Important Facts to Know: General studies A Â 1.The study of bones is called ostelogy -Total no of bones 206 -Smallest bone-Stapes(ear boe) -ongest bone-!emus(Thigh bone) -Strongest bone-Tibia(leg bone) -Total no of muscles-6"# -argest grand-li$er -ongest gland-thyroid -ongest ner$e-Sciatic -%ardest bone-Tooth enamal -Total amount of blood in the body is (1&1' of body eight) -ormal body Temperature-#*.6!("+,) 2.o$t.of ndia banned the student slamic mo$ement of ndia (S/)because it had lined ith sama in aden - 3s a1-4aeda roup ".The Salary of member of parliament and higher pers is enhanced from 5s.000 to 127000 per month and constituency alloance from 5s.*000 to 107000 per month and daily alloance of 5s.00 to 5s. '00 for a period of fi$e year .,ompetition bill to replace /5T8, (/onopolies and 5estricti$e Trade 8ractice 9ct.) '.Supreme court ruled on 9ugust 272001 that a public ser$ant con$icted in corruption case should not hold office till he as cleared of the charges by a superior court 6.umber of amendments in constitution is * till no +.The terrorist out fit that brought the :T, and destroyed part of 8entagon in :ashington is 91-4ueda.the netor association ith sama in aden *. S-nter Ser$ice ntelligence #.;urent line boundary beteen ndia and 9fghanistan 11./c /ohan ine<-boundary beteen ndia and china 12.5edcliff ine< - boundary beteen ndia and 8aistan 1".8al Strait< - boundary beteen ndia and Sri ana 1.8rith$i<-Surface to surface missile. t has a range 2'0m 1'.9gni<- s Surface to surface missile. t has a range1'00-2000m range1'00-2000 m 16.9ash<- s Surface to surface missile. it has a range of 2'm 1+ ag< t is an anti tan missile ha$ing range of m 1*.an rate is the rate at hich the reser$e an of ndia gi$es g i$es credit to commercial ans 1#.9micus ,uriae-ayer appointment by the court to represent a poor person. it means friend of court 20.,.5.5- ,ash 5eser$e 5atio 21./edico egal case-9ccidental ,ase 22.The most important influence of the moon on the earth is the effect on ocean tides 2".5anthambore<- 5anthambore ational par in 5a=asthan(10 s>.m)as ones the pri$ate tiger reser$e of the /ahara=a of ?aipur 2.hana ird Sanctuary-haratpur 5a=asthan
2'.Standerd ;eduction in income ta@-"07000&26./a@imum income not liable to ta@-'07000&2+.9merican - 3s 5obinson :alton(ill gates)is the richest person in the orld 2*.io terrorism<-t refer to the use of disease causing micro organism as terrorist eapons to cause de$astating pac on the people. !or e@ample 9nthra@. 2#. 8ublic Ani$ersity founded in 1#*2 1# *2 at ahore. 9fter partition in as re-established in ndia on 1st of ctober 1#+.the Ani$ersity mo$ed to ,handigarh in 1#'67$ice chancellor of 8un=ab uni$ersity is - BC..8atha "0.Capil ;e$ has been chosen the isdom ndian criceter of the century. cen tury. "1. 9shardham Temple is in andhi agar (u=arat "' people ere illed by terrorist) "2./etro rail ;elhi ;elhi 2 ;ec7 2002(Shahdra to is %agari - B*."m) "".,9- D..Caul ".,hairman of S-9.C.8urar "'.uru ana born in Talandi no called anana Sahib in 16# .%e died in 1'"#.uru as founder of Sihism "6. uru 9ngad ;e$- introduced longer system "+. uru 9mar ;as- social reformer and discarded sati pratha p ratha "*. uru 5am ;as- founded city of 9mritsar 0. uru 9r=un ;eb- uilt olden Temple and compiled 9adi ranph or uru ranth Sahib. uru 9r=un ;eb compled ranth Sahib in 160 ith the of bhai urdas halla =i. uru 9r=un ;e$ as e@ecuted by ?ahangir on the ad$ice of ,handu Singh. uru 9r=un ;e$ got the foundation of %armandir Sahib laid don by a /uslim !a>ir main /ir. 1. uru %argobind singh - Bstarted the system system of 9al taht and miri7 miri7 piri. 2.uru %ar 5ai ".uru %arishan .uru Teg ahadur-uru Teg ahadur e@ecuted by 9urangEeb '. uru obind Singh - B!ounder of Chalsa 1"th 9pril7 9pril7 16##7 aisahi7 and Chalsa means military brotherhood Fafarnama< - This is etter ritten by uru obind Singh to /ughal Gmperor 9urangEeb.This letter as ritten because 9urangEeb as committed many atrocities on people. uru obind Singh ased 9urangEeb to gi$e up the policy at 9nandpur Sahib on the 1st aisah 1"th 9pril7 16## 9.; 6.;asam ranth as compiled by a de$oted Sih mani singh after passing aay aa y f uru obind Singh . +. uru Ci ashi-Tahat ;amdma Sahib. Sah ib. t is famous urudara7 :hich is situated at Talandi Sabo. t is called uru Ci Cashi *.uru Ci :adali - Bit is irth place of uru %argobind ?i. t is is famous urudara of 8un=ab #.anda ahadur- :as born on 2+th ctober7 16+0. %is real name as achaman ;as. nce7 during hunting an arro of anda ahadur stuc a pregnant she deerH anda ahadur as greatly pained to see the tragic death of the deer and its to ids. %e renounced the orld and become a airagi. anda ahadur adopted the name /adho ;as after becoming a airagi. airagi. /adho ;as (anda ahadur) met uru Sahib. %e said I am your anda (Ser$ant) - . Thus /adho ;as become anda. uru obind Sahib called him anda the bra$e. Thus ac>uired the name anda ahadur '0. Sharomani urdaara 8rabandha ,ommittee as established on 1'th o$. 1##07 at 9al Tahat 9mritsar.
2'.Standerd ;eduction in income ta@-"07000&26./a@imum income not liable to ta@-'07000&2+.9merican - 3s 5obinson :alton(ill gates)is the richest person in the orld 2*.io terrorism<-t refer to the use of disease causing micro organism as terrorist eapons to cause de$astating pac on the people. !or e@ample 9nthra@. 2#. 8ublic Ani$ersity founded in 1#*2 1# *2 at ahore. 9fter partition in as re-established in ndia on 1st of ctober 1#+.the Ani$ersity mo$ed to ,handigarh in 1#'67$ice chancellor of 8un=ab uni$ersity is - BC..8atha "0.Capil ;e$ has been chosen the isdom ndian criceter of the century. cen tury. "1. 9shardham Temple is in andhi agar (u=arat "' people ere illed by terrorist) "2./etro rail ;elhi ;elhi 2 ;ec7 2002(Shahdra to is %agari - B*."m) "".,9- D..Caul ".,hairman of S-9.C.8urar "'.uru ana born in Talandi no called anana Sahib in 16# .%e died in 1'"#.uru as founder of Sihism "6. uru 9ngad ;e$- introduced longer system "+. uru 9mar ;as- social reformer and discarded sati pratha p ratha "*. uru 5am ;as- founded city of 9mritsar 0. uru 9r=un ;eb- uilt olden Temple and compiled 9adi ranph or uru ranth Sahib. uru 9r=un ;eb compled ranth Sahib in 160 ith the of bhai urdas halla =i. uru 9r=un ;e$ as e@ecuted by ?ahangir on the ad$ice of ,handu Singh. uru 9r=un ;e$ got the foundation of %armandir Sahib laid don by a /uslim !a>ir main /ir. 1. uru %argobind singh - Bstarted the system system of 9al taht and miri7 miri7 piri. 2.uru %ar 5ai ".uru %arishan .uru Teg ahadur-uru Teg ahadur e@ecuted by 9urangEeb '. uru obind Singh - B!ounder of Chalsa 1"th 9pril7 9pril7 16##7 aisahi7 and Chalsa means military brotherhood Fafarnama< - This is etter ritten by uru obind Singh to /ughal Gmperor 9urangEeb.This letter as ritten because 9urangEeb as committed many atrocities on people. uru obind Singh ased 9urangEeb to gi$e up the policy at 9nandpur Sahib on the 1st aisah 1"th 9pril7 16## 9.; 6.;asam ranth as compiled by a de$oted Sih mani singh after passing aay aa y f uru obind Singh . +. uru Ci ashi-Tahat ;amdma Sahib. Sah ib. t is famous urudara7 :hich is situated at Talandi Sabo. t is called uru Ci Cashi *.uru Ci :adali - Bit is irth place of uru %argobind ?i. t is is famous urudara of 8un=ab #.anda ahadur- :as born on 2+th ctober7 16+0. %is real name as achaman ;as. nce7 during hunting an arro of anda ahadur stuc a pregnant she deerH anda ahadur as greatly pained to see the tragic death of the deer and its to ids. %e renounced the orld and become a airagi. anda ahadur adopted the name /adho ;as after becoming a airagi. airagi. /adho ;as (anda ahadur) met uru Sahib. %e said I am your anda (Ser$ant) - . Thus /adho ;as become anda. uru obind Sahib called him anda the bra$e. Thus ac>uired the name anda ahadur '0. Sharomani urdaara 8rabandha ,ommittee as established on 1'th o$. 1##07 at 9al Tahat 9mritsar.
'1. 9lis launched a non-mo$ement in 1#21 ith ith the aim of - Bibrating Sih uru urudara from /ahants.
Important Facts to Know: General Studies iterature< '2.,reator of 9sa-di-ar7 ?apu=i sahib-uru ana ;e$ =i. '".,reator of achittar ata- uru obind Singh '.,reator of ?ab Sahibh- uru obind Singh ''.,reator of 9nand Sahib- uru 9mar ;as =i '6.,reator of Suhmani Sahib - Buru 9r=an ;e$ =i '+. ,ompiler of uru ranth Sahib - Buru 9r=an ;e$ =i. '*. :riter of 9dhi ranth at the time of its compilation compilation of - Bahi urdas halla =i '#.,reator of ani ritten in ;asam ranth-uru obind singh =i 60./ost famous riter riter of 4isa 4isa 8uran hagat - B!aEal Shah. /ahara=a 5an=it Singh and his 9dministration<61.;ate of irth of /ahara=a 5an=it Singh-o$.27 1+*0. 1 +*0. 62.ame of the parents of /ahara=a 5an=it 5an =it Singh- !ather name<-/aha singh 7/other name <-5a= Caur 6".Time of treaty of 9mritsar 9mritsar beteen /ahara=a 5an=it Singh and ritish - B2'th 9pril71*0# 6.ame of the !oreign minister of /ahara=a 5an=it Singh-!a>ir 9EiEudeen 6'.%ead of !inance minister at the time of /ahara=a 5an=it Singh- ;eean Caura /al 66./ost famous prime minister of /ahara=a 5an=it Singh- ;hian Singh ;ogra 6+./eaning of Canut system started by /ahara=a 5an=it Singh- Ta@ on standing crop in the field 6*. - 3aEim 9dalat - 3 at the time of /ahara=a 5an=it Singh state le$el- ,ourt 6#.,apital city of mahara=a 5an=it Singh- ahore +0.!irst ar beteen beteen Sih and ritish ritish - B 1*' 9.;. 9.;. +1.Second 9nglo Sih :ar-1**-1*# 9.;. +2. 5an=it Singh (Thein) ;am has been b een constructed on the ri$er- 5a$i +".:hich ;am is built on eas near Talara- 8ong ;am. +. ;am built on the ri$er Satlu=- harha ;am +'.The ;usi dam has been constructed on the ri$er eas +6.The old name of the 9mritser 9mritser - B5amdas nagar ++.:hich uru got constructor constructor 9al Tahat - Buru%argobind Sahib +*The real ranth Sahib has been placed at - BCartarpur +#.uru ana ;a$ ?i as enlightenment at- Sultan 8ur *0.:hich uru built ura= aba 9tal- uru %argobind % argobind Sahib *1. The old name 8un=ab- Sapat Sindhu *2.The urudara situated at present here foundation of Chalsa 8anth as laid Burudara Cesgarh Sahib. *". The other name of %armandir Sahib is-;arbar Sahib. *.The uruH ho founded 9nandpur Sahib as - Buru Teg ahadur *'.hagat Singh as hanged on-2"rd /arch7 1#"1 *6.umber of district in 8un=ab-1+7 o Sabha seats-1"
*+. %ighest allantry 9ard-8aram Dir ,hara **.G 85FGSH-The %onors of :ining the oble 8riEes go to the !olloing + ndians (i)5abinder ath Tagore in the noble priEes from literature in 1#1". (ii),.D. 5aman in the noble priEes from physics in 1#"0. 1# "0. (iii)%argobind Churana in the noble priEes from medicine in 1#6*. (i$)/other Teresa in the noble price from peace in 1#+#. ($i) S. ,handrasehar in the noble priEe from physics in 1#*6. ($ii) 8rof. 9maritya Sen in the noble priEes from Gconomics Gcono mics in 1##*. ($iii) D.S.aipal in the noble priEes from iterature in 2001. #0.%ighest allantry 9ard- 8aramDir ,hara #1.%ighest ,i$ilian 9ard- harat 5atana #2.!irst lympic ame held at 9thens in 1*#6 #".!irst ;eputy 8rime /inister of ndia-Sardar 8atel #.2nd deputy 8rime /inister of ndia-/orarEi ;esai #'. "hd ;eputy 8rime 8rime /inister of ndia - B,houdhari ,haran Singh #6. 'th ;eputy 8rime 8rime /inister of ndia - BJ.D.,hauan. #+.6th ;eputy 8rime /inister of ndia - B;e$ al #*. +th ;eputy 8rime /inister of ndia- al Crishna 9d$ani ##. 9;S< 9c>uired mmune ;eficiency Syndrome 100.%D< %uman mmunodeficiency Dirus 101.9;S<s caused by Dirus 9ids is due to %uman mmunodeficiency Dirus 102.,lassical ;ance of ndia<-/anipur of /anipur -ddisi of rissa -Catha-Cali of Cerala -Cuchi-8udi of 9ndhra 8radesh -harat atyam of Tamil adu -Catha of Atter 8radesh -ihu of 9ssam 10".egal Ser$ice ,linic<-9 egal Ser$ice ,linic open 2 hours on all days7 has been established in 9hemdabad to pro$ide free ser$ice of retired high court =udge and reputed layer. 10'.The State of %aryana-<,ame into begin on 7 o$.171#66 as result of the reorganiEations of the old 8un=ab state into to separate seats. t consist of the %ind speaing area of 8un=ab7secong language status has been gi$en to 8un=ab(1##6) 106.oo and 9uthor<-ife ;i$ing -9in--9bari -9ourbinbo hosh -8anchtantra -9bdul !aEal -/ahabharta -Dishnu Sharma -ndia ins !reedom -Deda Dyas -;isco$ery of ndia -/aulana 9bdul Calam -/y G@periment ith Truth -andhi -/adhushala -%ari$ansh 5ai achan -8risoner - 3s Scorapboo -.C.9d$ani
10+.Sports<-9gha Chan ,up -%ocey -;urant ,up -!ootball(ndia) -;uleep&ren=it Trophyre -,ricet -Santosh Trophy -ational !ootball -Thomas ,up -:orld edminton(/en) -;a$is ,up -an Tennis 10*.uddhism<uddhism as founded by autam uddha. %is riginal name as autam Siddhartha7 9 Cashatriya7 oran in '6" ., at umbini in epal . %e attended enlightenment at odhgaya under papal tree.udha died at the age of *0 years in *" ., at Cushinagar (;istrict Atter 8radesh).%e ga$e * fold paths to control the desire.1st sermon as deli$ered by him at Srnarth at anaras .The anguage used by uddhist people as pali .
