i b l e ,
women, c h i l d r e n , horses, a n d w e a l t h o f t h e k i n g -
to t a k e a h o l i d a y , n o t to w o r k so h a r d (or to
dom; or t h a t a d e m o n keeps t h e king's a r m y
w o r k h a r d e r ) , to h a v e m o r e ( o r less) h u m a n c o n -
or his ship f r o m p r o c e e d i n g on its c o u r s e ; o r
t a c t , or to t a k e u p a h o b b y . N o n e o f t h a t h e l p s ,
that darkness h a n g s o v e r t h e l a n d s , wells d r y
o r a t best o n l y r a r e l y . T h e r e is o n l y o n e t h i n g
up, a n d flood, d r o u g h t , a n d frost afflict t h e
t h a t s e e m s to w o r k ; a n d t h a t is to t u r n d i r e c t l y
country. T h u s it seems as i f t h e initial e n c o u n t e r
toward the a p p r o a c h i n g darkness without pre-
with the S e l f casts a d a r k s h a d o w a h e a d
of
j u d i c e a n d t o t a l l y n a i v e l y , a n d to try to find
time, or as if t h e " i n n e r f r i e n d " c o m e s a t first
out w h a t its s e c r e t a i m is a n d w h a t it w a n t s
like a t r a p p e r to c a t c h t h e helplessly s t r u g g l i n g
from you.
ego in his s n a r e .
T h e hidden purpose o f the o n c o m i n g dark-
I n myths o n e finds t h a t t h e m a g i c or t a l i s m a n
ness is g e n e r a l l y s o m e t h i n g so u n u s u a l , so u n i q u e
that c a n c u r e t h e m i s f o r t u n e o f t h e k i n g o r his
a n d u n e x p e c t e d , t h a t as a r u l e o n e c a n find o u t
country a l w a y s p r o v e s to b e s o m e t h i n g
very
w h a t it is o n l y b y m e a n s o f d r e a m s a n d f a n t a -
special. I n o n e t a l e " a w h i t e b l a c k b i r d " ' or " a
sies w e l l i n g up f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . I f o n e
fish that c a r r i e s a g o l d e n r i n g in its gills'" is
focuses
needed to r e s t o r e t h e k i n g ' s h e a l t h . I n a n o t h e r ,
rash a s s u m p t i o n s o r e m o t i o n a l r e j e c t i o n , it often
a t t e n t i o n on t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
without
the king w a n t s " t h e w a t e r o f life'" o r " t h r e e
b r e a k s t h r o u g h in a flow o f helpful
golden hairs f r o m t h e h e a d o f t h e d e v i l " o r " a
i m a g e s . B u t n o t a l w a y s . S o m e t i m e s it first offers
woman's g o l d e n p l a i t " ( a n d a f t e r w a r d , n a t u r -
a series o f p a i n f u l r e a l i z a t i o n s o f w h a t is w r o n g
symbolic
ally, the o w n e r o f t h e p l a i t ) . W h a t e v e r it is, t h e
with o n e s e l f a n d o n e ' s c o n s c i o u s a t t i t u d e s . T h e n
thing that c a n d r i v e a w a y t h e evil is a l w a y s
o n e m u s t b e g i n t h e process by s w a l l o w i n g all
unique a n d h a r d to find.
sorts o f b i t t e r t r u t h s .
Far left, a w o o d c u t f r o m a 1 7 t h century a l c h e m i c a l m a n u s c r i p t d e p i c t s a k i n g w h o has f a l l e n ill — a c o m m o n s y m b o l i c i m a g e of t h e emptiness a n d b o r e d o m ( i n t h e consciousness) t h a t c a n m a r k t h e initial stage of t h e i n d i v i d u a t i o n process. Left, f r o m t h e 1 9 6 0 Italian film La Dolce Vita, a n o t h e r i m a g e of this p s y c h o l o g i c a l state: G u e s t s explore the r u n - d o w n interior o f a decayed a r i s t o c r a t ' s castle.
Right, a p a i n t i n g b y t h e m o d e r n Swiss artist Paul Klee e n t i t l e d Fairy Tale. It illustrates a t a l e of a y o u n g m a n w h o s o u g h t a n d found the " b l u e b i r d of h a p p i n e s s . " and so c o u l d m a r r y a p r i n c e s s . In many fairy tales s u c h a t a l i s m a n is necessary t o c u r e illness or misfortune, s y m b o l s of o u r feelings of e m p t i n e s s a n d f u t i l i t y .
The realization of the shadow
W h e t h e r t h e u n c o n s c i o u s c o m e s up at first in
people
a helpful or a n e g a t i v e f o r m , a f t e r a t i m e the
and sloppiness; unreal fantasies, schemes, and
need usually arises to r e a d a p t
the
conscious
such things as e g o t i s m , m e n t a l laziness,
plots; carelessness a n d c o w a r d i c e ;
inordinate
a t t i t u d e in a b e t t e r w a y to the u n c o n s c i o u s f a c -
love o f m o n e y a n d possessions
tors
lit tie sins a b o u t w h i c h he might previously h a v e
therefore
"criticism"
to a c c e p t
from
the
what
seems
unconscious.
to
be
Through
told h i m s e l f :
"That
doesn't
in s h o r t , all Unmatter;
d r e a m s o n e b e c o m e s a c q u a i n t e d with a s p e c t s of
will n o t i c e it, a n d in a n y c a s e o t h e r
o n e ' s o w n p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t for v a r i o u s r e a s o n s
d o it t o o . "
nobody people
o n e has p r e f e r r e d not to look at too c l o s e l y .
I f you feel a n o v e r w h e l m i n g r a g e c o m i n g up
This is w h a t J u n g c a l l e d " t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e
in you w h e n a friend r e p r o a c h e s you a b o u t a
s h a d o w . " ( H e used t h e t e r m " s h a d o w " for this
f a u l t , you c a n b e fairly s u r e t h a t at this point
u n c o n s c i o u s p a r t o f the p e r s o n a l i t y b e c a u s e it
you will find a p a r t o f y o u r s h a d o w , o f w h i c h
a c t u a l l y often a p p e a r s in d r e a m s in a p e r s o n i -
you a r e u n c o n s c i o u s . It is, of c o u r s e , n a t u r a l to
fied f o r m . )
b e c o m e annoyed when others who are " n o bet-
T h e s h a d o w is not the w h o l e o f t h e u n c o n scious p e r s o n a l i t y .
It r e p r e s e n t s u n k n o w n
or
t e r " c r i t i c i z e you b e c a u s e o f s h a d o w faults. But w h a t c a n you say i f y o u r o w n d r e a m s — a n i n n e r
l i t t l e - k n o w n a t t r i b u t e s a n d q u a l i t i e s of t h e e g o
j u d g e in y o u r o w n b e i n g
reproach you? T h a t
— a s p e c t s that m o s t l y b e l o n g to the p e r s o n a l
is t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e e g o gets c a u g h t , a n d
s p h e r e a n d t h a t c o u l d j u s t as well b e c o n s c i o u s .
t h e result is usually e m b a r r a s s e d s i l e n c e . A f t e r -
In s o m e a s p e c t s , t h e s h a d o w c a n also consist o f
w a r d the p a i n f u l a n d l e n g t h y w o r k o f s e l f - e d u -
collective factors that stem from a source out-
cation begins
side the i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r s o n a l life.
t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e q u i v a l e n t o f the l a b o r s o f
W h e n an i n d i v i d u a l m a k e s an a t t e m p t to see his s h a d o w , he b e c o m e s a w a r e of ( a n d often ashamed o f
those q u a l i t i e s a n d i m p u l s e s he
d e n i e s in himself b u t c a n p l a i n l y see in o t h e r
a w o r k , we m i g h t say, that is
H e r c u l e s . T h i s u n f o r t u n a t e h e r o ' s first task, you will r e m e m b e r , was to c l e a n u p in o n e d a y t h e A u g e a n S t a b l e s , in w h i c h h u n d r e d s of c a t t l e h a d d i o p p r d theii d u n g for m a i n d e c a d e s
a task
T h r e e e x a m p l e s of a " c o l l e c t i v e infection'" that can w e l d people into an irrational m o b and to w h i c h t h e shadow ( t h e dark side of t h e e g o - p e r s o n a l i t y ) is v u l n e r a b l e Left, a s c e n e f r o m a 1 9 6 1 P o l i s h film concerning 1 7th century French nuns w h o were possessed by t h e d e v i l " R i g h t , a d r a w i n g by B r u e g h e l d e p i c t s t h e a f f l i c t i o n (largely p s y c h o s o m a t i c ) called " S t Vitus' Dance." w h i c h was widespread in t h e M i d d l e A g e s Far right, t h e f i e r y - c r o s s e m b l e m of t h e Ku Klux K l a n , t h e w h i t e s u p r e m a c y "secret s o c i e t y " of A m e r i c a s S o u t h w h o s e racial i n t o l e r a n c e has o f t e n led t o a c t s of m o b v i o l e n c e
so e n o r m o u s that the o r d i n a r y m o r t a l w o u l d b e
t h e d r e a m e r . T h e f o l l o w i n g d r e a m m a y serve
overcome
mere
as a n e x a m p l e . T h e d r e a m e r was a m a n o f 4 8
T h e s h a d o w does not consist o n l y o f o m i s -
self, w o r k i n g h a r d a n d d i s c i p l i n i n g himself, r e -
by
discouragement
at
the
w h o tried to live very m u c h for a n d bv h i m -
thought o f it. sions. It shows u p just as often in a n i m p u l s i v e
pressing
pleasure
and
spontaneity
to
a
or i n a d v e r t e n t a c t . B e f o r e o n e has t i m e to t h i n k ,
g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n suited his real n a t u r e .
far
the evil r e m a r k pops o u t , t h e plot is h a t c h e d , the w r o n g d e c i s i o n is m a d e , a n d o n e is c o n fronted with results t h a t w e r e n e v e r i n t e n d e d or consciously w a n t e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , the s h a dow is e x p o s e d to c o l l e c t i v e i n f e c t i o n s to a m u c h greater e x t e n t t h a n is t h e c o n s c i o u s p e r s o n a l i t y . When a m a n is a l o n e , for i n s t a n c e , he feels r e l a tively all r i g h t ; b u t as soon as " t h e o t h e r s " d o dark, p r i m i t i v e t h i n g s , he b e g i n s to f e a r t h a t i f he doesn't j o i n in, he will b e c o n s i d e r e d a fool. Thus he gives w a y to i m p u l s e s t h a t d o not r e a l l y belong to h i m at all. It is p a r t i c u l a r l y in c o n tacts with
p e o p l e o f the s a m e sex t h a t
one
stumbles o v e r b o t h o n e ' s o w n s h a d o w a n d those of other p e o p l e . A l t h o u g h we d o see t h e s h a d o w in a person o f the o p p o s i t e sex, w e a r e usually much less a n n o y e d by it a n d c a n m o r e easily pardon it. In d r e a m s a n d m y t h s , t h e r e f o r e , the s h a d o w appeals as a person o f t h e s a m e sex as t h a t o f
1 owned and inhabited a very big house in town, and I didn't yet know all its different parts. So I took a walk through it and discovered, mainly in the cellar, several rooms about which I knew nothing and even exits leading into other cellars or into subterranean streets. I felt uneasy when I found that several of these exits were not locked and some had no locks at all. Moreover, there were some laborers at work in the neighborhood who could have sneaked in. . . . When I came up again to the ground floor, I passed a back yard where again I discovered dilferent exits into the street or into other houses. When I tried to investigate them m o t e closely, a man came up to me laughing loudly and calling out that we were old pa Is from the elementary school. I remembered him too, and while he was telling me about his life, I walked along with him toward the exit and strolled with him through the streets. T h e r e was a strange chiaroscuro in the air as we walked through an enormous circular street
and arrived at a green lawn where three galloping horses suddenly passed us. T h e y were beautiful, strong animals, wild but well-groomed, and they had no rider with them. (Had they run away from military service?) T h e m a z e o f strange passages, c h a m b e r s , a n d unlocked
exits
in
the
cellar
Egyptian
representation
recalls
o f the
the
old
d i s a p p e a r , a n d o n e does not k n o w w h e r e o r how t h e y h a v e g o n e . It is such a lost c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e d r e a m e r t h a t n o w r e t u r n s ( f r o m the b a c k yard) figure
a n d tries to m a k e friends a g a i n . probably
stands
for
the
This
dreamer's
n e g l e c t e d c a p a c i t y for e n j o y i n g life a n d for his e x t r a v e r t e d s h a d o w side.
underworld,
B u t we soon l e a r n w h y t h e d r e a m e r feels " u n -
w h i c h is a w e l l - k n o w n s y m b o l o f t h e u n c o n -
easy " j u s t b e f o r e m e e t i n g this s e e m i n g l y h a r m -
scious w i t h its u n k n o w n
less old f r i e n d . W h e n he strolls with h i m in the
possibilities.
It
also
shows h o w o n e is " o p e n " to o t h e r i n f l u e n c e s in
street,
t h e horses b r e a k
loose. T h e
dreamer
one's unconscious shadow side, and how un-
thinks t h e y m a y h a v e e s c a p e d f r o m
c a n n y a n d a l i e n e l e m e n t s c a n b r e a k in. T h e
s e r v i c e ( t h a t is to s a y , f r o m t h e c o n s c i o u s disci-
cellar, one can
p l i n e t h a t has h i t h e r t o c h a r a c t e r i z e d his life).
dreamer's
s a y , is the b a s e m e n t
psyche.
In
the b a c k
yard
o f the of
military
the
T h e f a c t t h a t t h e horses h a v e n o r i d e r shows
s t r a n g e b u i l d i n g ( w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s the still u n -
t h a t i n s t i n c t i v e drives c a n get a w a y f r o m c o n -
perceived psychic scope of the dreamer's person-
scious c o n t r o l . In this old f r i e n d , a n d in the
a l i t y ) a n old s c h o o l f r i e n d s u d d e n l y t u r n s u p .
horses, all the positive f o r c e r e a p p e a r s t h a t was
T h i s p e r s o n o b v i o u s l y personifies a n o t h e r a s p e c t
l a c k i n g b e f o r e a n d t h a t was b a d l y n e e d e d by
o f the d r e a m e r h i m s e l f — a n
the d r e a m e r .
aspect that
had
b e e n p a r t o f his life as a c h i l d but t h a t he h a d f o r g o t t e n a n d lost. It often h a p p e n s t h a t a p e r son's c h i l d h o o d q u a l i t i e s (for i n s t a n c e , g a i e t y , i r a s c i b i l i t y , o r p e r h a p s trustfulness)
i 70
suddenly
T h i s is a p r o b l e m t h a t often c o m e s u p w h e n o n e m e e t s o n e ' s " o t h e r s i d e . " T h e s h a d o w usually c o n t a i n s v a l u e s t h a t a r e n e e d e d by c o n s c i ousness, b u t t h a t exist in a f o r m t h a t m a k e s it
Left, Anxious
Journey
by t h e m o d e r n
Italian artist d e C h i r i c o . T h e t i t l e and g l o o m y passages of t h e p a i n t i n g express t h e n a t u r e of t h e first contact w i t h t h e u n c o n s c i o u s w h e n the i n d i v i d u a t i o n p r o c e s s b e g i n s . The u n c o n s c i o u s is o f t e n s y m b o l i z e d by c o r r i d o r s , l a b y r i n t h s , or m a z e s : Right, o n a p a p y r u s (c, 1 4 0 0 B . C . ) , the seven d o o r s of t h e E g y p t i a n u n d e r w o r l d , itself seen as a m a z e . B e l o w , d r a w i n g s of t h r e e m a z e s : left to r i g h t , a F i n n i s h s t o n e m a z e (Bronze A g e ) : a 1 9 t h c e n t u r y B r i t i s h turf maze: a n d a m a z e ( i n t i l e s ) o n the f l o o r of C h a r t r e s C a t h e d r a l (it c o u l d b e w a l k e d as a s y m b o l i c pilgrimage to the Holy Land).
difficult
t o i n t e g r a t e t h e m i n t o o n e ' s life. T h e
passages a n d t h e l a r g e h o u s e in this d r e a m also show t h a t the d r e a m e r d o e s n o t yet k n o w
his
o w n p s y c h i c d i m e n s i o n s a n d is n o t y e t a b l e t o fill t h e m o u t . T h e s h a d o w i n t h i s d r e a m is t y p i c a l for a n i n t r o v e r t fa m a n w h o t e n d s t o r e t i r e t o o m u c h from o u t e r l i f e ) . I n t h e c a s e o f a n c x t r a v e r t , w h o is t u r n e d m o r e t o w a r d o u t e r o b j e c t s a n d o u t e r life, t h e s h a d o w w o u l d l o o k q u i t e
w e a p p r o a c h t h e exit, b u t I a m on my g u a r d . A tall, p o r t l y m a n ( r a t h e r rich a n d influential) s u d d e n l y leans a g a i n s t t h e wall beside m e , feeling ill. I q u i c k l y g r a b t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to kill t h e official b y s t a b b i n g his h e a r t . " O n e o n l y notices a bit of m o i s t u r e " — t h i s is said like a c o m m e n t . N o w I a m safe, for t h e F r e n c h m a n w o n ' t a t t a c k m e since t h e m a n w h o g a v e h i m his o r d e r s is d e a d . ( P r o b a b l y t h e official a n d t h e successful p o r t l y m a n are the same person, the latter somehow replacing the former.)
different.
A y o u n g m a n w h o h a d a v e r y lively t e m p e r a ment e m b a r k e d a g a i n a n d a g a i n on successful
T h e d e s p e r a d o r e p r e s e n t s t h e o t h e r side of
enterprises, w h i l e at t h e s a m e t i m e his d r e a m s
the
insisted t h a t h e s h o u l d
r e a c h e d a c o m p l e t e l y d e s t i t u t e s t a t e . H e lies o n
finish
off a p i e c e o f p r i -
vate c r e a t i v e w o r k he h a d b e g u n . T h e
follow-
dreamer—his
introversion —which
has
a c o u c h ( i . e . h e is p a s s i v e ) a n d p u l l s t h e c o v e r
ing w a s o n e o f t h o s e d r e a m s :
o v e r h i s f a c e b e c a u s e h e w a n t s t o b e left a l o n e .
A m a n is lying o n a c o u c h a n d h a s p u l l e d t h e cover o v e r his face. H e is a F r e n c h m a n , a d e s perado w h o would take on any criminal j o b . An official is a c c o m p a n y i n g m e d o w n s t a i r s , a n d I know t h a t a plot has b e e n m a d e a g a i n s t m e : namely, t h a t t h e F r e n c h m a n s h o u l d kill m e as if by c h a n c e . ( T h a t is h o w it w o u l d look from t h e outside.) H e a c t u a l l y s n e a k s u p b e h i n d m e w h e n
ous portly m a n (who are secretly the s a m e per-
T h e official, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a n d t h e p r o s p e r son ) personify t h e d r e a m e r ' s successful o u t e r res p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d activities. T h e s u d d e n illness o f t h e p o r t l y m a n is c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e fact t h a t t h i s d r e a m e r h a d in fact b e c o m e ill s e v e r a l t i m e s w h e n h e h a d a l l o w e d his d y n a m i c e n e r g y to e x p l o d e t o o f o r c i b l y in his e x t e r n a l life. B u t t h i s
'7'
s u c c e s s f u l m a n h a s n o b l o o d in h i s v e i n s a sort of m o i s t u r e
only
w h i c h m e a n s that these ex-
t e r n a l a m b i t i o u s a c t i v i t i e s of t h e d r e a m e r c o n t a i n n o g e n u i n e life a n d
no passion, but
are
b l o o d l e s s m e c h a n i s m s . T h u s it w o u l d b e n o r e a l loss if t h e p o r t l y m a n w e r e k i l l e d . A t t h e e n d of t h e d r e a m , t h e F r e n c h m a n is s a t i s f i e d ; h e o b v i ously represents a positive s h a d o w figure
who
had turned negative and dangerous only
be-
c a u s e t h e c o n s c i o u s a t t i t u d e of t h e d r e a m e r d i d not agree with him. T h i s d r e a m s h o w s us t h a t t h e s h a d o w consist
of
many
different
elements
can
for
in-
s t a n c e , of u n c o n s c i o u s a m b i t i o n ( t h e s u c c e s s f u l p o r t l y m a n ) a n d of i n t r o v e r s i o n
(the
French-
m a n ) . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r d r e a m e r ' s association to the French, moreover, was that they know how to h a n d l e love affairs v e r y well. T h e r e f o r e two shadow
figures also r e p r e s e n t
two
the
well-
k n o w n d r i v e s : p o w e r a n d sex. T h e p o w e r d r i v e a p p e a r s m o m e n t a r i l y in a d o u b l e f o r m , b o t h as a n official a n d a s a s u c c e s s f u l m a n . T h e o f f i c i a l , or civil s e r v a n t , personifies c o l l e c t i v e
adapta-
tion, w h e r e a s t h e successful m a n d e n o t e s a m b i tion ; but naturally both serve the p o w e r drive. When
t h e d r e a m e r s u c c e e d s in s t o p p i n g
this
d a n g e r o u s i n n e r f o r c e , t h e F r e n c h m a n is s u d denly
In o t h e r w o r d s ,
the
e q u a l l y d a n g e r o u s a s p e c t of t h e sex d r i v e
no longer hostile.
has
also s u r r e n d e r e d . O b v i o u s l y , t h e p r o b l e m of t h e s h a d o w plays a g r e a t r o l e i n all p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s . If t h e m a n w h o h a d this d r e a m h a d not b e e n sensible a b o u t his s h a d o w p r o b l e m , h e c o u l d e a s i l y h a v e i d e n tified t h e d e s p e r a t e F r e n c h m a n w i t h t h e " d a n g e r o u s C o m m u n i s t s ' ' of o u t e r life, o r t h e official plus the prosperous m a n
with
the
"grasping
c a p i t a l i s t s . " I n this w a y he w o u l d h a v e a v o i d e d seeing that he h a d within
him such
e l e m e n t s . If p e o p l e o b s e r v e t h e i r o w n
warring uncon-
s c i o u s t e n d e n c i e s in o t h e r p e o p l e , t h i s is c a l l e d a " p r o j e c t i o n . " P o l i t i c a l a g i t a t i o n i n all c o u n t r i e s is full o f s u c h p r o j e c t i o n s , j u s t as m u c h a s the b a c k - y a r d gossip of little g r o u p s a n d i n d i viduals. Projections
of all k i n d s o b s c u r e
our
v i e w o f o u r f e l l o w m e n , s p o i l i n g its o b j e c t i v i t y , and
thus
human
'72
spoiling
all
relationships.
possibility
of
genuine
"For over live years this man has been chasing around Europe like a madman in search of something he could set on lire. Untoitunalely he again and again finds hirelings who open the gates ol their country to this international incendiaiy "
A n d t h e r e is a n a d d i t i o n a l d i s a d v a n t a g e i n
I t w o u l d b e r e l a t i v e l y e a s y if o n e c o u l d i n t e -
projecting o u r s h a d o w . If w e identify o u r o w n
grate the shadow into the conscious personality
shadow with, say, the C o m m u n i s t s or the capi-
j u s t by a t t e m p t i n g to be honest a n d to use o n e ' s
talists, a p a r t o f o u r o w n p e r s o n a l i t y
remains
insight.
But, unfortunately,
such an
attempt
on t h e o p p o s i n g s i d e . T h e r e s u l t is t h a t w e s h a l l
d o e s n o t a l w a y s w o r k . T h e r e is s u c h a p a s s i o n a t e
constantly (though involuntarily) do things he-
d r i v e w i t h i n the s h a d o w y p a r t of oneself t h a t
hind o u r o w n b a c k s t h a t s u p p o r t this o t h e r side,
r e a s o n m a y n o t p r e v a i l a g a i n s t it. A b i t t e r e x -
and thus we shall u n w i t t i n g l y h e l p o u r e n e m y .
perience c o m i n g from
If, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , w e r e a l i z e t h e p r o j e c t i o n a n d
s i o n a l l y h e l p ; a b r i c k , so t o s p e a k , h a s t o d r o p
can discuss m a t t e r s w i t h o u t fear or
o n o n e ' s h e a d to p u t a stop to s h a d o w
dealing with
hostility,
the o t h e r person sensibly,
then
t h e r e is a c h a n c e o f m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g
or
at l e a s t o f a t r u c e .
the outside m a y
occadrives
a n d impulses. At times a heroic decision serve to halt
them,
but such
a
may
superhuman
e f f o r t is u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e o n l y if t h e C r e a t
W h e t h e r the s h a d o w b e c o m e s o u r friend or e n e m y d e p e n d s largely u p o n ourselves. As the
Man
w i t h i n ( t h e Self) helps t h e i n d i v i d u a l to c a r r y it t h r o u g h .
d r e a m s of t h e u n e x p l o r e d h o u s e a n d t h e F r e n c h
T h e fact t h a t t h e s h a d o w c o n t a i n s t h e o v e r -
d e s p e r a d o b o t h s h o w , t h e s h a d o w is n o t n e c e s -
w h e l m i n g p o w e r of i r r e s i s t i b l e i m p u l s e d o e s n o t
sarily a l w a y s a n o p p o n e n t . I n f a c t , h e is e x a c t l y
mean, however, that the drive should always be
like a n y h u m a n b e i n g w i t h w h o m o n e h a s t o g e t
h e r o i c a l l y r e p r e s s e d . S o m e t i m e s t h e s h a d o w is
along, s o m e t i m e s by g i v i n g in, s o m e t i m e s by r e -
p o w e r f u l b e c a u s e t h e u r g e o f t h e S e l f is p o i n t -
sisting, s o m e t i m e s by g i v i n g love
ing in t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n , a n d so o n e d o e s n o t
whatever the
situation requires. T h e s h a d o w becomes hostile
k n o w w h e t h e r it is t h e S e l f o r t h e s h a d o w t h a t
o n l y w h e n h e is i g n o r e d o r m i s u n d e r s t o o d .
is b e h i n d t h e i n n e r p r e s s u r e . I n t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ,
S o m e t i m e s , t h o u g h not often, a n
individual
o n e is u n f o r t u n a t e l y i n t h e s a m e s i t u a t i o n a s i n
feels i m p e l l e d t o l i v e o u t t h e w o r s e s i d e o f h i s
a
contents
arc
n a t u r e a n d to r e p r e s s his b e t t e r side. I n s u c h
blurred and merge into one another, and
one
cases t h e s h a d o w a p p e a r s a s a p o s i t i v e
figure
in
his d r e a m s . B u t t o a p e r s o n w h o l i v e s o u t h i s
moonlit
landscape:
All
the
never knows exactly w h a t or where
anything
is, o r w h e r e o n e t h i n g b e g i n s a n d e n d s . ( T h i s is
natural e m o t i o n s a n d feelings, the s h a d o w m a y
k n o w n as t h e " c o n t a m i n a t i o n " of u n c o n s c i o u s
a p p e a r a s a c o l d a n d n e g a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l ; it
contents.)
then personifies poisonous j u d g m e n t s a n d n e g a tive t h o u g h t s t h a t
have been held
whatever
takes,
form
it
back.
the function
of
W h e n J u n g c a l l e d o n e a s p e c t of t h e u n c o n -
So,
scious personality the s h a d o w , he was referring
the
to a relatively well-defined
factor. But
some-
s h a d o w is t o r e p r e s e n t t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e o f t h e
t i m e s e v e r y t h i n g t h a t is u n k n o w n t o t h e e g o is
ego a n d to e m b o d y j u s t t h o s e q u a l i t i e s t h a t o n e
mixed up with the shadow, including even the
dislikes m o s t in o t h e r p e o p l e .
m o s t v a l u a b l e a n d h i g h e s t f o r c e s . W h o , for i n -
Rather t h a n face o u r d e f e c t s as revealed by t h e s h a d o w wepro/ect them o n t o o t h e r s for instance, on t o o u r p o l i t i c a l e n e m i e s A b o v e left, a p o s t e r m a d e for a p a r a d e in C o m m u n i s t C h i n a s h o w s A m e r i c a as an evil s e r p e n t ( b e a r i n g N a z i s w a s t i k a s ) k i l l e d by a C h i n e s e h a n d Left, H i t l e r d u r i n g a s p e e c h ; t h e q u o t a t i o n is his d e s c r i p t i o n of C h u r c h i l l P r o j e c t i o n s also f l o u r i s h in m a l i c i o u s g o s s i p ( r i g h t f r o m the B r i t i s h t e l e v i s i o n series Coronation Street)
A b o v e , the w i l d w h i t e stallion f r o m t h e 1 9 5 3 F r e n c h f i l m Crin Blanc W i l d horses o f t e n s y m b o l i z e t h e uncontrollable instinctive drives that can erupt from the u n c o n s c i o u s — a n d t h a t m a n y p e o p l e try t o repress. In t h e f i l m , t h e horse a n d a b o y form a strong attachment (though t h e h o r s e still r u n s w i l d w i t h his h e r d ) . B u t local h o r s e m e n set o u t t o c a p t u r e t h e w i l d horses. T h e s t a l l i o n a n d his b o y rider are p u r s u e d for miles; finally they are c o r n e r e d o n t h e seashore. Rather than submit to capture, the b o y a n d t h e horse p l u n g e i n t o t h e sea t o be s w e p t a w a y S y m b o l i c a l l y , t h e s t o r y ' s e n d s e e m s t o represent an e s c a p e i n t o t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ( t h e sea) as a w a y t o a v o i d f a c i n g reality in t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d .
stance, could be quite sure w h e t h e r the F r e n c h
ally
d e s p e r a d o in t h e d r e a m I q u o t e d w a s a useless
w e r e o n t h e i r w a y t o s t e a l it. A s it is, t h e
t r a m p or a most valuable introvert? A n d
saved
it for
its o w n e r s
because
pirates fisher-
the
m e n c a n s a l v a g e it. T h e h a n d s o m e y o u n g m a n
bolting horses of t h e p r e c e d i n g d r e a m — s h o u l d
w a s o n h i s w a y t o c o m m i t a c r i m e , a n d b y kill-
they b e a l l o w e d to r u n free o r n o t ? I n a c a s e
ing him
when the d r e a m
i n f a m y . By r e s t o r i n g t h e w a l l , t w o p i o u s y o u n g
clear,
itself d o e s n o t m a k e
the conscious personality
things
will h a v e
to
make the decision.
K h i d r saved his pious p a r e n t s
from
m e n w e r e saved from ruin because their treas u r e w a s b u r i e d u n d e r it. M o s e s , w h o h a d b e e n
If t h e s h a d o w figure c o n t a i n s v a l u a b l e , vital forces, t h e y o u g h t t o b e a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o a c t u a l
so m o r a l l y i n d i g n a n t , s a w n o w ( t o o l a t e )
that
his j u d g m e n t h a d b e e n t o o h a s t y . K h i d r ' s d o i n g s
e x p e r i e n c e a n d n o t r e p r e s s e d . I t is u p t o t h e e g o
h a d s e e m e d to b e t o t a l l y evil, b u t in fact t h e y
to g i v e u p its p r i d e a n d p r i g g i s h n e s s a n d t o l i v e
were not.
out s o m e t h i n g t h a t s e e m s to b e d a r k , b u t a c t u ally m a y n o t b e . T h i s c a n r e q u i r e a
sacrifice
just as h e r o i c as t h e c o n q u e s t of p a s s i o n ,
Looking
at
this story
naively,
one
might
a s s u m e t h a t K h i d r is t h e l a w l e s s , c a p r i c i o u s ,
but
evil s h a d o w of p i o u s , l a w - a b i d i n g M o s e s . But
one
sonification of s o m e secret c r e a t i v e a c t i o n s of
in a n o p p o s i t e s e n s e .
t h i s is n o t t h e c a s e . K h i d r is m u c h m o r e t h e p e r -
T h e e t h i c a l difficulties t h a t arise w h e n
the
t h e G o d h e a d . ( O n e c a n find a s i m i l a r m e a n i n g
Moses
in t h e f a m o u s I n d i a n s t o r y of " T h e K i n g a n d
meets K h i d r ( " t h e G r e e n O n e " or "first a n g e l
t h e C o r p s e " as i n t e r p r e t e d b y H e n r y Z i m m e r . )
of G o d " ) i n t h e d e s e r t . T h e y w a n d e r a l o n g t o -
I t is n o a c c i d e n t t h a t I h a v e n o t q u o t e d a d r e a m
meets o n e ' s s h a d o w a r e well d e s c r i b e d in 18th B o o k o f t h e K o r a n .
In this tale
gether, a n d K h i d r expresses his fear t h a t M o s e s
to illustrate this s u b t l e p r o b l e m . I h a v e chosen
will n o t b e a b l e t o w i t n e s s h i s d e e d s
this w e l l - k n o w n story from the K o r a n
without
because
i n d i g n a t i o n . If M o s e s c a n n o t b e a r w i t h h i m a n d
it s u m s u p t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a l i f e t i m e , w h i c h
trust h i m , K h i d r will h a v e to l e a v e .
would very rarely be expressed with such clarity
Presently K h i d r scuttles the
fishing
b o a t of
some p o o r villagers. T h e n , before Moses's eyes, he kills a h a n d s o m e y o u n g m a n , a n d
finally
he
in a n i n d i v i d u a l d r e a m . W h e n d a r k figures t u r n u p i n o u r d r e a m s a n d seem
to w a n t s o m e t h i n g , w e c a n n o t be
sure
restores t h e fallen wall of a city of u n b e l i e v e r s .
w h e t h e r t h e y personify m e r e l y a s h a d o w y p a r t of
Moses c a n n o t h e l p e x p r e s s i n g his i n d i g n a t i o n ,
o u r s e l v e s , o r t h e Self, o r b o t h a t t h e s a m e t i m e .
a n d so K h i d r h a s t o l e a v e h i m . B e f o r e h i s d e -
D i v i n i n g in a d v a n c e w h e t h e r o u r d a r k p a r t n e r
p a r t u r e , h o w e v e r , h e e x p l a i n s t h e r e a s o n s for
symbolizes
his a c t i o n s :
overcome or a meaningful
By s c u t t l i n g
the
boat
he
actu-
T h e s h a d o w c a n be said t o h a v e t w o aspects, one d a n g e r o u s , the other v a l u a b l e T h e p a i n t i n g of t h e H i n d u g o d V i s h n u , far left, i m a g e s s u c h a duality: Usually considered a b e n e v o l e n t g o d , V i s h n u here a p p e a r s in a d e m o n i c a s p e c t , t e a r i n g a m a n apart Left, f r o m a J a p a n e s e t e m p l e ( A D 7 5 9 ) , a s c u l p t u r e of B u d d h a also e x p r e s s e s d u a l i t y : The g o d ' s many arms hold symbols of b o t h g o o d a n d evil R i g h t , t h e d o u b t - s t r i c k e n Martin Luther ( p o r t r a y e d by A l b e r t F i n n e y in t h e 1 9 6 1 p l a y Luther by B r i t a i n ' s J o h n O s b o r n e ) : L u t h e r w a s never sure w h e t h e r his break f r o m t h e C h u r c h w a s i n s p i r e d by G o d or arose f r o m his o w n p r i d e a n d o b s t i n a c y ( i n s y m b o l i c t e r m s , t h e " e v i l " side of his s h a d o w ) .
a
shortcoming
that
we
should
b i t o f life t h a t
we
should accept
t h i s is o n e o f t h e m o s t
difficult
p r o b l e m s t h a t w e e n c o u n t e r on the w a y to individuation.
Moreover, the dream symbols
are
to look to his o w n p r o b l e m a n d try to d e t e r m i n e w h a t is r i g h t for h i m s e l f . A s a n o l d Z e n
Budd-
hist M a s t e r said, w e m u s t follow t h e e x a m p l e
often so s u b t l e a n d c o m p l i c a t e d t h a t o n e c a n -
of t h e c o w h e r d
not b e sure of their i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
s t i c k s o t h a t it w i l l n o t g r a z e o n o t h e r p e o p l e ' s
In such a
s i t u a t i o n a l l o n e c a n d o is a c c e p t t h e d i s c o m fort o f e t h i c a l d o u b t — m a k i n g n o final d e c i s i o n s or c o m m i t m e n t s a n d c o n t i n u i n g to w a t c h
w h o w a t c h e s his ox " w i t h
a
meadows." T h e s e n e w discoveries of d e p t h
psychology
the
a r e b o u n d to m a k e s o m e c h a n g e in o u r collective
d r e a m s . T h i s r e s e m b l e s t h e s i t u a t i o n of C i n d e r -
e t h i c a l v i e w s , for t h e y w i l l c o m p e l u s t o j u d g e
ella w h e n h e r s t e p m o t h e r t h r e w a h e a p of g o o d
all h u m a n a c t i o n s in a m u c h m o r e i n d i v i d u a l
a n d b a d p e a s in front of h e r a n d a s k e d h e r to
a n d s u b t l e w a y . T h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e
uncon-
s o r t t h e m o u t . A l t h o u g h it s e e m e d q u i t e h o p e -
s c i o u s is o n e o f t h e m o s t f a r - r e a c h i n g
discov-
less, C i n d e r e l l a b e g a n p a t i e n t l y t o s o r t t h e p e a s ,
eries
a n d s u d d e n l y d o v e s (or a n t s , in s o m e versions)
r e c o g n i t i o n o f its u n c o n s c i o u s r e a l i t y
c a m e to h e l p her. T h e s e c r e a t u r e s
symbolize
of
recent
times.
But
the
fact
that
involves
h o n e s t s e l f - e x a m i n a t i o n a n d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of
helpful, deeply unconscious impulses that
can
o n e ' s life c a u s e s m a n y p e o p l e t o c o n t i n u e
to
o n l y b e felt i n o n e ' s b o d y , a s it w e r e , a n d
that
b e h a v e a s if n o t h i n g a t a l l h a s h a p p e n e d .
It
p o i n t to a w a y o u t .
t a k e s a lot of c o u r a g e to t a k e t h e
S o m e w h e r e , right at t h e b o t t o m of o n e ' s o w n being,
one
generally
does
know
where
one
unconscious
s e r i o u s l y a n d t o t a c k l e t h e p r o b l e m s it r a i s e s . Most people a r e too indolent to think
deeply
there
a b o u t e v e n t h o s e m o r a l a s p e c t s of t h e i r b e h a -
a r e times w h e n t h e c l o w n w e call " I " b e h a v e s
vior of w h i c h t h e y a r e c o n s c i o u s ; t h e y a r e cer-
in s u c h a d i s t r a c t i n g fashion t h a t t h e i n n e r v o i c e
tainly too lazy to c o n s i d e r h o w t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
c a n n o t m a k e its p r e s e n c e felt.
affects t h e m .
should go a n d w h a t one should do. But
S o m e t i m e s all a t t e m p t s to u n d e r s t a n d h i n t s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
fail, a n d
the
in s u c h
a
difficulty o n e c a n o n l y h a v e t h e c o u r a g e to d o w h a t seems to be right, while being r e a d y
to
c h a n g e c o u r s e if t h e s u g g e s t i o n s o f t h e u n c o n scious s h o u l d s u d d e n l y p o i n t in a n o t h e r d i r e c tion.
It
unusual)
may
also
happen
(although
t h a t a p e r s o n will
find
this
is
it b e t t e r
to
resist t h e u r g e of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , e v e n at t h e p r i c e of feeling w a r p e d by d o i n g so, r a t h e r t h a n d e p a r t t o o far f r o m t h e s t a t e o f b e i n g (This would
human.
b e t h e s i t u a t i o n of p e o p l e
who
h a d t o l i v e o u t a c r i m i n a l d i s p o s i t i o n in o r d e r tf) b e c o m p l e t e l y t h e m s e l v e s . ) T h e strength a n d i n n e r clarity n e e d e d by the e g o in o r d e r secretly
from
to m a k e the
such
Great
a decision
Man,
who
stem appar-
ently does not w a n t to reveal himself too clearly. It m a y b e t h a t t h e S e l f w a n t s t h e e g o t o m a k e a free c h o i c e , o r it m a y b e t h a t t h e Self d e p e n d s on h u m a n
consciousness a n d
its d e c i s i o n s
to
h e l p h i m t o b e c o m e m a n i f e s t . W h e n it c o m e s to s u c h difficult e t h i c a l p r o b l e m s , n o o n e c a n t r u l y j u d g e t h e d e e d s of o t h e r s . E a c h m a n
176
has
The anima: the w o m a n within
Difficult a n d s u b t l e e t h i c a l p r o b l e m s a r e n o t inv a r i a b l y b r o u g h t u p b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e shadow
itself. O f t e n
another
"inner
figure"
A
particularly
good
example
of h o w
a n i m a is e x p e r i e n c e d a s a n i n n e r prophets
cover a female
o t h e r arctic tribes. S o m e of these e v e n
s c i o u s ; a n d it w i l l b e a m a l e
of his
figure
uncon-
in t h e case
of a w o m a n . O f t e n this s e c o n d s y m b o l i c
figure
in a
m a n ' s p s y c h e is f o u n d i n t h e m e d i c i n e m e n a n d
e m e r g e s . I f t h e d r e a m e r is a m a n , h e w i l l d i s personification
the
figure
(shamans)
among
the
Eskimo
and wear
w o m e n ' s clothes, or have breasts depicted
on
t h e i r g a r m e n t s , in o r d e r to m a n i f e s t t h e i r i n n e r
turns up behind the shadow, bringing up new
feminine side — the side t h a t e n a b l e s t h e m
and
connect with the "ghost l a n d "
different
problems. J u n g
called
and female forms " a n i m u s " a n d
its
male
"anima."
T h e a n i m a is a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f a l l f e m i n i n e
(i.e. w h a t
to we
call t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ) . O n e r e p o r t e d c a s e tells o f a y o u n g m a n w h o
psychological t e n d e n c i e s in a m a n ' s p s y c h e , such
was being initiated by an older s h a m a n
as v a g u e feelings a n d m o o d s , p r o p h e t i c h u n c h e s ,
w h o w a s b u r i e d b y h i m i n a s n o w h o l e . H e fell
r e c e p t i v e n e s s t o t h e i r r a t i o n a l , c a p a c i t y for p e r -
i n t o a s t a t e of d r e a m i n e s s a n d e x h a u s t i o n . coma
he
this
l e a s t — h i s r e l a t i o n t o t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . I t is n o
emitted
m e r e c h a n c e t h a t in o l d e n t i m e s priestesses (like
needed
the G r e e k Sibyl) w e r e used to f a t h o m t h e d i v i n e
spirit, h e l p e d h i m to p r a c t i c e his difficult
will a n d t o m a k e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e g o d s .
fession b y r e l a t i n g h i m t o t h e p o w e r s of t h e b e -
She
to k n o w
saw
instructed
and
a
woman
In
s o n a l l o v e , f e e l i n g for n a t u r e , a n d — l a s t b u t n o t
light.
suddenly
and
him
later, as his
who
in all
he
protective pro-
T h e a n i m a ( t h e f e m a l e e l e m e n t in a m a l e p s y c h e ) is o f t e n p e r s o n i f i e d as a w i t c h or a priestess — w o m e n w h o have l i n k s w i t h " f o r c e s of d a r k n e s s " a n d " t h e spirit w o r l d " (i.e. t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ) . Left, a sorceress w i t h imps and d e m o n s (in a 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y e n g r a v i n g ) . B e l o w , a s h a m a n of a S i b e r i a n tribe, w h o is a m a n d r e s s e d as a w o m a n — b e c a u s e w o m e n are t h o u g h t t o be m o r e a b l e t o c o n t a c t spirits.
A b o v e , a w o m a n s p i r i t u a l i s t or m e d i u m ( f r o m t h e 1 9 5 1 f i l m The Medium, based o n an o p e r a b y G i a n Carlo M e n o t t i ) . The majority of m o d e r n m e d i u m s are p r o b a b l y w o m e n ; t h e belief is still w i d e s p r e a d t h a t w o m e n are m o r e r e c e p t i v e t h a n m e n to the irrational.
'77
y o n d . S u c h a n e x p e r i e n c e s h o w s t h e a n i m a as
a n i m a is p e r s o n i f i e d b y t h e Q u e e n o f t h e N i g h t
the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of a m a n ' s u n c o n s c i o u s .
i n M o z a r t ' s Magic
I n its i n d i v i d u a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n t h e c h a r a c t e r of a m a n ' s a n i m a
is a s a r u l e s h a p e d
by
his
the G e r m a n
Flute.)
T h e Greek Sirens or
Lorelei also personify
this
dan-
g e r o u s a s p e c t of t h e a n i m a , w h i c h in this form
m o t h e r . If h e feels t h a t h i s m o t h e r h a d a n e g a -
symbolizes destructive illusion. T h e
tive i n f l u e n c e o n h i m , his a n i m a will often e x -
S i b e r i a n t a l e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e b e h a v i o r of s u c h a
press
destructive a n i m a :
itself
uncertainty,
in
irritable,
insecurity,
depressed and
moods,
touchiness.
h o w e v e r , h e is a b l e t o o v e r c o m e t h e
(If,
negative
assaults o n himself, t h e y c a n e v e n serve to reinforce his m a s c u l i n i t y . ) W i t h i n t h e soul of s u c h a m a n the negative m o t h e r - a n i m a endlessly repeat
this t h e m e : " I
figure
am
will
nothing.
N o t h i n g m a k e s a n y sense. W i t h o t h e r s it's differe n t , b u t for m e . . .
I enjoy n o t h i n g . "
These
" a n i m a m o o d s " c a u s e a sort of d u l l n e s s , a fear of disease, of i m p o t e n c e , or of a c c i d e n t s . w h o l e o f life t a k e s o n
a sad
and
The
oppressive
aspect. Such dark moods can even lure a m a n to s u i c i d e , in w h i c h c a s e t h e a n i m a b e c o m e s a death
demon.
Cocteau's The femme
film
French fatale.
(A
She
appears
in
this
role
in
figure
a
Orphee. call s u c h milder
an
anima
version
of this
following
dark
O n e d a y a lonely h u n t e r sees a beautiful w o m a n e m e r g i n g from t h e d e e p forest on the o t h e r side of t h e river. S h e w a v e s at h i m a n d sings: O h . c o m e , lonely h u n t e r in t h e stillness of dusk. C o m e , c o m e ! I miss y o u . I miss y o u ! Now I will e m b r a c e y o u . e m b r a c e y o u ! C o m e , c o m e ! M y nest is n e a r , my nest is n e a r . C o m e , c o m e , lonely h u n t e r , now in t h e stillness of dusk. H e t h r o w s oil his clothes a n d s w i m s across the river, but s u d d e n l y she Hies awav in the form "I an owl. l a u g h i n g m o c k i n g l y at h i m . W h e n he tries to swim b a c k to find his clothes, he d r o w n s in t h e cold river. I n this tale the a n i m a symbolizes a n unreal d r e a m of l o v e , h a p p i n e s s , a n d m a t e r n a l w a r m t h (her nest) — a d r e a m t h a t lures m e n a w a y from
T h e a n i m a ( l i k e t h e s h a d o w ) has t w o aspects, benevolent and malefic (or n e g a t i v e ) Left, a s c e n e f r o m Orphee (a f i l m v e r s i o n by C o c t e a u of t h e O r p h e u s m y t h ) : T h e w o m a n c a n be seen as a lethal a n i m a . f o r she has led O r p h e u s ( b e i n g c a r r i e d by d a r k " u n d e r w o r l d ' ' f i g u r e s ) t o his d o o m . A l s o m a l e v o l e n t are t h e Lorelei of T e u t o n i c m y t h ( b e l o w , in a 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y d r a w i n g ) , w a t e r spirits w h o s e s i n g i n g lures m e n to their death. B e l o w right, a parallel f r o m S l a v o n i c m y t h : t h e Rusalka. These beings were thought to b e spirits of d r o w n e d g i r l s w h o b e w i t c h and d r o w n passing men.
.78
reality. T h e h u n t e r is d r o w n e d b e c a u s e h e r a n after
a
wishful
fantasy
that
could
not
be
fulfilled.
this sort c a n t u r n m e n i n t o sentimentalists, o r they m a y b e c o m e as t o u c h y as old m a i d s or as sensitive as t h e fairy-tale princess w h o c o u l d
A n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h t h e n e g a t i v e a n i m a in a man's
personality
waspish,
poisonous,
can
be
revealed
effeminate
is
remarks
in by
feel a p e a u n d e r 3 0 m a t t r e s s e s . A still subtle
manifestation
of
a
negative
more anima
a p p e a r s in s o m e fairy tales in t h e form of a
which h e d e v a l u e s e v e r y t h i n g . R e m a r k s o f t h i s
p r i n c e s s w h o asks h e r suitors to a n s w e r a series
sort a l w a y s c o n t a i n a c h e a p t w i s t i n g o f t h e t r u t h
of riddles or, p e r h a p s , to h i d e t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r
and a r e in a s u b t l e w a y d e s t r u c t i v e . T h e r e a r e
h e r n o s e . I f t h e y c a n n o t g i v e t h e a n s w e r s , o r if
legends t h r o u g h o u t
s h e c a n find t h e m , t h e y m u s t d i e
the
world
in
which
"a
a n d she in-
poison d a m s e l " ( a s t h e y c a l l h e r i n t h e O r i e n t )
v a r i a b l y wins. T h e a n i m a in this guise involves
a p p e a r s . S h e is a b e a u t i f u l
creature who has
m e n in a destructive intellectual g a m e . W e c a n
weapons h i d d e n in h e r b o d y o r a secret poison
n o t i c e t h e effect o f t h i s a n i m a t r i c k i n a l l t h o s e
first
neurotic pseudo-intellectual dialogues that in-
I n t h i s g u i s e t h e a n i m a is a s
hibit a m a n from g e t t i n g into direct t o u c h with
cold a n d r e c k l e s s a s c e r t a i n u n c a n n y a s p e c t s o f
life a n d its r e a l d e c i s i o n s . H e r e f l e c t s a b o u t life
with w h i c h s h e kills h e r l o v e r s d u r i n g t h e i r night t o g e t h e r .
n a t u r e itself, a n d i n E u r o p e is o f t e n
expressed
so m u c h t h a t h e c a n n o t l i v e it a n d loses a l l h i s s p o n t a n e i t y a n d o u t g o i n g feeling.
to this d a y b y t h e b e l i e f i n w i t c h e s . II, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a m a n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f
The
his m o t h e r h a s b e e n p o s i t i v e , t h i s c a n a l s o a f f e c t
anima
his a n i m a in t y p i c a l b u t d i f f e r e n t w a y s , w i t h
m a y be d r i v e n to nurse their fantasies by look-
the r e s u l t t h a t h e e i t h e r b e c o m e s e f f e m i n a t e o r
i n g a t films a n d s t r i p - t e a s e s h o w s , o r b y d a y -
is p r e y e d u p o n b y w o m e n a n d t h u s is u n a b l e
d r e a m i n g o v e r p o r n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l . T h i s is a
to c o p e w i t h t h e h a r d s h i p s o f life. A n a n i m a o f
c r u d e , p r i m i t i v e a s p e c t of t h e a n i m a ,
most
frequent
manifestation
of
takes t h e form of erotic fantasy.
A b o v e , four scenes from the 1 9 3 0 G e r m a n f i l m The Blue Angel, w h i c h concerns a strait-laced professor's i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h a c a b a r e t singer, clearly a negative anima figure T h e girl uses her c h a r m t o d e g r a d e the professor, even m a k i n g him a b u f f o o n in her c a b a r e t act. R i g h t , a d r a w i n g of S a l o m e w i t h t h e h e a d of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t , w h o m s h e h a d k i l l e d t o p r o v e her p o w e r over King Herod
the Men
which
A b o v e , a p a i n t i n g by t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y Italian artist S t e f a n o d i G i o v a n n i d e p i c t i n g St. A n t h o n y c o n f r o n t e d by an a t t r a c t i v e y o u n g g i r l . B u t her b a t - l i k e w i n g s reveal t h a t she is a c t u a l l y a d e m o n , o n e of t h e m a n y t e m p t a t i o n s o f f e r e d t o St. A n t h o n y — a n d a n o t h e r e m b o d i m e n t of t h e deadly anima figure.
A b o v e right, a British cinema poster a d v e r t i s i n g t h e F r e n c h f i l m Eve (1 9 6 2 ) . T h e f i l m is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e x p l o i t s of a femme fatale ( p l a y e d by t h e F r e n c h actress J e a n n e M o r e a u ) — a w i d e l y k n o w n term for the " d a n g e r o u s " w o m e n whose relationships w i t h m e n clearly image t h e n a t u r e of t h e n e g a t i v e a n i m a .
T h e f o l l o w i n g is a d e s c r i p t i o n ( t a k e n f r o m t h e p o s t e r a b o v e ) of t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e f i l m (a m e l o d r a m a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n , b u t o n e t h a t m i g h t fit m a n y p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s of t h e n e g a t i v e a n i m a ) : " M y s t e r i o u s tantalizing — alluring - w a n t o n but d e e p w i t h i n her b u r n i n g t h e v i o l e n t fires t h a t d e s t r o y a m a n . "
becomes compulsive only w h e n a m a n does not
a c c o m p a n y i n g difficulties. A b e a r a b l e solution
sufficiently c u l t i v a t e his feeling r e l a t i o n s h i p s -
t o s u c h a d r a m a c a n b e f o u n d o n l y if t h e a n i m a
when
is r e c o g n i z e d a s a n i n n e r p o w e r . T h e s e c r e t a i m
his
feeling
attitude
toward
life
has
r e m a i n e d infantile.
of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s in b r i n g i n g a b o u t s u c h a n
All t h e s e a s p e c t s o f t h e a n i m a h a v e t h e s a m e
e n t a n g l e m e n t is t o f o r c e a m a n t o d e v e l o p a n d
t e n d e n c y t h a t w e h a v e o b s e r v e d in t h e s h a d o w :
t o b r i n g h i s own b e i n g t o m a t u r i t y b y i n t e g r a t -
That
i n g m o r e of his u n c o n s c i o u s p e r s o n a l i t y
is, t h e y c a n
be projected
so t h a t
they
a p p e a r to t h e m a n to b e t h e q u a l i t i e s of s o m e particular
woman.
I t is t h e p r e s e n c e o f
a n i m a that causes a m a n
t o fall s u d d e n l y
l o v e w h e n h e s e e s a w o m a n for t h e
first
the
But I h a v e said e n o u g h a b o u t the negative
in
side of t h e a n i m a . T h e r e a r e j u s t as m a n y i m -
time
a n d k n o w s a t o n c e t h a t t h i s is " s h e . " I n
and
b r i n g i n g it i n t o h i s r e a l life.
portant
positive
aspects.
The
anima
is,
for
this
i n s t a n c e , r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e f a c t t h a t a m a n is
s i t u a t i o n , t h e m a n feels a s if h e h a s k n o w n t h i s
a b l e t o find t h e r i g h t m a r r i a g e p a r t n e r . A n o t h e r
w o m a n i n t i m a t e l y for a l l t i m e ; h e falls for h e r
f u n c t i o n is a t l e a s t e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t :
so h e l p l e s s l y t h a t it l o o k s t o o u t s i d e r s l i k e c o m -
e v e r a m a n ' s l o g i c a l m i n d is i n c a p a b l e o f d i s -
plete m a d n e s s . W o m e n w h o a r e of " f a i r y - l i k e "
c e r n i n g facts t h a t a r e h i d d e n in his u n c o n s c i o u s ,
character especially attract such a n i m a projec-
the anima
tions, because m e n c a n a t t r i b u t e almost thing
to a
creature
who
is s o
any-
fascinatingly
v a g u e , a n d c a n thus proceed to w e a v e
fanta-
sies a r o u n d h e r .
helps him
When-
to d i g t h e m o u t .
Even
m o r e v i t a l is t h e r o l e t h a t t h e a n i m a p l a y s i n p u t t i n g a m a n ' s m i n d in t u n e w i t h t h e
right
inner values and thereby opening the way into m o r e p r o f o u n d i n n e r d e p t h s . It is as if a n i n n e r
T h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e a n i m a in s u c h a s u d -
" r a d i o " b e c o m e s t u n e d to a c e r t a i n w a v e l e n g t h
can
that excludes irrelevancies but allows the voice
greatly disturb a m a n ' s m a r r i a g e a n d can lead
of t h e G r e a t M a n to b e h e a r d . I n e s t a b l i s h i n g
to the so-called
this i n n e r " r a d i o " r e c e p t i o n , t h e a n i m a
d e n a n d p a s s i o n a t e form as a love affair
too
"human
triangle,"
with
its
takes
A m a n ' s stress o n i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m c a n be d u e t o a n e g a t i v e a n i m a — o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d in l e g e n d s a n d m y t h s by t h e f e m a l e f i g u r e w h o asks r i d d l e s t h a t m e n m u s t a n s w e r or d i e . A b o v e , a 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y French painting depicts Oedipus a n s w e r i n g the S p h i n x ' s riddle.
Left, a t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w of t h e d e m o n i c a n i m a as an u g l y w i t c h — in a 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n w o o d c u t , "The Bewitched Groom "
T h e a n i m a a p p e a r s in c r u d e , c h i l d i s h f o r m in m e n ' s e r o t i c f a n t a s i e s — w h i c h many men indulge through f o r m s of p o r n o g r a p h y . B e l o w , part of a s h o w in a m o d e r n B r i t i s h strip-tease night club.
I8I
In t h e 1 9 5 3 J a p a n e s e f i l m Ugetsu Monogatan, a man comes under the spell of a g h o s t p r i n c e s s ( c e n t e r , a b o v e ) — a n i m a g e of a p r o j e c t i o n of t h e a n i m a o n t o a " f a i r y - l i k e " w o m a n , producing a destructive fantasy relationship In Madame Bovary t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y French novelist Flaubert describes a " l o v e m a d n e s s " c a u s e d by an a n i m a p r o j e c t i o n : " B y her c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g moods, sometimes mystical, sometimes gay, n o w talkative, n o w silent, s o m e t i m e s passionate, sometimes superior she k n e w h o w to e v o k e a t h o u s a n d desires in h i m , a thousand instincts and memories S h e w a s t h e b e l o v e d o n e o f all n o v e l s , t h e h e r o i n e of all p l a y s , t h e s h e ' of all p o e m s he h a d e v e r read O n her s h o u l d e r s he f o u n d t h e a m b e r g l o w ' of t h e b a t h i n g O d a l i s q u e ; she h a d t h e l o n g w a i s t of ladies in t h e c h i v a l r i c age; she a l s o l o o k e d like t h e p a l e lady of B a r c e l o n a ' ; b u t she w a s a l w a y s an a n g e l . " Left, E m m a B o v a r y ( i n t h e 1 9 4 9 f i l m of t h e n o v e l ) w i t h her h u s b a n d ( l e f t ) a n d lover.
I
82
on t h e r o l e of g u i d e , o r m e d i a t o r , t o t h e w o r l d w i t h i n a n d t o t h e Self. T h a t is h o w s h e a p p e a r s in t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e i n i t i a t i o n s o f s h a m a n s t h a t I d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r ; t h i s is t h e r o l e o f B e a t r i c e i n D a n t e ' s Paradiso, dess Isis w h e n Apuleius,
a n d also of t h e g o d -
she a p p e a r e d
the famous
author
in a d r e a m of
The
to
Golden
Ass, i n o r d e r t o i n i t i a t e h i m i n t o a h i g h e r , m o r e s p i r i t u a l f o r m o f life. T h e d r e a m of a 4 5 - y e a r - o l d
psychotherapist
may help to m a k e clear h o w the a n i m a c a n be an i n n e r g u i d e . As h e w a s g o i n g to b e d o n t h e e v e n i n g before h e h a d this d r e a m , he t h o u g h t to h i m s e l f t h a t it w a s h a r d t o s t a n d a l o n e i n life, l a c k i n g t h e s u p p o r t o f a c h u r c h . H e f o u n d himself e n v y i n g p e o p l e w h o a r e p r o t e c t e d
by
the m a t e r n a l e m b r a c e of a n o r g a n i z a t i o n . ( H e had been b o r n a Protestant b u t n o longer h a d any religious affiliation.)
This w a s his d r e a m :
I a m in t h e aisle of a n old c h u r c h filled w i t h people. T o g e t h e r w i t h m y m o t h e r a n d m y wife, I sit at t h e e n d of t h e aisle in w h a t s e e m to b e extra seats. I a m to c e l e b r a t e t h e M a s s as a priest, a n d I have a b i g M a s s b o o k in m y h a n d s , or, r a t h e r , a p r a y e r b o o k o r a n a n t h o l o g y of p o e m s . T h i s book is not familiar to m e , a n d I c a n n o t find t h e r i g h t text. I a m v e r y e x c i t e d b e c a u s e I h a v e to b e g i n soon, a n d , to a d d to m y t r o u b l e s , m y m o t h e r a n d wife d i s t u r b m e by c h a t t e r i n g a b o u t u n i m p o r t a n t trifles. N o w t h e o r g a n s t o p s , a n d e v e r y b o d y is waiting for m e , so I get u p in a d e t e r m i n e d w a y and ask o n e of t h e n u n s w h o is k n e e l i n g b e h i n d me to h a n d m e h e r M a s s b o o k a n d p o i n t o u t t h e right p l a c e w h i c h s h e does in a n o b l i g i n g m a n ner. N o w , like a sort of s e x t o n , this s a m e n u n p r e cedes m e to t h e a l t a r , w h i c h is s o m e w h e r e b e h i n d me a n d to t h e left, as if w e a r e a p p r o a c h i n g it from a side aisle. T h e M a s s book is like a sheet of pictures, a sort of b o a r d , t h r e e feet l o n g a n d a foot w i d e , a n d on it is t h e text w i t h a n c i e n t p i c tures in c o l u m n s , o n e b e s i d e t h e o t h e r .
M e n project the anima on to things as w e l l as w o m e n . For i n s t a n c e , s h i p s are a l w a y s k n o w n as " s h e " ' above, the female figurehead on the o l d British clipper ship Cutty Sark. T h e c a p t a i n of a s h i p is s y m b o l i c a l l y " h e r " h u s b a n d , w h i c h m a y b e w h y he m u s t (according to tradition) g o d o w n w i t h t h e s h i p if " s h e " s i n k s .
A car is a n o t h e r k i n d of p o s s e s s i o n t h a t is u s u a l l y f e m i n i z e d — i.e. t h a t c a n b e c o m e t h e f o c u s of m a n y m e n ' s a n i m a p r o j e c t i o n s . Like s h i p s , cars are c a l l e d " s h e . ' ' a n d t h e i r o w n e r s caress a n d p a m p e r t h e m ( b e l o w ) like f a v o r i t e m i s t r e s s e s .
First t h e n u n h a s to r e a d a p a r t of t h e l i t u r g y before I b e g i n , a n d 1 h a v e still not found t h e right place in t h e text. S h e h a s told m e t h a t it is N u m ber 15, b u t t h e n u m b e r s a r e n o t c l e a r , a n d I c a n not find it. W i t h d e t e r m i n a t i o n , h o w e v e r , I t u r n toward t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n , a n d n o w I h a v e found N u m b e r 15 ( t h e n e x t to t h e last o n t h e b o a r d ) , although I d o n o t yet k n o w if I shall b e a b l e to d e c i p h e r it. I w a n t to try all t h e s a m e . I w a k e u p .
I
83
' I l l i s d r e a m e x p r e s s e d in a s y m b o l i c w a y a n a n s w e r from
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s to the
thoughts
that the d r e a m e r had had the e v e n i n g before. It s a i d t o h i m , in e f f e c t : " Y o u y o u r s e l f
must
b e c o m e a priest in y o u r o w n i n n e r c h u r c h the
church
of y o u r
soul."" T h u s
in
the
dream
shows that the d r e a m e r does have the
helpful
s u p p o r t o f a n o r g a n i z a t i o n : h e is c o n t a i n e d in a church
not an external c h u r c h but one that
exists i n s i d e his o w n s o u l . The
people
(all h i s o w n
psychic
qualities)
w a n t h i m t o f u n c t i o n as t h e p r i e s t a n d c e l e b r a t e t h e M a s s himself. N o w the d r e a m c a n n o t m e a n t h e a c t u a l M a s s . for its M a s s b o o k is v e r y diff e r e n t f r o m t h e r e a l o n e . It s e e m s t h a t t h e i d e a o f t h e M a s s is u s e d a s a s y m b o l , a n d
therefore
it m e a n s a s a c r i f i c i a l a c t in w h i c h t h e D i v i n i t y is p r e s e n t so t h a t m a n c a n c o m m u n i c a t e
with
it. T h i s s y m b o l i c s o l u t i o n is. o f c o u r s e , n o t g e n erally
valid
dreamer.
but
relates
to
this
particular
It is a t y p i c a l s o l u t i o n for a P r o t e s -
t a n t , b e c a u s e a m a n w h o t h r o u g h r e a l f a i t h is
T w o s t a g e s in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e a n i m a : First, p r i m i t i v e w o m a n ( a b o v e , f r o m a p a i n t i n g by G a u g u i n ) ; s e c o n d , r o m a n t i c i z e d b e a u t y — a s in t h e i d e a l i z e d p o r t r a i t , left, o f a R e n a i s s a n c e Italian girl w h o is d e p i c t e d as C l e o p a t r a T h e s e c o n d s t a g e w a s classically e m b o d i e d in H e l e n of T r o y ( b e l o w , w i t h Pans)
184
still c o n t a i n e d in t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h
usually
experiences
of
his
anima
in
the
image
the
C h u r c h h e r s e l f , a n d h e r s a c r e d i m a g e s a r e for him the s y m b o l s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . O u r d r e a m e r did not h a v e this ecclesiastical e x p e r i e n c e , a n d t h i s is w h y h e h a d t o f o l l o w a n inner w a y . F u r t h e r m o r e , the d r e a m told what
he should
do.
It s a i d :
"Your
boundness and your cxtravcrsion by t h e wife w h o is a n c x t r a v e r t
him
mother-
represented distract
a n d m a k e y o u feel i n s e c u r e , a n d b y
you
meaning-
less t a l k k e e p y o u f r o m c e l e b r a t i n g t h e
inner
M a s s . But if y o u f o l l o w t h e n u n ( t h e i n t r o v e r t e d a n i m a . s h e will l e a d y o u a s b o t h a s e r v a n t a n d a priest. She o w n s a s t r a n g e M a s s book w h i c h is c o m p o s e d o f 16
four t i m e s four
ancient pic-
tures. Y o u r M a s s consists of y o u r c o n t e m p l a t i o n of t h e s e
psychic
images
that
your
religious
a n i m a r e v e a l s t o y o u . " ' I n o t h e r w o r d s , if t h e dreamer
overcomes
his
inner
uncertainty,
c a u s e d b y his m o t h e r c o m p l e x , h e will find t h a t his life (ask h a s t h e n a t u r e a n d
q u a l i t y of a
r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e a n d t h a t if h e m e d i t a t e s a b o u t the s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g o f t h e i m a g e s in h i s s o u l , i h c \ will l e a d h i m t o t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n . In t h i s d r e a m t h e a n i m a a p p e a r s in h e r p r o per positive role
t h a t is. a s a m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n
the e g o a n d t h e Self. T h e f o u r - t i m e s - f o u r figuration
con-
o f t h e p i c t u r e s p o i n t s t o t h e fact t h a t
t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h i s i n n e r M a s s is p e r f o r m e d
A b o v e , t h e a n i m a ' s t h i r d s t a g e is personified a s t h e Virgin M a r y (in a p a i n t i n g by v a n E y c k ) . T h e red of her r o b e is t h e s y m b o l i c c o l o r of f e e l i n g (or eros): but in t h i s s t a g e t h e eros has b e c o m e s p i r i t u a l i z e d . B e l o w , t w o e x a m p l e s of t h e f o u r t h s t a g e : t h e Greek g o d d e s s of w i s d o m A t h e n a ( l e f t ) , a n d t h e Mona Lisa.
in t h e s e r v i c e o f t o t a l i t y . A s J u n g h a s d e m o n strated,
the n u c l e u s of the p s y c h e
(the
Sell"
n o r m a l l y e x p r e s s e s itself in s o m e k i n d of fourfold s t r u c t u r e . T h e
number
f o u r is a l s o
con-
n e c t e d w i t h t h e a n i m a b e c a u s e , as J u n g n o t e d , t h e r e a r e f o u r s t a g e s in its d e v e l o p m e n t . first s t a g e is b e s t s y m b o l i z e d
The
b y t h e figure of
Eve, w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s p u r e l y i n s t i n c t u a l
and
b i o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s . T h e s e c o n d c a n b e s e e n in Faust's H e l e n : S h e personifies a r o m a n t i c a n d a e s t h e t i c l e v e l t h a t is. h o w e v e r , still c h a r a c t e r ized b y s e x u a l e l e m e n t s . T h e t h i r d is r e p r e s e n ted, for i n s t a n c e , b y t h e V i r g i n M a r y who raises love devotion.
The
eros fourth
a
figure
to t h e h e i g h t s of s p i r i t u a l type
is s y m b o l i z e d
by
Sapientia. wisdom transcending even the most holy a n d t h e m o s t p u r e . O f t h i s a n o t h e r s y m b o l is t h e S h u l a m i t e in t h e S o n g o f S o l o m o n . ( I n t h e
'85
psychic d e v e l o p m e n t of m o d e r n m a n this stage
t h e p r o c e s s of i n d i v i d u a t i o n g r a d u a l l y b e c o m e s
is r a r e l y r e a c h e d . I h e M o n a L i s a c o m e s n e a r e s t
t h e s i n g l e r e a l i t y a n d c a n u n f o l d i n its t r u e f o r m .
to such a w i s d o m a n i m a . )
Many
At this s t a g e I a m o n l y p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t the concept
of fourfoldness
frequently
occurs
in
examples
from
a n i m a as a g u i d e a n d world:
Francesco
literature
show
m e d i a t o r to t h e
Colonna's
the inner
Hypnerolomachia,
certain types of s y m b o l i c m a t e r i a l . T h e essen-
R i d e r H a g g a r d ' s She, o r " t h e e t e r n a l f e m i n i n e "
t i a l a s p e c t s o f t h i s will b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r .
in G o e t h e ' s Faust.
But w h a t d o e s t h e role of t h e a n i m a as g u i d e to the i n n e r w o r l d
mean
in p r a c t i c a l
terms?
an
anima
figure
In a m e d i e v a l mystical text, explains
her
own
nature
as f o l l o w s :
This p o s i t i v e f u n c t i o n o c c u r s w h e n a m a n t a k e s seriously the feelings, m o o d s , e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d f a n t a s i e s s e n t b y h i s a n i m a a n d w h e n h e fixes t h e m in s o m e f o r m
for e x a m p l e , in w r i t i n g ,
painting,
musical
sculpture,
composition,
or
d a n c i n g . W h e n h e w o r k s at this p a t i e n t l y a n d slowly, o t h e r m o r e d e e p l y unconscious m a t e r i a l wells u p from the d e p t h s a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h the e a r l i e r m a t e r i a l . A f t e r a f a n t a s y h a s b e e n fixed in s o m e s p e c i f i c f o r m , it m u s t b e e x a m i n e d b o t h
I a m t h e flower of the field a n d t h e lily of the valleys. I a m the m o t h e r of lair love a n d of fear a n d of k n o w l e d g e a n d of holy h o p e . . . . I a m t h e m e d i a t o r of t h e e l e m e n t s , m a k i n g o n e to a g r e e witli a n o t h e r ; t h a t w h i c h is w a r m I m a k e cold a n d t h e r e v e r s e , a n d t h a t w h i c h is d r y I m a k e moist a n d t h e reverse, a n d t h a t w h i c h is h a r d I soften. . . . I a m t h e law in t h e priest a n d the w o r d in t h e p r o p h e t a n d t h e c o u n s e l in t h e wise. I will kill a n d I will m a k e to live a n d t h e r e is n o n e t h a t c a n d e l i v e r o u t of m y h a n d .
intellectually a n d ethically, with an evaluating f e e l i n g r e a c t i o n . A n d it is e s s e n t i a l t o r e g a r d it
In the M i d d l e Ages t h e r e took place a per-
as b e i n g a b s o l u t e l y r e a l ; t h e r e m u s t b e n o l u r k -
ceptible
i n g d o u b t t h a t t h i s is " o n l y a f a n t a s y . " " If t h i s
poetical, and other cultural matters; and
is p r a c t i c e d w i t h d e v o t i o n o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d ,
fantasy
spiritual
in
religious,
world of the unconscious was
Left, a 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y e n g r a v i n g d o m i n a t e d by t h e s y m b o l i c f i g u r e of t h e a n i m a as m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n this w o r l d (the m o n k e y , probably representing man's instinctual n a t u r e ) a n d t h e next ( t h e h a n d of G o d , reaching from the c l o u d s ) . T h e a n i m a f i g u r e s e e m s t o parallel t h e w o m a n of t h e A p o c a l y p s e , w h o also w o r e a c r o w n of 1 2 stars; antiquity's m o o n goddesses; the Old Testament's Sapientia (the f o u r t h s t a g e of t h e a n i m a , p. 1 8 5 ) ; a n d t h e E g y p t i a n g o d d e s s Isis ( w h o also h a d f l o w i n g hair, a h a l f - m o o n at her w o m b , a n d s t o o d w i t h o n e foot on land and one on w a t e r ) .
R i g h t , t h e a n i m a as m e d i a t o r (or g u i d e ) in a d r a w i n g by W i l l i a m B l a k e : It i l l u s t r a t e s a s c e n e f r o m t h e " P u r g a t o r i o " of D a n t e ' s Divine Comedy, a n d s h o w s B e a t r i c e l e a d i n g Dante along a symbolically tortuous m o u n t a i n p a t h Far r i g h t , f r o m an early f i l m of Rider H a g g a r d ' s n o v e l She, a m y s t e r i o u s w o m a n leads e x p l o r e r s t h r o u g h m o u n t a i n s .
18b
differentiation
the
recog-
nizcd
m o r e clearly t h a n
before.
During
period, the knightly cult of the lady
this
signified
a n a t t e m p t t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e f e m i n i n e s i d e of m a n ' s n a t u r e in r e g a r d to t h e o u t e r w o m a n as well a s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n n e r w o r l d . T h e l a d y to w h o s e service the k n i g h t p l e d g e d himself, a n d for w h o m h e p e r f o r m e d h i s h e r o i c deeds, was naturally a personification anima.
of t h e
The n a m e of t h e c a r r i e r of t h e G r a i l ,
in W o l f r a m
v o n E s c h c n b a c h ' s version of t h e
l e g e n d , is e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t :
Conduir-amour
( " g u i d e in love m a t t e r s " ) . S h e t a u g h t t h e h e r o to d i f f e r e n t i a t e
both
his feelings a n d
his b e -
havior t o w a r d w o m e n . L a t e r , h o w e v e r , this ind i v i d u a l a n d p e r s o n a l e f f o r t of d e v e l o p i n g t h e relationship with
the a n i m a
was
abandoned
w h e n h e r s u b l i m e a s p e c t fused w i t h t h e
figure
of t h e V i r g i n , w h o t h e n b e c a m e t h e o b j e c t o f boundless
devotion
and
praise.
When
the
a n i m a , as V i r g i n , w a s c o n c e i v e d as b e i n g allpositive, h e r n e g a t i v e aspects found
expression
in t h e b e l i e f i n w i t c h e s . In C h i n a the is t h e
goddess
figure
p a r a l l e l to t h a t of M a r y
Kwan-Yin.
A
more
popular
A c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the motif of f o u r a n d t h e a n i m a a p p e a r s a b o v e in a p a i n t i n g by t h e S w i s s artist Peter Birkhauser A four eyed anima a p p e a r s as an o v e r w h e l m i n g , t e r r i f y i n g vision The four eyes have a s y m b o l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e similar t o that of the 1 6 p i c t u r e s in t h e d r e a m q u o t e d o n p. 1 8 3 : T h e y a l l u d e t o t h e f a c t t h a t the anima contains the possibility of a c h i e v i n g w h o l e n e s s . In t h e p a i n t i n g , r i g h t , b y t h e m o d e r n artist S l a v k o , t h e Self is s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e a n i m a b u t still m e r g e d w i t h n a t u r e . T h e p a i n t i n g can be called a " s o u l l a n d s c a p e " : O n t h e left sits a dark-skinned, naked w o m a n the a n i m a . O n t h e r i g h t is a bear, t h e a n i m a l s o u l or i n s t i n c t Near t h e a n i m a is a d o u b l e t r e e — symbolizing the individuation process in w h i c h t h e i n n e r o p p o s i t e s u n i t e In t h e b a c k g r o u n d o n e at first sees a glacier, but on l o o k i n g closely o n e sees t h a t it is also a f a c e . This face (from w h i c h t h e lifes t r e a m f l o w s ) is t h e Self. It has f o u r eyes, a n d l o o k s s o m e t h i n g like an a n i m a l , b e c a u s e it c o m e s f r o m instinctive nature (The painting thus provides a good example of t h e w a y an u n c o n s c i o u s s y m b o l c a n i n a d v e r t e n t l y f i n d its w a y i n t o a fantasy landscape.)
Chinese
anima-figure
is
the
"Lady
of
the
M o o n , " w h o b e s t o w s t h e gift o f p o e t r y o r m u s i c on her favorites a n d can even give t h e m
im-
m o r t a l i t y . I n I n d i a t h e s a m e a r c h e t y p e is r e p r e sented
by
others;
Shakti,
among
Parvati,
the
Rati,
Moslems
and
she
many
is
chiefly
F a t i m a , t h e d a u g h t e r of M o h a m m e d . W o r s h i p of t h e a n i m a as a n officially r e c o g nized religious figure brings the serious disadv a n t a g e t h a t s h e loses h e r i n d i v i d u a l On
aspects.
t h e o t h e r h a n d , if s h e is r e g a r d e d
as a n
e x c l u s i v e l y p e r s o n a l b e i n g , t h e r e is t h e d a n g e r t h a t , if s h e is p r o j e c t e d i n t o t h e o u t e r w o r l d , it is o n l y t h e r e t h a t s h e c a n b e f o u n d . T h i s l a t t e r s t a t e of affairs c a n c r e a t e endless t r o u b l e , because
man
becomes either
the victim
o f his
erotic fantasies or compulsively d e p e n d e n t
on
one actual woman. O n l y the painful (but essentially simple) decision to t a k e o n e ' s fantasies a n d feelings seriously c a n at this stage p r e v e n t a c o m p l e t e stagn a t i o n of the i n n e r process of
individuation,
b e c a u s e o n l y in this w a y c a n a m a n
discover
w h a t t h i s figure m e a n s a s a n i n n e r r e a l i t y . T h u s the a n i m a b e c o m e s a g a i n w h a t she originally was—the "woman
within," who conveys
v i t a l m e s s a g e s o f t h e Self.
M e d i e v a l E u r o p e ' s idea of "courtly l o v e " w a s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e w o r s h i p of t h e V i r g i n M a r y : L a d i e s t o w h o m k n i g h t s p l e d g e d love w e r e b e l i e v e d t o be as p u r e as t h e V i r g i n ( o f w h o m a typical medieval image w a s t h e d o l l - l i k e c a r v i n g , t o p of p a g e , c. 1 4 0 0 ) . O n a 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y s h i e l d , far left, a k n i g h t k n e e l s t o h i s lady, w i t h d e a t h b e h i n d h i m . T h i s i d e a l i z e d v i e w of w o m a n p r o d u c e d an o p p o s i n g v i e w : t h e b e l i e f in w i t c h e s . Left, a 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g of a w i t c h e s ' s a b b a t h .
W h e n t h e a n i m a is p r o j e c t e d o n t o an " o f f i c i a l " p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , she t e n d s t o fall apart i n t o a d o u b l e a s p e c t , s u c h as M a r y a n d w i t c h Left, a n o t h e r o p p o s i n g d u a l i t y (from a 15th-century manuscript): personifications of the C h u r c h (on the right, identified w i t h M a r y ) a n d of t h e S y n a g o g u e (here identified w i t h the sinful Eve).
88
the
The animus: the man within
T h e m a l e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s in
( T h e a n i m u s n e v e r believes in e x c e p t i o n s . ) O n e
woman —the animus
can rarely contradict an animus opinion
exhibits both good and
be-
b a d a s p e c t s , a s d o e s t h e a n i m a in m a n . B u t t h e
c a u s e it is u s u a l l y r i g h t i n a g e n e r a l w a y ; y e t
a n i m u s d o e s n o t so o f t e n a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f
it s e l d o m s e e m s t o fit t h e i n d i v i d u a l
a n e r o t i c f a n t a s y o r m o o d ; it is m o r e a p t
I t is a p t t o b e a n o p i n i o n t h a t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e
to
take the form of a h i d d e n " s a c r e d " conviction. When
such
a conviction
is p r e a c h e d
with
a
loud, insistent, m a s c u l i n e voice or i m p o s e d on
situation.
but beside the point. J u s t as t h e c h a r a c t e r of a m a n ' s a n i m a
is
s h a p e d b y h i s m o t h e r , s o t h e a n i m u s is b a s i c a l l y
others by m e a n s of b r u t a l e m o t i o n a l scenes, the
influenced
underlying masculinity
e n d o w s his d a u g h t e r ' s a n i m u s w i t h t h e special
in a w o m a n
is e a s i l y
by a w o m a n ' s
father.
