THE TRIKAYA: A STUDY OF THE BUDDHOLOGY OF THE EARLY VIJNANAVADA SCHOOL OF INDIAN BUDDHISM
by
MERVIN VIGGO HANSON M.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f Saskatchewan, 1970
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY.
in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department o f R e l i g i o u s
Studies
We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to t h e r e q u i r e d
standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA August 1980
(5)Mervin Viggo Hanson, 1980
In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s
i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s
thesis
f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .
I t i s understood t h a t c o p y i n g or p u b l i c a t i o n
o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my written
permission.
Department o f
R E L I G I O U S
S T U D I E S
The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia 2075 Wesbrook P l a c e Vancouver, Canada V6T 1W5
Date
August 1980
ABSTRACT
T h i s i s a study o f t h e t r i k a y a
(the s o - c a l l e d " t h r e e b o d i e s o f t h e
Buddha") d o c t r i n e whereby t h e e a r l y I n d i a n V i j n a n a v a d a B u d d h i s t s harmonized v a r i o u s b e l i e f s about t h e Buddha. The most important t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s t u d i e s a r e reviewed, but a r e found t o c o n t a i n no r e l i a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e a r l y d o c t r i n e .
Therefore, I
have undertaken t h i s study t o c l a r i f y and i n t e r p r e t t h e t r i k a y a . t e x t u a l source i s Asanga's Mahayanasamgraha,
which c o n t a i n s t h e e a r l i e s t
s y s t e m a t i c o u t l i n e o f t h e Vijfia.nava.da system. f i r s t been t r a n s l a t e d
The main
The B u d d h o l o g i c a l passages
have
(from T i b e t a n and Chinese) i n l i g h t o f t h e commentaries
by Vasubandhu and Asvabhava.
They have then been compared and arranged t o
expose t h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f Asanga's t r i k a y a . Why d i d Asanga i n t r o d u c e t h e t r i k a y a when o t h e r i n t e g r a t i v e
Buddhologies
( e s p e c i a l l y t h e rupakaya/dharmakaya o f t h e p r a j n a p a r a m i t a ) were a l r e a d y a t hand?
A comparison
of h i s a p p l i c a t i o n . o f the t r i k a y a with the prajnaparamita
treatment o f s i m i l a r concerns r e v e a l s t h a t t h e former i n t e g r a t e s one i d e a t h a t the l a t t e r does n o t — t h a t o f t h e B u d d h a f i e l d .
The n e c e s s i t y t o i n c l u d e
this
nascent d o c t r i n e appears t o have been t h e main reason f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the t r i k a y a . In t h e c o n c l u s i o n , t h e t r i k a y a has been a n a l y z e d f u r t h e r t o o b t a i n an a b s t r a c t S t r u c t u r a l i s t model e x h i b i t i n g Asanga's Buddhology i n terms a c c e p t able t o the non-believer. concept o f Buddhahood
I t i s a u s e f u l framework w i t h i n which t o study t h e
i t s e l f , and i t s r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r V i j n a n a v a d a dogma.
i s a l s o a convenient way t o compare t h e r e s u l t s o f modern "".investigations. T h i s model, d e r i v e d by an e x t e n s i o n o f Asanga's own s e a r c h f o r t h e
It
i m p l i c i t p a t t e r n behind
d i v e r s e s c r i p t u r a l statements about Buddhahood, i s
s i m i l a r t o those used by t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t Claude L e v i - S t r a u s s .
Therefore,
v a r i o u s hypotheses were suggested by h i s w r i t i n g s . The model i s a two-dimensional diagram which r e p r e s e n t s between Buddha ( S v a b h a v i k a k a y a — a t the t o p ) and Man bottom).
They a r e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ,
uninhabited
e x i s t e n t i a l categories.
the
encounter
(Prthagjana—at
poles of a d i a l e c t i c a l tension The
the and
i n h a b i t e d r e g i o n in-.the middle o f the
diagram i s composed o f a continuum o f t h r e e s i t u a t i o n s along the h o r i z o n t a l axis.
Each c o n t a i n s t h r e e elements: Buddha, A s p i r a n t and Environment.
a c t u a l encounters between Buddha and A s p i r a n t occur
i n these
The
s i t u a t i o n s . "They
i n c l u d e t h a t o f the Neophyte i n the w o r l d , f o r whom t h e Buddha i s merely a message; t h e Sravaka who who
i s approached by a Nirmanakaya ( " h i s t o r i c a l Buddha")
teaches him by p a i n , and the B o d h i s a t t v a who
(the g o d - l i k e f i gure i n a B u d d h a f i e l d ) the course
who
approaches the
Sambhogakaya
matures him through p l e a s u r e .
o f these t h r e e , the a s p i r a n t undergoes " r e o r i e n t a t i o n , " i . e . ,
moves up the v e r t i c a l a x i s t o become a Buddha who, another a s p i r a n t .