Important facts to Know for General Studies 10#. 5ed cross as founded by-?.%. ;urant7 Gstablished in 1*6 :orld red ,ross day is celebrated on /ay *7 The irthday its founder ?.%. ;urant. 110.Sir 5obert S.S aden 8oell is the founder of scouting 111.:ho ga$e the call go bac to Dedas-;ayanand 112.The construction of 4utab /inar as begun by 4uatab-ud-din 9iba but it as completed by lltutumish. 11". :ho built the Sanchi Stupa- 9gratala. 11. :ho founded sla$e dynasty in 1206 9.; 4uatab-ud-din 9iba. 11'. The ,apital of Tripura is 9gratala. 116. The ,apital of /iEoram is aiEal. 11+. The ,apital of 9ustralia is - B,anberra. 11*.Spring tides occurs on- !ull moon day as ell on ne moon day. 11#.Tides in the oceans are caused by-9ttraction of the moon. 201.uddhism place of orship is-8ongda. 121.?es place of orship is-Synagogue. 122.%olish boo of ?es-Talmud. 12"./alguddi days ritten by - B5.C. araynan 12.;as capital-Carl /ar@ 12'.The father of Gconomics- 9dam smith. 126.The ,hipo /o$ement as associated ith-pre$enting felling of trees. 12+.8ashmina is a breed of -Sheep. 12*.:hat is the meaning of uddha - B9n enlightened one. 12#.:hich is the holy boo of 8arsis- ?orah 1"0.8arliament of A.S.9 is non as- ,ongress 1"1. 8arliament of 9fghanistan- Shoora 1"2. 8arliament of 5ussia-;uma. 1"". 8arliament of ?apan - B;iet. 1".S95S<-t Stands for Se$ere 9cute 5espiratory Syndrome. S95S is caused by $iruses from the corona and paramy@o $irus family. 1"'.e o$ernors of ndia<-
-Cailashpati /ishara - B u=rat -5am 8arash upta - B/adhya 8radesh -.8 Derma -8un=ab -D.S Co=e - %imachal 8radesh -irmal ,hand - 5a=asthan 1"6.,9(ight ,ombat 9ircraft)is named as - ITe=as - 1"+. ash$a is 8ilot ess target 9ircraft 1"*.Calpna ,hala< She as an ndian born 9merican 9stronaut. She died ith other si@ astronauts in the ,olumbia shuttle crash on feb.17 200".She embared on her second Doyage in the Anited State space shuttle ,olumbia on ?an 167 earlier.She as an ndian born 9merican 9stronaut. She died ith other si@ astronauts in the ,olumbia shuttle ,olumbia on ?an 167 earlier. She as one of the si@ astronaut cre that fle the ,olumbia !light STS-*+in no$.1##+ ,hala ho had her schooling in Carnal (%aryana) and college education in 8un=ab did her /asters in 9erospace Gngineering from the Ani$ersity of Ta@es in 1#* and ;octorate from ,olorado Ani$ersity to year later. 9n a$id flier7 she held certified flight instructor - 3s license ith 9irplane and ladder ratings7 commercial 8ilot icense for single and multi-engine land and seaplanes 1"#.?an. #7 the day /ahatma andhi return from South 9frica in 1#1'-as chosen to celebrate the 8ra$asi haratiya ;i$as 10.The fi$e day #0th session of the ndian science congress conclude in angalore on ?an.+7 200".The focal theme of the congress as Dision for the global Space community. 11. Srisa and 5anthambore are the reser$e for lion. 12. nternational ,riminal court as launched formally in the mid march in the %auge. The first eighteen =udges too ath in the grand ceremony. The court has been set up to handle genocide and the :orst case of ar crime or mass atrocities against ci$ilians hen no national court is able or illing to do so. 1". 5ight to Gducation<-article 219 pro$ides the free and compulsory education to all children of the age of si@ to fourteen. 1. !reedom of information bill<- The parliament appro$ed the - I!reedom of information bill - .o it is statutory right of the citiEen to access information from the o$ernment. 1'.5ight to Gducation <- article219 pro$ides the free and compulsory education to all children of the age of si@ to fourteen 16.!reedom of information bill<- The 8arliament appro$ed the - Ifreedom of information bill - . o it is statutory right of the citiEen to access information from the o$ernment. 1+./inister of state for defense is prof. ,haman lal gupta 1*.9=it singh is 9griculture /inister. 1#. Sapan is not a member of -* group. 1'0. 98S959 is the name of the ndia - 3s first uclear 5eactor. 1'1.The orld en$ironment day is celebrated on =une '. 1'2. ?ainism<-!ounded by (5ishabha)Darhamana /aha$ira. %e as a great 2th Triathanras (8athfinder).r prophet of ?ainism ./aha$ir as a greast Cshtiya 7born at Cundagram (Daishali) in bihar. %e came to be non as /aha$ir of =ina. The con>ueror of passingH his folloing are non as ?anis. %e passed aay at
age +2 in 62 . , at 8a$apuri7 a place near modern 5a=gir . /aha$ira Teaching are non as the - ITri 5atna - or the three =eels of ?ainisn7hich lead to the attainment of sal$ation . They are () 5ight Cnoledge and () 5ight 9ction .The ?anis used and de$eloped 8rarit7The language of the common people .Their religious literature as ritten in 9rdhamagadhi. 1'".Dasco da ama landed in ,alicut in 1#*. 1'.st ,hinese tra$eler7 !ahein came to ndia during the period of chandra upta(Diramaditya) 1''.2nd ,hinese tra$eler %ieun Tsang came to ndia during the region of %arsh$ardhana 1'6.:ho is the apoleon of ndia - BSamundra upta for his military e@ploits. 1'+.%arsh$ardhana ritten three boos-1.8riya ;arshia 2.5attana$ali ".aga anda. The official poet of harsh$ardhana as bana bhatt .ana bhatta composed harsha chirtra and adambari 1'*.first battle of panipat in 1'26 and founded the /ugahal dynasty in ndia 1'#.Second battle of 8anipat as fought beteen 9bar and brahim odhi at 8anipat in 1''6 9bar ;efeated %imu and became the ruled of ;elhi and 9gra 160 Third battle of 8anipat fought beteen 9hmed Shah 9bdali of 9fghanistan and /arathas in 1+61.n this third battle of 8anipat /arathas ere completely routed by 9hmed Shah 9bdali. 161.ndian ational 9rmy as founded by Subash ,hander ose in 1#" in Singapore along ith 5asbihari ose. The main aim of 9Ead %ind !auE as to liberation of ndia. 162.The rahma Sama= as established by 5a=a 5am /ohan 5oy in 1*2* hose leadership as later taen by 5abendernath tagore and Ceshub ,hande Sen. 16".The 9rya Sama= founded by Sami ;ayananda Sarasati in 1*+' attempted to reform the %indu religion from its decadence. 16.The 5amarishana /ission as founded by Sami De$eananda in 1*#6 . 16'.9nnie besant<- !ounded Theosophical society started home rule league in 1#16. She as the first oman president of ndian ational ,ongress. ndian ational ,ongress !ounded by 9..%ume in 1**'. %oe$er first 8resident of ndian national congress as :.,. aner=ee. 166. Sadeshi mo$ement as started in 1#0'. 16+. adder party as founded by lala %ardayal singh in 1#1" at !rancisco. 16*.%ome rule league founded by 9nnie esant and al anga ;har Tila in 1#16. 1#16.5olatt 9ct. 8assed in 1#1#. 1+0.on-,o-peration mo$ement started in 1#20 by andhi =i. This mo$ement ended in 1#22 after ,hauri ,haura incident. 1+1.Simons commission - B1#2* 1+2.,i$il ;isobedience mo$ement-1#"0 1+". - I;o or die - - B/ahatma andhi 1+. - Iightingale of ndia - -Saor=ini aidu. 1+'. - I!ather of ndian Anrest - -al anga ;har Tila. 1+6. - I9rchitect of ndia - - 8andit ehru.