The
r e c o g n i z e d . H o w e v e r , e v e n in a w o m a n w h o is
c o l o r i n g of u n a r g u a b l e , i n c o n t e s t a b l y
outwardly very feminine the a n i m u s can be an
convictions
equally hard, inexorable power. O n e m a y sud-
p e r s o n a l reality of t h e w o m a n
denly
a c t u a l l y is.
find
o n e s e l f u p a g a i n s t s o m e t h i n g in a
w o m a n t h a t is o b s t i n a t e , c o l d , a n d
completely
inaccessible.
father "true"
convictions that never include the herself as she
T h i s is w h y t h e a n i m u s is s o m e t i m e s , l i k e t h e a n i m a , a d e m o n of d e a t h . F o r e x a m p l e , in a
O n e ol t h e f a v o r i t e t h e m e s t h a t t h e a n i m u s
g y p s y f a i r y t a l e a h a n d s o m e s t r a n g e r is r e c e i v e d
r e p e a t s e n d l e s s l y in t h e r u m i n a t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d
b y a l o n e l y w o m a n in s p i t e of t h e fact t h a t s h e
of w o m a n g o e s l i k e t h i s : " T h e o n l y t h i n g i n
h a s h a d a d r e a m w a r n i n g h e r t h a t h e is t h e
t h e w o r l d t h a t I w a n t is l o v e — a n d h e d o e s n ' t
king of the d e a d . After he has b e e n w i t h
love m e " ; o r " I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e r e a r e o n l y
for a t i m e , s h e p r e s s e s h i m t o tell h e r w h o h e
two possibilities
r e a l l y is. A t first h e r e f u s e s , s a y i n g t h a t s h e w i l l
and both are equally
bad."
her
A b o v e , J o a n of A r c ( p l a y e d by I n g r l d B e r g m a n in t h e 1 9 4 8 f i l m ) , w h o s e animus — t h e m a l e side of t h e f e m a l e p s y c h e — t o o k t h e f o r m of a " s a c r e d c o n v i c t i o n " R i g h t , t w o i m a g e s of the n e g a t i v e a n i m u s : a 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g of a w o m a n d a n c i n g w i t h death; a n d ( f r o m a m a n u s c r i p t c 1500) Hades w i t h Persephone, w h o m he a b d u c t e d t o t h e u n d e r w o r l d .
[89
H e a t h c h f f , t h e sinister p r o t a g o n i s t of t h e B r i t i s h a u t h o r E m i l y B r o n t e ' s n o v e l , Wuthenng Heights ( 1 8 4 7 ) , is partly a n e g a t i v e , d e m o n i c a n i m u s figure p r o b a b l y a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of Emily B r o n t e ' s o w n a n i m u s . In t h e montage above, Heathcliff (played by L a u r e n c e O l i v i e r in t h e 1 9 3 9 f i l m ) c o n f r o n t s Emily (a p o r t r a i t by her b r o t h e r ) ; in t h e b a c k g r o u n d , W u t h e n n g H e i g h t s as it is t o d a y .
T w o e x a m p l e s of d a n g e r o u s a n i m u s f i g u r e s : Left, an i l l u s t r a t i o n ( b y t h e 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y F r e n c h artist G u s t a v e D o r e ) t o t h e folk tale of B l u e b e a r d H e r e B l u e b e a r d w a r n s his w i f e against o p e n i n g a certain d o o r ( O f c o u r s e , she d o e s so and finds t h e c o r p s e s of B l u e b e a r d ' s f o r m e r w i v e s . S h e is c a u g h t , a n d j o i n s her p r e d e c e s s o r s ) R i g h t , a 1 9 t h c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g of t h e h i g h w a y m a n Claude Duval, w h o once robbed a lady traveler b u t g a v e his b o o t y b a c k o n t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t she d a n c e w i t h h i m by t h e r o a d s i d e
19"
d i e if h e tells h e r . S h e i n s i s t s , h o w e v e r , suddenly
he reveals to h e r
that
h e is
and
trigue, w h i c h get her into a state w h e r e
she
death
e v e n w i s h e s d e a t h t o o t h e r s . ( " W h e n o n e o f us
himself. T h e w o m a n i m m e d i a t e l y dies of fright.
d i e s , I'll m o v e to t h e R i v i e r a , " said a w o m a n
Viewed mythologically, the beautiful
stran-
to h e r
husband
when
she saw
the
beautiful
g e r is p r o b a b l y a p a g a n f a t h e r - i m a g e o r g o d -
M e d i t e r r a n e a n coast
i m a g e , w h o a p p e a r s h e r e as k i n g of t h e d e a d
d e r e d r e l a t i v e l y h a r m l e s s b y r e a s o n ol t h e f a c t
dike
that she said it! I
Hades'
abduction
of P e r s e p h o n e ) .
But
a thought that was ren-
psychologically he represents a p a r t i c u l a r form
By n u r s i n g s e c r e t d e s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e s , a w i f e
ol t h e a n i m u s t h a t l u r e s w o m e n a w a y f r o m a l l
c a n drive her h u s b a n d , a n d a m o t h e r her chil-
human
d r e n , i n t o illness, a c c i d e n t , or e v e n d e a t h .
relationships
and
especially
from
all
contacts with real m e n . H e personifies a cocoon
she
o f d r e a m y t h o u g h t s , filled w i t h d e s i r e a n d j u d g -
m a r r y i n g — a d e e p l y h i d d e n f o r m of evil
may
decide
to
keep
the
children
Or
from that
m e n t s a b o u t h o w things " o u g h t to b e , " w h i c h
rarely c o m e s to the surface of the m o t h e r ' s con-
c u t a w o m a n off f r o m t h e r e a l i t y o f life.
scious m i n d . (A n a i v e old w o m a n o n c e said to only
m e , w h i l e s h o w i n g m e a p i c t u r e of h e r son, w h o
as a d e a t h - d e m o n . I n m y t h s a n d f a i r y t a l e s h e
w a s d r o w n e d w h e n h e w a s 2 7 : " I p r e f e r it t h i s
p l a y s t h e role of r o b b e r a n d
w a y ; it's b e t t e r t h a n g i v i n g h i m a w a y to a n -
T h e negative a n i m u s does not a p p e a r murderer.
One
e x a m p l e is B l u e b e a r d , w h o s e c r e t l y kills all his w i v e s in a h i d d e n c h a m b e r .
In this form
the
a n i m u s personifies all t h o s e s e m i c o n s c i o u s , c o l d ,
other
woman.")
A s t r a n g e p a s s i v i t y a n d p a r a l y s i s of a l l feeling, or a d e e p insecurity that can lead
almost
d e s t r u c t i v e r e f l e c t i o n s t h a t i n v a d e a w o m a n in
to a sense of n u l l i t y , m a y s o m e t i m e s
be
the s m a l l h o u r s , especially w h e n she has failed
r e s u l t of a n u n c o n s c i o u s a n i m u s o p i n i o n . In t h e
to r e a l i z e s o m e o b l i g a t i o n of f e e l i n g . It is t h e n
d e p t h s of t h e w o m a n ' s b e i n g , t h e a n i m u s w h i s -
that she begins to t h i n k a b o u t the family herit-
pers:
age a n d m a t t e r s of t h a t k i n d — a sort of w e b of
t r y i n g ? T h e r e is n o p o i n t i n d o i n g
c a l c u l a t i n g t h o u g h t s , filled w i t h m a l i c e a n d i n -
Life w i l l n e v e r c h a n g e for t h e b e t t e r . "
"You
are
hopeless.
What's
the
the
u s e of
anything.
The a n i m u s is o f t e n p e r s o n i f i e d as a g r o u p of m e n A n e g a t i v e g r o u p a n i m u s m i g h t a p p e a r as a d a n g e r o u s band of c r i m i n a l s like t h e w r e c k e r s ( a b o v e , in an 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y Italian painting) w h o o n c e lured ships o n t o rocks w i t h l i g h t s , k i l l e d s u r v i v o r s , and l o o t e d t h e w r e c k s
•9
1
A f r e q u e n t p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i v e g r o u p a n i m u s in w o m e n ' s d r e a m s has b e e n t h e b a n d of r o m a n t i c but d a n g e r o u s o u t l a w s . A b o v e , an o m i n o u s g r o u p of b a n d i t s f r o m t h e 1 9 5 3 B r a z i l i a n f i l m The Bandit. c o n c e r n i n g an a d v e n t u r o u s w o m a n s c h o o l t e a c h e r w h o falls in l o v e w i t h a b a n d i t leader.
B e l o w , an i l l u s t r a t i o n by Fuseli of S h a k e s p e a r e ' s Midsummer Night's Dream. T h e fairy q u e e n h a s b e e n c a u s e d ( b y m a g i c ) t o fall in l o v e w i t h a p e a s a n t w h o has b e e n g i v e n an ass's h e a d , also by m a g i c . T h i s is a c o m i c t w i s t o n t h e tales in w h i c h a g i r l ' s l o v e releases a m a n f r o m a m a g i c spell
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w h e n e v e r o n e of these
per-
T h e sadistic aspect of these t w o
figures
was
sonifications of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s takes possession
w e l l k n o w n t o t h e d r e a m e r , for i n r e a l i t y s h e
o f o u r m i n d , it s e e m s a s if w e o u r s e l v e s a r e h a v -
f r e q u e n t l y suffered b a d a t t a c k s of a n x i e t y d u r -
ing s u c h t h o u g h t s a n d feelings. T h e ego i d e n t i -
ing w h i c h she was h a u n t e d by the t h o u g h t t h a t
fies w i t h t h e m t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e it is u n a b l e
people she loved w e r e in great d a n g e r — o r even
t o d e t a c h t h e m a n d s e e t h e m for w h a t t h e y a r e .
t h a t t h e y w e r e d e a d . B u t t h e fact t h a t t h e a n i -
O n e is r e a l l y " p o s s e s s e d " b y t h e figure f r o m t h e
m u s f i g u r e i n t h e d r e a m is d o u b l e s u g g e s t s t h a t
u n c o n s c i o u s . O n l y after the possession h a s fallen
t h e b u r g l a r s p e r s o n i f y a p s y c h i c f a c t o r t h a t is
away does one realize with horror that one has
d u a l i n its e f f e c t , a n d t h a t c o u l d b e s o m e t h i n g
said a n d d o n e t h i n g s d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d to
quite different from these t o r m e n t i n g thoughts.
one's real thoughts a n d feelings—that one has
T h e sister of t h e d r e a m e r , w h o r u n s a w a y from
b e e n t h e p r e y of a n alien p s y c h i c factor. Like the a n i m a , the a n i m u s does not merely
t h e m e n , is c a u g h t a n d t o r t u r e d . I n r e a l i t y t h i s sister d i e d w h e n fairly y o u n g . S h e h a d
been
consist of n e g a t i v e q u a l i t i e s s u c h as b r u t a l i t y ,
artistically gifted, b u t h a d m a d e v e r y little use
recklessness, e m p t y talk, a n d silent, o b s t i n a t e ,
of h e r t a l e n t . N e x t the d r e a m reveals t h a t the
evil i d e a s . H e t o o h a s a v e r y p o s i t i v e a n d v a l u -
veiled burglars are actually disguised
able s i d e ; h e too c a n b u i l d a b r i d g e to t h e Self
a n d t h a t if t h e d r e a m e r r e c o g n i z e s t h e i r
through
( w h i c h a r e h e r o w n ) , t h e y will give u p t h e i r evil
his c r e a t i v e
activity.
The
following
d r e a m of a w o m a n of 4 5 m a y h e l p t o i l l u s t r a t e this p o i n t :
artists, gifts
intentions. W h a t is t h e d e e p e r m e a n i n g o f t h e d r e a m ? I t is t h a t b e h i n d t h e s p a s m s o f a n x i e t y t h e r e is
T w o veiled figures c l i m b o n t o t h e b a l c o n y a n d into t h e h o u s e . T h e y a r e s w a t h e d in b l a c k h o o d e d coats, a n d t h e y seem to w a n t to t o r m e n t m e a n d my sister. S h e hides u n d e r t h e b e d , b u t t h e y pull her o u t w i t h a b r o o m a n d t o r t u r e h e r . T h e n it is my t u r n . T h e l e a d e r of t h e t w o p u s h e s m e a g a i n s t the w a l l , m a k i n g m a g i c a l g e s t u r e s before m y face. In t h e m e a n t i m e his h e l p e r m a k e s a sketch o n the w a l l , a n d w h e n I see it, I say (in o r d e r to seem f r i e n d l y ) , " O h ! B u t this is well d r a w n ! " Now s u d d e n l y m y t o r m e n t o r h a s t h e n o b l e h e a d of an artist, a n d he says p r o u d l y , " Y e s , i n d e e d , " and begins to c l e a n his spectacles.
indeed a genuine and mortal danger; but there is a l s o a c r e a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t y for t h e
dreamer.
S h e , like t h e sister, h a d s o m e t a l e n t as a p a i n t e r , b u t she d o u b t e d w h e t h e r p a i n t i n g could be a meaningful
a c t i v i t y for h e r . N o w h e r
dream
tells h e r i n t h e m o s t e a r n e s t w a y t h a t s h e m u s t live o u t this talent. If she o b e y s , t h e d e s t r u c tive, t o r m e n t i n g a n i m u s will b e into a creative and meaningful
transformed
activity.
As in this d r e a m , t h e a n i m u s often
appears
as a g r o u p of m e n . I n this w a y t h e u n c o n s c i o u s s y m b o l i z e s t h e fact t h a t t h e a n i m u s r e p r e s e n t s a collective r a t h e r
A b o v e left, t h e s i n g e r Franz Grass in the title role of W a g n e r ' s o p e r a The Flying Dutchman, based o n t h e tale of t h e sea c a p t a i n d o o m e d t o sail a g h o s t s h i p u n t i l a w o m a n ' s love breaks t h e c u r s e o n h i m .
than a personal
B e c a u s e of this c o l l e c t i v e - m i n d e d n e s s
element. women
h a b i t u a l l y r e f e r ( w h e n t h e i r a n i m u s is s p e a k i n g t h r o u g h t h e m ) to " o n e " or " t h e y " or " e v e r y b o d y , " a n d in such c i r c u m s t a n c e s their speech frequently
contains the words " a l w a y s "
"should" and
and
"ought."
A v a s t n u m b e r o f m y t h s a n d f a i r y t a l e s tell o f In many m y t h s a w o m a n ' s lover is a figure of m y s t e r y w h o m she m u s t never try t o see. Left, a late 1 8 t h century e n g r a v i n g of an e x a m p l e from Greek m y t h : T h e m a i d e n P s y c h e , loved by Eros b u t f o r b i d d e n t o try to look at h i m . E v e n t u a l l y she d i d so and he left her; she w a s able t o regain his love o n l y after a l o n g search a n d m u c h s u f f e r i n g .
a prince, t u r n e d by witchcraft into a wild anim a l o r m o n s t e r , w h o is r e d e e m e d b y t h e l o v e of a girl — a process s y m b o l i z i n g t h e m a n n e r in which the a n i m u s becomes conscious. (Dr. Henderson has c o m m e n t e d on the significance
of
this " B e a u t y a n d t h e B e a s t " m o t i f in t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r . ) V e r y o f t e n t h e h e r o i n e is n o t
193
a l l o w e d to ask q u e s t i o n s a b o u t h e r m y s t e r i o u s , u n k n o w n lover a n d h u s b a n d ; or she meets him only in t h e d a r k a n d m a y n e v e r look at
him.
T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t , b y b l i n d l y t r u s t i n g a n d l o v i n g h i m , s h e will b e a b l e
to r e d e e m
her
bridegroom.
succeeds.
She
finally
her
But
this
never
always breaks her promise and
finds
lover a g a i n o n l y after a l o n g , difficult q u e s t a n d much
suffering.
T h e p a r a l l e l i n life is t h a t t h e c o n s c i o u s a t t e n tion a w o m a n has to give to h e r a n i m u s p r o b l e m t a k e s m u c h t i m e a n d i n v o l v e s a lot o f suff e r i n g . B u t if s h e r e a l i z e s w h o a n d w h a t
her
a n i m u s is a n d w h a t h e d o e s t o h e r , a n d if s h e faces t h e s e r e a l i t i e s i n s t e a d of a l l o w i n g herself to be possessed, h e r a n i m u s c a n t u r n into a n invaluable inner companion who endows
her
w i t h t h e m a s c u l i n e q u a l i t i e s of initiative, c o u r age, objectivity, a n d spiritual wisdom. T h e a n i m u s , j u s t like t h e a n i m a , e x h i b i t s four s t a g e s of d e v e l o p m e n t . personification
of m e r e
He
first
a p p e a r s as a
physical
power—for
i n s t a n c e , as a n athletic c h a m p i o n or
"muscle
m a n . " I n t h e n e x t s t a g e h e possesses i n i t i a t i v e and
t h e c a p a c i t y for p l a n n e d
action.
third phase, the animus becomes the often a p p e a r i n g as a professor o r
In
the
"word,"
clergyman.
F i n a l l y , in his f o u r t h m a n i f e s t a t i o n , t h e a n i m u s is t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f meaning.
O n this highest
level h e b e c o m e s (like t h e a n i m a ) a m e d i a t o r o f t h e r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e w h e r e b y life a c q u i r e s new meaning. firmness,
H e gives the w o m a n
spiritual
an invisible inner s u p p o r t that c o m -
p e n s a t e s for h e r o u t e r s o f t n e s s . T h e a n i m u s in his m o s t d e v e l o p e d form s o m e t i m e s
connects
the w o m a n ' s mind with the spiritual evolution
E m b o d i m e n t s of t h e f o u r s t a g e s of t h e a n i m u s : First, t h e w h o l l y physical man — the fictional l u n g l e h e r o T a r z a n ( t o p , p l a y e d by J o h n n y Weismuller). Second, the " r o m a n t i c " m a n — the 19th century British poet Shelley (center l e f t ) : or t h e " m a n of a c t i o n " — A m e r i c a ' s Ernest H e m i n g w a y , w a r h e r o , h u n t e r , etc. T h i r d , t h e bearer of t h e " w o r d " — L l o y d G e o r g e , t h e great p o l i t i c a l orator Fourth, the wise guide to spiritual t r u t h — o f t e n projected on to Gandhi (left).
I'M
A b o v e r i g h t , an I n d i a n m i n i a t u r e of a girl g a z i n g w i t h l o v e at a man's portrait. A w o m a n falling in l o v e w i t h a p i c t u r e ( o r a f i l m star) is c l e a r l y p r o j e c t i n g her a n i m u s o n t o the m a n . The actor R u d o l p h V a l e n t i n o ( r i g h t , in a f i l m m a d e in 1 9 2 2 ) b e c a m e t h e f o c u s of a n i m u s p r o j e c t i o n f o r t h o u s a n d s of w o m e n w h i l e he l i v e d — a n d e v e n a f t e r he d i e d Far r i g h t , part o f t h e i m m e n s e f l o r a l t r i b u t e sent by w o m e n all o v e r t h e w o r l d t o V a l e n t i n o ' s f u n e r a l in 1 9 2 6
of h e r a g e , a n d more
can
thereby make her
receptive than a m a n
to n e w
even
creative
i d e a s . I t is for t h i s r e a s o n t h a t i n e a r l i e r t i m e s w o m e n w e r e used by m a n y n a t i o n s as diviners a n d seers. T h e creative boldness of their positive a n i m u s at times expresses t h o u g h t s
and
ideas t h a t s t i m u l a t e m e n to n e w enterprises. T h e "inner m a n " within a w o m a n ' s psyche c a n lead to m a r i t a l troubles similar to
those
m e n t i o n e d in t h e s e c t i o n o n t h e a n i m a .
What
m a k e s t h i n g s e s p e c i a l l y c o m p l i c a t e d is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e possession of o n e p a r t n e r by the a n i m u s (or a n i m a )
m a y automatically exert such
an
i r r i t a t i n g effect u p o n t h e o t h e r t h a t h e (or she) becomes
possessed
too.
Animus
and
anima
a l w a y s t e n d to d r a g c o n v e r s a t i o n d o w n to a v e r y low level a n d to p r o d u c e a d i s a g r e e a b l e , irascible, emotional a t m o s p h e r e . As I m e n t i o n e d before, t h e positive side of the a n i m u s c a n personify a n e n t e r p r i s i n g spirit, c o u r a g e , t r u t h f u l n e s s , a n d in t h e h i g h e s t f o r m , spiritual profundity.
Through
him a
woman
c a n e x p e r i e n c e t h e u n d e r l y i n g processes of h e r cultural a n d personal objective situation, and c a n find h e r w a y t o a n i n t e n s i f i e d s p i r i t u a l a t t i t u d e t o life. T h i s n a t u r a l l y p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t h e r a n i m u s ceases to represent opinions t h a t
are
above
the
criticism.
The
woman
must
find
c o u r a g e a n d inner b r o a d m i n d e d n e s s to question the sacredness of h e r o w n convictions.
Only
t h e n will s h e b e a b l e to t a k e in t h e s u g g e s t i o n s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , especially w h e n t h e y c o n t r a d i c t h e r a n i m u s o p i n i o n s . O n l y t h e n will the manifestations of the Self get t h r o u g h to her, a n d will s h e b e a b l e c o n s c i o u s l y to u n d e r s t a n d their meaning.
The Self: symbols of totality
If a n i n d i v i d u a l h a s wrestled seriously e n o u g h a n d long e n o u g h w i t h the a n i m a (or a n i m u s ) p r o b l e m s o t h a t h e , o r s h e , is n o l o n g e r p a r t i a l l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h it, t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a g a i n c h a n g e s its d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t e r a n d a p p e a r s i n a n e w s y m b o l i c f o r m , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e Self, t h e i n n e r m o s t n u c l e u s of t h e p s y c h e . I n t h e d r e a m s of a w o m a n t h i s c e n t e r is u s u a l l y p e r s o n i f i e d a s a superior female figure—a
priestess, sorceress,
e a r t h m o t h e r , or g o d d e s s of n a t u r e or love. I n t h e case of a m a n , it m a n i f e s t s itself as a m a s culine initiator a n d g u a r d i a n (an I n d i a n
guru),
a wise o l d m a n , a s p i r i t of n a t u r e , a n d so f o r t h . T w o folk t a l e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e r o l e t h a t s u c h figure
c a n p l a y . T h e first is a n A u s t r i a n
left h e r , she visits a little h o u s e n e a r t h e M o o n G h o s t ' s m a n s i o n . T h e r e s h e finds a tiny w o m a n c l o t h e d in t h e " i n t e s t i n a l m e m b r a n e of t h e b e a r d e d seal," w h o warns the heroine against the S p i r i t of t h e M o o n , s a y i n g t h a t h e p l a n s to kill h e r . (It a p p e a r s t h a t h e is a killer of w o m e n , a sort of B l u e b e a r d . ) T h e tiny w o m a n fashions a l o n g r o p e b y m e a n s of w h i c h t h e girl c a n d e s c e n d to e a r t h a t t h e t i m e of t h e n e w m o o n , w h i c h is t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e little w o m a n c a n w e a k e n t h e M o o n S p i r i t . T h e girl c l i m b s d o w n , b u t w h e n she a r r i v e s o n e a r t h , she does n o t o p e n h e r eyes as q u i c k l y as t h e little w o m a n told h e r to. Because of this, she is t u r n e d i n t o a s p i d e r a n d c a n n e v e r become h u m a n again.
a
tale:
As w e h a v e n o t e d , t h e d i v i n e m u s i c i a n in t h e first
A k i n g h a s o r d e r e d soldiers to k e e p t h e n i g h t w a t c h beside t h e c o r p s e of a b l a c k princess, w h o h a s b e e n b e w i t c h e d . E v e r y m i d n i g h t s h e rises a n d kills t h e g u a r d . A t last o n e soldier, w h o s e t u r n it is to s t a n d g u a r d , d e s p a i r s a n d r u n s a w a y i n t o the woods. T h e r e he meets an "old guitarist who is o u r L o r d H i m s e l f . " T h i s old m u s i c i a n tells h i m w h e r e to h i d e in t h e c h u r c h a n d i n s t r u c t s h i m o n h o w to b e h a v e so t h a t t h e b l a c k princess c a n not get h i m . W i t h this d i v i n e h e l p t h e soldier a c t u a l l y m a n a g e s to r e d e e m t h e princess a n d m a r r y her.
t a l e is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e " w i s e o l d
m a n , " a t y p i c a l p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e Self. H e is a k i n
to the sorcerer
Merlin
of
medieval
l e g e n d o r to t h e G r e e k g o d H e r m e s . T h e little w o m a n i n h e r s t r a n g e m e m b r a n e - c l o t h i n g is a parallel
figure,
symbolizing
the
Self
as
it
a p p e a r s in the feminine psyche. T h e old musician saves t h e h e r o from t h e destructive a n i m a , a n d t h e little w o m a n p r o t e c t s t h e girl a g a i n s t t h e E s k i m o " B l u e b e a r d " ( w h o is, i n t h e f o r m o f the M o o n Spirit, h e r a n i m u s ) . I n this case, h o w ever, things go w r o n g — a point t h a t I shall take u p later.
C l e a r l y , " t h e o l d g u i t a r i s t w h o is o u r L o r d H i m s e l f " is, i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e r m s , a s y m b o l i c p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e Self. W i t h h i s h e l p t h e e g o a v o i d s d e s t r u c t i o n a n d is a b l e t o o v e r c o m e —a n d even redeem — a highly dangerous aspect of his a n i m a . I n a w o m a n ' s p s y c h e , as I h a v e said, t h e Self a s s u m e s f e m i n i n e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s . T h i s is i l l u s trated in t h e second story, a n E s k i m o tale: A lonely girl w h o h a s b e e n d i s a p p o i n t e d in love m e e t s a w i z a r d t r a v e l i n g in a c o p p e r b o a t . H e is t h e " S p i r i t of t h e M o o n , " w h o h a s g i v e n all t h e a n i m a l s to m a n k i n d a n d w h o also bestows luck in h u n t i n g . H e a b d u c t s t h e girl to t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m . O n c e , w h e n t h e S p i r i t of t h e M o o n h a s
i g6
T h e Self, h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t a l w a y s t a k e t h e form of a wise old m a n o r wise old
woman.
These paradoxical personifications are attempts t o e x p r e s s s o m e t h i n g t h a t is n o t e n t i r e l y c o n tained
in
time—something
simultaneously
y o u n g a n d old. T h e d r e a m of a
middle-aged
m a n s h o w s t h e Self a p p e a r i n g as a y o u n g m a n : C o m i n g from t h e street, a y o u t h r o d e d o w n into our garden. (There were no bushes a n d no fence as t h e r e a r e in real life, a n d t h e g a r d e n lay o p e n . ) I d i d n o t q u i t e k n o w if h e c a m e o n p u r pose, or if t h e horse c a r r i e d h i m h e r e a g a i n s t his will. I stood on t h e p a t h t h a t leads to m y s t u d i o a n d w a t c h e d t h e a r r i v a l w i t h g r e a t p l e a s u r e . T h e sight
The S e l f — t h e i n n e r c e n t e r of t h e total p s y c h e — is o f t e n p e r s o n i f i e d in d r e a m s as a s u p e r i o r h u m a n figure T o w o m e n , t h e Self m i g h t appear as a w i s e a n d p o w e r f u l goddess — l i k e the ancient Greek mother g o d d e s s D e m e t e r ( r i g h t , s h o w n w i t h her s o n T r i p t o l e m u s and d a u g h t e r Kore. in a f i f t h century-B.c. relief). The "fairy g o d m o t h e r " of m a n y tales is also a s y m b o l i c p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of t h e female Self: a b o v e . C i n d e r e l l a ' s godmother (from an illustration by G u s t a v e D o r e ) . B e l o w , a h e l p f u l old w o m a n ( a l s o a fairy g o d m o t h e r ) rescues a girl in an i l l u s t r a t i o n of a Hans C h r i s t i a n A n d e r s e n tale
1(
>7
P e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s of t h e Self in m e n ' s dreams often take the f o r m o f "wise o l d m e n . " Far left, t h e magician Merlin of the Arthurian legends (in a 1 4 t h - c e n t u r y English m a n u s c r i p t ) C e n t e r , a guru ( w i s e m a n ) f r o m an 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y I n d i a n p a i n t i n g . Left, a w i n g e d o l d m a n like t h i s a p p e a r e d in o n e of Dr. J u n g ' s o w n d r e a m s c a r r y i n g k e y s : a c c o r d i n g t o Dr. J u n g he r e p r e s e n t e d "superior i n s i g h t . "
T h o m a s S u l l y . W a s h i n g t o n at t h e Passage of the Delaware. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
T h e Self u s u a l l y a p p e a r s in d r e a m s at c r u c i a l t i m e s in t h e d r e a m e r ' s l i f e — t u r n i n g p o i n t s w h e n his basic a t t i t u d e s a n d w h o l e w a y of life are c h a n g i n g T h e c h a n g e itself is o f t e n s y m b o l i z e d by t h e a c t i o n o f c r o s s i n g w a t e r . A b o v e , an a c t u a l river c r o s s i n g t h a t a c c o m p a n i e d an i m p o r t a n t u p h e a v a l : G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n ' s c r o s s i n g of t h e D e l a w a r e River d u r i n g t h e A m e r i c a n Revolution (ina 19th-century A m e r i c a n p a i n t i n g ) . Left, a n o t h e r major event that involved crossing w a t e r : t h e first a t t a c k l a u n c h e d against the N o r m a n d y beaches o n D-day, J u n e 1944
1 8 9
T h e Self Is n o t a l w a y s p e r s o n i f i e d as a s u p e r i o r old p e r s o n . Left, a p a i n t i n g ( o f a d r e a m ) by Peter B i r k h a u s e r , in w h i c h t h e Self a p p e a r s as a m a r v e l o u s y o u t h . W h i l e t h e artist w a s w o r k i n g o n the p a i n t i n g , other associations and ideas c a m e u p f r o m his u n c o n s c i o u s T h e r o u n d o b j e c t like a s u n b e h i n d t h e y o u t h is a s y m b o l o f t o t a l i t y , a n d t h e b o y ' s f o u r a r m s recall o t h e r " f o u r f o l d " symbols that characterize p s y c h o l o g i c a l w h o l e n e s s . Before the b o y ' s h a n d s h o v e r s a f l o w e r — a s if he n e e d o n l y raise his h a n d s a n d a m a g i c a l f l o w e r w i l l a p p e a r . H e is b l a c k b e c a u s e of his n o c t u r n a l (i.e. unconscious) origin.
of the b o y o n his b e a u t i f u l horse i m p r e s s e d m e deeply. T h e horse w a s a s m a l l , w i l d , powerful a n i m a l , a symbol of e n e r g y (it r e s e m b l e d a b o a r ) , a n d it had a thick, bristly, s i l v e r y - g r a y c o a t . T h e b o y rode past m e b e t w e e n t h e s t u d i o a n d h o u s e , j u m p e d off his h o r s e , a n d led h i m carefully a w a y so t h a t h e w o u l d n o t t r a m p l e o n t h e flower b e d with its beautiful r e d a n d o r a n g e tulips. T h e flower b e d h a d b e e n n e w l y m a d e a n d p l a n t e d by my wife fa d r e a m o c c u r r e n c e ) .
" I d i o t ! " I yelled o u t . O n t h e o t h e r side of t h e r i v e r t h r e e little girls w e r e p l a y i n g , a n d o n e of t h e m s t r e t c h e d o u t h e r h a n d as if to h e l p m e . I t h o u g h t t h a t h e r small h a n d w a s n o t s t r o n g e n o u g h to h e l p m e , b u t w h e n I took it, she succ e e d e d , w i t h o u t t h e slightest effort, in p u l l i n g m e across a n d u p t h e b a n k on t h e o t h e r side.
The
dreamer
is
a
religious
person,
but
a c c o r d i n g t o h e r d r e a m s h e c a n n o t r e m a i n in t h e C h u r c h ( P r o t e s t a n t ) a n y l o n g e r ; in fact, s h e s e e m s t o h a v e lost t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e n t e r i n g it,
T h i s y o u t h s i g n i f i e s t h e Self, a n d w i t h it r e n e w a l o f life, a c r e a t i v e elan vital,
and a
new
spiritual o r i e n t a t i o n b y m e a n s of w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g b e c o m e s full o f life a n d e n t e r p r i s e . If a m a n d e v o t e s h i m s e l f t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s , it c a n b e s t o w t h i s gift,
a l t h o u g h s h e t r i e s t o k e e p t h e a c c e s s t o it a s c l e a n as she c a n . A c c o r d i n g to t h e d r e a m , s h e m u s t n o w cross a s t a g n a n t river, a n d this i n d i cates
that
the
flow
of
life
b e c a u s e of t h e u n r e s o l v e d
is s l o w e d
religious
down
problem.
( C r o s s i n g a r i v e r is a f r e q u e n t s y m b o l i c i m a g e
so t h a t s u d d e n l y life, w h i c h h a s b e e n s t a l e a n d
for a f u n d a m e n t a l
dull, t u r n s i n t o a r i c h , u n e n d i n g i n n e r a d v e n -
s t u d e n t was i n t e r p r e t e d by the d r e a m e r herself
t u r e , full o f c r e a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s . I n a w o m a n ' s
as t h e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of a t h o u g h t t h a t she h a d
psychology, this s a m e youthful
personification
p r e v i o u s l y h a d — n a m e l y , t h a t s h e m i g h t satisfy
of t h e S e l f c a n a p p e a r a s a s u p e r n a t u r a l l y g i f t e d
her spiritual y e a r n i n g by a t t e n d i n g high school.
girl. T h e d r e a m e r i n t h i s i n s t a n c e is a w o m a n
O b v i o u s l y t h e d r e a m d o e s n o t t h i n k m u c h of
in h e r l a t e f o r t i e s :
this p l a n . W h e n
c h a n g e of attitude.)
she d a r e s to cross t h e
The
river
a l o n e , a personification of t h e Self (the girl), I stood in front of a c h u r c h a n d w a s w a s h i n g the p a v e m e n t w i t h w a t e r . T h e n I r a n d o w n t h e street j u s t a t t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e s t u d e n t s from the high school w e r e let o u t . I c a m e to a s t a g n a n t river across w h i c h a b o a r d o r t r e e t r u n k h a d b e e n laid; b u t w h e n I w a s a t t e m p t i n g to w a l k across, a m i s c h i e v o u s s t u d e n t b o u n c e d o n t h e b o a r d so that it c r a c k e d a n d I n e a r l y fell i n t o t h e w a t e r .
small but s u p e r n a t u r a l l y powerful, helps her. But
the form
of a h u m a n
being,
whether
y o u t h f u l o r o l d , is o n l y o n e o f t h e m a n y in w h i c h
t h e Self c a n
appear
ways
in d r e a m s
or
v i s i o n s . T h e v a r i o u s a g e s it a s s u m e s s h o w n o t o n l y t h a t it is w i t h u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o l e o f life, b u t
also t h a t
it e x i s t s b e y o n d
the
con-
199
M a n y people today personify the Self in t h e i r d r e a m s as p r o m i n e n t public figures J u n g i a n psychologists f i n d t h a t , in m e n ' s d r e a m s . Dr. A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r (far left) a n d Sir W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l ( l e f t ) o f t e n a p p e a r ; in w o m e n ' s d r e a m s , Eleanor R o o s e v e l t ( r i g h t ) a n d Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h II (far r i g h t , a p o r t r a i t o n an A f r i c a n h o u s e ) .
sciously realized
flow
o f life — w h i c h
is
what
c r e a t e s o u r e x p e r i e n c e of t i m e .
W e h a v e a l r e a d y seen that symbolic structures t h a t s e e m to refer to t h e process of indi-
J u s t a s t h e S e l f is n o t e n t i r e l y c o n t a i n e d
in
v i d u a t i o n t e n d to b e b a s e d o n t h e m o t i f of the
o u r c o n s c i o u s e x p e r i e n c e of t i m e (in o u r s p a c e -
number
t i m e d i m e n s i o n ) , it is a l s o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o m n i -
consciousness, or the four stages of the
anima
p r e s e n t . M o r e o v e r , it a p p e a r s f r e q u e n t l y i n a
or animus.
cosmic
form that hints at a special o m n i p r e s e n c e ; that
s h a p e of P ' a n K u . O n l y u n d e r specific c i r c u m -
is, it m a n i f e s t s
stances
itself as a g i g a n t i c ,
symbolic
h u m a n being w h o embraces and contains the
four
such
as t h e four
It r e a p p e a r s
do
other
here
functions
in t h e
combinations
of
of
numbers
a p p e a r in t h e p s y c h i c m a t e r i a l . T h e n a t u r a l u n -
w h o l e c o s m o s . W h e n this i m a g e t u r n s u p in t h e
hampered
d r e a m s o f a n i n d i v i d u a l , w e m a y h o p e for a
characterized by fourfoldness-
manifestations
of
the
center
are
c r e a t i v e s o l u t i o n to his conflict, b e c a u s e
now
h a v i n g four divisions, or s o m e o t h e r s t r u c t u r e
t h a t is t o s a y , b y
the
d e r i v i n g f r o m t h e n u m e r i c a l s e r i e s o f 4 , 8, 16,
w h o l e b e i n g is c o n d e n s e d i n t o o n e n e s s ) i n o r d e r
a n d so o n . N u m b e r 16 p l a y s a p a r t i c u l a r l y i m -
to o v e r c o m e t h e difficulty.
p o r t a n t r o l e , s i n c e it is c o m p o s e d o f f o u r f o u r s .
t h e v i t a l p s y c h i c c e n t e r is a c t i v a t e d
(i.e.
I t is n o w o n d e r t h a t t h i s f i g u r e o f t h e C o s m i c Man
appears
in
many
myths
and
religious
I n o u r W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n , s i m i l a r i d e a s of a C o s m i c M a n h a v e a t t a c h e d themselves to the
t e a c h i n g s . G e n e r a l l y h e is d e s c r i b e d a s s o m e -
s y m b o l of A d a m ,
thing
Jewish legend that when God created
Adam,
helpful as t h e
and
positive.
Persian
Hindu Purusha. This
He
appears
Gayomart, figure
as
or as
the
m a y even be de-
s c r i b e d as t h e basic p r i n c i p l e of t h e w h o l e w o r l d .
t h e F i r s t M a n . T h e r e is a Adam,
h e first g a t h e r e d r e d , b l a c k , w h i t e , a n d y e l l o w d u s t from t h e four c o r n e r s of t h e w o r l d ,
and
t h u s A d a m " r e a c h e d from o n e e n d of t h e w o r l d
T h e a n c i e n t C h i n e s e , for i n s t a n c e , t h o u g h t t h a t
to t h e o t h e r . " W h e n h e b e n t d o w n , his h e a d
before a n y t h i n g w h a t e v e r was created,
was
there
w a s a colossal d i v i n e m a n called P ' a n K u
who
gave heaven a n d earth their form. W h e n
in
the
According
East to
and
his
feet
another Jewish
in
the
West.
tradition,
the
he
w h o l e o f m a n k i n d w a s c o n t a i n e d in A d a m f r o m
c r i e d , his tears m a d e t h e Y e l l o w R i v e r a n d t h e
the b e g i n n i n g , w h i c h m e a n t t h e soul of every-
Yangtze River; when he breathed, the
wind
body
who would
ever be born. T h e
soul
of
rose; w h e n he spoke, t h u n d e r was loosed; and
A d a m , t h e r e f o r e , w a s " l i k e t h e wick of a l a m p
w h e n he looked a r o u n d , lightning
composed
flashed.
w a s in a g o o d m o o d , t h e w e a t h e r w a s
If h e
of i n n u m e r a b l e
strands."
In
this
if
s y m b o l t h e i d e a of a t o t a l o n e n e s s of all h u m a n
h e w a s s a d , it c l o u d e d o v e r . W h e n h e d i e d , h e
e x i s t e n c e , b e y o n d a l l i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s , is c l e a r l y
fell a p a r t ,
expressed.
and
from
his b o d y
the
fine;
five
holy
m o u n t a i n s of C h i n a s p r a n g i n t o existence. His head became the T'ai mountain
in t h e
East,
In
ancient
Man
called
Persia,
the s a m e original
G a y o m a r t — was
depicted
First as
a
his t r u n k b e c a m e t h e S u n g m o u n t a i n in t h e c e n -
h u g e figure e m i t t i n g l i g h t . W h e n h e d i e d , e v e r y
ter, his r i g h t a r m t h e H e n g m o u n t a i n in
k i n d of m e t a l s p r a n g from his b o d y , a n d
the
from
N o r t h , h i s left a r m t h e H e n g m o u n t a i n i n t h e
h i s s o u l c a m e g o l d . H i s s e m e n fell u p o n
S o u t h , a n d h i s feet t h e H u a m o u n t a i n in t h e
e a r t h , a n d f r o m it c a m e t h e first h u m a n c o u p l e
West. His eyes b e c a m e the sun a n d
in t h e f o r m o f t w o r h u b a r b s h r u b s . I t is s t r i k i n g
2 0 0
moon.
the
Cosmic M a n the gigantic, alle m b r a c i n g figure that personifies and c o n t a i n s the entire u n i v e r s e — i s a c o m m o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e Self in m y t h s a n d d r e a m s . Left, t h e title p a g e of Leviathan, b y t h e 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y English philosopher T h o m a s Hobbes. T h e g i g a n t i c f i g u r e of L e v i a t h a n is m a d e u p of all t h e p e o p l e o f t h e " c o m m o n w e a l t h " — H o b b e s ' s ideal s o c i e t y , in w h i c h t h e p e o p l e c h o o s e t h e i r o w n c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y (or "sovereign," hence Leviathan's c r o w n , s w o r d , and scepter). A b o v e , t h e c o s m i c f i g u r e of a n c i e n t C h i n a ' s P a n K u — s h o w n c o v e r e d in leaves t o i n d i c a t e t h a t C o s m i c M a n (or First M a n ) s i m p l y e x i s t e d , like a p l a n t , g r o w n in nature. B e l o w , o n a leaf f r o m an 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y Indian illuminated manuscript, the Cosmic Lion Goddess h o l d i n g the s u n ( t h e l i o n is m a d e u p of m a n y people and animals)
201
o l d I n d i a , t h i s f i g u r e is k n o w n a s t h e P u r u s h a , a name
that
son." The
simply
Purusha
means
"man"
lives w i t h i n
or
"per-
the heart
of
every i n d i v i d u a l , a n d yet at the s a m e t i m e he fills t h e e n t i r e c o s m o s . A c c o r d i n g to t h e t e s t i m o n y of m a n y m y t h s , t h e C o s m i c M a n is n o t o n l y t h e b e g i n n i n g b u t also the
final
g o a l o f a l l life
o f t h e w h o l e of
c r e a t i o n . " A l l c e r e a l n a t u r e m e a n s w h e a t , all treasure
nature
means
gold,
all
generation
m e a n s m a n , " says the m e d i e v a l sage
Meister
E c k h a r t . A n d if o n e l o o k s a t t h i s f r o m a p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , it is c e r t a i n l y s o .
The
w h o l e i n n e r p s y c h i c r e a l i t y of e a c h
individual
is u l t i m a t e l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d
archetypal
this
s y m b o l o f t h e Self. In p r a c t i c a l t e r m s this m e a n s t h a t t h e existe n c e of h u m a n b e i n g s will n e v e r b e satisfactorily e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s of i s o l a t e d i n s t i n c t s o r p u r posive m e c h a n i s m s u c h as h u n g e r , p o w e r , sex, s u r v i v a l , p e r p e t u a t i o n of t h e species, a n d so on. T h a t is, m a n ' s m a i n p u r p o s e is n o t t o e a t , d r i n k , e t c . , b u t lo be human.
Above and beyond
these
drives, o u r i n n e r psychic reality serves to m a n i fest a l i v i n g m y s t e r y t h a t c a n b e e x p r e s s e d o n l y depicted
b y a s y m b o l , a n d for its e x p r e s s i o n t h e u n c o n -
c o v e r e d b y l e a v e s l i k e a p l a n t . P e r h a p s t h i s is
s c i o u s often c h o o s e s t h e p o w e r f u l i m a g e of t h e
b e c a u s e t h e F i r s t M a n w a s t h o u g h t o f a s a self-
Cosmic
that the Chinese P'an
K u w a s also
Man.
g r o w n , living unit that just existed w i t h o u t a n y
In o u r W e s t e r n civilization the Cosmic M a n
a n i m a l i m p u l s e o r self-will. A m o n g a g r o u p of
has b e e n identified to a g r e a t e x t e n t w i t h Christ,
p e o p l e w h o live o n
a n d in t h e E a s t w i t h K r i s h n a o r w i t h
t h e b a n k s of t h e
Tigris.
Buddha.
A d a m is s t i l l , a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , w o r s h i p e d a s
I n the O l d T e s t a m e n t this s a m e s y m b o l i c
figure
the hidden "super-soul" or mystical "protective
t u r n s u p as the " S o n
later
s p i r i t " of t h e e n t i r e h u m a n r a c e . T h e s e p e o p l e
Jewish
say t h a t he c a m e from a d a t e p a l m
C e r t a i n religious m o v e m e n t s of late a n t i q u i t y
another
r e p e t i t i o n of t h e p l a n t motif.
mysticism
of M a n "
is c a l l e d
and
Adam
in
Kadmon.
simply called him A n t h r o p o s (the Greek word
In t h e East, a n d in s o m e gnostic circles in t h e
for m a n ) . L i k e a l l s y m b o l s t h i s i m a g e p o i n t s t o
West, people soon recognized that the Cosmic M a n was more an inner psychic image than a concrete
outer
reality.
According
to
Hindu
t r a d i t i o n , for i n s t a n c e , h e is s o m e t h i n g t h a t l i v e s w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n b e i n g a n d is t h e o n l y p a r t t h a t is i m m o r t a l . T h i s i n n e r M a n redeems the individual by leading
Great him
o u t o f c r e a t i o n a n d its s u f f e r i n g s , b a c k i n t o h i s original e t e r n a l s p h e r e . But h e c a n d o this o n l y if m a n r e c o g n i z e s h i m a n d rises f r o m h i s s l e e p in o r d e r t o b e l e d . I n t h e s y m b o l i c m y t h s o f
202
T o p left, a R h o d e s i a n rock p a i n t i n g of a c r e a t i o n m y t h , in w h i c h t h e First M a n ( t h e m o o n ) m a t e s w i t h t h e m o r n i n g star a n d e v e n i n g star t o p r o d u c e t h e c r e a t u r e s of e a r t h . C o s m i c M a n o f t e n a p p e a r s as a n A d a m - l i k e o r i g i n a l m a n — a n d Christ, t o o , has b e c o m e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h i s p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of t h e Self: T o p r i g h t , a p a i n t i n g by t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y G e r m a n artist G r u n e w a l d s h o w s t h e f i g u r e of C h r i s t w i t h all t h e m a j e s t y o f C o s m i c M a n
an
unknowable
secret — to the ultimate
un-
k n o w n m e a n i n g of h u m a n existence. As w e h a v e n o t e d , c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n s assert t h a t t h e C o s m i c M a n is t h e g o a l o f c r e a t i o n , b u t t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of this s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r stood as a possible external h a p p e n i n g .
From
t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e H i n d u , for e x a m p l e , it is n o t s o m u c h t h a t t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d w i l l o n e d a y dissolve into the original G r e a t M a n , but that the ego's extraverted orientation
toward
t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d will d i s a p p e a r in o r d e r to m a k e w a y for t h e C o s m i c M a n . T h i s h a p p e n s w h e n t h e e g o m e r g e s i n t o t h e Self. T h e e g o ' s d i s c u r s i v e flow o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ( w h i c h from o n e t h o u g h t to a n o t h e r )
goes
a n d its d e s i r e s
(which r u n from o n e object to a n o t h e r )
calm
d o w n w h e n t h e G r e a t M a n w i t h i n is e n c o u n t e r e d . I n d e e d , w e m u s t n e v e r f o r g e t t h a t for u s o u t e r r e a l i t y exists o n l y in so far as w e p e r c e i v e it c o n s c i o u s l y , a n d t h a t w e c a n n o t p r o v e t h a t it e x i s t s " i n a n d b y i t s e l f . " The
many
e x a m p l e s c o m i n g from
various
civilizations a n d different periods show the uni-
E x a m p l e s of t h e "royal c o u p l e " (a s y m b o l i c i m a g e of p s y c h i c t o t a l i t y a n d t h e S e l f ) : left, a t h i r d - c e n t u r y A D . I n d i a n s c u l p t u r e of Siva a n d Parvati, hermaphroditically joined; b e l o w , the H i n d u deities Krishna a n d R a d h a in a g r o v e .
T h e Greek h e a d , b e l o w left, w a s s h o w n b y Dr. J u n g t o be s u b t l y t w o s i d e d (i.e. h e r m a p h r o d i t i c ) . In a letter t o t h e o w n e r J u n g a d d e d t h a t t h e h e a d "has, like his a n a l o g s A d o n i s , T a m m u z , a n d . . B a l d u r , all t h e g r a c e a n d c h a r m of e i t h e r s e x . "
203
R i g h t , a p r e - R o m a n s c u l p t u r e of t h e C e l t i c bear g o d d e s s A r t i o , f o u n d at B e r n e ( w h i c h m e a n s " b e a r " ) . She w a s probably a mother goddess, r e s e m b l i n g t h e s h e - b e a r in t h e d r e a m q u o t e d o n this page. Further correspondences to symbolic images in t h i s d r e a m : C e n t e r , A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g i n e s w i t h their " s a c r e d stones," w h i c h they believe contain t h e s p i r i t s of t h e d e a d B o t t o m , from a 17th-century alchemical manuscript, the s y m b o l i c royal c o u p l e as a pair of l i o n s .
versality of t h e s y m b o l of t h e G r e a t M a n .
His
i m a g e is p r e s e n t in t h e m i n d s o f m e n a s a s o r t of goal or expression of the basic m y s t e r y o u r life. B e c a u s e t h i s s y m b o l
of
represents
that
w h i c h is w h o l e a n d c o m p l e t e , it is o f t e n
con-
c e i v e d of as a b i s e x u a l b e i n g . In this form s y m b o l reconciles o n e of the most pairs
of
psychological
the
important
opposites — male
and
female. T h i s u n i o n also a p p e a r s frequently
in
d r e a m s as a d i v i n e , r o y a l , o r o t h e r w i s e d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o u p l e . T h e following d r e a m of a m a n o f 4 7 s h o w s t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e S e l f in a
dra-
matic way:
I a m o n a p l a t f o r m , a n d below m e I see a h u g e , b l a c k , beautiful s h e - b e a r w i t h a r o u g h b u t wellg r o o m e d c o a t . S h e is s t a n d i n g o n h e r h i n d legs, a n d o n a s t o n e slab she is p o l i s h i n g a flat oval black s t o n e , w h i c h b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y shiny. N o t far a w a y a lioness a n d h e r c u b d o t h e s a m e t h i n g , but t h e stones t h e y a r e p o l i s h i n g a r e b i g g e r a n d r o u n d in s h a p e . After a w h i l e t h e s h e - b e a r t u r n s i n t o a fat, n a k e d w o m a n with b l a c k h a i r a n d d a r k , fiery eyes. I b e h a v e in a n erotically p r o v o c a t i v e w a y t o w a r d her, a n d s u d d e n l y she m o v e s n e a r e r in o r d e r to c a t c h m e . I get f r i g h t e n e d a n d take refuge u p o n t h e b u i l d i n g of scaffolding w h e r e I w a s before. L a t e r I a m in t h e midst of m a n y w o m e n , half of w h o m a r e p r i m i t i v e a n d h a v e rich b l a c k h a i r (as if t h e y a r c t r a n s f o r m e d from a n i m a l s ) ; t h e o t h e r h a l f a r e o u r w o m e n [of the s a m e n a t i o n a l i t y as t h e d r e a m e r ] a n d h a v e b l o n d e o r b r o w n h a i r . T h e p r i m i t i v e w o m e n sing a very s e n t i m e n t a l s o n g in m e l a n c h o l y , h i g h p i t c h e d voices. N o w , in a h i g h e l e g a n t c a r r i a g e , t h e r e c o m e s a y o u n g m a n w h o w e a r s on his h e a d a r o y a l g o l d e n c r o w n , set w i t h s h i n i n g r u b i e s -
204
a very b e a u t i f u l sight. Beside h i m sits a b l o n d e y o u n g w o m a n , p r o b a b l y his wife, b u t w i t h o u t a c r o w n . It seems t h a t t h e lioness a n d h e r c u b h a v e been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o this c o u p l e . T h e y b e l o n g to t h e g r o u p of p r i m i t i v e s . N o w all t h e w o m e n (the p r i m i t i v e s a n d t h e o t h e r s ) i n t o n e a s o l e m n song, a n d t h e r o y a l c a r r i a g e slowly travels t o w a r d the h o r i z o n .
Here
the
inner
nucleus
of the
dreamer's
p s y c h e s h o w s i t s e l f a t first in a t e m p o r a r y v i s i o n of t h e r o y a l c o u p l e , w h i c h e m e r g e s f r o m
In d r e a m s a m i r r o r c a n s y m b o l i z e t h e p o w e r of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s t o " m i r r o r " the individual objectively — g i v i n g h i m a v i e w of h i m s e l f t h a t he m a y never h a v e h a d b e f o r e O n l y through the unconscious can such a v i e w ( w h i c h often shocks and upsets the c o n s c i o u s m i n d ) be o b t a i n e d — j u s t as in G r e e k m y t h t h e G o r g o n M e d u s a , w h o s e look turned m e n to s t o n e , c o u l d be g a z e d u p o n o n l y in a mirror. B e l o w , M e d u s a reflected in a s h i e l d (a p a i n t i n g b y t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y artist C a r a v a g g i o ) .
the
d e p t h s of his a n i m a l n a t u r e a n d t h e p r i m i t i v e l a y e r of his u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e s h e - b e a r in
the
b e g i n n i n g is a s o r t o f m o t h e r g o d d e s s . ( A r t e m i s , for i n s t a n c e , w a s w o r s h i p e d in G r e e c e a s a s h e bear. ) T h e d a r k oval stone that she rubs a n d polishes p r o b a b l y symbolizes the d r e a m e r ' s inn e r m o s t b e i n g , his t r u e p e r s o n a l i t y .
Rubbing
a n d p o l i s h i n g s t o n e s is a w e l l - k n o w n ,
exceed-
ingly a n c i e n t a c t i v i t y of m a n . I n E u r o p e " h o l y " s t o n e s , w r a p p e d in b a r k a n d h i d d e n in c a v e s , h a v e b e e n f o u n d in m a i n
p l a c e s ; as c o n t a i n e r s
of d i v i n e p o w e r s t h e y w e r e p r o b a b l y k e p t t h e r e by m e n of t h e S t o n e A g e . A t t h e p r e s e n t
time
s o m e of t h e A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g i n e s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r d e a d a n c e s t o r s c o n t i n u e to exist in s t o n e s as v i r t u o u s a n d d i v i n e p o w e r s , a n d t h a t if t h e y rub
these
stones,
the
power
increases
(like
c h a r g i n g t h e m w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y ) for t h e b e n e f i t of b o t h t h e l i v i n g a n d t h e d e a d . T h e m a n w h o h a d the d r e a m wc are discussing h a d h i t h e r t o refused
to a c c e p t a
marital
b o n d w i t h a w o m a n . His fear of b e i n g c a u g h t b y t h i s a s p e c t o f life c a u s e d h i m , i n t h e d r e a m ,
d r e a m e r r u n s a w a y to a h i g h e r p l a c e - i.e. i n t o
to flee f r o m t h e b e a r - w o m a n t o t h e s p e c t a t o r ' s
all sorts of reflections b y w h i c h h e c a n e s c a p e
platform w h e r e he could passively w a t c h things
t h e d e m a n d s o f life. T h e d r e a m t h e n s h o w s h i m
without
t h a t if h e r u n s a w a y f r o m t h e d e m a n d s o f life,
becoming
entangled.
Through
the
m o t i f of t h e s t o n e b e i n g r u b b e d b y t h e b e a r , t h e
o n e p a r t of his soul (his a n i m a )
u n c o n s c i o u s is t r y i n g t o s h o w h i m t h a t h e s h o u l d
u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , a fact s y m b o l i z e d b y t h e g r o u p
let h i m s e l f c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h i s s i d e o f
of n o n d e s c r i p t w o m e n t h a t splits a p a r t i n t o a
life; it is t h r o u g h t h e f r i c t i o n s o f m a r r i e d
p r i m i t i v e half a n d a m o r e civilized one.
life
will
remain
t h a t his i n n e r b e i n g c a n b e s h a p e d a n d p o l i s h e d .
T h e lioness a n d h e r son, w h i c h t h e n a p p e a r
W h e n t h e s t o n e is p o l i s h e d , it w i l l b e g i n t o
o n the scene, personify the mysterious urge to-
shine like a m i r r o r so t h a t t h e b e a r c a n see h e r -
w a r d i n d i v i d u a t i o n , i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r w o r k at
self in i t ; t h i s m e a n s t h a t o n l y b y
s h a p i n g t h e r o u n d s t o n e s . ( A r o u n d s t o n e is a
accepting human
s y m b o l o f t h e Self.) T h e l i o n s , a r o y a l c o u p l e ,
soul b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a m i r r o r in w h i c h t h e
a r e in t h e m s e l v e s a s y m b o l of t o t a l i t y . I n m e d i -
divine powers can perceive themselves. But the
eval s y m b o l i s m , the " p h i l o s o p h e r ' s s t o n e "
earthly contact a n d suffering can the
(a
205
p r e - e m i n e n t s y m b o l o f m a n ' s w h o l e n e s s ) is r e presented
as a p a i r of lions o r as a
human
c o u p l e r i d i n g o n lions. S y m b o l i c a l l y , this points to t h e fact t h a t often t h e u r g e t o w a r d i n d i v i d u a t i o n a p p e a r s in a veiled f o r m , h i d d e n in t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g p a s s i o n o n e m a y feel for a n o t h e r p e r s o n . ( I n fact, p a s s i o n t h a t goes b e y o n d
the
n a t u r a l m e a s u r e of love u l t i m a t e l y a i m s at the m y s t e r y o f b e c o m i n g w h o l e , a n d t h i s is w h y o n e feels, w h e n o n e h a s f a l l e n p a s s i o n a t e l y i n l o v e , t h a t b e c o m i n g o n e w i t h t h e o t h e r p e r s o n is t h e o n l y w o r t h w h i l e g o a l o f o n e ' s life.) As l o n g as t h e i m a g e of t o t a l i t y in this d r e a m e x p r e s s e s itself in t h e f o r m o f a p a i r o f l i o n s , it is still c o n t a i n e d i n s o m e s u c h
overwhelming
passion. But w h e n lion a n d lioness h a v e t u r n e d i n t o a k i n g a n d q u e e n , t h e u r g e to i n d i v i d u a t e h a s r e a c h e d t h e level of c o n s c i o u s realization, a n d c a n n o w be u n d e r s t o o d by the ego as being t h e r e a l g o a l o f life. Before the lions h a d t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o h u m a n b e i n g s , it w a s o n l y t h e
themselves primitive
w o m e n w h o s a n g , a n d t h e y d i d so i n a s e n t i m e n t a l m a n n e r ; t h a t is t o s a y , t h e f e e l i n g s of t h e d r e a m e r r e m a i n e d o n a p r i m i t i v e a n d sent i m e n t a l level. B u t in h o n o r of t h e h u m a n i z e d lions,
both
the
primitive
and
the
civilized
w o m e n c h a n t a c o m m o n h y m n of praise. T h e i r e x p r e s s i o n of t h e i r feelings in a u n i t e d
form
s h o w s t h a t the i n n e r split in the a n i m a l has n o w changed into inner h a r m o n y . Still appears
another in a
personification
report
of a
of
woman's
the
Self
so-called
" a c t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n . " ( A c t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n is a certain
w a y of m e d i t a t i n g i m a g i n a t i v e l y ,
by
O f t e n t h e Self is r e p r e s e n t e d as a h e l p f u l a n i m a l (a s y m b o l of t h e p s y c h e ' s i n s t i n c t u a l b a s i s ) . T o p left, t h e m a g i c f o x of G r i m m ' s f a i r y tale " T h e Golden Bird." Center, the Hindu monkey god Hanuman c a r r y i n g t w o g o d s in his heart. B o t t o m , Rin T i n T i n t h e h e r o i c d o g o n c e p o p u l a r in A m e r i c a n f i l m s a n d television.
S t o n e s are f r e q u e n t i m a g e s of t h e Self ( b e c a u s e t h e y are c o m p l e t e — i.e. u n c h a n g i n g — a n d l a s t i n g ) . M a n y people t o d a y look for stones of special beauty — perhaps on beaches, t o p right. S o m e H i n d u s pass f r o m f a t h e r t o s o n s t o n e s (center) believed to have magical p o w e r s . " P r e c i o u s " s t o n e s , like the j e w e l s of Q u e e n Elizabeth I (1 5 5 8 1 6 0 3 ) , b o t t o m , are a n o u t w a r d s i g n of w e a l t h a n d p o s i t i o n .
which one m a y deliberately enter into contact with
the
unconscious and
connection
with
psychic
make
a
conscious
phenomena.
Active
i m a g i n a t i o n is a m o n g t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
of
J u n g ' s d i s c o v e r i e s . W h i l e it is i n a s e n s e c o m p a r a b l e to E a s t e r n forms of m e d i t a t i o n , s u c h as t h e t e c h n i q u e of Z e n B u d d h i s m or of T a n t r i c Y o g a , o r to W e s t e r n t e c h n i q u e s like t h o s e of t h e J e s u i t E x e r c i t i a , it is f u n d a m e n t a l l y e n t in t h a t t h e m e d i t a t o r r e m a i n s
differ-
completely
d e v o i d of a n y conscious goal or p r o g r a m . T h u s the meditation becomes the solitary experiment o f a free i n d i v i d u a l , w h i c h is t h e r e v e r s e o f a g u i d e d a t t e m p t to m a s t e r t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . T h i s , h o w e v e r , is n o t t h e p l a c e t o e n t e r i n t o a d e tailed analysis of a c t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n ; t h e r e a d e r w i l l find o n e o f J u n g ' s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f it i n h i s paper on " T h e Transcendent
Function.")
In the w o m a n ' s m e d i t a t i o n the Self a p p e a r e d as a d e e r , w h i c h said to t h e e g o : " I a m
your
child a n d y o u r m o t h e r . T h e y call m e t h e ' c o n necting animal' because I connect people, anim a l s , a n d e v e n s t o n e s w i t h o n e a n o t h e r if I e n t e r t h e m . I a m y o u r fate o r t h e ' o b j e c t i v e I.' W h e n I a p p e a r , I r e d e e m you from the
meaningless
h a z a r d s o f life. T h e fire b u r n i n g i n s i d e m e b u r n s i n t h e w h o l e o f n a t u r e . I f a m a n l o s e s it, h e becomes
egocentric,
lonely, disoriented,
and
weak." T h e S e l f is o f t e n s y m b o l i z e d a s a n
animal,
r e p r e s e n t i n g o u r i n s t i n c t i v e n a t u r e a n d its c o n nectedness with one's surroundings. why
there
are
so
many
helpful
(That
animals
is in
m y t h s a n d fairy tales.) T h i s r e l a t i o n of t h e Self to all s u r r o u n d i n g n a t u r e a n d e v e n t h e c o s m o s p r o b a b l y c o m e s from t h e fact t h a t t h e " n u c l e a r a t o m " o f o u r p s y c h e is s o m e h o w w o v e n
into
t h e w h o l e w o r l d , b o t h o u t e r a n d i n n e r . All t h e h i g h e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f life a r e s o m e h o w t u n e d to
the
surrounding
space-time
continuum.
A n i m a l s , for e x a m p l e , h a v e t h e i r o w n
special
foods, t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r h o m e - b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , and
their definite
t e r r i t o r i e s , to all of w h i c h
their instinctive patterns are exactly tuned and a d a p t e d . T i m e r h y t h m s also play their
part:
W e h a v e o n l y to t h i n k of t h e fact t h a t
most
grass-eating a n i m a l s h a v e their y o u n g at prec i s e l y t h e t i m e o f y e a r w h e n t h e g r a s s is r i c h e s t
207
a n d most a b u n d a n t . W i t h such
considerations
in m i n d , a w e l l - k n o w n z o o l o g i s t h a s s a i d t h e " i n w a r d n e s s " of e a c h a n i m a l r e a c h e s o u t i n t o t h e w o r l d a r o u n d it a n d
b e c o m e m e a n i n g f u l . If w e p a y a t t e n t i o n to o u r
far
d r e a m s , i n s t e a d of living in a c o l d , i m p e r s o n a l
"psychifies"
w o r l d of m e a n i n g l e s s c h a n c e , w e m a y b e g i n to e m e r g e i n t o a w o r l d o f o u r o w n , full o f i m p o r -
time and space. I n w a y s t h a t a r e still c o m p l e t e l y b e y o n d o u r comprehension,
level o f s y m b o l i s m t h r o u g h o u r d r e a m life a n d
that
our
unconscious
a t t u n e d to o u r s u r r o u n d i n g s
is
similarly
to o u r g r o u p , to
society in g e n e r a l , a n d , b e y o n d
these, to
the
tant a n d secretly o r d e r e d events. Our
dreams,
primarily
however,
concerned
with
are
not
as a
ride
our adaptation
to
o u t e r life. I n o u r c i v i l i z e d w o r l d , m o s t d r e a m s
s p a c e - t i m e c o n t i n u u m a n d the w h o l e of n a t u r e .
h a v e to d o w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t (by t h e ego)
T h u s the Great
o f t h e " r i g h t " i n n e r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e Self,
M a n of t h e N a s k a p i
Indians also
for t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p is f a r m o r e d i s t u r b e d i n u s
gives hints a b o u t w h e r e a n d w h e n to h u n t . A n d
b y m o d e r n w a y s of t h i n k i n g a n d b e h a v i n g t h a n
so f r o m d r e a m s t h e N a s k a p i h u n t e r e v o l v e s t h e
is t h e c a s e w i t h p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e .
w o r d s a n d m e l o d i e s of the m a g i c a l songs w i t h
e r a l l y live d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e i n n e r c e n t e r ,
which he attracts the animals.
we, with
does not merely reveal inner truths; he
But this specific h e l p from t h e
unconscious
entangled
our
uprooted
with
They
genbut
consciousness, are
external,
completely
so
foreign
is n o t g i v e n t o p r i m i t i v e m a n a l o n e . J u n g d i s -
m a t t e r s t h a t it is v e r y d i f f i c u l t for t h e m e s s a g e s
covered that d r e a m s c a n also give civilized m a n
of t h e Self t o get t h r o u g h to us. O u r c o n s c i o u s
way
m i n d c o n t i n u a l l y creates the illusion of a clearly
t h r o u g h t h e p r o b l e m s of b o t h his i n n e r a n d his
s h a p e d , " r e a l " o u t e r w o r l d t h a t b l o c k s off m a n y
o u t e r life. I n d e e d , m a n y ol o u r d r e a m s a r e c o n -
other perceptions. Yet through o u r unconscious
the
guidance
he
needs
in
finding
his
c e r n e d w i t h d e t a i l s o f o u r o u t e r life a n d s u r r o u n d i n g s . S u c h t h i n g s as t h e t r e e in
our front
of the w i n d o w , one's bicycle or car, or a stone picked u p d u r i n g a w a l k m a y be raised to t h e
nature we are inexplicably connected psychic a n d physical
to o u r
environment.
I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h e fact t h a t
the
S e l f is s y m b o l i z e d w i t h s p e c i a l f r e q u e n c y i n t h e
T h e " e t e r n a l " q u a l i t y of s t o n e s c a n be seen in p e b b l e s or m o u n t a i n s . Left, r o c k s b e n e a t h M t W i l l i a m s o n , C a l i f o r n i a . T h u s s t o n e has a l w a y s been used for m e m o r i a l s — l i k e the h e a d s of f o u r U S. p r e s i d e n t s ( a b o v e ) c a r v e d in t h e cliff f a c e of M t . R u s h m o r e , S o u t h D a k o t a S t o n e s w e r e also o f t e n u s e d to m a r k p l a c e s of w o r s h i p — as w a s t h e sacred s t o n e in t h e T e m p l e of J e r u s a l e m (far r i g h t ) . It w a s t h e c e n t e r of t h e c i t y ; a n d (as t h e m e d i e v a l m a p , r i g h t , s h o w s ) t h e c i t y w a s seen as t h e c e n t e r of t h e w o r l d
f o r m of" a s t o n e , p r e c i o u s o r o t h e r w i s e . W c s a w
person
a n e x a m p l e of this in t h e s t o n e t h a t w a s b e i n g
represented
polished by the s h e - b e a r a n d the lions. In m a n y
b e i n g is a s d i f f e r e n t a s p o s s i b l e f r o m a s t o n e , y e t
remains, which
can
be most
by a stone, f o r while the
fittingly human
d r e a m s t h e n u c l e a r c e n t e r , t h e Self, a l s o a p p e a r s
man's
as
precise
s p e c i a l w a y a k i n t o it ( p e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e s t o n e
a r r a n g e m e n t o f a c r y s t a l e v o k e s i n us t h e i n t u i -
symbolizes m e r e existence at the farthest r e m o v e
a
crystal.
The
mathematically
tive feeling t h a t e v e n in s o - c a l l e d " d e a d " t e r t h e r e is a s p i r i t u a l
ordering
mat-
principle
at
from
innermost
the
discursive
center
emotions, thinking
is i n a s t r a n g e
feelings,
fantasies,
of e g o - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i .
and
and In
work. T h u s the crystal often symbolically s t a n d s
t h i s s e n s e t h e s t o n e s y m b o l i z e s w h a t is p e r h a p s
for t h e u n i o n o f e x t r e m e o p p o s i t e s — o f m a t t e r
the simplest and deepest experience —the
ex-
and spirit.
p e r i e n c e of s o m e t h i n g
can
P e r h a p s crystals a n d stones are especially apt s y m b o l s of t h e Self b e c a u s e of t h e " j u s t - s o - n e s s " of t h e i r n a t u r e . from
Many
people cannot
picking u p stones of a slightly
refrain unusual
color or s h a p e a n d k e e p i n g t h e m , w i t h o u t k n o w -
eternal
that m a n
h a v e i n t h o s e m o m e n t s w h e n h e feels i m m o r t a l and
unalterable.
T h e u r g e t h a t w e find i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l c i v i l i zations to erect stone m o n u m e n t s
to
famous
m e n or o n t h e site of i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s p r o b a b l y
i n g w h y t h e y d o t h i s . It is a s if t h e s t o n e s h e l d
a l s o s t e m s f r o m t h i s s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g of
a living mystery that fascinates t h e m . M e n h a v e
stone. T h e stone that J a c o b placed on the spot
the
collected stones since the b e g i n n i n g of t i m e a n d
where
have apparently assumed that certain ones were
s t o n e s left b y s i m p l e p e o p l e o n t h e t o m b s o f
he h a d
his f a m o u s
dream,
or
certain
t h e c o n t a i n e r s o f t h e l i f e - f o r c e w i t h a l l its m y s -
local saints or heroes, s h o w the original n a t u r e
t e r y . T h e a n c i e n t G e r m a n s , for i n s t a n c e , b e -
of t h e h u m a n u r g e to express a n o t h e r w i s e inex-
lieved t h a t t h e spirits of t h e d e a d c o n t i n u e d
to
p r e s s i b l e e x p e r i e n c e b y t h e s t o n e - s y m b o l . It is
live i n t h e i r t o m b s t o n e s . T h e c u s t o m o f p l a c i n g
n o w o n d e r t h a t m a n y religious cults use a stone
stones o n g r a v e s m a y s p r i n g p a r t l y from
the
to signify G o d o r to m a r k a p l a c e of w o r s h i p .
symbolic i d e a t h a t s o m e t h i n g e t e r n a l of t h e d e a d
T h e h o l i e s t s a n c t u a r y o f t h e I s l a m i c w o r l d is t h e
K a ' a b a , t h e b l a c k s t o n e in M e c c a to w h i c h all pious M o s l e m s h o p e to m a k e their p i l g r i m a g e . According
to C h r i s t i a n
ecclesiastical
sym-
T h e a l c h e m i c a l s t o n e ( t h e lapis)
symbolizes
s o m e t h i n g t h a t c a n n e v e r b e lost o r d i s s o l v e d , something eternal that some alchemists
com-
b o l i s m , C h r i s t is " t h e s t o n e w h i c h t h e b u i l d e r s
p a r e d to t h e mystical e x p e r i e n c e of G o d w i t h i n
r e j e c t e d , " w h i c h b e c a m e " t h e h e a d of t h e cor-
one's
n e r " ( L u k e x x : 1 7 ) . A l t e r n a t i v e l y h e is c a l l e d
suffering
t h e " s p i r i t u a l r o c k " from w h i c h t h e w a t e r of
psychic elements concealing the stone. But some
life s p r i n g s (1 C o r . x : 4 ) . M e d i e v a l a l c h e m i s . t s ,
p r o f o u n d i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e of t h e Self d o e s o c c u r
w h o s e a r c h e d for t h e s e c r e t o f m a t t e r i n a p r e -
to most p e o p l e at least o n c e in a lifetime. F r o m
scientific
way,
hoping
to
find
God
i n it,
own
soul. to
It
burn
usually away
all
takes
prolonged
the
superfluous
or
t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , a g e n u i n e l y reli-
at least t h e w o r k i n g of d i v i n e a c t i v i t y , b e l i e v e d
g i o u s a t t i t u d e consists of a n effort to d i s c o v e r
famous
this u n i q u e e x p e r i e n c e , a n d g r a d u a l l y to keep
" p h i l o s o p h e r ' s s t o n e . " B u t s o m e of t h e a l c h e -
t h a t this secret w a s e m b o d i e d in their
i n t u n e w i t h it (it is r e l e v a n t t h a t a s t o n e is
mists d i m l y perceived t h a t their m u c h - s o u g h t -
itself s o m e t h i n g p e r m a n e n t ) , so t h a t t h e Self b e -
after stone w a s a s y m b o l of s o m e t h i n g t h a t c a n
comes an
b e f o u n d o n l y w i t h i n t h e p s y c h e of m a n .
a t t e n t i o n is c o n t i n u a l l y t u r n e d .
old A r a b i a n alchemist, M o r i e n u s , said:
An
inner partner
toward
whom
c /ie's
"This
T h e fact t h a t this h i g h e s t a n d m o s t f r e q u e n t
t h i n g [ t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s s t o n e ] is e x t r a c t e d f r o m
s y m b o l o f t h e S e l f is a n o b j e c t o f lifeless m a t -
you:
you
a r e its m i n e r a l , a n d o n e c a n
find
i n y o u ; o r , t o p u t it m o r e c l e a r l y , t h e y
it
[the
ter points to yet a n o t h e r
field
of i n q u i r y
and
s p e c u l a t i o n : t h a t is, t h e still u n k n o w n r e l a t i o n -
a l c h e m i s t s ] t a k e it f r o m y o u . I f y o u r e c o g n i z e
ship
this, t h e love a n d a p p r o b a t i o n of t h e s t o n e will
p s y c h e a n d w h a t w e call " m a t t e r " — a m y s t e r y
g r o w w i t h i n y o u . K n o w t h a t t h i s is t r u e w i t h -
with which psychosomatic medicine endeavors
out d o u b t . "
t o g r a p p l e . I n s t u d y i n g t h i s still u n d e f i n e d
between
Left, t h e B l a c k S t o n e of M e c c a , blessed by M o h a m m e d ( i n an A r a b i c m a n u s c r i p t illustration) to integrate it i n t o t h e I s l a m i c r e l i g i o n . It is c a r r i e d by f o u r t r i b a l c h i e f t a i n s (at t h e f o u r c o r n e r s of a c a r p e t ) into the Ka'aba, the holy sanctuary t o w h i c h t h o u s a n d s of M o s l e m s m a k e an a n n u a l p i l g r i m a g e ( b e l o w l e f t ) .
Right, another symbolic stone: t h e S t o n e o f S c o n e (or S t o n e of Destiny) on w h i c h Scottish kings w e r e f o r m e r l y c r o w n e d . It w a s t a k e n t o E n g l a n d ' s W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y in t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , b u t it never lost its i m p o r t a n c e f o r S c o t l a n d O n C h r i s t m a s D a y , 1 9 5 0 , a g r o u p of Scottish Nationalists stole the S t o n e f r o m t h e A b b e y a n d t o o k it back to S c o t l a n d (It w a s returned t o t h e A b b e y in A p r i l 1 9 5 1 . )
R i g h t , a t o u r i s t kisses t h e f a m o u s " B l a r n e y S t o n e ' ' of Irish l e g e n d . It is s u p p o s e d t o c o n f e r t h e g i f t of e l o q u e n c e o n t h o s e w h o kiss it
what
we
call
the
unconscious
and
u n e x p l a i n e d c o n n e c t i o n (it m a y p r o v e t o b e t h a t
s e e m u c h t h e s a m e u n d e r l y i n g t h e m e in a s t r o -
"psyche" and " m a t t e r " are actually the same
logy, a n d in t h e w a y v a r i o u s c i v i l i z a t i o n s h a v e
p h e n o m e n o n , one observed from " w i t h i n " a n d
d e p e n d e d on consulting oracles a n d paying at-
the o t h e r from " w i t h o u t " ) , D r . J u n g p u t
for-
t e n t i o n to o m e n s . All of these a r e a t t e m p t s to
synchroni-
p r o v i d e a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t is
ward a new concept that he called cily. T h i s t e r m
means a "meaningful
coinci-
d e n c e " of o u t e r a n d i n n e r e v e n t s t h a t a r e n o t themselves causally connected. T h e lies o n t h e w o r d
emphasis
"meaningful."
different from o n e t h a t d e p e n d s on straightforward cause and
effect.
I n c r e a t i n g t h e c o n c e p t of s y n c h r o n i c i t y , D r . J u n g s k e t c h e d a w a y in w h i c h w e m i g h t p e n e -
If a n a i r c r a f t c r a s h e s b e f o r e m y e y e s a s I a m
t r a t e d e e p e r i n t o t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n of p s y c h e
b l o w i n g m y n o s e , t h i s is a c o i n c i d e n c e o f e v e n t s
a n d m a t t e r . A n d it is p r e c i s e l y t o w a r d s u c h a
that has no m e a n i n g .
r e l a t i o n t h a t t h e s y m b o l of t h e s t o n e s e e m s t o
I t is s i m p l y a
chance
o c c u r r e n c e of a k i n d t h a t h a p p e n s all t h e t i m e .
p o i n t . B u t t h i s is still a c o m p l e t e l y o p e n
B u t if I b o u g h t a b l u e f r o c k a n d , b y m i s t a k e ,
insufficiently
the s h o p d e l i v e r e d a b l a c k o n e o n t h e d a y o n e
f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s of psychologists a n d
of m y
cists m u s t d e a l .
near
relatives
died,
this w o u l d
be
a
explored
matter,
with
and
which physi-
meaningful coincidence. T h e two events are not
It m a y s e e m t h a t m y d i s c u s s i o n o f s y n c h r o n i -
causally related, b u t they are c o n n e c t e d by the
city has led m e a w a y from m y m a i n t h e m e , b u t
symbolic m e a n i n g t h a t o u r society gives to t h e
I feel it is n e c e s s a r y t o m a k e a t l e a s t a
color b l a c k .
introductory
W h e r e v e r Dr. J u n g observed such meaningful
with
the i n d i v i d u a l ' s d r e a m s r e v e a l e d )
application.
there
t o it
because
brief
it is
a
J u n g i a n h y p o t h e s i s t h a t seems to be p r e g n a n t
c o i n c i d e n c e s i n a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s life, it s e e m e d ( a s that
reference
future
possibilities of i n v e s t i g a t i o n Synchronistic
events,
and
moreover,
was a n a r c h e t y p e a c t i v a t e d in t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
almostinvariably a c c o m p a n y thecrucial phases
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n e d . T o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s b y
of t h e process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n . B u t too often
m y e x a m p l e of t h e b l a c k f r o c k : I n s u c h a c a s e
they pass u n n o t i c e d , b e c a u s e the individual has
the p e r s o n w h o receives t h e b l a c k frock
might
n o t l e a r n e d t o w a t c h for s u c h c o i n c i d e n c e s a n d
also h a v e h a d a d r e a m o n t h e t h e m e o f d e a t h .
to m a k e
It s e e m s a s if t h e u n d e r l y i n g a r c h e t y p e is m a n i -
s y m b o l i s m of his d r e a m s .
them
meaningful
in r e l a t i o n
to
the
festing i t s e l f s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n i n n e r a n d e x t e r nal
events.