The
placed within t h i s
diagram.
remainder
i n t u r n , reaches out
"of the B u d d h o l o g i c a l
examined.
to
i d e a s from the t e x t
F i n a l l y , t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h i s model t o o t h e r B u d d h o l o g i c a l is
In
are
questions
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT
i i
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
xi
INTRODUCTION •'!•
1 k
NOTES
CHAPTER I.
REVIEW OF SCHOLARSHIP
5
1.
W. W. R o c k h i l l , The L i f e o f t h e Buddha
2.
H. Kern, "Sur 1 ' i n v o c a t i o n d'une i n s c r i p t i o n bouddhique"
3.
(1907)-
. . . .
(.1906)
6
L. de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n , "The Three Bodies o f a Buddha"
(.1906)
8
k.
D. T. S u z u k i , O u t l i n e s o f Mahayana Buddhism (1907)
5.
M. P. Masson-Oursel, "Les t r o i s corps du bouddha"
•
•
(1913) 6.
10
13
L. de L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n , "Note s u r l e s corps du Bouddha"
J.
5
(.1913)
19
A. Coomaraswamy, Buddha and t h e Gospel o f Buddhism
(1916)
2k
8.
C. Akanuma, " T r i p l e Body o f t h e Buddha"
9.
L. de L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n , V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a s i d d h i
(1928-29)
(.1922) . . . .
. . . . .
25
28
V
CHAPTER
PAGE 10.
D. T. S u z u k i , S t u d i e s i n t h e L a n k a v a t a r a
S u t r a (1932)
11.
Hobogirin
12.
A. K. C h a t t e r j e e , The Yogacara Idealism-(.19.62)
13.
A. Matsunaga, The B u d d h i s t
.
3^+ . . .
36
Philosophy o f A s s i m i l a t i o n
(1969)
38
1^.
G. P a r r i n d e r , A v a t a r and I n c a r n a t i o n (1970)
. . . .
15.
G. Nagao, "On t h e Theory o f Buddha-Body" (.1973)
^1
. . .
^3
SUMMARY OF SCHOLARSHIP
k6
CONCLUSION
60
1.
MAITREYA
62
2.
ASANGA
63
3.
VASUBANDHU
6k
NOTES II.
32
67
THE TRIKAYA DOCTRINE IN THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA
70
A.
SOURCES
71
B.
WHAT I S THE VIJNANAVADA?
73
C.
VIJNANAVADA OF THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA
80
D.
A STUDY OF VIJNANAVADA BUDDHOLOGY IN THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA 1.
85
11:33: THE TWENTY-ONE GUNAS OF THE BUDDHA
.
.
87
a.
The N o e t i c A b i l i t i e s
92
b.
The E f f e c t i v e A b i l i t i e s
92
i.
The Domain o f t h e Buddha
. . . .
93
ii.
The Buddha-body
95
iii.
The Buddha-mind
96
vi
CHAPTER
PAGE 2.
98
THE DHARMAKAYA a.
98
O b t a i n i n g t h e Dharmakaya i. ii.
Reorientation of the Alayavijnana
—
. . . .
100
. . . .
101
By N o n - c o n c e p t u a l and Subsequent Awareness
—
By t h e F i v e - F o l d P r a c t i c e .
—
By Amassing t h e A c c u m u l a t i o n o f
—
.
.
105
Equipment on A l l Bhumis
.
.
.
107
By t h e Vajropamasamadhi
.
.
.
107
The Dharmakaya as R e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e Skandhas
b.
The Dharmakaya —
i.
What I s I t ?
108 . . . .
113
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Claksanas) o f Ilk
t h e Dharmakaya ii. iii.
X:7:
The Buddhadharmas
X:9-27:
. . . .
125
Gunas A s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e Dharmakaya c.
128
The Dharmakaya as Seen by t h e Bodhisattva
d. 3.
98
O b t a i n i n g t h e Dharmakaya: The E p i s t e m i c E x p l a n a t i o n
iii.
.
The Dharmakaya —
. 130 A Summary
133
THE TRIKAYA a.
A U n i f i e d T r i k a y a o r Three Kayas? .
b.
Which Three Kayas?
llll .
.
iki lk3
vii
CHAPTER
PAGE c.
The Mrmanakaya: Buddha i n t h e World . i.
d.
The Mrmanakaya: A Summary
The Sambhogakaya —
.
. . .
156
Buddha i n
the Buddhafield i. ii. iii.
159
The Sambhogakaya —
General
.
.
.