1++. - I /an of 8eace - -al hadur Shastri. 1+*. - Iron /an of ndia - -Sardar. 1+#. - I=ai hind - - Bsubash chander bose 1*0. - Irand old man of ndia - - B;ada hai aro=i
Important Facts to Know for General Studies 1*1./ughal ;ynasty (1'26-1'0and 1'''-1*'+) 1.abur (1'26-1'"0) 2.%umayum ".Sher Shah Suri (1'0-') .9ber (1''6-160') '.?ahangir (160'-162+) 6.Shah ?ahan (162*-16'*) +.9urangEeb (16'*-1+0+) 1*2.9A5< -!ounder of /ughal Gmpire -1st battle of panipat beteen abur and brahim lodhi 1*".%A/9JA< -Son of abur -%umayun Tomb at ;elhi-1st /ughal /onument 1*.S%G5 S%9% SA5< -%e as an 9fghan -ntroduced a brilliant administration -ssued a coin called - K5upia - 3 -uild rand Trun 5oad ining 8eshaar to ,alcatta 1*'.9C95< a. Gldest son of %umayun b. 5eal founded of /ughal empire c. ood ors done by him d. 8opular for his toleration e. !oundation of ;in-e-illahi(code of conduct) f. 9bar Tomb - BSiandria g. argest building built called - K9gra !orte - 3 h. 9bdul !aEal as a famous 8oet ho has ritten 9aine - B9bari 79bar - Bame 1*6.?9%95< a. 5eal name Salim b. Son of 9bar c. %e is non for his strict administration of ?ustice d. %e married /ehr-un-nissa or ur=ahan in 1661. e. ?ahangir - 3s Tomb built at ahore f. G@ecuted uru 9r=un ;e$ at the ad$ice of ,hand Singh 1*+.S%9% ?9%9< a. Son of =ahangir b. %is ife /umtaE /ahal died in 16"1
c. uilt Ta= /ahal in her memory in 9gra d. Cnon for promotion of 9rt e. - K5ed !ort - 3 and - K?ama /as=id - 3 got built by him f. Shah ?ahan as imprisoned by his third son 9urangEeb till he died in 1666 1**.9A59FG< a. Third son of shah =ahan b. 5uled for '0 years and he as a cruel ing c. anned all religious festi$al and demolished %indu Temples d. G@ecuted uru Teg ahadur ?i (#th uru) hen he refused to embrace slam 1*#. 9;5 S%9%< a. 9 8ersian Cing during the region of /ohamd Shah too the - KCohinoor - 3 diamond to 9fghanistan 1#0.:ho as the first o$ernor of free ndia - Bord /ountbatten 1#1. :ho as the first o$ernor eneral of free ndia - B , 5a=agopalchari 1#2. :ho as the first o$ernor of free ritish ndia - B:arren %asting(1++2-1+#") 1#". :ho as the first father of ,i$il Ser$ice in ndia-ord ,ornallis (1+*6-1+#") 1#. :ho abolished sati 8ratha and other cruel rites - Bord :.entic (ith the help of 5a=a ram /ohan 5ai in 1*2# 1#'.:ho introduced :ido 5emarriage 9ct. n 1*'6 - Bord ;alhousie 1#6.T59 -Telecom 5egulatory 9uthority of ndia 1#+.D5S-Doluntary 5etirement Scheme 1#*.D9T-Dalue 9dded Te@ 1##.ST;-Subscriber - 3s Trun ;ialing 200.S;-nternationl SubscriberL3 s ;ialing 201.89 - B 8ermanent 9ccount umber 202.8 - B8ostal nde@ umber 20". 9T-orth 9tlantic treaty rganiEation 20.S995, - BSouth 9sian 9ssociation for 5egional ,ooperation. 20'.,.5.5.-,ash 5eser$e 5atio. 206. .S.5.. -ndian Space 5esearch rganiEation. 20+.9S9-ational 9eronautics and Space 9dministration. 20*.D.;..S. - BDoluntary ;isclosure ncome Scheme 20#. 8.,.. - B8ublic ,all ffice 210. .8.. - Bi>uefied 8etroleum gas 211.,.T..T. - B,omprehensi$e Test an Treaty 212. D.8.8. - BDalue 8ayable 8ost 21". .,.9. - B ight ,ombat 9ircraft. 21. 8..:. - B 8risoner of :ar. 21'. T.G..G.M - B Teleprint G@change. 216 .,., - Bine of 9ctual ,ontrol. 21+. ,-,ompressed atural as. 21*. S/S - BShort /essaging Ser$ice. 21#. 98G, -rganiEation of 9rab 8etroleum G@porting ,ouriers. 220.8G, -rganiEation of 8etroleum G@porting ,ountries 221.nterpol-nternational ,riminal 8olice rganiEation it - 3s head>uarter is in yons (8aris)
222.:ho as the first man go to space- Juri agarin 22".:ho as the first ndian go to in Space- 5aesh 22. :ho as the first ndian oman go to in Space - BCalpna ,hala. 22'. :ho as the first man land on moon - Beil 9rmstrong on 217 ?uly7 1#6#. 226. angalore is the Silicon ,ity of the ndia. 22+. %yderabad is the %-Tech. ,ity of ndia. 22*. 200 lympics to be held in 9thens. 22#. /issile man of the ndia - B9.8.?.9bdul Calam 9Ead. 2"0. ,apital of !i=i - B Su$a. 2"1. :orld - 3s largest ri$er in South 9merica - 3s 9maEon hich flos into South 9tlantic. The source is lacier - B!ed- aes. 2"2. :hich of the first ndian state to be recogniEed on the basis of language - B9ndhra 8radesh. 2"". :hen ere the ndian states re-organiEed on linguist basis - B1#'6. 2". :hich scheduled deals ith matters relating toanti defection - B 10th 2"'. :hich scientist laid the foundation of atomic energy research in ndia - B %omi ?. habha. 2"6. :hich branch of science studies the relationship beteen matter and energy - B 8hysics. 2"+. :hich planet ha$e no atmosphere - B/ercury 2"*. ,on$e@ lenses are used for correction of - BShort Sightedness 2"#. :hich mirror is used as a rear $ie mirror in $ehicles - B,on$es 20. !ilament of an electric bulb is maid of - BTungsten 21. The oil in the ic of an oil lamp rises up due to - B,apillary action 22. The best conductor of heat - BSil$er 2". 9 radar hich defects the presence of an enemy air craft uses - B5adio :a$es 2. Delocity of sound is ma@imum in - BSteel 2'. The terminal colure of 5ainbo are - B5d N lue 2'. The gas e@tinguish fire is - B,arbon /ono@ide 26. The purest form of carbon is-;iamond.
Important Issues: Current Affairs 1. :hich mo$ie has on the best motion picture of the year aard at scars7 200'/illion ;ollar aby 2. :hich political party has on the ma@imum number of seats in the recently held assembly elections in ihar - ?anta ;al - BAnited ". ?amie fo@ has on the best actor aard in the scars7 200'. !or hich mo$ie7 %e has been aarded - B 5ay . ++th scars7 200' has aarded - Iest actress aard in a leading 5ole - To - B %ilary san '. 8resident of 9fghanistan as on a $isit to ndia during !ebruary - B /arch7 200'. %is name is -/r. %amid CarEai 6. :ho is the richest ndian as per - K!orbes - 3 list - B ashmi ias /ittal +. :hich film has on the '1st ational !ilm 9ards7 200' in the category of est !eature film on ational ntegration also called - Kargis ;utt 9ard - 3 - B 8in=ar
(%indi) *. :ho has on ;ada Saheb !ale 9ard7 200" declared in the ational !ilm 9ard ceremony7 200' -9sho Cumar (8osthumously) #. ;r. 9.8.? 9bdul Calam7 the 8resident of ndia is the author of the boo - B The :ings of !ire and gnited /inds 10. ana$athi ,ommission relates to - Terrorists attac in ndian 8arliament 11. 9.;. stands for - B 9nno ;omini 12. Tony lair7 8rime minister of ritain7 belongs to - B abour 8arty 1". 5SD8 stands for - 5espondeE S - 3il Dous 8lait 1. The first obel 8eace 8riEe as aarded to - O - O. in 1#01 - B ?.%.;unant 1'.:hich !rench Gngineer designed the structure of the statute of liberty - B 16.:hich of the folloing is called the /other of all 8arliaments - B The ritish 8arliaments . 1+. 9s per %uman ;e$elopment 5eport of 2007 hat is full form of %; - B %uman ;e$elopment nde@. 1*. 9lagh ,ommittee relates to - B ,i$il Ser$ices G@amination. 1#.. Treaty on - KEone depletion - 3 - B /ontreal Treaty. 20.. !irst ,hief Glection ,ommissioner of ndia as - B Suumar Sen. 21.. Gast Timor recei$ed independence in 2002 from - B ndonesia 22. !irst oman 8rime /inister in the orld as of - B Sri ana. 2". ratuity is paid at the rate of 1' ;ays ages for each completed year of ser$ice . 2. 8ostal ser$ice in ndia as opened to the public in 1*"+. 2'. The person as facilitated ith - Kishan-e-8aistan - 3 - B ;ilip Cumar 26. The author of the boo - K%arry 8otter and the %alf lood 8rince - 3is B?.C.5oling. 2+. - K!allu=ah - 3 city7 hich as recently in nes7 is in -ra> 2*. The o$ernment of ndia recently announced a special de$elopment pacage of 5s. 2'0 crore for the de$elopment of - B/anipur 2#. /.S. Subbalashmi ho died recently as a famous - B,lassical Singer. "0. n :hich country a non-resident ndian /r. obby ?indal recently on the 8arliamentary electionsP - BAS "1. :here is %alebid - Ba place :hich is ell Cnon for its elaboratedly sculptured temples of the %oysala eriodP-Carnataa "2.:here is /eenashi-a famous %indu templeP - B/adurai "". :here is Srihariota 7 ndia - 3s satellite launching centreP 9ndhra 8radesh ". The Toer of Dictory - 3 is ocated in- 5a=asthan.e@ander "'.9le@ander raham bell is credited ith the in$ention of-Telephone. "6. - KThe Tele$ision - 3 as in$ented by-?..aird. "+.here is the longest railay playtform in the orld - Charagpur "*. hich of the folloing countries is called the land of hite elephant - Thailand "#. The capital of reece is - B 9thens 0.The %ead>uarters of Anited ations Gducational7 scientific and cultural organiEation (AGS,) are located in-8aris. 1.:ho is the first ndian recipient of the lympic old rder-ndira andhi - OQ 2.The argest monument in the orld 4uetEalcoatl 8yramid is in-,airo ".:hich planets of our solar system do not ha$e moons-/ercury and Denus.
. To of 9shoa - 3 s lion pillars built in the "rd century .,. stand perfectly preser$ed e$en today at their original location. ne is at auriya andangarh. :here is the otherP- Sarnath '.:hich article of the constitution of ndia pro$ides for the post of o$ernor of stateP9rticle1'" 6.n hich State is the Sun Temple Suryan Co$il locatedP - BTamil adu +.9t hich of the folloing lympic ames did the lndian %ocey team in its first gold medalP-9msterdam *. !irst ,hief Glection ,ommissioner of ndia as - B Suumar Sen. #. Gast Timor recei$ed independence in 2002 from - B ndonesia. '0. !irst oman 8rime /inister in the orld as of - B Sri ana. '1. ;eficiency disease Ditamin 9-ight lindness7 Ditamin - Bberiberi7 Ditamin , - B scur$y Ditamin ; - B5icets7 Ditamin G-Sin and hair disease7 Ditamin C - B ,lotting of lood. '2. 5ich sources of Ditamin 9- ,arrots7 8G/- 8rotein Gnergy /alnutrients. '"..;isease due to deficiency of ron - B 9nemia7 ife time of 5, - B 120 ;ays
TEACHINGÂ AND ESEACH !"TENTIA# - R a$odaya Didyalaya Samiti as registered as a society on - B1' 9ugust 1#'0 - R :ho as the ,hairman of the first ndian Gducation ,ommission - BSir ?ohn %unter - R :ho organiEes the ational Talent Search ,ompetiti$e Test - B.,.G.5.T. - R :hen as ,entral 9d$isory oard of Gducation set up - B1#'6 - R a$odaya Didyalayas ha$e been set up - Bn 5ural 9reas - R The programme yan Dani is broadcasted by - B95 - R :hen as .,.G.5.T. Gstablished - B2nd ct. 1#+1 - R n 1#"6-"+ ho submitted the report on technical Gducation - B9bbot - R :ho conducts the admission test for o$daya Didyalayas - B.,.G.5.T. - R :ho as the chairperson of :ardha Scheme - BFair %ussain - R ational la school of ndia is situated at - Bangalor - R 9..,.T.G. stands for - B9ll ndia ,ouncil of Technical Gducation - R n hich year Ani$ersity rants ,ommission 9ct as passed - B1#'6 9.;. - R The central nstitude of ndian anguages is located at - B/ysore - R :hich rganiEation as established during engal 8artition - Bational ,ouncil of Gducation - R :hich as the first Ani$ersity to be opened in ritishers time P - B,alcutta Ani$ersity - R To hom did ord /acaulay present the famous /acaulay - 3s minute P - Bord entinc - R n hich year ,..S.G. set up open school P - B1#*' - R :hat as the other name for hunter commission - Bndian Gducation ,ommission - R :hat amount as sanctioned by ,harter 9ct of 1*1" to be spent on education P Bne ah - R 5eshtriya Sansrit Sansthan has its head >uarters at - Be ;elhi - R :hich is the first open Ani$ersity of ndia P - Bndira andhi open Ani$ersity e