The
common
denominator
is
a
symbolically expressed m e s s a g e — in this case a message a b o u t d e a t h . As s o o n a s w e n o t i c e t h a t c e r t a i n t y p e s o f event " l i k e " to cluster t o g e t h e r at c e r t a i n times, we begin
to u n d e r s t a n d
the
attitude
C h i n e s e , w h o s e t h e o r i e s of m e d i c i n e ,
of
the
philoso-
phy, a n d even b u i l d i n g a r e based on a " s c i e n c e " of m e a n i n g f u l c o i n c i d e n c e s . T h e c l a s s i c a l C h i n e s e t e x t s d i d n o t a s k w h a t causes
what,
but
r a t h e r w h a t " l i k e s " t o occur with w h a t . O n e c a n
A p a i n t i n g by t h e m o d e r n artist Hans Haffenrichter resembles the p a t t e r n of a crystal — like o r d i n a r y s t o n e , a s y m b o l of w h o l e n e s s .
2
I I
The relation to the Self
Nowadays
more and
more people,
especially
before, to o u t e r d u t i e s , b u t a t t h e s a m e
time
t h o s e w h o live in l a r g e cities, suffer f r o m a t e r -
o n e r e m a i n s a l e r t for h i n t s a n d s i g n s , b o t h i n
r i b l e e m p t i n e s s a n d b o r e d o m , a s if t h e y
d r e a m s a n d in e x t e r n a l e v e n t s , t h a t t h e
were
Self
w a i t i n g for s o m e t h i n g t h a t n e v e r a r r i v e s . M o v i e s
u s e s t o s y m b o l i z e its i n t e n t i o n s — t h e d i r e c t i o n i n
and
w h i c h t h e l i f e - s t r e a m is m o v i n g .
television, spectator sports a n d
political
e x c i t e m e n t s m a y d i v e r t t h e m for a w h i l e , b u t again and again, exhausted and
O l d C h i n e s e texts t h a t are c o n c e r n e d
with
disenchanted,
this k i n d of e x p e r i e n c e often use the simile of
t h e y h a v e t o r e t u r n to t h e w a s t e l a n d of t h e i r
t h e c a t w a t c h i n g the m o u s e h o l e . O n e text says
o w n lives.
t h a t o n e s h o u l d allow n o o t h e r t h o u g h t s to in-
T h e o n l y a d v e n t u r e t h a t is still w o r t h w h i l e
trude, but one's attention should not be sharp —nor
u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e . W i t h this i d e a v a g u e l y in
e x a c t l y t h e r i g h t level of p e r c e p t i o n .
mind,
t r a i n i n g is u n d e r g o n e i n t h i s m a n n e r . . . it w i l l
many
now
turn
to
Yoga
and
other
should
it
be
too
dull.
too
for m o d e r n m a n lies i n t h e i n n e r r e a l m o f t h e
There "If
is the
genuine
be effective as t i m e goes o n , a n d w h e n t h e c a u s e
n e w a d v e n t u r e , for in t h e m o n e o n l y t a k e s o v e r
c o m e s to fruition, like a r i p e m e l o n t h a t a u t o -
E a s t e r n p r a c t i c e s . B u t t h e s e offer n o
w h a t is a l r e a d y k n o w n t o t h e H i n d u s o r Chinese without
directly
i n n e r life c e n t e r . W h i l e it is t r u e t h a t m e t h o d s serve
to c o n c e n t r a t e
the
matically
falls,
anything
it
may
happen
to
own
t o u c h o r m a k e c o n t a c t w i t h will s u d d e n l y c a u s e
Eastern
t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s u p r e m e a w a k e n i n g . T h i s is t h e
meeting one's the mind
and
m o m e n t w h e n t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r will b e like o n e
d i r e c t it i n w a r d ( a n d t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e is i n
w h o d r i n k s w a t e r a n d a l o n e k n o w s w h e t h e r it
a sense s i m i l a r to t h e i n t r o v e r s i o n of a n a n a l y -
is c o l d o r w a r m . H e b e c o m e s free o f a l l d o u b t s
t i c a l , t r e a t m e n t ) , t h e r e is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r -
about himself and experiences a great happiness
ence. J u n g e v o l v e d a w a y of g e t t i n g - t o
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o n e feels i n m e e t i n g o n e ' s o w n
one's
inner center a n d m a k i n g contact with the living m y s t e r y of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , a l o n e a n d u n a i d e d .
father at the crossroads." T h u s , in t h e m i d s t of o r d i n a r y
outer
life,
T h a t is u t t e r l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m f o l l o w i n g a w e l l -
o n e is s u d d e n l y c a u g h t u p i n a n e x c i t i n g i n n e r
worn path.
a d v e n t u r e ; a n d b e c a u s e it is u n i q u e for
T r y i n g to give t h e living reality of the Self a constant
amount
of d a i l y a t t e n t i o n
is l i k e
each
i n d i v i d u a l , it c a n n o t b e c o p i e d o r s t o l e n . T h e r e a r e t w o m a i n r e a s o n s w h y m a n loses
t r y i n g to live s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n t w o levels o r in
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r e g u l a t i n g c e n t e r of his s o u l .
t w o different worlds. O n e gives o n e ' s m i n d , as
O n e o f t h e m is t h a t s o m e s i n g l e i n s t i n c t i v e d r i v e
2 I 2
or e m o t i o n a l i m a g e c a n c a r r y h i m i n t o a o n e -
word
s i d e d n e s s t h a t m a k e s h i m lose his b a l a n c e . T h i s
s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s o r d e r , w h i c h is a s y m b o l i c r e -
also h a p p e n s t o a n i m a l s ; for e x a m p l e , a s e x u -
presentation
ally e x c i t e d s t a g w i l l c o m p l e t e l y f o r g e t
h u m a n psyche
hunger
mandala
(magic of
the
circle) "nuclear
to d e s i g n a t e atom"
of
a the
whose essence we d o not k n o w .
a n d s e c u r i t y . T h i s o n e - s i d e d ness a n d c o n s e q u e n t
I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t a N a s -
loss of b a l a n c e a r e m u c h d r e a d e d b y p r i m i t i v e s ,
kapi h u n t e r pictorially represented
w h o c a l l it " l o s s o f s o u l . " A n o t h e r t h r e a t t o t h e
M a n not as a h u m a n b e i n g b u t as a m a n d a l a .
inner b a l a n c e c o m e s from excessive d a y d r e a m -
his G r e a t
W h e r e a s the Naskapi experience the
inner
i n g , w h i c h in a s e c r e t w a y u s u a l l y c i r c l e s a r o u n d
c e n t e r d i r e c t l y a n d n a i v e l y , w i t h o u t t h e h e l p of
p a r t i c u l a r c o m p l e x e s . In fact, d a y d r e a m s arise
religious rites or d o c t r i n e s , o t h e r
just b e c a u s e t h e y c o n n e c t a m a n w i t h his c o m -
u s e t h e m a n d a l a m o t i f in o r d e r t o r e s t o r e a lost
plexes; at the s a m e time they t h r e a t e n the con-
inner balance. Forinstance, the N a v a h o Indians
c e n t r a t i o n a n d c o n t i n u i t y o f his c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
try,
T h e s e c o n d o b s t a c l e is e x a c t l y t h e o p p o s i t e , and
is d u e
to a n
over-consolidation
of e g o -
c o n s c i o u s n e s s . A11 h o u g h a d i s c i | ) l i n e d c o n s c i o u s -
by
means
of
communities
mandala-structurcd
sand
p a i n t i n g s , t o b r i n g a sick p e r s o n b a c k i n t o h a r m o n y with himself a n d with the cosmos
and
t h e r e b y to r e s t o r e his h e a l t h .
ness is n e c e s s a r y for t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f c i v i l i z e d
In Eastern civilizations similar pictures are
a c t i v i t i e s ( w e k n o w w h a t h a p p e n s if a r a i l w a y
used to c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i n n e r b e i n g , o r to e n a b l e
s i g n a l m a n l a p s e s i n t o d a y d r e a m i n g ) , it h a s t h e
o n e to p l u n g e i nto d e e p m e d i t a t i o n . T h e c o n -
s e r i o u s d i s a d v a n t a g e t h a t it is a p t t o b l o c k t h e
t e m p l a t i o n o f a m a n d a l a is m e a n t t o b r i n g a n
reception of i m p u l s e s a n d messages c o m i n g from
i n n e r p e a c e , a f e e l i n g t h a t life h a s a g a i n f o u n d
the c e n t e r .
This
is w h y s o m a n y
dreams
civilized p e o p l e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h this r e c e p t i v i t y attitude
by a t t e m p t i n g
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
of
its m e a n i n g a n d o r d e r . T h e m a n d a l a a l s o c o n -
restoring
v e y s t h i s f e e l i n g w h e n it a p p e a r s s p o n t a n e o u s l y
to c o r r e c t
toward
the
the
in t h e d r e a m s o f m o d e r n m e n w h o a r e n o t i n f l u -
uncon-
e n c e d by a n y religious t r a d i t i o n of this sort a n d
s c i o u s c e n t e r o r Self. A m o n g the m y t h o l o g i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the Self o n e
finds
m u c h e m p h a s i s on the four
c o r n e r s o f t h e w o r l d , a n d in m a n y p i c t u r e s t h e Great
Man
is r e p r e s e n t e d
in t h e c e n t e r o f a
circle d i v i d e d i n t o four. J u n g used t h e
The f e e l i n g s of b o r e d o m a n d a p a t h y from w h i c h c i t y d w e l l e r s t o d a y o f t e n suffer is o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y o f f s e t by s u c h a r t i f i c i a l e x c i t e m e n t s as adventure f i l m s (far left) a n d t i m e killing " a m u s e m e n t s " ( l e f t ) . J u n g stressed t h a t t h e o n l y real a d v e n t u r e remaining f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l is t h e e x p l o r a t i o n of his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s . The u l t i m a t e g o a l of s u c h a s e a r c h is the f o r m i n g of a h a r m o n i o u s a n d balanced r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e Self The circular m a n d a l a i m a g e s t h i s perfect b a l a n c e — e m b o d i e d in t h e structure of t h e m o d e r n c a t h e d r a l (right) of t h e c i t y of Brasilia.
Hindu
know
nothing about
effect
is e v e n
greater
it. P e r h a p s t h e in s u c h
cases
positive because
knowledge a n d tradition sometimes blur or even block the s p o n t a n e o u s experience. An
example
of a s p o n t a n e o u s l y
produced
m a n d a l a o c c u r s in t h e f o l l o w i n g d r e a m o f a 6 2 -
Top, a Navaho makes a sand painting (a m a n d a l a ) in a h e a l i n g ritual; t h e p a t i e n t sits in t h e p a i n t i n g . A b o v e , a p l a n o f a s a n d p a i n t i n g ; it m u s t b e c i r c l e d by a p a t i e n t b e f o r e e n t e r i n g .
Left, a w i n t e r l a n d s c a p e b y t h e G e r m a n artist Kaspar F r i e d r i c h L a n d s c a p e p a i n t i n g s u s u a l l y express indefinable " m o o d s " — a s do s y m b o l i c l a n d s c a p e s in d r e a m s .
year-old w o m a n . It e m e r g e d as a p r e l u d e to a
I m e n t i o n e d before.) N o w t h e g o l d e n disk sud-
n e w p h a s e o f life i n w h i c h s h e b e c a m e
d e n l y m o v e s to t h e " r i g h t " side — t h e side w h e r e
very
creative:
things become conscious. A m o n g other
things
" r i g h t " often m e a n s , psychologically, t h e side I see a l a n d s c a p e in a d i m light. I n t h e b a c k g r o u n d I see t h e rising a n d t h e n e v e n l y c o n t i n u ing crest of a hill. A l o n g t h e line w h e r e it rises moves a q u a d r a n g u l a r disk t h a t shines like gold. In the f o r e g r o u n d I see d a r k p l o w e d e a r t h t h a t is beginning to s p r o u t . N o w I s u d d e n l y p e r c e i v e a round t a b l e w i t h a g r a y s t o n e s l a b as its t o p , a n d at the s a m e m o m e n t t h e q u a d r a n g u l a r disk s u d denly s t a n d s u p o n t h e t a b l e . I t h a s left t h e hill, but h o w a n d w h y it h a s c h a n g e d its p l a c e I d o not k n o w .
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , of a d a p t a t i o n , of b e i n g " r i g h t , " w h i l e " l e f t " signifies t h e s p h e r e of u n a d a p t e d , unconscious
reactions
or sometimes
even
of
s o m e t h i n g " s i n i s t e r . " T h e n , finally, t h e g o l d e n d i s k s t o p s its m o v e m e n t a n d c o m e s t o r e s t o n — significantly — a r o u n d stone table. It has found a p e r m a n e n t base. As A n i e l a Jaffe observes later in this book, roundness (the m a n d a l a motif) generally symbolizes a n a t u r a l wholeness, w h e r e a s a q u a d r a n g u l a r f o r m a t i o n represents the r e a l i z a t i o n of
L a n d s c a p e s in d r e a m s (as well a s in a r t ) fre-
this in consciousness. I n t h e d r e a m t h e s q u a r e
In
disk a n d t h e r o u n d t a b l e m e e t , a n d t h u s a c o n -
this d r e a m , t h e d i m l i g h t o f t h e l a n d s c a p e i n d i -
s c i o u s r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c e n t e r is a t h a n d . T h e
cates t h a t t h e c l a r i t y of d a y t i m e
consciousness
r o u n d t a b l e , i n c i d e n t a l l y , is a w e l l - k n o w n s y m -
is d i m m e d . " I n n e r n a t u r e " m a y n o w b e g i n t o
b o l o f w h o l e n e s s a n d p l a y s a i-ole i n m y t h o l o g y
quently symbolize a n inexpressible mood.
r e v e a l itself i n its o w n l i g h t , s o w e a r e t o l d t h a t
— for
the q u a d r a n g u l a r disk b e c o m e s visible o n t h e
w h i c h i t s e l f is a n i m a g e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e t a b l e
h o r i z o n . H i t h e r t o t h e s y m b o l o f t h e Self, t h e
of t h e L a s t S u p p e r .
disk, h a d b e e n l a r g e l y a n i n t u i t i v e i d e a o n t h e
instance,
King
Arthur's
round
table,
I n fact, w h e n e v e r a h u m a n b e i n g g e n u i n e l y
dreamer's mental horizon, but nowin t h e d r e a m
t u r n s to t h e i n n e r w o r l d a n d tries to k n o w h i m -
it shifts its p o s i t i o n a n d b e c o m e s t h e c e n t e r o f
self— n o t b y r u m i n a t i n g a b o u t h i s s u b j e c t i v e
the l a n d s c a p e of h e r soul. A seed, s o w n
t h o u g h t s a n d feelings, b u t by following t h e ex-
ago, b e g i n s to s p r o u t : for a l o n g t i m e ously t h e d r e a m e r h a d p a i d c a r e f u l
long previ-
pressions of his o w n o b j e c t i v e n a t u r e s u c h as
attention
d r e a m s a n d g e n u i n e fantasies — t h e n sooner or
to h e r d r e a m s , a n d n o w t h i s w o r k b e a r s f r u i t .
l a t e r t h e Self e m e r g e s . T h e e g o will t h e n
( O n e is r e m i n d e d o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
a n i n n e r p o w e r t h a t c o n t a i n s all t h e possibilities
s y m b o l o f t h e G r e a t M a n a n d p l a n t life, w h i c h
of r e n e w a l .
In t h e p a i n t i n g s , left, o f t h e d r e a m q u o t e d o n this page (painted by the dreamer), the mandala motif appears as a q u a d r a n g l e rather t h a n a c i r c l e Usually quadrangular forms symbolize c o n s c i o u s r e a l i z a t i o n of inner w h o l e n e s s : t h e w h o l e n e s s itself is m o s t o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d in c i r c u l a r f o r m s , s u c h as t h e r o u n d t a b l e t h a t also a p p e a r s in t h e d r e a m . R i g h t , t h e l e g e n d a r y R o u n d T a b l e of K i n g Arthur (from a 15th-century m a n u s c r i p t ) , at w h i c h t h e H o l y Grail a p p e a r e d in a v i s i o n a n d started the k n i g h t s o n the f a m o u s q u e s t . T h e Grail itself s y m b o l i z e s the i n n e r w h o l e n e s s f o r w h i c h m e n have a l w a y s been searching.
find
B u t t h e r e is a g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y
that
I
have
Thus
t h e e m e r g i n g of t h e Self m a y
m e n t i o n e d o n l y i n d i r e c t l y u p till n o w . T h i s is
great
danger
to a m a n ' s c o n s c i o u s e g o .
t h a t e v e r y p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s —
d o u b l e a s p e c t o f t h e S e l f is b e a u t i f u l l y
the s h a d o w , t h e a n i m a , the a n i m u s , a n d the Self
ted by this old I r a n i a n fairy tale, called
—has b o t h a light a n d a d a r k aspect. W e saw
S e c r e t of t h e B a t h
bring The
illustra"The
Badgerd":
before t h a t t h e s h a d o w m a y be base or evil, a n instinctive d r i v e t h a t o n e o u g h t to o v e r c o m e . It m a y , h o w e v e r , b e a n i m p u l s e t o w a r d g r o w t h that one should
c u l t i v a t e a n d follow.
same way the a n i m a
and
In
animus have
the dual
a s p e c t s : T h e y c a n b r i n g life-giving d e v e l o p m e n t a n d creativeness to the personality, or they c a n cause
petrification
and
physical
death.
And
e v e n t h e Self, t h e a l l - e m b r a c i n g s y m b o l o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , h a s a n a m b i v a l e n t e f f e c t , a s for i n s t a n c e in t h e E s k i m o t a l e ( p a g e
196),
when
the "little w o m a n " offered to save the h e r o i n e from the M o o n Spirit b u t a c t u a l l y t u r n e d
her
into a spider. T h e d a r k s i d e o f t h e S e l f is t h e m o s t
dan-
g e r o u s t h i n g of all, precisely b e c a u s e t h e Self is t h e g r e a t e s t
power
in
the psyche.
It
can
c a u s e p e o p l e to " s p i n " m e g a l o m a n i a c or o t h e r delusory
fantasies
that
catch
them
up
" p o s s e s s " t h e m . A p e r s o n in this s t a t e
and thinks
with m o u n t i n g excitement that he has grasped a n d solved the great cosmic riddles; he therefore loses all t o u c h w i t h h u m a n r e a l i t y . A r e l i a b l e s y m p t o m o f t h i s c o n d i t i o n is t h e loss o f o n e ' s sense of h u m o r a n d of h u m a n
contacts.
T h e g r e a t a n d n o b l e P r i n c e H a t i m T a i receives o r d e r s from his king to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m y s t e r i o u s Bath B a d g e r d [castle of n o n e x i s t e n c e ] . W h e n he a p p r o a c h e s it, h a v i n g g o n e t h r o u g h m a n y d a n g e r o u s a d v e n t u r e s , he h e a r s t h a t n o b o d y ever ret u r n e d from it, b u t he insists on g o i n g on. He is r e c e i v e d at a r o u n d b u i l d i n g by a b a r b e r w i t h a m i r r o r w h o leads h i m i n t o t h e b a t h , b u t as soon as t h e p r i n c e e n t e r s t h e w a t e r , a t h u n d e r o u s noise b r e a k s o u t . it gets c o m p l e t e l y d a r k , t h e b a r b e r d i s a p p e a r s , a n d slowly t h e w a t e r b e g i n s to rise. H a t i m s w i m s d e s p e r a t e l y r o u n d until t h e w a t e r finally r e a c h e s t h e t o p of t h e r o u n d c u p o l a , which forms t h e roof of t h e b a t h . N o w he fears he is lost, b u t he says a p r a y e r a n d g r a b s t h e centers t o n e of t h e c u p o l a . A g a i n a t h u n d e r o u s noise, e v e r y t h i n g c h a n g e s , a n d H a t i m s t a n d s a l o n e in a desert. After long a n d painful w a n d e r i n g , he c o m e s to a beautiful g a r d e n in t h e m i d d l e of w h i c h is a circle of s t o n e s t a t u e s . In t h e c e n t e r of t h e statues, he sees a p a r r o t in its c a g e , a n d a voice from a b o v e says to h i m : " O h , h e r o , you p r o b a b l y will not e s c a p e alive from this b a t h . O n c e G a y o m a r t [the First M a n ] found a n e n o r m o u s d i a m o n d that s h o n e m o r e b r i g h t l y t h a n sun a n d m o o n . H e d e cided to h i d e it w h e r e n o o n e c a n find it, a n d t h e r e f o r e he built this m a g i c a l b a t h in o r d e r to
p r o t e c t it. T h e p a r r o t t h a t you see h e r e forms p a r t of t h e m a g i c . At its feet lie a g o l d e n b o w a n d a r r o w o n a g o l d e n c h a i n , a n d w i t h t h e m you m a y try t h r e e t i m e s to s h o o t t h e p a r r o t . If y o u hit h i m t h e curse will be lifted; if n o t , you will be petrified, as w e r e all these o t h e r p e o p l e . " H a t i m tries o n c e , a n d fails. His legs t u r n to stone. H e fails o n c e m o r e a n d is petrified u p to his chest. T h e t h i r d t i m e h e j u s t s h u t s his eyes, e x c l a i m i n g " G o d is g r e a t , " shoots b l i n d l y , a n d this t i m e hits t h e p a r r o t . A n o u t b r e a k of t h u n d e r , c l o u d s of d u s t . W h e n all this has s u b s i d e d , in place of t h e p a r r o t is a n e n o r m o u s , beautiful d i a m o n d , a n d all t h e s t a t u e s h a v e c o m e to life a g a i n . T h e p e o p l e t h a n k h i m for t h e i r r e d e m p t i o n .
c o p y a n d a c t o u t t h e p a t t e r n of t h e i n d i v i d u a t i o n p r o c e s s m a d e b y h i s life. I t m e a n s t h a t w e s h o u l d try with a sincerity a n d d e v o t i o n e q u a l to his to live o u r o w n lives. T h e b a r b e r with the mirror, w h o vanishes, symbolizes
t h e gift o f r e f l e c t i o n
that
Hatim
loses w h e n h e w a n t s it m o s t ; t h e r i s i n g w a t e r s r e p r e s e n t t h e risk t h a t o n e m a y d r o w n in t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d g e t lost i n o n e ' s o w n e m o t i o n s . In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d the s y m b o l i c i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , o n e m u s t be careful n o t to get o u t s i d e oneself or " b e s i d e oneself," b u t to s t a y e m o t i o n a l l y w i t h i n o n e s e l f . I n d e e d , it is vitally i m p o r t a n t that the ego should c o n t i n u e
T h e r e a d e r will r e c o g n i z e t h e s y m b o l s of t h e S e l f in t h i s s t o r y round
t h e First M a n G a y o m a r t , t h e
mandala-shaped
building,
the
center-
stone, a n d the d i a m o n d . But this d i a m o n d
is
to f u n c t i o n
in n o r m a l w a y s . O n l y if I r e m a i n
a n o r d i n a r y h u m a n b e i n g , conscious of m y incompleteness, can
I b e c o m e r e c e p t i v e to
the
significant c o n t e n t s a n d processes of the u n c o n -
demonic
parrot
scious. But h o w c a n a h u m a n b e i n g stand
signifies t h e evil s p i r i t of i m i t a t i o n t h a t
makes
t e n s i o n ol f e e l i n g h i m s e l f a t o n e w i t h t h e w h o l e
o n e miss t h e t a r g e t a n d petrify psychologically.
u n i v e r s e , w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e h e is o n l y a
surrounded
by danger.
The
the
As I p o i n t e d o u t e a r l i e r , t h e p r o c e s s of i n d i v i -
m i s e r a b l e e a r t h l y h u m a n c r e a t u r e ? If, o n
duation excludes any parrot-like imitation
of
o n e h a n d , I d e s p i s e m y s e l f as m e r e l y a s t a t i s t i c a l
o t h e r s . T i m e a n d a g a i n in a l l c o u n t r i e s p e o p l e
c i p h e r , m y life h a s n o m e a n i n g a n d is n o t w o r t h
h a v e tried to c o p y in " o u t e r " or ritualistic b e -
l i v i n g . B u t if, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , I feel m y s e l f
h a v i o r the o r i g i n a l religious e x p e r i e n c e of t h e i r
to be p a r t of s o m e t h i n g m u c h g r e a t e r , h o w a m
great religious teachers
Christ or B u d d h a or
I t o k e e p m y feet o n t h e g r o u n d ? difficult
" p e t r i f i e d . " T o f o l l o w in t h e s t e p s o f a g r e a t
u n i t e d w i t h i n oneself w i t h o u t t o p p l i n g o v e r i n t o
spiritual leader does not m e a n that one should
one or the other extreme.
Right, t h e r e p e n t a n t St M a r y M a g d a l e n gazes into a mirror (in a p a i n t i n g by t h e 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y French artist G e o r g e s d e la T o u r ) Here, as in t h e tale o f t h e B a t h Badgerd, the mirror symbolizes the m u c h - n e e d e d faculty of true, inward-looking "reflection,"
to keep these i n n e r
It is v e r y
some other master — a n d have therefore become
Far left, t h e t o r r e n t i a l w a t e r s of t h e river H e r a c l i t o s o v e r w h e l m a Greek t e m p l e , in a p a i n t i n g by the m o d e r n F r e n c h artist A n d r e M a s s o n T h e p a i n t i n g c a n b e seen as an a l l e g o r y o f t h e results o f imbalance: Greek overemphasis o n logic a n d r e a s o n ( t h e t e m p l e ) leading to a destructive e r u p t i o n of i n s t i n c t u a l f o r c e s Left, a more d i r e c t a l l e g o r y , f r o m a 15th-century illustration to the French a l l e g o r i c a l p o e m Le Roman de la Rose: t h e f i g u r e o f L o g i c ( o n the r i g h t ) is t h r o w n i n t o c o n f u s i o n w h e n c o n f r o n t e d by N a t u r e
indeed
the
opposites
The social aspect of the Self
population,
f r i e n d s n e x t S u n d a y ; t h e n a d r e a m f o r b i d s it
e s p e c i a l l y o b v i o u s in l a r g e c i t i e s , i n e v i t a b l y h a s
Today
the
enormous
growth
of
and d e m a n d s that you do some creative work
a d e p r e s s i n g effect o n u s . W e t h i n k , " O h , w e l l ,
instead. If y o u listen to y o u r u n c o n s c i o u s a n d
I a m only so-and-so living at s u c h - a n d - s u c h a n
o b e y it, y o u m u s t e x p e c t c o n s t a n t
a d d r e s s , like t h o u s a n d s of o t h e r p e o p l e . If a
w i t h y o u r c o n s c i o u s p l a n s . Y o u r w i l l is c r o s s e d
interference
f e w o f t h e m g e t k i l l e d , w h a t d i f f e r e n c e c a n it
by other intentions — intentions that you
must
m a k e ? T h e r e a r e far t o o m a n y p e o p l e in a n y
s u b m i t to, or at a n y rate m u s t seriously
con-
c a s e . " A n d w h e n w e r e a d in t h e p a p e r a b o u t t h e
s i d e r . T h i s is p a r t l y w h y t h e o b l i g a t i o n a t t a c h e d
d e a t h s of i n n u m e r a b l e u n k n o w n
people
who
p e r s o n a l l y m e a n n o t h i n g to us, t h e feeling t h a t
t o t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n is o f t e n felt t o b e a b u r d e n r a t h e r t h a n an i m m e d i a t e blessing.
o u r l i v e s c o u n t for n o t h i n g is f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d .
St. C h r i s t o p h e r , t h e p a t r o n of all t r a v e l e r s ,
T h i s is t h e m o m e n t w h e n a t t e n t i o n t o t h e u n -
is a fitting s y m b o l for t h i s e x p e r i e n c e . A c c o r d i n g
c o n s c i o u s b r i n g s t h e g r e a t e s t h e l p , for d r e a m s
t o t h e l e g e n d , h e felt a n a r r o g a n t p r i d e in h i s
s h o w t h e d r e a m e r h o w e a c h d e t a i l o f h i s life is
t r e m e n d o u s physical strength, a n d was willing
interwoven with the most significant
realities.
W h a t w e all k n o w t h e o r e t i c a l l y — t h a t e v e r y thing
depends
on
the
individual — becomes
to serve only t h e strongest. First he served king; but w h e n he saw that the king
a
feared
t h e d e v i l , h e left h i m a n d b e c a m e t h e d e v i l ' s
t h r o u g h d r e a m s a p a l p a b l e fact t h a t e v e r y o n e
servant. T h e n one day he discovered that
c a n e x p e r i e n c e for h i m s e l f . S o m e t i m e s w e h a v e
d e v i l f e a r e d t h e crucifix, a n d so h e d e c i d e d to
a
s e r v e C h r i s t if h e c o u l d find h i m . H e
s t r o n g feeling
that
the Great
Man
wants
s o m e t h i n g f r o m us a n d h a s set us v e r y s p e c i a l
the
followed
t h e a d v i c e o f a p r i e s t w h o t o l d h i m t o w a i t for
tasks. O u r r e s p o n s e to this e x p e r i e n c e c a n h e l p
Christ at a ford. I n the years t h a t passed
us to a c q u i r e t h e s t r e n g t h to s w i m a g a i n s t
the
carried m a n y people across the river. But once,
s t r e a m of collective p r e j u d i c e
our
on a dark, stormy night, a small child
by taking
t h i s is n o t a l w a y s a n
called
out that he w a n t e d to be carried over the river.
o w n soul seriously i n t o a c c o u n t . Naturally
he
agreeable
task. F o r i n s t a n c e , y o u w a n t to m a k e a trip w i t h
W i t h t h e g r e a t e s t ease, St. C h r i s t o p h e r t h e c h i l d o n to his s h o u l d e r s , b u t h e
lifted
walked
m o r e s l o w l y w i t h e v e r y s t e p , for h i s b u r d e n b e c a m e h e a v i e r a n d h e a v i e r . W h e n h e a r r i v e d in m i d s t r e a m , h e felt " a s if h e c a r r i e d t h e w h o l e universe." H e realized then that he had Christ
upon
his s h o u l d e r s — a n d
taken
Christ
gave
h i m r e m i s s i o n o f h i s s i n s a n d e t e r n a l life. T h i s m i r a c u l o u s c h i l d is a s y m b o l o f t h e S e l f that literally " d e p r e s s e s " the o r d i n a r y
human
b e i n g , e v e n t h o u g h it is t h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t c a n r e d e e m h i m . I n m a n y w o r k s of a r t t h e C h r i s t c h i l d is d e p i c t e d a s , o r w i t h , t h e s p h e r e o f t h e w o r l d , a m o t i f t h a t c l e a r l y d e n o t e s t h e Self, for a child a n d a sphere are both universal symbols of t o t a l i t y . W h e n a p e r s o n tries to o b e y t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , h e will often, as w e h a v e seen, b e u n a b l e to d o j u s t as h e p l e a s e s . B u t e q u a l l y h e w i l l o f t e n b e u n a b l e to d o w h a t o t h e r people w a n t h i m
to
d o . I t o f t e n h a p p e n s , for i n s t a n c e , t h a t h e m u s t s e p a r a t e f r o m his g r o u p — f r o m his f a m i l y , his partner,
or
other
personal
connections—in
o r d e r t o find h i m s e l f . T h a t is w h y it is s o m e t i m e s The a c h i e v e m e n t o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l m a t u r i t y is an i n d i v i d u a l t a s k — a n d so is i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o d a y w h e n m a n ' s i n d i v i d u a l i t y is threatened by widespread conformity. Far left, a B r i t i s h h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h its s t e r e o t y p e d d w e l l i n g s ; left, a S w i s s a t h l e t i c s d i s p l a y p r o v i d e s an i m a g e of m a s s regimentation.
Above, a page from William Blake's Songs of Innocence and Experience, in w h i c h t h e p o e m s reveal B l a k e ' s concept of the " d i v i n e c h i l d " — a w e l l - k n o w n s y m b o l o f t h e Self. Right, a 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g o f St. C h r i s t o p h e r c a r r y i n g C h r i s t as a d i v i n e c h i l d ( w h o is e n c i r c l e d by a w o r l d s p h e r e — a m a n d a l a a n d a s y m b o l of t h e S e l f ) . T h i s b u r d e n symbolizes the " w e i g h t " of the task o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n — j u s t as St. C h r i s t o p h e r ' s role as t h e p a t r o n of t r a v e l e r s (far r i g h t , a St. Christopher medallion o n a car's i g n i t i o n k e y ) reflects h i s l i n k w i t h m a n ' s need t o travel the path to p s y c h o l o g i c a l w h o l e n e s s .
said t h a t a t t e n d i n g to the u n c o n s c i o u s
makes
p e o p l e antisocial a n d e g o c e n t r i c . As a rule this is n o t t r u e , for t h e r e is a l i t t l e - k n o w n f a c t o r t h a t e n t e r s i n t o this a t t i t u d e : t h e collective (or, w e c o u l d e v e n s a y , s o c i a l ) a s p e c t o f t h e Self.
From
a practical
i t s e l f in
that
an
a n g l e this factor
individual
who
reveals
follows
his
d r e a m s for a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e w i l l find
that
t h e y a r e often c o n c e r n e d w i t h his r e l a t i o n s h i p s with other people. His d r e a m s m a y w a r n
him
against trusting a certain person too m u c h , or he may d r e a m about a favorable and agreeable meeting with someone w h o m he m a y previously h a v e n e v e r c o n s c i o u s l y n o t i c e d . If a d r e a m d o e s p i c k u p t h e i m a g e of a n o t h e r p e r s o n for us i n some such fashion, there a r e t w o possible interp r e t a t i o n s . First, the figure m a y be a projection, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e d r e a m - i m a g e of this person
is a
symbol
for
an
inner
aspect
of
the
d r e a m e r h i m s e l f . O n e d r e a m s , for i n s t a n c e , o f a d i s h o n e s t n e i g h b o r , b u t t h e n e i g h b o r is u s e d by the d r e a m
as a p i c t u r e of o n e ' s o w n
h o n e s t y . I t is t h e t a s k o f d r e a m to
find
dis-
interpretation
o u t in w h i c h s p e c i a l a r e a s o n e ' s
dishonesty
into
play.
called
d r e a m interpretation on the subjective
level.)
it a l s o h a p p e n s a t
(This
own
is
But
comes
times that
dreams
g e n u i n e l y tell us s o m e t h i n g a b o u t o t h e r p e o p l e . I n t h i s w a y , t h e u n c o n s c i o u s p l a y s a r o l e t h a t is far from
L i k e all
the
h i g h e r f o r m s o f life, m a n is i n t u n e w i t h
b e i n g fully u n d e r s t o o d .
the
living beings a r o u n d him to a r e m a r k a b l e d e gree. H e perceives their sufferings a n d
prob-
lems, their positive a n d negative attributes a n d values,
instinctively — quite
independently
of
his c o n s c i o u s t h o u g h t s a b o u t o t h e r p e o p l e . O u r d r e a m life a l l o w s u s t o h a v e a l o o k a t these s u b l i m i n a l p e r c e p t i o n s a n d s h o w s us t h a t t h e y h a v e a n effect u p o n u s . A f t e r h a v i n g agreeable d r e a m about somebody, even
an
with-
out i n t e r p r e t i n g the d r e a m , I shall involuntarily look at t h a t
person
with
m o r e interest.
dream image may have deluded me,
The
because
o f m y p r o j e c t i o n s ; o r it m a y h a v e g i v e n
me
o b j e c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n . T o find o u t w h i c h is t h e
2 2 0
T h e c o n s c i o u s r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e Self c a n create a b o n d a m o n g p e o p l e that ignores more o b v i o u s , natural g r o u p s like t h e f a m i l y ( a b o v e left) A mental kinship on a conscious level c a n o f t e n b e t h e n u c l e u s of cultural d e v e l o p m e n t : above, the 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y French encyclopedists ( i n c l u d i n g V o l t a i r e , w i t h raised h a n d ) ; b e l o w , a p a i n t i n g by M a x Ernst of t h e early 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y " D a d a i s t " artists; a n d research p h y s i c i s t s at B r i t a i n ' s W i l l s L a b o r a t o r y
The p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e a n d u n i t y that m a n n e e d s t o d a y h a v e b e e n s y m b o l i z e d in m a n y m o d e r n d r e a m s by t h e u n i o n of t h e F r e n c h girl a n d t h e J a p a n e s e m a n in t h e w i d e l y p o p u l a r F r e n c h f i l m Hiroshima Mon Amour (1 9 5 9 ) , a b o v e A n d in t h e same d r e a m s , t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e f r o m w h o l e n e s s (i.e. c o m p l e t e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s s o c i a t i o n , or m a d n e s s ) has b e e n s y m b o l i z e d by a related 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y i m a g e — a nuclear explosion (right).
correct i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r e q u i r e s a n honest, a t t e n tive a t t i t u d e a n d careful t h o u g h t . But, as is the case with all i n n e r processes, it is u l t i m a t e l y the Self t h a t o r d e r s a n d r e g u l a t e s o n e ' s h u m a n relationships, so long as the conscious ego lakes the t r o u b l e to d e t e c t the delusive projections a n d deals w i t h these inside himself instead of outside. It is in this w a y t h a t spiritually a t t u n e d and similarly o r i e n t e d p e o p l e find t h e i r w a y to one a n o t h e r , to c r e a t e a g r o u p t h a t cuts across all the usual social a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l affiliations of p e o p l e . S u c h a g r o u p is not in conflict with o t h e r s ; it is m e r e l y different a n d i n d e p e n d e n t . T h e consciously realized process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n thus c h a n g e s a person's relationships. T h e familiar b o n d s such as kinship or c o m m o n interests a r e r e p l a c e d by a different type of u n i t y — a b o n d t h r o u g h the Self. All activities a n d o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t b e l o n g exclusively to the o u t e r w o r l d d o definite h a r m to the secret activities of the u n c o n s c i o u s . T h r o u g h these u n c o n s c i o u s ties those w h o b e l o n g tog e t h e r c o m e t o g e t h e r . T h a t is o n e reason w h y a t t e m p t s to influence people by a d v e r t i s e m e n t s and political p r o p a g a n d a a r e d e s t r u c t i v e , even when inspired by idealistic motives. T h i s raises the i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r the unconscious p a r t of the h u m a n psyche c a n
b e influenced at all. P r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e a n d a c c u r a t e o b s e r v a t i o n show t h a t o n e c a n n o t influence o n e ' s o w n d r e a m s . T h e r e a r e p e o p l e , it is t r u e , w h o assert t h a t they can influence t h e m . But if you look into their d r e a m m a t e r i a l , you find t h a t they d o only w h a t I d o with m y diso b e d i e n t d o g ; I o r d e r h i m to d o those things I notice he w a n t s to d o a n y h o w , so t h a t I can preserve my illusion of a u t h o r i t y . O n l y a long process of i n t e r p r e t i n g o n e ' s d r e a m s a n d confronting oneself with w h a t they h a v e to say c a n g r a d u a l l y transform the u n c o n s c i o u s . A n d conscious a t t i t u d e s also must c h a n g e in this process. If a m a n w h o w a n t s to influence p u b l i c o p i n i o n misuses symbols for this p u r p o s e , they will n a t u r a l l y impress the masses in so far as they a r e t r u e symbols, b u t w h e t h e r or not the mass unconscious will be e m o t i o n a l l y g r i p p e d by t h e m is s o m e t h i n g t h a t c a n n o t be c a l c u l a t e d in a d v a n c e , s o m e t h i n g that r e m a i n s c o m p l e t e l y i r r a t i o n a l . No music p u b l i s h e r , for i n s t a n c e , c a n tell in a d v a n c e w h e t h e r a song will b e c o m e a hit or not, even t h o u g h it m a y d r a w on p o p u l a r images a n d melodies. N o d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t s to influence the u n c o n s c i o u s h a v e yet p r o d u c e d a n y significant results, a n d it seems t h a t the mass u n c o n s c i o u s preserves its a u t o n o m y j u s t as m u c h as the i n d i v i d u a l unconscious.
22 I
At times, in o r d e r to express its p u r p o s e s , the u n c o n s c i o u s m a y use a motif from o u r external w o r l d a n d t h u s m a y seem to h a v e b e e n influe n c e d by it. For i n s t a n c e , I h a v e c o m e across m a n y d r e a m s of m o d e r n p e o p l e t h a t h a v e to d o w i t h Berlin. I n these d r e a m s Berlin stands as a s y m b o l of the psychic w e a k s p o t — t h e p l a c e of d a n g e r — a n d for this reason is the p l a c e w h e r e the Self is a p t to a p p e a r . It is the p o i n t w h e r e the d r e a m e r is t o r n by conflict and w h e r e he m i g h t , therefore, b e a b l e to u n i t e the i n n e r opposites. I h a v e also e n c o u n t e r e d an e x t r a o r d i n a r y n u m b e r of d r e a m reactions to the film Hiroshima Mon Amour. I n most of these d r e a m s the idea was expressed t h a t e i t h e r the two lovers in the film m u s t u n i t e (which symbolizes the u n i o n of i n n e r opposites) or there w o u l d be a n a t o m i c explosion (a s y m b o l of complete dissociation, e q u i v a l e n t to m a d n e s s ) . O n l y w h e n t h e m a n i p u l a t o r s of public o p i n i o n a d d c o m m e r c i a l pressure or acts of violence to their activities d o t h e y seem to a c h i e v e a t e m p o r a r y success. But in fact this m e r e l y causes a repression of t h e g e n u i n e unconscious reactions. A n d mass repression leads to the s a m e result as i n d i v i d u a l r e p r e s s i o n ; that is, to n e u r o t i c dissociation a n d psychological illness. All such a t t e m p t s to repress the reactions of the u n c o n s c i o u s m u s t fail in the long r u n , for they a r e basically o p p o s e d to o u r instincts. W e k n o w from s t u d y i n g t h e social behavior of the h i g h e r a n i m a l s t h a t small g r o u p s (from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 to 50 individuals) c r e a t e the
A s in t h e d r e a m q u o t e d o n p. 2 2 3 , p o s i t i v e a n i m a f i g u r e s o f t e n assist and guide m e n . T o p of page, from a 1 0 t h - c e n t u r y psalter, D a v i d i n s p i r e d by t h e m u s e . A b o v e , a g o d d e s s saves a s h i p w r e c k e d sailor ( i n a 1 6 t h c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g ) . R i g h t , o n a n early 20th-century postcard from M o n t e C a r l o , g a m b l e r s ' "Lady L u c k " — a l s o a helpful anima.
111
Right, Liberty leading the French r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s ( i n a p a i n t i n g by Delacroix) images the anima's f u n c t i o n of a s s i s t i n g i n d i v i d u a t i o n by l i b e r a t i n g u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s Far r i g h t , in a s c e n e f r o m t h e 1 9 2 5 f a n t a s y f i l m Metropolis, a woman urges robot-like workers to find spiritual " l i b e r a t i o n . "
best possible living c o n d i t i o n s for the single a n i m a l as well as for the g r o u p , a n d m a n seems to b e n o e x c e p t i o n in this respect. His physical well-being, his s p i r i t u a l psychic h e a l t h , a n d , b e y o n d the a n i m a l r e a l m , his c u l t u r a l efficiency seem to flourish best in such a social function. As far as we at p r e s e n t u n d e r s t a n d the process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n , the Self a p p a r e n t l y t e n d s to p r o d u c e such small g r o u p s by c r e a t i n g at the s a m e t i m e s h a r p l y defined ties of feeling between c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s a n d feelings of r e latedness to all p e o p l e . O n l y if these c o n n e c t i o n s a r e c r e a t e d by the Self c a n o n e feel a n y assura n c e t h a t e n v y , j e a l o u s y , fighting, a n d all m a n n e r of n e g a t i v e projections will not b r e a k u p the g r o u p . T h u s a n u n c o n d i t i o n a l d e v o t i o n to one's o w n process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n also brings a b o u t the best possible a d a p t a t i o n . T h i s does not m e a n , of course, t h a t t h e r e will not be collisions of o p i n i o n a n d conflicting o b l i g a t i o n s , or d i s a g r e e m e n t a b o u t the " r i g h t " w a y . in the face of w h i c h o n e m u s t c o n s t a n t l y w i t h d r a w a n d listen to o n e ' s i n n e r voice in o r d e r to find the i n d i v i d u a l s t a n d p o i n t t h a t the Self i n t e n d s o n e to h a v e . F a n a t i c a l political activity ( b u t not the perf o r m a n c e of essential duties) seems somehowincompatible with individuation. A m a n who d e v o t e d himself entirely to freeing his c o u n t r y from foreign o c c u p a t i o n h a d this d r e a m : With some of my compatriots I go up a stairway to the attic of a museum, where there is a
hall painted black and looking like a cabin on a ship. A distinguished-looking middle-aged lady opens the door; her name is X, daughter of X. [X was a famous national hero of the dreamer's country who attempted some centuries ago to free it. He might be compared to J o a n of Arc or William Tell. In reality X had no children.] In the hall we see the portraits of two aristocratic ladies dressed in flowery brocaded garments. While Miss X is explaining these pictures to us, they suddenly come to life; first the eyes begin to live, and then the chest seems to breathe. People are surprised and go to a lecture room where Miss X will speak to them about the phenomenon. She says that through her intuition and feeling these portraits came alive; but some of the people are indignant and say that Miss X is m a d ; some even leave the lecture room. T h e i m p o r t a n t feature of this d r e a m is t h a t the a n i m a figure, Miss X , is p u r e l y a c r e a t i o n of the d r e a m . She h a s , h o w e v e r , the n a m e of a famous n a t i o n a l h e r o - l i b e r a t o r (as if she w e r e , for instance. W i l h e l m i n a Tell, the d a u g h t e r of W i l l i a m T e l l ) . By the i m p l i c a t i o n s c o n t a i n e d in the n a m e , the unconscious is p o i n t i n g to the fact t h a t t o d a y the d r e a m e r should not try, as X did long ago, to free his c o u n t r y in a n o u t e r w a y . N o w , the d r e a m says, l i b e r a t i o n is a c c o m plished by the a n i m a (by the d r e a m e r ' s soul), w h o a c c o m p l i s h e s it b y b r i n g i n g the i m a g e s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s to life. T h a t the hall in the attic of the m u s e u m looks p a r t l y like a ship's c a b i n p a i n t e d black is very m e a n i n g f u l . T h e black color hints at d a r k ness, n i g h t , a t u r n i n g i n w a r d , a n d if the hall is
223
a c a b i n , t h e n the m u s e u m is s o m e h o w also a ship. T h i s suggests t h a t w h e n the m a i n l a n d of collective consciousness b e c o m e s flooded by u n consciousness a n d b a r b a r i s m , this m u s e u m - s h i p , filled w i t h living i m a g e s , m a y t u r n i n t o a saving ark t h a t will c a r r y those w h o e n t e r it to a n o t h e r spiritual shore. P o r t r a i t s h a n g i n g in a m u s e u m are usually the d e a d r e m a i n s of t h e past, a n d often the i m a g e s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a r e reg a r d e d in t h e s a m e w a y u n t i l we discover t h a t they are alive a n d m e a n i n g f u l . W h e n t h e a n i m a ( w h o a p p e a r s h e r e in h e r rightful role of soulguide) c o n t e m p l a t e s the i m a g e s w i t h i n t u i t i o n a n d feeling, they b e g i n to live. T h e i n d i g n a n t p e o p l e in the d r e a m r e p r e s e n t the side of the d r e a m e r t h a t is influenced by collective o p i n i o n — s o m e t h i n g in h i m t h a t distrusts a n d rejects the b r i n g i n g to life of psychic i m a g e s . T h e y personify a resistance to t h e u n conscious t h a t m i g h t express itself s o m e t h i n g like t h i s : " B u t w h a t if t h e y b e g i n d r o p p i n g a t o m b o m b s on us? Psychological insight w o n ' t be m u c h h e l p t h e n ! " T h i s resistant side is u n a b l e to free itself from statistical t h i n k i n g a n d from extraverted r a t i o n a l prejudices. T h e d r e a m , h o w e v e r , points o u t t h a t in o u r t i m e g e n u i n e l i b e r a t i o n c a n s t a r t only with a psychological t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T o w h a t e n d does o n e l i b e r a t e one's c o u n t r y if a f t e r w a r d t h e r e is n o m e a n i n g f u l goal of l i f e no .goal for w h i c h it is w o r t h w h i l e to be free? If m a n n o l o n g e r finds a n y m e a n i n g in his life, it m a k e s n o difference w h e t h e r he wastes a w a y u n d e r a C o m m u n i s t or a capitalist r e g i m e . O n l y if he c a n use his freedom to c r e a t e s o m e t h i n g m e a n i n g f u l is it r e l e v a n t t h a t he s h o u l d b e free. T h a t is w h y finding the i n n e r m e a n i n g of life is m o r e i m p o r t a n t to the i n d i v i d u a l t h a n a n y t h i n g else, a n d w h y the process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n must be given priority. A t t e m p t s to influence p u b l i c o p i n i o n by m e a n s of n e w s p a p e r s , r a d i o , television, a n d a d v e r t i s i n g a r e based on two factors. O n the o n e h a n d , they rely o n s a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e s t h a t reveal the t r e n d of " o p i n i o n " or " w a n t s " - - t h a t is, of collective a t t i t u d e s . O n the o t h e r , they express prejudices, projections, a n d u n c o n scious c o m p l e x e s ( m a i n l y the p o w e r c o m p l e x ) 224
of those w h o m a n i p u l a t e p u b l i c o p i n i o n . But statistics d o no j u s t i c e to the i n d i v i d u a l . A l t h o u g h the a v e r a g e size of stones in a h e a p m a y b e five c e n t i m e t e r s , o n e will find very few stones of exactly this size in the h e a p . T h a t the second factor c a n n o t c r e a t e a n y t h i n g positive is clear from the start. But if a single i n d i v i d u a l devotes himself to i n d i v i d u a tion, he frequently has a positive c o n t a g i o u s effect o n t h e p e o p l e a r o u n d h i m . It is as if a spark leaps from o n e to a n o t h e r . A n d this usually occurs w h e n o n e has n o i n t e n t i o n of influe n c i n g others a n d often w h e n o n e uses no w o r d s . It is o n t o this i n n e r p a t h t h a t Miss X tried to lead the d r e a m e r . N e a r l y all religious systems o n o u r p l a n e t c o n t a i n i m a g e s t h a t symbolize the process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n , or a t least some stages of it. In C h r i s t i a n c o u n t r i e s the Self is p r o j e c t e d , as I said before, o n t o t h e second A d a m : Christ. I n the East the r e l e v a n t figures a r e those of Krishna and Buddha. F o r p e o p l e w h o are c o n t a i n e d in a religion ( t h a t is, w h o still really believe in its c o n t e n t a n d t e a c h i n g s ) , t h e psychological r e g u l a t i o n of their lives is effected by religious symbols, a n d even t h e i r d r e a m s often revolve a r o u n d t h e m . W h e n the late P o p e Pius X I I issued the d e c l a r a t i o n of the A s s u m p t i o n of M a r y , a C a t h o l i c w o m a n d r e a m e d , for i n s t a n c e , t h a t she was a C a t h o l i c priestess. H e r u n c o n s c i o u s seemed to e x t e n d the d o g m a in this w a y : " I f M a r y is n o w a l m o s t a goddess, she s h o u l d h a v e priestesses." A n o t h e r C a t h o l i c w o m a n , w h o h a d resistances to s o m e of the m i n o r a n d o u t e r aspects of her creed, d r e a m e d t h a t the c h u r c h of h e r h o m e city h a d b e e n p u l l e d d o w n a n d r e b u i l t , b u t t h a t the t a b e r n a c l e w i t h t h e c o n s e c r a t e d host a n d the s t a t u e of the V i r g i n M a r y w e r e to be t r a n s ferred from the old to the n e w c h u r c h . T h e d r e a m s h o w e d her t h a t some of the m a n - m a d e aspects of h e r religion n e e d e d r e n e w a l , b u t t h a t its basic symbols — C o d ' s h a v i n g b e c o m e M a n , a n d the G r e a t M o t h e r , the V i r g i n M a r y — w o u l d survive t h e c h a n g e . S u c h d r e a m s d e m o n s t r a t e the living interest t h a t the u n c o n s c i o u s takes in the conscious religious r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a n i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s
raises the q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r it is possible to d e tect a g e n e r a l t r e n d in all the religious d r e a m s of c o n t e m p o r a r y p e o p l e . I n the manifestations of the u n c o n s c i o u s found in o u r m o d e r n C h r i s tian c u l t u r e , w h e t h e r P r o t e s t a n t or C a t h o l i c , Dr. J u n g often observed t h a t t h e r e is a n unconscious t e n d e n c y at work to r o u n d off o u r t r i n i t a r i a n formula of the G o d h e a d with a fourth e l e m e n t , w h i c h t e n d s to be feminine, d a r k , a n d even evil. A c t u a l l y this fourth elem e n t has a l w a y s existed in the r e a l m of o u r religious r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , b u t it was s e p a r a t e d from the i m a g e of G o d a n d b e c a m e his c o u n t e r p a r t , in the form of m a t t e r itself (or the lord of m a t t e r —i.e. the devil). N o w the unconscious seems to w a n t to r e u n i t e these e x t r e m e s , the light h a v i n g b e c o m e too b r i g h t a n d the d a r k ness too s o m b e r . N a t u r a l l y it is the c e n t r a l symbol of religion, the i m a g e of the G o d h e a d , t h a t is most exposed to u n c o n s c i o u s t e n d e n c i e s toward transformation. A T i b e t a n a b b o t o n c e told Dr. J u n g t h a t the most impressive m a n d a l a s in T i b e t a r e built u p by i m a g i n a t i o n , or d i r e c t e d fantasy, w h e n the psychological b a l a n c e of the g r o u p is d i s t u r b e d or w h e n a p a r t i c u l a r t h o u g h t c a n n o t be r e n d ered because it is not yet c o n t a i n e d 1n the sacred d o c t r i n e a n d must therefore be s e a r c h e d for. In these r e m a r k s , two e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t basic aspects of m a n d a l a symbolism e m e r g e . T h e m a n d a l a serves a c o n s e r v a t i v e p u r p o s e n a m e l y , to restore a previously existing o r d e r .
But it also serves the c r e a t i v e p u r p o s e of giving expression a n d form to s o m e t h i n g t h a t does not yet exist, s o m e t h i n g new a n d u n i q u e . T h e second aspect is p e r h a p s even m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n the first, b u t does not c o n t r a d i c t it. For, in most cases, w h a t restores the old o r d e r simultaneously involves s o m e e l e m e n t of n e w creation. In the n e w o r d e r the older p a t t e r n r e t u r n s on a h i g h e r level. T h e process is t h a t of the a s c e n d i n g spiral, w h i c h grows u p w a r d while s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e t u r n i n g a g a i n a n d a g a i n to the same point. A p a i n t i n g by a simple w o m a n w h o was b r o u g h t u p in P r o t e s t a n t s u r r o u n d i n g s shows a m a n d a l a in the form of a spiral. In a d r e a m this w o m a n received a n o r d e r to p a i n t the G o d h e a d . L a t e r (also in a d r e a m ) she saw it in a book. O f G o d himself she saw only his wafting cloak, the d r a p e r y of w h i c h m a d e a beautiful display of light a n d s h a d o w . T h i s c o n t r a s t e d impressively with the stability of the spiral in the d e e p blue sky. F a s c i n a t e d by t h e cloak a n d the .spiral, the d r e a m e r did not look closely at the o t h e r figure on the rocks. W h e n she a w o k e a n d t h o u g h t a b o u t w h o these d i v i n e figures w e r e , she s u d d e n l y realized t h a t it was " G o d himself." T h i s g a v e h e r a frightful shock, w h i c h she felt for a long t i m e . U s u a l l y the H o l y G h o s t is r e p r e s e n t e d in C h r i s t i a n a r t by a fiery wheel or a d o v e , b u t h e r e it has a p p e a r e d as a spiral. T h i s is a n e w t h o u g h t , " n o t yet c o n t a i n e d in the d o c t r i n e , "
T h i s 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y s t a t u e of M a r y c o n t a i n s w i t h i n it i m a g e s of b o t h G o d a n d C h r i s t — a clear e x p r e s s i o n of t h e fact t h a t t h e V i r g i n M a r y c a n be said t o b e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e "Great M o t h e r " a r c h e t y p e
225
w h i c h has s p o n t a n e o u s l y arisen from t h e unconscious. T h a t t h e H o l y G h o s t is the p o w e r t h a t works for the further d e v e l o p m e n t of o u r religious u n d e r s t a n d i n g is not a new idea, of course, b u t its symbolic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in the form of a spiral is n e w . T h e s a m e w o m a n t h e n p a i n t e d a second p i c t u r e , also inspired by a d r e a m , s h o w i n g the d r e a m e r with her positive a n i m u s s t a n d i n g a b o v e J e r u s a l e m w h e n the w i n g of S a t a n d e scends to d a r k e n the city. The s a t a n i c wing strongly r e m i n d e d her of t h e wafting cloak of G o d in the first p a i n t i n g , b u t in the former d r e a m the s p e c t a t o r is high u p , s o m e w h e r e in h e a v e n , a n d sees in front of her a terrific split b e t w e e n the rocks. T h e m o v e m e n t in the cloak of G o d is a n a t t e m p t to r e a c h C h r i s t , the figure on t h e right, but it does not q u i t e succeed. In the second p a i n t i n g , the s a m e t h i n g is seen from below from a h u m a n a n g l e . L o o k i n g at it from a h i g h e r a n g l e , w h a t is m o v i n g a n d s p r e a d i n g is a p a r t of G o d ; a b o v e that rises the spiral as a s y m b o l of possible further d e v e l o p m e n t . But seen from the basis of o u r h u m a n reality, this s a m e t h i n g in the air is the d a r k , u n c a n n y w i n g of the devil.
A miniature f r o m the 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y F r e n c h Book of Hours, s h o w i n g M a r y w i t h the Holy Trinity. The Catholic Church's d o g m a of the A s s u m p t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n — in w h i c h M a r y , as domina rerum. Q u e e n o f N a t u r e , w a s declared to have entered heaven w i t h soul and body r e u n i t e d — c a n b e said t o h a v e m a d e t h e T r i n i t y fourfold, corresponding w i t h the basic archetype of c o m p l e t e n e s s
In the d r e a m e r ' s life these t w o pictures bec a m e real in a w a y t h a t does not c o n c e r n us h e r e , b u t it is o b v i o u s t h a t they also c o n t a i n a collective m e a n i n g t h a t r e a c h e s b e y o n d the personal. T h e y m a y p r o p h e s y the descent of a divine d a r k n e s s u p o n the C h r i s t i a n h e m i s p h e r e , a d a r k n e s s t h a t points, h o w e v e r , t o w a r d the possibility of further e v o l u t i o n . Since the axis of the spiral does not m o v e u p w a r d b u t into the b a c k g r o u n d of the p i c t u r e , t h e further evolution will lead n e i t h e r to g r e a t e r spiritual height n o r d o w n into the r e a l m of m a t t e r , b u t to a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n , p r o b a b l y into the backg r o u n d of these divine figures. A n d that m e a n s into the u n c o n s c i o u s . W h e n religious symbols that a r e p a r t l y different from those we know e m e r g e from the u n c o n s c i o u s of a n i n d i v i d u a l , it is often feared t h a t these will wrongfully a l t e r or d i m i n i s h the officially recognized religious symbols. T h i s fear even causes m a n y p e o p l e to reject a n a l y t i c a l psychology a n d the e n t i r e u n c o n s c i o u s .
226
II I look at such a resistance from a psychological point of view, I should h a v e to c o m ment t h a t as far as religion is c o n c e r n e d , h u m a n beings c a n b e d i v i d e d into t h r e e types. First, t h e r e a r e those w h o still g e n u i n e l y believe their religious d o c t r i n e s , w h a t e v e r they m a y be. For these p e o p l e , t h e symbols a n d d o c t r i n e s " c l i c k " so satisfyingly w i t h w h a t they feel d e e p inside themselves t h a t serious d o u b t s h a v e n o c h a n c e to sneak in. T h i s h a p p e n s w h e n the views of consciousness a n d the u n c o n s c i o u s b a c k g r o u n d a r e in relative h a r m o n y . People of this sort c a n afford to look at n e w psychological discoveries a n d facts w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e and need not fear t h a t they m a y be caused to lose their faith. E v e n if t h e i r d r e a m s should bring u p some relatively u n o r t h o d o x details, these c a n be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o their g e n e r a l view. T h e second type consists of those p e o p l e w h o have c o m p l e t e l y lost t h e i r faith a n d h a v e replaced it with purely conscious, r a t i o n a l opinions. F o r these p e o p l e , d e p t h psychology simply m e a n s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o newly discovered a r e a s of the p s y c h e , a n d it s h o u l d cause no t r o u b l e w h e n they e m b a r k on the n e w a d v e n t u r e a n d investigate t h e i r d r e a m s to test the truth of t h e m . T h e n t h e r e is a t h i r d g r o u p of p e o p l e w h o in one p a r t of themselves ( p r o b a b l y the h e a d ) n o longer believe in their religious t r a d i t i o n s ,
w h e r e a s in s o m e o t h e r p a r t they still d o believe. The French p h i l o s o p h e r Voltaire is an illustration of this. H e violently a t t a c k e d the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h with r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t (ecrasez I'infdme), b u t on his d e a t h b e d , a c c o r d i n g to some reports, he begged for e x t r e m e u n c t i o n . W h e t h e r this is true or not, his h e a d was certainly unreligious, w h e r e a s his feelings a n d e m o t i o n s seem still to h a v e been o r t h o d o x . S u c h people r e m i n d o n e of a person g e t t i n g stuck in the a u t o m a t i c d o o r s of a b u s ; h e c a n n e i t h e r get out into free space n o r r e - e n t e r the bus. O f course the d r e a m s of such persons could p r o b ably h e l p t h e m out of their d i l e m m a , b u t such people frequently h a v e t r o u b l e t u r n i n g t o w a r d the unconscious because they themselves d o not k n o w w h a t they think a n d w a n t . T o take the u n c o n s c i o u s seriously is u l t i m a t e l y a m a t t e r of personal c o u r a g e a n d integrity. T h e c o m p l i c a t e d situation of those w h o a r e c a u g h t in a n o - m a n ' s - l a n d b e t w e e n t h e two states of m i n d is p a r t l y c r e a t e d by the fact t h a t all official religious d o c t r i n e s a c t u a l l y b e l o n g to the collective consciousness ( w h a t F r e u d called the s u p e r - e g o ) ; b u t o n c e , long a g o , they s p r a n g from the u n c o n s c i o u s . T h i s is a p o i n t t h a t m a n y historians of religion a n d theologians c h a l l e n g e . T h e y choose to a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e was o n c e some sort of " r e v e l a t i o n . " I h a v e s e a r c h e d for m a n y years for c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e for the J u n -
Paintings of the dreams discussed o n p p . 2 2 5 - 6 : Left, t h e spiral (a f o r m of m a n d a l a ) represents the Holy Ghost; right, the dark w i n g of S a t a n , f r o m t h e s e c o n d d r e a m Neither m o t i f w o u l d be a familiar religious symbol to most people (nor w e r e they t o the dreamer): Each e m e r g e d s p o n t a n e o u s l y from the unconscious.
gian hypothesis a b o u t this p r o b l e m ; b u t it has b e e n difficult to find b e c a u s e most rituals are so old t h a t o n e c a n n o t t r a c e their origin. T h e following e x a m p l e , h o w e v e r , seems to m e to offer a most i m p o r t a n t c l u e : Black Elk, a m e d i c i n e m a n of the O g l a l a Sioux, w h o d i e d not long ago, tells us in his a u t o b i o g r a p h y Black Elk Speaks t h a t , w h e n he was n i n e years old, he b e c a m e seriously ill a n d d u r i n g a sort of c o m a h a d a t r e m e n d o u s vision. H e saw four g r o u p s of beautiful horses c o m i n g from the four corners of the w o r l d , a n d t h e n , seated w i t h i n a c l o u d , he saw the Six G r a n d fathers, the a n c e s t r a l spirits of his t r i b e , " t h e g r a n d f a t h e r s of the w h o l e w o r l d . " T h e y g a v e h i m six h e a l i n g symbols for his p e o p l e a n d showed h i m n e w ways of life. But w h e n h e was 16 years old, he s u d d e n l y d e v e l o p e d a terrible p h o b i a w h e n e v e r a t h u n d e r s t o r m was a p p r o a c h i n g , b e c a u s e he h e a r d " t h u n d e r b e i n g s " calling to h i m " t o m a k e h a s t e . " It r e m i n d e d h i m of the t h u n d e r i n g noise m a d e by the a p p r o a c h i n g horses in his vision. A n old m e d i c i n e m a n e x p l a i n e d to h i m t h a t his fear c a m e from the fact t h a t he was k e e p i n g his vision to h i m self, a n d said t h a t h e m u s t tell it to his tribe. H e did so, a n d l a t e r he a n d his p e o p l e a c t e d o u t the vision in a r i t u a l , using real horses. N o t merely Black Elk himself, b u t m a n y o t h e r m e m b e r s of his tribe felt infinitely b e t t e r after this play. S o m e w e r e even c u r e d of t h e i r diseases. Black Elk s a i d : " E v e n the horses s e e m e d to be h e a l t h i e r a n d h a p p i e r after the d a n c e . " T h e ritual was n o t r e p e a t e d b e c a u s e t h e t r i b e was destroyed soon a f t e r w a r d . But h e r e is a different case in w h i c h a ritual still survives. Several E s k i m o tribes living n e a r the Colville R i v e r in Alaska e x p l a i n t h e origin of their eagle festival in the following w a y :
A young hunter shot dead a very unusual eagle and was so impressed by the beauty of the dead bird that he stuffed and made a fetish of him, honoring him by sacrifices. One day, when the hunter had traveled far inland during his hunting, two animal-men suddenly appeared in the role of messengers and led him to the land of the eagles. There he heard a dark drumming noise, 2 2Q
and the messengers explained that this was the heartbeat of the dead eagle's mother. Then the eagle spirit appeared to the hunter as a woman clothed in black. She asked him to initiate an eagle festival among his people to honor her dead son. After the eagle people had shown him how to do this, he suddenly found himself, exhausted, back in the place where he had met the messengers. Returning home, he taught his people how to perform the great eagle festival—as they have done faithfully ever since.
F r o m such e x a m p l e s we see h o w a r i t u a l or religious c u s t o m c a n s p r i n g directly from a n u n c o n s c i o u s r e v e l a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d by a single i n d i v i d u a l . O u t of such b e g i n n i n g s , p e o p l e living in c u l t u r a l g r o u p s d e v e l o p their various religious activities w i t h t h e i r e n o r m o u s influence on the entire life of the society. D u r i n g a long process of e v o l u t i o n t h e original m a t e r i a l is s h a p e d a n d r e s h a p e d by w o r d s a n d actions, is beautified, a n d a c q u i r e s increasingly definite forms. T h i s crystallizing process, h o w e v e r , has a great disadvantage. M o r e and more people h a v e n o p e r s o n a l k n o w l e d g e of the original exp e r i e n c e a n d c a n only believe w h a t t h e i r elders a n d t e a c h e r s tell t h e m a b o u t it. T h e y n o longer k n o w t h a t such h a p p e n i n g s a r e real, a n d they are of course i g n o r a n t a b o u t h o w o n e feels d u r ing the e x p e r i e n c e . I n t h e i r p r e s e n t forms, w o r k e d over a n d exceedingly a g e d , such religious t r a d i t i o n s often resist further c r e a t i v e a l t e r a t i o n s by t h e u n c o n scious. T h e o l o g i a n s s o m e t i m e s even defend these " t r u e " religious symbols a n d symbolic d o c t r i n e s a g a i n s t the discovery of a religious function in the u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e , forgetting t h a t t h e values t h e y fight for o w e t h e i r existence to t h a t very s a m e function. W i t h o u t a h u m a n p s y c h e to receive d i v i n e inspirations a n d u t t e r t h e m in w o r d s or s h a p e t h e m in art, no religious s y m b o l has ever c o m e into the reality of o u r h u m a n life. ( W e need only think of the p r o p h e t s a n d the evangelists.) If s o m e o n e objects t h a t t h e r e is a religious reality in itself, i n d e p e n d e n t of the h u m a n psyche, I c a n only a n s w e r such a p e r s o n w i t h this q u e s t i o n : " W h o says this, if n o t a h u m a n p s y c h e ? " N o m a t t e r w h a t we assert, we c a n
n e v e r get a w a y from t h e existence of t h e psyche —for w e a r e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n it, a n d it is t h e only m e a n s by w h i c h w e c a n g r a s p reality. T h u s t h e m o d e r n discovery of t h e u n c o n scious shuts o n e d o o r forever. It definitely excludes t h e illusory i d e a , so favored by s o m e individuals, that a m a n can know spiritual reality in itself. In m o d e r n physics, t o o , a d o o r has b e e n closed by H e i s e n b e r g ' s " p r i n c i p l e of i n d e t e r m i n a c y , " s h u t t i n g o u t t h e delusion t h a t we c a n c o m p r e h e n d a n a b s o l u t e physical r e ality. T h e discovery of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , h o w ever, c o m p e n s a t e s for t h e loss of these beloved illusions by o p e n i n g before us a n i m m e n s e a n d u n e x p l o r e d n e w field of r e a l i z a t i o n s , w i t h i n w h i c h objective scientific i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o m bines in a s t r a n g e n e w w a y w i t h p e r s o n a l ethical a d v e n t u r e . But, as I said a t t h e o u t s e t , it is p r a c t i c a l l y impossible to i m p a r t t h e w h o l e reality of o n e ' s e x p e r i e n c e in t h e n e w field. M u c h is u n i q u e a n d c a n be o n l y p a r t i a l l y c o m m u n i c a t e d by l a n g u a g e . H e r e , t o o , a d o o r is s h u t a g a i n s t t h e
illusion t h a t o n e c a n c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t a n d a n o t h e r p e r s o n a n d tell h i m w h a t is right for h i m . O n c e a g a i n , h o w e v e r , o n e c a n find a c o m p e n s a t i o n for this in the n e w r e a l m of e x p e r i e n c e by t h e discovery of t h e social function of the Self, w h i c h w o r k s in a h i d d e n w a y to u n i t e s e p a r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o b e l o n g together. I n t e l l e c t u a l c h i t - c h a t is t h u s r e p l a c e d bym e a n i n g f u l events t h a t o c c u r in t h e reality of the p s y c h e . H e n c e , for t h e i n d i v i d u a l to e n t e r seriously into t h e process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n in t h e w a y t h a t has b e e n o u t l i n e d m e a n s a c o m p l e t e l y n e w a n d different o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d life. F o r scientists it also m e a n s a n e w a n d different scientific a p p r o a c h to o u t e r facts. H o w this will work o u t in t h e field of h u m a n k n o w l e d g e a n d in t h e social life of h u m a n beings c a n n o t b e p r e d i c t e d . But to m e it seems c e r t a i n t h a t J u n g ' s discovery of t h e process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n is a fact t h a t future g e n e r a t i o n s will h a v e to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t if t h e y w a n t to avoid drifting i n t o a s t a g n a n t o r even regressive o u t l o o k .
T h i s p a i n t i n g ( b y Erhard J a c o b y ) illustrates t h e fact that each o f us, p e r c e i v i n g t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h an i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h e , p e r c e i v e s it in a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t w a y f r o m others T h e m a n , w o m a n , a n d c h i l d are l o o k i n g at t h e s a m e s c e n e ; b u t , for e a c h , d i f f e r e n t d e t a i l s b e c o m e clear or o b s c u r e d O n l y b y m e a n s of our c o n s c i o u s p e r c e p t i o n d o e s t h e w o r l d e x i s t " o u t s i d e " : W e are surrounded by something completely u n k n o w n a n d u n k n o w a b l e (here represented by the p a i n t i n g ' s gray b a c k g r o u n d )
229
4
S y m b o l i s m in t h e visual arts
Aniela J a f f e
Variation
within
a Sphere
no. 10: The Sun, by Richard Lippold
Symbolism in the visual arts
Sacred symbols—the stone and the animal
T h e history of s y m b o l i s m shows t h a t e v e r y t h i n g can assume symbolic significance: natural objects (like stones, p l a n t s , a n i m a l s , m e n , m o u n tains a n d valleys, s u n a n d m o o n , w i n d , w a t e r , a n d fire), or m a n - m a d e t h i n g s (like houses, b o a t s , or c a r s ) , or e v e n a b s t r a c t forms (like n u m bers, or t h e t r i a n g l e , t h e s q u a r e , a n d the circle). I n fact, t h e w h o l e c o s m o s is a p o t e n t i a l s y m b o l . M a n , w i t h his s y m b o l - m a k i n g p r o p e n s i t y , unconsciously t r a n s f o r m s objects or forms i n t o s y m b o l s ( t h e r e b y e n d o w i n g t h e m w i t h g r e a t psychological i m p o r t a n c e ) a n d expresses t h e m in b o t h his religion a n d his visual a r t . T h e i n t e r t w i n e d history of religion a n d a r t , r e a c h i n g b a c k to p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s , is t h e r e c o r d t h a t o u r a n c e s tors h a v e left of t h e s y m b o l s t h a t w e r e m e a n ingful a n d m o v i n g to t h e m . E v e n t o d a y , as m o d e r n p a i n t i n g a n d s c u l p t u r e s h o w , the i n t e r p l a y of religion a n d a r t is still alive. F o r t h e first p a r t of m y discussion of s y m bolism in t h e visual a r t s , I i n t e n d to e x a m i n e s o m e of t h e specific motifs t h a t h a v e b e e n u n i versally s a c r e d or m y s t e r i o u s to m a n . T h e n , for the r e m a i n d e r of t h e c h a p t e r , I wish to discuss the p h e n o m e n o n of 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y a r t , n o t in t e r m s of its use of s y m b o l s , b u t in t e r m s of its significance as a symbol itself—a symbolic expression of the p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n of the modern world. I n the following p a g e s , I h a v e c h o s e n t h r e e r e c u r r i n g motifs w i t h w h i c h to illustrate t h e p r e s e n c e a n d n a t u r e of s y m b o l i s m in t h e a r t of m a n y different p e r i o d s . T h e s e a r e t h e s y m b o l s of t h e s t o n e , t h e a n i m a l , a n d t h e c i r c l e — e a c h of w h i c h has h a d e n d u r i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l significance from t h e earliest expressions of h u m a n consciousness to t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d forms of 20th-century art. W e k n o w t h a t e v e n u n h e w n stones h a d a h i g h l y s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g for a n c i e n t a n d p r i m i tive societies. R o u g h , n a t u r a l stones w e r e often believed to be t h e d w e l l i n g places of spirits or gods, a n d w e r e used in p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e s as
232
t o m b s t o n e s , b o u n d a r y stones, or objects of religious v e n e r a t i o n . T h e i r use m a y b e r e g a r d e d as a p r i m e v a l form of s c u l p t u r e a first a t t e m p t to invest t h e stone w i t h m o r e expressive p o w e r t h a n c h a n c e a n d n a t u r e c o u l d give it. T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t story of J a c o b ' s d r e a m is a t y p i c a l e x a m p l e of h o w , t h o u s a n d s of years ago, m a n felt t h a t a living god or a d i v i n e spirit was e m b o d i e d in t h e s t o n e a n d h o w the stone became a symbol:
And J a c o b . . . went toward Haran. And he lighted upon a certain place, and tarried there all night, because the sun was set; and he took of the stones of the place, and put them for his pillows and lay down in that place to sleep. And he dreamed, and behold a ladder set up on the earth, and the top of it reached to heaven, and behold the angels of God ascending and descending on it. And, behold, the Lord stood above it, and said, I am the Lord God of Abraham thy father, and the God of Isaac: the land whereon thou liest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed. And J a c o b awaked out of his sleep, and he said, Surely the Lord is in this place; and I knew it not. And he was afraid, and said, How dreadful is this place! this is none other but the house of God, and this is the gate of heaven. And J a c o b rose up early in the morning and took the stone
A b o v e left, t h e s t o n e a l i g n m e n t s at C a r n a c in B r i t t a n y , d a t i n g f r o m c. 2 0 0 0 B . C . — c r u d e s t o n e s set u p r i g h t in r o w s t h a t are t h o u g h t t o have b e e n u s e d in s a c r e d rituals a n d r e l i g i o u s p r o c e s s i o n s . Left, rough stones resting o n raked sand in a Z e n B u d d h i s t rock g a r d e n ( i n the R y o a n j i t e m p l e , J a p a n ) . T h o u g h apparently haphazard, the stones' a r r a n g e m e n t in f a c t e x p r e s s e s a highly refined spirituality. Right, a prehistoric menhir—a rock t h a t h a s b e e n s l i g h t l y c a r v e d into a female f o r m ( p r o b a b l y a m o t h e r g o d d e s s ) . Far r i g h t , a s c u l p t u r e by M a x Ernst ( b o r n 1 8 9 1 ) has also hardly altered the natural shape of the stone.
that he had put for his pillows, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon the top of it. And he called the name of that place Beth-el. F o r J a c o b , the stone was a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of the r e v e l a t i o n . It was t h e m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n himself and God. I n m a n y p r i m i t i v e s t o n e - s a n c t u a r i e s , the deity is r e p r e s e n t e d not by a single stone b u t by a g r e a t m a n y u n h e w n stones, a r r a n g e d in distinct p a t t e r n s . ( T h e g e o m e t r i c a l stone a l i g n m e n t s in B r i t t a n y a n d the stone circle a t S t o n e h e n g e a r e famous e x a m p l e s . ) A r r a n g e m e n t s of r o u g h n a t u r a l stones also p l a y a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t in the highly civilized rock g a r d e n s of Z e n B u d d h i s m . T h e i r a r r a n g e m e n t is n o t g e o m e t r i cal b u t seems to h a v e c o m e a b o u t by p u r e c h a n c e . I n fact, h o w e v e r , it is t h e expression of a most refined s p i r i t u a l i t y . V e r y e a r l y in history, m e n b e g a n t r y i n g to express w h a t t h e y felt to b e t h e soul or spirit of a rock b y w o r k i n g it i n t o a r e c o g n i z a b l e form. I n m a n y cases, the form was a m o r e or less d e finite a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the h u m a n figure—for instance, the ancient menhirs with their crude o u t l i n e s of faces, or the h e r m s t h a t d e v e l o p e d o u t of b o u n d a r y stones in a n c i e n t G r e e c e , or the
m a n y p r i m i t i v e stone idols with h u m a n features. T h e a n i m a t i o n of the stone m u s t b e e x p l a i n e d as the projection of a m o r e or less distinct c o n t e n t of the u n c o n s c i o u s into the stone. T h e p r i m i t i v e t e n d e n c y to give m e r e l y a hint of a h u m a n figure, a n d to r e t a i n m u c h of the stone's n a t u r a l form, c a n also be seen in m o d e r n s c u l p t u r e . M a n y e x a m p l e s show t h e artists" c o n c e r n w i t h the "self-expression" of 'tins t o n e ; to use the l a n g u a g e of m y t h , the stone is allowed to " s p e a k for itself." This c a n be seen, for i n s t a n c e , in the w o r k of the Swiss s c u l p t o r H a n s A e s c h b a c h e r , the A m e r i c a n s c u l p t o r J a m e s R o s a t i , a n d the G e r m a n - b o r n artist M a x Ernst. In a letter from M a l o j a in 1935, Ernst w r o t e : " A l b e r t o [ t h e Swiss artist G i a c o m e t t i ] a n d I a r e afflicted with s c u l p t u r i t i s . W e work on g r a n i t e b o u l d e r s , large a n d small, from the m o r a i n e of the F o r n o glacier. W o n d e r f u l l y polished by t i m e , frost, a n d w e a t h e r , they a r e in themselves fantastically beautiful. N o h u m a n h a n d c a n d o that. So w h y not leave the s p a d e work to the e l e m e n t s , a n d confine ourselves to s c r a t c h i n g on t h e m the runes of o u r o w n mystery?" W h a t Ernst m e a n t by " m y s t e r y " is not exp l a i n e d . But later in this c h a p t e r I shall try to show t h a t the " m y s t e r i e s " of the m o d e r n artist a r e not very different from those of t h e old masters w h o knew the "spirit of the s t o n e . " T h e e m p h a s i s on t h i s " s p i r i t " in m u c h s c u l p t u r e is o n e i n d i c a t i o n of the shifting, indefinable 234
b o r d e r l i n e b e t w e e n religion a n d a r t . S o m e t i m e s o n e c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d from the o t h e r . The s a m e a m b i v a l e n c e c a n also be seen in a n o t h e r symbolic motif, as it a p p e a r s in age-old works of a r t : the symbol of the a n i m a l . A n i m a l pictures go back to the last Ice Age ( b e t w e e n 60,000 a n d 10,000 B . C . ) . T h e y were discovered on the walls of caves in F r a n c e a n d S p a i n at the end of the last c e n t u r y , but it was not until early in t h e present c e n t u r y that archaeologists b e g a n to realize their e x t r e m e i m p o r t a n c e a n d to i n q u i r e into their m e a n i n g . These inquiries revealed a n infinitely r e m o t e prehistoric c u l t u r e whose existence h a d never even been suspected. Even t o d a y , a s t r a n g e music seems to h a u n t the caves that c o n t a i n the rock e n g r a v i n g s a n d p a i n t i n g s . A c c o r d i n g to the G e r m a n art historian H e r b e r t K i i h n , i n h a b i t a n t s of the a r e a s in Africa, S p a i n , F r a n c e , a n d S c a n d i n a v i a w h e r e such p a i n t i n g s a r e found could not be i n d u c e d to go n e a r the caves. A kind of religious a w e , or p e r h a p s a fear of spirits h o v e r i n g a m o n g the rocks a n d the p a i n t i n g s , held t h e m back. Passing n o m a d s still lay their votive offerings before the old rock p a i n t i n g s in N o r t h Africa. In the 1 5 t h c e n t u r y . P o p e Calixtus 11 p r o h i b i t e d religious c e r e m o n i e s in the " c a v e with the horsep i c t u r e s . " W h i c h c a v e the p o p e m e a n t is not k n o w n , b u t t h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t it was a c a v e of the Ice A g e c o n t a i n i n g a n i m a l pictures. All this goes to p r o v e t h a t the caves a n d rocks
Far left, a n i m a l p a i n t i n g s o n c a v e w a l l s at L a s c a u x T h e p a i n t i n g s were not simply decorative; they h a d a m a g i c a l f u n c t i o n . Left, a d r a w i n g of a b i s o n c o v e r e d w i t h a r r o w a n d spear m a r k s : T h e c a v e d w e l l e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t by r i t u a l l y " k i l l i n g " t h e i m a g e , t h e y w o u l d be m o r e likely t o kill t h e a n i m a l .
Even t o d a y t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of a n e f f i g y or s t a t u e is a s y m b o l ic killing of the person d e p i c t e d . R i g h t , a s t a t u e of S t a l i n d e s t r o y e d by H u n g a r i a n rebels in 1 9 5 6 ; far r i g h t , rebels h a n g a b u s t o f t h e f o r m e r Stalinist Hungarian premier Matyas Rakosi.
with the a n i m a l p a i n t i n g s h a v e a l w a y s b e e n instinctively felt to b e w h a t they originally w e r e —religious places. T h e numen of the p l a c e has outlived the c e n t u r i e s . In a n u m b e r of caves the m o d e r n visitor must travel t h r o u g h low, d a r k , a n d d a m p passages till he reaches the p o i n t w h e r e the great p a i n t e d " c h a m b e r s " suddenly open out. This arduous a p p r o a c h m a y express the desire of the p r i m i tive m e n to safeguard from c o m m o n sight all t h a t was c o n t a i n e d a n d w e n t on in t h e caves, a n d to p r o t e c t their m y s t e r y . T h e s u d d e n a n d u n e x p e c t e d sight of t h e p a i n t i n g s in the c h a m bers, c o m i n g after the difficult a n d awe-inspiring a p p r o a c h , m u s t h a v e m a d e a n o v e r w h e l m ing impression on p r i m i t i v e m a n . T h e p a l e o l i t h i c c a v e p a i n t i n g s consist almost entirely of figures of a n i m a l s , whose m o v e m e n t s a n d postures h a v e b e e n observed in n a t u r e a n d r e n d e r e d with g r e a t artistic skill. T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , m a n y details t h a t show t h a t t h e figures w e r e i n t e n d e d to b e s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n naturalistic reproductions. Kiihn writes: " T h e s t r a n g e t h i n g is t h a t a good m a n y p r i m i t i v e p a i n t i n g s h a v e b e e n used as targets. At M o n t e span t h e r e is a n e n g r a v i n g of a horse t h a t is being d r i v e n into a t r a p ; it is pitted w i t h the m a r k s of missiles. A clay m o d e l of a b e a r in the same c a v e has 42 h o l e s . " T h e s e p i c t u r e s suggest a h u n t i n g - m a g i c like that still p r a c t i c e d t o d a y by h u n t i n g tribes in Africa. T h e p a i n t e d a n i m a l has t h e function of
a " d o u b l e " ; by its symbolic s l a u g h t e r , the h u n t e r s a t t e m p t to a n t i c i p a t e a n d e n s u r e the d e a t h of the real a n i m a l . T h i s is a form of symp a t h e t i c m a g i c , w h i c h is based on t h e " r e a l i t y " of a d o u b l e r e p r e s e n t e d in a p i c t u r e : W h a t h a p p e n s to the p i c t u r e will h a p p e n to the original. T h e u n d e r l y i n g psychological fact is a s t r o n g identification b e t w e e n a living being a n d its i m a g e , w h i c h is considered to be the being's soul. ( T h i s is o n e reason w h y a g r e a t m a n y p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e t o d a y will shrink from being photographed.) O t h e r cave p i c t u r e s m u s t h a v e served m a g i c fertility rites. T h e y show a n i m a l s at the m o m e n t of m a t i n g ; a n e x a m p l e c a n b e seen in the figures of a m a l e a n d female bison in the T u c d ' A u d u b e r t c a v e in F r a n c e . T h u s the r e a listic p i c t u r e of the a n i m a l s was e n r i c h e d by o v e r t o n e s of m a g i c a n d took on a s y m b o l i c significance. It b e c a m e the i m a g e of the living essence of the a n i m a l . T h e most i n t e r e s t i n g figures in the cave p a i n t i n g s a r e those of s e m i h u m a n beings in a n i m a l disguise, w h i c h a r e s o m e t i m e s to be found besides the a n i m a l s . I n the T r o i s Freres c a v e in F r a n c e , a m a n w r a p p e d in a n a n i m a l h i d e is p l a y i n g a p r i m i t i v e flute as if h e m e a n t to p u t a spell o n the a n i m a l s . I n t h e s a m e cave, t h e r e is a d a n c i n g h u m a n b e i n g , w i t h a n t l e r s , a horse's h e a d , a n d b e a r ' s p a w s . T h i s figure, d o m i n a t i n g a m e d l e y of several h u n d r e d a n i m a l s , is u n q u e s t i o n a b l y the " L o r d of the A n i m a l s . " 235
T h e c u s t o m s a n d usages of s o m e p r i m i t i v e African tribes t o d a y c a n t h r o w s o m e light on the m e a n i n g of these mysterious a n d doubtless symbolic figures. In initiations, secret societies, a n d even the institution of m o n a r c h y in these tribes, a n i m a l s a n d a n i m a l disguises often play an i m p o r t a n t p a r t . T h e king a n d chief a r e a n i mals t o o — g e n e r a l l y lions or l e o p a r d s . Vestiges of this c u s t o m m a y be discerned in the title of the last e m p e r o r of E t h i o p i a , H a i l e Selassie (Lion of J u d a h ) , or the honorific n a m e of D r . Hastings B a n d a ( T h e Lion of M a l a w i ) . The further back we go in t i m e , or t h e m o r e p r i m i t i v e a n d close to n a t u r e the society is, the m o r e literally such titles must be t a k e n . A primitive chief is not only disguised as the a n i m a l ; w h e n he a p p e a r s at initiation rites in full a n i m a l disguise, he is the a n i m a l . Still m o r e , h e is a n a n i m a l spirit, a terrifying d e m o n w h o performs c i r c u m c i s i o n . At such m o m e n t s he incorp o r a t e s or r e p r e s e n t s the a n c e s t o r of the tribe a n d the clan, a n d therefore the p r i m a l god himself. H e r e p r e s e n t s , a n d is, the " t o t e m " a n i m a l . T h u s we p r o b a b l y should not go far w r o n g in seeing in the figure of the d a n c i n g a n i m a l - m a n in the T r o i s Freres c a v e a kind of chief w h o has been t r a n s f o r m e d by his disguise into a n a n i m a l d e m o n . In the course of t i m e , the c o m p l e t e a n i m a l disguise was s u p e r s e d e d in m a n y places by a n i m a l a n d d e m o n masks. P r i m i t i v e m e n lavished
all their artistic skill on these masks, a n d m a n y of t h e m a r e still u n s u r p a s s e d in the p o w e r a n d intensity of t h e i r expression. T h e y a r e often the objects of the s a m e v e n e r a t i o n as the god or d e m o n himself. A n i m a l masks play a p a r t in the folk arts of m a n y m o d e r n c o u n t r i e s , like Switzerl a n d , or in the magnificently expressive masks of the a n c i e n t J a p a n e s e No d r a m a , w h i c h is still p e r f o r m e d in m o d e r n J a p a n . T h e symbolic function of the m a s k is the s a m e as t h a t of the original a n i m a l disguise. I n d i v i d u a l h u m a n expression is s u b m e r g e d , but in its p l a c e the w e a r e r assumes the d i g n i t y a n d the b e a u t y (and also the horrifying expression) of a n a n i m a l d e m o n . In psychological t e r m s , the mask t r a n s forms its w e a r e r i n t o a n a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e . D a n c i n g , w h i c h was originally n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a c o m p l e t i o n of the a n i m a l disguise by a p p r o p r i a t e m o v e m e n t s a n d gestures, was p r o b a b l y s u p p l e m e n t a r y to the initiation or o t h e r rites. It was, so to speak, p e r f o r m e d by d e m o n s in h o n o r of a d e m o n . In the soft clay of the T u c d ' A u d u b e r t c a v e , H e r b e r t K i i h n found footp r i n t s t h a t led a r o u n d a n i m a l figures. T h e y show t h a t d a n c i n g was p a r t of even the Ice Age rites. " O n l y heel prints c a n be s e e n , " K i i h n writes. " T h e d a n c e r s h a d m o v e d like bisons. T h e y h a d d a n c e d a bison d a n c e for the fertility a n d increase of the a n i m a l s a n d for their s l a u g h t e r . " In his i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r , D r . J u n g has p o i n t e d out the close r e l a t i o n , or even identifi-
Far left, a p r e h i s t o r i c p a i n t i n g f r o m T r o i s Freres cave i n c l u d e s ( l o w e r right c o r n e r ) a h u m a n f i g u r e , p e r h a p s a shaman, w i t h horns and hoofs. A s e x a m p l e s of " a n i m a l " d a n c e s : left, a B u r m e s e b u f f a l o d a n c e in w h i c h m a s k e d d a n c e r s are p o s s e s s e d by t h e b u f f a l o spirit; r i g h t , a B o l i v i a n d e v i l d a n c e in w h i c h t h e dancers wear d e m o n i c animal masks; far r i g h t , an o l d s o u t h w e s t G e r m a n folk d a n c e in w h i c h t h e d a n c e r s are d i s g u i s e d as w i t c h e s a n d as a n i m a l - l i k e " w i l d m e n , "
236
c a t i o n , b e t w e e n the n a t i v e a n d his t o t e m a n i m a l (or " b u s h - s o u l " ) . T h e r e a r e special c e r e m o n i e s for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of this r e l a t i o n s h i p , especially the initiation rites for boys. T h e boy enters into possession of his " a n i m a l s o u l , " a n d at the s a m e time sacrifices his o w n " a n i m a l b e i n g " by circumcision. T h i s d u a l process a d m i t s h i m to the t o t e m clan a n d establishes his r e l a t i o n s h i p to his t o t e m a n i m a l . A b o v e all, he b e c o m e s a m a n , a n d (in a still w i d e r sense) a h u m a n b e i n g .
himself, he was o v e r w h e l m e d with grief a n d remorse for w h a t he h a d d o n e . I n this case a n e g a t i v e i m p u l s e b r o k e loose a n d did its d e a d l y work regardless of the conscious will. T h e a n i mal d e m o n is a highly expressive symbol for such a n i m p u l s e . T h e vividness a n d c o n c r e t e ness of the i m a g e e n a b l e s m a n to establish a r e l a t i o n s h i p with it as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the o v e r w h e l m i n g p o w e r in himself. H e fears it a n d seeks to p r o p i t i a t e it by sacrifice a n d r i t u a l .
East Coast Africans d e s c r i b e d the u n c i r c u m cised as " a n i m a l s . " T h e y h a d n e i t h e r received a h a n i m a l soul nor sacrificed their " a n i m a l i t y . " In o t h e r w o r d s , since n e i t h e r the h u m a n n o r the a n i m a l aspect of a n u n c i r c u m c i s e d boy's soul h a d b e c o m e conscious, his a n i m a l aspect was r e g a r d e d as d o m i n a n t . T h e a n i m a l motif is usually s y m b o l i c of m a n ' s p r i m i t i v e a n d i n s t i n c t u a l n a t u r e . Even civilized m e n must realize the violence of their instinctual drives a n d their powerlessness in face of the a u t o n o m o u s e m o t i o n s e r u p t i n g from the unconscious. T h i s is still m o r e the case w i t h p r i m i t i v e m e n , whose consciousness is not highly d e v e l o p e d a n d w h o a r e still less well e q u i p p e d to w e a t h e r t h e e m o t i o n a l s t o r m . In the first c h a p t e r of this book, w h e n D r . J u n g is discussing the ways in w h i c h m a n d e v e l o p e d the p o w e r of reflection, h e takes a n e x a m p l e of a n African w h o fell i n t o a r a g e a n d killed his beloved little son. W h e n the m a n recovered
A large n u m b e r of m y t h s a r e c o n c e r n e d with a p r i m a l a n i m a l , w h i c h must be sacrificed in the cause of fertility or even c r e a t i o n . O n e exa m p l e of this is the sacrifice of a bull by the Persian s u n - g o d M i t h r a s , from w h i c h s p r a n g the e a r t h with all w e a l t h a n d fruitfulness. In the C h r i s t i a n legend of St. G e o r g e slaying t h e d r a g o n , the p r i m e v a l rite of sacrificial s l a u g h t e r again appears. In the religions a n d religious art of p r a c t i cally every r a c e , a n i m a l a t t r i b u t e s a r e ascribed to t h e s u p r e m e gods, or the gods a r e r e p r e sented as a n i m a l s . T h e a n c i e n t B a b y l o n i a n s t r a n s l a t e d their gods into the h e a v e n s in the s h a p e of the R a m , the Bull, the C r a b , the Lion, the S c o r p i o n , the Fish, a n d so o n — the signs of the Z o d i a c . T h e E g y p t i a n s r e p r e s e n t e d the goddess H a t h o r as c o w - h e a d e d , the god A m o n as r a m - h e a d e d , a n d T h o t h as ibis-headed or in the s h a p e of a b a b o o n . G a n e s h a , the H i n d u god of good fortune, has a h u m a n b o d y b u t the h e a d
237
of a n e l e p h a n t , V i s h n u is a b o a r , H a n u m a n is a n a p e - g o d , etc. ( T h e H i n d u s , i n c i d e n t a l l y , d o not assign the first p l a c e in the h i e r a r c h y of b e i n g to m a n : T h e e l e p h a n t a n d lion s t a n d higher.) G r e e k m y t h o l o g y is full of a n i m a l s y m bolism. Zeus, the father of the gods, often a p p r o a c h e s a girl w h o m he desires in the s h a p e of a s w a n , a bull, or a n eagle. In G e r m a n i c m y t h o l o g y , the cat is sacred to the goddess F r e y a , while the b o a r , the r a v e n , a n d the horse a r e sacred to W o t a n . E v e n in C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n i m a l s y m b o l i s m plays a surprisingly g r e a t p a r t . Three of the E v a n g e lists h a v e a n i m a l e m b l e m s : St. E u k e has the ox, St. M a r k the lion, a n d St. J o h n the eagle. O n l y o n e , St. M a t t h e w , is r e p r e s e n t e d as a m a n or as a n a n g e l . C h r i s t himself symbolically a p p e a r s as the L a m b of G o d or the Fish, b u t he is also the s e r p e n t e x a l t e d o n the cross, the lion, a n d in r a r e r cases t h e u n i c o r n . T h e s e a n i m a l a t t r i b u t e s of Christ i n d i c a t e t h a t even the Son of G o d (the s u p r e m e personification of m a n ) c a n no m o r e dispense w i t h his a n i m a l n a t u r e t h a n with his h i g h e r , spiritual n a t u r e . T h e s u b h u m a n as well as t h e s u p e r h u m a n is felt to belong to the r e a l m of the d i v i n e ; the r e l a t i o n s h i p of these t w o aspects of m a n is beautifully symbolized in the C h r i s t m a s p i c t u r e of the b i r t h of Christ, in a stable a m o n g a n i m a l s . T h e b o u n d l e s s profusion of a n i m a l symbolism in the religion a n d a r t of all times does not
L e f t , a m a s k u s e d in t h e a n c i e n t No d r a m a of J a p a n , in w h i c h t h e p l a y e r s o f t e n p o r t r a y g o d s , spirits, or d e m o n s . A b o v e r i g h t , m a s k e d p e r f o r m e r s in J a p a n e s e d a n c e t h e a t e r B e l o w r i g h t , an a c t o r in J a p a n ' s K a b u k i d r a m a , d r e s s e d as a m e d i e v a l hero, w i t h m a s k - l i k e m a k e u p
2 8 3
merely e m p h a s i z e the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e symbol ; it shows h o w vital it is for m e n to i n t e g r a t e into their lives the s y m b o l ' s psychic c o n t e n t — instinct. In itself, a n a n i m a l is n e i t h e r good nor evil; it is a piece of n a t u r e . It c a n n o t desire a n y t h i n g t h a t is n o t in its n a t u r e . T o p u t this a n o t h e r w a y , it obeys its instincts. T h e s e instincts often seem mysterious to us, b u t they h a v e their parallel in h u m a n life: T h e f o u n d a tion of h u m a n n a t u r e is instinct. But in m a n , the " a n i m a l b e i n g " (which lives in him as his instinctual psyche) m a y b e c o m e d a n g e r o u s if it is not r e c o g n i z e d a n d i n t e g r a t e d in life. M a n is the only c r e a t u r e with the p o w e r to control instinct by his o w n will, b u t he is also able to suppress, d i s t o r t , a n d w o u n d it a n d an a n i m a l , t o s p e a k m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , is never so wild a n d d a n g e r o u s as w h e n it is w o u n d e d . S u p pressed instincts c a n g a i n control of a m a n ; they can even destroy h i m . T h e familiar d r e a m in w h i c h the d r e a m e r is p u r s u e d by a n a n i m a l n e a r l y a l w a y s indicates t h a t a n instinct has b e e n split off from consciousness a n d o u g h t to b e (or is t r y i n g to be) r e a d m i t t e d a n d i n t e g r a t e d into life. T h e m o r e d a n g e r o u s the b e h a v i o r of the a n i m a l in the d r e a m , the m o r e u n c o n s c i o u s is the p r i m i t i v e a n d i n s t i n c t u a l soul of t h e d r e a m e r , a n d the m o r e i m p e r a t i v e is its i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o his life if some i r r e p a r a b l e evil is to be forestalled. S u p p r e s s e d a n d w o u n d e d instincts are the d a n g e r s t h r e a t e n i n g civilized m a n ; u n i n h i b i t e d drives a r e the d a n g e r s t h r e a t e n i n g p r i m i t i v e m a n . In b o t h cases the " a n i m a l " is a l i e n a t e d from its t r u e n a t u r e ; a n d for b o t h , t h e a c c e p t a n c e of the a n i m a l soul is the c o n d i t i o n f o r wholeness a n d a fully lived life. P r i m i t i v e m a n must t a m e the a n i m a l in himself a n d m a k e it his helpful c o m p a n i o n : civilized m a n must heal the a n i m a l in himself a n d m a k e it his friend. O t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s to this book h a v e discussed the i m p o r t a n c e of the stone a n d a n i m a l motifs in terms of d r e a m a n d m y t h ; I h a v e used t h e m here only as g e n e r a l e x a m p l e s of the a p p e a r a n c e of such living symbols t h r o u g h o u t the history of art ( a n d especially religious a r t ) . Let us n o w e x a m i n e in the s a m e w a y a most powerful a n d universal s y m b o l : t h e circle.
E x a m p l e s of a n i m a l s y m b o l s o f divinities f r o m three religions: T o p of p a g e , t h e H i n d u g o d G a n e s h a (a p a i n t e d s c u l p t u r e f r o m t h e R o y a l Palace of N e p a l ) , g o d of prudence and w i s d o m ; above, the Greek g o d Z e u s in t h e f o r m o f a s w a n ( w i t h Leda); right, on opposite sides of a m e d i e v a l c o i n , t h e c r u c i f i e d Christ s h o w n as a m a n a n d as a s e r p e n t
239
The symbol of the circle
Dr. M . - E . von F r a n z has e x p l a i n e d the circle (or sphere) as a s y m b o l of the Self. It expresses the totality of the psyche in all its aspects, inc l u d i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a n a n d the whole of n a t u r e . W h e t h e r the s y m b o l of the circle a p p e a r s in p r i m i t i v e sun w o r s h i p or m o d e r n religion, in m y t h s or d r e a m s , in the m a n d a l a s d r a w n by T i b e t a n m o n k s , in the g r o u n d plans of cities, or in the s p h e r i c a l concepts of early a s t r o n o m e r s , it a l w a y s points to the single most vital aspect of life its u l t i m a t e wholeness. An I n d i a n c r e a t i o n m y t h relates that the god B r a h m a , s t a n d i n g on a h u g e , t h o u s a n d petaled lotus, t u r n e d his eyes to the four points of the c o m p a s s . This fourfold survey from the circle of the lotus was a kind of p r e l i m i n a r y o r i e n t a t i o n , a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e t a k i n g of b e a r i n g s , before he b e g a n his work of c r e a t i o n .
these four functions t h a t m a n must achieve. (In a r t , the circle is often e i g h t - r a y e d . T h i s expresses a r e c i p r o c a l o v e r l a p p i n g of the four functions of consciousness, so t h a t four further i n t e r m e d i a t e functions c o m e a b o u t — for i n s t a n c e , t h o u g h t colored by feeling or i n t u i t i o n , or feeling tending t o w a r d sensation.) In the visual art of I n d i a a n d the F a r East, the four- or e i g h t - r a y e d circle is the usual p a t tern of the religious i m a g e s t h a t serve as instrum e n t s of m e d i t a t i o n . In T i b e t a n L a m a i s m especially, richly figured m a n d a l a s play a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t . As a rule, these m a n d a l a s r e p r e sent the cosmos in its relation to divine powers.
A similar story is told of B u d d h a . At the m o m e n t of his b i r t h , a lotus flower rose from the e a r t h a n d he s t e p p e d into it to g a z e into the 10 directions of s p a c e . ( T h e lotus in this case was e i g h t - r a y e d ; a n d B u d d h a also gazed u p w a r d a n d d o w n w a r d , m a k i n g 10 directions.) T h i s symbolic gesture of survey was the most concise m e t h o d of s h o w i n g t h a t from the m o m e n t of his b i r t h , the B u d d h a was a u n i q u e personality, p r e d e s t i n e d to receive i l l u m i n a t i o n . His personality a n d his further existence w e r e given the i m p r i n t of wholeness.
But a g r e a t m a n y of the eastern m e d i t a t i o n figures a r e p u r e l y g e o m e t r i c a l in d e s i g n ; these a r e calledyanlras. Aside from the circle, a very c o m m o n y a n t r a motif is formed by t w o interp e n e t r a t i n g triangles, o n e p o i n t - u p w a r d , the o t h e r p o i n t - d o w n w a r d . Traditionally, t h i s s h a p e Symbolizes the u n i o n of Shiva a n d S h a k t i , the m a l e a n d female divinities, a subject t h a t also a p p e a r s in s c u l p t u r e in countless v a r i a t i o n s . In t e r m s of psychological s y m b o l i s m , it expresses the u n i o n of opposites — the u n i o n of the personal, t e m p o r a l world of the ego with the n o n - p e r s o n a l , timeless world of the n o n - e g o . U l t i m a t e l y , this union is the fulfillment a n d goal of all religions: It is the u n i o n of the soul with G o d . The two i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g triangles h a v e a symbolic m e a n i n g similar to that of the m o r e
T h e spatial o r i e n t a t i o n p e r f o r m e d by B r a h m a a n d B u d d h a m a y be r e g a r d e d as symbolic of t h e h u m a n need for psychic o r i e n t a t i o n . T h e four functions of consciousness described by Dr. J u n g in his c h a p t e r , p. 61 t h o u g h t , feeling, intuition, a n d sensation e q u i p m a n to deal with the impressions of the world he receives from within a n d w i t h o u t . It is by m e a n s of these functions that he c o m p r e h e n d s a n d assimilates his e x p e r i e n c e ; it is by m e a n s of t h e m that he can r e s p o n d . B r a h m a ' s four-fold survey of the universe symbolizes the necessary i n t e g r a t i o n of
R i g h t , a yantra (a f o r m of m a n d a l a ) . c o m p o s e d of n i n e l i n k e d t r i a n g l e s The mandala, symbolizing wholeness, is o f t e n c o n n e c t e d w i t h e x c e p t i o n a l b e i n g s of m y t h or l e g e n d . Far right, a T i b e t a n p a i n t i n g of t h e b i r t h of B u d d h a : in t h e l o w e r left c o r n e r , B u d d h a t a k e s his first s t e p s o n a c r o s s f o r m e d of c i r c u l a r b l o s s o m s . A b o v e r i g h t , t h e b i r t h of A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t (a 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t i l l u s t r a t i o n ) h e r a l d e d by c o m e t s — in c i r c u l a r or m a n d a l a f o r m .
I"
c o m m o n c i r c u l a r m a n d a l a . T h e y represent the wholeness of the psyche or Self, of w h i c h consciousness is just as m u c h a part as the unconscious. In both the t r i a n g l e y a n t r a s a n d the s c u l p t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the union of Shiva a n d S h a k t i , the e m p h a s i s lies on a tension between the opposites. H e n c e the m a r k e d erotic a n d e m o t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r of m a n y of t h e m . This d y n a m i c q u a l i t y implies a process the creation, or c o m i n g into being, of wholeness — while the four- or e i g h t - r a y e d circle represents w h o l e ness as such, as a n existing entity. T h e a b s t r a c t circle also figures in Zen p a i n t ing. S p e a k i n g of a p i c t u r e entitled The Circle, by the famous Z e n priest S a n g a i , a n o t h e r Z e n m a s t e r w r i t e s : " I n the Z e n sect, the circle represents e n l i g h t e n m e n t . It symbolizes h u m a n perfection." A b s t r a c t m a n d a l a s also a p p e a r in E u r o p e a n C h r i s t i a n art. S o m e of the most splendid e x a m p l e s a r e the rose w i n d o w s of the c a t h e d r a l s . T h e s e are r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the Self of m a n transposed o n t o the cosmic p l a n e . (A cosmic m a n d a l a in the s h a p e of a shining w h i t e rose was revealed to D a n t e in a vision.) W e m a y reg a r d as m a n d a l a s the haloes of Christ a n d the C h r i s t i a n saints in religious p a i n t i n g s . In m a n y cases, the halo of Christ is alone divided into lour, a significant allusion to his sufferings as the Son of M a n a n d his d e a t h on the Cross, a n d at the s a m e t i m e a symbol of his differentiated wholeness. O n the walls of early R o m a n e s q u e c h u r c h e s , a b s t r a c t c i r c u l a r figures c a n s o m e times be s e e n ; they m a y go back to p a g a n originals. In n o n - C h r i s t i a n a r t , such circles are called " s u n w h e e l s . " T h e y a p p e a r in rock e n g r a v i n g s that d a t e back to the neolithic epoch before the wheel was i n v e n t e d . As J u n g has p o i n t e d out, the term " s u n w h e e l " denotes only the external aspect of the figure. W h a t really m a t t e r e d at all times was the e x p e r i e n c e of a n a r c h e t y p a l . 241
Left, an e x a m p l e of t h e m a n d a l a in religious architecture: the A n g k o r W a t B u d d h i s t t e m p l e in C a m b o d i a , a s q u a r e b u i l d i n g w i t h e n t r a n c e s at the four corners. Right, the ruins of a f o r t i f i e d c a m p in D e n m a r k (c. A D . 1 0 0 0 ) , w h i c h w a s laid o u t in a c i r c l e - as is t h e f o r t r e s s t o w n ( c e n t e r r i g h t ) of P a l m a n o v a , Italy ( b u i l t in 1 5 9 3 ) , w i t h its stars h a p e d f o r t i f i c a t i o n s . Far r i g h t , t h e streets t h a t m e e t at L'Etoile, Paris, to f o r m a m a n d a l a
i n n e r i m a g e , w h i c h S t o n e Age m a n r e n d e r e d in his art as faithfully as he d e p i c t e d bulls, gazelles, or wild horses. M a n y pictorial m a n d a l a s a r e to be found in C h r i s t i a n a r t : for e x a m p l e , the r a t h e r r a r e picture of the Virgin in the c e n t e r of a c i r c u l a r tree, which is the G o d - s y m b o l of the b u r n i n g bush. The most widely c u r r e n t m a n d a l a s in C h r i s t i a n art a r e those of Christ s u r r o u n d e d by the four Evangelists. T h e s e go back to the a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the god H o r u s a n d his four sons. In a r c h i t e c t u r e the m a n d a l a also plays a n important part b u t o n e that often passes u n n o t i c e d . It forms the g r o u n d plan of both secular a n d sacred buildings in n e a r l y all civiliz a t i o n s ; it enters into classical, m e d i e v a l , a n d even m o d e r n t o w n p l a n n i n g . A classical e x a m p l e a p p e a r s in P l u t a r c h ' s a c c o u n t of the f o u n d a t i o n of R o m e . A c c o r d i n g to P l u t a r c h , R o m u l u s sent for b u i l d e r s from E t r u r i a w h o i n s t r u c t e d him by sacred usages a n d w r i t t e n rules a b o u t all the c e r e m o n i e s to be o b s e r v e d — in the s a m e w a y " a s in the m y s t e r i e s . " First they d u g a r o u n d pit w h e r e the C o m i t i u m , or C o u r t of Assembly, now s t a n d s , a n d into this pit they threw symbolic offerings of the fruits of the e a r t h . T h e n e a c h m a n took a small piece of e a r t h of the l a n d from which he c a m e , a n d these w e r e all t h r o w n into the pit together. T h e pit was given the n a m e of mundus (which also m e a n t the cosmos). A r o u n d it R o m u l u s d r e w the b o u n d a r y of the city in a circle with a plow d r a w n by a bull a n d a cow. W h e r e v e r a g a t e was p l a n n e d , the p l o w s h a r e was t a k e n out a n d the plow c a r r i e d over. The city founded in this solemn c e r e m o n y was c i r c u l a r in s h a p e . Yet the old a n d famous
-' I -
description of R o m e is urbs quadrata, the s q u a r e city. A c c o r d i n g to o n e t h e o r y t h a t a t t e m p t s to reconcile this c o n t r a d i c t i o n , the word quadrata must be u n d e r s t o o d to m e a n " q u a d r i p a r t i t e " ; t h a t is, the c i r c u l a r city was divided into four p a r t s by two m a i n arteries r u n n i n g from n o r t h to south a n d west to east. The point of intersection coincided with the mundus m e n t i o n e d by P l u t a r c h . A c c o r d i n g to a n o t h e r t h e o r y , the c o n t r a d i c tion can be u n d e r s t o o d only as a s y m b o l , n a m e l y as a visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the m a t h e m a t i c a l l y insoluble p r o b l e m of the s q u a r i n g of the circle, w h i c h h a d greatly p r e o c c u p i e d the G r e e k s a n d was to play so g r e a t a p a r t in a l c h e m y . S t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , before d e s c r i b i n g the circle c e r e m o n y of the f o u n d a t i o n of the city by R o m u l u s , P l u t a r c h also speaks of R o m e as Roma quadrata, a s q u a r e city. For h i m , R o m e was both a circle a n d a s q u a r e . In e a c h t h e o r y a true m a n d a l a is involved, a n d t h a t links u p with P l u t a r c h ' s s t a t e m e n t that the f o u n d a t i o n of the city was t a u g h t by the E t r u s c a n s " a s in the m y s t e r i e s , " as a secret rite. It was m o r e t h a n a m e r e o u t w a r d form. By its m a n d a l a g r o u n d p l a n , the city, with its i n h a b i t a n t s , is exalted a b o v e the p u r e l y secular r e a l m . This is further e m p h a s i z e d by the fact t h a t the city has a c e n t e r , the mundus, w h i c h established the city's r e l a t i o n s h i p to the " o t h e r " r e a l m , the a b o d e of the a n c e s t r a l spirits. ( T h e mundus was covered by a g r e a t stone, called the "soul s t o n e . " O n c e r t a i n d a y s the stone was r e m o v e d , a n d t h e n , it was said, the spirits of the d e a d rose from the shaft.) A n u m b e r of m e d i e v a l cities w e r e founded on the g r o u n d p l a n of a m a n d a l a a n d were
s u r r o u n d e d by a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y c i r c u l a r wall. In such a city, as in R o m e , t w o m a i n arteries divided it into " q u a r t e r s " a n d led to the four gates. T h e c h u r c h or c a t h e d r a l stood at the point of intersection of these arteries. T h e inspiration of the m e d i e v a l city with its q u a r t e r s was the H e a v e n l y J e r u s a l e m (in the Book of R e v e l a t i o n ) , which h a d a s q u a r e g r o u n d p l a n and walls with t h r e e times four gates. But J e r u salem h a d n o t e m p l e at its c e n t e r , for G o d ' s i m m e d i a t e presence was the c e n t e r of it. ( T h e m a n d a l a g r o u n d plan for a city is by n o m e a n s o u t m o d e d . A m o d e r n e x a m p l e is the city of Washington, D.C.) W h e t h e r in classical or in p r i m i t i v e foundations, the m a n d a l a g r o u n d p l a n was n e v e r dictated by c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of aesthetics or economics. It was a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the city into a n o r d e r e d cosmos, a sacred p l a c e b o u n d by its c e n t e r to t h e o t h e r world. A n d this t r a n s formation a c c o r d e d with the vital feelings a n d needs of religious m a n .
Every b u i l d i n g , sacred or secular, t h a t has a m a n d a l a g r o u n d p l a n is the projection of a n a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e from w i t h i n the h u m a n u n conscious o n t o the o u t e r w o r l d . T h e city, the fortress, a n d the t e m p l e b e c o m e symbols of psychic wholeness, a n d in this w a y exercise a specific influence on the h u m a n b e i n g w h o enters or lives in t h e place. (It need h a r d l y be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t even in a r c h i t e c t u r e the p r o j e c t i o n of the psychic c o n t e n t was a p u r e l y u n conscious process. " S u c h things c a n n o t be t h o u g h t u p , " D r . J u n g has w r i t t e n , " b u t must g r o w a g a i n from the forgotten d e p t h s if they are to express the deepest insights of consciousness a n d the loftiest i n t u i t i o n s of thespirit, t h u s a m a l g a m a t i n g the u n i q u e n e s s of p r e s e n t - d a y consciousness with the age-old past of h u m a n i t y . " ) T h e c e n t r a l s y m b o l of C h r i s t i a n art is not the m a n d a l a , b u t the cross or crucifix. U p to C a r o lingian times, the e q u i l a t e r a l or G r e e k cross was the usual form, a n d therefore the m a n d a l a was indirectly i m p l i e d . But in the course of t i m e the
Medieval religious architecture w a s u s u a l l y b a s e d o n t h e s h a p e of t h e c r o s s . Left, a 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y c h u r c h (in Ethiopia) cut from the rock.
R e n a i s s a n c e r e l i g i o u s art s h o w s a reorientation to the earth and the b o d y : Right, a plan for a circular c h u r c h or b a s i l i c a b a s e d o n t h e b o d y ' s p r o p o r t i o n s , d r a w n by t h e 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y Italian artist a n d architect Francesco di G i o r g i o
243
c e n t e r m o v e d u p w a r d until the cross took on the L a t i n form, w i t h the stake a n d the crossb e a m , t h a t is c u s t o m a r y t o d a y . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e it c o r r e s p o n d s to the i n w a r d d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t i a n i t y u p to the high M i d d l e Ages. In simple t e r m s , it s y m b o lized the t e n d e n c y to r e m o v e the c e n t e r of m a n a n d his faith from the e a r t h a n d to " e l e v a t e " it into the spiritual s p h e r e . T h i s t e n d e n c y s p r a n g from the desire to p u t i n t o a c t i o n C h r i s t ' s saying : " M y k i n g d o m is not of this w o r l d . " E a r t h l y life, the w o r l d , a n d the b o d y w e r e therefore forces that h a d to be o v e r c o m e . M e d i e v a l m a n ' s hopes w e r e thus d i r e c t e d to the b e y o n d , for it was only from p a r a d i s e t h a t the p r o m i s e of fulfillment b e c k o n e d .
the baptisteries, w i t h the font in the c e n t e r , h a v e a true m a n d a l a ground plan). W i t h the d a w n i n g of the R e n a i s s a n c e , a revol u t i o n a r y c h a n g e b e g a n to o c c u r in m a n ' s conc e p t i o n of the world. T h e " u p w a r d " m o v e m e n t (which r e a c h e d its c l i m a x in the late M i d d l e Ages) w e n t i n t o r e v e r s e ; m a n t u r n e d back to the e a r t h . H e rediscovered the beauties of n a t u r e a n d the b o d y , m a d e the first c i r c u m n a v i g a t i o n of the globe, a n d p r o v e d the world to be a s p h e r e . T h e laws of m e c h a n i c s a n d causality b e c a m e the f o u n d a t i o n s of science. T h e world of religious feeling, of the i r r a t i o n a l , a n d of mysticism, w h i c h h a d played so great a p a r t in m e d i eval times, was m o r e a n d m o r e s u b m e r g e d by the t r i u m p h s of logical t h o u g h t .
T h i s e n d e a v o r r e a c h e d its c l i m a x in the M i d d l e Ages a n d in medieval mysticism. T h e hopes of the b e y o n d found expression not only in the raising of t h e c e n t e r of the cross; it c a n also be seen in the i n c r e a s i n g h e i g h t of the G o t h i c c a t h e d r a l s , w h i c h seem to set the laws of g r a v i t y at defiance. T h e i r cruciform g r o u n d p l a n is t h a t of the e l o n g a t e d L a t i n cross ( t h o u g h
Similarly, art b e c a m e m o r e realistic a n d sensuous. It b r o k e a w a y from the religious subjects of the M i d d l e Ages a n d e m b r a c e d the whole visible w o r l d . It was o v e r w h e l m e d by the m a n i fbldness of the e a r t h , by its s p l e n d o r a n d h o r r o r , a n d b e c a m e w h a t G o t h i c a r t h a d been before it: a true s y m b o l of the spirit of the age. T h u s it c a n h a r d l y be r e g a r d e d as a c c i d e n t a l that
a c h a n g e also c a m e over ecclesiastical building. In c o n t r a s t to the s o a r i n g G o t h i c c a t h e d r a l s , there w e r e m o r e c i r c u l a r g r o u n d plans. T h e circle r e p l a c e d the L a t i n cross. T h i s c h a n g e in form, h o w e v e r — a n d this is the i m p o r t a n t point for the history of s y m b o l i s m - must be a t t r i b u t e d to a e s t h e t i c , a n d not to religious, causes. T h a t is the only possible exp l a n a t i o n for the fact t h a t the c e n t e r of these r o u n d c h u r c h e s (the truly " h o l y " place) is e m p t y , a n d t h a t the a l t a r s t a n d s in a recess in a wall a w a y from the c e n t e r . F o r t h a t reason the p l a n c a n n o t be d e s c r i b e d as a t r u e m a n d a l a . An i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n is St. Peter's in R o m e , w h i c h was built to ihe p l a n s of Bram a n t e a n d M i c h e l a n g e l o . H e r e the a l t a r s t a n d s in the center. O n e is t e m p t e d , h o w e v e r , to a t t r i b u t e this e x c e p t i o n to t h e genius of the architects, for g r e a t genius is a l w a y s b o t h of a n d b e y o n d its t i m e . In spite of the f a r - r e a c h i n g c h a n g e s in a r t , p h i l o s o p h y , a n d science b r o u g h t a b o u t by the R e n a i s s a n c e , t h e c e n t r a l symbol of C h r i s t i a n i t y r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d . Christ was still r e p r e -
sented on the L a t i n cross, as he is t o d a y . T h a t m e a n t t h a t the c e n t e r of religious m a n rem a i n e d a n c h o r e d on a higher, m o r e spiritual p l a n e t h a n t h a t of e a r t h l y m a n , w h o h a d t u r n e d back to n a t u r e . T h u s a rift arose between m a n ' s t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d his r a t i o n a l or intellectual m i n d . Since t h a t time, these two sides of m o d e r n m a n h a v e n e v e r been b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r . In the course of the c e n t u r i e s , with m a n ' s g r o w i n g insight i n t o n a t u r e a n d its laws, this division has g r a d u a l l y g r o w n w i d e r ; a n d it still splits the p s y c h e of t h e w e s t e r n C h r i s t i a n in the 20th c e n t u r y . O f course, the brief historical s u m m a r y given h e r e has b e e n over-simplified. M o r e o v e r , it o m i t s the secret religious m o v e m e n t s w i t h i n C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t took a c c o u n t , in t h e i r beliefs, of w h a t was usually i g n o r e d by most C h r i s t i a n s : the q u e s t i o n of evil, the c h t h o n i c (or e a r t h l y ) spirit. S u c h m o v e m e n t s w e r e a l w a y s in a m i n o r i t y a n d s e l d o m h a d a n y very visible influence, b u t in t h e i r w a y they fulfilled the i m p o r t a n t role of a c o n t r a p u n t a l a c c o m p a n i m e n t to C h r i s t i a n spirituality.
T h e R e n a i s s a n c e interest in o u t e r reality p r o d u c e d t h e C o p e r n i c a n s u n centered universe (left) and turned artists a w a y f r o m " i m a g i n a t i v e " art t o n a t u r e : B e l o w left, L e o n a r d o ' s s t u d y of t h e h u m a n heart.
R e n a i s s a n c e art — w i t h its s e n s u o u s c o n c e r n w i t h light, nature, and the b o d y (far left, a T i n t o r e t t o , 1 6 t h c e n t u r y ) — set a p a t t e r n t h a t lasted until the Impressionists. B e l o w , a p a i n t i n g by R e n o i r ( 1 8 4 1 - 1 9 1 9 ) .
Far left, t h e s y m b o l i c a l c h e m i c a l c o n c e p t of t h e s q u a r e d c i r c l e — s y m b o l of w h o l e n e s s a n d of t h e u n i o n of o p p o s i t e s ( n o t e t h e male and female figures)-Left, a m o d e r n s q u a r e d c i r c l e by t h e B r i t i s h artist B e n N i c h o l s o n ( b o r n 1 8 9 4 ) : It is a s t r i c t l y g e o m e t r i c a l , e m p t y form possessing aesthetic harmony and beauty but w i t h o u t symbolic meaning.
R i g h t , a "sun w h e e l ' in a p a i n t i n g b y t h e m o d e r n J a p a n e s e artist S o f u T e s h i g a h a r a ( b o r n 1 9 0 0 ) f o l l o w s the t e n d e n c y of m a n y m o d e r n painters, w h e n u s i n g " c i r c u l a r " s h a p e s , t o make them asymmetrical.
A m o n g the m a n y sects a n d m o v e m e n t s t h a t arose a b o u t A . D . 1000, the a l c h e m i s t s p l a y e d a very i m p o r t a n t p a r t . T h e y e x a l t e d the mysteries of m a t t e r a n d set t h e m a l o n g s i d e those of the " h e a v e n l y " spirit of C h r i s t i a n i t y . W h a t they s o u g h t was a wholeness of m a n e n c o m p a s s i n g m i n d a n d b o d y , a n d they i n v e n t e d a t h o u s a n d n a m e s a n d s y m b o l s for it. O n e of t h e i r c e n t r a l symbols was the quadratura circuli (the s q u a r ing of the circle), w h i c h is n o m o r e t h a n the true mandala. T h e a l c h e m i s t s not only r e c o r d e d their work in their w r i t i n g s ; they c r e a t e d a w e a l t h of pictures of t h e i r d r e a m s a n d visions — s y m b o l i c pictures t h a t a r e still as p r o f o u n d as they are baffling. T h e y w e r e inspired by the d a r k side of n a t u r e — evil, the d r e a m , the spirit of e a r t h . T h e m o d e of expression was a l w a y s fabulous, d r e a m l i k e , a n d u n r e a l , in b o t h w o r d a n d pict u r e . T h e g r e a t 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y Flemish p a i n t e r H i e r o n y m u s Bosch m a y be r e g a r d e d as the most i m p o r t a n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of this kind of imaginative art. But at the s a m e t i m e , m o r e typical R e n a i s sance p a i n t e r s ( w o r k i n g in the full light of d a y , so to speak) w e r e p r o d u c i n g the most splendid works of sensuous a r t . T h e i r fascination w i t h e a r t h a n d n a t u r e w e n t so d e e p t h a t it p r a c t i cally d e t e r m i n e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of visual art for the next five c e n t u r i e s . T h e last g r e a t r e p r e sentatives of sensuous art, the art of the passing m o m e n t , of light a n d air, w e r e the 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y impressionists. 246
W'e m a y here d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n two radically different m o d e s of artistic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . M a n y a t t e m p t s h a v e been m a d e to define their characteristics. R e c e n t l y H e r b e r t K i i h n (whose work on the c a v e - p a i n t i n g s I h a v e a l r e a d y mentioned) has tried to d r a w a distinction between w h a t he calls the " i m a g i n a t i v e " a n d the "sens o r y " style. T h e " s e n s o r y " style generally depicts a direct r e p r o d u c t i o n of n a t u r e or of the picture-subject. T h e " i m a g i n a t i v e , " on the o t h e r h a n d , presents a fantasy or e x p e r i e n c e of the artist in an " u n r e a l i s t i c , " even d r e a m l i k e , a n d sometimes " a b s t r a c t " m a n n e r . K i i h n ' s two c o n c e p t i o n s seem so simple a n d so clear that I a m glad to m a k e use of t h e m . T h e first b e g i n n i n g s of i m a g i n a t i v e art go back very far in history. In the M e d i t e r r a n e a n basin, its efflorescence d a t e s from the third mille n n i u m B . C . It has only recently been realized t h a t these a n c i e n t works of art are not the results of i n c o m p e t e n c e or i g n o r a n c e ; they are modes of expression of a perfectly definite religious a n d spiritual e m o t i o n . A n d they h a v e a special a p p e a l t o d a y , for, d u r i n g the last halfc e n t u r y , art has been passing once more t h r o u g h a phase that can be described by the term "imaginative." T o d a y the g e o m e t r i c a l , or " a b s t r a c t , " symbol of the circle has a g a i n c o m e to play a considerable role in p a i n t i n g . But with few exceptions the t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n has u n d e r g o n e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n that c o r r e s p o n d s to the d i l e m m a of m o d e r n m a n ' s ex-
istence. The circle is n o longer a single m e a n ingful figure t h a t e m b r a c e s a whole world a n d d o m i n a t e s the p i c t u r e . S o m e t i m e s the artist has t a k e n it out of its d o m i n a n t position, r e p l a c i n g it by a loosely o r g a n i z e d g r o u p of circles. S o m e times the p l a n e of the circle is a s y m m e t r i c a l . An e x a m p l e of the a s y m m e t r i c a l c i r c u l a r p l a n e m a y be seen in the famous sun disks of the F r e n c h p a i n t e r R o b e r t D e l a u n a y . A p a i n t ing by the m o d e r n English p a i n t e r Ceri R i c h a r d s , now in Dr. J u n g ' s collection, c o n t a i n s a n entirely a s y m m e t r i c a l c i r c u l a r p l a n e , while far to the left t h e r e a p p e a r s a very m u c h smaller a n d e m p t y circle. I n the F r e n c h p a i n t e r H e n r i Matisse's Slill Life with Vase of Nasturtiums, the focus of vision is a green s p h e r e on a s l a n t i n g black b e a m , w h i c h seems to g a t h e r into itself the manifold circles of the n a s t u r t i u m leaves. T h e s p h e r e overlaps a r e c t a n g u l a r figure, the t o p left-hand c o r n e r of w h i c h is folded over. G i v e n the artistic perfection of the p a i n t i n g it is easy to forget that in the past these two abstract figures (the circle a n d the s q u a r e ) would h a v e been u n i t e d , a n d would h a v e expressed a world of t h o u g h t s a n d feelings. But a n y o n e w h o does r e m e m b e r , a n d raises the question of m e a n i n g , will find food for t h o u g h t : T h e two figures that from the b e g i n n i n g of time h a v e formed a whole a r e in this p a i n t i n g torn a p a r t or i n c o h e r e n t l y related. Yet b o t h a r e t h e r e a n d a r e t o u c h i n g each other. In a p i c t u r e p a i n t e d by the R u s s i a n - b o r n artist VVassily K a n d i n s k y t h e r e is a loose assembly of colored balls or circles that seem to be drifting like soap b u b b l e s . They. too. are t e n u ously c o n n e c t e d with a b a c k g r o u n d of one large r e c t a n g l e with two small, almost s q u a r e rectangles c o n t a i n e d in it. I n a n o t h e r p i c t u r e , which he called A Few Circles, a d a r k cloud (or is it a
Left, Limits of Understanding by Paul Klee ( 1 8 7 9 - 1 9 4 0 ) — o n e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g in w h i c h t h e s y m b o l o f t h e c i r c l e retains a dominant position.
*47
s w o o p i n g b i r d ? ) a g a i n b e a r s a loosely a r r a n g e d g r o u p of b r i g h t balls or circles. Circles often a p p e a r in u n e x p e c t e d connections in the mysterious compositions ol the British artist P a u l N a s h . In the p r i m e v a l solit u d e of his l a n d s c a p e Event on the Downs, a ball lies in the right f o r e g r o u n d . T h o u g h it is a p p a r e n t l y a tennis ball, the design on its surface forms the Tai-gi-tit, the C h i n e s e symbol of e t e r n i t y ; thus it opens u p a new d i m e n s i o n in the loneliness of the l a n d s c a p e . S o m e t h i n g similar h a p p e n s in N a s h ' s Landscape from a Dream. Balls are rolling out of sight in a n infinitely w i d e m i r r o r e d l a n d s c a p e , with a h u g e sun visible on the horizon. A n o t h e r ball lies in the f o r e g r o u n d , in front of the r o u g h l y square mirror. In his d r a w i n g Limits of Understanding, the Swiss artist Paul Klee places t h e simple figure of a s p h e r e or a circle a b o v e a c o m p l e x struc-
C i r c l e s a p p e a r b r o k e n or l o o s e l y s c a t t e r e d in The Sun and the Moon. top, by Robert Delaunay ( 1 8 8 5 1 9 4 1 ) ; in A Few Circles, left, b y K a n d i n s k y ( 1 8 6 6 - 1 9 4 4 ) ; a n d in Landscape from a Dream, r i g h t , b y Paul N a s h ( 1 8 8 9 - 1 9 4 6 ) B e l o w , Composition by Piet M o n d r i a n ( 1 8 7 2 - 1 9 4 4 ) is d o m i n a t e d by squares.
248
ture of l a d d e r s a n d lines. Dr. J u n g has p o i n t e d out thai a true symbol a p p e a r s only w h e n there is a need to express w h a t t h o u g h t c a n n o t think or what is only divined or felt; that is the p u r pose of R i c e ' s simple figure at the " l i m i t s of understanding." It is i m p o r t a n t to note t h a t the s q u a r e , or g r o u p s of rectangles a n d s q u a r e s , or rectangles a n d r h o m b o i d s , h a v e a p p e a r e d in m o d e r n art just as often as the circle. The m a s t e r of h a r m o n i o u s (indeed, " m u s i c a l " ) compositions with squares is the D u t c h - b o r n artist Piet M o n d r i a n . As a rule t h e r e is n o a c t u a l c e n t e r in a n y of his pictures, yet they form a n o r d e r e d w h o l e in their own strict, almost ascetic fashion. Still m o r e c o m m o n are p a i n t i n g s by o t h e r artists with i r r e g u l a r q u a t e r n a r y compositions, or n u m e r o u s r e c t a n g l e s c o m b i n e d in m o r e or less loose g r o u p s . T h e circle is a symbol of the psyche even Plato d e s c r i b e d the psyche as a s p h e r e ) . T h e s q u a r e ' a n d often the r e c t a n g l e is a symbol o f e a r t h b o u n d m a t t e r , of the body a n d reality. In most m o d e r n a r t , the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n these two p r i m a r y forms is e i t h e r n o n e x i s t e n t , or loose a n d casual. Their s e p a r a t i o n is a n o t h e r symbolic expression of the psychic state of 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y m a n : His soul has lost its roots a n d he is t h r e a t e n e d bv dissocia-
tion. Even in the world situation of fas Dr. J u n g p o i n t e d out in his o p e n i n g t e r ) , this split has b e c o m e e v i d e n t : T h e ern a n d eastern halves of the e a r t h are a t e d by a n I r o n C u r t a i n .
today chapwestsepar-
But the frequency with w h i c h the s q u a r e a n d the circle a p p e a r must not be overlooked. There seems to be a n u n i n t e r r u p t e d psychic u r g e to b r i n g into consciousness the basic factors of life that they symbolize. Also, in c e r t a i n a b s t r a c t pictures of o u r t i m e (which merely r e p r e s e n t a colored s t r u c t u r e or a kind of " p r i m a l m a t t e r " ), these forms occasionally a p p e a r as if they w e r e g e r m s of n e w g r o w t h . The symbol of the circle has played a c u r i o u s p a r t in a very different p h e n o m e n o n of the life of o u r d a y , a n d occasionally still does so. In the last years of the Second W o r l d W a r , t h e r e arose the " v i s i o n a r y r u m o r " of r o u n d flying bodies that b e c a m e k n o w n as "flying s a u c e r s " or I T ' O s unidentified flying objects). J u n g has e x p l a i n e d the U F O s as a projection of a psychic c o n t e n t (of wholeness that has at all times been symbolized by the circle. In o t h e r w i n d s , this " v i s i o n a r y r u m o r , " as can also be seen in m a n y d r e a m s of o u r t i m e , is an a t t e m p t by the unconscious collective psyche to heal the split in o u r a p o c a l y p t i c age by m e a n s of the symbol of the circle.
A b o v e , an illustration from a 1 6th c e n t u r y G e r m a n b r o a d s h e e t of s o m e s t r a n g e c i r c u l a r o b j e c t s seen in t h e s k y - similar to t h e " f l y i n g s a u c e r s " t h a t h a v e b e e n seen in recent years. J u n g h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t s u c h v i s i o n s are p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e a r c h e t y p e of w h o l e n e s s .
- 1')
Modern painting as a symbol
T h e terms " m o d e r n a r t " and " m o d e r n painti n g " a r e used in this c h a p t e r as the l a y m a n uses t h e m . W h a t I will be d e a l i n g w i t h , to use Kiihn"s t e r m , is m o d e r n imaginative p a i n t i n g . Pictures of this kind c a n be " a b s t r a c t " (or r a t h e r " n o n - f i g u r a t i v e " ) b u t t h e y need not a l w a y s be so. T h e r e will be no a t t e m p t to distinguish a m o n g such v a r i o u s forms as fauvism, c u b i s m , expressionism, futurism, s u p r e m a t i s m , constructivism, o r p h i s m , a n d so on. A n y specific allusion to o n e or the o t h e r of these g r o u p s will be q u i t e e x c e p t i o n a l . A n d I a m n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h a n aesthetic differentiation of m o d e r n p a i n t i n g s ; nor, a b o v e all, with artistic e v a l u a t i o n s . M o d e r n i m a g i n a tive p a i n t i n g is h e r e t a k e n simply as a p h e n o m e n o n of o u r t i m e . T h a t is the only w a y in w h i c h the q u e s t i o n of its s y m b o l i c c o n t e n t c a n be j u s t i fied a n d a n s w e r e d . I n this brief c h a p t e r it is possible to m e n t i o n only a few artists, a n d to select a few of t h e i r works m o r e or less at r a n d o m . I must c o n t e n t myself w i t h discussing m o d e r n p a i n t i n g in t e r m s of a small n u m b e r of its r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . M y s t a r t i n g point is the psychological fact t h a t the artist has at all times b e e n t h e instrum e n t a n d s p o k e s m a n of the spirit of his age. His work c a n be only p a r t l y u n d e r s t o o d in t e r m s of his p e r s o n a l psychology. Consciously or unconsciously, the artist gives form to the n a t u r e a n d values of his t i m e , w h i c h in their t u r n form h i m . T h e m o d e r n artist himself often recognizes the i n t e r r e l a t i o n of the work of a r t a n d its t i m e . T h u s the F r e n c h critic a n d p a i n t e r J e a n Bazaine writes in his Notes on Contemporary Painting: " N o b o d y p a i n t s as he likes. All a p a i n t e r can d o is to will with all his m i g h t the p a i n t i n g his age is c a p a b l e of." T h e G e r m a n artist F r a n z M a r c , w h o died in the First W o r l d W a r , s a i d : " T h e g r e a t artists d o not seek their forms in the mist of the past, b u t t a k e the d e e p est s o u n d i n g s they c a n of the g e n u i n e , p r o 250
foundest c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of their a g e . " A n d , as far b a c k as 1911, K a n d i n s k y w r o t e in his famous essay " C o n c e r n i n g the S p i r i t u a l in A r t " : " E v e r y e p o c h is given its o w n m e a s u r e of artistic freedom, a n d even the most creative genius m a y not l e a p over t h e b o u n d a r y of that freedom." F o r the last 50 years, " m o d e r n a r t " has b e e n a g e n e r a l b o n e of c o n t e n t i o n , a n d the discussion has lost n o n e of its h e a t . T h e " y e a s " a r e as p a s s i o n a t e as the " n a y s " ; yet the r e i t e r a t e d p r o p h e c y t h a t " m o d e r n " a r t is finished has n e v e r c o m e t r u e . T h e n e w w a y of expression has been t r i u m p h a n t to a n u n i m a g i n e d degree. If it is t h r e a t e n e d at all, it will be because it has d e g e n e r a t e d into m a n n e r i s m a n d m o d i s h ness. ( I n the Soviet U n i o n , w h e r e non-figurative a r t has often been officially d i s c o u r a g e d a n d p r o d u c e d only in p r i v a t e , figurative art is t h r e a t e n e d by a similar d e g e n e r a t i o n . ) T h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c , in E u r o p e at a n y r a t e , is still in the h e a t of the b a t t l e . T h e violence of the discussion shows t h a t feeling r u n s high in b o t h c a m p s . E v e n those w h o a r e hostile to m o d e r n a r t c a n n o t avoid b e i n g impressed by the works they reject; they are i r r i t a t e d or repelled, b u t (as the violence of their feelings shows) they are m o v e d . As a rule, the negative fascination is n o less s t r o n g t h a n the positive. T h e s t r e a m of visitors to exhibitions of m o d e r n art, w h e r e v e r a n d w h e n e v e r they take place, testifies to s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n curiosity. Curiosity w o u l d be satisfied sooner. A n d the fantastic prices t h a t are p a i d for works of m o d e r n a r t are a m e a s u r e of the status conferred u p o n t h e m by society. F a s c i n a t i o n arises w h e n the u n c o n s c i o u s has been m o v e d . T h e effect p r o d u c e d by works of m o d e r n art c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d entirely by their visible form. T o the eye t r a i n e d in " c l a s s i c " or " s e n s o r y " art," they a r e n e w a n d alien. N o t h i n g in works of non-figurative a r t r e m i n d s the s p e c t a t o r of his o w n world no objects in
their o w n e v e r y d a y s u r r o u n d i n g s , n o h u m a n b e i n g or a n i m a l t h a t speaks a familiar lang u a g e . T h e r e is no w e l c o m e , no visible a c c o r d in the cosmos c r e a t e d by the artist. A n d yet, w i t h o u t a n y q u e s t i o n , t h e r e is a h u m a n b o n d . It m a y be even m o r e intense t h a n in works of sensory a r t , w h i c h m a k e a direct a p p e a l to feeling a n d e m p a t h y . It is the a i m of t h e m o d e r n artist to give expression to his i n n e r vision of m a n , to the spiritual b a c k g r o u n d of life a n d the world. T h e m o d e r n work of art has a b a n d o n e d not only the r e a l m of the c o n c r e t e , " n a t u r a l , " sensuous world, b u t also t h a t of the i n d i v i d u a l . It has b e c o m e highly collective a n d therefore (even in the a b b r e v i a t i o n of the pictorial h i e r o g l y p h ) touches not only the few b u t the m a n y . W h a t r e m a i n s i n d i v i d u a l is the m a n n e r of r e p r e s e n tation, the style a n d q u a l i t y of the m o d e r n work of a r t . It is often difficult for the l a y m a n to recognize w h e t h e r the artist's i n t e n t i o n s a r e g e n u i n e a n d his expressions s p o n t a n e o u s , n e i t h e r i m i t a t e d n o r a i m e d at effect. In m a n y cases he must a c c u s t o m himself to n e w kinds of line a n d color. H e m u s t l e a r n t h e m , as he w o u l d learn a foreign l a n g u a g e , before he c a n j u d g e their expressiveness a n d q u a l i t y . T h e pioneers of m o d e r n art h a v e a p p a r e n t l y u n d e r s t o o d how m u c h they w e r e asking of the p u b l i c . N e v e r h a v e artists p u b l i s h e d so m a n y "manifestoes'" a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s of their a i m s as in the 20th c e n t u r y . It is, h o w e v e r , not only to others t h a t they a r e striving to e x p l a i n a n d
justify w h a t they a r e d o i n g ; it is also to t h e m selves. For the most p a r t , these manifestoes are artistic confessions of faith —poetic a n d often confused or self-contradictory a t t e m p t s to give clarity to the s t r a n g e o u t c o m e of t o d a y ' s artistic activities. W h a t really m a t t e r s , of course, is ( a n d always has been) the direct e n c o u n t e r with the work of a r t . Yet, for the psychologist w h o is c o n c e r n e d with the symbolic c o n t e n t of m o d e r n a r t , the s t u d y of these writings is most i n s t r u c tive. For t h a t reason the artists, w h e r e v e r possible, will be allowed in the following discussion to speak for themselves. T h e b e g i n n i n g s of m o d e r n art a p p e a r e d in the early 1900s. O n e of the most impressive personalities of t h a t initiatory p h a s e was K a n dinsky, whose influence is still clearly t r a c e a b l e in the p a i n t i n g s of the second half of the cent u r y . M a n y of his ideas h a v e p r o v e d p r o p h e t i c . In his essay " C o n c e r n i n g F o r m , " he w r i t e s : " T h e a r t of t o d a y e m b o d i e s the spiritual m a t u r e d to the p o i n t of revelation. T h e forms of this e m b o d i m e n t m a y be a r r a n g e d b e t w e e n two p o l e s : (1) g r e a t a b s t r a c t i o n ; (2) g r e a t realism. T h e s e t w o poles o p e n t w o p a t h s , w h i c h b o t h lead to one goal in the e n d . T h e s e t w o e l e m e n t s h a v e a l w a y s been p r e s e n t in a r t ; the first was expressed in the second. T o d a y it looks as if they w e r e a b o u t to c a r r y on s e p a r a t e existences. Art seems to h a v e p u t a n e n d to the p l e a s a n t c o m pletion of the a b s t r a c t by the c o n c r e t e , a n d vice v e r s a . "
S e n s o r y (or r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l ) art versus i m a g i n a t i v e (or " u n r e a l i s t i c " ) art: R i g h t , a p a i n t i n g by t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y B r i t i s h artist W i l l i a m Frith, part of a s e q u e n c e d e p i c t i n g a g a m b l e r ' s d o w n f a l l . T h i s is o n e e x t r e m e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l art: It has d e c l i n e d i n t o m a n n e r i s m a n d s e n t i m e n t . Left, an e x t r e m e o f i m a g i n a t i v e ( a n d , here, " a b s t r a c t " ) art b y Kasimir M a l e v i c h ( 1 8 7 8 - 1 9 3 5 ) .
Suprematist Composition. White on White 1918. Collection. The Museum of Modern Art. New York
Left a n d a b o v e , t w o c o m p o s i t i o n s by Kurt S c h w i t t e r s ( 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 4 8 ) . H i s k i n d of i m a g i n a t i v e art uses (and transforms) ordinary things— in t h i s case, o l d t i c k e t s , p a p e r , m e t a l , etc. B e l o w left, p i e c e s o f w o o d s i m i l a r l y u s e d by H a n s A r p ( 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 6 6 ) . B e l o w , in a s c u l p t u r e by P i c a s s o ( 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 7 3 ) , o r d i n a r y o b j e c t s — l e a v e s — a r e part of the s u b j e c t rather t h a n t h e m a t e r i a l .
T o illustrate K a n d i n s k y ' s point t h a t the t w o elements of art, the a b s t r a c t a n d the c o n c r e t e , h a v e p a r t e d c o m p a n y : I n 1913, the R u s s i a n painter Kasimir Malevich painted a picture t h a t consisted only of a black s q u a r e on a w h i t e g r o u n d . It was p e r h a p s t h e first p u r e l y " a b s t r a c t " p i c t u r e ever p a i n t e d . H e w r o t e of i t : " I n my d e s p e r a t e struggle to l i b e r a t e art from the ballast of the w o r l d of objects, I took refuge in the form of the s q u a r e . " A y e a r later, the F r e n c h p a i n t e r M a r c e l D u c h a m p set u p a n object chosen at r a n d o m (a bottle rack) on a pedestal a n d e x h i b i t e d it. J e a n B a z a i n e w r o t e of it: " T h i s bottle rack, torn from its u t i l i t a r i a n c o n t e x t a n d w a s h e d up on the b e a c h , has been invested w i t h the lonely dignity of the derelict. G o o d for n o t h i n g , t h e r e to be used, r e a d y for a n y t h i n g , it is alive. It lives o n the fringe of existence its o w n d i s t u r b i n g , a b s u r d life. T h e d i s t u r b i n g object t h a t is the first step to a r t . " In its weird d i g n i t y a n d a b a n d o n m e n t , the object was i m m e a s u r a b l y exalted a n d given significance t h a t c a n only be called m a g i c a l . H e n c e its " d i s t u r b i n g , a b s u r d life." It b e c a m e a n idol a n d at the s a m e t i m e an object of m o c k e r y . Its intrinsic reality was a n n i h i l a t e d . Both M a l c v i c h ' s s q u a r e a n d D u c h a m p ' s bottle rack w e r e s y m b o l i c gestures t h a t h a d n o t h i n g to d o w i t h art in the strict sense of the w o r d . Yet they m a r k the two e x t r e m e s ( " g r e a t a b s t r a c t i o n " a n d " g r e a t r e a l i s m " ) between w h i c h the i m a g i n a t i v e a r t of the succeeding d e c a d e s m a y be aligned a n d u n d e r s t o o d . F r o m the psychological s t a n d p o i n t , the two gestures t o w a r d the n a k e d object ( m a t t e r ) a n d the n a k e d n o n - o b j e c t (spirit) p o i n t to a collective psychic rift t h a t c r e a t e d its symbolic expression in the years before the c a t a s t r o p h e of the First W o r l d W a r . T h i s rift h a d first a p p e a r e d in the R e n a i s s a n c e , w h e n it b e c a m e manifest as a conflict b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e a n d faith. M e a n while, civilization was r e m o v i n g m a n further a n d further from his i n s t i n c t u a l f o u n d a t i o n , so t h a t a gulf o p e n e d b e t w e e n n a t u r e a n d m i n d , b e t w e e n the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d consciousness. T h e s e opposites c h a r a c t e r i z e the psychic situation t h a t is seeking expression in m o d e r n a r t .
The secret soul of things
As we h a v e seen, the s t a r t i n g point of " t h e c o n c r e t e " was D u c h a m p ' s famous — or n o t o r i ous— bottle rack. T h e bottle rack was not int e n d e d to be artistic in itself. D u c h a m p called himself a n " a n t i - a r t i s t . " But it b r o u g h t to light an e l e m e n t t h a t was to m e a n a g r e a t d e a l to artists for a long t i m e to c o m e . T h e n a m e they gave to it was objel Iroiwe or " r e a d y - m a d e . " T h e Spanish p a i n t e r J o a n M i r o , for i n s t a n c e , goes to the b e a c h every d a w n " t o collect things w a s h e d u p by the tide. T h i n g s lying t h e r e , w a i t i n g for s o m e o n e to discover their persona l i t y . " H e keeps his finds in his studio. N o w a n d t h e n he assembles some of t h e m a n d the most c u r i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n s r e s u l t : " T h e artist is often surprised himself at the shapes of his own creation." As far b a c k as 1912, the S p a n i s h - b o r n artist P a b l o Picasso a n d the F r e n c h artist Georges B r a q u e m a d e w h a t they called " c o l l a g e s " from scraps of r u b b i s h . M a x E r n s t cut clippings from the illustrated p a p e r s of the so-called age of big business, assembled t h e m as t h e fancy took h i m , a n d so t r a n s f o r m e d t h e stuffy solidity of the b o u r g e o i s age i n t o a d e m o n i c , d r e a m l i k e u n reality. T h e G e r m a n p a i n t e r K u r t Schwitters w o r k e d with the c o n t e n t s of his ash c a n : H e used nails, b r o w n p a p e r , r a g g e d scraps of newsp a p e r , r a i l w a y tickets, a n d r e m n a n t s of cloth. H e succeeded in a s s e m b l i n g this r u b b i s h with such seriousness a n d freshness t h a t surprising effects of s t r a n g e b e a u t y c a m e a b o u t . In S c h w i t t e r s ' obsession with things, however, this m a n n e r of c o m p o s i t i o n occasionally b e c a m e merely a b s u r d . H e m a d e a c o n s t r u c t i o n of r u b b i s h t h a t he called " a c a t h e d r a l built for t h i n g s . " S c h w i t t e r s w o r k e d on it for 10 years, a n d t h r e e stories of his own house h a d to be demolished to give him the space he n e e d e d . S c h w i t t e r s ' w o r k , a n d the m a g i c a l e x a l t a t i o n of the object, give the first h i n t of the p l a c e of m o d e r n art in the history of the h u m a n m i n d , a n d of its symbolic significance. T h e y reveal 253
the t r a d i t i o n t h a t was b e i n g unconsciously perp e t u a t e d . It is the t r a d i t i o n of the h e r m e t i c C h r i s t i a n b r o t h e r h o o d s of the M i d d l e Ages, a n d of the alchemists, w h o conferred even o n m a t t e r , the stuff of the e a r t h , the d i g n i t y of their religious c o n t e m p l a t i o n . S c h w i t t e r s ' e x a l t a t i o n of t h e grossest m a t e r i a l to the r a n k of a r t , to a " c a t h e d r a l " (in w h i c h the r u b b i s h w o u l d leave n o r o o m for a h u m a n b e i n g ) , faithfully followed the old a l c h e m i c a l tenet a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the sought-for p r e cious object is to be found in filth. K a n d i n s k y expressed the s a m e ideas w h e n he w r o t e : " E v e r y t h i n g t h a t is dead quivers. N o t only the things of p o e t r y , stars, m o o n , w o o d , flowers, b u t even a w h i t e trouser b u t t o n g l i t t e r i n g out of a p u d d l e in the street . . . . E v e r y t h i n g has a secret soul, w h i c h is silent m o r e often t h a n it speaks." W h a t the artists, like the alchemists, p r o b ably did not realize was the psychological fact t h a t they w e r e p r o j e c t i n g p a r t of their psyche into m a t t e r or i n a n i m a t e objects. H e n c e the " m y s t e r i o u s a n i m a t i o n " t h a t e n t e r e d into such things, a n d the g r e a t v a l u e a t t a c h e d even to r u b b i s h . T h e y projected t h e i r o w n darkness, their e a r t h l y s h a d o w , a psychic c o n t e n t t h a t they a n d t h e i r t i m e h a d lost a n d a b a n d o n e d . U n l i k e the alchemists, h o w e v e r , m e n like S c h w i t t e r s w e r e not c o n t a i n e d in a n d p r o t e c t e d by the C h r i s t i a n o r d e r . In o n e sense, Schwitters' work is o p p o s e d to it: A kind of m o n o m a n i a binds h i m to m a t t e r , while C h r i s t i a n i t y seeks to v a n q u i s h m a t t e r . A n d yet, p a r a d o x i cally, it is S c h w i t t e r s ' m o n o m a n i a t h a t robs the m a t e r i a l in his creations of its i n h e r e n t signific a n c e as c o n c r e t e reality. I n his pictures, m a t t e r is t r a n s f o r m e d into a n " a b s t r a c t " c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e r e f o r e it begins to d i s c a r d its s u b s t a n t i a l i t y , a n d to dissolve. I n t h a t very process, these pictures b e c o m e a s y m b o l i c expression of o u r t i m e , w h i c h has seen the c o n c e p t of the " a b s o l u t e " concreteness of m a t t e r u n d e r m i n e d by m o d e r n a t o m i c physics. P a i n t e r s b e g a n to think a b o u t the " m a g i c o b j e c t " a n d the " s e c r e t s o u l " of things. T h e Italian p a i n t e r C a r l o C a r r a w r o t e : " I t is c o m m o n things t h a t reveal those forms of 254
simplicity t h r o u g h w h i c h wc c a n realize t h a t h i g h e r , m o r e significant c o n d i t i o n of being w h e r e the w h o l e s p l e n d o r of a r t resides." P a u l K l e e s a i d : " T h e object e x p a n d s beyond the b o u n d s of its a p p e a r a n c e by o u r k n o w l e d g e t h a t the t h i n g is m o r e t h a n its exterior presents to o u r e y e s . " A n d J e a n B a z a i n e w r o t e : " A n object a w a k e n s o u r love just b e c a u s e it seems to be the b e a r e r of p o w e r s t h a t a r e g r e a t e r t h a n itself." Sayings of this kind recall the old a l c h e m i c a l c o n c e p t of a " s p i r i t in m a t t e r , " believed to be the spirit in a n d b e h i n d i n a n i m a t e objects like m e t a l or stone. Psychologically i n t e r p r e t e d , this spirit is the u n c o n s c i o u s . It always manifests itself w h e n conscious or r a t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e has r e a c h e d its limits a n d mystery sets in, for m a n t e n d s to fill the i n e x p l i c a b l e a n d mysterious w i t h the c o n t e n t s of his u n c o n s c i o u s . H e p r o jects t h e m , as it w e r e , into a d a r k , e m p t y vessel. The feeling t h a t the object was " m o r e t h a n met the e y e , " w h i c h was s h a r e d by m a n y artists, found a most r e m a r k a b l e expression in the work of the I t a l i a n p a i n t e r G i o r g i o de C h i r i c o . H e was a mystic by t e m p e r a m e n t , a n d a tragic seeker w h o never found w h a t he sought. O n his self-portrait (1908) he w r o t e : El quid, amabo nisi quod aenigma esl ( " A n d w h a t a m I to love if not the e n i g m a ? " ) . C h i r i c o was the f o u n d e r of the so-called pillura melajisica. " E v e r y o b j e c t , " he wrote, " h a s two a s p e c t s : T h e c o m m o n aspect, which is the o n e we generally sec a n d w h i c h is seen by e v e r y o n e , a n d the ghostly a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l aspect, w h i c h only r a r e i n d i v i d u a l s see at m o m e n t s of c l a i r v o y a n c e a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l m e d i t a t i o n . A work of art must relate somet h i n g t h a t does not a p p e a r in its visible f o r m . " C h i r i c o ' s works reveal this " g h o s t l y a s p e c t " of things. T h e y are d r e a m l i k e transpositions of reality, w h i c h arise as visions from the u n c o n scious. But his " m e t a p h y s i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n " is expressed in a p a n i c - s t r i c k e n rigidity, a n d the a t m o s p h e r e of the pictures is o n e of n i g h t m a r e a n d of fathomless m e l a n c h o l y . T h e city squares of Italy, the towers a n d objects, a r e set in an o v e r - a c u t e perspective, as if they w e r e in a v a c u u m , i l l u m i n a t e d by a merciless, cold light
A n e x a m p l e of " s u r r e a l i s t " art: Les Souliers Rouges, b y t h e F r e n c h painter Rene M a g n t t e ( 1 8 9 8 - 1 9 6 7 ) M u c h o f t h e d i s t u r b i n g e f f e c t of surrealist p a i n t i n g c o m e s f r o m its a s s o c i a t i o n a n d j u x t a p o s i t i o n of unrelated objects often absurd, irrational, and dreamlike
from a n unseen source. A n t i q u e h e a d s or statues of gods c o n j u r e u p the classical past. In o n e of the most terrifying of his pictures, he has placed beside the m a r b l e h e a d oi a goddess a pair of red r u b b e r gloves, a " m a g i c object'" in the m o d e r n sense. A green ball on the g r o u n d acts as a s y m b o l , u n i t i n g the crass o p p o s i t e s ; w i t h o u t it, t h e r e w o u l d be m o r e t h a n a hint of psychic d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . T h i s p i c t u r e was clearly not the result of over-sophisticated d e liberation ; it must be t a k e n as a d r e a m p i c t u r e . C h i r i c o was d e e p l y influenced by the philosophies of Nietzsche a n d S c h o p e n h a u e r . H e w r o t e : " S c h o p e n h a u e r a n d Nietzsche were the first to teach the d e e p significance of the senselessness of life, a n d to show h o w this senselessness could be t r a n s f o r m e d into art . . . . T h e dreadful void they discovered is the very soulless a n d u n t r o u b l e d b e a u t y of m a t t e r . " It m a y be d o u b t e d w h e t h e r C h i r i c o succeeded in t r a n s posing the " d r e a d f u l v o i d " into " u n t r o u b l e d b e a u t y . " S o m e of his p i c t u r e s are e x t r e m e l y d i s t u r b i n g ; m a n y are as terrifying as n i g h t mares. But in his effort to find artistic expres-
sion for the void, he p e n e t r a t e d to the core of the existential d i l e m m a of c o n t e m p o r a r y m a n . N i e t z s c h e , w h o m C h i r i c o q u o t e s as his a u t h ority, has given a n a m e to the " d r e a d f u l v o i d " in his saying " G o d is d e a d . " W i t h o u t referring to Nietzsche, K a n d i n s k y w r o t e in On the Spiritual in Art: " H e a v e n is e m p t y . G o d is d e a d . " A p h r a s e of this kind m a y s o u n d a b o m i n a b l e . But it is not new. T h e idea of the " d e a t h of G o d " a n d its i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e , the " m e t a physical v o i d . " h a d t r o u b l e d the m i n d s of 19thc e n t u r y poets, especially in F r a n c e a n d G e r m a n y . It was a long d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t , in the 20th c e n t u r y , r e a c h e d the stage of o p e n discussion a n d found expression in a r t . The cleavage b e t w e e n m o d e r n art a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y was finally a c c o m p l i s h e d . Dr. J u n g also c a m e to realize that this s t r a n g e a n d mysterious p h e n o m e n o n of the d e a t h of G o d is a psychic fact of o u r time. In 1937 he w r o t e : " I k n o w a n d here I a m expressing w h a t countless o t h e r p e o p l e know that the present time is the t i m e of G o d ' s disa p p e a r a n c e a n d d e a t h . " For years he h a d o b served the C h r i s t i a n G o d - i m a g e fading in his patients" d r e a m s t h a t is, in the unconscious of m o d e r n m e n . T h e loss of t h a t i m a g e is the loss of the s u p r e m e factor t h a t gives life a m e a n i n g . It must be p o i n t e d o u t , however, that n e i t h e r Nietzsche's assertion t h a t G o d is d e a d , nor C h i r i c o ' s ""metaphysical v o i d , " n o r J u n g ' s ded u c t i o n s from u n c o n s c i o u s images, h a v e a n y thing final to say a b o u t the reality a n d existence of God or of a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l being or n o t - b e i n g . T h e y a r e h u m a n assertions. In each case they a r e based, as J u n g h a s s h o w n in Psychology and Religion, on c o n t e n t s of the unconscious psyche t h a t h a v e e n t e r e d consciousness in t a n g i b l e form as i m a g e s , d r e a m s , ideas, or i n t u i t i o n s . T h e origin of these c o n t e n t s , a n d the cause of such a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n (from a living to a d e a d G o d ) , must r e m a i n u n k n o w n , on the frontier of mystery. C h i r i c o n e v e r c a m e to a solution ol the p r o blem p r e s e n t e d to him by the unconscious. His failure m a y be seen most clearly in his represent a t i o n of the h u m a n figure. G i v e n the present religious situation, it is man himself to whom
Both Giorgio de Chirico (born 1888) and Marc Chagall (born 1887) have s o u g h t to look behind the o u t w a r d a p p e a r a n c e s of t h i n g s ; t h e i r w o r k s e e m s t o h a v e risen f r o m t h e d e p t h s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . B u t C h i r i c o ' s v i s i o n ( b e l o w , his Philosopher and Poet) w a s g l o o m y , m e l a n c h o l y , e v e n n i g h t m a r i s h . C h a g a l l ' s has a l w a y s b e e n r i c h , w a r m , a n d alive. R i g h t , o n e of his great s t a i n e d - g l a s s w i n d o w s c r e a t e d in 1 9 6 2 f o r a Jerusalem synagogue
In C h m c o ' s Song of Love ( l e f t ) , the m a r b l e h e a d of t h e g o d d e s s a n d t h e r u b b e r g l o v e are crass o p p o s i t e s T h e g r e e n ball s e e m s t o act as a u n i t i n g s y m b o l
R i g h t , Metaphysical
Muse
by — C a r l o
Carra ( 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 6 6 ) T h e faceless manikin w a s a frequent theme of C h i r i c o ' s as w e l l .