;elhi - R :hat is the /inimum >ualification re>uird to appear in any e@amination of the pen Ani$ersity P - Bo /inimum >ulification - R 5egional ,ollege of Gducation for the orthern region is located at - B9=mer - R :here is situated the 5egional ,ollege of Gducation for the eastem region P Bhu$aneshar - R :here is 5egional ,ollege of Gducation for :estern region P - BA==ain - R 5egional ,ollege of Gducation for the Southern region is at - B/ysore - R The 5egional ,olleges of Gducation ere set up by the .,.G.5.T. ith the cooperation of - B8lanning ,ommission of ndia - R enerally the medium of instruction in 8ublic School is - BGnglish - R The famous ;oon 8ublic School is located at - B;ehra ;un - R The famous ;oon 8ublic School ishop ,otton is situated at - BShimla - R The famous arence 8ublic School is at - BSanaar - R The famous Shi$a=i 8ublic School is at - B8une - R The famous 9ir !orce ,entral School is situated at - B;elhi ,antt - R Tamil adu has a Saini School at - B9mrauathinagar - R The Saini School in rissa is at - Bhu$aneshar - R The Saini School in Carnataa is at - Bi=apur - R andhi had hich Gducational ;egree P - Ba - R andhi got his la ;egree from - BGngland - R :here did andhi as a teacher P - BSouth 9frica - R :ho said - I9 coardly teacher cannot mae his students $aliant P - B/.C. andhi - R Gffecti$e teaching is a function of -Teacher - 3s methodology - R :hat should be the attitude of the teacher toards school authorities P - B,ordial - R The attitude of teacher toards ne idea should be - B5ecepti$e - R Teachers should be made accountable for - BTeaching - R 9n e@cellent teacher must be - Bood guide - R 9s a teacher7 you are ne$er supposed to be angry - B am a human and can also be angry - R :hat is your 8rime duty as a teacher P - BTo help the student in understanding 8hysical and Social Gn$ironment - R :hat is the best 4uality of the teacher P - Bgood human sub=ect being - R The enthusiastic teachers generally P - Bin$ol$e the students in learning - Bteaching process - R 9 teacher has better chances of succeeding if P - Bhe is properly trained for the profession - R ;oes the teachers en=oy the freedom to mae their syllabus fle@ible P - B!alse - R 9 good teacher can o$ercome the defects of P - BSystem - R 9 >uality teacher alays reaches the school P - Before the morning assembly is o$er - R :hy you ant to mae teaching as a career P - Bit mae you eligible for the profession in ten months - R enerally a good number of students do not lie to go to the class rooms because- the curriculum is dull - R :hat is attitude - Bfeeling
- R 9 good teacher priority in school is his - Bstudents - R 8eople - 3s attitude toards teaching is becoming positi$e because - B percei$ing teaching as a profession - R :ho can be creati$e teacher- de$elop thining ability among the students - R 9mong the students faith in the human $alues can be generated through - B /oral Gducation - R f as teacher you gi$e too much liberty to students hat ill be result - B indiscipline in the class room - R f some one does not agree ith you hat ill you do - B polite e@plain your $ie point to him - R 9s a teacher hat means of recreation ill you lie to prefer - B literary magaEines and nes papers - R 9 teacher alays learns and he learns from - B Students - R :hat enhances the status and respect of a teacher - B community ser$ice - R :hy a teacher fails in maintaining discipline in the class - B because he lacs consistency in his approach to discipline - R :hat type beha$ior is e@pected from a teacher in the class room - B calm7 dignified and composed - R :hy a teacher should be lo$er of sports - B it encourages the students to tae part in sports
$HAT AE C"%!&TES' ,omputers ha$e been around since the ,hinese 9bacus. They are here to stay. There is a certain feel and flo to the logic that directs their acti$ities. Glectronically7 all computers or about the same. ,omputers $ary idely in siEe and use. %oe$er all computers are similar in hat the hardare does. So-called microcomputers (lie your destop 8ersonal ,omputer (8,)) are designed for personal use7 relati$ely lo price7 and modest data processing tass. /inicomputers are moderate siEed (a small refrigerator siEe) and perform more comple@ tass ith larger amounts of data. /inicomputers might be used in a small engineering office or a local ban branch to send transaction data to a head office computer. /ainframe computers are large7 e@pensi$e and process billions of characters of data rapidly and fill entire rooms. !inally7 supercomputers are built to minimiEe distance beteen circuit boards and operate at $ery high speed for comple@ uses such as designing airplanes7 animating comple@ mo$ie se>uences graphically or sol$ing comple@ engineering formulas ha$ing billions of steps mathematically. Supercomputers are built for ra speed. Supercomputers are the main ser$ers in the nternet System. Some terms apply to all computers. 8AT is ho data gets into a computer. The eyboard and mouse are familiar 8AT de$ices. AT8AT references ho data is pro$ided from the computer. 9 /onitor or printer are good e@amples of AT8AT de$ices. 85/95J ST59G or /G/5J is the computer - 3s immediate data storage area usually this is in small integrated circuit chips hich hold data J hile poer is supplied. This 85/95J ST59G area is thus temporary. /ore permanent
SG,;95J ST59G is used hen computer poer is off or hen data o$erflos primary storage. This is usually floppy or hard dis dri$es but can include paper tapes7 punch cards7 or e$en non-$olatile magnetic bubble memories. 9 computer system includes computer hardare7 softare and people. 9 computer is a de$ice capable of sol$ing problems or manipulating data by accepting data7 performing prescribed operations on the data7 and displaying the results in the desired form. The computer is a useful tool for data (or nformation) nput7 storage7 processing and output.
HIST"( )H"$* $HEE* $HEN DID IT A## STAT' The first computational de$ice as the abacus. This has been in continuous use for thousands of years. ;uring the 1600s the 8ascal adding machine as de$eloped. This as a mechanical de$ice that laid the groundor for todays odometers and gas meters. The 1*00s sa many machines de$eloped that ere controlled by punch cards - ea$ing looms. The theoretical basis for electronic circuitry as de$eloped in the mid 1*00s. n 1#+7 =ust after the first electronic computer as built7 the transistor as in$ented7 enabling the birth of $astly less e@pensi$e7 more reliable computers. G$en ith transistors7 computers ere still too comple@ and costly for idespread use until the ad$ent of the integrated circuit (,) in 1#61 made truly ine@pensi$e computers possible at last. !rom this point forth there ere many firsts as computers became less mechanical7 smaller7 faster and cheaper. n 1#+17 , technology progressed to a point here a complete central processing unit - the heart of the computer - could be integrated on a single piece off silicon7 gi$ing birth to the microprocessor. The microprocessor led to the personal computer. The 8ersonal ,omputer is distinguished by its siEe7 cost7 and applications for small business and the home. The first one appeared in ?anuary 1#+' and as the 9ltair **00 it. nly hobbyists bought these. Then the 5adio Shac T5S *0 and 9pple computers hit the maret as the first pre-assembled microcomputers. /aret groth remained sluggish until to business students - ;an riclin and ;an !ylstra - de$eloped a program to run on 9pple computers to handle the tedious recalculations in their school assignments. This program as called Disi,alc and is the forerunner to the spreadsheet program otus 12". :ith Disi,alc as a useful tool7 9pple sales too off. 9pple became the standard because all programs ere ritten for 9pple. Today in the AS7 9pple still dominates the school maret. n 1#*1 / introduced its 8,. / - 3s legacy still dominates the industry today. The 8, as unable to run 9pple softare. Anlie 9pple or other / products7 the / 8, had an open architecture. This means the technical details of ho it operated ere published ith the products introduction. This permitted hundreds of companies to rite softare (programs) for the / 8, and a $ariety of hardare accessories. 9dding /s sterling reputation7 the open architecture did enable rapid maret penetration. The microcomputer as no longer a toy7 it as a business tool. The open architecture also alloed for the generation of a host of loer cost compatible computers. / had traded >uic initial maret entry for e$entual erosion of maret share. n both instances7 the consumers benefit. n the early #0s ,omputers ere applied $ariously in the fields of Science7 Technology and Space e@ploration. nitially7 8,s re$olutioniEed ho businesses are run7 but today7 computers deepest impact
are felt in the merging of ,ommunications and nformation. The emergence of the :orld :ide :eb and the e@plosion of nternet usage is ha$ing far-reaching effects on all aspects of society. Success and progress in all spheres of life7 is no dri$en by nformation and Technology. The future is bright7 but it is up to e$ery user of the technology to see that it is used to positi$e effect.
Histor+ of Computers: ,- First Generation .,/0/),/123 ) 4acuum tu5e - R 1#"+ - ?ohn D. 9tanasoff designed the first digital electronic computer - R 1#"# - 9tanasoff and ,lifford erry demonstrate in o$. the 9, prototype - R 1#1 - Conrad Fuse in ermany de$eloped in secret the F" - R 1#" - n ritain7 the ,olossus as designed in secret at letchley 8ar to decode erman messages - R 1# - %oard 9ien de$eloped the %ar$ard /ar mechanical computer for the a$y - R 1#' - ?ohn :. /auchly and ?. 8resper Gcert built G9, at A of 89 for the A.S. 9rmy - R 1#6 - /auchly and Gcert start Glectronic ,ontrol ,o.7 recei$ed grant from ational ureau of Standards to build a G9,-type computer ith magnetic tape input&output7 renamed AD9, in 1#+ but run out of money7 formed in ;ec. 1#+ the ne company Gcert-/auchly ,omputer ,orporation (G/,,). - R 1#* - %oard 9ien de$eloped the %ar$ard /ar electronic computer ith '000 tubes - R 1#* - A of /anchester in ritain de$eloped the SSG/ aby electronic computer ith ,5T memory - R 1## - /auchly and Gcert in /arch successfully tested the 9, stored-program computer for orthrop 9ircraft7 ith mercury delay line memory and a primiti$e magentic tape dri$eH 5emington 5and bought G/,, !eb. 1#'0 and pro$ided funds to finish AD9, - R 1#'0- ,ommander :illiam ,. orris led Gngineering 5esearch 9ssociates to de$elop the 9tlas7 based on the secret code-breaing computers used by the a$y in ::H the 9tlas as "* feet long7 20 feet ide7 and used 2+00 $acuum tubes - R 1#'1 - S. 9. ebede$ de$eloped the /GS/ computer in 5ussia - R 1#'1 - 5emington 5and successfully tested AD9, /arch "07 1#'17 and announced to the public its sale to the ,ensus ureau ?une 17 1#'17 the first commercial computer to feature a magnetic tape storage system7 the eight ASG5D tape dri$es that stood separate from the ,8A and control console on the other side of a garage-siEe room. Gach tape dri$e as si@ feet high and three feet ide7 used 1&2-inch metal tape of nicel-plated bronEe 1200 feet long7 recorded data on eight channels at 100 inches per second ith a transfer rate of +7200 characters per second. The complete AD9, system eighed 2#7000 pounds7 included '200 $acuum tubes7 and an offline typeriter printer A85TG5 ith an attached metal tape dri$e. ater7 a punched card-to-tape machine as added to read / *0-column and 5emington 5and #0-column cards. - R 1#'2 - 5emington 5and bought the G59 in ;ec. 1#'1 and combined the AD9,
product line in 1#'2< the G59 1101 computer became the AD9, 1101. The AD9, as used in o$ember to calculate the presidential election returns and successfully predict the inner7 although it as not trusted by the TD netors ho refused to use the prediction. - R 1#' - The sage aircraft-arning system as the largest $acuum tube computer system e$er built. t began in 1#' at /Ts incoln ab ith funding from the 9ir !orce. The first of 2" ;irection ,enters ent online in o$. 1#'67 and the last in 1#62. Gach ,enter had to ''7000-tube computers built by /7 /T7 9; ell abs. The 2+'-ton computers non as ,lyde ere based on ?ay !orresters :hirlind and had magnetic core memory7 magnetic drum and magnetic tape storage. The ,enters ere connected by an early netor7 and pioneered de$elopment of the modem and graphics display.
6-Second Generation Computers .,/12 ),/1/3 ) transistor - R 1#'0 - ational ureau of Standards (S) introduced its Standards Gastern 9utomatic ,omputer (SG9,) ith 107000 nely de$eloped germanium diodes in its logic circuits7 and the first magnetic dis dri$e designed by ?acob 5abino - R 1#'" - B :atson ?unior led / to introduce the model 60 computer7 its first ith transistors7 that became the basis of the model 60* of 1#'+7 the first solid-state computer for the commercial maret. Transistors ere e@pensi$e at first7 cost U* $s. U.+' for a $acuum tube. ut :atson as impressed ith the ne transistor radios and ga$e them to his engineers to study. / also de$eloped the 6'0 /agnetic ;rum ,alculator7 the first by / to use magnetic drum memory rather punched cards7 and began shipment of the +01 scientific ;efense ,alculator that as the first of the /odel +00 line that dominated main frame computers for the ne@t decade - R 1#'' - / introduced the +02 business computerH :atson on the co$er of Time magaEine /arch 2* - R 1#'6 - endi@ -1'9 small business computer sold for only U'70007 designed by %arry %usey of S - R 1#'# - eneral Glectric ,orporation deli$ered its Glectronic 5ecording /achine 9ccounting (G5/9) computing system to the an of 9merica in ,aliforniaH based on a design by S57 the G5/9 system employed /agnetic n ,haracter 5ecognition (/,5) as the means to capture data from the checs and introduced automation in baning that continued ith 9T/ machines in 1#+ 0- T7ird Generation Computers .,/1/ ),/8,3 ) IC - R 1#'# - ?ac Cilby of Te@as nstruments patented the first integrated circuit in !eb. 1#'#H Cilby had made his first germanium , in ct. 1#'*H 5obert oyce at !airchild used planar process to mae connections of components ithin a silicon , in early 1#'#H the first commercial product using , as the hearing aid in ;ec. 1#6"H eneral nstrument made S chip (100V components) for %ammond organs 1#6* - R 1#6 - / produced S95G7 the first airline reser$ation tracing system for 9merican 9irlinesH / announced the System&"60 all-purpose computer7 using *-bit character ord length (a byte) that as pioneered in the +0"0 of 9pril 1#61 that gre out of the 9! contract of ct. 1#'* folloing Sputni to de$elop transistor computers for /G:S
- R 1#6* - ;G, introduced the first mini-computer7 the 8;8-*7 named after the minisirtH ;G, as founded in 1#'+ by Cenneth %. lsen ho came for the S9G pro=ect at /T and began sales of the 8;8-1 in 1#60 - R 1#6# - ;e$elopment began on 9589net7 funded by the ;; - R 1#+1 - ntel produced large scale integrated (S) circuits that ere used in the digital delay line7 the first digital audio de$ice
2- Fourt7 Generation .,/8,),//,3 ) microprocessor - R 1#+1 - ilbert %yatt at /icro ,omputer ,o. patented the microprocessorH Ted %off at ntel in !ebruary introduced the -bit 007 a DS of 2"00 components7 for the ?apanese company usicom to create a single chip for a calculatorH / introduced the first *-inch memory dis7 as it as called then7 or the floppy dis laterH %offmann-a 5oche patented the passi$e ,; display for calculators and atchesH in o$ember ntel announced the first microcomputer7 the /,S-H olan ushnell designed the first commercial arcade $ideo game ,omputer Space - R 1#+2 - ntel made the *-bit *00* and *0*0 microprocessorsH ary Cildall rote his ,ontrol 8rogram&/icroprocessor (,8&/) dis operating system to pro$ide instructions for floppy dis dri$es to or ith the *0*0 processor. %e offered it to ntel7 but as turned don7 so he sold it on his on7 and soon ,8&/ as the standard operating system for *-bit microcomputersH ushnell created 9tari and introduced the successful 8ong game - R 1#+" - / de$eloped the first true sealed hard dis dri$e7 called the :inchester after the rifle company7 using to "0 /b plattersH 5obert /etcalfe at Mero@ 895, created Gthernet as the basis for a local area netor7 and later founded ",/ - R 1#+ - Mero@ de$eloped the 9lto orstation at 895,7 ith a monitor7 a graphical user interface7 a mouse7 and an ethernet card for netoring - R 1#+' - the 9ltair personal computer is sold in it form7 and influenced Ste$e ?obs and Ste$e :oEnia - R 1#+6 - ?obs and :oEnia de$eloped the 9pple personal computerH 9lan Shugart introduced the '.2'-inch floppy dis - R 1#++ - intendo in ?apan began to mae computer games that stored the data on chips inside a game cartridge that sold for around U0 but only cost a fe dollars to manufacture. t introduced its most popular game ;oney Cong in 1#*17 Super /ario ros in 1#*' - R 1#+* - Disicalc spreadsheet softare as ritten by ;aniel riclin and ob !ranston - R 1#+# - /icropro released :ordstar that set the standard for ord processing softare - R 1#*0 - / signed a contract ith the /icrosoft ,o. of ill ates and 8aul 9llen and Ste$e allmer to supply an operating system for /s ne 8, model. /icrosoft paid U2'7000 to Seattle ,omputer for the rights to 4;S that became /icrosoft ;S7 and /icrosoft began its climb to become the dominant computer company in the orld. - R 1#* - 9pple ,omputer introduced the /acintosh personal computer ?anuary 2. - R 1#*+ - ill 9tinson of 9pple ,omputers created a softare program called %yper,ard that as bundled free ith all /acintosh computers. This program for the first time made hyperte@t popular and useable to a ide number of people.
1- Fift7 Generation .,//, and 9e+ond3 - R 1##1 - :orld-:ide :eb (:::) as de$eloped by Tim erners-ee and released by ,G5. - R 1##" - The first :eb broser called /osaic as created by student /arc 9ndreesen and programmer Gric ina at ,S9 in the first " months of 1##". The beta $ersion 0.' of M /osaic for AM as released ?an. 2" 1##" and as instant success. The 8, and /ac $ersions of /osaic folloed >uicly in 1##". /osaic as the first softare to interpret a ne / tag7 and to display graphics along ith te@t. erners-ee ob=ected to the / tag7 considered it fri$olous7 but image display became one of the most used features of the :eb. The :eb gre fast because the infrastructure as already in place< the nternet7 destop 8,7 home modems connected to online ser$ices such as 9 and ,ompuser$e - R 1## - etscape a$igator 1.0 as released ;ec. 1##7 and as gi$en aay free7 soon gaining +'W of orld broser maret. - R 1##6 - /icrosoft failed to recogniEed the importance of the :eb7 but finally released the much imporo$ed broser G@plorer ".0 in the summer. $H( D" $E &SE C"%!&TES' This similar to asing hy do e use carsP ut too many people and organiEations purchase and use ,omputers for the rong reasons. ,omputers are practical tools to be used in helping you get results. ,omputers are needed here< 1. There is a need for a more accurate and cost effecti$e noledge to assist decision maing. Success and progress is no being determined by your access to information and ho you use that information to get results. 2. t is impossible to get results due to either time constraint or sheer magnitude of or in$ol$ed. ". t ill reduce the mental and physical effort in tacling certain tass. .There is intense competition and there is a need for cost efficiency through the elimination and reduction of inefficient practices. '.There is a need to assist in enhancing ,ustomer ser$ice. 6.There is a need for correct forecasting of maret trends to ensure business sur$i$al. C"%!&TE A!!#ICATI"NS ;ue to technological de$elopments7 ,omputers are no used in $irtually all spheres of life. %ere are a fe of the application areas< S,G,G N TG,%J (SNT) ,omputers are used in SNT to promote ad$ances that could be useful to manind7 i.e. disco$ering better and more efficient ays of doing things. They are especially useful for humanly intractable calculations and simulation e@periments. This is especially critical in situations here it ould be too risy or e@pensi$e to directly carry out the re>uired operation. !or e@ample7 in Space e@ploration7 underater e@ploration7 testing of ne drugs7 etc. ,omputers enable SNT professionals can carry out their practical procedures using faster7 more accurate and safer methods.
G;A,9T ,omputers are useful for promoting learning e@periences. !rom the toddler to the full gron adult7 educational ,omputer tools are a$ailable. ,omputers are useful for learning about ,omputers and learning about other sub=ects7 i.e. using ,omputer 9ssisted earning softare. earning is usually interacti$e and can be reinforced o$er and o$er. !or children7 the ad$ent of /ultimedia7 has made learning fun. They often don - 3t realiEe it hen they - 3re playing that they are also learning. 9C N !9,G ,omputers are $ery useful for handling financial transactions7 most especially the storage and processing of huge amounts of information ept by financial institutions. ,omputers enhances ,ustomer ser$ice7 through the pro$ision of upto date and timely information for their ,ustomers. ,omputers additionally assist ith the monitoring of operational costs7 to ensure cost effecti$eness and profitability of operations. n some financial institutions7 ,omputers are used to identify trends and pro$ide timely information for present and future management decision maing. 5G,5G9T n your a$erage 8,7 you can play a $ariety of games. Jou no hat they say about ?ac. :ith the games7 you could be the sole player7 play against the ,omputer or you and a friend could play against each other. SG,A5TJ ,omputers are useful for storing information about crimes7 criminals and suspects. This can be $ery useful in ,rime detection and pre$ention. Such systems can be interfaced ith photograph capturing and fingerprint systems. They can also be lined to mobile radio communication systems o$er a ide area to enable in the fast and efficient sharing of information on ,riminal acti$ities. Such systems ould possess en>uiry facility for historical and analytic purposes. There so many other areas here the impact of the ,omputer is being felt such as /edicine7 a7 Sports7 Gntertainment7 /edia7 uilding7 ,onstruction7 etc. n e$ery situation the ,omputer performs different functions relating to nformation storage7 input7 output and processing. t is no onder that producti$e ,omputer based acti$ity is referred to popularly as nformation Technology. :hat are ,omputersP 9 computer system includes computer hardare7 softare and people.
HAD$AE 4ersus S"FT$AE :hat is the difference beteen computer hardare and softareP %95;:95G n simplest terms7 hardare is the physical parts associated ith a computer - the electronic7 magnetic7 and mechanical de$ices (monitor7 eyboard7 printer7 micro chip boards7 floppy dri$es7 cables and physical pieces of a system. These 8AT&AT8AT ;GD,GS allo the operator to interact ith the computer. S!T:95G Sets of programs (stored sets of instructions) that go$ern the operation of the computer
system and mae the hardare perform. These programs (instructions) tell the hardare ho to do a particular tas such as ord processing7 games7 database management7 etc. 9lthough these instructions are usually stored inside a piece of hardare (e.g.7 softare instructions stored inside a circuit chip or floppy dri$e) but they are ne$ertheless softare. n a ay7 Softare refers to the instructions that enable an otherise dead machine to understand your inputs and transform them into desired outputs. ,omputer hardare by itself lacs personalityH this is determined by the softare. :ord processing softare turns the computer into a ord processor7 accounting softare turns the computer into an accounting tool7 etc. ets discuss a bit about Softare before e go bac to %ardare. T7ere are two maor t+pes of software: "peratin; s+stem software and Applications softwareperating system softare (lie ;S7 AM or :indos #') performs $ery elemental houseeeping instructions (e.g.7 here is the monitor7 ho can eep trac of hat data is on hich trac or sector of a floppy dri$e7 hether more than user can or on the system at the same time e.g. AM.) The operating system that all / and compatible 8,s use is called ;S (sounds lie floss). ;S is softare that allos the terminal7 printer7 computer and mass storage systems (floppy diss) to or together as a unit7 and controls the e@ecution of programs. t also allos you to do houseeeping chores regarding managing diss and files. 9pplications programs perform tass on a higher le$el (e.g.7 ord processing Spreadsheet7 ames7 ;atabase /anagement7 9ccounting7 8ayroll programs are applications.) enerally an application softare pacage uses the loer le$el operating system (;S) to do routine tass (e.g.7 your ord processing application uses the loer le$el ;S operating system fre>uently to rite and store data on a dis. And w7at is a Data5ase' 9 database is a collection of information that is organiEed for ease of reference. !or e@ample7 your address boo is a database7 =ust as an in$entory of goods7 a list of all churches in your state or your staff list. efore Glectronic processing of information7 databases had to be maintained on paper stored in file folders that ere ept in filing cabinets. :ith Glectronic ;ataase /anagement Systems (;/S)7 information stored electronically and be recalled instantly and accurately.
HAD$AE CENTA# !"CESS" &NIT .C!&3 %eart of the 8, - it contains the microprocessor. The ,8A is a set of miniaturiEed circuits that does all the thining. t controls the interpretation (arithmetic-logic unit) and e@ecution (control unit) of instructions. The ,8A in con=unction ith 5andom 9ccess /emory (59/) comprise the computers brain. The ,8A does the thining & calculating hile 59/ contains the instructions or memories. t is the ,8A that largely determines the operating speed of the computer. The type of processor on your 8, ill determine the nature of functions it can carry out and the speed at hich instructions are carried out. !or e@ample7 hile a 2*6 processor ould struggle to load :indos ".17 a *6 processor loads it easily. 9dditionally7 a 2*6 processor is ob$iously incapable of running most ne softare. 8entium processor are no as fast as
200 /%E. o the good stuff. ets read on and ant del$e into great comple@ity. o it - 3s time to del$e deeper into the heart of the computer. The central processing unit or ,8A is the brains of e$ery computer. n the 8,7 the ,8A is simply a tiny integrated circuit. t is the control center and contains to circuit elements to perform tass plus se$eral special locations or memory areas called registers hich hold instructions. 5egisters7 located ithin the ,8A chip are temporary storage locations hich hold instructions. Secondly7 the arithmetic logic unit or 9A is the location ithin the ,8A here basic math and logic operations tae place (such as addition and subtraction.) !inally7 the control unit is a portion of the ,8A hich directs all elements of the computer. t does not add or subtract lie the 9A7 it only directs the acti$ity. ;espite this seeming comple@ity7 a basic fact remains< all digital computers can only add and subtract to numbers< Eero and oneX et - 3s bac up a bit. !or purposes of digital computer electronics7 internally a computer can only respond to to things< on and off =ust lie a light sitch. These electronic states of being might actually be a positi$e and negati$e $oltage or a high and lo $oltage stored in a series of transistors etched in silicon on a chip7 but to the computer the logic is on or off. To conditions7 that is all. ac in the human orld e can represent these as one and Eero (1 and 0). 9 special branch of mathematics deals ith calculations of numbers represented by 1 and 0 hich is called binary arithmetic. :e rarely thin of 0 as a number since e consider it T%.) To computers FG5 is alays a numberXXX To a computer these binary numbers march together in a long string7 one after another. 5emember7 the ,8A has only to numbers to or ith< 1 and 0. %uman ;ecimal 0 1 2 " ' 6 + * # 10 11 12 ,omputer inary 0 1
$HAT IS THE DIFFEENCE 9ET$EEN A 9IT AND A 9(TE' The / 8, and its clones generally use * bits (electrical pulses) to mae up a byte (computer ord.) 9 ninth odd bit is used for error checing (parity testing) to mae sure the other eight bits are not accidentally erased or lost during storage or use by the computer. its are lie alphabet characters and bytes are lie the ords made up from alphabet characters. its and ytes are used to measure information by the computer. T Smallest unit of information recogniEed by the computer. T is short for inary ;igit. 9 inary ;igit can be either a 0 or a 1. Se$eral bits mae up a byte. JTG 9 group of * TS. This grouping of ad=acent binary digits (bits) is operated on by the computer as a unit. ,omputers use 1 JTG to represent 1 character such as a letter of the alphabet7 a number7 a punctuation mar7 a space7 etc. 9 JTG is also a unit of measure since it represents 1 character.