25
6
should be a c c o r d e d a n e w , if i m p e r s o n a l , dignity a n d responsibility. ( J u n g d e s c r i b e d it as a responsibility to consciousness.) But in C h i r i c o ' s work, m a n is d e p r i v e d of his soul; he b e c o m e s a mamchino, a p u p p e t w i t h o u t a face ( a n d therefore also w i t h o u t consciousness). In the v a r i o u s versions of his Great Metaphysician, a faceless figure is e n t h r o n e d on a pedestal m a d e of r u b b i s h . T h e figure is a consciously or unconsciously ironical r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the m a n w h o strives to discover the " t r u t h " a b o u t m e t a p h y s i c s , a n d at the s a m e t i m e a symbol of u l t i m a t e loneliness a n d senselessness. O r p e r h a p s the manichini (which also h a u n t the works of o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y artists) a r e a p r e m o n i t i o n of t h e faceless mass m a n . W h e n he was 40, C h i r i c o , a b a n d o n e d his/;//lura metafisica; he t u r n e d back to t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e s , b u t his w o r k lost d e p t h . H e r e is c e r t a i n proof t h a t t h e r e is no " b a c k to w h e r e you c a m e f r o m " for the c r e a t i v e m i n d whose unconscious has been involved in the f u n d a m e n t a l d i l e m m a of m o d e r n existence. A c o u n t e r p a r t to C h i r i c o m i g h t be seen in the R u s s i a n - b o r n p a i n t e r M a r c C h a g a l l . His quest in his work is also a " m y s t e r i o u s a n d lonely p o e t r y " a n d " t h e ghostly aspect of things t h a t only r a r e i n d i v i d u a l s m a y s e e . " But C h a gall's rich s y m b o l i s m is r o o t e d in the piety of E a s t e r n J e w i s h Hassidism a n d in a w a r m feeling for life. H e was faced with n e i t h e r the p r o b l e m of the void nor the d e a t h of G o d . H e w r o t e : " E v e r y t h i n g m a y c h a n g e in o u r d e m o r alized world except the h e a r t , m a n ' s love, a n d his striving to k n o w the d i v i n e . P a i n t i n g , like all p o e t r y , has its p a r t in the d i v i n e ; people feel this t o d a y just as m u c h as they used t o . "
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of symbolism in m o d e r n a r t : H o w does the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n consciousness a n d the u n c o n s c i o u s take s h a p e in the work of m o d e r n artists? O r , to p u t it a n o t h e r w a y , w h e r e does m a n s t a n d ? O n e a n s w e r m a y be found in the m o v e m e n t called s u r r e a l i s m , of w h i c h the F r e n c h poet A n d r e Breton is r e g a r d e d as the founder. (Chirico too m a y be d e s c r i b e d as a surrealist.) As a s t u d e n t of m e d i c i n e , Breton h a d been i n t r o d u c e d to t h e work of F r e u d . T h u s d r e a m s c a m e to play a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t in his ideas. " C a n d r e a m s not be used to solve the f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m s of life?" he w r o t e . " I believe t h a t the a p p a r e n t a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n d r e a m a n d reality will be resolved in a kind of absolute reality — in s u r r e a l i t y . " B r e t o n g r a s p e d the p o i n t a d m i r a b l y . W h a t he s o u g h t was a reconciliation of the opposites, consciousness a n d the u n c o n s c i o u s . But the way he took to r e a c h his goal could only lead him astray. H e b e g a n to e x p e r i m e n t with F r e u d ' s m e t h o d of free association as well as with a u t o m a t i c w r i t i n g , in w h i c h the words a n d phrases arising from the u n c o n s c i o u s a r e set d o w n without a n y conscious c o n t r o l . Breton called it: " t h o u g h t ' s d i c t a t i o n , i n d e p e n d e n t of a n v aesthetic or m o r a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n . "
T h e British a u t h o r Sir H e r b e r t R e a d o n c e w r o t e of C h a g a l l t h a t he n e v e r q u i t e crossed the t h r e s h o l d into the u n c o n s c i o u s , b u t " h a s always k e p t one foot on t h e e a r t h t h a t h a d n o u r i s h e d h i m . " T h i s is exactly t h e " r i g h t " relation to the u n c o n s c i o u s . It is all the m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a t , as R e a d e m p h a s i z e s , " C h a g a l l has r e m a i n e d o n e of the most influential artists of our time."
But t h a t process simply m e a n s t h a t the way is o p e n e d to the s t r e a m of unconscious images, a n d the i m p o r t a n t or even decisive p a r t to be p l a y e d by consciousness is i g n o r e d . As D r . J u n g has s h o w n in his c h a p t e r , it is consciousness t h a t holds the key to the values of the u n c o n scious, a n d t h a t therefore plays the decisive p a r t . Consciousness alone is c o m p e t e n t to det e r m i n e the m e a n i n g of the images a n d to recognize their significance for m a n here a n d n o w , in the c o n c r e t e reality of the present. O n l y in a n interplay of consciousness a n d the u n c o n scious c a n the u n c o n s c i o u s p r o v e its v a l u e , a n d p e r h a p s even show a w a y to o v e r c o m e the mela n c h o l y of the void. If the unconscious, o n c e in a c t i o n , is left to itself, t h e r e is a risk t h a t its contents will b e c o m e o v e r p o w e r i n g or will m a n i fest their n e g a t i v e , d e s t r u c t i v e side.
W i t h the c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n C h a g a l l a n d C h i rico, a q u e s t i o n arises t h a t is i m p o r t a n t for the
If we look at surrealist pictures (like S a l v a d o r Dali's The Burning Giraffe) with this in m i n d .
257
we m a y feel the w e a l t h of their fantasy a n d the o v e r w h e l m i n g p o w e r of their unconscious i m a g e r y , b u t we realize t h e h o r r o r a n d the symbolism of the e n d of all things t h a t speaks from m a n y of t h e m . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s is p u r e n a t u r e , a n d , like n a t u r e , p o u r s o u t its gifts in profusion. But left to itself a n d w i t h o u t t h e h u m a n response from consciousness, it c a n (again like n a t u r e ) destroy its o w n gifts a n d sooner or l a t e r sweep t h e m i n t o a n n i h i l a t i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n of the role of consciousness in m o d e r n p a i n t i n g also arises in c o n n e c t i o n with t h e use of chance as a m e a n s of c o m p o s i n g p a i n t i n g s . I n Beyond Painting M a x Ernst w r o t e : " T h e association of a sewing m a c h i n e a n d a n u m b r e l l a o n a surgical t a b l e [he is q u o t i n g from the poet L a u t r e a m o n t ] is a familiar e x a m p l e , w h i c h has n o w b e c o m e classical, of the p h e n o m e n o n discovered by the s u r r e a l ists, t h a t t h e association of two (or m o r e ) a p p a r e n t l y alien e l e m e n t s on a p l a n e alien to b o t h is the most p o t e n t ignition of p o e t r y . " T h a t is p r o b a b l y as difficult for t h e l a y m a n to c o m p r e h e n d as the c o m m e n t Breton m a d e to the s a m e effect: " T h e m a n w h o c a n n o t visualize a horse g a l l o p i n g o n a t o m a t o is a n i d i o t . "
O n e of t h e b e s t - k n o w n of m o d e r n " s u r r e a l i s t " p a i n t e r s is S a l v a d o r Dali ( b o r n 1 9 0 4 ) A b o v e , h i s f a m o u s p a i n t i n g The Burning Giraffe. B e l o w , o n e of M a x Ernst's frottages (usually rubbings taken from scratches on tiles), f r o m his Natural History.
2 8 5
Ernst's Natural History resembles t h e interest t a k e n in t h e past in " a c c i d e n t a l " p a t t e r n s in n a t u r e . B e l o w , an e n g r a v i n g of an 1 8 t h century D u t c h m u s e u m exhibit that is also a k i n d o f surrealist " n a t u r a l h i s t o r y " w i t h its i n c l u s i o n o f c o r a l , stones, and skeletons.
(We m i g h t recall h e r e the " c h a n c e " association of a m a r b l e h e a d a n d red r u b b e r gloves in C h i rico's p i c t u r e . ) O f course, m a n y of these associations w e r e i n t e n d e d as jokes a n d nonsense. But most m o d e r n artists h a v e b e e n c o n c e r n e d with s o m e t h i n g r a d i c a l l y different from jokes. C h a n c e plays a significant p a r t in the work of the F r e n c h s c u l p t o r J e a n (or H a n s ) A r p . His w o o d c u t s of leaves a n d o t h e r forms, t h r o w n together a t r a n d o m , w e r e a n o t h e r expression of the quest for, as he p u t it, " a secret, p r i m a l m e a n i n g s l u m b e r i n g b e n e a t h the w o r l d of a p p e a r a n c e s . " H e called t h e m Leaves arranged according to the laws of chance a n d Squares arranged according to the laws of chance. I n these c o m positions it is c h a n c e t h a t gives d e p t h to the work of a r t ; it points to a n u n k n o w n b u t active principle of o r d e r a n d m e a n i n g t h a t b e c o m e s manifest in things as their " s e c r e t s o u l . " It was a b o v e all the desire to " m a k e c h a n c e essential" (in P a u l K l e e ' s words) t h a t u n d e r l a y the surrealists' efforts to t a k e the g r a i n of w o o d , cloud formations, a n d so on as a s t a r t i n g point for their visionary p a i n t i n g . M a x E r n s t , for instance, w e n t b a c k to L e o n a r d o d a V i n c i , w h o wrote a n essay o n Botticelli's r e m a r k t h a t if
you t h r o w a p a i n t - s o a k e d s p o n g e at a wall, in the splashes it m a k e s you will see h e a d s , a n i m a l s , l a n d s c a p e s , a n d a host of o t h e r configurations. Ernst has d e s c r i b e d h o w a vision p u r s u e d h i m in 1925. It forced itself on h i m as he was s t a r i n g at a tiled floor m a r k e d by t h o u s a n d s of scratches. " I n o r d e r to give f o u n d a t i o n to m y powers of m e d i t a t i o n a n d h a l l u c i n a t i o n , I m a d e a series of d r a w i n g s of the tiles by l a y i n g sheets of p a p e r on t h e m at r a n d o m a n d then t a k i n g g r a p h i t e r u b b i n g s . W h e n I fixed m y eyes on the result, I was a s t o u n d e d by a s u d d e n l y s h a r p e n e d sense of a h a l l u c i n a t o r y series of c o n t r a s t i n g a n d s u p e r p o s e d pictures. I m a d e a collection of the first results o b t a i n e d from these 'frottages' a n d called it Hisloire Nalurelle." It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t Ernst p l a c e d over or b e h i n d some of these frottages a r i n g or circle, w h i c h gives the p i c t u r e a p e c u l i a r a t m o s p h e r e a n d d e p t h . H e r e t h e psychologist c a n recognize the u n c o n s c i o u s d r i v e to o p p o s e the c h a o t i c h a z a r d s of the i m a g e ' s n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e by the symbol of a self-contained psychic whole, thus establishing e q u i l i b r i u m . T h e r i n g or circle d o m i n a t e s the p i c t u r e . Psychic wholeness rules n a t u r e , itself m e a n i n g f u l a n d giving m e a n i n g .
R i g h t . R o m a n c o i n s u s e d in p l a c e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y farther a w a y f r o m R o m e . O n the last c o i n ( f a r t h e s t f r o m t h e controlling center) the face has disintegrated. This strangely corresponds to the p s y c h i c d i s i n t e g r a t i o n t h a t such d r u g s as L S D 2 5 c a n i n d u c e . B e l o w , d r a w i n g s d o n e by an artist w h o t o o k t h i s d r u g in a test h e l d in G e r m a n y in 1 9 5 1 . T h e d r a w i n g s g r o w m o r e a b s t r a c t as c o n s c i o u s c o n t r o l is o v e r c o m e by t h e u n c o n s c i o u s .
2
59
Iii M a x Ernst's efforts to p u r s u e the secret p a t t e r n in things, we m a y d e t e c t a n affinity with the 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y R o m a n t i c s . T h e y spoke of n a t u r e ' s " h a n d w r i t i n g , " ' w h i c h c a n be seen e v e r y w h e r e , on wings, eggshells, in clouds, snow, ice crystals, a n d o t h e r " s t r a n g e c o n j u n c tions of c h a n c e " j u s t as m u c h as in d r e a m s or visions. T h e y saw e v e r y t h i n g as the expression of o n e a n d the s a m e " p i c t o r i a l l a n g u a g e of n a t u r e . " T h u s it was a g e n u i n e l y r o m a n t i c gest u r e w h e n M a x Ernst called the p i c t u r e s p r o d u c e d by his e x p e r i m e n t s " n a t u r a l h i s t o r y . " A n d he was right, for t h e u n c o n s c i o u s (which h a d c o n j u r e d u p the p i c t u r e s in t h e c h a n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of things) is n a t u r e . It is with E r n s t ' s Natural History or A r p ' s c o m p o s i t i o n s of c h a n c e t h a t the reflections of the psychologist b e g i n . H e is faced w i t h the question of w h a t m e a n i n g a c h a n c e a r r a n g e m e n t — w h e r e v e r a n d w h e n e v e r it comes a b o u t — can h a v e for the m a n w h o h a p p e n s on it. W i t h this q u e s t i o n , m a n a n d consciousness c o m e into the m a t t e r , a n d with t h e m the possibility of m e a n i n g . The c h a n c e - c r e a t e d p i c t u r e m a y b e beautiful or ugly, h a r m o n i o u s or d i s c o r d a n t , rich or p o o r in c o n t e n t , well- or ill-painted. T h e s e factors d e t e r m i n e its artistic v a l u e , b u t they c a n n o t satisfy the psychologist (often to the distress of the artist or of a n y o n e w h o finds s u p r e m e satisfaction in the c o n t e m p l a t i o n of form). T h e psychologist seeks further a n d tries to u n d e r s t a n d the "secret c o d e " of c h a n c e a r r a n g e m e n t - i n so far as m a n c a n d e c i p h e r it a t all. T h e n u m b e r a n d form of the objects t h r o w n t o g e t h e r at r a n d o m by A r p raise as m a n y q u e s t i o n s as a n y
detail of E r n s t ' s fantastic frottages. F o r the psychologist, they are s y m b o l s ; a n d therefore they c a n not only be felt b u t ( u p to a c e r t a i n p o i n t ) c a n also be i n t e r p r e t e d . T h e a p p a r e n t or a c t u a l r e t r e a t of m a n from m a n y m o d e r n works of a r t , the lack of reflection, a n d the p r e d o m i n a n c e of the u n c o n s c i o u s over consciousness offer critics f r e q u e n t points of a t t a c k . T h e y speak of p a t h o l o g i c a l art or c o m p a r e it with pictures by the i n s a n e , for it is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of psychosis t h a t consciousness a n d the e g o - p e r s o n a l i t y a r e s u b m e r g e d a n d " d r o w n e d " by floods of c o n t e n t s from the unconscious regions of the psyche. It is t r u e t h a t the c o m p a r i s o n is not so odious t o d a y as it was even a g e n e r a t i o n a g o . W h e n D r . J u n g first p o i n t e d out a c o n n e c t i o n of this kind in his essay on Picasso (1932), it p r o v o k e d a s t o r m of i n d i g n a t i o n . T o d a y , t h e c a t a l o g u e of a w e l l - k n o w n Z u r i c h art gallery speaks of the " a l m o s t s c h i z o p h r e n i c obsession" of a famous artist, a n d the G e r m a n w r i t e r R u d o l f K a s s n e r d e s c r i b e d G e o r g T r a k l as " o n e of the greatest G e r m a n p o e t s , " c o n t i n u i n g : " T h e r e was s o m e t h i n g s c h i z o p h r e n i c a b o u t h i m . It c a n be felt in his w o r k ; t h e r e is a t o u c h of s c h i z o p h r e n i a in it too. Yes, T r a k l is a g r e a t p o e t . " It is n o w realized t h a t a state of schizop h r e n i a a n d the artistic vision a r e not m u t u a l l y exclusive. T o m y m i n d , the famous e x p e r i m e n t s with mescalin a n d similar d r u g s have contrib u t e d to this c h a n g e of a t t i t u d e . T h e s e d r u g s c r e a t e a c o n d i t i o n a c c o m p a n i e d by intense visions of colors a n d forms — not unlike schizop h r e n i a . M o r e t h a n o n e artist of t o d a y has s o u g h t i n s p i r a t i o n in such a d r u g .
The retreat from reality
F r a n z M a r c o n c e said : " T h e a r t t h a t is c o m i n g will give formal expression to o u r scientific conv i c t i o n . " T h i s was a t r u l y p r o p h e t i c saying. W e h a v e t r a c e d the influence on artists of F r e u d ' s p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d of the discovery (or rediscovery) of the u n c o n s c i o u s in the early years of t h e 20th c e n t u r y . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t point is the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m o d e r n art a n d the results of research in n u c l e a r physics. T o p u t it in s i m p l e , nonscientific t e r m s , n u clear physics has r o b b e d the basic units of m a t t e r of their a b s o l u t e concreteness. It has m a d e m a t t e r mysterious. P a r a d o x i c a l l y , mass a n d e n e r g y , w a v e a n d p a r t i c l e , h a v e p r o v e d to be i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . The laws of cause a n d effect h a v e b e c o m e valid only u p to a c e r t a i n point. It does not m a t t e r at all t h a t these relativities, discontinuities, a n d p a r a d o x e s hold good only on the m a r g i n s of o u r world only for the infinitely small (the a t o m ) a n d the infinitely g r e a t (the cosmos). T h e y h a v e caused a r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e in t h e c o n c e p t of reality, for a n e w . totally different, a n d i r r a t i o n a l reality has d a w n e d b e h i n d the reality of o u r " n a t u r a l " w o r l d , w h i c h is ruled by the laws of classical physics. C o r r e s p o n d i n g relativities a n d p a r a d o x e s were discovered in the d o m a i n of the psyche. H e r e . too. a n o t h e r world d a w n e d on the m a r gin of the world of consciousness, g o v e r n e d by new a n d h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n laws that a r e
strangely akin to the laws of n u c l e a r physics. T h e parallelism b e t w e e n n u c l e a r physics a n d the psychology of the collective unconscious was often a subject of discussion b e t w e e n J u n g a n d W o l f g a n g Pauli, the X o b e l p r i z e w i n n e r in physics. T h e s p a c e - t i m e c o n t i n u u m of physics a n d the collective u n c o n s c i o u s c a n be seen, so to speak, as the o u t e r a n d i n n e r aspects of one a n d the s a m e reality b e h i n d a p p e a r a n c e s . ( T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n physics a n d psychology will be discussed by D r . M . - L . von F r a n z in h e r c o n c l u d i n g essay.) It is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of this one world b e h i n d the worlds of physics a n d the psyche t h a t its laws, processes, a n d c o n t e n t s are u n i m a g i n a b l e . T h a t is a fact of o u t s t a n d i n g i m p o r t a n c e for the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the art of o u r time. For the m a i n subject of m o d e r n a r t is, in a c e r t a i n sense, u n i m a g i n a b l e too. T h e r e f o r e m u c h m o d ern art has b e c o m e " a b s t r a c t . " T h e g r e a t artists of this c e n t u r y h a v e s o u g h t to give visible form to the "life b e h i n d t h i n g s " a n d so their works a r e a s y m b o l i c expression of a world b e h i n d
T h e p a i n t i n g s o n t h e s e p a g e s , all by Franz M a r c ( 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 1 6 ) , s h o w his g r a d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t a w a y f r o m a concern w i t h outward things, toward a m o r e c o m p l e t e l y " a b s t r a c t " art Far left, Blue Horses ( 1 9 1 1 ); c e n t e r , Roesina Wood ( 1 9 1 3 - 1 4 ) ; b e l o w , Play of Forms ( 1 9 1 4 ) ,
Left, Piet M o n d r i a n ' s Painting No 7 — a n e x a m p l e of t h e m o d e r n approach to "pure f o r m " (Mondrian's t e r m ) t h r o u g h t h e use o f w h o l l y abstract, geometrical shapes.
T h e art of Paul Klee is a v i s u a l e x p l o r a t i o n a n d e x p r e s s i o n of t h e spirit in a n d b e h i n d n a t u r e — t h e u n c o n s c i o u s or, as he t e r m e d it, t h e "secretly p e r c e i v e d . " S o m e t i m e s his v i s i o n c a n b e d i s t u r b i n g a n d d e m o n i c , as in his Death and Fire, r i g h t ; or it c a n b e a m o r e p o e t i c k i n d o f f a n t a s y , as in his Sinbad the Sailor (far r i g h t ) .
P a i n t i n g N o . 1 , 1 926.Co//ect/on. Modern Art, New York
The Museum
of
consciousness (or, i n d e e d , b e h i n d d r e a m s , for d r e a m s a r e only rarely n o n - f i g u r a t i v e ) . T h u s they p o i n t to t h e " o n e " reality, the " o n e " life, w h i c h seems to be the c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d of the two d o m a i n s of physical a n d psychicappearances. O n l y a few artists realized the c o n n e c t i o n between their form of expression a n d physics a n d psychology. K a n d i n s k y is o n e of the m a s t e r s w h o expressed the d e e p e m o t i o n he felt at the early discoveries of m o d e r n physical r e s e a r c h . " I n my m i n d , t h e collapse of the a t o m was the c o l l a p s e of the whole w o r l d : S u d d e n l y the stoutest walls fell. E v e r y t h i n g t u r n e d u n s t a b l e , insecure, a n d soft. I w o u l d not h a v e b e e n surprised if a stone h a d m e l t e d into thin air before m y eyes. Science s e e m e d to h a v e b e e n a n n i h i l a t e d . " W h a t resulted from this disillusion was the artist's w i t h d r a w a l from the " r e a l m of n a t u r e , " from the " p o p u l o u s f o r e g r o u n d of t h i n g s . " " I t s e e m e d , " K a n d i n s k y a d d e d , " a s if I saw a r t steadily d i s e n g a g i n g itself from nature." T h i s s e p a r a t i o n from the w o r l d of things h a p p e n e d m o r e or less a t t h e s a m e t i m e to o t h e r artists, too. F r a n z M a r c w r o t e : " H a v e we n o t l e a r n e d from a t h o u s a n d years of exp e r i e n c e t h a t things cease to speak the m o r e we hold u p to t h e m t h e visual m i r r o r of their a p p e a r a n c e ? A p p e a r a n c e is e t e r n a l l y flat. . . . " F o r M a r c , the goal of a r t was " t o reveal u n e a r t h l y life d w e l l i n g b e h i n d e v e r y t h i n g , to b r e a k the m i r r o r of life so t h a t we m a y look b e i n g in the f a c e . " P a u l K l e e w r o t e : " T h e artist does not ascribe to the n a t u r a l form of
a p p e a r a n c e the s a m e c o n v i n c i n g significance as the realists w h o a r e his critics. H e does not feel so i n t i m a t e l y b o u n d to t h a t reality, b e c a u s e he c a n n o t see in the formal p r o d u c t s of n a t u r e the essence of the c r e a t i v e process. H e is m o r e conc e r n e d with formative p o w e r s t h a n w i t h formal p r o d u c t s . " Piet M o n d r i a n accused c u b i s m of not h a v i n g p u r s u e d a b s t r a c t i o n to its logical e n d , " t h e expression of p u r e r e a l i t y . " T h a t can only be a t t a i n e d by the " c r e a t i o n of p u r e f o r m , " u n c o n d i t i o n e d by subjective feelings a n d ideas. " B e h i n d c h a n g i n g n a t u r a l forms t h e r e lies changeless p u r e r e a l i t y . " A g r e a t n u m b e r of artists w e r e seeking to get past a p p e a r a n c e s i n t o the " r e a l i t y " of the b a c k g r o u n d or the "spirit in m a t t e r " by a t r a n s m u t a t i o n of things — t h r o u g h fantasy, s u r r e a l ism, d r e a m p i c t u r e s , the use of c h a n c e , etc. T h e " a b s t r a c t " artists, h o w e v e r , t u r n e d their backs on things. T h e i r p a i n t i n g s c o n t a i n e d n o i d e n t i fiable c o n c r e t e o b j e c t s ; they w e r e , in M o n d r i a n ' s w o r d s , simply " p u r e f o r m . " But it m u s t be realized t h a t w h a t these artists w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h was s o m e t h i n g far g r e a t e r t h a n a p r o b l e m of form a n d the distinction between "concrete" and "abstract," figurative a a d non-figurative. T h e i r goal was the c e n t e r of life a n d things, their changeless b a c k g r o u n d , and an inward certitude. Art had become mysticism. T h e spirit in whose m y s t e r y a r t was s u b m e r g e d was a n e a r t h l y spirit, w h i c h the m e d i eval a l c h e m i s t s h a d called M e r c u r i u s . H e is a s y m b o l of the spirit t h a t these artists d i v i n e d or s o u g h t b e h i n d n a t u r e a n d things, " b e h i n d the
a p p e a r a n c e of n a t u r e . " T h e i r mysticism was alien to C h r i s t i a n i t y , for t h a t " M e r c u r i a l " spirit is alien to a " h e a v e n l y " spirit. I n d e e d , it was C h r i s t i a n i t y ' s d a r k a d v e r s a r y t h a t was forging its w a y in a r t . H e r e we begin to see the real historical a n d s y m b o l i c significance of " m o d e r n a r t . " Like the h e r m e t i c m o v e m e n t s in the M i d d l e Ages, it m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d as a mysticism of the spirit of e a r t h , a n d therefore as a n expression of o u r t i m e c o m p e n s a t o r y to Christianity. N o artist sensed this mystic b a c k g r o u n d of art m o r e clearly or spoke of it with g r e a t e r passion t h a n K a n d i n s k y . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of the g r e a t works of a r t of all t i m e did not lie, in his eyes, " o n the surface, in e x t e r n a l s , b u t in the root of all roots — in the mystical c o n t e n t of a r t . " T h e r e f o r e he s a y s : " T h e artist's eye should a l w a y s be t u r n e d in u p o n his i n n e r life, a n d his e a r s h o u l d be a l w a y s alert for the voice of i n w a r d necessity. T h i s is the only w a y of giving expression to w h a t the mystic vision commands." K a n d i n s k y called his p i c t u r e s a spiritual expression of the cosmos, a music of the spheres, a h a r m o n y of colors a n d forms. " F o r m , even if it is q u i t e a b s t r a c t a n d g e o m e t r i c a l , has a n i n w a r d c l a n g ; it is a s p i r i t u a l b e i n g w i t h effects that coincide a b s o l u t e l y w i t h t h a t f o r m . " " T h e i m p a c t of the a c u t e a n g l e of a t r i a n g l e on a circle is a c t u a l l y as o v e r w h e l m i n g in effect as the finger of G o d t o u c h i n g the finger of A d a m in M i c h e l a n g e l o . " In 1914, F r a n z M a r c w r o t e in his Aphorisms: " M a t t e r is a t h i n g t h a t m a n c a n a t best
t o l e r a t e ; he refuses to r e c o g n i z e it. T h e c o n t e m p l a t i o n of the world has b e c o m e the p e n e t r a t i o n of the w o r l d . T h e r e is n o mystic w h o , in his m o m e n t s of sublimest r a p t u r e , ever a t t a i n e d the perfect a b s t r a c t i o n of m o d e r n t h o u g h t , or took his s o u n d i n g s w i t h a d e e p e r p l u m m e t . " P a u l K l e e , w h o m a y be r e g a r d e d as the poet a m o n g m o d e r n p a i n t e r s , says: " I t is t h e artist's mission to p e n e t r a t e as far as m a y be t o w a r d t h a t secret g r o u n d w h e r e p r i m a l law feeds g r o w t h . W h i c h artist w o u l d not wish to dwell at the c e n t r a l o r g a n of all m o t i o n in s p a c e - t i m e (be it the b r a i n or the h e a r t of c r e a t i o n ) from w h i c h all functions d e r i v e their life? I n the w o m b of n a t u r e , in the p r i m a l g r o u n d of creation, w h e r e t h e secret key to all things lies h i d d e n ? . . . O u r b e a t i n g h e a r t drives us d o w n w a r d , far d o w n to the p r i m a l g r o u n d . " W h a t is e n c o u n t e r e d on this j o u r n e y " m u s t be t a k e n most seriously w h e n it is perfectly fused w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e artistic m e a n s in visible f o r m , " b e c a u s e , as K l e e a d d s , it is not a q u e s t i o n of m e r e l y r e p r o d u c i n g w h a t is s e e n ; " t h e secretly p e r c e i v e d is m a d e v i s i b l e . " K l e e ' s w o r k is r o o t e d in t h a t p r i m a l g r o u n d . " M y h a n d is entirely the i n s t r u m e n t of a m o r e d i s t a n t s p h e r e . N o r is it m y h e a d t h a t functions in m y w o r k ; it is s o m e t h i n g else . . . . " I n his w o r k the spirit o f ' n a t u r e a n d the spirit of the u n c o n s c i o u s b e c a m e inseparable. T h e y have d r a w n him and draw us, t h e onlookers, i n t o t h e i r m a g i c circle. K l e e ' s work is the most c o m p l e x expression — n o w poetic, n o w d e m o n i c — of t h e c h t h o n i c spirit. H u m o r a n d b i z a r r e ideas b u i l d a b r i d g e from t h e r e a l m of the d a r k u n d e r w o r l d to the 263
h u m a n w o r l d ; the b o n d b e t w e e n his fantasy a n d the e a r t h is the careful o b s e r v a t i o n of the laws of n a t u r e a n d the love for all c r e a t u r e s . " F o r the a r t i s t , " he o n c e w r o t e , " t h e d i a l o g u e with n a t u r e is t h e conditio sine qua non of his work." A different expression of the h i d d e n u n c o n scious spirit c a n be found in o n e of the most n o t a b l e of the y o u n g e r " a b s t r a c t " p a i n t e r s , Jackson Pollock, a n A m e r i c a n w h o was killed in a c a r a c c i d e n t w h e n he was 44. His work has h a d a g r e a t influence on the y o u n g e r artists of o u r t i m e . In My Painting, he revealed t h a t he p a i n t e d in a kind of t r a n c e : " W h e n I a m in m y p a i n t i n g I a m not a w a r e of w h a t I a m d o i n g . It is only after a sort o f ' g e t a c q u a i n t e d ' period that I see w h a t I h a v e been a b o u t . I h a v e n o fears a b o u t m a k i n g c h a n g e s , destroying the i m a g e , etc., because the p a i n t i n g has a life of its o w n . I try to let it c o m e t h r o u g h . It is only w h e n I lose c o n t a c t with the p a i n t i n g t h a t the result is a mess. O t h e r w i s e t h e r e is p u r e h a r m o n y , a n easy give a n d t a k e , a n d the p a i n t i n g comes out w e l l . " Pollock's p i c t u r e s , w h i c h w e r e p a i n t e d p r a c tically unconsciously, a r c c h a r g e d with b o u n d less e m o t i o n a l v e h e m e n c e . In their lack of s t r u c t u r e they a r e almost c h a o t i c , a g l o w i n g lava s t r e a m of colors, lines, p l a n e s , a n d points. T h e y m a y be r e g a r d e d as a parallel to w h a t the alchemists called the mass a confusa, the prima
materia, or chaos — all ways of defining the precious p r i m e m a t t e r of the a l c h e m i c a l p r o cess, the s t a r t i n g point of the quest for the essence of b e i n g . Pollock's p i c t u r e s represent the n o t h i n g t h a t is e v e r y t h i n g — t h a t is, the u n conscious itself. T h e y seem to live in a t i m e before the e m e r g e n c e of consciousness a n d being, or to be fantastic l a n d s c a p e s of a time after the e x t i n c t i o n of consciousness a n d being. In the m i d d l e ol o u r c e n t u r y , the p u r e l y a b stract p i c t u r e w i t h o u t a n y r e g u l a r o r d e r of forms a n d colors has b e c o m e the most frequent expression in p a i n t i n g . T h e d e e p e r the dissolution of " r e a l i t y , " the m o r e the p i c t u r e loses its s y m b o l i c c o n t e n t . T h e reason for this lies in the n a t u r e of the symbol a n d its function. T h e symbol is a n object of the k n o w n world h i n t i n g at s o m e t h i n g u n k n o w n ; it is the k n o w n expressing the life a n d sense of the inexpressible. But in merely a b s t r a c t p a i n t i n g s , the world of the k n o w n has c o m p l e t e l y v a n i s h e d . N o t h i n g is left to form a b r i d g e to the u n k n o w n . O n the o t h e r h a n d , these p a i n t i n g s reveal a n u n e x p e c t e d b a c k g r o u n d , a h i d d e n sense. T h e y often t u r n out to be m o r e or less exact images of n a t u r e itself, s h o w i n g a n a s t o u n d i n g similarity with the m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e of o r g a n i c a n d i n o r g a n i c e l e m e n t s of n a t u r e . T h i s is a perplexing fact. P u r e a b s t r a c t i o n has b e c o m e a n i m a g e of c o n c r e t e n a t u r e . But J u n g m a y give us the key to u n d e r s t a n d i n g :
" T h e d e e p e r layers of the p s y c h e , " h e has said, "lose t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l u n i q u e n e s s as they r e t r e a t farther a n d f a r t h e r i n t o d a r k n e s s . ' L o w e r down," t h a t is to say, as they a p p r o a c h the a u t o n o m o u s functional systems, they b e c o m e increasingly collective until they a r c universalized a n d e x t i n g u i s h e d in the b o d y ' s m a t e r i a l i t y , i.e. in c h e m i c a l substances. T h e b o d y ' s c a r b o n is simply c a r b o n . H e n c e 'at b o t t o m ' the psyche is simply ' w o r l d . ' A c o m p a r i s o n of a b s t r a c t p a i n t i n g s a n d m i c r o p h o t o g r a p h s shows t h a t u t t e r a b s t r a c t i o n of i m a g i n a t i v e a r t has in a secret a n d surprising w a y b e c o m e " n a t u r a l i s t i c , " its subject being e l e m e n t s of m a t t e r . T h e " g r e a t a b s t r a c t i o n " a n d the " g r e a t r e a l i s m , " w h i c h p a r t e d at the b e g i n n i n g of o u r c e n t u r y , h a v e c o m e t o g e t h e r again. We r e m e m b e r Kandinsky's words: " T h e poles o p e n t w o p a t h s , w h i c h both lead to one goal at the e n d . " T h i s " g o a l , " the point of u n i o n , is r e a c h e d in m o d e r n a b s t r a c t p a i n t i n g s . But it is a t t a i n e d c o m p l e t e l y unconsciously. The artist's i n t e n t i o n plays n o p a r t in the process. T h i s point leads to a most i m p o r t a n t fact a b o u t m o d e r n a r t : T h e artist is, as it w e r e , not so free in his c r e a t i v e work as he m a y think he is. If his w o r k is p e r f o r m e d in a m o r e or less unconscious w a y , it is controlled by laws of n a t u r e t h a t , on the deepest level, c o r r e s p o n d to the laws of the psyche, a n d vice versa. T h e g r e a t pioneers of m o d e r n a r t g a v e clearest expression to its t r u e a i m s a n d to the d e p t h s from w h i c h the spirit rose t h a t left its i m p r i n t on t h e m . T h i s point is i m p o r t a n t , t h o u g h later artists, w h o m a y h a v e failed to realize it, did not a l w a y s p l u m b the s a m e d e p t h s . Yet n e i t h e r K a n d i n s k y , n o r K l e e , n o r a n y o t h e r of the early masters of m o d e r n p a i n t i n g , was ever a w a r e of the g r a v e psychological d a n g e r he was u n d e r going with the mystical s u b m e r s i o n in the c h t h o n i c spirit a n d the p r i m a l g r o u n d of n a t u r e . That d a n g e r must n o w be e x p l a i n e d . As a s t a r t i n g point we m a y take a n o t h e r aspect of a b s t r a c t a r t . T h e G e r m a n w r i t e r Wilhelm W o r r i n g e r i n t e r p r e t e d a b s t r a c t a r t as the expression of a m e t a p h y s i c a l u n e a s e a n d a n x iety t h a t seemed to h i m to be m o r e p r o n o u n c e d a m o n g n o r t h e r n peoples. As he e x p l a i n e d , they
suffer from reality. T h e n a t u r a l n e s s of the s o u t h e r n peoples is d e n i e d to t h e m a n d they long for a s u p e r - r e a l a n d super-sensual world to w h i c h they give expression in i m a g i n a t i v e or a b s t r a c t art. But. as Sir H e r b e r t R e a d r e m a r k s in his Concise History of Modern Art, m e t a p h y s i c a l a n x i e t y is n o longer only G e r m a n i c a n d n o r t h ern ; it n o w c h a r a c t e r i z e s the whole of the m o d ern world. R e a d q u o t e s K l e e , w h o w r o t e in his Diary at the b e g i n n i n g of 1915: " T h e m o r e horrifying this world b e c o m e s (as it is in these days) the m o r e a r t b e c o m e s a b s t r a c t ; while a world at p e a c e p r o d u c e s realistic a r t . " T o F r a n z M a r c , a b s t r a c t i o n offered a refuge from the evil a n d ugliness in this world. " V e r y early in life I felt that m a n was ugly- T h e a n i m a l s seemed to be m o r e lovely a n d p u r e , yet even a m o n g t h e m I discovered so m u c h that was revolting a n d h i d e o u s t h a t my p a i n t i n g b e c a m e more and more schematic and abstract." A good d e a l m a y be l e a r n e d from a conversation t h a t took p l a c e in 1958 b e t w e e n the I t a l i a n s c u l p t o r M a r i n o M a r i n i a n d the writer E d o u a r d R o d i t i . T h e d o m i n a n t subject t h a t M a r i n i t r e a t e d for years in m a n y v a r i a t i o n s is the n u d e figure of a y o u t h on a horse. In the early versions, w h i c h he described in the conversation as " s y m b o l s of h o p e a n d g r a t i t u d e " (after the e n d of the S e c o n d W o r l d W a r ) , the rider sits his horse with o u t s t r e t c h e d a r m s , his
T h e p a i n t i n g s of J a c k s o n P o l l o c k (left, h i s / V o 23) w e r e p a i n t e d in a t r a n c e ( u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) as are t h e w o r k s of o t h e r m o d e r n a r t i s t s — s u c h asthe French " a c t i o n " painter Georges M a t h i e u (far l e f t ) . T h e c h a o t i c b u t p o w e r f u l result m a y b e c o m p a r e d t o t h e massa confusa of a l c h e m y , a n d strangely resembles the hitherto h i d d e n f o r m s of m a t t e r as r e v e a l e d in m i c r o p h o t o g r a p h s (see p 2 2 ) . R i g h t , a similar c o n f i g u r a t i o n : a v i b r a t i o n p a t t e r n m a d e by s o u n d w a v e s in g l y c e r i n e .
b o d y b e n d i n g slightly b a c k w a r d . In t h e course of years t h e t r e a t m e n t of the subject b e c a m e m o r e " a b s t r a c t . " T h e m o r e or less " c l a s s i c a l " form of the r i d e r g r a d u a l l y dissolved. S p e a k i n g of the feeling u n d e r l y i n g this c h a n g e , M a r i n i s a i d : " I f you look at m y e q u e s t r i a n statues of t h e last 12 years in o r d e r of t i m e , you will notice t h a t the a n i m a l ' s p a n i c steadily increases, b u t t h a t it is frozen w i t h terror and stands paralyzed rather than rearing or t a k i n g flight. T h a t is all b e c a u s e I b e lieve t h a t we a r e a p p r o a c h i n g t h e e n d of the w o r l d . In every figure, I strove to express a d e e p e n i n g fear a n d d e s p a i r . In this w a y I a m a t t e m p t i n g to s y m b o l i z e the last stage of a d y i n g m y t h , the m y t h of the i n d i v i d u a l , victorious h e r o , of t h e h u m a n i s t ' s m a n of v i r t u e . " In fairy tale a n d m y t h , the " v i c t o r i o u s h e r o " is a symbol of consciousness. His defeat, as M a r i n i says himself, m e a n s the d e a t h of the i n d i v i d u a l , a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t a p p e a r s in a social c o n t e x t as the s u b m e r g e n c e of the i n d i v i d u a l in the mass, a n d in a r t as the d e c l i n e of the h u m a n element. W h e n R o d i t i asked w h e t h e r M a r i n i ' s style was a b a n d o n i n g t h e classical c a n o n on its w a y to b e c o m i n g " a b s t r a c t , " M a r i n i replied, " A s soon as art has to express fear, it m u s t of itself d e p a r t from t h e classical i d e a l . " H e found subjects for his w o r k in the bodies e x c a v a t e d at P o m p e i i . R o d i t i called M a r i n i ' s art a " H i r o s h i m a s t y l e , " for it conjures u p visions of the end of a w o r l d . M a r i n i a d m i t t e d it. H e felt, he said, as if h e h a d b e e n expelled from a n e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e . " U n t i l recently, the s c u l p t o r a i m e d at full sensual a n d powerful^forms. But for the last 15 years, s c u l p t u r e prefers forms in disintegration." T h e conversation between Marini and Roditi explains the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f ' s e n s o r y " a r t i n t o a b s t r a c t i o n t h a t s h o u l d be clear to a n y o n e w h o has ever w a l k e d o p e n - e y e d t h r o u g h a n e x h i b i tion of m o d e r n a r t . H o w e v e r m u c h h e m a y a p p r e c i a t e or a d m i r e its formal q u a l i t i e s , he c a n scarcely fail to sense the fear, d e s p a i r , a g gression, a n d m o c k e r y t h a t s o u n d s like a cry from m a n y works. T h e " m e t a p h y s i c a l a n x i e t y " t h a t is expressed by the distress in these p i c t u r e s 266
a n d s c u l p t u r e s m a y h a v e arisen from the desp a i r of a d o o m e d w o r l d , as it d i d w i t h M a r i n i . I n o t h e r cases, t h e e m p h a s i s m a y lie o n the religious factor, on t h e feeling t h a t G o d is d e a d . T h e r e is a close c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the two. At the root of this i n n e r distress lies t h e d e feat (or r a t h e r the r e t r e a t ) of consciousness. I n t h e u p s u r g e of mystical e x p e r i e n c e , e v e r y t h i n g t h a t o n c e b o u n d m a n to the h u m a n w o r l d , to e a r t h , to t i m e a n d space, to m a t t e r a n d the n a t u r a l living of life, has b e e n cast aside or dissolved. But unless t h e u n c o n s c i o u s is b a l a n c e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e of consciousness, it will i m p l a c a b l y reveal its c o n t r a r y or n e g a t i v e aspect. T h e w e a l t h of c r e a t i v e s o u n d t h a t m a d e the h a r m o n y of the spheres, or t h e wonderful mysteries of the p r i m a l g r o u n d , h a v e yielded to d e s t r u c t i o n a n d d e s p a i r . I n m o r e t h a n o n e case the artist has b e c o m e t h e passive v i c t i m of the unconscious. I n physics, too, t h e w o r l d of t h e b a c k g r o u n d has r e v e a l e d its p a r a d o x i c a l n a t u r e ; the laws of t h e i n m o s t e l e m e n t s of n a t u r e , t h e newly discovered s t r u c t u r e s a n d relations in its basic u n i t , the a t o m , h a v e b e c o m e the scientific found a t i o n for u n p r e c e d e n t e d w e a p o n s of d e s t r u c tion, a n d o p e n e d t h e w a y to a n n i h i l a t i o n . U l t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e a n d the d e s t r u c t i o n of the w o r l d a r e t h e t w o aspects of t h e discovery of the p r i m a l g r o u n d of n a t u r e . J u n g , w h o was as familiar w i t h t h e d a n g e r ous d u a l n a t u r e of the u n c o n s c i o u s as w i t h the
T o p left a n d c e n t e r , t w o s c u l p t u r e s by Marino Marini (1901 - 6 6 ) , from 1 9 4 5 and 1951 respectively, s h o w h o w t h e t h e m e of horse a n d rider w a s a l t e r e d f r o m an e x p r e s s i o n o f t r a n q u i l i t y t o o n e o f t o r t u r e d fear and despair, w h i l e the sculptures themselves grew correspondingly m o r e a n d m o r e a b s t r a c t . M a r i n i ' s later w o r k w a s influenced by the equally panic-stricken shapes of bodies f o u n d at P o m p e i i ( l e f t ) .
i m p o r t a n c e of h u m a n consciousness, could offer m a n k i n d only o n e w e a p o n a g a i n s t c a t a s t r o p h e : t h e call for i n d i v i d u a l consciousness, w h i c h seems so simple a n d yet is so a r d u o u s . Consciousness is not only i n d i s p e n s a b l e as a c o u n t e r p o i s e to the u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d n o t only gives the possibility of m e a n i n g to life. I t has also a n e m i n e n t l y p r a c t i c a l function. T h e evil witnessed in the w o r l d o u t s i d e , in n e i g h b o r s or n e i g h b o r i n g peoples, c a n be m a d e conscious as evil c o n t e n t s of o u r o w n psyche as well, a n d this insight w o u l d be the first step to a r a d i c a l c h a n g e in o u r a t t i t u d e to o u r n e i g h b o r s . E n v y , lust, sensuality, lies, a n d all k n o w n vices a r e the n e g a t i v e , " d a r k " aspect of the u n conscious, w h i c h c a n manifest itself in two ways. I n the positive sense, it a p p e a r s as a "spirit of n a t u r e , " creatively a n i m a t i n g m a n , things, a n d t h e w o r l d . I t is t h e " c h t h o n i c s p i r i t " t h a t has b e e n m e n t i o n e d so often in this c h a p t e r . I n the n e g a t i v e sense, the unconscious ( t h a t s a m e spirit) manifests itself as a spirit of evil, as a d r i v e to destroy. As has a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t , the a l c h e mists personified this spirit as " t h e spirit M e r c u r i u s " a n d called it, w i t h good reason, Mercurius duplex (the two-faced, d u a l M e r c u r i u s ) . I n the religious l a n g u a g e of C h r i s t i a n i t y , it is called t h e devil. But, h o w e v e r i m p r o b a b l e it m a y seem, t h e devil too has a d u a l aspect. I n the positive sense, h e a p p e a r s as Lucifer—literally, the light-bringer. L o o k e d at in the light of these difficult a n d p a r a d o x i c a l ideas, m o d e r n a r t ( w h i c h we h a v e r e c o g n i z e d as symbolic of the c h t h o n i c spirit) also has a d u a l aspect. I n t h e positive sense it is the expression of a mysteriously p r o f o u n d n a t u r e - m y s t i c i s m ; in the n e g a t i v e , it c a n only b e i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e expression of a n evil- or d e s t r u c t i v e spirit. T h e two sides b e l o n g tog e t h e r , for the p a r a d o x is o n e of the basic qualities of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d its c o n t e n t s . T o p r e v e n t a n y m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , it m u s t o n c e m o r e be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t these c o n s i d e r a tions h a v e n o t h i n g to d o w i t h artistic a n d aesthetic values, b u t a r e solely c o n c e r n e d with the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of m o d e r n a r t as a s y m b o l of our time. 267
Union of opposites
T h e r e is one m o r e p o i n t to be m a d e . T h e spirit of the age is in c o n s t a n t m o v e m e n t . It is like a river t h a t flows on, invisibly b u t surely, a n d given the m o m e n t u m of life in o u r c e n t u r y , even 10 years is a long t i m e . A b o u t the m i d d l e of this c e n t u r y a c h a n g e b e g a n to c o m e over p a i n t i n g . It was n o t h i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y , n o t h i n g like the c h a n g e t h a t h a p p e n e d a b o u t 1910, w h i c h m e a n t t h e r e c o n struction of art to its v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s . But t h e r e w e r e g r o u p s of artists w h o f o r m u l a t e d their aims in w a y s not h e a r d before. T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is g o i n g on w i t h i n the frontiers of abstract painting. T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of c o n c r e t e reality, w h i c h springs from the p r i m a l h u m a n need of c a t c h ing the passing m o m e n t on the w i n g , has bec o m e a t r u l y c o n c r e t e sensuous a r t in the p h o t o g r a p h y of such m e n as F r a n c e ' s H e n r i C a r t i e r Bresson, S w i t z e r l a n d ' s W e r n e r Bischof, a n d others. W e c a n therefore u n d e r s t a n d w h y artists c o n t i n u e d on t h e i r o w n w a y of i n w a r d n e s s a n d i m a g i n a t i o n . F o r a good m a n y of the y o u n g artists, h o w e v e r , a b s t r a c t a r t as it h a d b e e n p r a c t i c e d for m a n y years offered n o a d v e n t u r e , no field of c o n q u e s t . Seeking t h e n e w , they found it in w h a t lay nearest, yet h a d b e e n lost — in n a t u r e a n d m a n . T h e y were not a n d are not c o n c e r n e d with the r e p r o d u c t i o n of n a t u r e in pictures, b u t w i t h the expression of their own e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e of n a t u r e . T h e F r e n c h p a i n t e r Alfred M a n e s s i e r defined the aims of his a r t in these w o r d s : " W h a t we h a v e to r e c o n q u e r is the w e i g h t of lost reality. W e m u s t m a k e for ourselves a n e w h e a r t , a n e w spirit, a n e w soul, in the m e a s u r e of m a n . T h e p a i n t e r ' s t r u e reality lies n e i t h e r in a b s t r a c t i o n n o r in realism, b u t in the r e c o n q u e s t of his w e i g h t as a h u m a n b e i n g . At p r e s e n t non-figu r a t i v e art seems to m e to offer the o n e o p p o r tunity for the p a i n t e r to a p p r o a c h the i n w a r d reality of himself a n d to g r a s p the consciousness of his essential self, or even of his being. It is
2
68
only by the r c c o n q u e s t of his position, I believe, t h a t the p a i n t e r will be a b l e , in the t i m e to c o m e , to r e t u r n slowly to himself, to rediscover his o w n w e i g h t a n d so to s t r e n g t h e n it t h a t it c a n even r e a c h t h e o u t w a r d reality of the world." J e a n B a z a i n e speaks in similar t e r m s : " I t is a g r e a t t e m p t a t i o n for the p a i n t e r of t o d a y to p a i n t the p u r e r h y t h m of his feeling, the most secret pulse of his h e a r t , instead of e m b o d y i n g it in a c o n c r e t e form. T h a t , h o w e v e r , leads only to a desiccated m a t h e m a t i c s or a k i n d of a b stract expressionism, w h i c h ends in m o n o t o n y a n d a progressive i m p o v e r i s h m e n t of form. . . . But a form t h a t c a n reconcile m a n with his world is a n ' a r t of c o m m u n i o n ' by w h i c h m a n , at a n y m o m e n t , c a n recognize his o w n u n formed c o u n t e n a n c e in the w o r l d . " W h a t in fact artists n o w h a v e at h e a r t is a conscious r e u n i o n of their o w n i n w a r d reality w i t h the reality of the w o r l d or of n a t u r e ; or, in the last resort, a n e w u n i o n of b o d y a n d soul, m a t t e r a n d spirit. T h a t is their w a y to the " r e c o n q u e s t of their weight as h u m a n b e i n g s . " O n l y n o w is the g r e a t rift t h a t set in w i t h m o d e r n art ( b e t w e e n " g r e a t a b s t r a c t i o n " a n d " g r e a t r e a l i s m " ) b e i n g m a d e conscious a n d on the w a y to b e i n g h e a l e d . F o r the onlooker, this first b e c o m e s evident in the c h a n g e d a t m o s p h e r e in the works of these artists. T h e r e r a d i a t e s from the p i c t u r e s of such artists as Alfred M a n e s s i e r or the B e l g i a n - b o r n p a i n t e r G u s t a v e Singier, in spite of all a b s t r a c tion, a belief in the w o r l d , a n d , in spite of all intensity of feeling, a h a r m o n y of forms a n d colors t h a t often a t t a i n s serenity. I n the F r e n c h p a i n t e r Jean L u r c a t ' s f a m o u s tapestries of the In this century the depiction of actuality—once the province of the painter and sculptor—has been taken over by the photographer, whose camera can not only record but (like any landscape painting of past centuries) can express the photographer's own emotional experience of the subject. Right, a Japanese scene photographed by Werner Bischof (1916-54).
1950s the e x u b e r a n c e of n a t u r e p e r v a d e s the p i c t u r e . His a r t could b e called sensuous as well as i m a g i n a t i v e . W e find a serene h a r m o n y of forms a n d colors also in the work of Paul K l e e . T h i s h a r m o n y was w h a t he h a d a l w a y s been striving for. A b o v e all, h e h a d realized the necessity of not d e n y i n g evil. " E v e n evil must not be a t r i u m p h a n t or d e g r a d i n g e n e m y , b u t a p o w e r c o l l a b o r a t i n g in the w h o l e . " But K l e e ' s s t a r t i n g point was not the s a m e . H e lived n e a r " t h e d e a d a n d the u n b o r n " at a n almost cosmic dist a n c e from this w o r l d , while the y o u n g e r gene r a t i o n of p a i n t e r s c a n b e said to be m o r e firmly rooted in e a r t h . An i m p o r t a n t point to notice is t h a t m o d e r n p a i n t i n g , just w h e n it has a d v a n c e d far e n o u g h to discern the u n i o n of the opposites, has t a k e n u p religious t h e m e s . T h e " m e t a p h y s i c a l v o i d " seems to h a v e b e e n o v e r c o m e . A n d the utterly u n e x p e c t e d has h a p p e n e d : T h e C h u r c h has bec o m e a p a t r o n of m o d e r n a r t . W e need only m e n t i o n h e r e All Saints at Basle, with w i n d o w s by Alfred M a n e s s i e r ; Assy c h u r c h , w i t h pictures by a l a r g e n u m b e r of m o d e r n a r t i s t s ; the Matisse c h a p e l at V e n c e ; a n d the c h u r c h at A u d i n c o u r t , w h i c h has works by J e a n B a z a i n e a n d the F r e n c h artist F e r n a n d Leger. T h e admission of m o d e r n a r t to the C h u r c h m e a n s m o r e t h a n a n act of b r o a d m i n d e d n e s s 270
on the p a r t of its p a t r o n s . It is s y m b o l i c of the fact t h a t the p a r t p l a y e d by m o d e r n a r t in relation to C h r i s t i a n i t y is c h a n g i n g . T h e c o m p e n satory function of the old h e r m e t i c m o v e m e n t s has m a d e w a y for the possibility of c o l l a b o r a tion. In discussing the a n i m a l symbols of Christ, it was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the light a n d the c h t h o nic spirits b e l o n g e d to e a c h o t h e r . It seems as if the m o m e n t h a d c o m e t o d a y w h e n a new stage in the solution of this millennial p r o b l e m m i g h t be r e a c h e d . W h a t the future will yield we c a n n o t k n o w — w h e t h e r the b r i d g i n g of the opposites will give positive results, or w h e t h e r t h e w a y will lead t h r o u g h yet m o r e u n i m a g i n a b l e c a t a s t r o p h e s . T h e r e is too m u c h a n x i e t y a n d too m u c h d r e a d at work in the w o r l d , a n d this is still the p r e d o m i n a n t factor in a r t a n d society. A b o v e all, t h e r e is still too m u c h unwillingness on the p a r t of the i n d i v i d u a l to a p p l y to himself a n d his life the conclusions t h a t c a n be d r a w n from a r t , a l t h o u g h he m i g h t be r e a d y to a c c e p t t h e m in art. T h e artist c a n often express m a n y things, unconsciously a n d w i t h o u t a w a k e n i n g hostility, w h i c h a r e resented w h e n they a r e expressed by a psychologist (a fact t h a t could be d e m o n s t r a t e d even m o r e conclusively in l i t e r a t u r e t h a n in the visual a r t s ) . C o n f r o n t e d by t h e s t a t e m e n t s of the psychologist, the i n d i v i d u a l feels directly c h a l l e n g e d ; b u t w h a t the artist has to say, p a r t i c u -
larly in o u r c e n t u r y , usually r e m a i n s in a n impersonal sphere. A n d yet it seems i m p o r t a n t t h a t the suggestion of a m o r e w h o l e , a n d therefore m o r e h u m a n , form of expression should h a v e bec o m e visible in o u r t i m e . It is a g l i m m e r of h o p e , s y m b o l i z e d for m e (at the t i m e of writi n g : 1961) by a n u m b e r of p a i n t i n g s by t h e F r e n c h artist P i e r r e Soulages. B e h i n d a c a t a r a c t of h u g e , black rafters t h e r e g l i m m e r s a clear, p u r e b l u e or a r a d i a n t yellow. L i g h t is d a w n ing b e h i n d d a r k n e s s .
M i d - 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y art s e e m s t o be moving away from a Marini-like d e s p a i r — a s is seen in t h e g e s t u r e of J e a n L u r c a t , w h o e x h i b i t e d his w o r k in a f i e l d ( t o p l e f t ) , a link w i t h nature and the earth. A b o v e , Dedicace a Sainte Marie Madeleine by A l f r e d M a n e s s i e r ( b o r n 1 9 1 1 ) . T o p right, Pour la Naissance du Surhomme by F r a n c e ' s P i e r r e - Y v e s Tremois (born 1921) Both w o r k s i n d i c a t e a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d life a n d w h o l e n e s s . T h e p a i n t i n g , right, b y Pierre S o u l a g e s ( b o r n 1 9 1 9 ) m i g h t be u n d e r s t o o d as a s y m b o l o f h o p e : Behind the cataclysmic darkness c a n be seen a g l i m m e r o f l i g h t .
i
S y m b o l s in an i n d i v i d u a l analysis
Jolande Jacob!
A 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y e n g r a v i n g of " T h e Palace o f D r e a m s . "
Symbols in an individual analysis
The beginning of the analysis
T h e r e is a w i d e s p r e a d belief t h a t the m e t h o d s of J u n g i a n psychology a r e a p p l i c a b l e only to middle-aged people. T r u e , m a n y men and w o m e n r e a c h m i d d l e age w i t h o u t a c h i e v i n g psychological m a t u r i t y , a n d it is therefore necessary to h e l p t h e m t h r o u g h t h e n e g l e c t e d phases of their d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e y h a v e n o t c o m p l e t e d the first p a r t of the process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n t h a t D r . M . - L . von F r a n z has d e scribed. But it is also t r u e t h a t a y o u n g person c a n e n c o u n t e r serious p r o b l e m s as h e grows u p . If a y o u n g person is afraid of life a n d finds it h a r d to adjust to reality, h e m i g h t prefer to dwell in his fantasies or to r e m a i n a child. I n such a y o u n g person (especially if he is i n t r o v e r t e d ) o n e c a n s o m e t i m e s discover u n e x p e c t e d treasures in the u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d b y b r i n g i n g t h e m into consciousness s t r e n g t h e n his ego a n d give h i m the psychic e n e r g y he needs to g r o w into a m a t u r e p e r s o n . T h a t is the function of the powerful s y m b o l i s m of o u r d r e a m s . O t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s to this book h a v e described the n a t u r e of these symbols a n d the role they p l a y in m a n ' s psychological n a t u r e . I wish to show h o w analysis c a n aid the i n d i v i d u a t i o n process by t a k i n g the e x a m p l e of a y o u n g engineer, aged 25, w h o m I shall call H e n r y . H e n r y c a m e from a r u r a l district in e a s t e r n S w i t z e r l a n d . His father, of P r o t e s t a n t p e a s a n t stock, was a g e n e r a l p r a c t i t i o n e r : H e n r y described h i m as a m a n with high m o r a l s t a n d a r d s , b u t a r a t h e r w i t h d r a w n person w h o found it difficult to r e l a t e to o t h e r p e o p l e . H e was m o r e of a father to his p a t i e n t s t h a n to his c h i l d r e n . At h o m e , H e n r y ' s m o t h e r was the d o m i n a n t p e r s o n a l i t y . " W e w e r e raised by the s t r o n g h a n d of o u r m o t h e r , " he said on o n e occasion. S h e c a m e from a family w i t h a n a c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d a n d w i d e artistic interests. S h e herself, in spite of h e r strictness, h a d a b r o a d spiritual h o r i z o n ; she was impulsive a n d r o m a n t i c (she h a d a g r e a t love for I t a l y ) . T h o u g h she was by birth a C a t h o l i c , h e r c h i l d r e n h a d b e e n 274
b r o u g h t u p in the P r o t e s t a n t i s m of their father. H e n r y h a d a sister, older t h a n himself, with w h o m he h a d a good r e l a t i o n s h i p . H e n r y was i n t r o v e r t e d , shy, finely d r a w n , a n d very tall, with light h a i r , a high pale foreh e a d , a n d b l u e eyes w i t h d a r k s h a d o w s . H e did n o t t h i n k t h a t neurosis (the most usual reason) h a d b r o u g h t h i m to m e , b u t r a t h e r a n i n n e r u r g e to work o n his psyche. A s t r o n g m o t h e r tie, h o w e v e r , a n d a fear of c o m m i t t i n g himself to life w e r e h i d d e n b e h i n d this u r g e ; b u t these w e r e only discovered d u r i n g the a n a l y t i c a l work w i t h m e . H e h a d j u s t c o m p l e t e d his studies a n d t a k e n a position in a l a r g e factory, a n d h e was facing the m a n y p r o b l e m s of a y o u n g m a n on the t h r e s h o l d of m a n h o o d . " I t a p p e a r s to m e , " he w r o t e in a letter asking for a n i n t e r v i e w , " t h a t this p h a s e of m y life is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t a n d meaningful. I m u s t d e c i d e either to r e m a i n u n c o n s c i o u s in a w e l l - p r o t e c t e d security, or else to v e n t u r e o n a yet u n k n o w n w a y of w h i c h I h a v e g r e a t h o p e s . " T h e choice thus c o n f r o n t i n g h i m was w h e t h e r to r e m a i n a lonely, vacillating, a n d unrealistic y o u t h or to b e c o m e a self-sufficient a n d responsible a d u l t . H e n r y told m e t h a t he preferred books to society; he felt i n h i b i t e d a m o n g p e o p l e , a n d was often t o r m e n t e d by d o u b t s a n d self-criticism. H e was well r e a d for his age a n d h a d a l e a n i n g t o w a r d aesthetic i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m . After a n earlier atheistic stage, he b e c a m e rigorously P r o t e s t a n t , b u t finally his religious a t t i t u d e b e c a m e c o m p l e t e l y n e u t r a l . H e h a d chosen a t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n b e c a u s e h e felt his talents lay in m a t h e m a t i c s a n d g e o m e t r y . H e possessed a logical m i n d , t r a i n e d in t h e n a t u r a l sciences, b u t he also h a d a p r o p e n s i t y t o w a r d t h e i r r a tional a n d mystical t h a t he did n o t w a n t to a d m i t even to himself. A b o u t two years before his analysis b e g a n , H e n r y h a d b e c o m e e n g a g e d to a C a t h o l i c girl from the F r e n c h p a r t of S w i t z e r l a n d . H e d e scribed her as c h a r m i n g , efficient, a n d full of
initiative. Nevertheless, he was u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r he should u n d e r t a k e the responsibility of m a r r i a g e . Since he h a d so little a c q u a i n t a n c e with girls, he t h o u g h t it m i g h t be b e t t e r to wait, or even to r e m a i n a b a c h e l o r d e d i c a t e d to a scholarly life. His d o u b t s w e r e s t r o n g e n o u g h to p r e v e n t his r e a c h i n g a d e c i s i o n ; he n e e d e d a further step t o w a r d m a t u r i t y before he could feel sure of himself. A l t h o u g h qualities of b o t h ' h i s p a r e n t s w e r e c o m b i n e d in H e n r y , he was m a r k e d l y m o t h e r b o u n d . In his consciousness,'he was identified with his real (or " l i g h t " ) m o t h e r , w h o r e p r e sented high ideals a n d intellectual a m b i t i o n s . But in his unconscious he was d e e p l y in t h e p o w e r of the d a r k aspects of his m o t h e r - b o u n d c o n d i t i o n . His u n c o n s c i o u s still held his ego in a s t r a n g l e - h o l d . All his c l e a r - c u t t h i n k i n g a n d his efforts to find a firm s t a n d p o i n t in t h e purely r a t i o n a l r e m a i n e d n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a n intellectual exercise. T h e need to escape from this " m o t h e r p r i s o n " was expressed in hostile reactions to his real m o t h e r a n d a rejection of the " i n n e r m o t h e r " as a s y m b o l of t h e feminine side of the unconscious. But a n i n n e r p o w e r s o u g h t to hold h i m back in the c o n d i t i o n of c h i l d h o o d , resisting e v e r y t h i n g t h a t a t t r a c t e d h i m to the outside w o r l d . Even the a t t r a c t i o n s of his fiancee w e r e not e n o u g h to free h i m from his mother-ties, a n d thus h e l p him find himself. H e
was not a w a r e t h a t his i n n e r u r g e for g r o w t h ( w h i c h h e felt strongly) i n c l u d e d the need to d e t a c h himself from his m o t h e r . M y a n a l y t i c a l work with H e n r y lasted nine m o n t h s . A l t o g e t h e r , t h e r e w e r e 35 sessions in w h i c h he p r e s e n t e d 50 d r e a m s . So short a n analysis is r a r e . It is only possible w h e n energyl a d e n d r e a m s like H e n r y ' s speed u p the process of d e v e l o p m e n t . O f course, from the J u n g i a n p o i n t of view, t h e r e is n o rule for the l e n g t h of t i m e r e q u i r e d for a successful analysis. All dep e n d s on the i n d i v i d u a l ' s readiness to realize i n n e r facts a n d o n the m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d by his unconscious. Like most i n t r o v e r t s , H e n r y led a r a t h e r m o n o t o n o u s o u t e r life. D u r i n g the d a y h e was c o m p l e t e l y involved in his j o b . In the evenings he s o m e t i m e s w e n t out with his fiancee or with friends, with w h o m he liked to h a v e literary discussions. Q u i t e often he sat in his lodgings a b s o r b e d in a book or in his o w n t h o u g h t s . T h o u g h we r e g u l a r l y discussed the h a p p e n i n g s of his daily life, a n d also his c h i l d h o o d a n d y o u t h , we usually got fairly q u i c k l y to the investigation of his d r e a m s a n d the p r o b l e m s his i n n e r life p r e s e n t e d to h i m . It was e x t r a o r d i n a r y to see h o w strongly his d r e a m s e m p h a s i z e d his " c a l l " to spiritual d e v e l o p m e n t . But I must m a k e it clear t h a t not e v e r y t h i n g d e s c r i b e d h e r e was told to H e n r y . In analysis o n e must a l w a y s r e m a i n conscious of h o w ex-
Left, t h e palace a n d m o n a s t e r y of Escorial, S p a i n , built by P h i l i p II a b o u t 1 5 6 3 Its fortress s t r u c t u r e images the introvert's w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e w o r l d B e l o w , a d r a w i n g by H e n r y of a b a r n he b u i l t as a c h i l d w i t h fortress-like battlements.
275
plosive the d r e a m e r ' s d r e a m symbols m a y b e for h i m . The a n a l y s t c a n h a r d l y b e too careful a n d reserved. If too b r i g h t a light is t h r o w n o n the d r e a m - l a n g u a g e of symbols, t h e d r e a m e r c a n b e d r i v e n i n t o a n x i e t y , a n d t h u s led into r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n as a defense m e c h a n i s m . O r he c a n n o longer assimilate t h e m , a n d c a n fall into a severe psychic crisis. Also, the d r e a m s r e p o r t e d a n d c o m m e n t e d on h e r e a r c by n o m e a n s all the d r e a m s t h a t H e n r y h a d d u r i n g his analysis. I c a n discuss only a n i m p o r t a n t few t h a t influenced his d e v e l o p m e n t . I n the b e g i n n i n g of o u r w o r k , c h i l d h o o d m e m o r i e s with i m p o r t a n t s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g s c a m e u p . The oldest d a t e d b a c k to H e n r y ' s fourth year. H e s a i d : " O n e m o r n i n g I was allowed to go w i t h m y m o t h e r to the b a k e r ' s s h o p a n d t h e r e I received a crescent roll from the b a k e r ' s wife. I did not eat t h e roll b u t c a r r i e d it p r o u d l y in my h a n d . O n l y m y m o t h e r a n d the b a k e r ' s wife w e r e p r e s e n t , so I was the only m a n . " S u c h crescents a r e p o p u l a r l y called " m o o n - t e e t h , " a n d this symbolic allusion to the m o o n u n d e r l i n e s the d o m i n a t i n g p o w e r of the feminine a p o w e r to w h i c h the little boy m a y h a v e felt exposed a n d w h i c h , as the " o n l y m a n , " he was p r o u d of b e i n g a b l e to confront. A n o t h e r c h i l d h o o d m e m o r y c a m e from his fifth year. It c o n c e r n e d H e n r y ' s sister, w h o c a m e h o m e after h e r e x a m i n a t i o n s at school a n d found h i m c o n s t r u c t i n g a toy b a r n . T h e b a r n was m a d e w i t h blocks of w o o d a r r a n g e d in the form of a s q u a r e a n d s u r r o u n d e d with a kind of h e d g e t h a t looked like the b a t t l e m e n t s of a castle. H e n r y was pleased with his a c h i e v e m e n t , a n d said teasingly to his sister: " Y o u h a v e s t a r t e d school b u t y o u ' r e a l r e a d y on h o l i d a y . " H e r reply, t h a t h e was on h o l i d a y all year, upset h i m terribly. H e felt d e e p l y h u r t t h a t his " a c h i e v e m e n t " was not t a k e n seriously. E v e n years l a t e r H e n r y h a d not forgotten the b i t t e r h u r t a n d injustice t h a t he h a d felt w h e n his c o n s t r u c t i o n was rejected. His later p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g the assertion of his m a s culinity a n d the conflict b e t w e e n r a t i o n a l a n d fantasy values a r e a l r e a d y visible in this e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e . A n d these p r o b l e m s a r e also to b e seen in the i m a g e s of his first d r e a m . 2 6 7
The initial dream
T h e d a y after H e n r y ' s first visit to m e , he h a d the following d r e a m :
I was on an excursion with a group of people I did not know. We were going to the Zinalrothorn. We had started from Samaden. We only walked about an hour because we were to camp and have some theatricals. I was not given an active part. I especially remember one performer —a young woman in a pathetic role wearing a long flowing robe. It was midday and I wanted to go on to the pass. As all the others preferred to remain, I went up alone, leaving my equipment behind. However, I found myself right back in the valley and completely lost my orientation. I wanted to return to my party but did not know which mountainside I should climb. I was hesitant about asking. Finally, an old woman showed me the way I must go. Then I ascended from a different starting point than our group had used in the morning. It was a matter of making a turn at the right altitude and then following the mountain slope to return to the party. I climbed 'along a cogwheel mountain railway on the right side. On my left little cars constantly passed me, each containing one hidden bloated little man in a blue suit. It is said they are dead. I was afraid of other cars coming from behind and kept turning around to look, so as not to be run over. My anxiety was needless. At the point where I had to turn off. to the right, there were people awaiting me. They took me to an inn. A cloudburst came up. I regretted that my equipment my rucksack, and my motor bike—were not there, but I was told not to get them till next morning. I accepted the advice.
One of Henry's c h i l d h o o d memories i n v o l v e d a c r e s c e n t roll, w h i c h he d r e w ( t o p left). Center, the same shape o n a m o d e r n S w i s s b a k e r y s i g n . T h e c r e s c e n t s h a p e has l o n g b e e n linked w i t h the m o o n and thus w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e , as in t h e c r o w n ( l e f t ) of t h e g o d d e s s Ishtar of t h i r d - c e n t u r y B.C. B a b y l o n .
D r . J u n g assigned g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e to the first d r e a m in a n analysis, for, a c c o r d i n g to h i m , it often has a n t i c i p a t o r y v a l u e . A decision to go i n t o analysis is usually a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n e m o t i o n a l u p h e a v a l t h a t d i s t u r b s the d e e p psychic levels from w h i c h a r c h e t y p a l symbols arise. T h e first d r e a m s therefore often p r e s e n t "collective i m a g e s " t h a t p r o v i d e a perspective for the analysis as a w h o l e a n d c a n give the t h e r a p i s t insight i n t o the d r e a m e r ' s psychic conflicts. W h a t does the a b o v e d r e a m tell us of H e n r y ' s future d e v e l o p m e n t ? W e m u s t first e x a m i n e some of the associations t h a t H e n r y himself s u p plied. T h e village of S a m a d e n h a d b e e n t h e h o m e of J i i r g J e n a t s c h , a f a m o u s 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y Swiss freedom-fighter. T h e " t h e a t r i c a l s " called u p the t h o u g h t of G o e t h e ' s Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, w h i c h H e n r y liked very m u c h . I n t h e w o m a n h e saw a r e s e m b l a n c e to t h e figure in a p a i n t i n g called The Island of Ihe Dead by the 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y Swiss artist A r n o l d Bocklin. T h e " w i s e old w o m a n , " as h e called h e r , seemed to b e associated o n t h e o n e h a n d to his a n a l y s t , o n the o t h e r to the c h a r w o m a n in J . B. Priestley's p l a y They Came to a City. T h e cog-wheel r a i l w a y r e m i n d e d h i m of t h e b a r n (with b a t t l e m e n t s ) t h a t h e h a d b u i l t as a child. T h e d r e a m describes a n " e x c u r s i o n " (a sort of " w a l k i n g t o u r " ) , w h i c h is a striking p a r a l l e l to H e n r y ' s decision to u n d e r t a k e analysis. T h e i n d i v i d u a t i o n process is often s y m b o l i z e d by a v o y a g e of discovery to u n k n o w n l a n d s . S u c h a v o y a g e takes p l a c e in J o h n B u n y a n ' s Pilgrim's Progress, or in D a n t e ' s Divina Commedia. T h e " t r a v e l e r " in D a n t e ' s p o e m , s e a r c h i n g for a w a y , c o m e s to a m o u n t a i n t h a t h e decides to c l i m b . But b e c a u s e of t h r e e s t r a n g e a n i m a l s (a motif t h a t will also a p p e a r in o n e of H e n r y ' s later d r e a m s ) h e is forced to d e s c e n d i n t o the valley a n d even i n t o hell. ( L a t e r h e ascends a g a i n to p u r g a t o r y a n d finally r e a c h e s p a r a dise.) F r o m this parallel o n e could d e d u c e t h a t
277
The initial stage of t h e p r o c e s s of i n d i v i d u a t i o n c a n s o m e t i m e s be a p e r i o d of d i s o r i e n t a t i o n — a s w a s t h e case w i t h H e n r y . Left, t h e first w o o d c u t from the 1 5th century book The Dream of Poliphilo s h o w s the dreamer fearfully entering a dark w o o d — p e r h a p s r e p r e s e n t i n g his entrance into the u n k n o w n .
A s s o c i a t i o n s p r o d u c e d by H e n r y to his first d r e a m : right, Island of the Deadby the 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y S w i s s artist A r n o l d B o c k l i n . Far right, a s c e n e f r o m t h e 1 9 4 4 L o n d o n p r o d u c t i o n of J . B. Priestley's They Came to a City, w h i c h c o n c e r n s t h e r e a c t i o n s of a g r o u p of p e o p l e f r o m m a n y w a l k s of life t o an "ideal city." One of the central characters is a c h a r w o m a n , left of p i c t u r e .
there m i g h t be a similar p e r i o d of d i s o r i e n t a tion a n d lonely seeking in store for H e n r y . The first p a r t of this life-journey, r e p r e s e n t e d as c l i m b i n g a m o u n t a i n , offers ascent from the u n c o n s c i o u s to a n elevated p o i n t of view of the ego i.e. to a n increased consciousness. S a m a d e n is n a m e d as the s t a r t i n g p o i n t of the excursion. T h i s is w h e r e J e n a t s c h ( w h o m we m a y t a k e as e m b o d y i n g the "freedom-seeki n g " sense w i t h i n H e n r y ' s unconscious) s t a r t e d his c a m p a i g n for the l i b e r a t i o n of the Veltlin region of S w i t z e r l a n d from the F r e n c h . J e n a t s c h h a d o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in c o m m o n with H e n r y : H e was a P r o t e s t a n t w h o fell in love with a C a t h o l i c g i r l ; a n d , like H e n r y , whose analysis was to free h i m from his m o t h e r ties a n d from fear of life, J e n a t s c h also fought for l i b e r a t i o n . O n e could i n t e r p r e t this as a favorable a u g u r y for t h e success of H e n r y ' s o w n fight for freedom. T h e goal of the excursion is the Z i n a l r o t h o r n , a m o u n t a i n in w e s t e r n Switz e r l a n d t h a t he d i d not k n o w . T h e w o r d rol ( " r e d " ) in Z i n a l r o / h o r n t o u c h e s on H e n r y ' s e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m . R e d is usually s y m b o l i c of feeling or p a s s i o n ; h e r e it p o i n t s to t h e v a l u e of the feeling-function, w h i c h was insufficiently d e v e l o p e d in H e n r y . A n d t h e w o r d " h o r n " r e m i n d s o n e of t h e crescent roll in the b a k e r ' s shop of H e n r y ' s c h i l d h o o d . After a short walk, a h a l t is called, a n d H e n r y c a n r e t u r n to a state of passivity. T h i s 2 8 7
also belongs to his n a t u r e . T h e p o i n t is u n d e r lined by the " t h e a t r i c a l s . " A t t e n d i n g the t h e a t r e (which is a n i m i t a t i o n of real life) is a p o p u l a r w a y of e v a d i n g a n active p a r t in life's d r a m a . The s p e c t a t o r c a n identify w i t h the p l a y , yet c o n t i n u e to p a n d e r to his fantasies. T h i s kind of identification p e r m i t t e d the G r e e k s to experie n c e c a t h a r s i s , m u c h as the p s y c h o - d r a m a initia t e d by the A m e r i c a n psychiatrist J . L. M o r e n o is n o w used as a t h e r a p e u t i c aid. S o m e such process m a y h a v e e n a b l e d H e n r y to u n d e r g o a n i n n e r d e v e l o p m e n t w h e n his associations raised m e m o r i e s of Wilhelm Meisler, G o e t h e ' s story of the m a t u r i n g of a y o u n g m a n . T h a t H e n r y should h a v e been impressed by the r o m a n t i c a p p e a r a n c e of a w o m a n is also not s u r p r i s i n g . T h i s figure resembles H e n r y ' s m o t h e r a n d is at t h e s a m e t i m e a personification of his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s feminine side. T h e c o n n e c t i o n H e n r \ makes between her a n d Bocklin's Island of Ihe Dead points to his depressive m o o d , so well expressed by the p a i n t i n g , w h i c h shows a w h i t e - r o b e d priest-like figure steering a b o a t b e a r i n g a coffin t o w a r d a n island. W e h a v e here a significant d o u b l e p a r a d o x : T h e keel of the b o a t seems to suggest a c o n t r a r y course, a w a y from the island; a n d the " p r i e s t " is a figure of u n c e r t a i n sex. In H e n r y ' s associations, this figure is certainly h e r m a p h r o d i t i c . T h e d o u b l e p a r a d o x coincides with H e n r y ' s a m b i v a l e n c e : T h e opposites in
his soul a r e still too u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d to be clearly s e p a r a t e d . After this i n t e r l u d e in the d r e a m . H e n r y s u d d e n l y b e c o m e s a w a r e t h a t it is n o o n a n d he m u s t go o n . So he a g a i n starts for the pass. A m o u n t a i n pass is a w e l l - k n o w n s y m b o l for a " s i t u a t i o n of t r a n s i t i o n " t h a t leads from a n old a t t i t u d e of m i n d to a n e w o n e . H e n r y m u s t go a l o n e ; it is essential for his ego to s u r m o u n t the test u n a i d e d . Thus he leaves his kit b e h i n d a n a c t i o n that signifies t h a t his m e n t a l e q u i p m e n t has b e c o m e a b u r d e n , or t h a t h e must c h a n g e his n o r m a l w a y of g o i n g a b o u t things. But he does not r e a c h t h e pass. H e loses his b e a r i n g s a n d finds himself back in the valley. This failure shows t h a t while H e n r y ' s ego d e cides on activity, his o t h e r psychic entities (rep r e s e n t e d by the o t h e r m e m b e r s of t h e p a r t y ) r e m a i n in the old s t a t e of passivity a n d refuse to a c c o m p a n y t h e ego. ( W h e n t h e d r e a m e r himself a p p e a r s in a d r e a m , he usually r e p r e sents only his conscious e g o ; the o t h e r figures s t a n d for his m o r e or less u n k n o w n , u n c o n scious qualities.) H e n r y is in a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e h e is helpless, yet a s h a m e d to a d m i t it. At this m o m e n t he meets a n old w o m a n w h o i n d i c a t e s t h e right w a y to h i m . H e can d o n o t h i n g b u t a c c e p t her a d v i c e . The helpful " o l d w o m a n " is a w e l l - k n o w n s y m b o l in m y t h s a n d fairy talcs for the wisdom of the e t e r n a l female n a t u r e . T h e
rationalist H e n r y hesitates to a c c e p t her h e l p b e c a u s e such a c c e p t a n c e r e q u i r e s a sacrificium intelleclus—a sacrifice, or d i s c a r d i n g , of a r a t i o n a l w a y of t h o u g h t . ( T h i s d e m a n d will often be m a d e of H e n r y in later d r e a m s . ) S u c h a sacrifice is u n a v o i d a b l e ; it applies to his r e l a t i o n s h i p with the analysis as well as with e v e r y d a y life. H e associated the figure of the " o l d w o m a n " to the c h a r w o m a n in Priestley's play a b o u t a new " d r e a m " city ( p e r h a p s a n a n a l o g y to the N e w J e r s u s a l e m of the A p o c a l y p s e ) into w h i c h the c h a r a c t e r s c a n e n t e r only after a kind of initiation. T h i s association s e e m s to s h o w that H e n r y h a d intuitively r e c o g n i z e d this confront a t i o n as s o m e t h i n g decisive for h i m . T h e c h a r w o m a n in Priestley's play says t h a t in the city " t h e y h a v e p r o m i s e d m e a r o o m of m y o w n . " There she will be self-reliant a n d i n d e p e n d e n t , as H e n r y seeks to b e . If such a technically m i n d e d y o u n g m a n as H e n r y is consciously to choose the w a y of psychic d e v e l o p m e n t , he must be p r e p a r e d for a reversal of his old a t t i t u d e s . T h e r e f o r e , on the a d v i c e of the w o m a n , he m u s t s t a r t his c l i m b from a different spot. O n l y t h e n will it be possible for him to j u d g e at w h a t level he must d e v i a t e to r e a c h t h e g r o u p — the o t h e r qualities of his psyche t h a t he h a d left b e h i n d . 1 l e climbs a cog-wheel rail\va\ track a motif p e r h a p s reflecting his t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n ) a n d
*79
keeps to the right side of t h e track — w h i c h is the conscious side. ( I n the history of s y m b o l i s m , t h e right side g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s the r e a l m of consciousness; the left, the unconscious.) F r o m the left, little cars a r e c o m i n g d o w n , a n d in e a c h a little m a n is h i d d e n . H e n r y is afraid t h a t a n u n n o t i c e d u p w a r d - b o u n d c a r m i g h t hit h i m from the rear. His a n x i e t y proves g r o u n d l e s s , b u t it reveals t h a t H e n r y is afraid of w h a t , so to speak, lies b e h i n d his ego. T h e b l o a t e d , b l u e - c l o t h e d m e n m i g h t symbolize sterile intellectual t h o u g h t s t h a t a r e b e ing b r o u g h t d o w n m e c h a n i c a l l y . Blue often d e n o t e s the function of t h i n k i n g . T h u s the
m e n m i g h t be symbols of ideas or a t t i t u d e s t h a t h a v e died o n the intellectual heights w h e r e the air is too t h i n . T h e y could also r e p r e s e n t lifeless i n n e r p a r t s of H e n r y ' s psyche. A c o m m e n t o n these m e n is m a d e in the d r e a m : " I t is said they a r e d e a d . " But H e n r y is a l o n e . W h o m a k e s this s t a t e m e n t ? It is a voice — a n d w h e n a voice is h e a r d in a d r e a m it is a most m e a n i n g f u l o c c u r r e n c e . D r . J u n g identified the a p p e a r a n c e of a voice in d r e a m s w i t h a n i n t e r v e n t i o n of the Self. It s t a n d s for a k n o w l e d g e t h a t has its roots in t h e collective f u n d a m e n t s of the psyche. W h a t t h e voice says c a n n o t be d i s p u t e d . T h e insight H e n r y has g a i n e d a b o u t the " d e a d " formulas, to w h i c h he has b e e n too c o m m i t t e d , m a r k s a t u r n i n g point in the d r e a m . H e has at last r e a c h e d the right p l a c e for taking a n e w d i r e c t i o n , to the right (the conscious d i r e c t i o n ) , t o w a r d the conscious a n d the o u t e r w o r l d . T h e r e he finds t h e p e o p l e he left b e h i n d w a i t i n g for h i m ; a n d thus h e c a n b e c o m e conscious of previously u n k n o w n aspects of his personality. Since his ego has s u r m o u n t e d the d a n g e r s it confronted a l o n e (an a c c o m p l i s h m e n t t h a t could m a k e h i m m o r e m a t u r e a n d s t a b l e ) , h e c a n rejoin the g r o u p or " c o l l e c t i v e " a n d get shelter a n d food. T h e n c o m e s the r a i n , a c l o u d b u r s t t h a t relaxes tension a n d m a k e s the e a r t h fertile. In m y t h o l o g y , rain was often t h o u g h t to be a " l o v e - u n i o n " b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h . In the Eleusinian mysteries, for i n s t a n c e , after everyt h i n g h a d been purified by w a t e r , the call w e n t u p to h e a v e n : " L e t it r a i n ! " a n d d o w n to
Left, t h e Greek m a i d e n D a n a e , w h o w a s i m p r e g n a t e d by Z e u s in t h e f o r m of a s h o w e r of g o l d ( f r o m a p a i n t i n g by t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y F l e m i s h artist J a n G o s s a e r t ) Like H e n r y ' s d r e a m , t h i s m y t h reflects t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e c l o u d b u r s t as a sacred m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n heaven and earth.