!or e@ample7 hen the letter 9 is pressed7 the eyboard actually sends the folloing to 59/< 10000001 - a set of * bits.
AND"% ACCESS %E%"( .A%3 Thin of a computer as a human brain. Jour brain is a memory sponge. t contains a lifetime of memories that cause us to act or react based on inputs. nputs come through our ' senses. f you see and smell hot suya burning on the grill (inputs) you no ho to react based on pre$ious e@periences. 9 set of miniaturiEed circuits hich represents the oring memory of the computer. This is here application programs (softare) can be loaded from the outside and then e@ecuted. The larger the 59/ the better. 9 typical single user computer system may contain appro@imately *70007000 bytes of 59/. (This is often abbre$iated as */ 59/.) The computers brain consists of the 59/ and the ,8A. The ,8A and 59/ or together as the computers brain. Gach day hen e start up the computer one of the first tass ill be to fill 59/ ith instructions to gi$e it an ability to do or. This or may be in the creation of documents or tracing accounting data. Jou control hich instructions ill go into the computers brain. Jou control the sets of e@periences you ill pro$ide the computer. nce in 59/7 the computer ill e$aluate inputs from many de$ices and react. The most typical input de$ice is a eyboard. 9s you type commands7 the computer e$aluates them. ased on the set of instructions ithin its 59/7 it ill follo some action< print a document7 calculate7 send information o$er a telephone line7 etc. 9t some later point you may empty the computers brain and install a different set of instructions7 thus gi$ing it a different ability. The 59/ is emptied hen the computer is turned off - thus it is often called $olatile memory. :%9T JA SGG JA5Â ,/8ATG5 /T5 S 9,TA9J 59/ J - a temporary storage location. To mae it permanent e sa$e it or rite it to a floppy dis or hard dri$e. These de$ices are non $olatile storage - they do not re>uire electricity. Gach time the computer is turned off7 all information ithin 59/ is lost. 59/ is called $olatile memory because of the electricity re>uirement. EAD "N#( %E%"( ."%3 This is a special section of memory that contains instructions hich are acti$ated each time the computer is turned on. These instructions are set at the factory and cannot be changed - thus7 they can only be read7 not ritten to. 5/ instructions perform e>uipment checs and initialiEation of the computer prior to each use. DISKS Thin of diss as cassettes. Jou can record information on a cassette that can be replayed indefinitely and if desired7 recorded o$er. !loppy and %ard ;iss operate in a similar fashion. :e record (Sa$e) something e ha$e created - lie a document - onto the dis. Then7 hours7 days7 or months later e can play bac (5etrie$e) the document into the computer to alter or print out. The magnetic dis used to store information ors in a manner similar to a tape recorder
- magnetic impressions are placed on the tape and can be later replayed. 9 magnetic computer dis ors in the same fashion but spins in a circle lie a music record rather than mo$ing in a straight line lie recording tape. /agnetic computer diss are a$ailable in to basic types< floppy and hard diss. ?ust lie cassettes7 the !loppy and %ard ;iss do not re>uire electricity to retain their information. %ard ;iss and !loppy ;iss are similar. %oe$er7 %ard ;ri$es ha$e a larger capacity for file storage7 are faster and are less liely to fail due to the protected en$ironment from ithin hich they operate. !loppy and %ard ;iss are non$olatile in nature because they ill retain their information ithout the aid of electricity. 9 hard dis can hold considerably more information than a floppy dis - fre>uently billions and millions of computer ords (or bytes) hile a floppy dis holds less than a million in many cases. %oe$er hat the floppy dis loses in capacity in gains in the ad$antage of portability since it can easily be remo$ed from the 8, and stored hich is not true of the hard dis. :hen you format a dis you as the computer to inspect the magnetic surface of the dis for any errors7 prepare it for use by future data and create an inde@ file allocation table (!9T) hich is lie a card inde@ for a large library of boos. !ormatting a dis is a little lie taing a blan piece of paper and using a pencil and ruler to turn it into graph paper ith both horiEontal and $ertical lines. :hat as blan before no has little cells or file draers hich can hold information. ;SC ;5DG The port in hich a floppy dis is inserted. This de$ice reads data from a magnetic dis7 and copies data into the computers memory (59/) so it can be used by the computer7 and that rites data from the computers memory onto a dis so it can be stored for later use. Gach ;is ;ri$e is labeled 977,7 etc. because e often must tell the computer hich dri$e has the dis ith the information or here to send the information. 9 ;is ;ri$e reads and rites on a '.2' inch or ".' inch floppy dis. !88J ;SCS The most commonly used mass storage de$ice. 9llos entering programs to 59/ and sa$ing data from 59/. :ill hold data e$en after the computer is turned off. ;ata on these diss is stored in concentric rings called tracs. The ;is surface is a thin piece of mylar and is coated ith a magnetiEed material similar to audio or $ideo tape. The read&rite heads can magnetiEe and demagnetiEe the coated surface repeatedly. Therefore7 the ;is can be used7 erased7 and reused indefinitely. !loppy diss are also a$ailable as double density and high density format. 9 standard floppy disette is either '; inches or "9 inches s>uare. b$iously the high density of "9 disette contains more information than the "9 double density disette. 9 '; ;ouble-sided7 ;ouble density dis holds appro@imately "60 orth of information (2'0 double spaced pages of te@t). The smaller ".' inch ;ouble density diss hich hold at least tice as much - +20. :oring ith floppy disettes. To insert a floppy disette into your computer dri$e7 first remo$e it from the paper or plastic slipco$er if one protects it. The proper ay to insert a floppy disette in most
dri$es is as follos. !or larger ' - 1& inch floppies7 turn the printed label side up and locate the T: DG5J TJ notches along one edge. ear the notches ill be a =elly bean shaped hole about one inch long cut into the plastic surface of the disette. This oblong hole is the read&rite opening. nsert the disette into the dri$e ith the label side up and the to tiny notches !5ST into the dri$e opening then close the dri$e locing handle. 9long one edge of the disette you ill also see a SG s>uare shaped hole hich is the rite protect notch. f this rite protect notch is A,DG5G; you can T% read and rite data to the disette. f the rite protect notch is co$ered ith a piece of tape7 then you can 5G9; information from the disette but you ,9T rite information to the disette. This is a safeguard feature you may ish to use from time to time. Ceep fragile disettes aay from smoe7 hair7 dirt and GS8G,9J sources of magnetism such as motors7 loudspeaers or e$en childrens magnetic toys hich may G59SG your dataX !or smaller " - 1&2 inch siEe disettes7 turn the label side up and locate the metal shutter. nsert the disette into the dri$e ith the label up and the shutter !5ST into the dri$e. The rite protect notch or opening is a small s>uare hole ith a S; 89ST, T9 hich is slid ,SG; (cannot see an open hole) to enable T% reading and riting to the disette. The sliding tab is placed 8G ($isible open hole) to enable reading but T riting. !MG; ;SC ;5DG Asually named dis dri$e ,. t is essentially a $ery large floppy dis. This !i@ed ;is (commonly called a %ard ;ri$e) is secured ithin the machine and cannot be seen or transported. The storage capacity is so large it is measured in megabytes (1/ Y 1C s>uared Y 170*7'+6 bytes). !i@ed ;iss are a$ailable from '/ on up. The main ad$antages are that it has enough space to meet most users total storage needs7 operates much faster than a floppy ('-10 times faster)7 and is less liely to fail since it li$es ithin the protected computer.
IN!&T DE
on the computer screen. The mouse also contains se$eral buttons to help select items on data on the monitor screen. 9 mouse as initially an optional de$ice7 but it is becoming difficult to or ithout it7 ith the spread of :indos based systems. (b) S8G,9TJ 8AT ;GD,GS ets mo$e on to the specialty input de$ices lie the scanner and the ;igital camera. (i) S,9G5 9 scanner con$erts te@t and images to digital information. This te@t and images can be from a $ariety of sources such as magaEines7 photographs7 articles7 scientific diagrams7 etc. The scanner creates a digital image from your photograph or draing7 for use in graphics7 ;esTop 8ublishing or 8resentation applications. There are different types of scanners lie %and scanner7 flatbed scanner and the multifunction scanner&fa@&printer&copier. The flatbed scanner pro$ides a larger scanning area than the other scanners and is the usually more e@pensi$e. (ii) ;T9 ,9/G59 The ;igital ,amera produces the same result as a Scanner. 9ny pictures taen are transferred straight to the computer7 i.e. in the form of a graphics image suitable for image editing or ;esTop 8ublishing applications. t eliminates the need for film.
"&T!&T DEuirts indi$idual dots of in onto the paper to form letters or other characters. 9 high >uality paper is necessary since the et in can smear if not carefully handled. 9lthough ith the most recent models7 ordinary paper can also be used. The ,olour print facility is also no standard ith most in=et printer. !inally7 laser printers use a rapidly scanning laser to sensitiEe a polished drum ith an entire page of information >uicly and loo and or roughly lie an office copier. The first to printers are classified as impact printers since something stries the paper hile the later to are non impact printers. The laser and in =et printers are becoming more popular due to rapid speed of printing
and >uiet mode of operation. The laser printer is used for >uicly producing one page of te@t at a time. n operation7 the laser scans a polished drum ith an image hich is then dusted ith dar toner particles hich stic to the e@posed areas made sensiti$e by the laser. 8aper is then placed in contact ith the drum and the toner is transferred to the page and is finally fused ith heat to fi@ or seal the toner particles to the page. f the /icrocomputer printers7 the aser is the most e@pensi$e in terms of purchase price7 maintenance cost and consumable cost. ;ot matri@ printers are common and affordable alternati$es for many small offices7 home computer hobbyists or organiEations ith $oluminous printing re>uirements (e.g. statements of accounts for bans). The ;ot matri@ is additionally designed for use ith continuous flo paper7 as ell as typical single sheet paper. ;ot matri@ usually operates in $arying modes of draft and letter >uality. n draft mode7 the printer speed is faster7 ith draft >uality. etter >uality is sloer ith higher >uality. ;ot matri@ printers produce letters $ia small pins hich strie the in ribbon and paper to produce print hich can be =agged looing. ine pin dot matri@ printers produce somehat rough looing letters hile 2 pin dot matri@ printers produce crisper7 fullyformed letters. The ;ot matri@ printer stries the paper through a ribbon to transfer in to the printed page. ,onnecting a printer $ia a cable to the computer is alays done through one of to plugs (or interfaces) on the bac of the computer. ne type of interface (computer plug) is serial7 the other called parallel. The most commonly used interface for printers today is the parallel interface but serial interface printers do e@ist. :hat is the differenceP 5ecall that there are eight bits (computer dots and dashes) to a byte (or computer ord). The serial interface has each bit sent one at a time to the printer - lie men in single file at the supermaret checout counter. The parallel interface sends all eight bits at once - lie eight men all entering eight supermaret counters at once. Gach interface is different7 the printer manufacturer ill tell you hich interface to use7 i.e. serial or parallel. !re>uently7 modems or mouse de$ices use the serial interface lea$ing the printer to the parallel interface. (iii) /T5S :e ha$e taled about output to paper7 ne@t lets briefly discuss output to a monitor or screen. The monitor is a tele$ision lie de$ice that the computer uses to communicate ith you. The monitor or $ideo display ors much lie your tele$ision - some older home computers still use a TD. 9n old term for a monitor is the cathode ray tube or ,5T. /onitors differ in the sharpness or resolution they can display. n the lo end of the resolution spectrum is the monochrome (single color) monitor fre>uently a$ailable in either green or amber screens. e@t is the color 5 monitor (5 stands for 5ed7 reen and lue) hich displays lo resolution color dots to mae up an image. %igher resolution is obtained ith an G9 monitor (Gnhanced raphics 9dapter) and still higher ith a D9 (Dideo raphics 9rray) /onitor and e$en higher ith an SD9 (Super Dideo raphics 9rray) /onitor. Gach monitor is matched to or ith a circuit card located ithin the body of the computer. ne ay to upgrade a computer is to sitch both the monitor and
display&graphics circuit card to produce a sharper7 more colorful image. The dots hich mae up all images on the monitor screen are called pi@els. The smaller the pi@els7 the higher and sharper the image resolution. Typically the monitor displays *0 columns (characters) by 2' ros (lines) of information. The initial SD9 cards could only display 16 colours. 9nd then 2'6 colours. o some SD9 card can display millions of colours. 8AT N AT8AT ;GD,GS ,ertain de$ices can act as both input and output de$ices to the computer. Typical de$ices mentioned earlier are the diss (floppy and hard). (i) /;G/ Short for /odulator&;emodulator. 9 de$ice to send and recei$e computer output o$er telephone lines.
THE C"%!&TE DE
ins are also gi$en 1.
ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂHardware (disambiguation).
Hardware is
a general term that refers to the physical artifacts of a technology. It may also mean the physical components of a computer system, in the form of computer hardware. Hardware historically meant the metal parts and fittings that were used to make wooden products stronger, more functional, longer lasting and easier to fabricate or assemble. In modern usage it includes equipment such as keys, locks, hinges, latches, corners, handles, wire, chains, plumbing supplies, tools, utensils, cutlery and machine parts, especially when they are made of metal. In the United tates, this type of hardware has been traditionally sold in hardware stores, a term also used to a lesser e!tent in the U".
In a more colloquial sense, hardware can refer to ma#or items of military equipment, such as tanks, aircraft or ships. In slang, the term refers to trophies and other physical representations of awards.$etrie%ed from &http'en.wikipedia.orgwikiHardware& ategories' *quipment 2.
System softare
System software is
any computer software which manages and controls computer hardware so that application software can perform a task. +perating systems, such as icrosoft -indows, ac + or /inu!, are prominent e!amples of system software. ystem software contrasts with application software, which are programs that enable the end0user to perform specific, producti%e tasks, such as word processing or image manipulation. ystem software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering te!t onto a display de%ice. pecific kinds of system software include loading programs, +perating systems, de%ice dri%ers, programming tools, compilers, assemblers, linkers, and utility software. oftware libraries that perform generic functions also tend to be regarded as system software, although the di%iding line is fu11y2 while a runtime library is generally agreed to be part of the system, an +pen3/ or database library is less ob%iously so. If system software is stored on non0%olatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is usually termed firmware. 3.
Computer software
Computer software is
a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system.4he term includes application software such as word processors which perform producti%e tasks for users, system software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to pro%ide the necessary ser%ices for application software, and middleware which controls and co0ordinates distributed systems.
&oftware& is sometimes used in a broader conte!t to mean anything which is not hardware but which is used with hardware, such as film, tapes and records. Relato!s"p to #omputer "ardware
Main article: Computer hardware
omputer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and de%ices required to store and e!ecute (or run) the software. In computers, software is loaded into $5 and e!ecuted in the central processing unit. 5t the lowest le%el, software consists of a machine language specific to an indi%idual processor. 5 machine language consists of groups of binary %alues signifying processor instructions which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. oftware is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written in high0le%el programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High0le%el languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language ob#ect code. oftware may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. 5ssembly language must be assembled into ob#ect code %ia an assembler. 4he term &software& was first used in this sense by 6ohn -. 4ukey in 789:.;<= In computer science and software engineering, #omputer software is all computer programs. 4he theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by 5lan 4uring in his 78<9 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. 2-
Ke+5oard .computin;3
The 10-ey 8, AS Gnglish 4:G5TJ eyboard layout e$ol$ed from the standard typeriter eyboard ith e@tra eys special to computing. The ;$ora Simplified Ceyboard layout arranges eys so that fre>uently used eys are easiest to press. 9d$ocates of this eyboard layout claim that it reduces muscle fatigue hen typing common Gnglish. partially modeled after the typeriter eyboard. 8hysically7 a eyboard is an arrangement of buttons7 or eys. 9 eyboard typically has characters engra$ed or printed on the eysH in most cases7 each press of a ey corresponds to a single ritten symbol. %oe$er7 to produce some symbols re>uires pressing and
holding se$eral eys simultaneously or in se>uenceH other eys do not produce any symbol7 but instead affect the operation of the computer or the eyboard itself. See input method editor . 9 ma=ority of all eyboard eys produce letters7 numbers or signs (characters) that are appropriate for the operators language. ther eys can produce actions hen pressed7 and other actions are a$ailable by the simultaneous pressing of more than one action ey. '.
/ouse (computing)
.9 contemporary computer mouse7 ith the most common standard features< to buttons and a scroll heel. n computing7 a mouse (plural mice7 mouse de4ices7 or mouses) is a pointing de$ice that functions by detecting to-dimensional motion relati$e to its supporting surface. 8hysically7 a mouse consists of a small case7 held under one of the users hands7 ith one or more buttons. t sometimes features other elements7 such as heels7 hich allo the user to perform $arious system-dependent operations7 or e@tra buttons or features can add more control or dimensional input. The mouses motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display7 hich allos for fine control of a raphical Aser nterface. The name mouse7 originated at the Stanford 5esearch nstitute7 deri$es from the resemblance of early models (hich had a cord attached to the rear part of the de$ice7 suggesting the idea of a tail) to the common mouse.Z1[ The first mareted integrated mouse - \ shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer na$igation - \ came ith the Mero@ *010 Star nformation System in 1#*1. 6.
nput&output
I>"7 I>" de4ice7 I>" interface7 ead>write c7annel7 and Transput all redirect here. !or the use of the term input)output in economics7 see nput-output model. !or other uses of the term I>"7 see & (disambiguation). n computing7 input>output7 or I>"7 refers to the communication beteen an information processing system (such as a computer )7 and the outside orld - B possibly a human7 or another information processing system. nputs are the signals or data recei$ed by the system7 and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an actionH to perform & is to perform an input or output operation. & de$ices are used by a person (or other system) to communicate ith a computer. !or instance7 eyboards and mouses are considered input de$ices of a computer7 hile monitors and printers are considered output de$ices of a computer. ;e$ices for communication beteen computers7 such as modems and netor cards7 typically ser$e for both input and output.
ote that the designation of a de$ice as either input or output depends on the perspecti$e. /ouses and eyboards tae as input physical mo$ement that the human user outputs and con$ert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these de$ices is input for the computer. Similarly7 printers and monitors tae as input signals that a computer outputs. They then con$ert these signals into representations that human users can see or read. (!or a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations is recei$ing input.) n computer architecture7 the combination of the ,8A and main memory (i.e. memory that the ,8A can read and rite to directly7 ith indi$idual instructions) is considered the heart of a computer7 and from that point of $ie any transfer of information from or to that combination7 for e@ample to or from a dis dri$e7 is considered &. The ,8A and its supporting circuitry pro$ide memory-mapped & that is used in lo-le$el computer programming in the implementation of de$ice dri$ers. %igher-le$el operating system and programming facilities employ separate7 more abstract & concepts and primiti$es. !or e@ample7 most operating systems pro$ide application programs ith the concept of files. The , and ,VV programming languages7 and operating systems in the Ani@ family7 traditionally abstract files and de$ices as streams7 hich can be read or ritten7 or sometimes both. The , standard library pro$ides functions for manipulating streams for input and output. +.
,entral processing unit
?ump to< na$igation7 search ,8A redirects here. !or other uses7 see ,8A (disambiguation). ;ie of an ntel *0*6;M2 microprocessor (actual siEe< 12]^6.+'Â mm) in its pacaging. 9 Central !rocessin; &nit (C!&)7 or sometimes =ust called processor7 is a description of a class of logic machines that can e@ecute computer programs. This broad definition can easily be applied to many early computers that e@isted long before the term ,8A e$er came into idespread usage. The term itself and its initialism ha$e been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1#60s (:ei 1#61). The form7 design and implementation of ,8As ha$e changed dramatically since the earliest e@amples7 but their fundamental operation has remained much the same. Garly ,8As ere custom-designed as a part of a larger7 usually one-of-a-ind7 computer. %oe$er7 this costly method of designing custom ,8As for a particular application has largely gi$en ay to the de$elopment of mass-produced processors that are suited for one or many purposes. This standardiEation trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated ith the populariEation of the integrated circuit (,). The , has alloed increasingly comple@ ,8As to be designed and manufactured in $ery small spaces (on the order of
millimeters). oth the miniaturiEation and standardiEation of ,8As ha$e increased the presence of these digital de$ices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. /odern microprocessors appear in e$erything from automobiles to cell phones to childrens toys. ?-
Computer data stora;e
160 S;T tape cartridge7 an e@ample of off-line storage. :hen used ithin a robotic tape library7 it is classified as tertiary storage instead.
Computer data stora;e7 often called stora;e or memor+7 refers to computer components7 de$ices7 and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some inter$al of time. ,omputer data storage pro$ides one of the core functions of the modern computer7 that of information retention. t is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers7 and coupled ith a central processing unit (,8A7 a processor)7 implements the basic computer model used since the 1#0s. n contemporary usage7 memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage non as random access memory (59/) and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage. Similarly7 storage today more commonly refers to mass storage - optical discs7 forms of magnetic storage lie hard diss7 and other types sloer than 59/7 but of a more permanent nature. %istorically7 memory and storage ere respecti$ely called primary storage and secondary storage. The contemporary distinctions are helpful7 because they are also fundamental to the architecture of computers in general. 9s ell7 they reflect an important and significant technical difference beteen memory and mass storage de$ices7 hich has been blurred by the historical usage of the term storage. e$ertheless7 this article uses the traditional nomenclature.
#.
8, /emory Anits - Noun,-computer memor+ unit - a unit for measuring computer
memory
unit7 unit of measurement - any di$ision of >uantity accepted as a standard of measurement or e@changeH the dollar is the Anited States unit of currencyH a unit of heat is a bushelH change per unit $olume byte - a se>uence of * bits (enough to represent one character of alphanumeric data) processed as a single unit of information sector - the minimum trac length that can be assigned to store informationH unless otherise specified a sector of data consists of '12 bytes bloc - (computer science) a sector or group of sectors that function as the smallest data unit permittedH since blocs are often defined as a single sector7 the terms Qbloc and Qsector are sometimes used interchangeably
allocation unit - a group of sectors on a magnetic dis that can be reser$ed for the use of a particular file partition - (computer science) the part of a hard dis that is dedicated to a particular operating system or application and accessed as a single unit ord - a ord is a string of bits stored in computer memoryH large computers use ords up to 6 bits long Ci7 ibibyte7 ilobyte7 7 C - a unit of information e>ual to 102 bytes ilobyte7 7 C - a unit of information e>ual to 1000 bytes b7 bit7 ilobit - a unit of information e>ual to 1000 bits ibibit7 ibit - a unit of information e>ual to 102 bits mebibyte7 /i7 megabyte7 /7 / - a unit of information e>ual to 102 ibibytes or 2_20 (170*7'+6) bytes megabyte7 /7 / - a unit of information e>ual to 1000 ilobytes or 10_6 (170007000) bytes /b7 /bit7 megabit - a unit of information e>ual to 1000 ilobits or 10_6 (170007000) bits mebibit7 /ibit - a unit of information e>ual to 102 ibibits or 2_20 (170*7'+6) bits i7 gibibyte7 gigabyte7 7 - a unit of information e>ual to 102 mebibytes or 2_"0 (170+"7+17*2) bytes gigabyte7 7 - a unit of information e>ual to 1000 megabytes or 10_# (1700070007000) bytes bit7 gigabit7 b - a unit of information e>ual to 1000 megabits or 10_# (1700070007000) bits gibibit7 ibit - a unit of information e>ual to 102 mebibits or 2_"0 (170+"7+17*2) bits tebibyte7 Ti7 terabyte7 T - a unit of information e>ual to 102 gibibytes or 2_0 (170##7'11762+7++6) bytes terabyte7 T - a unit of information e>ual to 1000 gigabytes or 10_12 (17000700070007000) bytes ,@- &ser .computin;3
&sers in a computing conte@t refers to one ho uses a computer system. Asers may need to identify themsel$es for the purposes of accounting7 security7 logging and resource management. n order to identify oneself7 a user has an account (a user account) and a username7 and in most cases also a passord (see belo). Asers employ the user interface to access systems. Asers are also idely characteriEed as the class of people that uses a system ithout complete technical e@pertise re>uired to fully understand the system. n most hacer related conte@ts7 they are also di$ided into lusers and poer users. See also Gnd-user (computer science).
Screen names (also called a 7andle7 nicname7 or nic on some systems) refer to a public name that can be used to screen ones true user name from the public eye. Ser$ices such as 9 alloed customers to ha$e multiple screen names per user name7 and 5, nics are independent of ones system account username. !or instance7 one can be a user of (and ha$e an account on) a computer system7 a computer netor and ha$e an e-mail account7 an / account and use one or more nics on 5,.
INF"%ATI"N AND C"%%&NICATI"N TECHN"#"G( C"%%&NICATI"N: Introduction ,ommunication is an indispensable tool in all areas of human interaction. ut it is a process that is comple@. The e@tent of its comple@ity can be seen in the $ariety of ays in hich it can be defined. Thus7 communication is any beha$ior7 $erbal7 non$erbal or graphic that is percei$ed by another. t in$ol$es a eb of acti$ities that differ in different situations. n the orplace7 for e@ample7 you ould probably communicate differently hen taling formally to customers as compared to informally ith a peer. %o you percei$e the situation ill often determine your communication beha$ior.