In a n o t h e r of H e n r y ' s d r e a m s a d o e a p p e a r s - a n i m a g e o f shy f e m i n i n i t y as is t h e f a w n in t h e p a i n t i n g , right, by t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y B r i t i s h artist E d w i n L a n d s e e r
e a r t h : " B e fruitful!" T h i s was u n d e r s t o o d as a sacred m a r r i a g e of the gods. In this w a y r a i n c a n b e said to r e p r e s e n t a " s o l u t i o n " in the literal sense of the w o r d . C o m i n g d o w n , H e n r y a g a i n meets the collective values s y m b o l i z e d by the rucksack a n d m o t o r c y c l e . H e has passed t h r o u g h a p h a s e in w h i c h he has s t r e n g t h e n e d his ego-consciousness by p r o v i n g he c a n hold his o w n , a n d he has a r e n e w e d need for social c o n t a c t . H o w e v e r , he a c c e p t s the suggestion of his friends t h a t he should wait a n d fetch his things the next m o r n ing. T h u s he s u b m i t s for the second t i m e to a d v i c e t h a t c o m e s from e l s e w h e r e : the first t i m e , to the a d v i c e of the old w o m a n , to a subjective p o w e r , a n a r c h e t y p a l figure; the second t i m e , to a collective p a t t e r n . W i t h this step H e n r y has passed a milestone on the r o a d to m a t u r i t y . As a n a n t i c i p a t i o n of t h e i n n e r d e v e l o p m e n t that H e n r y could h o p e to a c h i e v e t h r o u g h analysis, this d r e a m was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y p r o mising. T h e conflicting opposites t h a t kept H e n r y s soul in tension w e r e impressively symbolized. O n the o n e h a n d , t h e r e was his conscious u r g e to a s c e n d , a n d o n t h e o t h e r his t e n d e n c y to passive c o n t e m p l a t i o n . Also, t h e i m a g e of the p a t h e t i c y o u n g w o m a n in h e r w h i t e robes ( r e p r e s e n t i n g H e n r y ' s sensitive a n d r o m a n t i c feelings) c o n t r a s t s w i t h the b l o a t e d corpses in b l u e suits ( r e p r e s e n t i n g his sterile intellectual w o r l d ) . H o w e v e r , to o v e r c o m e these obstacles a n d b r i n g a b o u t a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m w o u l d be possible for H e n r y only after the most severe trials.
Fear of the unconscious
T h e p r o b l e m s we e n c o u n t e r e d in H e n r y ' s initial d r e a m showed u p in m a n y others problems like vacillation b e t w e e n m a s c u l i n e activity a n d feminine passivity, or a t e n d e n c y to h i d e beh i n d intellectual asceticism. H e feared the w o r l d , yet was a t t r a c t e d to it. F u n d a m e n t a l l y , he feared the obligations of m a r r i a g e , which d e m a n d e d t h a t he form a responsible relationship with a w o m a n . S u c h a n a m b i v a l e n c e is not u n u s u a l for s o m e o n e on t h e threshold of m a n h o o d . T h o u g h in t e r m s of age H e n r y h a d left t h a t p h a s e b e h i n d h i m , his i n n e r m a t u r i t y did not m a t c h his years. T h i s p r o b l e m is often m e t in the i n t r o v e r t , with his fear of reality a n d o u t e r life. T h e fourth d r e a m t h a t H e n r y r e c o u n t e d p r o v i d e d a striking illustration of his psychological s t a t e :
It seems to me that I have had this dream endless times. Military service, long-distance race. Alone I go on my way. I never reach the goal. Will I be the last? T h e course is well known to me, all of it deja vu. T h e start is in a little wood, and the ground is covered with dry leaves. The terrain slopes gently to an idyllic little brook that invites one to tarry. Later, there is a dusty country road. It leads toward Hombrechtikon, a small village near the upper lake of Zurich. A brook bordered by willows similar to a painting of Bocklin's in which a dreamy female figure follows the course of the water. Night falls. In a village I ask for directions to the road. I am told the road leads on for seven hours over a pass. I gather myself together and go on. However, this time the end of the dream differs. After the willow-bordered brook I get into a wood. There I discover a doe that runs away. I am proud of this observation. T h e doe has appeared on the left side and now I turn to the right. Here I see three strange creatures, hall pig, half dog, with the legs of a kangaroo. The faces are quite undifferentiated, with large drooping dog ears. Maybe they are costumed people. As a boy, I once masqueraded in the circus costume of a donkey. 28l
T h e b e g i n n i n g of the d r e a m is conspicuously like H e n r y ' s initial d r e a m . A d r e a m l i k e female figure a g a i n a p p e a r s , a n d the setting of the d r e a m is associated w i t h a n o t h e r p a i n t i n g by Bocklin. T h i s p a i n t i n g , called Autumn 'Thoughts, a n d the d r y leaves m e n t i o n e d earlier in the d r e a m u n d e r l i n e the a u t u m n a l m o o d . A r o m a n t i c a t m o s p h e r e also r e a p p e a r s in this d r e a m . A p p a r e n t l y this i n n e r l a n d s c a p e , r e p r e senting H e n r y ' s m e l a n c h o l y , is very familiar to h i m . A g a i n h e is in a collective of p e o p l e , b u t this t i m e with m i l i t a r y c o m r a d e s on a longdistance race. T h i s w h o l e situation (as the m i l i t a r y service also suggests) m i g h t be r e g a r d e d as a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a n a v e r a g e m a n ' s fate. H e n r y h i m self s a i d : " I t ' s a s y m b o l of life." But the d r e a m e r does not w a n t to adjust to it. H e goes on a l o n e - w h i c h was p r o b a b l y a l w a y s the case with H e n r y . T h a t is w h y he has t h e i m p r e s sion t h a t e v e r y t h i n g is dejci vu. His t h o u g h t ("I n e v e r r e a c h the g o a l " ) i n d i c a t e s s t r o n g feelings of inferiority a n d a belief t h a t he c a n n o t win the " l o n g - d i s t a n c e r a c e . " His w a y leads to H o r n b r e c h t i k o n , a n a m e t h a t r e m i n d s h i m of his secret p l a n s to b r e a k a w a y from h o m e (Horn = h o m e , brechen = to b r e a k ) . But b e c a u s e this b r e a k i n g a w a y does n o t o c c u r , he a g a i n (as in the initial d r e a m ) loses his sense of o r i e n t a t i o n a n d must ask for directions. D r e a m s c o m p e n s a t e m o r e or less explicitly for the d r e a m e r ' s conscious a t t i t u d e of m i n d .
T h e r o m a n t i c , m a i d e n l y figure of H e n r y ' s conscious ideal is b a l a n c e d by the a p p e a r a n c e of the s t r a n g e , female-like a n i m a l s . H e n r y ' s world of instincts is s y m b o l i z e d by s o m e t h i n g femin i n e . T h e w o o d is a s y m b o l of a n unconscious a r e a , a d a r k p l a c e w h e r e a n i m a l s live. At first a d o e — a s y m b o l of shy, fugitive, i n n o c e n t w o m a n l i n e s s — e m e r g e s , b u t only for a m o m e n t . T h e n H e n r y sees t h r e e m i x e d - u p a n i m a l s of a s t r a n g e a n d repulsive a p p e a r a n c e . They seem to r e p r e s e n t u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n s t i n c t u a l i t y — a sort of confused mass of his instincts, c o n t a i n ing the r a w m a t e r i a l for a l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e i r most striking c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is t h a t they are all v i r t u a l l y faceless, a n d thus w i t h o u t the slightest g l i m m e r i n g s of consciousness. In the m i n d s of m a n y p e o p l e , the pig is closely associated to d i r t y sexuality. (Circe, for e x a m p l e , c h a n g e d the m e n w h o desired her i n t o swine.) T h e d o g m a y s t a n d for loyalty, b u t also for p r o m i s c u i t y , b e c a u s e it shows n o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in its choice of p a r t n e r s . T h e k a n g a r o o , h o w e v e r , is often a symbol for m o t h erliness a n d t e n d e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y . All these a n i m a l s p r e s e n t only r u d i m e n t a r y traits, a n d even these a r e senselessly c o n t a m i n a t e d . In a l c h e m y , the " p r i m e m a t e r i a l " was often r e p r e s e n t e d by such m o n s t r o u s a n d fabulous c r e a t u r e s m i x e d forms of a n i m a l s . In psychological t e r m s , they w o u l d p r o b a b l y symbolize the original total unconsciousness, out of w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l ego c a n rise a n d begin to d e v e l o p t o w a r d m a t u r i t y .
Left, H e n r y ' s d r a w i n g o f t h e s t r a n g e a n i m a l s o f his d r e a m . T h e y are m u t e and blind, unable to communicate, a n d so represent his u n c o n s c i o u s state T h e a n i m a l o n t h e g r o u n d ( w h i c h he c o l o r e d g r e e n , t h e c o l o r o f v e g e t a t i o n a n d n a t u r e , a n d in f o l k lore a s y m b o l o f h o p e ) h i n t s at possibilities of g r o w t h and a chance of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n .
H e n r y ' s fear of t h e m o n s t e r s b e c o m e s evident by his a t t e m p t to m a k e t h e m seem h a r m l e s s . H e w a n t s to c o n v i n c e himself t h a t they a r e only d r e s s e d - u p p e o p l e , like himself in a boyhood m a s q u e r a d e . His a n x i e t y is n a t u r a l . A m a n discovering such i n h u m a n m o n s t e r s in his i n n e r self, as symbols of c e r t a i n traits of his u n c o n s c i o u s , has every reason to be afraid. A n o t h e r d r e a m also shows H e n r y ' s fear of the d e p t h s of the u n c o n s c i o u s : I am a cabin boy in a sailing boat. Paradoxically, the sails are spread, though there is a complete calm. My task consists of holding a rope that serves to fasten a mast. Strangely enough, the railing is a wall covered with stone slabs. This whole structure lies exactly on the border betwren the water and the sailing boat that floats there alone. I hold fast to the rope (not to the mast) and I am forbidden to look into the water.
In this d r e a m H e n r y is in a psychological b o r d e r l i n e s i t u a t i o n . The railing is a wall t h a t protects him b u t at the s a m e t i m e o b s t r u c t s his view. H e is f o r b i d d e n to look into the w a t e r ( w h e r e he m i g h t discover u n k n o w n p o w e r s ) . All these i m a g e s reveal his d o u b t a n d fear. The m a n w h o fears t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s of his i n n e r d e p t h s (like H e n r y ) is as m u c h afraid of the feminine e l e m e n t in himself as he is of real w o m e n . At o n e m o m e n t he is fascinated by her, at a n o t h e r he tries to e s c a p e ; fascinated a n d terrified, he flees so as not to b e c o m e her
T h e p i g like a n i m a l of t h e d r e a m c o n n o t e s bestiality and l u s t f u l n e s s — as in t h e m y t h of Circe, w h o t u r n e d m e n i n t o s w i n e A b o v e left, f r o m a Greek vase, a p i g - m a n , O d y s s e u s , a n d Circe, R i g h t , in o n e of t h e c a r t o o n s by G e o r g e Grosz a t t a c k i n g pre w a r G e r m a n s o c i e t y , a m a n ( w i t h a p r o s t i t u t e ) is g i v e n a p i g ' s h e a d t o s h o w his v u l g a r i t y
" p r e y . " H e does not d a r e to a p p r o a c h a beloved ( a n d therefore idealized) p a r t n e r with his a n i m a l - l i k e sexuality. As a typical result of his m o t h e r - t i e , H e n r y h a d difficulty in giving b o t h feeling a n d sensuality to the s a m e w o m a n . A g a i n a n d a g a i n his d r e a m s b r o u g h t proof of his desire to free h i m sell from this d i l e m m a In o n e d r e a m he was a " m o n k on a secret m i s s i o n . " I n a n o t h e r , his instincts t e m p t e d him into a b r o t h e l : Together with a military comrade who has had many erotic adventures I find myself waiting in front of a house on a dark street in an unknown city. Entrance is permitted only to women. Therefore, in the hall, my friend puts on a little carnival mask of a woman's face and goes up the stairs. Possibly I did the same as he, but I do not remember clearlv. W h a t this d r e a m proposes would satisfy H e n r y ' s curiosity — b u t o n l y a t t h e price of a fraud. As a m a n he lacks the c o u r a g e to enter the house, w h i c h is obviously a b r o t h e l . But if h e divests himself of his m a s c u l i n i t y , he might gain an insight i n t o this f o r b i d d e n world forb i d d e n by his conscious m i n d . T h e d r e a m , h o w e v e r , does not tell us w h e t h e r he decides to e n t e r . H e n r y h a d not yet o v e r c o m e his inhibitions a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e failure if we consider the i m p l i c a t i o n s of g o i n g into the b r o t h e l . The a b o v e d r e a m seemed to m e to reveal a h o m o e r o t i c s t r a i n in H e n r y : H e a p p e a r e d to feel t h a t a feminine " m a s k " w o u l d m a k e him
a t t r a c t i v e to m e n . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s w a s s u p p o r t e d by t h e following d r e a m :
I find myself back in rny fifth or sixth year. My playmate of those days tells me how he participated in an obscene act with the director of a factory. My friend laid his right hand on the man's penis to keep it warm and at the same time to warm his own hand. T h e director was an intimate friend of my father's whom I venerated for his broad and varied interests. But he was laughed at by us as an "eternal y o u t h . " F o r c h i l d r e n of t h a t a g e h o m o e r o t i c p l a y is n o t u n u s u a l . T h a t H e n r y still c a m e to it in his d r e a m suggests t h a t it w a s l o a d e d w i t h g u i l t feelings, a n d t h e r e f o r e s t r o n g l y r e p r e s s e d . S u c h feelings w e r e l i n k e d to his d e e p fear a b o u t formi n g a l a s t i n g tie w i t h a w o m a n . A n o t h e r d r e a m a n d its associations i l l u s t r a t e d this conflict: I take part in the wedding of an unknown couple. At one in the morning the little wedding party returns from the festivities—the bridal couple, the best m a n , and the maid of honor. T h e y enter a large courtyard where I await them. It seems that the newlyweds have already had a quarrel, as well as the other couple. They finally find the solution by having the two men and the two women retire separately. H e n r y e x p l a i n e d : " Y o u see h e r e t h e w a r of the sexes as G i r a u d o u x d e s c r i b e s i t . " A n d t h e n h e a d d e d : " T h e p a l a c e in B a v a r i a , w h e r e I r e m e m b e r seeing this d r e a m - c o u r t y a r d , h a s u n t i l lately b e e n disfigured b y e m e r g e n c y h o u s i n g for p o o r p e o p l e . W h e n I visited t h e r e , I asked myself if it w o u l d n o t b e p r e f e r a b l e to eke o u t a p o o r e x i s t e n c e in t h e r u i n s of classic b e a u t y t h a n to lead a n a c t i v e life s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e ugliness of a g r e a t city. I also asked myself w h e n I w a s a witness at t h e w e d d i n g of a c o m r a d e w h e t h e r his m a r r i a g e w o u l d last, for his b r i d e m a d e a n u n f a v o r a b l e i m p r e s s i o n on m e . " T h e l o n g i n g to w i t h d r a w i n t o passivity a n d i n t r o v e r s i o n , t h e fear of a n unsuccessful m a r r i a g e , t h e d r e a m ' s s e p a r a t i o n of t h e sexes — all these a r e u n m i s t a k a b l e s y m p t o m s of t h e secret d o u b t s h i d d e n b e n e a t h H e n r y ' s consciousness. 284
The saint and the prostitute
H e n r y ' s p s y c h i c c o n d i t i o n w a s most i m p r e s sively d e p i c t e d in t h e following d r e a m , w h i c h e x p o s e d his fear of p r i m i t i v e s e n s u a l i t y a n d his desire to e s c a p e i n t o a k i n d of asceticism. I n it o n e c a n see t h e d i r e c t i o n his d e v e l o p m e n t w a s t a k i n g . F o r this r e a s o n t h e d r e a m will be interpreted at greater length. I find myself on a narrow mountain road. O n the left (going down) there is a deep abyss, on the right a wall of rock. Along the road there are several caves, shelters, cut out of the rock, as protection from the weather for lonely wanderers. In one of these caves, half hidden, a prostitute has taken refuge. Strangely, I see her from behind, from the rock side. She has a formless, spongy body. I look at her with curiosity and touch her buttocks. Perhaps, it suddenly seems to me, she is not a woman but a kind of male prostitute. This same creature comes then to the fore as a saint with a short crimson coat thrown around his shoulders. He strides down the road and goes into another, much larger cave fitted with roughhewn chairs and benches. With a haughty look he drives out all those already present, also me. Then he and his followers move in and establish themselves. T h e personal association that H e n r y contrib u t e d to t h e p r o s t i t u t e w a s t h e " V e n u s of W i l l e n d o r f , " a little c a r v e d figure (from t h e p a l e o -
litliic age) of a fleshy w o m a n , p r o b a b l y a n a t u r e or fertility goddess. T h e n h e a d d e d : " I first h e a r d t h a t t o u c h i n g the b u t t o c k s is a fertility rite w h e n I was o n a t o u r t h r o u g h the Wallis [a c a n t o n in F r e n c h S w i t z e r l a n d ], w h e r e I visited a n c i e n t Celtic g r a v e s a n d e x c a v a t i o n s . T h e r e I was told t h a t t h e r e was o n c e a s m o o t h sloping surface of tiles s m e a r e d w i t h all kinds of s u b s t a n c e s . Infertile w o m e n h a d to slide d o w n on their b a r e b u t t o c k s in o r d e r to c u r e their s t e r i l i t y . " T o the coat of the " s a i n t , " H e n r y associated t h i s : " M y fiancee o w n s a j a c k e t of similar s h a p e , b u t it's w h i t e . O n the e v e n i n g before the d r e a m we w e r e o u t d a n c i n g , a n d she was w e a r i n g this w h i t e jacket. A n o t h e r girl, w h o is h e r friend, was w i t h us. S h e h a d a c r i m s o n jacket t h a t I liked b e t t e r . " If d r e a m s a r e not wish-fulfillments (as F r e u d t a u g h t ) b u t r a t h e r , as J u n g a s s u m e d , "self-rep r e s e n t a t i o n s of the u n c o n s c i o u s , " t h e n we must a d m i t that H e n r y ' s psychic c o n d i t i o n could h a r d l y be b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d t h a n in the d e scription given in t h e " s a i n t " d r e a m . H e n r y is a " l o n e l y w a n d e r e r " on the n a r r o w p a t h . But ( p e r h a p s t h a n k s to analysis)" h e is a l r e a d y o n his w a y d o w n from i n h o s p i t a b l e heights. T o the left, o n t h e side of the u n c o n scious, his r o a d is b o r d e r e d by the terrifying
d e p t h s of a n abyss. O n the right side, the side of consciousness, the w a y is blocked by the rigid rock wall of his conscious views. H o w ever, in t h e caves (which m i g h t r e p r e s e n t , so to speak, u n c o n s c i o u s a r e a s in H e n r y ' s field of consciousness) t h e r e a r e places w h e r e refuge c a n be found w h e n b a d w e a t h e r c o m e s in o t h e r w o r d s , w h e n o u t s i d e tensions b e c o m e too threatening. T h e caves a r e t h e result of purposeful h u m a n w o r k : cut i n t o t h e rock. In a w a y they res e m b l e the g a p s t h a t o c c u r in o u r consciousness w h e n o u r p o w e r of c o n c e n t r a t i o n has r e a c h e d its limits a n d is b r o k e n , so t h a t the stuff of fantasy c a n p e n e t r a t e w i t h o u t restraint. At such times s o m e t h i n g u n e x p e c t e d c a n reveal itself a n d allow a d e e p insight i n t o the backg r o u n d of the psyche a glimpse into the unconscious regions w h e r e o u r i m a g i n a t i o n has free play. M o r e o v e r , rock caves m a y be symbols of the w o m b of M o t h e r E a r t h , a p p e a r i n g as mysterious c a v e r n s in w h i c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and rebirth can come about. T h u s the d r e a m seems to r e p r e s e n t H e n r y ' s i n t r o v e r t e d w i t h d r a w a l — w h e n the world becomes too difficult for h i m - i n t o a " c a v e " w i t h in his consciousness w h e r e h e c a n s u c c u m b to subjective fantasies. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d also e x p l a i n w h y he seeks t h e female figure -
Left, H e n r y ' s d r a w i n g o f t h e b o a t of his d r e a m , w i t h a s t o n e w a l l f o r a r a i l i n g — a n o t h e r i m a g e o f his i n t r o v e r s i o n a n d fear of life
Right, the prehistoric sculpture k n o w n as t h e " V e n u s of W i l l e n d o r f " - one of Henry's associations to t h e i m a g e of t h e p r o s t i t u t e in his d r e a m . In t h e s a m e d r e a m , t h e saint is seen in a s a c r e d c a v e . M a n y a c t u a l c a v e s are h o l y p l a c e s — l i k e t h e C a v e of B e r n a d e t t e (far r i g h t ) at L o u r d e s , w h e r e a v i s i o n o f t h e Virgin M a r y appeared to a girl.
285
a replica of some of the i n n e r feminine traits of his psyche. She is a formless, s p o n g y , halfh i d d e n p r o s t i t u t e r e p r e s e n t i n g the repressed i m a g e in his u n c o n s c i o u s of a w o m a n w h o m H e n r y w o u l d n e v e r h a v e a p p r o a c h e d in conscious life. She w o u l d a l w a y s h a v e b e e n strictly t a b o o to him in spite of the fact t h a t (as the opposite of a t o o - m u c h - v e n e r a t e d m o t h e r ) the p r o s t i t u t e w o u l d h a v e a secret fascination for h i m —as for every son w i t h a m o t h e r - c o m p l e x . T h e idea of restricting a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a w o m a n to a p u r e l y a n i m a l - l i k e sensuality, exc l u d i n g all feelings, is often e n t i c i n g to such a y o u n g m a n . I n such a u n i o n he c a n k e e p his feelings split off, a n d t h u s c a n r e m a i n " t r u e " to his m o t h e r in a n u l t i m a t e sense. T h u s , in spite of e v e r y t h i n g , the t a b o o set by the m o t h e r against every o t h e r w o m a n r e m a i n s inflexibly effective in the psyche of the son. H e n r y , w h o seems to h a v e w i t h d r a w n totally to the b a c k g r o u n d of his fantasy-cave, sees the p r o s t i t u t e only " f r o m b e h i n d . " H e d a r e s not look h e r in the face. But " f r o m the b a c k " also m e a n s from her least h u m a n side h e r b u t t o c k s
(i.e. the p a r t of her b o d y t h a t will s t i m u l a t e the sensual activity of the m a l e ) . By t o u c h i n g the b u t t o c k s of the p r o s t i t u t e , H e n r y unconsciously carries o u t a kind of fertility rite, similar to the rites t h a t a r e p r a c t i c e d in m a n y p r i m i t i v e tribes. T h e l a y i n g o n of h a n d s a n d h e a l i n g often g o t o g e t h e r ; in the s a m e w a y , t o u c h i n g w i t h the h a n d c a n be e i t h e r a defense or a curse. I m m e d i a t e l y the idea arises t h a t the figure is not a w o m a n after all b u t a m a l e p r o s t i t u t e . T h e figure thus b e c o m e s h e r m a p h r o d i t i c , like m a n y m y t h o l o g i c a l figures ( a n d like the " p r i e s t " figure of the first d r e a m ) . I n s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n i n g his o w n sex c a n often be o b s e r v e d in a p u b e s c e n t i n d i v i d u a l ; a n d for this reason h o m o s e x u ality in a d o l e s c e n c e is not c o n s i d e r e d u n u s u a l . N o r is such u n c e r t a i n t y e x c e p t i o n a l for a y o u n g m a n with H e n r y ' s psychological s t r u c t u r e ; he h a d a l r e a d y i m p l i e d this in some of his earlier dreams. But repression (as well as sexual u n c e r t a i n t y ) m a y h a v e c a u s e d the confusion a b o u t the sex of the p r o s t i t u t e . T h e female figure t h a t has
A coat can often symbolize the outer m a s k or persona t h a t o n e p r e s e n t s t o t h e w o r l d . T h e m a n t l e of t h e p r o p h e t Elijah bore a similar m e a n i n g : W h e n he a s c e n d e d t o h e a v e n (left, in a S w e d i s h p e a s a n t p a i n t i n g ) , he left t h e m a n t l e b e h i n d for his s u c c e s s o r Elisha T h u s t h e m a n t l e r e p r e s e n t e d t h e p r o p h e t ' s p o w e r a n d role, t o be a s s u m e d by his s u c c e s s o r ( I n t h e p a i n t i n g the m a n t l e is red, like t h e s a i n t ' s c o a t in H e n r y ' s d r e a m . )
b o t h a t t r a c t e d a n d repelled the d r e a m e r is t r a n s f o r m e d first of all into a m a n a n d t h e n into a saint. T h e second t r a n s f o r m a t i o n eliminates e v e r y t h i n g sexual from the i m a g e , a n d implies t h a t the only m e a n s of escape from the reality of sex lies in the a d o p t i o n of a n ascetic a n d holy life, d e n y i n g the flesh. S u c h d r a m a t i c reversals a r e c o m m o n in d r e a m s : S o m e t h i n g t u r n s into its o p p o s i t e (as the p r o s t i t u t e becomes a saint) as if to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t by t r a n s m u t a tion even e x t r e m e opposites can c h a n g e into each o t h e r . H e n r y also saw s o m e t h i n g significant in the saint's coat. A coat is often a symbol of the p r o t e c t i v e cover or mask (which J u n g called the persona) that a n i n d i v i d u a l presents to the world. It has two p u r p o s e s : first, to m a k e a specific impression on o t h e r p e o p l e : second, to conceal the i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n n e r self from their p r y i n g eyes. T h e persona t h a t H e n r y ' s d r e a m gives the saint tells us s o m e t h i n g a b o u t his a t t i t u d e to his fiancee a n d her friend. T h e saint's coat has the color of the friend's j a c k e t , w h i c h H e n r y h a d a d m i r e d , b u t it also h a d the s h a p e of his fiancee's coat. T h i s m a y i m p l y that H e n r y ' s u n c o n s c i o u s w a n t e d to confer the q u a l i t y of saintliness on b o t h w o m e n , in o r d e r to p r o t e c t himself a g a i n s t their w o m a n l y a t t r a c tiveness. Also, the coat is red, w h i c h (as has been noted before) is t r a d i t i o n a l l y the symbolic color of feeling a n d passion. It t h u s gives the saint figure a kind of eroticized spirituality — a
H e n r y ' s t o u c h i n g the p r o s t i t u t e c a n be r e l a t e d t o t h e belief in t h e m a g i c a l e f f e c t of a t o u c h : Left, the 1 7 t h c e n t u r y I r i s h m a n V a l e n t i n e G r e a t r a k e s , f a m o u s for h e a l i n g b y l a y i n g o n of h a n d s
Right, another example of the persona The clothing w o r n by rebellious British "beatnik" y o u t h s in t h e 1 9 6 0 s i n d i c a t e d t h e v a l u e s a n d w a y of life that t h e y w a n t e d t o display to the outer w o r l d .
q u a l i t y t h a t is frequently found in m e n w h o repress their o w n sexuality a n d try to rely solely on their " s p i r i t " or reason. S u c h a n escape from the world of the flesh, h o w e v e r , is u n n a t u r a l in a y o u n g person. In the first half of life, we should l e a r n to accept o u r sexuality : It is essential to the p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d c o n t i n u a t i o n of o u r species. T h e d r e a m seems to be r e m i n d i n g H e n r y of just this point. W h e n the saint leaves the c a v e a n d walks d o w n the r o a d ( d e s c e n d i n g from the heights t o w a r d the v a l l e y ) , he e n t e r s a second cave with r o u g h - h e w n b e n c h e s a n d chairs, which r e m i n d s o n e of the early C h r i s t i a n s ' places of w o r s h i p a n d refuge from p e r s e c u t i o n . T h i s cave seems to be a h e a l i n g , holy place a place of m e d i t a t i o n a n d of the mystery of t r a n s f o r m a tion from the e a r t h l y to the h e a v e n l y , from the c a r n a l to the s p i r i t u a l . H e n r y is not p e r m i t t e d to follow the saint, b u t is t u r n e d out of the cave w i t h all those present (that is, with his u n c o n s c i o u s entities). S e e m i n g l y . H e n r y a n d all the o t h e r s w h o a r e not followers of t h e saint a r e b e i n g told t h a t they must live in the o u t s i d e world. T h e d r e a m seems to say t h a t H e n r y must first succeed in o u t e r life before h e will be a b l e to i m m e r s e h i m self in a religious or spiritual s p h e r e . T h e figure of the saint also seems to symbolize (in a relatively u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , a n t i c i p a t o r y fashion) the Self; b u t H e n r y is not yet m a t u r e e n o u g h to stay in the i m m e d i a t e vicinity of this figure.
How the analysis developed
In spite of a n initial skepticism a n d resistance, H e n r y b e g a n to take a lively interest in the inner h a p p e n i n g s of his p s y c h e . H e was obviously impressed by his d r e a m s . T h e y s e e m e d to c o m p e n s a t e for his u n c o n s c i o u s life in a m e a n ingful w a y a n d to give h i m v a l u a b l e insights into his a m b i v a l e n c e , his v a c i l l a t i o n , a n d his preference for passivity. After a t i m e m o r e positive d r e a m s a p p e a r e d that showed t h a t H e n r y was a l r e a d y "well on his w a y . " T w o m o n t h s after his analysis h a d b e g u n he r e p o r t e d this d r e a m :
In the harbor of a little place not far from my home, on the shore of a lake in the neighborhood, locomotives and freight cars are being raised from the bottom of the lake where they had been sunk in the last war. First a large cylinder like a locomotive boiler is brought up. Then an enormous, rusty freight car. T h e whole picture pre-
sents a horrible yet romantic sight. T h e recovered pieces have to be transported away under the rails and cables of the nearby railway station. Then the bottom of the lake changes into a green meadow. H e r e we see w h a t a r e m a r k a b l e i n n e r a d v a n c e H e n r y has m a d e . L o c o m o t i v e s ( p r o b a b l y symbols of e n e r g y a n d d y n a m i s m ) h a v e been " s u n k " —i.e. repressed into t h e u n c o n s c i o u s — b u t a r e n o w b e i n g b r o u g h t into the light of d a y . W i t h t h e m are freight cars, in which all kinds of v a l u a b l e c a r g o (psychic qualities) c a n be t r a n s p o r t e d . N o w t h a t these " o b j e c t s " h a v e a g a i n b e c o m e a v a i l a b l e for H e n r y ' s conscious life, he c a n begin to realize h o w m u c h active p o w e r could b e at his disposal. T h e t r a n s f o r m a tion of the d a r k lake b o t t o m into a m e a d o w u n d e r l i n e s his p o t e n t i a l for positive a c t i o n . S o m e t i m e s , on H e n r y ' s " l o n e l y j o u r n e y " tow a r d m a t u r i t y , he also received h e l p from his
feminine side. In his 24th d r e a m he meets a "humpbacked girl": I am on the way to a school together with an unknown young lady of small and daintv appearance but disfigured by a hump. Many other people also go into the schoolhouse. While the others disperse to different rooms for singing lessons, the girl and I sit at a little square table. She gives me a private singing lesson. I feel an impulse of pity for her and therefore kiss her on the mouth. I am conscious, however, that by this act I am unfaithful to my fiancee- even though it may be excusable. S i n g i n g is o n e of the i m m e d i a t e expressions of feelings. But (as we h a v e seen) H e n r y is afraid of his feelings; he k n o w s t h e m only in a n idealized adolescent form. Nevertheless, in this d r e a m he is t a u g h t singing (the expression of feelings) at a s q u a r e t a b l e . T h e t a b l e , with its four e q u a l sides, is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the " f o u r f o l d n e s s " motif, usually a s y m b o l of c o m pleteness. Thus the relation b e t w e e n singing A s in t h e p a i n t i n g , left ( b y t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y B r i t i s h artist W i l l i a m T u r n e r ) , e n t i t l e d Rain, Steam, and Speed, t h e l o c o m o t i v e is clearly a n i m a g e of d r i v i n g , d y n a m i c e n e r g y In H e n r y ' s d r e a m ( w h i c h h e d r e w , b e l o w ) , l o c o m o t i v e s are raised o u t of a lake — an e x p r e s s i o n of t h e release of a p o t e n t i a l for v a l u a b l e a c t i o n that h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n repressed i n t o his u n c o n s c i o u s
a n d the s q u a r e t a b l e seems to i n d i c a t e that H e n r y must i n t e g r a t e his " f e e l i n g " side before he c a n a c h i e v e psychic wholeness. In fact, the singing lesson does m o v e his feelings, a n d he kisses the girl o n her m o u t h . T h e r e b y he has, in a sense, " e s p o u s e d " her (otherwise h e w o u l d not feel " u n f a i t h f u l " ) ; he has l e a r n e d to relate to " t h e w o m a n w i t h i n . " A n o t h e r d r e a m d e m o n s t r a t e s the p a r t t h a t this little h u m p b a c k e d girl h a d to p l a y in Henry's inner development: I am in an unknown boys" school. During the instruction period I secretly force my way into the house. I don't know for what purpose. I hide in the room behind a little square closet. The door to the corridor is half open. I fear being detected. An adult goes by without seeing me. But a little humpbacked girl comes in and sees me at once. She pulls me out of my hiding place. Not only does the s a m e girl a p p e a r in both d r e a m s , b u t b o t h a p p e a r a n c e s take place in a schoolhouse. In e a c h i n s t a n c e H e n r y must learn s o m e t h i n g to assist his d e v e l o p m e n t . S e e m i n g l y , he w o u l d like to satisfy his desire for k n o w ledge while r e m a i n i n g u n n o t i c e d a n d passive. The figure of a d e f o r m e d little girl a p p e a r s in n u m e r o u s fairy tales. In such tales the ugliness of the h u m p usually conceals g r e a t b e a u t y , w h i c h is revealed w h e n the " r i g h t m a n " comes to free the girl from a m a g i c spell —often by a kiss. T h e girl in H e n r y ' s d r e a m m a y be a symbol of H e n r y ' s soul, w h i c h also has to be released from the " s p e l l " t h a t has m a d e it ugly. W h e n the h u m p b a c k e d girl tries to a w a k e n H e n r y ' s feelings by song, or pulls h i m out of his d a r k h i d i n g p l a c e (forcing him to confront the light of d a y i , she shows herself as a helpful g u i d e . H e n r y can a n d must in a sense belong s i m u l t a n e o u s l y to b o t h his fiancee a n d the little h u m p b a c k e d girl (to the first as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the real, o u t e r w o m a n , a n d to the second as the e m b o d i m e n t of the i n n e r psychic a n i m a ) . 289
The oracle dream
P e o p l e w h o rely totally o n t h e i r r a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g a n d dismiss or repress every m a n i f e s t a t i o n of their psychic life often h a v e a n a l m o s t inexp l i c a b l e i n c l i n a t i o n to s u p e r s t i t i o n . T h e y listen to oracles a n d p r o p h e c i e s a n d c a n be easily h o o d w i n k e d or influenced by m a g i c i a n s a n d conjurers. A n d b e c a u s e d r e a m s c o m p e n s a t e o n e ' s o u t e r life, t h e e m p h a s i s s u c h p e o p l e p u t on their intellect is offset b y d r e a m s in w h i c h they m e e t the i r r a t i o n a l a n d c a n n o t e s c a p e it. H e n r y e x p e r i e n c e d this p h e n o m e n o n in the course of his analysis, in a n impressive w a y . F o u r e x t r a o r d i n a r y d r e a m s , b a s e d on s u c h i r r a tional t h e m e s , r e p r e s e n t e d decisive milestones in his s p i r i t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e first of these c a m e a b o u t 10 weeks after t h e analysis b e g a n . As H e n r y r e p o r t e d t h e d r e a m :
Alone on an adventurous journey through South America, I feel, at last, the desire to return home. In a foreign city situated on a mountain I try to reach the railway station, which I instinctively suspect to be in the center of the town at its highest level. I fear I may be too late. Fortunately, however, a vaulted passage breaks through the row of houses on my right, built closely together as in the architecture of the Middle Ages, forming an impenetrable wall behind which the station is probably to be found. The whole scene offers a very picturesque aspect. I see the sunny, painted facades of the houses, the dark archway in whose shadowy obscurity four ragged figures have settled down on the pavement. With a sigh of relief, I hurry toward the passage—when suddenly a stranger, a trappertype, appears ahead of me evidently filled with the same desire to catch the train. At our approach the four gatekeepers, who turn out to be Chinese, j u m p up to prevent our passage. In the ensuing fight my left leg is injured by the long nails on the left foot of one of the Chinese. An oracle has to decide now whether the way could be opened to us or whether our lives must be forfeited. I am the first to be dealt with. While my companion is bound and led inside, the Chinese con290
sult the oracle by using little ivory sticks. The judgment goes against me, but I am given another chance. I am fettered and led aside, just as my companion was, and he now takes my place. In his presence, the oracle has to decide my fate for the second time. O n this occasion it is in my favor. I am saved.
O n e i m m e d i a t e l y notices t h e s i n g u l a r i t y a n d the e x c e p t i o n a l m e a n i n g of the d r e a m , its w e a l t h of symbols, a n d its c o m p a c t n e s s . H o w ever, it s e e m e d as if H e n r y ' s conscious m i n d w a n t e d to i g n o r e t h e d r e a m . Because of his skepticism t o w a r d the p r o d u c t s of his unconscious it was i m p o r t a n t n o t to expose t h e d r e a m to the d a n g e r of r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r to let it a c t on h i m w i t h o u t interference. So I refrained a t first from m y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n s t e a d I offered only o n e s u g g e s t i o n : I advised h i m to r e a d a n d t h e n to consult (as did .the C h i n e s e figures in his d r e a m ) the famous C h i n e s e oracle book, t h e / Ching. T h e / Ching, the so-called " B o o k of C h a n g e s , " is a very a n c i e n t book of w i s d o m ; its roots go b a c k to m y t h i c a l times, a n d it comes to us in its p r e s e n t form from 3000 B . C . A c c o r d i n g to R i c h a r d W i l h e l m ( w h o t r a n s l a t e d it i n t o G e r m a n and provided an admirable comment a r y ) , b o t h of t h e m a i n b r a n c h e s of Chinese philosophy—Taoism and Confucianism—have t h e i r c o m m o n origin in t h e / Ching. T h e book is b a s e d o n the hypothesis of t h e oneness of m a n a n d t h e s u r r o u n d i n g cosmos, a n d of the c o m p l e m e n t a r y p a i r s of opposites Y a n g a n d Yin (i.e. the m a l e a n d female p r i n c i p l e s ) . I t consists of 64 " s i g n s " e a c h r e p r e s e n t e d by a d r a w i n g m a d e u p of six lines. I n these signs a r e c o n t a i n e d all t h e possible c o m b i n a t i o n s of Y a n g a n d Y i n . T h e s t r a i g h t lines a r e looked u p o n as m a l e , the b r o k e n lines as female. E a c h sign describes c h a n g e s in the h u m a n or cosmic s i t u a t i o n , a n d e a c h prescribes, in a
pictorial l a n g u a g e , t h e c o u r s e of a c t i o n to be followed a t such times. T h e C h i n e s e consulted this o r a c l e by m e a n s t h a t i n d i c a t e d w h i c h of the signs was r e l e v a n t a t a given m o m e n t . T h e y did so by using 50 small sticks in a r a t h e r c o m plicated w a y t h a t yielded a given n u m b e r . ( I n c i d e n t a l l y , H e n r y said t h a t he h a d o n c e r e a d — p r o b a b l y in J u n g ' s c o m m e n t a r y on " T h e Secret of the G o l d e n F l o w e r " — o f a s t r a n g e g a m e s o m e t i m e s used by t h e C h i n e s e to find out a b o u t the future.) T o d a y the m o r e usual m e t h o d of c o n s u l t i n g the / Ching is to use t h r e e coins. E a c h t h r o w of the t h r e e coins yields o n e line. " H e a d s , " w h i c h s t a n d s for a m a l e line, c o u n t as t h r e e ; " t a i l s , " a b r o k e n female line, c o u n t as two. T h e coins a r e t h r o w n six times, a n d the n u m bers t h a t a r e p r o d u c e d i n d i c a t e t h e sign or h e x a g r a m (i.e. the set of six lines) to be consulted. But w h a t significance has such " f o r t u n e telli n g " for o u r o w n t i m e ? E v e n those w h o a c c e p t the idea t h a t the / Ching is a storehouse of w i s d o m will find it h a r d to believe t h a t c o n sultation of the o r a c l e is a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n a n e x p e r i m e n t in t h e o c c u l t . It is i n d e e d diffi-
cult to g r a s p t h a t m o r e is involved, for the o r d i n a r y p e r s o n t o d a y consciously dismisses all d i v i n i n g t e c h n i q u e s as a r c h a i c nonsense. Yet they a r e not nonsense. As D r . J u n g has s h o w n , they a r e based o n w h a t he calls t h e " p r i n c i p l e of s y n c h r o n i c i t y " for, m o r e simply, meaningful c o i n c i d e n c e ) . H e has d e s c r i b e d this difficult n e w idea in his essay " S y n c h r o n i c i t y : A n Acausal C o n n e c t i n g P r i n c i p l e . " It is based o n the a s s u m p t i o n of a n i n n e r u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e t h a t links a physical event with a psychic cond i t i o n , so t h a t a c e r t a i n event t h a t a p p e a r s " a c c i d e n t a l " or " c o i n c i d e n t a l " c a n in fact be psychically m e a n i n g f u l ; a n d its m e a n i n g is often symbolically i n d i c a t e d t h r o u g h d r e a m s t h a t coincide with the event. Several weeks after h a v i n g studied the / Ching, H e n r y followed my suggestion (with c o n s i d e r a b l e skepticism) a n d t h r e w t h e coins. W h a t he found in t h e book h a d a t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t on h i m . Briefly, the o r a c l e to w h i c h he referred b o r e several s t a r t l i n g references to his d r e a m , a n d to his psychological c o n d i t i o n generally. By a r e m a r k a b l e " s y n c h r o n i s t i c " coincid e n c e , t h e sign t h a t was i n d i c a t e d by t h e coinp a t t e r n w a s called M E N G - or " Y o u t h f u l F o l l y . " Left, t w o p a g e s o f t h e / Ching s h o w i n g the hexagram M E N G ( w h i c h s t a n d s for " y o u t h f u l f o l l y " ) . T h e t o p t h r e e lines o f t h e h e x a g r a m s y m b o l i z e a m o u n t a i n , a n d c a n also r e p r e s e n t a gate; t h e b o t t o m three lines s y m b o l i z e w a t e r a n d t h e abyss.
R i g h t , H e n r y ' s d r a w i n g of t h e s w o r d a n d h e l m e t t h a t a p p e a r e d to h i m in a f a n t a s y , a n d t h a t also related t o a s e c t i o n of t h e / Ching — Li, " t h e clinging, fire."
In this c h a p t e r t h e r e a r e several parallels to the d r e a m motifs in q u e s t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to t h e text of the / Ching, the t h r e e u p p e r lines of this hexagram symbolize a mountain, and have the m e a n i n g of ' ' k e e p i n g s t i l l " ; t h e y c a n also b e i n t e r p r e t e d as a g a t e . T h e t h r e e lower lines s y m bolize w a t e r , the abyss, a n d the m o o n . All these symbols h a v e o c c u r r e d in H e n r y ' s p r e v i o u s dreams. Among many other statements that s e e m e d to a p p l y to H e n r y was the following w a r n i n g : " F o r youthful folly, it is the most hopeless t h i n g to e n t a n g l e itself in e m p t y i m a g inings. T h e m o r e o b s t i n a t e l y it clings to such u n r e a l fantasies the m o r e c e r t a i n l y will h u m i l i a tion o v e r t a k e i t . " In this a n d o t h e r c o m p l e x w a y s , t h e oracle seemed to be directly r e l e v a n t to H e n r y ' s p r o b l e m . T h i s shook h i m . At first he tried to suppress its effect by w i l l p o w e r , b u t he could n o t escape it or his d r e a m s . T h e message of the / Clung seemed to t o u c h h i m d e e p l y in spite of the p u z z l i n g l a n g u a g e in w h i c h it was expressed. H e b e c a m e o v e r p o w e r e d by the very i r r a t i o n ality whose existence h e h a d so l o n g d e n i e d . S o m e t i m e s silent, s o m e t i m e s i r r i t a t e d , r e a d i n g the w o r d s t h a t s e e m e d to c o i n c i d e so strongly with the symbols in his d r e a m s , he said, " I must think all this over t h o r o u g h l y , " a n d h e left before o u r session was u p . H e c a n c e l e d his next session by t e l e p h o n e , b e c a u s e of influenza, a n d did not r e a p p e a r . I w a i t e d ' " k e e p i n g still") because I s u p p o s e d t h a t he m i g h t not yet h a v e digested the oracle. A m o n t h w e n t by. Finally H e n r y r e a p p e a r e d , excited a n d d i s c o n c e r t e d , a n d told m e w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d in the m e a n t i m e . Initially his intellect (which he h a d until t h e n relied u p o n so m u c h ) h a d suffered a g r e a t shock — a n d one t h a t he h a d at first tried to suppress. H o w e v e r , he soon h a d to a d m i t t h a t the c o m m u n i c a t i o n s of the oracle w e r e p u r s u i n g h i m . H e h a d int e n d e d to consult the book a g a i n , b e c a u s e in his d r e a m the oracle h a d been c o n s u l t e d twice. But the text of the c h a p t e r " Y o u t h f u l F o l l y " expressly forbids the p u t t i n g of a s e c o n d q u e s tion. For two nights H e n r y h a d tossed sleeplessly in b e d ; b u t on the t h i r d a l u m i n o u s d r e a m i m a g e of g r e a t p o w e r h a d s u d d e n l y
2 2 9
a p p e a r e d before his eyes: a h e l m e t w i t h a sword floating in e m p t y space. H e n r y i m m e d i a t e l y took u p the / Ching a g a i n a n d o p e n e d it a t r a n d o m to a c o m m e n tary on C h a p t e r 30, w h e r e (to his g r e a t surprise) he r e a d t h e following p a s s a g e : " T h e clinging is fire, it m e a n s coats of mail, h e l m e t s , it m e a n s lances a n d w e a p o n s . " N o w he felt t h a t he u n d e r s t o o d w h y a second i n t e n t i o n a l c o n s u l t i n g of the oracle was f o r b i d d e n . For in his d r e a m the ego was e x c l u d e d from the second q u e s t i o n ; it was the t r a p p e r w h o h a d to consult the o r a c l e the second t i m e . I n the s a m e w a y , it was H e n r y ' s s e m i - u n c o n s c i o u s a c t i o n t h a t h a d u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y asked the second q u e s t i o n of t h e / Ching by o p e n i n g the book at r a n d o m a n d c o m i n g u p o n a symbol t h a t coincided w i t h his n o c t u r n a l vision. H e n r y was clearly so d e e p l y stirred t h a t it seemed t i m e to try to i n t e r p r e t the d r e a m t h a t h a d s p a r k e d the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . In view of the events of the d r e a m , it was obvious t h a t the d r e a m - e l e m e n t s should be i n t e r p r e t e d as contents of H e n r y ' s i n n e r p e r s o n a l i t y a n d the six d r e a m - f i g u r e s as personification of his psychic qualities. S u c h d r e a m s a r e relatively r a r e , b u t w h e n they d o o c c u r t h e i r after-effects a r e all the m o r e powerful. T h a t is w h y they could b e called " d r e a m s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . " W i t h d r e a m s of such pictorial p o w e r , the d r e a m e r s e l d o m has m o r e t h a n a few personal associations. All H e n r y could offer was t h a t h e h a d recently tried for a j o b in Chile, a n d h a d b e e n refused b e c a u s e t h e y w o u l d not e m p l o y u n m a r r i e d m e n . H e also k n e w t h a t some C h i n e s e let the nails of their left h a n d g r o w as a sign t h a t i n s t e a d of w o r k i n g they h a v e given themselves over to m e d i t a t i o n . H e n r y ' s failure (to get a job in S o u t h A m e r i c a ! was p r e s e n t e d to him in the d r e a m . In it he is t r a n s p o r t e d into a hot s o u t h e r n
R i g h t , a parallel to t h e g a t e k e e p e r s of H e n r y ' s " o r a c l e d r e a m " : o n e of a pair o f s c u l p t u r e s (1 O t h - 1 3 t h century) that guard the entrance to China's M a i - c h i - s a n caves.
w o r l d — a w o r l d t h a t , in c o n t r a s t to E u r o p e , h e w o u l d call p r i m i t i v e , u n i n h i b i t e d , a n d sensual. It represents a n excellent s y m b o l i c p i c t u r e of the r e a l m of the u n c o n s c i o u s . T h i s r e a l m was the o p p o s i t e of the c u l t i v a t e d intellect a n d Swiss p u r i t a n i s m t h a t ruled H e n ry's conscious m i n d . It w a s , in fact, his n a t u r a l " s h a d o w l a n d , " for w h i c h he h a d l o n g e d ; b u t after a while he did not seem to feel too c o m fortable t h e r e . F r o m the c h t h o n i c . d a r k , m a t e r n a l p o w e r s (symbolized by S o u t h A m e r i ca) he is d r a w n b a c k in the d r e a m to the light, personal m o t h e r a n d to his fiancee. H e sudd e n l y realizes h o w far he has g o n e a w a y from t h e m ; he finds himself a l o n e in a "foreign c i t y . " T h i s increase in consciousness is s y m b o l i z e d in the d r e a m as a " h i g h e r l e v e l " ; the city was built on a m o u n t a i n . So H e n r y " c l i m b e d u p " to a g r e a t e r consciousness in the " s h a d o w l a n d " ; from t h e r e he h o p e d " t o find his w a y h o m e . " This p r o b l e m of a s c e n d i n g a m o u n t a i n h a d a l r e a d y b e e n p u t to him in his initial
d r e a m . A n d , as in the d r e a m of the saint a n d the p r o s t i t u t e , or in m a n y m y t h o l o g i c a l tales, a m o u n t a i n often symbolizes a p l a c e of revelation, w h e r e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d c h a n g e m a y take place. T h e " c i t y o n the m o u n t a i n " is also a wellk n o w n a r c h e t y p a l s y m b o l t h a t a p p e a r s in the history of o u r c u l t u r e in m a n y v a r i a t i o n s . T h e city, c o r r e s p o n d i n g in its g r o u n d p l a n to a m a n d a l a , r e p r e s e n t s t h a t " r e g i o n of the s o u l " in the m i d d l e of w h i c h t h e Self (the psyche's innermost c e n t e r a n d totality) has its a b o d e . S u r p r i s i n g l y , the seat of the Self is r e p r e sented in H e n r y ' s d r e a m as a traffic c e n t e r of the h u m a n collective — a r a i l w a y station. T h i s m a y be b e c a u s e the Self (if the d r e a m e r is y o u n g a n d has a relatively low level of spiritual d e v e l o p m e n t ) is usually symbolized by a n object from the r e a l m of his personal e x p e r i e n c e often a b a n a l object, w h i c h c o m p e n s a t e s the d r e a m e r ' s high a s p i r a t i o n s . O n l y in the m a t u r e person a c q u a i n t e d with the images of his soul is the Self realized in a symbol t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s to its u n i q u e v a l u e . Even t h o u g h H e n r y does not a c t u a l l y k n o w w h e r e the station is, h e nevertheless supposes it to be in the c e n t e r of t h e city, on its highest p o i n t . H e r e , as in earlier d r e a m s , he receives h e l p from his u n c o n s c i o u s . H e n r y ' s conscious m i n d was identified w i t h his profession as a n e n g i n e e r , so he w o u l d also like his i n n e r world to relate to r a t i o n a l p r o d u c t s of civilization, like a r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . T h e d r e a m , h o w e v e r , rejects this a t t i t u d e a n d indicates a c o m p l e t e l y different w a y . T h e w a y leads " u n d e r " a n d t h r o u g h a d a r k a r c h . A n a r c h e d g a t e w a y is also a s y m b o l for a t h r e s h o l d , a p l a c e w h e r e d a n g e r s lurk, a place t h a t at the s a m e t i m e s e p a r a t e s a n d unites. I n s t e a d of the r a i l w a y station t h a t H e n r y was looking for, w h i c h was to c o n n e c t uncivilized S o u t h A m e r i c a w i t h E u r o p e , H e n r y finds h i m self before a d a r k a r c h e d g a t e w a y w h e r e four r a g g e d C h i n e s e , s t r e t c h e d on the g r o u n d , block the passage. T h e d r e a m m a k e s n o distinction b e t w e e n t h e m , so they m a y be seen as four still u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d aspects of a m a l e totality. ( T h e n u m b e r (bur, a symbol of wholeness a n d c o m -
293
pleteness, r e p r e s e n t s a n a r c h e t y p e t h a t D r . J u n g has discussed at l e n g t h in his writings.) T h e C h i n e s e thus r e p r e s e n t u n c o n s c i o u s m a l e psychic p a r t s of H e n r y t h a t h e c a n n o t pass, b e cause t h e " w a y to t h e Self" (i.e. to t h e psychic c e n t e r ) is b a r r e d by t h e m a n d m u s t still be o p e n e d to h i m . U n t i l this issue h a s b e e n settled h e c a n n o t c o n t i n u e his j o u r n e y . Still u n a w a r e of t h e i m p e n d i n g d a n g e r , H e n r y h u r r i e s to t h e g a t e w a y , e x p e c t i n g at last to r e a c h t h e s t a t i o n . But on his w a y he meets his " s h a d o w " — his u n l i v e d , p r i m i t i v e side, w h i c h a p p e a r s in t h e guise of a n e a r t h y , r o u g h t r a p p e r . T h e a p p e a r a n c e of this figure p r o b a b l y m e a n s t h a t H e n r y ' s i n t r o v e r t e d ego h a s b e e n j o i n e d by his e x t r a v e r t e d ( c o m p e n s a t o r y ) side, w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s his repressed e m o t i o n a l a n d i r r a t i o n a l traits. T h i s s h a d o w figure pushes itself past t h e conscious ego i n t o t h e f o r e g r o u n d , a n d , b e c a u s e it personifies t h e activity a n d a u t o n o m y of u n c o n s c i o u s q u a l i t i e s , it b e c o m e s t h e p r o p e r c a r r i e r of fate, t h r o u g h w h o m e v e r y t h i n g happens. T h e d r e a m moves t o w a r d its c l i m a x . D u r i n g the fight b e t w e e n H e n r y , t h e t r a p p e r , a n d t h e four r a g g e d C h i n e s e , H e n r y ' s left leg is s c r a t c h e d by t h e long nails o n t h e left foot of o n e of t h e four. ( H e r e , it seems, t h e E u r o p e a n c h a r a c t e r of H e n r y ' s conscious ego has collided with a personification of t h e a n c i e n t w i s d o m of the East, w i t h t h e e x t r e m e o p p o s i t e of his ego. T h e Chinese c o m e from a n entirely different psychic c o n t i n e n t , from a n " o t h e r s i d e " t h a t is
still q u i t e u n k n o w n to H e n r y a n d t h a t seems d a n g e r o u s to h i m . ) T h e C h i n e s e c a n also be said to s t a n d for the " y e l l o w e a r t h " ; for the C h i n e s e p e o p l e a r e r e l a t e d to t h e e a r t h as few p e o p l e a r e . A n d it is j u s t this e a r t h y , c h t h o n i c q u a l i t y t h a t H e n r y h a d to a c c e p t . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s m a l e totality of his p s y c h e , w h i c h h e m e t in his d r e a m , h a d a c h t h o n i c m a t e r i a l aspect t h a t his intellectual conscious side lacked. T h u s t h e fact t h a t he r e c o g n i z e d t h e four r a g g e d figures as Chinese shows t h a t H e n r y h a d g a i n e d a n increase of i n n e r a w a r e n e s s c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e of his adversaries. H e n r y had heard that the Chinese sometimes let t h e nails of t h e i r left h a n d g r o w long. But in t h e d r e a m t h e long nails a r e on t h e left foot; they a r e , so to speak, claws. T h i s m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e C h i n e s e h a v e a p o i n t of view so different from H e n r y ' s t h a t it injures h i m . As we B e l o w , a d r a w i n g by a patient under analysis depicts a black monster ( o n t h e red or " f e e l i n g " s i d e ) a n d a M a d o n n a - l i k e w o m a n ( o n the blue or s p i r i t u a l s i d e ) . T h i s w a s H e n r y ' s position: over-emphasis on purity, c h a s t i t y , etc. a n d fear o f t h e irrational u n c o n s c i o u s . ( B u t note that the green, mandala-like flower a c t s as a link b e t w e e n t h e o p p o s i n g sides.) B e l o w left, a n o t h e r p a t i e n t ' s p a i n t i n g d e p i c t i n g his i n s o m n i a — c a u s e d b y his r e p r e s s i n g t o o s t r o n g l y h i s p a s s i o n a t e , red, instinctual drives ( w h i c h may o v e r w h e l m his consciousness) by a b l a c k " w a l l " o f a n x i e t y and depression.
k n o w , H e n r y ' s conscious a t t i t u d e t o w a r d the c h t h o n i c a n d feminine, t o w a r d t h e m a t e r i a l d e p t h s of his n a t u r e , was most u n c e r t a i n a n d a m b i v a l e n t . T h i s a t t i t u d e , s y m b o l i z e d b y his "left l e g " (the p o i n t of view or " s t a n d p o i n t " of his f e m i n i n e , u n c o n s c i o u s side of w h i c h h e is still afraid), was h a r m e d by the C h i n e s e . T h i s " i n j u r y , " h o w e v e r , d i d n o t itself b r i n g a b o u t a c h a n g e in H e n r y . E v e r y t r a n s f o r m a tion d e m a n d s as its p r e c o n d i t i o n " t h e e n d i n g of a w o r l d " — t h e collapse of a n old p h i l o s o p h y of life. As D r . H e n d e r s o n has p o i n t e d o u t earlier in this book, a t c e r e m o n i e s of i n i t i a t i o n a y o u t h m u s t suffer a s y m b o l i c d e a t h before h e c a n b e r e b o r n as a m a n a n d b e t a k e n i n t o t h e tribe as a full m e m b e r . T h u s the scientific, logical a t t i t u d e of the e n g i n e e r m u s t collapse to m a k e r o o m for a n e w a t t i t u d e . I n the psyche of a n e n g i n e e r , e v e r y t h i n g " i r r a t i o n a l " m a y b e repressed, a n d therefore often reveals itself in the d r a m a t i c p a r a d o x e s of the d r e a m - w o r l d . T h u s t h e i r r a t i o n a l a p p e a r e d in H e n r y ' s d r e a m as a n " o r a c l e g a m e " of foreign origin, w i t h a fearful a n d i n e x p l i c a b l e p o w e r to d e c i d e h u m a n destinies. H e n r y ' s r a t i r n a l ego h a d n o a l t e r n a t i v e b u t to s u r r e n d e r u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y in a real sacrificium intellectus. Y e t the conscious m i n d of such a n i n e x p e r i e n c e d , i m m a t u r e p e r s o n as H e n r y is n o t sufficiently p r e p a r e d for such a n act. H e loses t h e t u r n of fortune, a n d his life is forfeit. H e is c a u g h t , u n a b l e to go o n in his a c c u s t o m e d w a y or to r e t u r n h o m e — to escape his a d u l t r e s p o n sibilities. (It was this insight for w h i c h H e n r y h a d to be p r e p a r e d by this " g r e a t d r e a m . " ) N e x t , H e n r y ' s conscious, civilized ego is b o u n d a n d p u t aside while the p r i m i t i v e t r a p p e r is allowed to take his p l a c e a n d to consult the o r a c l e . H e n r y ' s life d e p e n d s o n t h e result. But w h e n the ego is i m p r i s o n e d in isolation, those c o n t e n t s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s t h a t a r e personified in the s h a d o w - f i g u r e m a y b r i n g h e l p a n d solution. T h i s b e c o m e s possible w h e n o n e recognizes t h e existence of s u c h c o n t e n t s a n d has e x p e r i e n c e d their p o w e r . T h e y c a n t h e n b e c o m e o u r consciously a c c e p t e d c o n s t a n t c o m p a n i o n s . Because the t r a p p e r (his s h a d o w ) wins the g a m e in his p l a c e , H e n r y is saved.
Facing the irrational
H e n r y ' s s u b s e q u e n t b e h a v i o r clearly showed t h a t the d r e a m ( a n d the fact t h a t his d r e a m s a n d t h e o r a c l e b o o k of the / Ching h a d b r o u g h t h i m to face d e e p a n d i r r a t i o n a l p o w e r s w i t h i n himself) h a d a very d e e p effect o n h i m . F r o m t h e n on he listened eagerly to the c o m m u n i c a tions of his u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d the analysis took on a m o r e a n d m o r e a g i t a t e d c h a r a c t e r . T h e tension t h a t u n t i l t h e n h a d t h r e a t e n e d the d e p t h s of his p s y c h e w i t h d i s r u p t i o n c a m e to the surface. Nevertheless, he c o u r a g e o u s l y held to the g r o w i n g h o p e t h a t a satisfactory conclusion w o u l d be r e a c h e d . Barely two weeks after t h e o r a c l e d r e a m ( b u t before it was discussed a n d i n t e r p r e t e d ) , H e n r y h a d a n o t h e r d r e a m in w h i c h he was o n c e a g a i n confronted w i t h the d i s t u r b i n g p r o b l e m of the irrational:
Alone in my room. A lot of disgusting black beetles crawl out of a hole and spread out over my drawing table. I try to drive them back into their hole by means of some sort of magic. I am successful in this except for four or five beetles, which leave my table again and spread out into the whole room. I give up the idea of following them further; they are no longer so disgusting to me. I set fire to the hiding place. A tall column of flame rises up. I fear my room might catch fire, but this fear is unfounded.
By this t i m e , H e n r y h a d b e c o m e relatively skilful in the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of his d r e a m s , so h e tried to give this d r e a m a n e x p l a n a t i o n of his o w n . H e said : " T h e beetles a r e m y d a r k q u a l i ties. T h e y w e r e a w a k e n e d b y t h e analysis a n d c o m e u p n o w to the surface. T h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t t h e y m a y overflow m y professional work (symbolized by the d r a w i n g t a b l e ) . Y e t I did not d a r e to crush the beetles, w h i c h r e m i n d e d m e of a k i n d of black s c a r a b , w i t h m y h a n d as I first i n t e n d e d , a n d therefore h a d to use ' m a g i c ' I n setting fire to their h i d i n g p l a c e I, 295
so to speak, call for the c o l l a b o r a t i o n of s o m e t h i n g divine, as the u p s h o o t i n g c o l u m n of flame makes m e think of the fire t h a t I associate with the Ark of t h e C o v e n a n t . " T o go d e e p e r i n t o the symbolism of the d r e a m , we must first of all n o t e t h a t these beetles a r e black, w h i c h is the color of d a r k n e s s , depression, a n d d e a t h . In the d r e a m , H e n r y is " a l o n e " in his r o o m a situation t h a t c a n lead to introversion a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g states of gloom. In m y t h o l o g y , s c a r a b beetles often a p p e a r g o l d e n ; in E g y p t they w e r e sacred a n i m a l s s y m b o l i z i n g the s u n . But if they a r c black, they s y m b o l i z e t h e o p p o s i t e side of the sun s o m e t h i n g devilish. T h e r e f o r e . H e n r y ' s instinct is q u i t e correct in w a n t i n g to fight the beetles with m a g i c . T h o u g h lour or five of the beetles r e m a i n alive, the d e c r e a s e in the n u m b e r of beetles is e n o u g h to free H e n r y from his fear a n d disgust. He t h e n tries to destroy their b r e e d i n g g r o u n d by fire. T h i s is a positive a c t i o n , because fire can symbolically lead to t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d rebirth (as, for i n s t a n c e , it does in the a n c i e n t m y t h of the p h o e n i x ) . In his w a k i n g life, H e n r y now seemed full of e n t e r p r i s i n g spirit, b u t a p p a r e n t l y h e h a d not yet l e a r n e d to use it to the right effect. T h e r e fore, I w a n t to consider a n o t h e r , later d r e a m t h a t t h r o w s a n even c l e a r e r light on his p r o b l e m . T h i s d r e a m presents in s y m b o l i c l a n g u a g e H e n r y s fear of a responsible r e l a t i o n s h i p with a w o m a n a n d his t e n d e n c y to w i t h d r a w from the feeling side of life:
An old man is breathing his last. He is surrounded by his relatives, and I am among them. More and more people gather in the large room, each one characterizing himself through precise statements. There are a good 40 persons present. The old man groans and mutters about "unlived life." His daughter, who wants to make his confession easier, asks him in what sense "unlived" is to be understood; whether cultural or moral. I he old man will not answer. His daughter sends me to a small adjoining room where I am to find the answer by telling a fortune with cards. The " n i n e " that I turn up will give the answer, according to the color. 296
A b o v e , an E g y p t i a n relief (c 1 3 0 0 B.C.) s h o w s a s c a r a b beetle a n d the g o d A m o n w i t h i n t h e circle of t h e s u n . In E g y p t t h e g o l d e n scarab w a s itself a s y m b o l of t h e s u n . B e l o w , a g u i t e d i f f e r e n t k i n d of insect, m o r e like the " d e v i l i s h " b e e t l e s of H e n r y ' s d r e a m : an e n g r a v i n g by t h e 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y artist J a m e s Ensor of h u m a n s w i t h dark, r e p u l s i v e insect b o d i e s .
I expect to turn up a nine at the very beginning, but at first I turn up various kings and queens. I am disappointed. Now I turn up nothing but scraps of paper that don't belong to the game at all. Finally, I discover that there are no more cards in the deck but only envelopes and other pieces of paper. Together with my sister, who is also present, I look everywhere for the cards. Finally I discover one under a textbook or a notebook. It is nine, a nine of spades. It seems to me that this can only mean one thing: that it was moral chains that prevented the old man from "living his life."
T h e essential message of this s t r a n g e d r e a m was to w a r n H e n r y w h a t a w a i t e d h i m if he failed to "live his life." I h e " o l d m a n " p r o b ably represents the d y i n g " r u l i n g p r i n c i p l e " the p r i n c i p l e t h a t rules H e n r y ' s consciousness, b u t whose n a t u r e is u n k n o w n to h i m . T h e 40 p e o p l e p r e s e n t s y m b o l i z e the totality of H e n r y ' s psychic traits (40 is a n u m b e r of totality, a n elevated form of t h e n u m b e r four). T h a t the old m a n is d y i n g could be a sign t h a t p a r t of H e n r y ' s m a l e p e r s o n a l i t y is on the verge of a final t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e d a u g h t e r ' s q u e r y a b o u t the possible cause of d e a t h is the u n a v o i d a b l e a n d decisive q u e s t i o n . T h e r e seems to b e a n i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t the old m a n ' s " m o r a l i t y " has p r e v e n t e d h i m from living o u t his n a t u r a l feelings a n d drives. Yet the d y i n g m a n himself is silent. T h e r e f o r e his d a u g h t e r (the personification of the m e d i a t ing feminine p r i n c i p l e , the a n i m a ) has to bec o m e active. S h e sends H e n r y to discover t h e a n s w e r from the fortune-telling c a r d s — t h e a n s w e r t h a t will be given by the color of the first n i n e t u r n e d u p . T h e fortune telling has to take p l a c e in a n u n used, r e m o t e r o o m (revealing h o w far a w a y such a h a p p e n i n g is from H e n r y ' s conscious attitude). H e is d i s a p p o i n t e d w h e n at first h e u n c o v e r s only kings a n d q u e e n s ( p e r h a p s collective images of his youthful v e n e r a t i o n for p o w e r a n d w e a l t h ] . T h i s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t b e c o m e s intense w h e n the p i c t u r e - c a r d s r u n o u t , for this shows t h a t the symbols of t h e i n n e r w o r l d h a v e also been e x h a u s t e d . O n l y " s c r a p s of p a p e r "
a r e left, w i t h o u t a n y i m a g e s . T h u s the source of p i c t u r e s dries u p in t h e d r e a m . H e n r y t h e n has to a c c e p t the h e l p of his feminine side (this t i m e r e p r e s e n t e d by his sister) to find t h e last c a r d . T o g e t h e r w i t h her, he finally finds a c a r d — the n i n e of spades. It is this c a r d t h a t must serve to i n d i c a t e by its color w h a t the p h r a s e " u n l i v e d life" m e a n t in the d r e a m . A n d it is significant t h a t the c a r d is h i d d e n u n d e r a textbook or n o t e b o o k - w h i c h p r o b a b l y represents the a r i d intellectual formulas of H e n r y ' s technical interests. T h e n i n e has b e e n a " m a g i c n u m b e r " for centuries. A c c o r d i n g to the t r a d i t i o n a l s y m b o l ism of n u m b e r s , it r e p r e s e n t s the perfect form of the perfected T r i n i t y in its threefold elevation. A n d t h e r e are endless o t h e r m e a n i n g s associated w i t h the n u m b e r n i n e in v a r i o u s ages a n d c u l t u r e s . T h e color of the n i n e of spades is t h e color of d e a t h a n d of lifelessness. Also, the " s p a d e " i m a g e strongly brings to m i n d the form of a leaf, a n d therefore its blackness e m p h a s i z e s t h a t i n s t e a d of b e i n g g r e e n , vital, a n d n a t u r a l it is n o w d e a d . F u r t h e r m o r e , the w o r d " s p a d e " derives from the I t a l i a n spada, w h i c h m e a n s " s w o r d " or " s p e a r . " S u c h w e a p o n s often symbolize t h e p e n e t r a t i n g , " c u t t i n g " function of the intellect. T h u s t h e d r e a m m a k e s it clear t h a t it was the " m o r a l b o n d s " ( r a t h e r t h a n " c u l t u r a l " ) t h a t did not allow the old m a n to "live his life." In H e n r y ' s case, these " b o n d s " p r o b a b l y w e r e his fear of s u r r e n d e r i n g fully to life, of a c c e p t i n g responsibilities to a w o m a n a n d t h e r e b y b e c o m ing " u n f a i t h f u l " to his m o t h e r . T h e d r e a m has d e c l a r e d t h a t the " u n l i v e d l i f e " is a n illness of w h i c h one c a n die. H e n r y could n o longer d i s r e g a r d the message of this d r e a m . H e realized t h a t o n e needs somet h i n g m o r e t h a n reason as a helpful c o m p a s s in the e n t a n g l e m e n t s of life; it is necessary to seek t h e g u i d a n c e of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s p o w e r s t h a t e m e r g e as symbols o u t of t h e d e p t h s of the p s y c h e . W i t h this r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e goal of this p a r t of his analysis was r e a c h e d . H e n o w k n e w t h a t he was finally expelled from the p a r a d i s e of a n u n c o m m i t t e d life a n d t h a t he could never r e t u r n to it. 297
The final dream
A further d r e a m c a m e to confirm irrevocably t h e insights H e n r y h a d g a i n e d . After some u n i m p o r t a n t short d r e a m s t h a t c o n c e r n e d his e v e r y d a y life, the last d r e a m (the 50th in the series) a p p e a r e d w i t h all t h e w e a l t h of symbols t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s the so-called " g r e a t d r e a m s . "
A b o v e , a p h o e n i x r e b o r n in f l a m e s (from a medieval Arabic manuscript) — a w e l l - k n o w n e x a m p l e of t h e m o t i f o f d e a t h a n d r e b i r t h b y fire. B e l o w , a w o o d c u t by the 1 9 t h c e n t u r y F r e n c h artist G r a n d v i l l e reflects s o m e of t h e s y m b o l i c v a l u e of p l a y i n g c a r d s T h e S p a d e s suit, for i n s t a n c e , in F r e n c h Piques, is symbolically linked w i t h the " p e n e t r a t i n g " i n t e l l e c t a n d , b y its black color, w i t h death.
Four of us form a friendly group, and we have the following experiences: Evening: We are sitting at a long, raw-lumber table and drinking out of each of three different vessels: from a liqueur glass, a clear, yellow, sweet liqueur; from a wine glass, dark red C a m p a r i ; from a large, classically shaped vessel, tea. In addition to us there is also a girl of reserved, delicate nature. She pours her liqueur into the tea. Night: We have returned from a big drinking bout. One of us is the President de la Republique Franchise. We are in his palace. Walking out onto the balcony we perceive him beneath us in the snowy street as he, in his drunken condition, urinates against a mound of snow. His bladder content seems to be inexhaustible. Now he even runs after an old spinster who carries in her arms a child wrapped in a brown blanket. He sprays the child with his urine. T h e spinster feels the moisture but ascribes it to the child. She hurries away with long steps. Morning: Through the street, which glistens in the winter sun, goes a Negro: a gorgeous figure, completely naked. He walks toward the east, toward Berne (that is, the Swiss capital). We are in French Switzerland. We decide to go to pay him a visit. Noon: After a long automobile trip through a lonely snowy region we come to a city, and into a dark house where the Negro is said to have put up. We are very much afraid that he might be frozen to death. However, his servant, who is just as dark, receives us. Negro and servant are mute. We look into the rusksacks we have brought with us, to see what each could give the Negro as a gift. It must be some sort of object characteristic of civilization. I am the first to make up my mind and I take a package of matches from the floor and offer it to the Negro with deference. After all have presented their gifts, we join with the Negro in a happy feast, a joyous revel.