F"%S AND T(!ES "F C"%%&NICATI"N 8eople communicate ith each other in a $ariety of ays that depend on the message they ant to send and the conte@t in hich it is to be sent. 9s a result there are a $ariety of forms and types of communication such as e-mail7 face-to-face7 telephone7 meetings7 corridor con$ersations and seminars. ;yer categoriEes these into Three forms of communication - $erbal7 non$erbal and graphic !our types of communication - intrapersonal7 interpersonal7 public and mass.
C"%%&NICATI"N %"DE#S AND THE"IES ,ommunication is a dynamic and interacti$e process. ?ust as there are many definitions
of communication7 so there are many models of communication7 each pro$iding different $ies of ho people transfer and interpret information. ie a =igsa puEEle7 each model pro$ides a part of the picture7 but no one model seems to co$er all aspects.
9E#"BS %"DE# erlos focus remained on the transmission model of communication. %oe$er7 he introduced more of the human elements7 such as the relationship beteen the message channel and the fi$e senses. Gffecti$e communication in$ol$es both the sender and the recei$er. The sender must be as clear as possible and the recei$er must signal understanding or clarification. t in$ol$es both content and relationship elements ,ontent Y message7 idea relationship Y emotions7 poer7 status personal Gncoding and decoding are based on a persons perception of the orld.
THE TANS%ISSI"N %"DE# The transmission model is concerned ith the transfer of meaning from the sender to the recei$er. ,ommunication is a one ay process.
THE !"CESS %"DE# The transmission model as subse>uently adapted to form the process models in hich people transmit7 recei$e7 interpret and respond to messages ith feedbac. The process models ha$e se$en main elements< Sender /essage 5ecei$er !eedbac ,hannel ,onte@t or setting (en$ironment) oise or interference in the process models7 a message is encoded by the sender through a communication channel7 such as $oice or body language7 and then decoded by the recei$er. The recei$er then pro$ides feedbac. The process is influenced by the conte@t of the situation and any noise or interference.
N"TES "N C"%%&NICATI"N: Continued C"%%&NICATI"N 9AIES neffecti$e communication can lead to errors7 misunderstanding7 poor performance7 loer
moti$ation and morale7 negati$e feelings in the orplace and many other issues that may detract from achie$ing organiEational goals. t is7 therefore7 important to try to minimiEe barriers to effecti$e and efficient communication< communication barriers distort or interrupt the message and its meaning
"GANIATI"NA# C"%%&NICATI"N ,ommunication in an organiEation may be used to influence7 inform7 control or inspire. rganiEational communication can be di$ided into to broad categories - formal or structured (ithin the systems established by management) and informal (as hen coorers chat about company matters). oth areas are significant and both need to be healthy for the organiEation to be healthy.
F"%A# C"%%&NICATI"N CHANNE#S AND NET$"KS !ormal communication channels follo the organiEational structure or hierarchy and flo in four directions< These four directions in hich communication can tra$el are< donardH upardH lateral or horiEontalH and diagonal. ;onard (1) communication in$ol$es communication from higher to loer le$els so that leadership can communicate goals7 strategies or role e@pectations. Apard (2) communication flos from loer le$els to higher le$els of the organiEation7 for e@ample7 hen there is a need to communicate problems7 results or suggestions. %oriEontal (") communication occurs across the same le$el and in$ol$es for e@ample7 coordination of acti$ities ith peers (teams7 committees)7 dissemination of useful information from one department to another (for e@ample sales forecasts from the sales department to production7 and problems such as a problem ith product design from the production department to research and de$elopment). %oriEontal communication facilitates the lining of different areas of e@pertise and this may encourage inno$ation. ;iagonal () channels may potentially cause conflict as they in$ol$e communication beteen the loer le$el of one department to a higher le$el in another. n the diagram abo$e7 this may cause friction beteen the employee in accounting department , and the Dice-8resident (D8) of 9ccounting as the employee has gone around his or her on superior. e$ertheless this type of communication may be useful as it may simply be information rele$ant to the /areting ;epartment and the D8 9ccounting does not need to be in$ol$ed. !ormal communication netors also occur ithin the hierarchy of the organiEation and reflect ho groups of employees7 for e@ample those in a department7 or together. etoring or mapping the flo of communication in an organiEation can be a useful de$ice. This can identify ho is communicating ith hom and hether the lines of communication are effecti$e and efficient7 or hether there is potential for destructi$e
conflict or tension arising from the communication channels (for e@ample7 inappropriate diagonal communication).
F"%A# C"%%&NICAIT"N: !"9#E%S AND S"#&TI"NS/any communication problems arise from the structure of the organiEation. ;yer mentions three related organiEational factors< centraliEationH the creation of too many organiEational layersH and the structure of the organiEation. ther factors may include donsiEing hich leads to ambiguous reporting structure and poor leadership. /any of these problems may be o$ercome by< analyEing the organiEation structure and communication netors for barriers to effecti$eness and efficiency ensuring donsiEing is ell planned and the sur$i$ors (those left in the organiEation) understand the impact of the process on communication netors and procedures recruiting for competent communication7 particularly hen recruiting for leadership roles.
INF"%A# C"%%&NICATI"N nformal organiEational communication e@ists outside the formal lines of the organiEational structure. 9n e@ample of this is friendship groups. The informal communication channel ser$es to main purposes< it permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction in the orplace and it can impro$e an organiEation`s performance by creating alternati$e7 and fre>uently faster and more efficient7 channels of communication (5obbins et al. 2000). ne of the most common forms of informal communication is the grape$ine. 9ccording to Creitner and Cinici (1##') the term grape$ine originated from the 9merican ,i$il :ar practice of stringing battlefield telegraph lines beteen trees as a means of efficient communication. o it supplements the formal channels of communication.
ESEACH A!TIT&DE T+pes of esearc7 ) Definitions Action researc7 is a methodology that combines action and research to e@amine specific >uestions7 issues or phenomena through obser$ation and reflection7 and deliberate inter$ention to impro$e practice. Applied researc7 is research undertaen to sol$e practical problems rather than to ac>uire noledge for noledge sae. 9asic researc7 is e@perimental and theoretical or undertaen to ac>uire ne noledge ithout looing for long-term benefits other than the ad$ancement of noledge.
ualitati4e researc7 is research undertaen to gain insights concerning attitudes7 beliefs7 moti$ations and beha$iors of indi$iduals to e@plore a social or human problem and include methods such as focus groups7 in-depth inter$ies7 obser$ation research and case studies. uantitati4e researc7 is research concerned ith the measurement of attitudes7 beha$iors and perceptions and includes inter$ieing methods such as telephone7 intercept and door-to-door inter$ies as ell as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online sur$eys. T7ree 5asic t+pes of uestions t7at researc7 proects: ;escripti$e. :hen a study is designed primarily to describe hat is going on or hat e@ists. 8ublic opinion polls that see only to describe the proportion of people ho hold $arious opinions are primarily descripti$e in nature. !or instance7 if e ant to no hat percent of the population ould $ote for a ?8 or ,ongress in the ne@t election7 e are simply interested in describing something. 5elational. :hen a study is designed to loo at the relationships beteen to or more $ariables. 9 public opinion poll that compares hat proportion of males and females say they ould $ote for a ?8 or ,ongress candidate in the ne@t election is essentially studying the relationship beteen gender and $oting preference. ,ausal. :hen a study is designed to determine hether one or more $ariables (e.g.7 a program or treatment $ariable) causes or affects one or more outcome $ariables. f e did a public opinion poll to try to determine hether a recent political ad$ertising campaign changed $oter preferences7 e ould essentially be studying hether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of $oters ho ould $ote ?8 or ,ongress (effect).
Time is an important element of any research design. The most fundamental distinctions in research design nomenclature< cross-sectional $ersus longitudinal studies. 9 crosssectional study is one that taes place at a single point in time. n effect7 e are taing a slice or cross-section of hate$er it is ere obser$ing or measuring. 9 longitudinal study is one that taes place o$er time -- e ha$e at least to (and often more) a$es of measurement in a longitudinal design. 9 4aria5le is any entity that can tae on different $alues. 9nything that can $ary can be considered a $ariable. !or instance7 age can be considered a $ariable because age can tae different $alues for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly7 country can be considered a $ariable because a persons country can be assigned a $alue. There is a distinction beteen an independent and dependent 4aria5le. n fact the independent $ariable is hat you (or nature) manipulates -- a treatment or program or cause. The dependent $ariable is hat is affected by the independent $ariable -- your effects or outcomes. !or e@ample7 if you are studying the effects of a ne educational program on student achie$ement7 the program is the independent $ariable and your
measures of achie$ement are the dependent ones. 9 7+pot7esis is a specific statement of prediction. t describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms hat you e@pect ill happen in your study. ot all studies ha$e hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be e@ploratory.
ESEACH A!TIT&DE SA%!#ING: Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g.7 people) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample e may fairly generaliEe our results bac to the population from hich they ere chosen. 9 response is a specific measurement $alue that a sampling unit supplies. f you measure the entire population and calculate a $alue lie a mean or a$erage7 it is called parameter of the population. The distribution of an infinite number of samples of the same siEe as the sample in your study is non as the sampling distribution. n sampling conte@ts7 the standard error is called sampling error. Sampling error gi$es us some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. 9 lo sampling error means that e had relati$ely less $ariability or range in the sampling distribution. %o do e calculate sampling errorP on the standard de$iation of our sample. The greater the sample standard de$iation7 the greater the standard error &the sampling error. The standard error is also related to the sample siEe. The greater your sample siEe7 the smaller the standard error. ecause the greater the sample siEe7 the closer your sample is to the actual population itself. f you tae a sample that consists of the entire population you actually ha$e no sampling error because you dont ha$e a sample7 you ha$e the entire population. n that case7 the mean you estimate is the parameter.
!ro5a5ilit+ samplin; method is any method of sampling that utiliEes some form of random selection such as picing a name out of a hat7 or choosing the short stra. The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to e@plain to others. ecause simple random sampling is a fair ay to select a sample7 it is reasonable to generaliEe the results from the sample bac to the population. Simple random sampling is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling and you may7 =ust because of the luc of the dra7 not get good representation of subgroups in a population.
Stratified andom Samplin;7 also sometimes called proportional or >uota random sampling7 in$ol$es di$iding your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taing a simple random sample in each subgroup. t assures that you ill be able to represent not only the o$erall population7 but also ey subgroups of the population7 especially small minority groups. Second7 stratified random sampling ill generally ha$e more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This ill only be true if the strata or groups are homogeneous. The problem ith random sampling methods hen e ha$e to sample a population thats
disbursed across a ide geographic region is that you ill ha$e to co$er a lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled. t is for precisely this problem that cluster or area random sampling as in$ented. n cluster sampling7 e follo these steps< 1.di$ide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries). 2. 5andomly sample clusters. ". /easure all units ithin sampled clusters.
Non)pro5a5ilit+ samplin;- The difference beteen nonprobability and probability sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not in$ol$e random selection and probability sampling does. :e can di$ide nonprobability sampling methods into to broad types< accidental or purposi$e. n accidental sampling7 sample is chosen accidentally and e ha$e no e$idence that they are representati$e of the populations ere interested in generaliEing to and in many cases e ould clearly suspect that they are not. e.g. college students in some psychological sur$ey. n purposi$e sampling7 e sample ith a purpose in mind. :e usually ould ha$e one or more specific predefined groups e are seeing. !or instance7 ha$e you e$er run into people in a mall or on the street ho are carrying a clipboard and ho are stopping $arious people and asing if they could inter$ie themP /ost liely they are conducting a purposi$e sample. 8urposi$e sampling can be $ery useful for situations here you need to reach a targeted sample >uicly and here sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. :ith a purposi$e sample7 you are liely to get the opinions of your target population7 but you are also liely to o$ereight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible. ne of purposi$e sampling is >uota sampling. n >uota sampling7 you select people nonrandomly according to some fi@ed >uota. There are to types of >uota sampling< proportional and non proportional. n proportional >uota sampling you ant to represent the ma=or characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each. e.g. getting 0W females from a population of say 1000. Then there is snoball sampling. n snoball sampling7 you begin by identifying someone ho meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. Jou then as them to recommend others ho they may no ho also meet the criteria.
ESEACH DESIGN 5esearch design pro$ides the glue that holds the research pro=ect together. 9 design is used to structure the research7 to sho ho all of the ma=or parts of the research pro=ect the samples or groups7 measures7 treatments or programs7 and methods of assignment or together to try to address the central research >uestions. ;esign can be either e@perimental or non-e@perimental. ;ata analysis is the last part of the research. n most social research the data analysis in$ol$es three ma=or steps7 done in roughly this order< ,leaning and organiEing the data for analysis (;ata 8reparation)