E v e n a t first g l a n c e t h e d r e a m w i t h its four p a r t s m a k e s a n u n u s u a l impression. I t e n c o m passes a w h o l e d a y a n d moves t o w a r d the " r i g h t , " in the d i r e c t i o n of g r o w i n g consciousness. T h e m o v e m e n t starts w i t h the e v e n i n g , goes over i n t o the n i g h t , a n d ends a t n o o n , w h e n the sun is a t its z e n i t h . T h u s the cycle of t h e " d a y " a p p e a r s as a totality p a t t e r n . I n this d r e a m t h e four friends seem to symbolize t h e u n f o l d i n g m a s c u l i n i t y of H e n r y ' s p s y c h e , a n d t h e i r progress t h r o u g h the four " a c t s " of the d r e a m has a g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n t h a t r e m i n d s one of the essential c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e m a n d a l a . As t h e y first c a m e from t h e east, t h e n from the west, m o v i n g o n t o w a r d t h e " c a p i t a l " of S w i t z e r l a n d (i.e. the c e n t e r ) , t h e y seem to describe a p a t t e r n t h a t tries to u n i t e the opposites in a center. A n d this p o i n t is u n d e r l i n e d b y the m o v e m e n t in t i m e — t h e d e scent i n t o the n i g h t of t h e unconsciousness, following t h e s u n ' s circuit, w h i c h is followed by a n ascent to the b r i g h t z e n i t h of consciousness. T h e d r e a m begins in the evening, a t i m e w h e n t h e t h r e s h o l d of consciousness is lowered a n d the impulses a n d i m a g e s of the unconscious c a n pass across it. I n such a c o n d i t i o n ( w h e n the feminine side of m a n is most easily evoked) it is n a t u r a l to find t h a t a female figure j o i n s t h e four friends. S h e is the a n i m a figure t h a t belongs to t h e m all ("reserved a n d d e l i c a t e , " r e m i n d i n g H e n r y of his sister) a n d c o n n e c t s t h e m all to e a c h o t h e r . O n the t a b l e s t a n d t h r e e vessels of different c h a r a c t e r , w h i c h by their c o n c a v e form a c c e n t u a t e the receptiveness t h a t is s y m b o l i c of the feminine. T h e fact t h a t these vessels a r e used by all present indicates a m u t u a l a n d close r e l a t e d n e s s a m o n g t h e m . T h e vessels differ in form ( l i q u e u r glass, w i n e glass, a n d a classically formed c o n t a i n e r ) a n d in the color of t h e i r c o n t e n t s . T h e opposites into w h i c h these fluids d i v i d e — s w e e t a n d bitter, red a n d yellow, i n t o x i c a t i n g a n d s o b e r i n g — a r e all i n t e r m i n g l e d , t h r o u g h b e i n g c o n s u m e d by e a c h
of the five persons present, w h o sink into an unconscious c o m m u n i o n . T h e girl seems to be the secret agent, the catalyst w h o precipitates events (for it is the role of the a n i m a to lead a m a n into his UP. conscious, a n d thus to force h i m to deeper recollection a n d increased consciousness). It is almost as t h o u g h w i t h the mixing of l i q u e u r a n d tea t h e p a r t y w o u l d a p p r o a c h its climax. T h e second p a r t of the d r e a m tells us more of the h a p p e n i n g s of this " n i g h t . " T h e four friends s u d d e n l y find themselves in Paris (which, for the Swiss, represents the t o w n of sensuality, of u n i n h i b i t e d j o y a n d love). H e r e a c e r t a i n differentiation of the four takes place, especially b e t w e e n the ego in the d r e a m (which is to a g r e a t extent identified with the leading t h i n k i n g function) a n d the " P r e s i d e n t de la R e p u b l i q u e , " w h o represents the u n d e v e l o p e d a n d unconscious feeling function. T h e ego ( H e n r y a n d two friends, w h o m a y be considered as r e p r e s e n t i n g his semi-conscious functions) looks d o w n from the height of a b a l c o n y o n the President, whose characteristics a r e exactly w h a t o n e w o u l d expect to find in the undifferentiated side of the psyche. H e is u n s t a b l e , a n d has a b a n d o n e d himself to his instincts. H e u r i n a t e s on the street in a d r u n k e n s t a t e ; h e is unconscious of himself, like a person outside civilization, following only his n a t u r a l a n i m a l urges. T h u s the President symbolizes a g r e a t contrast to the consciously accepted stand a r d s of a good middle-class Swiss scientist. O n l y in the darkest night of the unconscious could this side of H e n r y reveal itself. H o w e v e r , the President-figure also has a very positive aspect. His u r i n e (which could be the s y m b o l of a s t r e a m of psychic libido) seems inexhaustible. It gives evidence of a b u n d a n c e , of creative a n d vital strength. (Primitives, for instance, r e g a r d e v e r y t h i n g c o m i n g from the b o d y — hair, e x c r e m e n t , u r i n e , or saliva—as creative, as h a v i n g magical powers.) T h i s u n p l e a s a n t 299
P r c s i d c n t - i m a g c , therefore, could also be a sign of the p o w e r a n d p l e n t y t h a t often a d h e r e s to the s h a d o w side of t h e ego. N o t only does he u r i n a t e w i t h o u t e m b a r r a s s m e n t , b u t he r u n s after a n old w o m a n w h o is h o l d i n g a child. T h i s " o l d s p i n s t e r " is in a w a y the opposite or c o m p l e m e n t of the shy, fragile a n i m a of t h e first p a r t of the d r e a m . S h e is still a virgin, even t h o u g h old a n d seemingly a m o t h e r ; in fact, H e n r y associated h e r to t h e a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e of M a r y with the child J e s u s . But the fact t h a t the b a b y is w r a p p e d in a b r o w n ( e a r t h - c o l o r e d ) b l a n k e t makes it seem to be the c h t h o n i c , e a r t h b o u n d c o u n t e r - i m a g e of the Savior r a t h e r t h a n a h e a v e n l y child. T h e P r e s i d e n t , w h o sprinkles the child w i t h his u r i n e , seems to p e r f o r m a travesty of b a p t i s m . If we t a k e the child as a symbol of a p o t e n t i a l i t y w i t h i n H e n r y t h a t is still infantile, t h e n it could receive s t r e n g t h t h r o u g h this r i t u a l . But the d r e a m says n o t h i n g m o r e ; the w o m a n h u r r i e s a w a y with the child. T h i s scene m a r k s the t u r n i n g point of the d r e a m . It is m o r n i n g a g a i n . E v e r y t h i n g t h a t was d a r k , black, p r i m i t i v e , a n d powerful in the last episode has b e e n g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r a n d s y m b o l i z e d by a magnificent N e g r o , w h o a p p e a r s n a k e d - i . e . real a n d t r u e . J u s t as d a r k n e s s a n d b r i g h t m o r n i n g — o r hot u r i n e a n d cold s n o w — a r e opposites, so n o w the black m a n a n d t h e w h i t e l a n d s c a p e form a s h a r p antithesis. T h e four friends n o w must orient themselves w i t h i n these new d i m e n s i o n s .
A d r i n k i n g vessel f r o m a n c i e n t P e r u , in t h e s h a p e o f a w o m a n , reflects the feminine s y m b o l i s m of s u c h c o n t a i n e r s , w h i c h o c c u r s in H e n r y ' s f i n a l d r e a m .
Their position has c h a n g e d ; the w a y t h a t led t h r o u g h Paris has b r o u g h t t h e m u n e x p e c t e d l y i n t o F r e n c h S w i t z e r l a n d ( w h e r e H e n r y ' s fiancee c a m e from). A t r a n s f o r m a t i o n has taken p l a c e in H e n r y d u r i n g the earlier p h a s e , w h e n he was o v e r p o w e r e d by u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s of his p s y c h e . N o w , for the last t i m e , he c a n begin to find his w a y forward from a p l a c e t h a t was his fiancees h o m e (showing t h a t he a c c e p t s her psychological b a c k g r o u n d ) . At the b e g i n n i n g he w e n t from eastern S w i t z e r l a n d to Paris (from the east to the west, w h e r e the w a y leads into d a r k n e s s , the u n c o n sciousness). H e has n o w m a d e a t u r n of 180", t o w a r d the rising sun a n d the ever-increasing clarity of consciousness. T h i s w a y points to the m i d d l e of S w i t z e r l a n d , to its c a p i t a l . Berne, a n d symbolizes H e n r y ' s striving t o w a r d a center that w o u l d u n i t e the opposites w i t h i n him. T h e N e g r o is for some p e o p l e the a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e of " t h e d a r k p r i m a l c r e a t u r e " a n d thus a personification of c e r t a i n c o n t e n t s of,the unconscious. P e r h a p s this is o n e reason w h y the N e g r o is so often rejected a n d feared by people of the white race. In him the w h i t e m a n sees his living c o u n t e r p a r t , his h i d d e n , d a r k side b r o u g h t before his eyes. (This is j u s t w h a t most p e o p l e try to a v o i d ; they w a n t to cut it off a n d repress it.) W h i t e m e n project o n t o the Negro the p r i m i t i v e drives, the a r c h a i c p o w e r s , the u n c o n t r o l l e d instincts t h a t they d o not w a n t to a d m i t in themselves, of w h i c h they a r e u n c o n scious, a n d t h a t they therefore d e s i g n a t e as the c o r r e s p o n d i n g qualities of o t h e r p e o p l e . F o r a y o u n g m a n of H e n r y ' s age the N e g r o m a y s t a n d on the o n e h a n d for the sum of all d a r k traits repressed i n t o u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; on the o t h e r h a n d , h e m a y r e p r e s e n t the s u m of his p r i m i t i v e , m a s c u l i n e s t r e n g t h a n d p o t e n tialities, his e m o t i o n a l a n d physical power. T h a t H e n r y a n d his friends i n t e n d consciously to confront the N e g r o signifies therefore a decisive step forward o n the w a y to m a n h o o d . In the m e a n t i m e it has b e c o m e n o o n , w h e n the sun is at its highest, a n d consciousness has r e a c h e d its greatest clarity. W e m i g h t say that H e n r v ' s ego has c o n t i n u e d to b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e c o m p a c t , t h a t he has e n h a n c e d his c a p a -
300
city consciously to m a k e decisions. I t is still w i n t e r , w h i c h m a y i n d i c a t e a lack of feeling a n d w a r m t h in H e n r y ; his psychic l a n d s c a p e is still w i n t r y a n d a p p a r e n t l y intellectually very cold. T h e four friends a r e afraid t h a t the n a k e d N e g r o (being a c c u s t o m e d to a w a r m climate) m i g h t be frozen. But their fear t u r n s o u t to be g r o u n d l e s s , for after a long d r i v e t h r o u g h d e serted s n o w - c o v e r e d c o u n t r y they stop in a s t r a n g e city a n d e n t e r a d a r k house. T h i s drive a n d the desolate c o u n t r y is symbolic of the long a n d w e a r i s o m e s e a r c h for self-development. A further c o m p l i c a t i o n awaits the four friends h e r e . T h e N e g r o a n d his s e r v a n t are m u t e . T h e r e f o r e it is not possible to m a k e v e r b a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e m ; the four friends must seek o t h e r m e a n s to get in t o u c h w i t h the N e g r o . T h e y c a n n o t use intellectual m e a n s (words) b u t r a t h e r a feeling g e s t u r e to a p p r o a c h h i m . T h e y offer h i m a p r e s e n t as one gives a n offering to the gods, to win their interest a n d their affection. A n d it has to be a n object of o u r civilization, b e l o n g i n g to the values of the intellectual w h i t e m a n . A g a i n a sacrificium intellectus is d e m a n d e d to win the favor of the N e g r o , w h o r e p r e s e n t s n a t u r e a n d instinct. H e n r y is the first to m a k e u p his m i n d w h a t to d o . T h i s is n a t u r a l , since he is the b e a r e r of the ego, whose p r o u d consciousness (or hybris) has to be h u m b l e d . H e picks u p a box of m a t c h e s from the floor a n d presents it " w i t h d e f e r e n c e " to the N e g r o . At first g l a n c e it m a y seem a b s u r d t h a t a small object lying on the floor a n d p r o b a b l y t h r o w n a w a y should be the p r o p e r gift, b u t this was the r i g h t choice. M a t c h e s are stored a n d controlled fire, a m e a n s by w h i c h a flame c a n be lit a n d p u t o u t at anyt i m e . Fire a n d flame symbolize w a r m t h a n d love, feeling a n d p a s s i o n ; they are q u a l i t i e s of the h e a r t , found w h e r e v e r h u m a n beings exist. In giving the N e g r o such a present, H e n r y symbolically c o m b i n e s a highly d e v e l o p e d civilized p r o d u c t of his conscious ego w i t h the c e n t e r of his o w n p r i m i t i v i t y a n d m a l e s t r e n g t h , symbolized by the N e g r o . I n this w a y , H e n r y can c o m e into the full possession of his m a l e sides, with w h i c h his ego must r e m a i n in cons t a n t t o u c h from n o w o n .
T h i s was t h e result. T h e six m a l e persons — the four friends, t h e N e g r o , a n d his s e r v a n t — a r e n o w t o g e t h e r in a gay spirit at a c o m m u n a l m e a l . It is clear t h a t h e r e H e n r y ' s m a s c u l i n e totality has b e e n r o u n d e d o u t . His ego seems to h a v e found the security it needs to e n a b l e h i m consciously a n d freely to s u b m i t to the g r e a t e r a r c h e t y p a l personality w i t h i n himself, w h i c h foreshadows the e m e r g e n c e of the Self. W h a t h a p p e n e d in the d r e a m h a d its parallel also in H e n r y ' s w a k i n g life. N o w he was sure of himself. D e c i d i n g quickly, h e b e c a m e serious a b o u t his e n g a g e m e n t . E x a c t l y nine m o n t h s after his analysis h a d b e g u n , he m a r r i e d in a little c h u r c h of w e s t e r n S w i t z e r l a n d ; a n d he left the following d a y w i t h his y o u n g wife for C a n a d a to take u p a n a p p o i n t m e n t t h a t he h a d received d u r i n g the decisive weeks of his last d r e a m s . Since t h e n he has b e e n living a n active, creative life as the h e a d of a little family a n d holds a n executive position in a g r e a t i n d u s t r y . H e n r y ' s case reveals, so to speak, a n accelerated m a t u r a t i o n to a n i n d e p e n d e n t a n d responsible m a n l i n e s s . It represents a n initiation into the reality of o u t e r life, a s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the ego a n d of his m a s c u l i n i t y , a n d w i t h this a c o m pletion of the first half of the i n d i v i d u a t i o n process. T h e second h a l f — w h i c h is the establ i s h m e n t of a r i g h t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the ego a n d the Self—still lies a h e a d of H e n r y , in the second half of his life. N o t every case r u n s such a successful a n d stirring course, a n d not every case can be h a n d l e d in a similar way. O n the c o n t r a r y , every case is different. N o t only d o the y o u n g a n d the old, or the m a n a n d the w o m a n , call for different t r e a t m e n t ; so does every indiv i d u a l in all these categories. E v e n the same symbols r e q u i r e different i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in each case. I h a v e selected this o n e b e c a u s e it r e p r e sents a n especially impressive e x a m p l e of the a u t o n o m y of the unconscious processes a n d shows by its a b u n d a n c e of images the u n t i r i n g s y m b o l - c r e a t i n g p o w e r of the psychic backg r o u n d . It proves t h a t t h e self-regulating action of the psyche ( w h e n not d i s t u r b e d by too m u c h r a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n or dissection) c a n s u p p o r t the d e v e l o p m e n t process of the soul.
3
oi
In Psychology and Alchemy Dr. J u n g d i s c u s s e s a s e q u e n c e of o v e r 1 0 0 0 d r e a m s p r o d u c e d by o n e m a n . T h e s e q u e n c e revealed a s t r i k i n g n u m b e r a n d v a r i e t y of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e m a n d a l a m o t i f — w h i c h is so o f t e n l i n k e d w i t h t h e realization o f t h e Self (see p p . 2 1 3 f f . ) . T h e s e p a g e s p r e s e n t a f e w e x a m p l e s of m a n d a l a imagery from the dreams, to indicate t h e v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s in w h i c h t h i s a r c h e t y p e c a n m a n i f e s t itseif, e v e n in o n e i n d i v i d u a l ' s u n c o n s c i o u s . The interpretative meanings offered here m a y , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r b r e v i t y , s e e m t o be arbitrary assertions. In p r a c t i c e no J u n g i a n w o u l d p r o d u c e an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a d r e a m w i t h o u t k n o w l e d g e of the dreamer and careful s t u d y of his a s s o c i a t i o n s t o t h e dream. These interpretative statements m u s t be t a k e n as h i n t s t o w a r d possible meanings — nothing more.
Left: In t h e d r e a m t h e a n i m a a c c u s e s t h e m a n of b e i n g i n a t t e n t i v e to her. A c l o c k says f i v e m i n u t e s t o t h e h o u r . T h e m a n is b e i n g " p e s t e r e d " by his unconscious: the tension thus c r e a t e d is h e i g h t e n e d by t h e c l o c k , by w a i t i n g for s o m e t h i n g t o h a p p e n in f i v e m i n u t e s .
B e l o w : A skull ( w h i c h t h e m a n tries in v a i n t o kick a w a y ) b e c o m e s a red ball, t h e n a w o m a n ' s h e a d . Here t h e m a n m a y try t o reject t h e unconscious (kicking the skull), b u t it asserts itself by m e a n s of t h e ball ( p e r h a p s a l l u d i n g t o t h e s u n ) and the anima figure.
Left: In part of a d r e a m , a p r i n c e p l a c e s a d i a m o n d ring o n t h e f o u r t h f i n g e r of t h e d r e a m e r ' s left h a n d . T h e r i n g , w o r n like a w e d d i n g r i n g , i n d i c a t e s that t h e d r e a m e r has t a k e n a " v o w " to t h e Self. B e l o w left: A v e i l e d w o m a n u n c o v e r s her face, w h i c h s h i n e s like t h e s u n . The image implies an illumination of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ( i n v o l v i n g t h e a n i m a ) — quite different from conscious elucidation. Below: From a transparent sphere c o n t a i n i n g small spheres, a g r e e n plant g r o w s . T h e s p h e r e s y m b o l i z e s u n i t y : t h e p l a n t , life a n d g r o w t h .
Below: Troops, no longer preparing for w a r , f o r m an e i g h t - r a y e d star a n d r o t a t e t o t h e left. T h i s i m a g e p e r h a p s i n d i c a t e s t h a t s o m e inner c o n f l i c t has g i v e n w a y t o h a r m o n y .
C o n c l u s i o n : M.-L. v o n Franz Science and t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
I n the p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s C. G . J u n g a n d some of his associates h a v e tried to m a k e clear the role p l a y e d by the s y m b o l - c r e a t i n g function in m a n ' s u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e a n d to p o i n t o u t some fields of a p p l i c a t i o n in this newly discovered a r e a of life. W e a r e still far from u n d e r s t a n d i n g the u n c o n s c i o u s or the a r c h e t y p e s — those d y n a mic nuclei of the psyche — in all their i m p l i c a tions. All we c a n see n o w is t h a t t h e a r c h e t y p e s h a v e a n e n o r m o u s i m p a c t on the i n d i v i d u a l , forming his e m o t i o n s a n d his ethical a n d m e n t a l outlook, influencing his relationships with o t h e r s , a n d t h u s affecting his w h o l e destiny. W e c a n also see t h a t the a r r a n g e m e n t of a r c h e t y p a l symbols follows a p a t t e r n of wholeness in the individual, and that an appropriate understanding of the symbols c a n h a v e a h e a l i n g effect. A n d we can see t h a t the a r c h e t y p e s c a n act as c r e a t i v e or d e s t r u c t i v e forces in o u r m i n d : c r e a t i v e w h e n they inspire n e w ideas, d e s t r u c tive w h e n these s a m e ideas stiffen into conscious prejudices t h a t i n h i b i t further discoveries. J u n g has s h o w n in his c h a p t e r h o w subtle a n d differentiated all a t t e m p t s at i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m u s t be, in o r d e r n o t t o w e a k e n the specific i n d i v i d u a l a n d c u l t u r a l values of a r c h e t y p a l ideas a n d symbols by leveling t h e m o u t - - i . e . by giving t h e m a s t e r e o t y p e d , intellectually f o r m u l a t e d m e a n i n g . J u n g h i m s c l f d e d i c a t e d his entire life to such investigations a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i v e w o r k ; n a t u r ally this book sketches only a n infinitesimal p a r t of his vast c o n t r i b u t i o n to this n e w field of psychological discovery. H e was a p i o n e e r a n d r e m a i n e d fully a w a r e t h a t a n e n o r m o u s n u m b e r of further questions r e m a i n e d u n a n s w e r e d a n d call for further investigation. T h i s is w h y his concepts a n d hypotheses are conceived on as wide a basis as possible ( w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e m too v a g u e a n d a l l - e m b r a c i n g ) a n d w h y his views form a so-called " o p e n s y s t e m " t h a t does not close the d o o r against possible n e w discoveries. T o J u n g , his concepts were m e r e tools or heuristic hypotheses t h a t m i g h t help us to ex304
p l o r e the vast n e w a r e a of reality o p e n e d u p by the discovery of the unconscious— a discovery t h a t has not m e r e l y w i d e n e d o u r whole view of t h e w o r l d b u t has in fact d o u b l e d it. W e must always ask n o w w h e t h e r a m e n t a l p h e n o m e n o n is conscious or u n c o n s c i o u s a n d , also, w h e t h e r a " r e a l " o u t e r p h e n o m e n o n is p e r c e i v e d by conscious or u n c o n s c i o u s m e a n s . T h e powerful forces of the unconscious most certainly a p p e a r not only in clinical m a t e r i a l b u t also in the m y t h o l o g i c a l , religious, artistic, a n d all the o t h e r c u l t u r a l activities by w h i c h m a n expresses himself. O b v i o u s l y , if all m e n h a v e c o m m o n i n h e r i t e d p a t t e r n s of e m o t i o n a l a n d m e n t a l b e h a v i o r (which J u n g called the a r c h e t y p e s ) , it is only to be e x p e c t e d t h a t we shall find their p r o d u c t s (symbolic fantasies, t h o u g h t s , a n d actions) in practically every field of h u m a n activity. I m p o r t a n t m o d e r n investigations of m a n y of these fields h a v e been d e e p l y influenced by J u n g ' s work. F o r i n s t a n c e , this influence c a n be seen in the study of l i t e r a t u r e , in such books as J . B. Priestley's Literature and Western Man, Gottfried D i e n e r ' s Fausts Weg zu Helena, or J a m e s K i r s c h ' s Shakespeare's Hamlet. Similarly, J u n g i a n psychology has c o n t r i b u t e d to the study of art, as in the writings of H e r b e r t R e a d or of A n i e l a Jaffe, E r i c h N e u m a n n ' s e x a m i n a tion of H e n r y M o o r e , or M i c h a e l T i p p e t t ' s studies in music. A r n o l d T o y n b e e ' s work on history a n d P a u l R a d i n ' s on a n t h r o p o l o g y h a v e benefited from J u n g ' s teachings, as h a v e the c o n t r i b u t i o n s to sinology m a d e by R i c h a r d Wilh e l m , E n w i n Rousselle, a n d M a n f r e d P o r k e r t .
S o u n d w a v e s , g i v e n off by a v i b r a t i n g steel disk a n d m a d e v i s i b l e in a p h o t o g r a p h , p r o d u c e a strikingly mandala-like pattern
O f course, this does n o t m e a n t h a t the special features of a r t a n d l i t e r a t u r e ( i n c l u d i n g their i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ) c a n be u n d e r s t o o d only from their a r c h e t y p a l f o u n d a t i o n . T h e s e fields all h a v e their o w n laws of a c t i v i t y ; like all really creative a c h i e v e m e n t s , t h e y c a n n o t u l t i m a t e l y be r a t i o n a l l y e x p l a i n e d . But w i t h i n their areas of a c t i o n o n e c a n r e c o g n i z e the a r c h e t y p a l p a t t e r n s as a d y n a m i c b a c k g r o u n d activity. A n d o n e c a n often d e c i p h e r in t h e m (as in d r e a m s ) the message of some seemingly p u r p o s i v e , e v o l u t i o n a r y t e n d e n c y of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e fruitfulness ofJ u n g ' s ideas is m o r e i m m e diately u n d e r s t a n d a b l e w i t h i n the a r e a of the c u l t u r a l activities of m a n : O b v i o u s l y , if the a r c h e t y p e s d e t e r m i n e o u r m e n t a l b e h a v i o r , they must a p p e a r in all these fields. But, u n e x p e c t edly, J u n g ' s c o n c e p t s h a v e also o p e n e d u p n e w ways of looking at things in the r e a l m of the n a t u r a l sciences as well—for instance, in biology. T h e physicist W o l f g a n g P a u l i has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , d u e to n e w discoveries, o u r i d e a of the e v o l u t i o n of life r e q u i r e s a revision t h a t m i g h t take i n t o a c c o u n t a n a r e a of i n t e r r e l a t i o n bet w e e n the u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e a n d biological processes. U n t i l r e c e n t l y it was a s s u m e d t h a t the m u t a t i o n of species h a p p e n e d at r a n d o m a n d t h a t a selection took place by m e a n s of w h i c h the " m e a n i n g f u l , " w e l l - a d a p t e d varieties survived, a n d the o t h e r s d i s a p p e a r e d . But m o d e r n evolutionists h a v e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e selections of such m u t a t i o n s by p u r e c h a n c e w o u l d h a v e t a k e n m u c h longer t h a n the k n o w n age of o u r p l a n e t allows. J u n g ' s c o n c e p t of s y n c h r o n i c i t y m a y be h e l p ful h e r e , for it c o u l d t h r o w light u p o n the o c c u r rence of c e r t a i n r a r e " b o r d e r - p h e n o m e n a , " or e x c e p t i o n a l e v e n t s ; thus it m i g h t e x p l a i n h o w " m e a n i n g f u l " a d a p t a t i o n s a n d m u t a t i o n s could h a p p e n in less t i m e t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d by entirely r a n d o m m u t a t i o n s . T o d a y we k n o w of m a n y instances in w h i c h m e a n i n g f u l " c h a n c e " events h a v e o c c u r r e d w h e n a n a r c h e t y p e is activ a t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , the history of science contains m a n y cases of s i m u l t a n e o u s i n v e n t i o n or discovery. O n e of the most famous of such cases involved D a r w i n a n d his t h e o r y of the origin of 306
species: D a r w i n h a d d e v e l o p e d the t h e o r y in a l e n g t h y essay, a n d in 1844 was busy e x p a n d i n g this i n t o a m a j o r treatise. W h i l e he was a t work o n this project he received a m a n u s c r i p t from a y o u n g biologist, u n k n o w n to D a r w i n , n a m e d A. R . W a l l a c e . T h e m a n u s c r i p t was a s h o r t e r b u t otherwise p a r a l l e l exposition of D a r w i n ' s t h e o r y . At the t i m e W a l l a c e was in the M o l u c c a Islands of the M a l a y A r c h i p e l a g o . H e k n e w of D a r w i n as a n a t u r a l i s t , b u t h a d n o t t h e slightest idea of the kind of t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k on w h i c h D a r w i n was at the time engaged. I n e a c h case a creative scientist h a d i n d e p e n d e n t l y a r r i v e d a t a hypothesis t h a t was to c h a n g e t h e entire d e v e l o p m e n t of the science. A n d e a c h h a d initially conceived of t h e h y p o thesis in a n i n t u i t i v e " f l a s h " (later b a c k e d u p by d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e ) . T h e a r c h e t y p e s thus seem to a p p e a r as t h e a g e n t s , so to speak, of a creatio continua. ( W h a t J u n g calls synchronistic events a r e in fact s o m e t h i n g like " a c t s of creation in t i m e . " ) S i m i l a r " m e a n i n g f u l c o i n c i d e n c e s " c a n be said to o c c u r w h e n t h e r e is a vital necessity for a n i n d i v i d u a l to k n o w a b o u t , say, a relative's d e a t h , or some lost possession. I n a g r e a t m a n y cases such i n f o r m a t i o n has b e e n revealed by m e a n s of extrasensory p e r c e p t i o n . T h i s seems to suggest t h a t a b n o r m a l r a n d o m p h e n o m e n a m a y o c c u r w h e n a vital need or u r g e is a r o u s e d ; a n d this in t u r n m i g h t e x p l a i n w h y a species of a n i m a l s , u n d e r g r e a t pressure or in g r e a t need, could p r o d u c e " m e a n i n g f u l " ( b u t acausal) c h a n g e s in its o u t e r m a t e r i a l s t r u c t u r e . But t h e most p r o m i s i n g field for future studies seems (as J u n g saw it) to h a v e u n e x p e c t e d l y o p e n e d u p in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the c o m p l e x field of microphysics. At first sight, it seems most u n likely t h a t we s h o u l d find a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n psychology a n d microphysics. T h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n of these sciences is w o r t h some e x p l a n a t i o n . T h e most o b v i o u s aspect of such a c o n n e c t i o n lies in t h e fact t h a t most of the basic concepts of physics (such as space, t i m e , m a t t e r , energy, c o n t i n u u m or field, p a r t i c l e , etc.) w e r e originally i n t u i t i v e , s e m i - m y t h o l o g i c a l , a r c h e t y p a l ideas of the old G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s — ideas t h a t
then slowly evolved a n d b e c a m e m o r e a c c u r a t e a n d t h a t t o d a y a r e m a i n l y expressed in a b s t r a c t m a t h e m a t i c a l t e r m s . The idea of a p a r t i c l e , for instance, was f o r m u l a t e d by the f o u r t h - c e n t u r y B . C . G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r L e u c i p p u s a n d his pupil D e m o c r i t u s , w h o called it the " a t o m " i.e. the "indivisible u n i t . " T h o u g h the a t o m has not proved indivisible, we still conceive m a t t e r ultimately as consisting of waves a n d particles (or discontinuous " q u a n t a " ) . T h e idea of e n e r g y , a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p to force a n d m o v e m e n t , was also f o r m u l a t e d by early G r e e k t h i n k e r s , a n d was d e v e l o p e d by Stoic p h i l o s o p h e r s . T h e y p o s t u l a t e d the existence of a sort of life-giving " t e n s i o n " (tonos), which s u p p o r t s a n d moves all things. T h i s is obviously a s e m i - m y t h o l o g i c a l g e r m of o u r m o d e r n c o n c e p t of e n e r g y . Even c o m p a r a t i v e l y m o d e r n scientists a n d thinkers h a v e relied on half-mythological, a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e s w h e n b u i l d i n g u p n e w concepts. In the 17th c e n t u r y , for i n s t a n c e , the absolute validity of the law of causality seemed " p r o v e d " to R e n e Descartes " b y t h e fact t h a t God is i m m u t a b l e in His decisions a n d a c t i o n s . " And the g r e a t G e r m a n a s t r o n o m e r J o h a n n e s K e p l e r asserted t h a t t h e r e a r c not m o r e a n d not less t h a n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s of space o n a c c o u n t of the T r i n i t y . These are just two examples a m o n g many t h a t show h o w even o u r m o d e r n a n d basic scientific c o n c e p t s r e m a i n e d for a long time linked with a r c h e t y p a l ideas t h a t originally c a m e from the u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e y d o not necessarily express " o b j e c t i v e " facts (or at least we c a n n o t prove t h a t they u l t i m a t e l y do) b u t s p r i n g from i n n a t e m e n t a l t e n d e n c i e s in m a n — t e n d e n -
cies t h a t i n d u c e h i m to find " s a t i s f a c t o r y " r a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t o r y c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n the v a r i o u s o u t e r a n d i n n e r facts with w h i c h he has to d e a l . W h e n e x a m i n i n g n a t u r e a n d the universe, instead of looking for a n d finding objective q u a l i t i e s , " m a n e n c o u n t e r s himself," in the p h r a s e of the physicist W e r n e r H e i s e n b e r g . Because of t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this point of view, W o l f g a n g Pauli a n d o t h e r scientists h a v e b e g u n to s t u d y the role of a r c h e t y p a l symbolism in the r e a l m of scientific c o n c e p t s . Pauli believed t h a t we s h o u l d parallel o u r investigation of o u t e r objects w i t h a psychological investigation of t h e inner origin of o u r scientific concepts. ( T h i s investigation m i g h t shed n e w light on a f a r - r e a c h i n g c o n c e p t to be i n t r o d u c e d later in this c h a p t e r — t h e c o n c e p t of a " o n e - n e s s " b e t w e e n the physical a n d psychological spheres, q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d q u a l i t a t i v e aspects of reality.) Besides this r a t h e r o b v i o u s link b e t w e e n the psychology of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d physics, there, a r e o t h e r even m o r e fascinating c o n n e c t i o n s . J u n g ( w o r k i n g closely with Pauli) discovered t h a t a n a l y t i c a l psychology has been forced by investigations in its o w n field to c r e a t e concepts t h a t t u r n e d o u t l a t e r to be strikingly similar to those c r e a t e d by the physicists w h e n confronted with m i c r o p h y s i c a l p h e n o m e n a . O n e of the most i m p o r t a n t a m o n g the physicists' c o n c e p t s is Niels Bohr's idea of complementarity. M o d e r n microphysics has discovered t h a t one c a n describe light only by m e a n s of t w o logically o p p o s e d b u t c o m p l e m e n t a r y c o n c e p t s : T h e ideas of p a r t i c l e a n d w a v e . In grossly simplified t e r m s , it m i g h t be said t h a t u n d e r c e r t a i n exp e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s light manifests itself as if it w e r e c o m p o s e d of p a r t i c l e s ; u n d e r o t h e r s , as The A m e r i c a n physicist Mrs. Maria M a y e r , w h o in 1 9 6 3 s h a r e d t h e N o b e l prize for p h y s i c s Her d i s c o v e r y — c o n c e r n i n g the constituents of the a t o m i c n u c l e u s — w a s m a d e like so many other scientific discoveries: in an i n t u i t i v e f l a s h of i n s i g h t (sparked by a colleague's chance r e m a r k ) . Her t h e o r y i n d i c a t e s that t h e n u c l e u s c o n s i s t s of c o n c e n t r i c shells: T h e i n n e r m o s t c o n t a i n s t w o p r o t o n s or t w o n e u t r o n s , t h e n e x t c o n t a i n s e i g h t of o n e or t h e o t h e r , a n d so o n t h r o u g h w h a t she calls t h e " m a g i c n u m b e r s " — 2 0 , 28, 50, 8 2 . 1 2 6 There is an o b v i o u s link b e t w e e n this m o d e l a n d t h e a r c h e t y p e s of t h e sphere a n d of n u m b e r s
3<>7
if it were a w a v e . Also, it was discovered t h a t we can a c c u r a t e l y observe either the position or the velocity of a s u b a t o m i c p a r t i c l e - b u t not b o t h at o n c e . T h e o b s e r v e r must choose his experim e n t a l set-up, b u t by d o i n g so he excludes (or r a t h e r must "sacrifice") some o t h e r possible setu p a n d its results. F u r t h e r m o r e , the m e a s u r i n g a p p a r a t u s has to be i n c l u d e d in the description of events b e c a u s e it has a decisive b u t u n c o n t r o l lable influence u p o n the e x p e r i m e n t a l set-up. Pauli says: " T h e science of microphysics, on a c c o u n t of the basic ' c o m p l e m e n t a r y ' situation, is faced with the impossibility of e l i m i n a t i n g the effects of the o b s e r v e r by d e t e r m i n a b l e correctives a n d has therefore to a b a n d o n in principle a n y objective u n d e r s t a n d i n g of physical p h e n o m e n a . W h e r e classical physics still saw ' d e t e r m i n e d causal n a t u r a l laws of n a t u r e ' we now look only for 'statistical laws' with ' p r i m a r y possibilities.' " I n o t h e r w o r d s , in microphysics the observer interferes with the e x p e r i m e n t in a way t h a t c a n n o t be m e a s u r e d a n d t h a t therefore c a n n o t be e l i m i n a t e d . N o n a t u r a l laws c a n be formulated, saying " s u c h - a n d - s u c h will h a p p e n in every c a s e . " All the microphysicist can say is " s u c h - a n d - s u c h is, a c c o r d i n g to statistical p r o b a b i l i t y , likely to h a p p e n . " T h i s n a t u r a l l y represents a t r e m e n d o u s p r o b l e m for o u r classical physical t h i n k i n g . It requires a consideration, in a scientific e x p e r i m e n t , of the m e n t a l outlook of the p a r t i c i p a n t - o b s e r v e r : It could thus be said t h a t scientists can no longer h o p e to describe a n y aspects of o u t e r objects in a completely " o b j e c t i v e " m a n n e r . Most m o d e r n physicists h a v e a c c e p t e d the fact that the role p l a y e d by the conscious ideas of a n observer in every m i c r o p h y s i c a l experim e n t c a n n o t be e l i m i n a t e d ; b u t they h a v e not c o n c e r n e d themselves with the possibility t h a t the total psychological c o n d i t i o n ( b o t h conscious a n d unconscious) of the observer m i g h t play a role as well. As Pauli points o u t , h o w e v e r , we h a v e at least no a priori reasons for rejecting this possibility. But we must look at this as a still unanswered and an unexplored problem. Bohr's idea of c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y is especially interesting to J u n g i a n psychologists, for J u n g 308
saw t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the conscious a n d u n c o n s c i o u s m i n d also forms a c o m p l e m e n tary p a i r of opposites. E a c h new c o n t e n t that comes u p from the unconscious is altered in its basic n a t u r e by b e i n g p a r t l y i n t e g r a t e d into the conscious m i n d of the observer. Even d r e a m c o n t e n t s (if noticed at all) are in that way semi-conscious. A n d each e n l a r g e m e n t of the observer's consciousness caused by d r e a m interp r e t a t i o n has a g a i n a n i m m e a s u r a b l e repercussion a n d influence on the unconscious. Thus the unconscious can only be a p p r o x i m a t e l y described (like the particles of microphysics] by p a r a d o x i c a l c o n c e p t s . W h a t it really is "in itself" we shall n e v e r k n o w , just as we shall never know this a b o u t m a t t e r . T o take the parallels b e t w e e n psychology a n d microphysics even f u r t h e r : W h a t J u n g calls the a r c h e t y p e s (or p a t t e r n s of e m o t i o n a l a n d m e n t a l b e h a v i o r in m a n ) could just as well be called, to use Pauli's t e r m , " p r i m a r y possibilities" of psychic reactions. As has b e e n stressed in this book, t h e r e a r e n o laws g o v e r n i n g the specific form in which an a r c h e t y p e m i g h t a p p e a r . T h e r e are only " t e n d e n c i e s " (see p. 67) that, a g a i n , e n a b l e us to say only t h a t s u c h - a n d - s u c h is likely to h a p p e n in certain psychological situations. As the A m e r i c a n psychologist W i l l i a m J a m e s once p o i n t e d o u t , the idea of a n unconscious could itself be c o m p a r e d to the " f i e l d " concept in physics. W e m i g h t say t h a t , j u s t as in a m a g netic field the particles e n t e r i n g into it a p p e a r in a c e r t a i n o r d e r , psychological c o n t e n t s also a p p e a r in an o r d e r e d w a y w i t h i n t h a t psychic a r e a w h i c h we call the unconscious. If we call s o m e t h i n g " r a t i o n a l " or " m e a n i n g f u l " in our conscious m i n d , a n d a c c e p t it as a satisfactory " e x p l a n a t i o n " of things, it is p r o b a b l y d u e to the fact t h a t o u r conscious e x p l a n a t i o n is in h a r m o n y with some preconscious constellation of c o n t e n t s in o u r unconscious. In o t h e r w o r d s , o u r conscious r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s are sometimes o r d e r e d (or a r r a n g e d in a pattern) before they h a v e b e c o m e conscious to us. T h e 19th-century G e r m a n m a t h e m a t i c i a n K a r l F r i e d r i c h Gauss gives an e x a m p l e of an experience of such a n unconscious o r d e r of i d e a s : H e
says t h a t h e found a c e r t a i n rule in the t h e o r y of n u m b e r s " n o t by p a i n s t a k i n g research, b u t by the G r a c e of G o d , so to speak. T h e riddle solved itself as lightning strikes, a n d I myself could n o t tell or show the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t I k n e w before, w h a t I last used to experim e n t w i t h , a n d w h a t p r o d u c e d the final success." T h e F r e n c h scientist H e n r i P o i n c a r e is even m o r e explicit a b o u t this p h e n o m e n o n ; he describes h o w d u r i n g a sleepless n i g h t he actually w a t c h e d his m a t h e m a t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s colliding in h i m until some of t h e m " f o u n d a m o r e stable c o n n e c t i o n . O n e feels as if o n e could w a t c h o n e ' s o w n u n c o n s c i o u s at work, the unconscious activity p a r t i a l l y b e c o m i n g m a n i fest to consciousness w i t h o u t losing its o w n c h a r a c t e r . At such m o m e n t s one has a n i n t u i tion of the difference b e t w e e n the m e c h a n i s m s of the two e g o s . "
o u t , a possible u l t i m a t e one-ness of b o t h fields of reality t h a t physics a n d psychology s t u d y — i . e . a p s y c h o p h y s i c a l one-ness of all life p h e n o m e n a . J u n g was even c o n v i n c e d t h a t w h a t h e calls the u n c o n s c i o u s s o m e h o w links u p w i t h the s t r u c t u r e of i n o r g a n i c m a t t e r — a link to which t h e p r o b l e m of so-called " p s y c h o s o m a t i c " illness seems to p o i n t . T h e c o n c e p t of a u n i t a r i a n i d e a of reality (which has been followed u p by Pauli a n d E r i c h N e u m a n n ) was called by J u n g t h e unus mundus (the o n e w o r l d , w i t h i n which m a t t e r a n d psyche a r e not yet d i s c r i m i n a t e d or s e p a r a t e l y a c t u a l i z e d ) . H e p a v e d the w a y tow a r d such a u n i t a r i a n p o i n t of view by p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t a n a r c h e t y p e shows a " p s y c h o i d " (i.e. not p u r e l y psychic b u t a l m o s t m a t e r i a l ) aspect w h e n it a p p e a r s w i t h i n a synchronistic event— for such a n e v e n t is in effect a meaningful a r r a n g e m e n t of i n n e r psychic a n d outer facts.
As a final e x a m p l e of parallel d e v e l o p m e n t s in microphysics and, psychology, we c a n consider J u n g ' s c o n c e p t of meaning. W h e r e before m e n looked for causal (i.e. r a t i o n a l ) e x p l a n a tions of p h e n o m e n a , J u n g i n t r o d u c e d the idea of looking for the m e a n i n g (or, p e r h a p s we could say, the " p u r p o s e " ) . T h a t is, r a t h e r t h a n ask why s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n e d (i.e. w h a t caused it), J u n g asked : W h a t did it h a p p e n for? T h i s s a m e t e n d e n c y a p p e a r s in physics: M a n y m o d e r n physicists a r e n o w looking m o r e for " c o n n e c t i o n s " in n a t u r e t h a n for causal laws (determinism).
I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e a r c h e t y p e s n o t only fit i n t o o u t e r situations (as a n i m a l p a t t e r n s of beh a v i o r fit into their s u r r o u n d i n g n a t u r e ) ; at b o t t o m t h e y t e n d to b e c o m e manifest in a synchronistic " a r r a n g e m e n t " t h a t includes both m a t t e r a n d psyche. But these s t a t e m e n t s a r e j u s t hints at some directions in w h i c h the investigation of life p h e n o m e n a m i g h t p r o c e e d . J u n g felt t h a t we s h o u l d first l e a r n a g r e a t deal m o r e a b o u t the i n t e r r e l a t i o n of these t w o areas ( m a t ter a n d psyche) before r u s h i n g i n t o too m a n y a b s t r a c t s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t it.
Pauli e x p e c t e d t h a t the idea of the u n c o n scious w o u l d s p r e a d b e y o n d the " n a r r o w frame of t h e r a p e u t i c u s e " a n d w o u l d influence all n a t u r a l sciences t h a t d e a l w i t h g e n e r a l life p h e n o m e n a . Since P a u l i suggested this d e v e l o p m e n t h e has b e e n e c h o e d by some physicists w h o are c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e n e w science of c y b e r n e tics— the c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y of t h e " c o n t r o l " system formed by t h e b r a i n a n d n e r v o u s system a n d such m e c h a n i c a l or electronic i n f o r m a t i o n a n d control systems as c o m p u t e r s . I n short, as the m o d e r n F r e n c h scientist O l i v e r Costa de B e a u r e g a r d has p u t it, science a n d psychology should in future " e n t e r i n t o a n active d i a l o g u e . " T h e u n e x p e c t e d parallelisms of ideas in psychology a n d physics suggest, as J u n g p o i n t e d
T h e field t h a t J u n g himself felt w o u l d be most fruitful for further investigations was the study of o u r basic m a t h e m a t i c a l axiomata—which Pauli calls " p r i m a r y m a t h e m a t i c a l i n t u i t i o n s , " a n d a m o n g w h i c h h e especially m e n t i o n s the ideas of a n infinite series of n u m b e r s in a r i t h m e t i c , or of a c o n t i n u u m in g e o m e t r y , etc. As the G e r m a n - b o r n a u t h o r H a n n a h A r e n d t has said, " w i t h the rise of m o d e r n i t y , m a t h e m a t i c s d o not simply e n l a r g e t h e i r c o n t e n t or r e a c h o u t i n t o the infinite to b e c o m e a p p l i c a b l e to the i m m e n s i t y of a n infinite a n d infinitely g r o w i n g , e x p a n d i n g universe, b u t cease to be c o n c e r n e d with a p p e a r a n c e a t all. T h e y a r e n o l o n g e r the b e g i n n i n g s of p h i l o s o p h y , or t h e 'science' of Being in its t r u e a p p e a r a n c e , b u t b e c o m e instead t h e science of the s t r u c t u r e of the 309
h u m a n m i n d . " (A J u n g i a n w o u l d a t o n c e a d d the q u e s t i o n : W h i c h m i n d ? T h e conscious or the u n c o n s c i o u s m i n d ? ) As we h a v e seen with reference to the experiences of G a u s s a n d P o i n c a r e , the m a t h e m a t i c i a n s also discovered the fact t h a t o u r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s are " o r d e r e d " before we b e c o m e a w a r e of t h e m . B. L. v a n d e r W a e r d e n , w h o cites m a n y e x a m p l e s of essential m a t h e m a t i c a l insights arising from the unconscious, c o n c l u d e s : " . . . the u n c o n s c i o u s is not only a b l e to associate a n d c o m b i n e , b u t even to judge. T h e j u d g m e n t of the u n c o n s c i o u s is a n intuitive o n e , b u t it is u n d e r favorable circumstance's c o m p l e t e l y s u r e . " A m o n g the m a n y m a t h e m a t i c a l p r i m a r y intuitions, or a priori ideas, the " n a t u r a l n u m b e r s " seem psychologically the most interesting. N o t only d o they serve o u r conscious e v e r y d a y m e a s u r i n g a n d c o u n t i n g o p e r a t i o n s ; they h a v e for centuries b e e n the only existing m e a n s for " r e a d i n g " the m e a n i n g of such a n c i e n t forms of d i v i n a t i o n as astrology, n u m e r o l o g y , g e o m a n c y , etc. all of w h i c h are based o n a r i t h m e t i c a l c o m p u t a t i o n a n d all of,which h a v e b e e n investigated by J u n g in t e r m s of his t h e o r y of sync h r o n i c i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , the n a t u r a l n u m b e r s — viewed from a psychological angle — m u s t certainly be a r c h e t y p a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , for we a r e forced to t h i n k a b o u t t h e m in c e r t a i n definite ways. N o b o d y , for i n s t a n c e , c a n d e n y t h a t 2 is the only existing even p r i m a r y n u m b e r , even if he has never t h o u g h t a b o u t it consciously before. I n o t h e r w o r d s , n u m b e r s a r e not concepts consciously i n v e n t e d by m e n for purposes of c a l c u l a t i o n : T h e y are s p o n t a n e o u s a n d a u t o n o m o u s p r o d u c t s of the unconscious — as a r e o t h e r a r c h e t y p a l symbols. But the n a t u r a l n u m b e r s are also qualities a d h e r e n t to o u t e r o b j e c t s : W e can assert a n d c o u n t t h a t t h e r e a r e two stones h e r e or t h r e e trees t h e r e . E v e n if we strip o u t e r objects of all such qualities as color, t e m p e r a t u r e , size, etc., t h e r e still r e m a i n s t h e i r " m a n y - n e s s " or special multiplicity. Yet these s a m e n u m b e r s are also just as i n d i s p u t a b l y p a r t s of o u r o w n m e n t a l set-up — a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s t h a t we c a n study w i t h o u t looking a t o u t e r objects. N u m b e r s thus a p p e a r to be a t a n g i b l e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the
310
spheres of m a t t e r a n d psyche. A c c o r d i n g to hints d r o p p e d by J u n g , it is h e r e t h a t the most fruitful field of further investigation m i g h t be found. I m e n t i o n these r a t h e r difficult concepts briefly in o r d e r to show t h a t , to m e , J u n g ' s ideas d o not form a " d o c t r i n e " b u t a r e the b e g i n n i n g of a n e w outlook t h a t will c o n t i n u e to evolve a n d e x p a n d . I h o p e they will give the r e a d e r a glimpse into w h a t seems to m e to h a v e been essential to a n d typical of J u n g ' s scientific attit u d e . H e was always s e a r c h i n g , with u n u s u a l freedom from c o n v e n t i o n a l prejudices, a n d at the s a m e t i m e w i t h g r e a t m o d e s t y a n d a c c u r a c y , to u n d e r s t a n d the p h e n o m e n o n of life. H e did not go further i n t o the ideas m e n t i o n e d above, b e c a u s e h e felt t h a t h e h a d not yet e n o u g h facts in h a n d to say a n y t h i n g r e l e v a n t a b o u t t h e m — j u s t as he g e n e r a l l y w a i t e d several years before p u b l i s h i n g his n e w insights, checking t h e m a g a i n a n d a g a i n in the m e a n t i m e , a n d himself raising every possible d o u b t a b o u t t h e m . T h e r e f o r e , w h a t m i g h t a t first sight strike the r e a d e r as a c e r t a i n vagueness in his ideas comes in fact from this scientific a t t i t u d e of intellectual m o d e s t y - - a n a t t i t u d e t h a t does not exclude (by rash, superficial p s e u d o - e x p l a n a t i o n s a n d oversimplifications) n e w possible discoveries, a n d t h a t respects the c o m p l e x i t y of the p h e n o m e n o n of life. F o r this p h e n o m e n o n was always an exciting mystery to J u n g . It was never, as it is for p e o p l e with closed m i n d s , a n " e x p l a i n e d " reality a b o u t w h i c h it c a n be a s s u m e d t h a t we know everything. C r e a t i v e ideas, in my o p i n i o n , show their v a l u e in t h a t , like keys, they h e l p to " u n l o c k " h i t h e r t o unintelligible c o n n e c t i o n s of facts and thus e n a b l e m a n to p e n e t r a t e d e e p e r i n t o the mystery of life. I a m c o n v i n c e d t h a t J u n g ' s ideas can serve in this w a y to find a n d i n t e r p r e t n e w facts in m a n y fields of science ( a n d also of e v e r y d a y life), s i m u l t a n e o u s l y l e a d i n g the indiv i d u a l to a m o r e b a l a n c e d , m o r e ethical, a n d w i d e r conscious outlook. If the r e a d e r should feel s t i m u l a t e d to work further on the investig a t i o n a n d assimilation of the unconscious— w h i c h always begins by w o r k i n g on oneself— the p u r p o s e of this i n t r o d u c t o r y book w o u l d be fulfilled.
Notes Approaching the unconscious C. G. J u n g p a g e 37 N i e t z s c h e ' s c r y p t o m n e s i a is d i s c u s s e d in J u n g ' s " O n t h e P s y c h o l o g y of S o - c a l l e d O c c u l t P h e n o m e n a , " in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I. T h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e f r o m t h e ship's log a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a s s a g e from N i e t z s c h e a r e as f o l l o w s : F r o m J . K e r n e r , Blatter aus Prevorst, v o l . I V , p . 5 7 , h e a d e d " A n E x t r a c t of A w e - i n s p i r i n g I m p o r t . . . " ( o r i g . 1 8 3 1 - 3 7 ) : " T h e f o u r c a p t a i n s a n d a m e r c h a n t , M r . Bell, w e n t a s h o r e o n t h e i s l a n d of M o u n t S t r o m b o l i to s h o o t r a b b i t s . A t t h r e e o ' c l o c k t h e y m u s t e r e d t h e c r e w to g o a b o a r d , w h e n , to t h e i r i n e x p r e s s i b l e a s t o n i s h m e n t , t h e y saw t w o m e n flying r a p i d l y t o w a r d t h e m t h r o u g h t h e air. O n e w a s d r e s s e d in b l a c k , t h e o t h e r in g r e y . T h e y c a m e p a s t t h e m v e r y c l o s e l y , in g r e a t e s t h a s t e , a n d to t h e i r u t m o s t d i s m a y d e s c e n d e d i n t o t h e c r a t e r of t h e t e r r i b l e v o l c a n o , M o u n t S t r o m b o l i . T h e y r e c o g n i z e d t h e p a i r as a c q u a i n t a n c e s from L o n d o n . " F r o m F . N i e t z s c h e , Thus Spake ^arathustra, c h a p t e r xl, " G r e a t E v e n t s " ( t r a n s l a t e d b y C o m m o n , p . 180, s l i g h t l y modified), orig. 1883: " N o w a b o u t the time that Z a r a t h u s t r a s o j o u r n e d o n t h e H a p p y Isles, it h a p p e n e d t h a t a s h i p a n c h o r e d a t t h e isle o n w h i c h t h e s m o k i n g m o u n t a i n s t a n d s , a n d t h e c r e w w e n t a s h o r e to s h o o t r a b b i t s . About the noon-tide hour, however, when the captain a n d his m e n w e r e t o g e t h e r a g a i n , t h e y s u d d e n l y s a w a m a n c o m i n g t o w a r d t h e m t h r o u g h the air, a n d a voice s a i d d i s t i n c t l y : ' I t is t i m e ! It is h i g h e s t t i m e ! ' B u t w h e n t h e figure d r e w c l o s e t o t h e m , flying p a s t q u i c k l y like a s h a d o w in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e v o l c a n o , t h e y r e c o g n i z e d w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t d i s m a y t h a t it w a s Z a r a t h u s t r a . . . ' B e h o l d , ' said the old h e l m s m a n , ' Z a r a t h u s t r a g o e s d o w n to h e l l ! '
118 T h e e g o ' s c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e s h a d o w is d i s c u s s e d in J u n g ' s " T h e B a t t l e for D e l i v e r a n c e from t h e M o t h e r , " Collected W o r k s vol. V. 125 F o r a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e M i n o t a u r m y t h , see M a r y R e n a u l t ' s n o v e l The King Must Die, P a n t h e o n , 1958. 125 T h e s y m b o l i s m of t h e l a b y r i n t h is d i s c u s s e d by E r i c h N e u m a n n in The Origins and History of Consciousness, B o l l i n g e n , 1 9 5 4 . 126 F o r t h e N a v a h o m y t h of C o y o t e , see M a r g a r e t S c h e v i l l L i n k a n d J . L . H e n d e r s o n , The Pollen Path. S t a n f o r d , 1954. 128 T h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e e g o is d i s c u s s e d b y E r i c h N e u m a n n , op. at.; M i c h a e l F o r d h a m , New Developments in Analytical Psychology, L o n d o n , R o u t l e d g e & K e g a n P a u l , 1 9 5 7 ; a n d E s t h e r M . H a r d i n g , The Restoration of the Injured Archetypal Image ( p r i v a t e l y c i r c u l a t e d ) , N e w Y o r k , 1960. 1 2 9 J u n g ' s s t u d y of i n i t i a t i o n a p p e a r s in " A n a l y t i c a l Psychology and the W e l t a n s c h a u u n g , " Collected Works v o l . V I I I . S e e a l s o A r n o l d v a n G e n n e p , The Rites of Passage, C h i c a g o , 1 9 6 1 . 132 W o m e n ' s t r i a l s of s t r e n g t h a r e d i s c u s s e d by E r i c h N e u m a n n i n Amor and Psyche, B o l l i n g e n , 1956. 137 T h e t a l e of " B e a u t y a n d t h e B e a s t " a p p e a r s in M m e . L e p r i n c e d e B e a u m o n t ' s The Fairy Tale Book, N e w Y o r k , S i m o n & S c h u s t e r , 1958.
38 R o b e r t L o u i s S t e v e n s o n d i s c u s s e s his d r e a m of J e k y l l a n d H y d e in " A C h a p t e r o n D r e a m s " f r o m his Across the Plain. 56 A m o r e d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of J u n g ' s d r e a m is g i v e n in Memories, Dreams, Reflections of C. C. Jung, e d . A n i e l a J a f f e , N e w Y o r k , P a n t h e o n , 1962.
141 T h e m y t h of O r p h e u s c a n b e f o u n d in J a n e E. H a r r i s o n ' s Prolegomena to the Study of Creek Religion, C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1922. See also W . K. C. G u t h r i e , Orpheus and Creek Religion, C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 3 5 . 1 4 2 J u n g ' s d i s c u s s i o n of t h e C a t h o l i c r i t u a l of t h e c h a l i c e is in " T r a n s f o r m a t i o n S y m b o l i s m in t h e M a s s , " C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X L S e e a l s o A l a n W a t t s , Myth and Ritual in Christianity, V a n g u a r d Press, 1953. 145 L i n d a F i e r z - D a v i d ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of O r p h i c r i t u a l a p p e a r s in Psychologische Betrachtungen der Freskenfolge der Villa dei Misteri in Pompe/i, em Versuch von Linda Fierz-David, trans. Gladys Phelan (privately p r i n t e d ) , Z u r i c h , 1957.
63 E x a m p l e s of t h e s t a t e of s u b l i m i n a l i d e a s a n d i m a g e s c a n b e f o u n d in P i e r r e J a n e t ' s w o r k s . 93 F u r t h e r e x a m p l e s of c u l t u r a l s y m b o l s a p p e a r in M i r c e a E l i a d e ' s Der Schamanismus, Z u r i c h , 1947.
148 T h e R o m a n f u n e r a l u r n f r o m t h e E s q u i l i n e Hill is d i s c u s s e d b y J a n e H a r r i s o n , op. cit. 149 See J u n g ' s " T h e T r a n s c e n d e n t F u n c t i o n , " edited by the S t u d e n t s ' Association, C. G . J u n g Institute, Zurich.
S e e a l s o T h e C o l l e c t e d W o r k s of C a r l G . J u n g , vols. I - X V I I I ; L o n d o n , Routledge & K e g a n P a u l ; N e w York, Boll i n g e n - P a n t h e o n .
1 5 1 J o s e p h C a m p b e l l d i s c u s s e s t h e s h a m a n as b i r d in The Symbol without Meaning, Z u r i c h , R h e i n - V e r l a g , 1958. 152 F o r T . S. E l i o t ' s " T h e W a s t e L a n d , " see his Collected Poems, L o n d o n , F a b e r a n d F a b e r , 1 9 6 3 .
Ancient m y t h s and m o d e r n m a n J o s e p h L. H e n d e r s o n 108 C o n c e r n i n g t h e finality of C h r i s t ' s r e s u r r e c t i o n : C h r i s t i a n i t y is a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e l i g i o n , m e a n i n g it h a s a final e n d in v i e w t h a t b e c o m e s s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e Last J u d g m e n t . O t h e r religions, in w h i c h m a t r i a r c h a l e l e m e n t s of t r i b a l c u l t u r e a r e p r e s e r v e d ( e . g . O r p h i s m ) , a r e c y c l i c a l , as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y E l i a d c in The Myth of the Eternal Return, N e w Y o r k , B o l l i n g e n P a n t h e o n , 1954. 112 S e e P a u l R a d i n , Hero Cycles of the Winnebago, I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1948. 113 C o n c e r n i n g H a r e , D r . R a d i n r e m a r k s : " H a r e is t h e t y p i c a l h e r o as w e k n o w h i m f r o m all o v e r t h e w o r l d , civilized a n d p r e - l i t e r a t e , a n d from the most r e m o t e p e r i o d s of w o r l d h i s t o r y . " 114 T h e t w i n N a v a h o w a r r i o r g o d s a r e d i s c u s s e d by M a u d O a k e s in Where the 7wo Came to their Father, A Navaho War Ceremonial, N e w Y o r k , B o l l i n g e n , 1 9 4 3 , 117 J u n g discusses T r i c k s t e r in " O n t h e P s y c h o l o g y of t h e T r i c k s t e r F i g u r e , " C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X .
The process of individuation
M.-L. von Franz
160 A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of t h e m e a n d e r i n g p a t t e r n of d r e a m s a p p e a r s in J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s vol. V I I I , p . 2 3 fT. a n d p p . 2 3 7 - 3 0 0 ( e s p e c i a l l y p . 2 9 0 ) . F o r a n e x a m p l e see J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X I I , p a r t 1. S e e a l s o G e r h a r d A d l e r , Studies in Analytical Psychology, London,1948. 161 F o r J u n g ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e Self, see C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p a r t 2, p p . 5 ff., 2 3 fT.; a n d v o l . X I I , p p . 18 f., 41 f., 174, 1 9 3 . 161 T h e N a s k a p i a r e d e s c r i b e d b y F r a n k G . S p e c k in Naskapi: The Savage Hunter of the Labrador Peninsula, U n i v e r s i t y of O k l a h o m a P r e s s , 1 9 3 5 . 162 T h e c o n c e p t of p s y c h i c w h o l e n e s s is d i s c u s s e d in J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X I V , p . 117, a n d in v o l . I X , p a r t 2, p . 6, 190. S e e a l s o C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p a r t 1, p p . 2 7 5 ff., 2 9 0 ff. 163 T h e s t o r y of t h e o a k t r e e is t r a n s l a t e d f r o m R i c h a r d W i l h e l m , Dschuang-Dsi; Das wahre Buch vom sudlichen B/utend/and, J e n a , 1 9 2 3 , p p . 3 3 - 4 .
3"
1 6 3 J u n g d e a l s w i t h t h e t r e e as a s y m b o l o f t h e i n d i v i d u a t i o n p r o c e s s in " D e r p h i l o s o p h i s c h e B a u m , " Von den Wurzeln des Bewusslseins, Z u r i c h , 1 9 5 4 ( n o t yet translated). 163 T h e " l o c a l g o d ' to w h o m sacrifices w e r e m a d e o n t h e s t o n e e a r t h - a l t a r c o r r e s p o n d s in m a n y r e s p e c t s to t h e a n t i q u e genius loci. S e e H e n r i M a s p e r o , La Chine antique, P a r i s , 1 9 5 5 , p . 140 f. ( T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is o w e d t o t h e k i n d n e s s of M i s s AViane R u m p . ) 1 6 4 J u n g n o t e s t h e d i f f i c u l t y of d e s c r i b i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a t i o n p r o c e s s in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X V I I , p . 179. 165 T h i s b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of c h i l d r e n ' s d r e a m s d e r i v e s m o s t l y f r o m J u n g ' s Psychological Interpretation of Children's Dreams ( n o t e s a n d l e c t u r e s ) , E. T . H . Z u r i c h , 1 9 3 8 - 9 ( p r i v a t e c i r c u l a t i o n o n l y ) . T h e special e x a m p l e c o m e s from a n u n t r a n s l a t e d s e m i n a r , Psycholog/sche Interpretation von Kinder trdumen, 1 9 3 9 - 4 0 , p . 76 ff. S e e a l s o J u n g ' s " T h e D e v e l o p m e n t of P e r s o n a l i t y , " C o l l e c t e d W o r k s vol. X V I I ; M i c h a e l F o r d h a m , The Life of Childhood, L o n d o n , 1944 ( e s p e c i a l l y p . 104) ; E r i c h N e u m a n n , The Origins and History of Consciousness; F r a n c e s W i c k e s , 1 he Inner World of Consciousness, N e w Y o r k - L o n d o n , 4 9 2 7 ; a n d 1
E l e a n o r B e r t i n e , Human Relationships, L o n d o n , 1958. 1 6 6 J u n g d i s c u s s e s t h e p s y c h i c n u c l e u s in " T h e D e v e l o p m e n t of P e r s o n a l i t y , " C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X V I I , p . 175, a n d v o l . X I V , p . 9 ff. 167 F o r fairy t a l e p a t t e r n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e sick k i n g motif, see J o h . B o l t e a n d G . P o l i v k a , Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- und Hausm'archen der Bruder Crimm, v o l . I, 1 9 1 3 - 3 2 , p . 5 0 3 ff. i.e. all v a r i a t i o n s t o G r i m m ' s t a l e The Colden Bird. 168 F u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s h a d o w c a n b e f o u n d in J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p a r t 2, c h a p t e r 2, a n d v o l . X I I , p . 2 9 f, a n d i d e m : The Undiscovered Self, L o n d o n , 1958, p p . 8-9. See also F r a n c e s W i c k e s , The Inner World of Man, N e w Y o r k - T o r o n t o , 1 9 3 8 . A g o o d e x a m p l e of s h a d o w r e a l i z a t i o n is g i v e n in G . S c h m a l z , Komplexe Psychology und Korperliches Symptom, S t u t t g a r t , 1955. 170 E x a m p l e s of t h e E g y p t i a n c o n c e p t of t h e u n d e r w o r l d a p p e a r in The Tomb of Rameses VI, B o l l i n g e n series X L , p a r t s 1 a n d 2, P a n t h e o n B o o k s , 1954. 1 7 2 J u n g d e a l s w i t h t h e n a t u r e of p r o j e c t i o n in Collected W o r k s vol. V I , Definitions, p. 5 8 2 ; a n d C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . V I I I , p . 2 7 2 ff. 175 T h e K o r a n ( Q u r ' a n ) h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d b y E. H . P a l m e r , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1949. See also J u n g ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s t o r y o f M o s e s a n d K h i d r in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p . 135 ff. 175 T h e I n d i a n s t o r y Somadeva : Vetalapanchavimsati has been t r a n s l a t e d by C. H . T a w n e y , J a i c o - b o o k , B o m b a y , 1956. See also H e n r y Z i m m e r ' s excellent p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n The King and the Corpse, B o l l i n g e n series I X , N e w Y o r k , P a n t h e o n , 1 9 4 8 .
p . 4 9 ff.; a n d b y K n u d R a s m u s s e n in Thulefahrt, F r a n k f u r t , 1926, p a s s i m . 178 T h e S i b e r i a n h u n t e r s t o r y is f r o m R a s m u s s e n , Die Gabe des Adlers, F r a n k f u r t a . M . , 1 9 2 6 , p . 172. 179 A d i s c u s s i o n of t h e " p o i s o n d a m s e l " a p p e a r s in W . H e r t z , Die Sage vom Giftmadchen, A b h . d e r k. b a y r . A k a d . d e r Wiss., 1 CI. X X Bd. 1 A b t . M u n c h e n , 1893. 179 T h e m u r d e r o u s p r i n c e s s is d i s c u s s e d b y C h r . H a h n in Criechische und Albanesische Mdrchen, v o l . 1, M u n c h e n B e r l i n , 1 9 1 8 , p . 301 : D e r J a g e r u n d d e r S p i e g e l d e r alles sieht. 180 " L o v e m a d n e s s " c a u s e d b y a n a n i m a p r o j e c t i o n is e x a m i n e d in E l e a n o r B e r t i n e ' s Human Relationships, p . 1 13 sq. S e e a l s o D r . H . S t r a u s s ' e x c e l l e n t p a p e r " D i e A n i m a als P r o j e c t i o n s - e r l e b n i s , " u n p u b l i s h e d m s . , H e i d e l b e r g , 1959. 1 8 0 J u n g d i s c u s s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of p s y c h i c i n t e g r a t i o n t h r o u g h a n e g a t i v e a n i m a in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p. 2 2 4 s q . ; v o l . X I , p . 164 ff.; vol. X I I , p p . 2 5 s q . , 110 s q . , 128. 185 F o r t h e f o u r s t a g e s of t h e a n i m a , see J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X V I , p . 174. 186 F r a n c e s c o C o l o n n a ' s Hypnerotomachia has been i n t e r p r e t e d b y L i n d a F i e r z - D a v i d in Der Liebeslraum des Poliphilo, Z u r i c h , 1 9 4 7 . 186 T h e q u o t a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h e r o l e of t h e a n i m a . i s f r o m Aurora Consurgens I, t r a n s l a t e d b y E. A . G l o v e r ( E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n in p r e p a r a t i o n ) . G e r m a n e d i t i o n b y M . - L . v o n F r a n z ' , in J u n g ' s Mystenum Conumct/onis, v o l . 3, 1 9 5 8 . 1 8 7 J u n g h a s e x a m i n e d t h e k n i g h t l y c u l t of t h e l a d y in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . V I , p . 2 7 4 a n d 2 9 0 sq. Seea l s o E m m a J u n g a n d M . - L . v o n F r a n z , Die Craalslegende in psychologischer Sicht, Z u r i c h , 1960. 189 F o r t h e a n i m u s ' a p p e a r a n c e as a " s a c r e d c o n v i c t i o n , " see J u n g ' s Two Essays in Analytical Psychology, L o n d o n , 1 9 2 8 , p . 127 ff.; C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , c h a p t e r 3 . S e e a l s o E m m a J u n g , Animus and Anima, p a s s i m ; E s t h e r H a r d i n g , Woman's Mysteries, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 5 ; E l e a n o r B e r t i n e , Human Relationships, p . 128 ff.; T o n i Wolff, Sludien zu C. G. Jungs Psychologic, Z u r i c h , 1 9 5 9 , p . 2 5 7 ff.; E r i c h N e u m a n n , %ur Psychologic des We/blichen, Z u r i c h , 1 9 5 3 .
A n a l y t i c a l C l u b of N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 7 ; E l e a n o r B e r t i n e , Human Relationships, p a r t 2 ; E s t h e r H a r d i n g , Psychic
189 T h e g y p s y fairy t a l e c a n b e f o u n d in Der 7 o d als Geliebler, Z i g e u n e r - M a r c h e n . Die Mdrchen der Wellliteralur, e d . F . v o n d e r L e y e n a n d P. Z a u n e r t , J e n a , 1 9 2 6 , p . 117 sq. 194 T h e a n i m u s as p r o v i d e r of v a l u a b l e m a s c u l i n e q u a l i t i e s is d e a l t w i t h b y J u n g in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p . 182 s q . , a n d i d e m : Two Essays, C h a p t e r 4. 196 F o r t h e A u s t r i a n t a l e of t h e b l a c k p r i n c e s s , see " D i e s c h w a r z e K o n i g s t o c h t e r , " Mdrchen aus dem Donaulande. Die Mdrchen der Welti/teralur, J e n a , 1 9 2 6 , p . 150 s q . 196 T h e E s k i m o t a l e of t h e M o o n S p i r i t is f r o m " V o n e i n e r F r a u die z u r S p i n n e w u r d e , " t r a n s l a t e d from K. R a s m u s s e n , Die Gabe des Adlers, p . 121 sq. 196 A d i s c u s s i o n of t h e S e l f s y o u n g - o l d p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s a p p e a r s in J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p . 151 sq. 200 T h e m y t h of P ' a n K u c a n b e f o u n d in D o n a l d A . M a c K e n z i e ' s Myths of China and Japan, L o n d o n , p . 2 6 0 , a n d in I I . M a s p e r o ' s Le Tao/sme, P a r i s , 1 9 5 0 , p . 109. S e e a l s o J . J . M . d e G r o o t , Universismus, Berlin, 1918, p p . 130 31 ; H . K o e s t l e r , Symbolik des Chinesischen Universismus, S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 5 8 , p . 4 0 ; a n d J u n g ' s Mystenum Coniunctionis, v o l . 2, p p . 1 6 0 - 6 K
Energy, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 4 8 , p a s s i m , » a n d o t h e r s . 177 Eskimo s h a m a n i s m has been described by Mircea E l i a d e in Der Schamanismus, Z u r i c h , 1947, especially
200 F o r d i s c u s s i o n of A d a m as C o s m i c M a n , see A u g u s t W i i n s c h e , Schopfung und Sundenfall des erslen- Menschen, L e i p z i g , 1 9 0 6 , p p . 8-9 a n d p . 1 3 ; H a n s L e i s e g a n g . Die
176 T h e r e f e r e n c e to t h e Z e n m a s t e r is f r o m Der Ochs und sein Hirte ( t r a n s , b y K o i c h i T s u j i m u r a ) , P f u l l i n g e n , 1958, p. 9 5 . 177 F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e a n i m a , see J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p a r t 2, p p . 1 1 - 1 2 , a n d c h a p t e r 3 ; v o l . X V I I , p . 198 f.; v o l . V I I I , p . 3 4 5 ; v o l . X I , p p . 2 9 - 3 1 , 41 f., 4 7 6 , e t c . ; v o l . X I I , P a r t 1. S e e a l s o E m m a J u n g , Animus and Anima, Two Essays, T h e
312
Gnosis, L e i p z i g , K r o n e r s c h e T a s c h e n a u s g a b e . L o r t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n see J u n g ' s Myslenum Coniunclionis, v o l . 2 , c h a p t e r 5 , p p . 1 4 0 - 9 9 ; a n d Collected W o r k s vol. X I I , p . 346 sq. 'There m a y also b e historical c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e C h i n e s e P ' a n K u , t h e P e r s i a n G a y o m a r t , a n d t h e l e g e n d s o f A d a m ; see S v e n S. H a r t m a n n , Gayomarl, U p p s a l a , 1 9 5 3 , p p . 4 6 , 1 15. 202 T h e c o n c e p t of A d a m a s " s u p e r - s o u l , " c o m i n g from a d a t e p a l m , is d e a l t w i t h b y E . S. D r o w e r in Ihe Secret Adam, A Study of Nasoraean Gnosis, O x f o r d , 1 9 6 0 , p p . 2 3 , 26, 2 7 , 37. 202 T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m M e i s t e r E c k h a r t is f r o m F . Pfeiffer's Meister Eckhardt, t r a n s . C . d e B. E v a n s , L o n d o n , 1924, vol. I I , p. 80.
2 1 7 J u n g e x a m i n e s t h e m o d e r n feeling of b e i n g a "statist i c a l c i p h e r " in The Undiscovered Self, p p . 14, 1 0 9 . 220 D r e a m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n t h e s u b j e c t i v e level is d i s c u s s e d in J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . V I I I , p . 2 6 6 a n d v o l . X V I , p." 2 4 3 . 220 T h a t m a n is i n s t i n c t i v e l y " i n t u n e " w i t h his s u r r o u n d i n g s is d i s c u s s e d b y A . P o r t m a n n in Das Tier als soziales Wesen, p . 6 5 s q . a n d p a s s i m . S e e a l s o N . T i n b e r g e n , A Study of Instinct, O x f o r d , 1 9 5 5 , p p . 151 s q . a n d 2 0 7 sq. 221 E l . VJ. E . H a r t l e y d i s c u s s e s t h e m a s s u n c o n s c i o u s in Fundamentals of Social Psychology, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 2 . S e e a l s o T h . J a n w i t z a n d R . S c h u l z e , Neue Richtungen in der Massenkommunikalionforschung, R u n d funk u n d F e r n s e h e n , 1 9 6 0 , p p . 7, 8 a n d p a s s i m . A l s o , ibid, p p .
202 F o r J u n g ' s d i s c u s s i o n s o f C o s m i c M a n , see C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p a r t 2 , p . 3 6 s q . ; " A n s w e r to J o b , " C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X I , a n d Mystenum Coniunclionis, vol. 2, p . 2 1 5 s q . S e c a l s o E s t h e r H a r d i n g , Journey into Self, L o n d o n , 1 9 5 6 , p a s s i m . 202 A d a m K a d m o n is d i s c u s s e d in G e r s h o m S h o l e m ' s Major I rends in Jewish Mysticism, 1941 ; a n d J u n g ' s Mystenum Coniunclionis, v o l . 2 , p . 182 s q . 204 T h e s y m b o l o f t h e r o y a l c o u p l e is e x a m i n e d in J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X V I , p . 3 1 3 , a n d in Mystenum Coniunclionis, v o l . 1, p p . 1 4 3 , 1 7 9 ; v o l . 2 , p p . 8 6 , 9 0 , 140, 2 8 5 . S e e a l s o P l a t o ' s Symposium, a n d t h e G n o s t i c G o d - m a n , t h e A n t h r o p o s figure.
1-20, a n d Unterschwellige Kommunikalion, ibid., 1 9 6 0 , H e f t 3 / 4 , p . 2 8 3 a n d p . 3 0 6 . ( T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is o w e d t o t h e k i n d n e s s of M r . R e n e M a l a m o u d . ) 224 T h e v a l u e of f r e e d o m ( t o c r e a t e s o m e t h i n g useful) is s t r e s s e d b y J u n g in The Undiscovered Self, p . 9. 224 F o r religious figures t h a t s y m b o l i z e t h e i n d i v i d u a tion process, see J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s vol. X I , p . 2 7 3 a n d p a s s i m , a n d ibid., P a r t 2 a n d p . 164 s q . 2 2 5 J u n g d i s c u s s e s r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l i s m in m o d e r n d r e a m s in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X I I , p . 9 2 . S e e a l s o ibid., p p . 2 8 , 169 s q . , 2 0 7 , a n d o t h e r s .
205 F o r t h e s t o n e a s a s y m b o l of t h e Self, see J u n g ' s Von den Wurzeln des Bewusslseins, Z u r i c h , 1954, p p . 200 sq., 4 1 5 sq., a n d 4 4 9 sq. ( n o t yet t r a n s l a t e d ) . 206 T h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e u r g e t o i n d i v i d u a t e is c o n s c i o u s l y r e a l i z e d is d i s c u s s e d i n J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X I I , p a s s i m , Von den Wurzeln des Bewusslseins, p . 2 0 0 s q . ; C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p a r t 2, p p . 139 s q . , 236, 247 sq., 2 6 8 ; Collected W o r k s vol. X V I , p. 164 s q . S e e a l s o C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . V I I I , p . 2 5 3 s q . ; a n d T o n i Wolff, Studien zu C. G. Jung s Psychologic, p . 4 3 . S e e a l s o , e s s e n t i a l l y , J u n g ' s Mystenum Coniunclionis, vol. 2, p . 3 1 8 sq. 207 F o r a n e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n of " a c t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n , " see J u n g ' s " T h e T r a n s c e n d e n t F u n c t i o n , " in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s vol. V I I I . 207 T h e zoologist Adolf P o r t m a n n describes a n i m a l " i n w a r d n e s s " in Das Tier als soziales Wesen, Z u r i c h , 1953, p . 3 6 6 . 209 A n c i e n t G e r m a n beliefs c o n c e r n i n g t o m b s t o n e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n P a u l H e r r m a n n ' s Das allgermanische Pneslerwesen, J e n a , 1 9 2 9 , p . 5 2 ; a n d in J u n g ' s Von den Wurzeln des Bewusslseins, p . 198 s q . 210 M o r i e n u s ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s ' s t o n e is q u o t e d in J u n g ' s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s vol. X I I , p . 3 0 0 , n o t e 4 5 . 210 T h a t s u f f e r i n g is n e c e s s a r y t o find t h e s t o n e is an alchemical d i c t u m ; c o m p a r e J u n g ' s Collected Works vol. X I I , p . 2 8 0 s q . 210 J u n g discusses t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p s y c h e a n d m a t t e r i n Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p p . 1 4 2 - 4 6 . 211 F o r a full e x p l a n a t i o n o f s y n c h r o n i c i t y , s e e J u n g ' s " S y n c h r o n i c i t y : a n A c a u s a l C o n n e c t i n g P r i n c i p l e , " in Collected W o r k s vol. V I I I , p . 4 1 9 sq. 212 F o r J u n g ' s views o n t u r n i n g to Eastern religion in o r d e r t o c o n t a c t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , see " C o n c e r n i n g M a n d a l a S y m b o l i s m , " C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p a r t 1, p. 3 3 5 sq., a n d vol. X I I , p . 2 1 2 sq. ( O f t h e latter, see also p p . 19, 4 2 , 9 1 s q . , 1 0 1 , 119 s q . , 1 5 9 , 162.) 212 T h e e x c e r p t f r o m t h e C h i n e s e t e x t is f r o m Lu K"uan Tu, C h a r l e s L u k , C h ' a n a n d Z e n T e a c h i n g , L o n d o n , p . 2 7 . 216 T h e t a l e of t h e B a t h B a d g e r d is f r o m Mdrchen aus Iran, Die Mdrchen der Weltiiteralur, J e n a , 1 9 5 9 , p . 150 s q .
225 T h e a d d i t i o n of a f o u r t h e l e m e n t t o t h e T r i n i t y is e x a m i n e d b y J u n g in Mystenum Coniunclionis, v o l . 2, p p . 1 12 s q . , 1 1 7 s q . , 123 s q . ( n o t y e t t r a n s l a t e d ) , a n d C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . V I I I , p . 136 s q . a n d 1 6 0 - 6 2 . 228 T h e v i s i o n of B l a c k E l k is f r o m Black Elk Speaks, ed. J o h n G. N e i h a r d t , N e w York, 1932. G e r m a n e d i t i o n : Schwarzer Hirsch: Ich rufe mein Volk, O l t e n , 1 9 5 5 . 228 T h e s t o r y o f t h e E s k i m o e a g l e festival is f r o m K n u d R a s m u s s e n , Die Gabe des Adlers, p p . 2 3 s q . , 2 9 s q . 228 J u n g discusses t h e r e s h a p i n g of original m y t h o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X I , p . 2 0 s q . , a n d vol. X I I , I n t r o d u c t i o n . 229 T h e p h y s i c i s t W . P a u l i h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e effects of m o d e r n s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s , like H e i s e n b e r g ' s , in Die Philosoph/sche Bedeulung der Idee der Komp/emenlantdl, " E x p e r i e n t i a , " v o l . V I / 2 , p . 72 s q . ; a n d m Wahrscheinlichkeil und Physik, "Dialeclica,'' vol. V I 1 1 / 2 , 1954, p . 117. 1
Symbolism in the visual arts Aniela Jaffe 234 M a x E r n s t ' s s t a t e m e n t is q u o t e d i n C . G i e d i o n W e l c k e r , Contemporary Sculpture, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 5 . 234 H e r b e r t K i i h n ' s e x a m i n a t i o n of p r e h i s t o r i c a r t is in his Die Fe/sbilder Europas, S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 5 2 . 236 C o n c e r n i n g t h e N o d r a m a , c o m p a r e D . Seckel, E/nfuhrung in die Kunst Ostasiens, M u n i c h , 1 9 6 0 , figs. 1 e a n d 16. F o r t h e f o x - m a s k u s e d in N o d r a m a , see G . B u s c h a n , Tiere in Kult und Aberglauben, Ciba J o u r n a l , Basle, N o v . 1942, n o . 86. 237 F o r t h e a n i m a l a t t r i b u t e s of v a r i o u s g o d s , see G . B u s c h a n , op. at. 2 3 8 J u n g d i s c u s s e s t h e s y m b o l i s m of t h e u n i c o r n ( o n e s y m b o l o f C h r i s t ) in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . X I I , p . 4 1 5 ff. 240 F o r t h e m y t h o f B r a h m a , see H . Z i m m e r , Maya, der indische Mylhos, S t u t t g a r t - B e r l i n , 1 9 3 6 . 240 T h e b i r t h o f B u d d h a a p p e a r s in t h e S a n s k r i t Pallia Vistera, c. A . D . 6 0 0 t o 1 0 0 0 ; t r a n s . P a r i s , 1 8 8 4 . 2 4 0 J u n g d i s c u s s e s t h e f o u r f u n c t i o n s of c o n s c i o u s n e s s in C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . V I . 240 T i b e t a n m a n d a l a s a r e d i s c u s s e d a n d i n t e r p r e t e d in J u n g ' s Collected W o r k s vol. I X . 242 T h e p i c t u r e of t h e V i r g i n in t h e c e n t e r of a c i r c u l a r t r e e is t h e c e n t r a l p a n e l o f t h e Tnptyque du
3'3
Buisson Ardent, 1 4 7 6 , C a t h e d r a l e S a i n t - S a v e u r , Aix-en-Provence. 242 E x a m p l e s of s a c r e d b u i l d i n g s w i t h m a n d a l a g r o u n d plans: Borobudur, J a v a ; the Taj M a h a l ; the O m a r M o s q u e in J e r u s a l e m . S e c u l a r b u i l d i n g s : C a s t e l d e l M o n t e , built by the H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r Frederick II (1 1 9 4 - 1 2 5 0 ) in A p u l i a . 242 F o r t h e m a n d a l a in t h e f o u n d a t i o n of p r i m i t i v e v i l l a g e s a n d s a c r e d p l a c e s , see M . E l i a d e , Das Heilige und das Profane, H a m b u r g , 1 9 5 7 . 242 T h e theory that q u a d r a t a means "quadripartite" was p r o p o s e d by F r a n z A l t h e i m , the Berlin classical scholar. See K. K e r e n y i , I n t r o d u c t i o n to K e r e n y i - J u n g , Einfuhrung in das Wesen der Mytholog/e, Z u r i c h , p. 20. 242 T h e o t h e r t h e o r y , t h a t t h e urks quadrata r e f e r r e d to s q u a r i n g t h e c i r c l e , is f r o m K e r e n y i , loc. cit. 243 F o r t h e H e a v e n l y C i t y , see B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n , X X I . 243 T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m J u n g is f r o m his Commentary on the Secret of the Col den Flower, L o n d o n - N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 6 , 10th e d i t i o n . 243 E x a m p l e s of t h e e q u i l a t e r a l c r o s s : c r u c i f i x i o n f r o m t h e Evangelienharmome, V i e n n a , N a t . Bib. C o d . 2687 (Otfried von Weissenberg, ninth c e n t u r y ) ; Gosforth cross, 10th c e n t u r y ; t h e M o n a s t e r b o i c e cross, 10th c e n t u r y ; or t h e R u t h w e l l cross. 245 T h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e c h a n g e in e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
254 T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m C a r l o C a r r a is f r o m W . H a f t m a n n ' s Paul Klee, Wege bildnerischen Denkens, M u n i c h , 1955, third e d n . , p. 7 1 . 254 T h e s t a t e m e n t b y K l e e is f r o m Wege des .Vaturstudiums, W e i m a r , M u n i c h , 1 9 2 3 . Dokumente, p . 125. 254 B a z a i n e ' s r e m a r k is f r o m Motes sur la peinture d'aujourd' hui, P a r i s , 1 9 5 3 . Dokumente, p . 1 2 5 . 254 T h e s t a t e m e n t b y d e C h i r i c o is f r o m SuITArte Metafisica, R o m e , 1 9 1 9 . Dokumente, p . 112. 255 T h e q u o t a t i o n s f r o m d e C h i r i c o ' s Memone del/a mia Vita a r e in Dokumente, p . 112. 255 K a n d i n s k y ' s s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e d e a t h of G o d is i n his Ueber das Geistige in der Kunst, op. cit. 255 O f t h e 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n poets a l l u d e d to, sec e s p e c i a l l y H e i n r i c h H e i n e , R i m b a u d , a n d Mallarme. 255 T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m J u n g is f r o m C o l l e c t e d W o r k s vol. X I , p. 88. 257 A r t i s t s in w h o s e w o r k manichini a p p e a r i n c l u d e C a r l o C a r r a , A. A r c h i p e n k o (1887-1964), a n d G i o r g i o M o r a n d i (1890-1964). 257 T h e c o m m e n t o n C h a g a l l b y H e r b e r t R e a d is f r o m his A Concise History of Modern Painting, L o n d o n , 1959, p . 124, 126, 1 2 8 .
b u i l d i n g is b a s e d o n i n f o r m a t i o n in K a r l L i t z \ s essay Die Mandala, ein Beispiel der Archilektursymbolik, W i n t e r t h u r , N o v e m b e r 1960. 247 M a t i s s e ' s Still Life . . . is in t h e T h o m p s o n Collection, Pittsburgh. 247 K a n d i n s k y ' s p a i n t i n g c o n t a i n i n g loose c o l o r e d balls o r c i r c l e s is e n t i t l e d Blurred White, 1 9 2 7 , a n d is in t h e T h o m p s o n Collection. 247 P a u l N a s h ' s Event on the Downs is in M r s . C . N e i l s o n ' s c o l l e c t i o n . S e e G e o r g e W . D i g b y , Meaning and Symbol, F a b e r & F a b e r , L o n d o n .
257 A n d r e B r e t o n ' s s t a t e m e n t s a r e f r o m Manifesles du Surrealisme 1 9 2 4 - 4 2 , P a r i s , 1 9 4 6 . Dokumente, p . 117, 118. 258 T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m E r n s t ' s Beyond Painting (New Y o r k , 1948) is in Dokumente, p . 119. 259 R e f e r e n c e s to H a n s A r p a r e b a s e d o n C a r o l a G i e d i o n - W e l c k e r , Hans Arp, 1 9 5 7 , p . x v i . 259 R e f e r e n c e to E r n s t ' s Histoire Nalurelle is in Dokumente, p . 1 2 1 . 260 O n the 19th-century Romantics and "nature's h a n d w r i t i n g , " see N o v a l i s , Die Lehrlinge zu Sais; E. T . A . H o f f m a n n , Das Marc hen vom Go/dnen Topf; G . H . v o n S c h u b e r t , Symbolik des Traumes. 260 K a s s n e r ' s c o m m e n t o n G e o r g T r a k l is f r o m
2 4 9 J u n g ' s d i s c u s s i o n of U F O s is in Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies, L o n d o n N e w Y o r k , 1959.
Almanach de la Libraine Flinker, P a r i s , 1 9 6 1 . 262 K a n d i n s k y ' s s t a t e m e n t s are, respectively, from Ruckblicke ( q u o t e d f r o m M a x Bill's I n t r o d u c t i o n to
250 T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m B a z a i n c ' s Notes sur la peinture d'aujoiird'hui ( P a r i s , 1 9 5 3 ) w a s q u o t e d in W a l t e r H e s s , Dokumente zum Verstandnis der modernen Malerei, H a m b u r g , 1 9 5 8 ( R o w o h l t ) , p . 122. A n u m b e r of q u o t a t i o n s in t h i s c h a p t e r h a v e b e e n t a k e n f r o m t h i s e x t r e m e l y useful c o m p i l a t i o n , w h i c h will b e r e f e r r e d to h e r e a f t e r as Dokumente. 250 F r a n z M a r c ' s s t a t e m e n t is f r o m Briefe, Aufzeichnungen und Aphojismen, Berlin, 1920. 250 F o r K a n d i n s k y ' s b o o k , see s i x t h e d i t i o n , B e r n e , 1 9 5 9 . ( F i r s t e d i t i o n , M u n i c h , 1 9 1 2 . ) ' Dokumente, p . 8 0 .
K a n d i n s k y ' s Ueber das Geistige . . ., op. cit.) ; f r o m Selbstdarstellung, B e r l i n , 1913 {Dokumente, p . 8 6 ) ; a n d f r o m H a f t m a n n , Malerei im. 2 0 . Jahrhundert. 262 F r a n z M a r c ' s s t a t e m e n t s a r e respectively from Briefe, Aufzeichnungen und Aphorismen, op. cit.; Dokumente, p . 79 f.; a n d f r o m H a f t m a n n , op. at., p . 4 7 8 . 262 K l e e ' s s t a t e m e n t is f r o m Ueber die moderne Kunst, L e c t u r e , 1 9 2 4 . Dokumente, p . 8 4 . 262 M o n d r i a n ' s s t a t e m e n t is f r o m JVeue Gestaltung, M u n i c h , 1 9 2 5 . Dokumente, p . 100.
250 M a n n e r i s m a n d m o d i s h n e s s in m o d e r n a r t is d i s c u s s e d b y W e r n e r H a f t m a n n in Glanz und Cefdhrdung der Abstraklen Malerei, in Skizzenbuch zur Kultur der Cegenwarl, M u n i c h , 1 9 6 0 , p . 1 1 1 . S e e a l s o H a f t m a n n ' s Die Malerei im. 2 0 . Jahrhundert, second edn., M u n i c h , 1 9 5 7 ; a n d H e r b e r t R e a d , A Concise History of Modern Painting, L o n d o n , 1 9 5 9 , a n d n u m e r o u s i n d i v i d u a l s t u d i e s . 251 K a n d i n s k y ' s e s s a y " U b e r d i e F o r m f r a g e " is in Der blaue Reiler, M u n i c h , 1 9 1 2 . S e e Dokumente, p . 8 7 . 253 Bazaine's c o m m e n t s on D u c h a m p ' s bottle rack are f r o m Dokumente, p . 122. 2 5 3 J o a n M i r o ' s s t a t e m e n t is f r o m Joan Collection, A r c h e Press.
Miro,
Horizont
254 T h e r e f e r e n c e t o S c h w i t t e r s ' " o b s e s s i o n " is f r o m W e r n e r H a f t m a n n , op. cit. 254 K a n d i n s k y ' s s t a t e m e n t is f r o m Selbstbetrachtungen, B e r l i n , 1 9 1 3 . Dokumente, p . 8 9 .
3H
263 K a n d i n s k y ' s s t a t e m e n t s a r c respectively from Ueber das Geistige . . ., op. cit., p . 8 3 ; f r o m Ueber die Formfrage, M u n i c h , 1912 (Dokumente, p . 8 8 ) ; from Ueber das Geistige . . . (Dokumente, p . 88) ; a n d from Aufsdtze, 1 9 2 3 - 4 3 (Dokumente, p. 91). 263 F r a n z M a r c ' s s t a t e m e n t is q u o t e d f r o m G e o r g S c h m i d t , Vom Sinn der Paralle/e in Kunst und Naturform, Basic, 1960. 263 K l e e ' s s t a t e m e n t s a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y f r o m Ueber die Moderne Kunst, op. cit. (Dokumente, p. 84) ; Tagebucher, B e r l i n , 1 9 5 3 (Dokumente, p . 86) ; q u o t e d from H a f t m a n n , Paul Klee, op. cit.. p . 9 3 a n d p . 5 0 ; Tagebiicher, (Dokumentee p. 8 6 ) ; a n d H a f t m a n n , p. 89. 264 R e f e r e n c e t o P o l l o c k ' s p a i n t i n g is in H a f t m a n n , Malerei im 2 0 . Jahrhundert, p. 464. 264 P o l l o c k ' s s t a t e m e n t s a r e f r o m My Painting, Possibilities, N e w Y o r k , 1947. Q u o t e d f r o m H e r b e r t R e a d , op. cit., p . 2 6 7 .
264 T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m J u n g is f r o m C o l l e c t e d W o r k s v o l . I X , p . 173. 265 R e a d ' s q u o t a t i o n of K l e e is f r o m Concise History . . . , op. cit., p . 180. 265 M a r c ' s s t a t e m e n t is f r o m Briefe. Aufzeichnungen und Aphorismen. Dokumente, p . 79. 265 T h e d i s c u s s i o n of M a r i n i is f r o m E d o u a r d R o d i t i , Dialoge iiber Kunst, I n s e l V e r l a g , 1 9 6 0 . ( T h e c o n v e r s a t i o n is g i v e n h e r e in a v e r y a b b r e v i a t e d f o r m . ) 268 T h e s t a t e m e n t b y M a n e s s i e r is q u o t e d from W . H a f t m a n n , op. at., p . 4 7 4 . 268 B a z a i n e ' s c o m m e n t is f r o m his Notes sur la peinture d'aujourd'hui, op. cit. Dokumente, p . 126. 270 T h e s t a t e m e n t b y K l e e is f r o m W . H a f t m a n n , Paul Klee, p . 7 1 . r
270 F o r r e f e r e n c e to m o d e r n a r t in c h u r c h e s , sec W . S c h m a l e n b a c h , %ur Ausstellung von Alfred Manessier, Z u r i c h A r t G a l l e r y , 1959.
Symbols in an individual analysis Jolande Jacobi 273 T h e P a l a c e of D r e a m s : a 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y i l l u s t r a t i o n to Book X I X of H o m e r ' s Odyssey. I n t h e c e n t e r n i c h e s t a n d s t h e g o d d e s s of s l e e p h o l d i n g a b o u q u e t of p o p p y flowers. O n h e r left is t h e G a t e of H o r n ( w i t h t h e h e a d of a h o r n e d ox a b o v e it) ; f r o m t h i s g a t e c o m e t r u e d r e a m s : o n h e r r i g h t t h e G a t e of I v o r y w i t h a n e l e p h a n t ' s h e a d a b o v e ; f r o m t h i s g a t e c o m e false d r e a m s . T o p left, t h e g o d d e s s of t h e m o o n , D i a n a ; t o p r i g h t , N i g h t , w i t h the infants Sleep a n d D e a t h . 277 T h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e first d r e a m in a n a n a l y s i s is i n d i c a t e d b y J u n g in Modern Man in Search of a Soul, p . 7 7 . 290 R e g a r d i n g t h e s e c t i o n o n t h e O r a c l e D r e a m , see t h e / Ching or Book of CJianges, t r a n s . R i c h a r d W i l h e l m ( w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n by C. G . J u n g ) , R o u t l e d g e a n d K e g a n P a u l , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 1 , vols. I a n d I I . 292 The s y m b o l i s m in t h e t h r e e u p p e r lines of t h e sign Meng the " g a t e " is m e n t i o n e d i n op. cit., v o l . 11, p . 2 9 9 , w h i c h a l s o s t a t e s t h a t t h i s sign " . . . is a b y p a t h , it m e a n s little s t o n e s , d o o r s a n d o p e n i n g s . . . e u n u c h s a n d w a t c h m e n , t h e fingers . . . " F o r t h e sign M e n g , see also vol. I, p . 2 0 ff. 292 292
The q u o t a t i o n f r o m t h e / Ching is in v o l . I, p . 2 3 . C o n c e r n i n g a s e c o n d c o n s u l t i n g of t h e / Ching, J u n g
w r i t e s (in his I n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e E n g l i s h e d i t i o n , p. x): " A r e p e t i t i o n of t h e e x p e r i m e n t is i m p o s s i b l e for the simple reason t h a t the original situation c a n n o t b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e r e f o r e in e a c h i n s t a n c e t h e r e is o n l y a first a n d s i n g l e a n s w e r . " 292 F o r t h e c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e s i g n Li, see op. cit., v o l . I„ p . 1 7 8 ; a n d a r e f e r e n c e in v o l . I I , p . 2 9 9 . 2 9 3 T h e m o t i f of t h e " c i t y o n t h e m o u n t a i n " is d i s c u s s e d by K. K e r e n y i in Das Ceheimnis der hohen Sl'ddte, Europdische Revue, 1 9 4 2 , J u l i - A u g u s t - H e f t ; a n d in Essays on a Science of Mythology, B o l l i n g e n S e r i e s X X I I I , p . 16. 2 9 4 J u n g ' s d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e m o t i f of f o u r a p p e a r , for i n s t a n c e , in his C o l l e c t e d W o r k s , v o l . I X , X I , X I I , a n d X I V ; b u t t h e p r o b l e m of t h e f o u r , w i t h all its i m p l i c a t i o n s , is w o v e n like a r e d t h r e a d t h r o u g h all his w o r k s . 297 F o r s o m e of t h e s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g s a s c r i b e d t o p l a y i n g c a r d s , see Handworterbuch des Deutschen Aberglaubens, vol. I V , p . 1 0 1 5 , a n d v o l . V , p . 1 110. 297 The s y m b o l i s m of t h e n u m b e r n i n e is d i s c u s s e d in ( a m o n g o t h e r w o r k s ) F. V . H o p p e r ' s Medieval Number Symbolism, 1938, p . 138. 299 C o n c e r n i n g t h e " n i g h t - s e a - j o u r n e y " p a t t e r n of this d r e a m , see J . J a c o b i , " T h e P r o c e s s of I n d i v i d u a t i o n , " Journal of Analytical Psychology, v o l . I l l , n o . 2, 1958, p . 9 5 . 3 0 0 T h e p r i m i t i v e b e l i e f in t h e p o w e r of b o d i l y s e c r e t i o n s
is d i s c u s s e d b y E. N e u m a n n in Origins ( G e r m a n e d i t i o n ) , p. 39.
of
Consciousness
Science and the unconscious M.-L. von Franz 304 T h e a r c h e t y p e s as nuclei of t h e p s v c h e a r e d i s c u s s e d b y W . P a u l i in Aufsdirj und Vortrdge iiber Physik und Erkennlnis-iheorie, V e r l a g V i e w e g B r a u n s c h w e i g . 1961. 304 C o n c e r n i n g t h e i n s p i r i n g o r i n h i b i t i n g p o w e r of t h e a r c h e t y p e s , see C . G . J u n g a n d W . P a u l i , Naturerkldrung und Psyche, Z u r i c h , 1 9 5 2 , p . 163 a n d p a s s i m . 306 P a u l i ' s s u g g e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g b i o l o g y a p p e a r s in Aufsdtze und Vortrdge, op. cit., p . 123. 306 F o r f u r t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d for m u t a t i o n , see P a u l i , op. cit., p p . 1 2 3 - 2 5 . 306 T h e s t o r y of D a r w i n a n d W a l l a c e c a n b e f o u n d in H e n s h a w W a r d ' s Charles Darwin, 1927. 307 T h e r e f e r e n c e t o D e s c a r t e s is e x p a n d e d in M . - L . v o n F r a n z ' s " D e r T r a u m d e s D e s c a r t e s , " in Studien des C. C. Jung Instituts, c a l l e d " Z e i t l o s e D o k u m e n t s d e r S e e l e . " 307 K e p l e r ' s a s s e r t i o n is d i s c u s s e d b y J u n g a n d P a u l i in Naturerkldrung und Psyche, op. at., p . 117. 307 Heisenberg's p h r a s e was q u o t e d by H a n n a h A r e n d t in The Human Condition, C h i c a g o U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 , p . 2 6 . 307 P a u l i ' s s u g g e s t i o n of p a r a l l e l p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l s t u d i e s a p p e a r s in Naturerkldrung, op. at., p . 163. 307 F o r N i e l s B o h r ' s i d e a s of c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y , see his Atomphysik und menschliche Erkennln/s, B r a u n s c h w e i g , p . 26 ff. 308 " M o m e n t u m " (of a s u b a t o m i c p a r t i c l e ) is, in (ierman, Bewegungsgrosse. 308 T h e s t a t e m e n t q u o t e d f r o m P a u l i w a s q u o t e d by J u n g in " T h e S p i r i t of P s y c h o l o g y , " in Jos. C a m p b e l l ' s Coll. Papers of the Eranos Year Book, B o l l i n g e n S e r i e s X X X , 1, N . Y . P a n t h e o n B o o k s , 1 9 5 4 , p . 4 3 9 . 308 P a u l i d i s c u s s e s t h e " p r i m a r y p o s s i b i l i t i e s " in Vortrdge, op. cit., p . 125. 308 T h e parallels between microphysics and p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s a l s o a p p e a r in Vortrdge: t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s b y p a r a d o x e s , p p . 1 1 5 - 1 6 ; t h e a r c h e t y p e s as " p r i m a r y p o s s i b i l i t i e s , " p . 1 1 5 ; t h e u n c o n s c i o u s as a " f i e l d , " p . 125. 309 T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m G a u s s is t r a n s l a t e d f r o m his Werke, v o l . X , p . 2 5 , l e t t e r to O l b c r s , a n d is q u o t e d in B. L. v a n d e r W a e r d e n , Einfall und Ueberlegung: Drei klane Beitrdge zur Psychologic des mathematischen Denkens, Basel, 1954. 1
309 P o i n c a r e ' s s t a t e m e n t is q u o t e d in ibid., p . 2. 309 P a u l i ' s b e l i e f t h a t t h e c o n c e p t of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s w o u l d affect all n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s is in Vortrdge, p . 125. 309 T h e i d e a of t h e p o s s i b l e o n e - n e s s of life p h e n o m e n a w a s t a k e n u p b y P a u l i , ibid., p . 118. 309 For J u n g ' s ideas on the "synchronistic a r r a n g e m e n t " i n c l u d i n g m a t t e r a n d p s y c h e , see his " S y n c h r o n i c i t y : A n A c a u s a l C o n n e c t i n g P r i n c i p l e , " Coll. W o r k s vol. V I I I . 3 0 9 J u n g ' s i d e a of t h e unus mundus follows s o m e m e d i e v a l p h i l o s o p h i c i d e a s in s c h o l a s t i c i s m ( J o h n D u n s S c o t u s , etc.) : T h e u n u s m u n d u s was the total or a r c h e t y p a l c o n c e p t of t h e w o r l d in G o d ' s m i n d b e f o r e h e p u t it i n t o actual reality. 309 T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m H a n n a h A r e n d t a p p e a r s in The Human Condition, op. at., p . 2 6 6 . 309 F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of " p r i m a r y m a t h e m a t i c a l i n t u i t i o n s , " see P a u l i , Vortrdge, p . 1 2 2 ; a n d a l s o F e r d . C o n s e t h , " L e s m a t h e m a t i q u e s et la r e a l i t e , " 1 9 4 8 . 310 Pauli, following J u n g , points out that o u r conscious r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e " o r d e r e d " before b e c o m i n g conscious in Vortrdge, p . 122. S e e a l s o C o n s e t h , op. at. 310 B. L. v a n d e r W a e r d e n ' s s t a t e m e n t is f r o m his Einfall und Ueberlegung, op. at., p . 9.
3'5
Index b i r d , as s y m b o l , 151-2, 153-7
D e l a u n a y , R o b e r t , 2 4 7 , 248
B i r k h a u s e r , P e t e r , 187,
Demeter,
199
Bischof, W e r n e r , 2 6 8 , 268 B l a k e , W i l l i a m , 54, 72, 186,
219
Descartes, R e n e , 38, 307
B l u e b e a r d , 190, 191
D i o n y s u s , 141 ff.
Bohr, Niels, 307, 308
d i s k , s y m b o l of, 2 1 5
Braque, Georges, 253
dissociation,
213
numbers
in
italics
refer
to
captions
Breton, A n d r e , 257, 258-9
dragons,
B r e u e r , Josef, 26
d r e a m s , 2 0 ff.,
152, a b o r i g i n e s , A u s t r a l i a n , 95, 131, 204, 2 0 5
190
78;
B r u e g h e l , P i e t e r , 86, Buddha
and
175,
168 85,
101-2,
2 2 4 , 2 3 3 , 2 4 0 , 242;
115,
Zen, 75,
41,
74, in,
criptions,
a d v e r t i s i n g , 36, 50, 2 2 1 , 2 2 4
Carra, Carlo, 254
161-2;
nature
Aeschbacher, Hans, 234
Carroll, Lewis, 53
of,
161-2;
A e s c u l a p i u s ( A s k l e p i o s ) , 76, 154
C h a g a l l , M a r c , 41, 127, 256, 2 5 7
rejection
156, 204,
210, 246,
246, 2 5 4 , 2 6 2 - 3 , 2 8 2 216, 2 8 3 , 289, 3 0 2 ; eroticism a n d , 179-80, f o u r s t a g e s of,
182-8,
186,
187;
1 8 5 - 6 , 185; and
as g u i d e ,
mother,
125
ff.,
1 7 8 - 9 ; n e g a t i v e , 1 7 8 - 9 , 178, 179, 180, personifications,
178,
positive,
projection
180 ff.;
180,
183, of,
181;
185-8;
180,
183,
188; w o r s h i p of, 1 8 5 - 8 2 0 7 ; in r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l i s m ,
2 3 7 - 9 , 239;
149 ff.; see a l s o
a n i m u s , 30, 9 7 , 136 ff., and 194;
21,
29,
as s y m b o l s of Self, 2 0 7 ; a n d
transcendence, father,
189; four
as g r o u p ,
191,
totems
304;
224,
2 4 1 ; symbols
193;
194-5,
negative,
21,
64,
72-4, 75, 85,
of,
8 1 , 90,
67-8;
see
96, also
251,
259-60
2 5 2 ff., 2 6 1 ff.;
235-7;
imaginative,
2 5 0 ff., 2 6 1 ff.; r e l i g i o u s , 2 3 2 , 2 3 7 - 9 ,
246, 243,
2 4 3 - 5 , 2 7 0 , 271
Circe,
283
circle,
symbol
of,
240-9,
259;
see
also
mandala
33-4, 62,
160;
of, 2 9 , 3 1 , 3 9 , 5 0 , 5 2 ; s e x u a l i t y from,
21,
185; and
animus,
1 12, 1 1 8 - 2 1 ,
193;
1 2 3 , 126-8,
132; a n d i n d i v i d u a t i o n , 165-7; a n d shadow, 1 1 8 - 2 1 , 168 ff.; a n d Self, 128 ff., 149, 161,
Elijah,
286
E l i z a b e t h I I , Q u e e n , 71,
200
emotion, 6 1 , 9 1 , 99
of,
of,
60,
separation aspects,
anima,
hero myth,
E l i o t , T . S., 152
evolution
functions 229;
and
E l e u s i n i a n mysteiies, 79, 148, 2 8 0
C o c t e a u , J e a n , 1 7 8 , 178
four
e a r t h a l t a r , 162, 162
1 6 1 - 4 , 197 ff, 2 0 8 , 2 1 3 f., 2 4 0
184
2 3 - 5 , 76, 9 8 ; 61;
from 39-43;
limits
instinct, and
the
of, 83; un-
Ensor, J a m e s ,
296
E p o n a , 98 E p s t e i n , J a c o b , 47 E r n s t , M a x , 220, 233, 2 3 4 , 2 5 3 , 258, 2 6 0 Eros a n d Psyche,
193
v o n E s c h e n b a c h , W o l f r a m , 187 202
C r a n a c h , L u c a s , 29, 86 c r o s s , s y m b o l of, 2 0 , 80, 90, 9 1 , 9 6 , 2 4 3 - 5
Escorial, Spain,
275
I / E t o i l e , P l a c e d e , 242 E v e , 1 8 5 , 188 e x i s t e n t i a l i s m , 163
cryptomnesia, 37-8 c r y s t a l g a z i n g , 28
extraversion
and
introversion,
58,
59-60,
1 7 1 , 172 E z e k i e l , v i s i o n of, 2 0 , 4 5 , 7 4
A r t h u r , K i n g , 110, 111, 196, 198, 2 1 5 , 215 D a l i , S a l v a d o r , 2 5 7 , 258
A t h e n a , 110, 185 221
a t o m s , 22, 3 0 7 Bazaine, J e a n , 250, 254, 268
Danae,
280
fairy
tales,
167, 167,
d a n c i n g , 34, 35, 98, 236, 2 3 6
207,
D a n t e A l i g h i e r i , 1 8 3 , 186
Beauty
D a r w i n , C h a r l e s , 33, 5 6 , 3 0 6
C i n d e r e l l a , 176, 197
B e a t r i c e , 1 8 3 , 186
David,
" B e a u t y a n d the Beast," 137-40, 193-4
d e a t h , 74, 7 5 , 1 4 8 , 1 8 9 - 9 1
Bible, t h e , 72, 74
D e l a c r o i x , E u g e n e , 120,
3l6
recurring,
and, ideas
D u c h a m p , Marcel, 252-3
and
c r y s t a l , a s s y m b o l , 2 0 9 , 211
A r t e m i d o r u s , 78
primitive
a n d , 27 ff., 6 3 - 4 , 7 8 , 9 8 ; w a r n i n g s
ego:
173
C o s m i c M a n , 2 0 0 - 2 , 201, cave
39;
Eckhart, Meister, 202
ego
A r i a d n e , 1 2 5 , 141 A r p , J e a n ( o r H a n s ) , 252,
of,
guidance
process
E d e n , G a r d e n of, 86
C h r i s t o p h e r , S t . , 2 1 8 , 219
c o n s c i o u s , 3 2 - 8 , 3 9 - 5 3 , 6 4 , 8 3 - 5 ; see a l s o
Arendt, H a n n a h , 309
52,
individuation
E a s t e r , s y m b o l i s m of, 1 0 8 , 142
C h r i s t m a s , 8 1 , 107-8
subliminal
a t o m i c b o m b , 101,
101-2,
142 ff., 1 8 5 , 1 8 7 , 2 3 8 , 2 4 1 , 2 4 5 , 2 7 0
c o m p l e x e s , 28, 29, 79 68,
208;
1 8 3 - 5 , 192,
b o o k s , 53;
76, 2 3 8 - 9 , 239, 2 7 0 Christianity,
complementarity, 307, 308
6 7 ff.,
trans57, 66,
of,
Cleopatra,
192,
definition
148,
239,
c i v i l i z a t i o n , stresses of, 4 5 - 7 , 5 2 , 9 3 - 6 , 101
of,
symbols
paintings,
145-7,
31, 50-3,
d r u g s , 259, 2 6 0
71, 7 2 , 80, 8 1 , 82, 8 3 , 8 9 , 108,
consciousness:
art: "abstract,"
165-6;
stages
A p o l l o , 149 99,
ego,
c i r c u m c i s i o n r i t e s , 131, 132, 2 3 7
180
a r c h e t y p e s , 4 7 , 66,
165;
177, 1 8 9 - 9 5 , 2 1 6 ;
189, 1 9 1 ; p o s i t i v e , 192 ff. A n t h o n y , S t . , 49,
142,
32,
5 0 - 1 , 7 4 - 5 , 78
Churchill, Sir Winston,
a n i m a l s : in a r t , 2 3 4 - 9 ; in fairy t a l e s , 1 3 7 - 9 , 206,
165,
m e m o r y , 9 9 , 165 C h r i s t , 21,
76,
analysis,
in, 29, 9 2 ; sleep a n d , 6 3 ; t h e unconscious
dreams,
C h i r i c o , G i o r g i o d e , 170, 2 5 4 - 7 pass.
a n i m a , 30, 3 1 , 9 7 , 123 ff., 1 5 2 , 177 ff., 2 0 5 , 181;
C h e i r o n , 110, / / /
156
74,
50, 53-4, 56,
dream
from,
5 4 , 68,
78;
72,
116, 132, 1 3 5 , 136, 1 3 7 , 139, 140,
C a r a v a g g i o , M i c h e l a n g e l o , 47
30,
221,
125-6,
64,
152-3, 163, 165, 169-71,
a d o l e s c e n c e , 7 4 , 117, 1 2 1 , 130, 132, 2 8 7
alchemy,
123,
63,
64,
43, 49,
2 7 6 ff. pass.;
childhood
41,
6 2 - 3 , 6 7 , 74, 9 5 ; d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d
145,
A d a m , 70, 82, 2 0 0 - 1
236,237
120-1,
38,
analogies
6 9 ff.,
b u l l , a s s y m b o l , 1 3 9 , 1 4 7 - 8 , 147
A f r i c a n m y t h s a n d r i t e s , 24, 43, 45, 82, 2 3 5 ,
52, 83-5, 2 1 3 ,
43, 55-8, 96, 9 9 ; compensatory,
Buddhism,
2 0 7 , 233, 2 3 3 , 2 4 1
active i m a g i n a t i o n , 206-7
2 4 - 5 , 24,
222, 249
Bronte, Emily, to illustrations.
d i a m o n d , a s s y m b o l , 21 7
B o c h l i n , A r n o l d , 2 7 7 , 2 7 8 , 278, 2 8 1 , 2 8 2
Brasilia,
Page
197
Democritus, 307
222
279,
289;
and
the
1 9 3 , 196, 197,
Bath Beast,
216;
137-40,
193;
F a u s t , 8 1 , 121 f e e l i n g f u n c t i o n , 6 1 , 9 9 , 185. 2 7 8 . 286 222
Feiffer, J u l e s , 58
206,
Badgerd,
fertility
rites,
79,
106-8,
107,
142,
147-8,
154-6, 2 3 5 , 237, 286 F i e r z - D a v i d , L i n d a , 145 First M a n , 200-2,
202 182
f o r t u n e t e l l i n g , 28 four,
motif
of,
and
21,
70,
71,
72,
112,
199,
240-2, 249, 289, 293,
the a n i m a ,
185,
187;
and
the
a n i m u s , 194, 194; a n d t h e Self, 2 1 3 28
Freud,
47,
Sigmund, 227,
of
Changes,
The,
291-3,
25,
26,
285;
and
5 6 - 7 ; free a s s o c i a t i o n
L u c i f e r , 72, 2 6 7
" i m a g i n a t i v e " a r t , 2 4 6 , 2 5 0 ff.
L u r c a t , J e a n , 2 6 8 , 271
i m m o r t a l i t y , 8 7 , 148
Luther, Martin,
India,
43,
56,
dream
theory,
63,
64,
analysis,
26-31;
and
240;
see
also
Hinduism,
individuation,
90,
160
definition,
ff.;
160-1;
175-6; m e a n d e r i n g process
of,
beginnings,
difficulties pattern
160
ff.;
of,
of,
and
160,
religion,
r i t e s , 74,
129
ff,
G a n d h i , M a h a t m a , 58,
194
132,
134,
143,
184
Johann
"death
of,"
255,
267;
W.
81,
121,
123,
von,
185, 186, 2 7 7 Gossaert, J a n ,
280
Grandville, J e a n Gerard,
J a m e s , William, 308
m e d i u m s , 77, 151
Jerusalem,
Medusa,
208
menhirs,
73 120 107, 160,
154, 2 0 5 ; 2 2 4 ,
161,
162,
177,
G.,
Haffenrichtcr, Hans,
9
ff.,
165,
26,
168,
53,
173,
56,
185,
198,
233,
233
M e p h i s t o p h e l e s , 121 M e r c u r y , 156 microphysics, 306-9
207, 208, 211, 212, 213, 225,
240,
Miro, J o a n , 253
243, 247, 248, 249,
260,
" m i s o n e i s m , " 2 3 , 3 1 , 33
261,
265, 267,
255, 257,
277, 281, 285, 287, 291,
3 0 4 - 1 0 pass.;
and
Freud,
26-8,
M i t h r a s , 147,
237
M o h a m m e d , 156,
W a s s i l y , 2 4 7 , 248,
250,
251-3,
m o o n , t h e , 97, 2 7 6 ,
K a n t , I m m a n u e l , 56
M o s e s , 4 5 , 175
H e l e n of T r o y ,
K e k u l e , F r i e d r i c h , 3 8 , 38
Mt. Williamson,
K e p l e r , J o h a n n e s , 307
Mt. Rushrnore,
184 194
H e r c u l e s ( H e r a c l e s ) , 110,
Klee,
168 204,
278
Paul,
167,
2 6 3 - 4 , 263,
269
H e r m e s , 154-6
K o r a n , t h e , 175
H e r m e t i c p h i l o s o p h y , 7 3 , 156
Krishna, 224
h e r o m y t h , 7 2 - 3 , 7 8 - 9 , 110 ff., 128, 131 ff., 266-7 Hinduism, 203,
42,
90,
206, 2 3 7 - 8 ,
9 1 , 92,
136,
151,
175,
173
156
^
symbol,
170,
174;
winged,
110, 1 1 3 , 114,
186, 168
168
121
(Dream
of
Poliphilo),
41,
3 3 - 4 , 34,
35:
collective
infection,
131,
141,
K w a n - Y i n , 97,
187-8
246, 250
myths 200,
215
142;
Eleusinian,
79,
mythology:
201, 55,
204;
202;
7 9 , 89,
239
Egyptian, 132,
19,
187-8, 20,
22,
155, 155,
156,
170,
Eskimo,
177,
196,
1 7 1 , 2 3 7 - 8 , 2 4 2 , 296;
286
107,
110, 111,
141,
142-3,
113,
142
114,
f.,
144,
124, 147,
124-5,
140,
154,
156,
177, 184, 185, 189, 193, 197, 205, 2 3 8 , 245
280,
2 8 2 , 282;
L e u c i p p u s , 307
72-3,
Leviathan,
Mayan,
201
110
Haida
ff.; 42;
and
208,
Lippold, Richard,
114,
126,
213,
122,
238;
Persian,
230 194
Indians,
213; Navaho
72;
individuation,
Naskapi
Levy-Bruhl, Lucien, 24 Lloyd George, David,
Babylonian, C h i n e s e , 97,
2 1 6 , 2 2 8 ; G r e e k , 51, 76, 76, 7 8 - 9 , 9 0 , 106,
280
Leda and the Swan,
and
2 3 7 ; C e l t i c , 98,
L e o n a r d o d a V i n c i , 27,
278
hysteria,
K u h n , H e r b e r t , 2 3 4 - 6 pass., Ku Klux Klan,
Leger, F e r n a n d , 270
Hypnerotomachia
178
81
148, 2 8 0
" l a y i n g o n of h a n d s , " 2 8 6 , 98,
208 208
Mozart, Wolfgang, mysteries,
Landseer, Edwin,
H o r u s , 2 0 , 21, 7 9 , 2 4 2 hybns,
262,
mungu,
l a n d s c a p e s , in d r e a m s , 214,
201
H o l y G h o s t , 142-3 as
248, 254, 262,
53,
H i t l e r , Adolf, 79, 111,
horse,
247,
239
Hobbes, Thomas,
263
277
Morienus, 210
265
Heisenberg, W e r n e r , 229, 307
h e r m a p h r o d i t e , 30, 203,
210
186
M o n d r i a n , P i e t , 248, 2 4 9 , 2 6 2 , 262, Kandinsky,
187
H a r e , m y t h of, 112 ff.
H e m i n g w a y , Ernest,
188, 210,
M o n a L i s a , 185,
211
H a g g a r d , H . R i d e r , 186,
205
203,
56-8
189
238
265
241,
2 9 4 , 302, Hades and Persephone,
188,
m e n s t r u a t i o n , 132 106,
G r u n e w a l d , M a t t h i a s , 49
187,
m e g a l o m a n i a , 62-4, 89
189
149, 156,
286
185, 185,
217
Matisse, H e n r i , 247
229
118, 128, 129, 1 4 2 - 3 ,
283
266
127, 2 3 6 ,
J a c o b y , E r h a r d , 39,
109,
Greatrakes, Valentine,
271
M a s s , C a t h o l i c , 142-3
G r e a t M o t h e r , 8 1 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 9 8 , 125 ff., 1 4 1 , 225
ff,
1 3 7 ; s a c r e d , 134-6
m a s k s , 24, 45, 104,
277
C.
302;
240
M a r c , F r a n z , 261, 2 6 2 , 2 6 3
Mathieu, Georges,
Jung,
art,
285
186
J o n a h , 119,
298
in
213-17,
299,
248
J a c o b ' s d r e a m , 209, 233
Job, 74
199,
289,
242-5;
M a r y , t h e V i r g i n , 118,
J o a n of A r c ,
G o y a , F r a n c e s c o , 41, 65,
Grosz, Georg,
architecture,
Masson, Andre,
186;
166,
2 2 5 , 227,
m a r r i a g e , 134,
I sis,
d r e a m s a n d , 102 Goethe,
215,
253
165,
i n s t i n c t , 5 2 , 68, 6 9 , 7 5 - 6 , 8 3 , 9 4 , 2 3 9
Ishtar,
G e o r g e , St., 237 82,
in
214,
158,
i n t r o v e r s i o n , see e x t r a v e r s i o n
G a y o m a r t , 200, 217 72,
213,
21,
M a r k , S t . , 21, 8 9
drugs a n d , 260
i n t u i t i o n f u n c t i o n , 60, 6 1 , 9 2
Gauss, Karl, 308
M a l e v i c h , K a s i m i r , 251, mandala,
Marini, M a r i n o , 266-7,
i n s p i r a t i o n , 3 8 , 3 0 6 , 307;
192
217
255
M a n e s s i e r , Alfred, 268, 270,
inferiority, 62-4 initiation
M a g d a l e n , St. M a r y ,
240, 242, 243, 246,
2 2 4 - 9 ; a n d society, 218-24
146, 148, 153-4, 157 214
F u s e l i , H e n r y , 63,
God,
175
Magritte, Rene,
Buddhism
160;
J u n g , 57 Friedrich, Kaspar,
Gauguin, Paul,
285
L u c i a , S t . , festival of, 80 Lull, R a i m o n , 76
166,
free a s s o c i a t i o n , 2 6 - 3 1 , 27, 99,
Book
i m a g i n a t i o n , 92
164-7;
F r e d e r i c k t h e G r e a t , 5 5 , 55
67,
or
incest fear, 138-9
2 0 0 , 2 1 3 , 2 2 5 , 226, 299;
Ching 291
fire, as s y m b o l , 7 8 Flaubert, Gustave,
Lourdes,
I c a r u s , 121 /
Indians,
Indians,
215;
7 1 , 74,
Norse, 108,
111,
239, hero, T67;
161-2, 114,
108,
113,
147,
200,
317
217,
237;
Pueblo
Indians,
1 1 0 , 7 7 5 , 1 4 2 , 144,
89;
Roman,
154, 2 4 2 ; S c a n d i n a v i a n ,
777; Slavonic, 775; Teutonic,
rebirth,
72,
74,
145 ff., 2 9 6 ,
75,
107-9,
123,
Navaho
249
Indians,
of,
77,
74,
1 14,
774,
126,
94,
101;
and
in
modern
life,
in,
2 1 , 21,
55,
N e u m a n n , Erich, 304, 309
89,
89-91, 96,
Nicholson, Ben,
237-9,
213,
215 246
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 37, 74, 255 No d r a m a , 2 3 6 , numbers,
42, 2 9 7 , 307,
239;
Rembrandt, aspects
of,
40,
3 0 9 - 1 0 ; see also four
85-9,
101-2;
75-6,
108,
224-9;
symbolism
7 9 , 80,
142-3,
also
81,
145 ff.,
Buddha,
5 4 ; in art, 2 3 2
ff.;
55,
76,
72-3,
75-6,
89-91,
90,
200-3,
224-9,
96,
225-6,
Christiani-
108,
Tarzan,
Renoir, Auguste,
Tintoretto,
245 199
prayer
totality,
265-7
28;
circle
symbols
symbols, 196-211
200
oracles and omens, 57, 211, 290-3
Rorschach, Hermann,
O r p h e u s , 141 ff.
Rosati, J a m e s , 234
Osiris, 79
rose: w h i t e , 138, 2 4 1 ; w i n d o w ,
27
of,
Pauli, Wolfgang, 261, 307-9
759
tree s y m b o l ,
250
of hero,
161-4,
120,
a n i m a l s , 47,147,
pass.
Salome,
86 125
287
121-3,
237
43,
45, .76,
S a t a n , 72, 2 2 6 ,
227
Turner, William,
S c h w i t t e r s , K u r t , 252,
253, 260
Self,
283
128-9,
T r i c k s t e r , 112 ff, 113,
1 4 0 , 1 4 9 , 1 5 1 , 156
289
255
unconscious,
200
67,
253-4
107;
and ego,
161 ff.; d e f i n i t i o n ,
161,
161-2;
93, 98,
the,
and
20
ff.;
162, 2 1 5 - 1 7 ; a n d indivi-
76;
personifications
2 2 5 - 9 ; see also p s y c h e
Pollock, Jackson, 264,
ff.;
264
P r i e s t l e y , J . B., 2 7 7 , 278,
55, 67, 74, 76,
90, 93, 94, 98-9, 128,
129,
106-9, 110,
1 4 0 , 148,
7 7 7 , 2 0 6 , 2 0 8 , 2 3 3 - 7 , 233, 286,
of, 187,
279, 304
p r i m i t i v e s , 4 3 , 5 2 , 53,
2 4 6 , 285,
149,
237,
2 5 , 4 5 ; i n i t i a t i o n , 130 ff.,
131,
79,
serpents
153-4,
76, 152,
239, 243, 134;
24,
obses-
35
animal,
75-6;
d e v e l o p m e n t of, 66, 161-7
pass.,
161,
767,
165;
196
ff.pass.
compass
of,
67, 75-6, 9 9 ;
196
ff.
totality
ff.;
pass.; of,
and
Freud, to,
t y p e s i n , 5 8 ff.
1 5 4 - 6 , 154,
Soulages, Pierre,
pass.,
65-6,
56-8; 92;
U t o p i a c o n c e p t s , 8 5 , 86
35,
Valentino, Rudolph,
38,
70,
74,
194
Villa de Misteri ( P o m p e i i ) , 143, V o l t a i r e , F r a n c o i s , 220,
192
227
W a e r d e n , B. L . v a n d e r , 3 1 0 236
194
symbol
Wagner, Richard,
193
w a r , m o t i f of, 1 0 7 ,
108
Washington, George,
the,
242,
w i t c h d o c t o r s , 45, 82; see also s h a m a n s 246,
247,
w i t c h e s , 7 7 7 , 181, women:
248
the
234
symbolism 2 0 8 - 1 1 , 210,
of,
198
wise old w o m a n , 196, 277, 2 7 9
227
of
198
wise old m a n , 9 8 , 196,
S t e v e n s o n , R o b e r t L o u i s , 24, stone, 208,
43,
177,
38 204,
205,
207,
as
animus, 777,
188
anima 189
figures, ff.;
and
w o r d - a s s o c i a t i o n tests, 2 8
217, 232-5
T
W o r l d W ar I,
120
W o r l d W a r I I , 94, 108,
surrealism, 257-8,
Worringer, Wilhelm, 265
S w i t z e r l a n d , 204, and
219,
R a d i n , Paul, 112
5 3 , 5 5 , 6 4 , 6 6 , 90,
Raven,
118,
R e a d , Sir H e r b e r t , 2 6 5
3
i 8
149-57,
160-229
303
258 2 3 6 , 2 7 6 , 2 8 5 , 2 9 8 f.
symbolism,
1 2 2 - 3 , 127,
296,
90-9,
129, pass.;
22,
29,
43,
102, 103,
132, 138,
142,
definition,
52,
106-9,
Yang and Yin, 290 yantra, 240,
147, 21-2,
zodiac, 237
ff.;
240
111,
198
and
irrational,
195; see also wise old
superstition, 82, 94-6, 290
symbols
177 the
Great Mother
Pythagoreans, 40,
72
143
v i s i o n s , 2 0 , 4 5 , 47
s u n s y m b o l s , 2 1 , 22, 2 4 1 , 246,
q u a t e r n i t y , see four
55,
302
p s y c h o l o g i c a l t y p e s , 5 8 ff. 42
religion,
u n i d e n t i f i e d flying o b j e c t s ( U F O s ) , 2 4 9 , 249
spirit in m a t t e r , 2 0 5 , 2 0 8 , 2 5 3 ff. 248-9,
25-8,
and
symbols
2 7 1 , 271
spiral motif, 2 2 5 - 6 ,
Stalin, J . V . ,
57-8,
34;
shadow,
151, 177-8, 777,
signs, 20, 55, 5 5
161-7
and,
and
239
Shakespeare, William,
60;
structure,
neurosis
s h a d o w , 9 3 , 1 1 8 , 1 6 8 ff., 2 9 4
nucleus
psychic manifestations, 55, 306 approach
snakes),
of,
2 1 8 ff.;
s e x u a l s y m b o l i s m , 2 9 , 29, 30, 9 1 - 2
square,
psychoanalysis:
(and
Shelley, Percy Bysshe,
psychic associations, 2 7 - 3 1 , 39-54
individual
212
2 0 7 ff., 2 1 2 ff., 2 4 0 ff.,
s h a m a n s , 149,
p r o p a g a n d a , 79, 86, 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 4
of,
of,
s e n s a t i o n f u n c t i o n , 6 0 - 1 , 60, 2 4 0
122,
300; "bush soul," 24,
s i o n , 4 7 ; p o s s e s s i o n , 34, psyche:
realization
1 7 3 - 6 ; s o c i a l a s p e c t s of,
196
55, 63-4;
1 1 8 , 2 1 7 ; fear a n d r e j e c t i o n
a n d e g o , 128 ff.,
of,
32-8,
1 0 2 ; k n o w l e d g e f r o m , 3 7 - 8 , 76-8,
duation,
163-4;
collective,
consciousness,
Poincare, Henri, 38, 309 267
236
T w i n s m y t h , 112 ff., 7 7 5 , 1 2 4 , 130, 132
Plutarch, 242
127,
153,
Trinity, the, 225, 307
S c h o p e n h a u e r , A r t h u r , 56, 252,
of
297
Schweitzer, Dr. Albert,
pig, as s y m b o l , 148, 153, 154, 2 8 2 ,
126,
8 1 , 90,
T u c d'Audubert cave, 235-6
s c h i z o p h r e n i a , 65, 2 6 1
8 1 , 88,
80,
187
Trois Freres caves, 2 3 5 - 6 , 186
philosopher's stone, 205, 210 p h y s i c s , n u c l e a r , 2 6 1 , 3 0 7 ff.
ff.;
179
S a p i e n t i a , 185,
s c a r a b b e e t l e s , 296,
298
131
148, 237
p h a l l u s , 9 1 - 2 , 143, 156
Pompeii,
other
Tremois, Pierre-Yves, 277 sacrifice,
P i c a s s o , P a b l o , 147,
240-9;
Trakl, Georg, 260
242
89
phoenix, 297,
240
t r a n s c e n d e n c e , 149 ff.
R u s s i a , 2 8 , 49, 86,
287,
mandalas,
pass.
t o t e m s , 45, 1 2 9 , 129,
persona,
30,
245
d e la T o u r , G e o r g e s , 2 7 7
Perseus, 110, 125,
29,
78
wheel,
Roosevelt, Eleanor,
Penn, William,
185-7,
29,
125
R o m e , f o u n d a t i o n of, 2 4 2
P a l m a n o v a , Italy,
89,
194
T h e s e u s , 110, 125,
Oedipus,
P a u l , S t . , 47,
22,
82,
145 ff.,
sexual,
obsession, 47 181
81,
synchronicity, 55, 211, 291, 306, 310
Tibet:
fcdouard,
142-3,
237-9;
T h u r b e r , J a m e s , 64,
Roditi,
80,
t h i n k i n g f u n c t i o n , 60, 6 0 - 1
103
r i v e r c r o s s i n g , m o t i f of, 198,
79,
9 1 - 2 ; of totality, 196-211
Renaissance, the, 244-5, 253
N u t , 118,
r e l i g i o u s , 2 1 , 21,
82,
Mohammed
n u m i n o s i t y , 7 9 , 9 3 , 9 4 - 9 , 101 132
2 7 0 ; failure
individuation,
55,
see
ty, H i n d u i s m ,
238
mythological
132,
regression, 124
178
r e l i g i o n : a n d art, 2 3 5 , 2 4 0 ff., Nash, Paul, 248,
130,
297
woman,
Illustration credits
K e y : (B) b o t t o m ; ( C ) c e n t e r ; ( L ) left; ( M ) m i d d l e ; ( R ) r i g h t ; (T) t o p ; a n d c o m b i n a t i o n s , e.g. ( B R ) ( T L ) Academia de San Fernando, Madrid, 65(BR); © A D . A.G.P., Paris, 2 1 6 ( B L ) , 271 ( M L ) ( B R ) ; courtesy Administrationskanzlei des N a t u r h i s t o r i s c h e n M u s e u m s , W i e n , 2 8 5 ( B C ) ; Aerofilms a n d A e r o P i c t o r i a l , 2 1 8 ( B L ) , 2 4 3 ( T L ) ; S i g n o r Agnelli, 251 ( B R ) ; Albertina, V i e n n a , 169(BL); Aldus Archives, 129(L), 2 2 0 ( T L ) ; Alte P i n a k o t h e k , M u n i c h , 8 7 ( B R ) , 115(BR), 280; A m e r i c a n M u s e u m of N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , 6 8 ( B L ) ; c o u r t e s y t h e A r c h b i s h o p of C a n t e r b u r y a n d t h e T r u s t e e s of L a m b e t h P a l a c e L i b r a r y , 156(BL); Archives P h o t o g r a p h i q u e s , Paris, 2 0 4 ( T R ) ; T h e Art I n s t i t u t e of C h i c a g o , P o t t e r P a l m e r C o l l e c t i o n , 2 4 5 ( B R ) ; A r t s C o u n c i l of G r e a t B r i t a i n , 1 4 7 ; R u t h B e r e n s o n & N o r b e r t M u h l e n , George Grosz 1961, A r t s I n c . , N e w Y o r k , 2 8 3 ; A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s , 79(BL). C o u r t e s y Miss R u t h Bailey, 52, 57, 1 9 8 ( T C ) ; Collection F r a u Dr. L y d i a Bau, 2 2 0 ( M R ) ; B a y r e u t h e r Festspiele, 1 9 2 ( M R ) ; B e r l i n S t a a t l . M u s e e n , A n t i k e n a b t e i l u n g , 51 ( B L ) ; B i b l i o t h e q u e d e la B o u r g e o i s i e , B e r n e , 1 8 8 ( B C ) ; B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e , P a r i s , 9 9 , 1 1 0 ( M R ) , 140, 1 4 5 ( B C ) , 1 8 9 ( B R ) , 2 1 5 ( B R ) , 2 2 2 ( T L ) , 2 9 8 ( T L ) ; Peter Birkhauser, 1 8 7 ( T R ) , 199; Black Star, 35(BL), 5 9 ( B R ) , 1 1 7 ( B L ) , 2 0 1 ( T L ) , 2 3 5 ( T R ) ; The Blue Angel ( d i r e c t o r : J o s e p h von S t e r n b e r g ) , G e r m a n y , 1930, 1 7 9 ( M ) ; B o d l e i a n L i b r a r y , Oxford, 176(B); T h e Bollingen F o u n d a t i o n , N e w York, 38(BC), 7 2 ( L ) , 1 0 7 ( B C ) ; B r i t i s h C r o w n C o p y r i g h t , 71 ( R ) , 1 2 0 ( T R ) ; c o u r t e s y t h e T r u s t e e s of t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m , 2 1 , 3 8 ( B L ) , 4 2 ( T ) , 5 3 ( B R ) , 5 4 ( M ) , 5 5 ( B L ) , ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) 6 6 , 105, 1 0 7 ( B L ) , 1 1 0 ( B L ) , 1 1 1 ( M L ) ( M C ) , 1 1 5 ( T ) , 1 2 4 ( B L ) , 1 2 5 ( B R ) ( B L ) , 133, 1 4 4 ( T R ) , 1 4 5 ( B R ) , 1 5 0 ( B R ) , 1 5 5 ( T ) , 1 5 6 ( B R ) , 160, 1 6 5 ( B R ) , 171(TR), 186(BL), 188(BL), 190(BL), 192(BR), 195(TL), 197(TL), 198(TL), 209(BL), 216(BR), 259(T), 273, 281, 2 9 8 ( B L ) ; S h i r l e y B u r r o u g h s , 8 0 ( T ) . C a b i n e t des M e d a i l l e s , Paris, 1 4 1 ( B L ) ( B R ) ; C a i r o M u s e u m , 2 2 ( T ) ; C a m e r a Press, 47(TL), 97(B), l l l ( B R ) , 194(BL); J o n a t h a n Cape Limited, L o n d o n , f r o m Angkor Wat, M a l c o l m M a c D o n a l d , 91 ( B R ) ; C e n t r a l Press, 5 0 ( T R ) ; W . & R. C h a m b e r s L i m i t e d , from Twentieth Century Dictionary, 4 5 ; C h u r c h of E n g l a n d I n f o r m a t i o n Office, 3 0 ( R ) ; C I B A A r c h i v e s , B a s l e , 2 3 9 ( M R ) ; c o u r t e s y J e a n C o c t e a u , 138, 139, 1 7 8 ( B L ) ; C o m p a g n i e A e r i e n n e F r a n c a i s e , 2 4 2 ( T L ) ; C o n t e m p o r a r y F i l m s L t d . , Ugetsu Monogatari (director: K e n j i M i z o g u c h i ) , J a p a n , 1 9 5 3 , 1 8 2 ( T ) a n d £ero de Conduite (director: J e a n Vigo), Franfilmdis P r o d u c t i o n , F r a n c e , 1933, 116; C o n z e t t & H u b e r , Z u r i c h , 2 6 ( T ) , 166(BL), 1 8 8 ( M C ) , 265, 2 9 3 ; C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y Press, I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k , 6 8 ( B R ) ; Crin Blanc ( d i r e c t o r : A l b e r t L a m o r i s s e ) , F r a n c e , 1 9 5 3 , 1 7 4 ( T ) (BL). Daiei M o t i o n Picture C o m p a n y Ltd., 1 8 2 ( T ) ; courtesy M a d a m e D e l a u n a y , 2 4 8 ( T R ) ; M a y a D e r e n , The Living Gods of Haiti, 3 5 ( T L ) ( T C ) ( T R ) ; b y c o u r t e s y of W a l t D i s n e y P r o d u c t i o n s , 1 1 0 ( B R ) ; La Dolce Vita ( d i r e c t o r : F e d e r i c o F e l l i n i ) , I t a l y / F r a n c e , 1959, 1 6 6 ( B R ) ; c o u r t e s y M a d a m e T r i x D i i r s t Haass, 2 6 3 ( T R ) ; Collection D u t u i t , 241 ( T L ) . E d i n b u r g h U n i versity L i b r a r y , 1 1 9 ( B R ) , 2 1 0 ( M L ) ; E d i t i o n s A l b e r t Guillot, Paris, 2 0 9 ( B R ) ; E d i t i o n s d ' A r t , Paris, 271 ( T R ) ; E d i t i o n s H o a Q u i , Paris, 4 4 ; Editions H o u v e t , 2 0 ; E d u c a t i o n a n d Television F i l m s L t d . , 1 1 2 ( B L ) ; E s q u i r e M a g a z i n e © 1963 b y E s q u i r e , I n c . , 51 ( T R ) . F a b e r & F a b e r L t d . , L o n d o n , Dance and Drama in Bali, b y Beryl d e Z o e t e a n d W a l t e r S p i e s , 1 2 6 ; J u l e s FeifFer, p e r m i s s i o n of t h e a r t i s t ' s a g e n t , 5 8 ; Find Tour Man, Warner
Bros., 1924, 2 0 6 ( B L ) ; W . F o u l s h a m & C o . L t d . , L o n d o n , 53(BL); courtesy M.-L. von Franz, 2 1 5 ( M L ) ( B L ) , 227; French G o v e r n m e n t T o u r i s t Office, L o n d o n , 1 2 7 ( B R ) , 2 3 2 ( T ) , 2 4 3 ( T R ) ; artist H e n r a r d , F r o b e n i u s - I n s t i t u t an der J o h a n n Wolfgang Goethe-Universitat, Frankfurt a . M . , 202. Gala Film Distributors Ltd., 1 9 2 ( T ) ; G a l e r i e d e F r a n c e , 271 ( M L ) ; G a l e r i e Stangl, Munich, 260(BR), 261(B); Germanisches National-Museum, N u r e m b e r g , 181 ( T L ) ; G e r m a n T o u r i s t I n f o r m a t i o n B u r e a u , L o n d o n , 2 3 7 ( B R ) ; G i r a u d o n , 8 6 ( M R ) , 99, 103(L), 1 1 2 ( B R ) , 154, 1 8 1 ( T R ) , 1 8 4 ( B L ) ( B R ) , 1 8 5 ( B R ) , 2 1 5 ( B R ) , 2 1 7 , 2 2 3 ( B L ) , 2 2 5 , 2 5 2 ( T L ) ; Godzilla ( d i r e c t o r s : J e r r y M o o r e & I s h i r o H o n d a ) , J a p a n / U . S . A . , 1955, 9 3 ( B R ) ; G o e t h e h a u s , F r a n k f u r t a . M . , 6 3 ; courtesy Samuel G o l d w y n Pictures Ltd., 6 5 ( B L ) ; Goteborgs K o n s t m u s e u m , 2 6 6 ( T R ) ; G r a n a d a T V , 173; G r a p h i s Press, Zurich, 9 8 ( T L ) , 2 4 7 ( T ) ; Solomon R. G u g g e n h e i m M u s e u m , N e w York, 2 4 8 ( B L ) ; © the artist, H a n s Haffenrichter, 2 1 1 ; G e o r g e G . H a r r a p , L o n d o n , Fairy Tales, H a n s C h r i s t i a n A n d e r s e n , 1 9 3 2 , 1 9 7 ( B L ) ; b y p e r m i s s i o n of t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d F e l l o w s of H a r v a r d C o l l e g e , 1 0 9 ( M ) ; W i l l i a m H e i n e m a n n L t d . , L o n d o n , The Twilight of the Gods b y E r n e s t G a n n , 1 7 8 ( B R ) ; r e p r o d u c e d b y g r a c i o u s p e r m i s s i o n of H e r M a j e s t y T h e Q u e e n , 2 4 5 ( B L ) ; f r o m C o n z e , Heroen und Gbttergestalten, 155(BL); Museum Unterl i n d e n , C o l m a r / p h o t o H a n s H i n z , 4 8 ( T ) ; Hiroshima mon Amour ( d i r e c t o r : A l a i n R e s n a i s ) , F r a n c e / J a p a n , 1 9 5 8 9, 2 2 1 ( T L ) ; I d e s et C a l e n d e s , N e u c h a t e l , Faces of Bronze, p h o t o P i e r r e A l l a r d & Philippe Luzuy, 88, 237(BL); Imperial W a r Museum, L o n d o n , 121 ( B L ) ; I n t e r N a t i o n e s , 5 4 ( B ) ; I r i s h T o u r i s t B o a r d , 2 1 0 ( B R ) . E r h a r d J a c o b y , 39, 229; J a p a n Council against A t o m i c and H y d r o g e n Bombs, 100(B); Dr. Emilio Jesi, Milan, 2 5 6 ( B R ) ; T h e J e w i s h I n s t i t u t e of H i s t o r y , W a r s a w , 9 4 ( B L ) ; c o u r t e s y t h e f a m i l y of C . G . J u n g , 5 6 ; K a r s h of O t t a w a , f r o n t i s p i e c e ; K e y s t o n e , 1 0 8 ( B R ) , 157, 1 7 2 ( B ) , 2 1 0 ( M R ) , 2 3 5 ( T L ) ; C h r i s t o p h e r Kitson, 90; Kunsthaus, Zurich, 1 8 8 ( M C ) ; Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m , V i e n n a , 29, 1 8 8 ( T L ) , 2 4 4 ; K u n s t m u s e u m , Basle, 219(BC), 248(BR), 2 5 8 ( T L ) , 2 7 9 ( T L ) ; K u n s t m u s e u m , Berne, 2 6 3 ( T L ) ; L a r o u s s e , E d i t e u r s , P a r i s , f r o m La Mythologie b y Felix G u i r a n d , 1 1 9 ( T ) , 1 7 9 ( B L ) , d r a w i n g s b y I. B i l i b i n ; Lascaux chapelle de la prehislorie, F. W i n d e l s , 148; L e y d e n University L i b r a r y , 3 1 ( T ) ; L i b r e r i a d e l l o S t a t o , R o m a , La Villa dei Misteri, Prof. M a i u r i , 1 4 2 - 3 ( T ) ; L o n d o n E x p r e s s , 2 7 0 ; L o n g m a n s , G r e e n & C o . L t d . , L o n d o n , 1 9 2 2 , Mazes and Labyrinths, W. H. Matthews, 171 ( M L ) ( M C ) ' ( M R ) ; M a c m i l l a n & C o . Ltd., L o n d o n , Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (Sir J o h n T e n n i e l d r a w i n g ) , 5 4 ( T ) ; M a g n u m , 2 2 ( B L ) , 34, 1 4 6 ( B R ) , 1 7 2 ( T ) , 1 9 4 ( T M R ) , 198(B), 2 0 8 ( B L ) , 2 3 8 ( T ) , 269; Mansell Collection, 4 6 , 1 5 0 ( B L ) , 1 9 0 ( B R ) , 1 9 1 , 1 9 7 ( R ) , 201 ( B L ) , 2 0 5 , 2 0 9 ( B L ) , 2 2 0 ( T R ) , 2 3 9 ( M C ) ; M a r l b o r o u g h Fine Art Gallery Ltd., L o n d o n , 2 5 2 ( T R ) ; © T h e M e d i c i S o c i e t y L t d . , 1 5 0 ( T ) ; The Medium (director: G i a n - C a r l o M e n o t t i ) , I t a l y / U . S . A . , 1951, 1 7 7 ( B R ) ; M e t r o - G o l d w y n - M a y e r Inc., 24, 1 8 2 ( B L ) ; Metropolis ( d i r e c t o r : Fritz L a n g ) , G e r m a n y , 1926, 2 2 3 ( B R ) ; courtesy T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of A r t , N e w Y o r k , 3 0 ( L ) ( T h e C l o i s t e r s C o l l e c t i o n s P u r c h a s e ) , 4 0 ( T ) (gift of M . K n o e d l e r & C o . , 1 9 1 8 ) , 1 1 9 ( B R ) , 1 8 4 ( T R ) (gift of W i l l i a m C h u r c h O s b o r n , 1 9 4 9 ) , 231 ( F l e t c h e r F u n d , 1 9 5 6 ) ; Modern Times, C h a r l e s C h a p l i n , U n i t e d
3*9
Artists C o r p o r a t i o n L t d . , 1 1 3 ( B R ) ; T h e P i e r p o n t Morgan L i b r a r y , N e w Y o r k , 7 3 , 2 0 1 ( B R ) ; Mother Joan of the Angels, F i l m Polski, 1960, © C o n t e m p o r a r y Films L t d . , 168; M t . Wilson a n d P a l o m a r O b s e r v a t o r i e s , 2 3 , 1 0 3 ( R ) ; Prof. E r w i n W . M i i l l e r , Pennsylvania State University, 2 2 ( B R ) ; Musee de Cluny, Paris, 225; Musee Conde, Chantilly, H I ( M R ) , 184(BL), 226; Musee Ensor, Ostend, 296(B); Musee Etrusque de Vatican, 114(BR); Musee Fenaille a Rodez, Aveyron, 2 3 3 ( B C ) ; Musee Guimet, P a r i s , 9 7 ( T ) , 241 ( B E ) ; M u s e e G u s t a v e M o r e a u , P a r i s , 1 7 9 ( B R ) ; M u s e e de l ' H o m m e , Paris, 2 3 4 ( T C ) , 2 3 6 ( B L ) ; M u s e e du L o u v r e , P a r i s , 1 0 3 ( L ) , l l l ( T L ) , 1 1 2 ( B R ) , 1 4 6 ( T R ) , 154, 1 8 4 ( B R ) , 185(BR), 223(BL), 2 7 6 ( B ) ; M u s e e d u Petit Palais, Paris, 241 ( T L ) ; Musees de B o r d e a u x , 1 2 0 ( B R ) ; M u s e o N a z i o n a l e , N a p o l i , 1 2 4 ( B R ) ; M u s e o del P r a d o , M a d r i d , 7 5 ; T h e M u s e u m of N a v a h o C e r e m o n i a l A r t I n c . , N e w M e x i c o , 7 1 ( T L ) , 1 1 4 ( B L ) , 2 1 4 ( B R ) ; M u s e u m fur V o l k e r k u n d e , B a s l e , 1 2 7 ( L ) ; M u s e u m fur V o l k e r k u n d e , B e r l i n , 1 7 7 ( B C ) , 3 0 0 . N a s j o n a l g a l l e r i e t , O s l o , 8 7 ( B L ) ; T h e N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y of C a n a d a , 4 7 ( T R ) ; N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , L o n d o n , 8 3 , 122, 2 8 8 ; N a t i o n a l M u s e u m , A t h e n s , 7 6 ; The National Museum, Copenhagen, 2 4 2 ( T R ) ; © National Periodical Publications Inc., N e w York, l l l ( B C ) ; N a t i o n a l Portrait Gallery, L o n d o n , 190(T), 2 0 7 ( B ) ; Dr. Neel & U n i v . of C h i c a g o Press, Human Heredity, N e e l & S c h u l l , © 1954, 31 ( B ) ; M a x N i e h a n s V e r l a g , Z u r i c h , 1 0 8 ( B L ) ; Newsweek, 3 0 7 ; The New, York Times, 1 3 4 ( B L ) ; N i g e r i a M a g a z i n e , 4 3 ; The Nuns Story (director: Fred Z i n n e m a n ) , U.S.A., 1957-9, 1 3 4 ( T L ) ; Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, 1 13(BC). O l y m p i c M u s e u m , A t h e n s , 1 8 5 ( B C ) ; On the Bowery ( d i r e c t o r : L i o n e l R o g o s i n ) , U . S . A . , 1 9 5 5 , 6 2 ; O p e n A i r M u s e u m for S c u l p t u r e , M i d d e l h e i m , A n t w e r p , 2 6 6 ( M R ) ; C o u n t D o n Alfonso O r o m b e l l i , M i l a n , 2 5 6 ( M L ) ; © Daniel O'Shea, 189(BL). Palermo' M u s e u m , 1 4 4 ( T L ) ; Paris Match, 2 7 0 ; Passion de Jeanne d''Arc ( d i r e c t o r : C a r l D r e y e r ) , F r a n c e , 1 9 2 8 , 91 ( B L ) ; P a u l P o p p e r , 2 5 ( B L ) , 2 8 ( B L ) , 4 2 ( B R ) , 111 ( B L ) , 1 3 4 ( M L ) , 152, 2 0 0 ( T L ) , 2 1 0 ( B L ) , 2 3 6 ( B C ) , 2 8 5 ( B R ) ; P e p s i - C o l a C o m p a n y , 5 0 ( T L ) ; P l a n e t N e w s , 32, 1 6 9 ( B R ) ; Le Point C a r d i n a l , Paris, 2 3 3 ( B R ) ; P & O O r i e n t L i n e s , 151 ; c o u r t e s y H . M . P o s t m a s t e r - G e n e r a l , 2 5 ( B R ) ; P r i v a t e Collection, L o n d o n , 2 0 3 ( B L ) ; Private Collection, N e w York, 2 5 6 ( B L ) ; Punch, 3 3 ( L ) ; P u t n a m & C o . L t d . , L o n d o n , 1 9 2 7 , b y p e r m i s s i o n , f r o m The Mind and Face of Bolshevism b y R e n e F u l o p p M u l l e r , 1 0 7 ( B R ) ; G . P. P u t n a m ' s S o n s , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 3 , & S p r i n g B o o k s L t d . , L o n d o n , f r o m A Pictorial History of the Silent Screen b y D a n i e l B l u m , 1 2 3 . R a d i o T i m e s H u l t o n P i c t u r e L i b r a r y , 1 9 4 ( B M L ) , 1 9 5 ( B R ) , 2 2 0 ( B R ) , 2 2 2 ( B C ) ; R a p h o , 1 5 3 , (Izis) 1 6 5 ( B L ) ; R a t h b o n e B o o k s L t d . , 1 9 4 ( T M L ) ; Realties, 2 1 2 ( B L ) ; Ringier-Bilderdienst AG., 2 1 8 ( B R ) ; Routledge & K e g a n Paul L t d . , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 1 , T h e B o l l i n g e n S e r i e s X I X , 2 n d . e d n . , NewYork, 1961, & E u g e n D i e d e r i c h s V e r l a g , Diisseldorf, 1951, the / Ching or Book of Changes, 291 ( B L ) ; c o u r t e s y M i s s A r i a n e R u m p , 201 ( T R ) . S a l v a t E d i t o r e s S . A . , 2 7 5 ( B L ) ; S a n d o z L t d . , Basle, 2 5 9 ( B ) ; S c a l a , 77, 118, 1 4 4 ( B L ) , 155 ( B R ) ; S l a v k o , 1 8 7 ( B R ) ; The Son of the Sheik ' ( d i r e c t o r : G e o r g e F i t z m a u r i c e ) , . U . S . A . , 1926,' 1 9 5 ( B L ) ; S o p r i n t e n d e n z a alio A n t i c h i t a d e l l e P r o v i n c e di N a p o l i , 2 6 6 ( B R ) ; © S . F . A . D . E . M , P a r i s , 1 9 6 4 , 147, 167, 2 4 7 ( B ) , 252(BR),263(TL);StaatlicheMuseen,Berlin-Dahlem, 144(BR); Staat Luzern, 189(BC); S t a a t s g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n , Miinchen, 111 ( T R ) ; S t a d e l s c h e s K u n s t i n s t i t u t , F r a n k f u r t , 1 8 5 ( T R ) ; S w e d ish N a t i o n a l T r a v e l A s s o c i a t i o n , 8 0 ( B R ) , l l l ( T C ) , 2 8 6 ( B L ) . Tarzan and his Mate ' ( d i r e c t o r : C e d r i c G i b b o n s ) , U . S . A . , 1934, 194(TL); Tate Gallery, London, 72(R), 186(R), 249(BL), 2 6 4 ( B R ) , 271 ( B R ) ; They Came to a City,]. B. P r i e s t l e y ( d i r e c t o r : Basil D e a r d o n ) , G t . B r i t a i n , 1 9 4 4 , 2 7 9 ( T R ) ; © 1935 J a m e s T h u r b e r © 1963 H e l e n T h u r b e r , f r o m Thurber\s Carnival ( o r i g . p u b l . in The New Yorker), 7 8 ( B R ) ; © J a m e s T h u r b e r 1933, 3 3 ( R ) ; Titanic ( d i r e c t o r : H e r b e r t S e l p i n ) , G e r m a n y , 1943, 121 ( B R ) ; T o p i x , L o n d o n , 5 9 ( B L ) , 2 0 0 ( T R ) ; T o s h o d a i j i T e m p l e , J a p a n , 1 7 5 ( B L ) ; T r i a n o n Press, J u r a , F r a n c e , from the Blake T r u s t F a c s i m i l e of Songs of Innocence and of Experience, 219(TL). U n i - D i a - V e r l a g , 19; U S A F A c a d e m y , 1 2 9 ( B C ) ; U . S . Coast a n d Geodetic Survey, 1 0 0 ( F ) ; United States Information Service, L o n d o n , 221 ( R ) ; V a t i c a n M u s e u m , 1 2 7 ( T R ) ; V e r l a g H a n s Huber, 27; Verlag K u r t Desch, Miinchen, 7 9 ( B R ) ; Victoria and A l b e r t M u s e u m , L o n d o n , 4 8 ( B ) , 1 0 9 ( T ) ( B L ) , 1 1 5 ( B L ) , 136, 163, 1 7 4 ( B R ) , 1 9 8 ( T C ) , 2 0 3 ( M L ) ( B R ) , 2 0 6 ( M L ) ; V i l l e d e
3
2()
S t r a s b o u r g , 7 0 ; V o l k s w a g e n L t d . , 3 6 . C o l l e c t i o n of W a l k e r A r t Center, Minneapolis, 260(BL); Wiener Library, © Auschwitz M u s e u m , P o l a n d , 9 4 ( B R ) ; courtesy the W e l l c o m e T r u s t , 69, 2 4 6 ( T L ) , 2 8 6 ( B R ) ; W i d e World, 117(BR); G a h a n Wilson, 4 9 ( B L ) ; Wuthering Heights ( d i r e c t o r : W i l l i a m W y l e r ) , U . S . A . , 1939, 1 9 0 ( T ) . Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y A r t G a l l e r y , J a m e s J a c k s o n J a r v e s Collection, 180(TL). Zentralbibliothek, Zurich, 2 4 9 ( B R ) ; © M r s . H a n s Z i n s s e r , f r o m G . F . K u n z , The Magic of Jewels and Charms, 2 0 7 ( M L ) ; Z e n t r a l b i b l i o t h e k Z u r i c h , 2 4 8 ( T R ) .
Cover photograph:
Photographers
T i b e t a n M a n d a l a , photo L. Courteville T o p
:
Ansel A d a m s , 2 0 8 ( B L ) ; A l i n a r i , 4 6 ; D a v i d G. Allen, Bird P h o t o g r a p h s Inc., 6 8 ( T ) ; Douglas Allen, 2 2 2 ( M L ) . W e r n e r Bischof, 2 2 ( B L ) , 2 6 9 ; J o a c h i m B l a u e l , 2 6 1 ( B ) ; L e o n a r d o B o n z i , 1 3 5 ( B L ) ; E d o u a r d B o u b a t , 2 1 2 ( B L ) ; M i k e Busselle, 2 8 ( B R ) , 9 3 ( B L ) , c o l l a g e s 1 2 1 ( B L ) ( B R ) , 1 3 5 ( B R ) , 1 8 0 ( T R ) , 1^1 ( B ) , 183(TR)(BR), montages 190(T), 207(TL), 212(BR), 219(BR); Francis Brunei, 2 3 9 ( T R ) . Robert C a p a , 1 9 4 ( T M R ) , 198(B); C a r t i e r - B r e s s o n , 34, 1 7 2 ( T ) ; C h u z e v i l l e , 2 7 6 ( B ) ; F r a n c o C i a n e t t i , 2 6 4 ( B L ) ; Prof. E . J . C o l e , 2 5 8 ( B R ) ; J . B. C o l l i n s , 3 5 ( M L ) ( M C ) ; R a l p h Crane, 117(BL). N. Elswing, 2 4 2 ( T R ) . J o h n F r e e m a n , 105, 1 0 7 ( B L ) , 1 7 1 ( T R ) , 1 9 5 ( T L ) , 1 9 7 ( T L ) , 2 5 9 ( M R ) , 281, 298(BL). Ewing Galloway, 82(BL); Marcel Gautherot, 213; G e o r g Gerster, 1 0 9 ( B R ) ; R o g e r G u i l l e m o t , 89. Ernst H a a s , 1 4 6 ( B R ) ; L e o n H e r s c h t r i t t , 8 4 ; H i n z , Basle, 1 2 7 ( L ) , 2 1 9 ( B C ) , 258(T). Isaac, 35(BL). William Klein, 86(BL). L a v a u d , 97(T), 159, 241 ( B L ) ; L o u i s e L e i r i s , 2 6 1 ( B L ) ; D r . I v a r L i s s n e r , 1 4 9 ( B R ) ; S a n d r a L o u s a d a at Whitecross Studio, 1 7 5 ( B R ) ; K u r t & M a r g o t Lubinsky, 149(BL). Roger M a y n e , 164(BR); Don McCullin, 2 8 7 ; St. A n t h o n y M e s s e n g e r , 1 4 3 ( B ) ; M e y e r , 2 9 ; J o h n M o o r e , 72(R), 238(BL), 252(BL). J a c k Nisberg, 2 5 6 ( T R ) . Michael P e t o , 1 6 4 ( B L ) ; A x e l P o i g n a n t , 9 5 , 128, 130, 1 3 1 , 2 0 4 ( M R ) . A l l e n C. R e e d , 74, 2 1 4 ( T ) . S a b a t , 6 5 ( B R ) ; Prof. R o g e r S a u t e r , 2 4 3 ( B L ) ; K e e s S c h e r e r , 3 5 ( B R ) ; E m i l S c h u l t h e s s , 201 ( T C ) ; Carroll Seghers, 9 8 ( T R ) ; Brian Shuel, 55(BR), 129(BR); Dennis Stock, 2 3 8 ( T ) ; David S w a n n , 21, 48(B), 53(BL), 5 4 ( M ) , 66, 1 0 9 ( T ) ( B L ) , 110(BL), 115(T)(BL), 1 3 3 , 136, 1 5 5 ( T ) , 163, 1 7 4 ( B R ) , 1 8 6 ( B L ) , 1 8 8 ( B L ) , 1 9 0 ( B L ) , 1 9 8 ( T R ) , 2 0 3 ( B R ) ( M L ) , 2 0 6 ( M L ) , 2 6 4 ( B R ) , 302, 3 0 3 . Felix T r o m b e , 2 3 4 ( T C ) . V i l l a n i & Figli F r l . , 8 0 ( B L ) . Y o s h i o W a t a n a b e , 232(B); H a n s Peter W i d m e r , 305).
If t h e p u b l i s h e r s h a v e u n w i t t i n g l y i n f r i n g e d c o p y r i g h t in a n y i l l u s t r a t i o n r e p r o d u c e d t h e y will g l a d l y p a y a n a p p r o p r i a t e fee o n b e i n g satisfied as to t h e o w n e r ' s t i t l e .
(Continued from front flap)
More than 500 illustrations complement the text and provide a unique "running commentary" on Jung's thought. They show the nature and function of dreams; explore the symbolic meaning of modern art; and reveal the psychological meanings of the ordinary experiences of everyday life. They are a reinforcement to Jung's thought and an integral part of MAN AND His SYMBOLS.
. . [Contemporary man] is blind to the fact that, with all his rationality and efficiency, he is possessed by 'powers' liiiu are beyond his control. His gods and demons have not disappeared at all; they have merely got new names. They keep him on the run with restlessness, vague apprehensions, psychological complications, an insatiable need for pills, alcohol, tobacco, food— and, above all, an impressive array of neuroses." Carl Gustav
Tibetan Mandala photo Realit6s Paris.
Printed in Spain
Jung
Man and his Symbols Carl G.Jung