The B u d d h a f i e l d Bodhisattvas —
Residents of
the B u d d h a f i e l d
168
—
Pleasure
171
—
Reorientation
172
—
Sovereignty
172
—
Awareness (j nana o r 175
—
P l e a s u r e and t h e Other
.
.
.
.
—
P l e a s u r e and t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s
177
Maturation The Three Kayas: I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i .
178 .
.
180
Mrmanakaya and Sambhogakaya Compared
ii.
159 l6k
n i r v i k a l p a j nana
e.
ihQ
185
The T r i k a y a and C l a s s i c a l Problems
.
187
—
One Buddha, o r Many Buddhas? .
.
188
—
I s t h e Buddha M o r t a l , o r Immortal?
—
192
Does t h e Buddha Remain i n N i r v a n a , o r Not?
196
viii
CHAPTER
PAGE — f.
III.
Conclusion
198
Why T h r e e K a y a s ?
198
NOTES
200
CONCLUSION
216
A.
C R I T E R I A FOR A MODEL
220
B.
ELEMENTS OF THE MODEL
221
C.
STRUCTURALISM
22*1
D.
DEVELOPING THE MODEL
227
1.
THE PRTHAGJANA
231
2.
THE NEOPHYTE
232
3.
THE SRAVAKA-NIRMANAKAYA ENCOUNTER
k.
REORIENTATION
5.
THE SAMBHOGAKAYA-BODHISATTVA
6.
THE SVABHAVIKAKAYA
235
7.
THE F U L L MODEL
236
8.
THE MODEL A P P L I E D
2h0
a.
Reorientation
.
.
.
.
23k ENCOUNTER .
.
23h
2^1
S v a b h a v i k a k a y a , Dharmakaya, and Support f o r t h e Rupakayas
E.
.
and S o t e r i o l o g i c a l
Progress b.
232
2^3
F I N A L COMMENTS
2^7
NOTES A P P E N D I X A: BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SECONDARY
252 SOURCES
APPENDIX B: BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCES
25^ . . .
262
ix
ABBREVIATIONS
BEFEO
B u l l e t i n de l ' E c o l e F r a n g a i s e d'Extreme-Orient.
Dk
Dharmakaya
JAOS
Journal
LC
Lokesh Chandra, T i b e t a n
o f t h e American O r i e n t a l Sanskrit
Society Dictionary
D e l h i : I n t e r n a t i o n a l Academy f o r I n d i a n Mvy
(New
Culture,
M a h a v y u t p a t t i and Index t o M a h a v y u t p a t t i . C o l l e g i a t e S e r i e s , no. 3, 3rd p r i n t i n g (Kichudo: Kyoto U n i v e r s i t y , Dept. o f L i t e r a t u r e , 1965)
Nk
Nirmanakaya
Sbk
Sambhogakaya
Svk
Svabhavikakaya
i960)
X
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
PAGE
1
223
2
229
3
231
h
238
5
2kh
6
2U8
xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish t o thank t h o s e who have h e l p e d
prepare t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
e s p e c i a l l y L. H u r v i t z , my a d v i s o r , who has r e a d i t s c r u p u l o u s l y at t h e l a s t minute.
H i s d e t a i l e d suggestions
have g r e a t l y eased t h e f i n a l w r i t i n g .
Many f a c u l t y and graduate students
have c o n t r i b u t e d i d e a s and comments.
S p e c i a l thanks a r e due t o P r o f e s s o r G. Nagao ( P r o f e s s o r E m e r i t u s , Kyoto U n i v e r s i t y ) and A l a n Sponberg ( P r i n c e t o n ) .
P r o f e s s o r Nagao's encouragement
and
a d v i c e has h e l p e d
Dr.
Sponberg has p a t i e n t l y shared h i s knowledge o f t e x t u a l s o u r c e s ,
valuable
me t o f i n d , and keep t o , a p r o d u c t i v e
l i n e o f enquiry. and g i v e n
criticism.
P r o f e s s o r s N i c h o l l s , C l i f f o r d , K a s s i s and Mosca have s t r u g g l e d m i g h t i l y to administer little
t h e d o c t o r a l program and m y s e l f .
As a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
a p p r e c i a t i o n short o f t h e eschaton, may t h e y a l l be granted
s p e c i a l corner o f f i c e reserved Mrs.
that
f o r those who a r r i v e w i t h t h e i r f i l e s
Ruby Toren has d i s p l a y e d remarkable p a t i e n c e
through t h i s d i f f i c u l t
can expect
typing job.
I n Order.
and c o - o p e r a t i o n
The q u a l i t y o f h e r work speaks f o r i t s e l f .
I would a l s o l i k e t o thank those whose e x t r a o r d i n a r y a s s i s t a n c e has made my s t u d i e s a t UBC p o s s i b l e .
F i r s t mention must go t o Dr. S. I i d a , whose many
kindnesses i n the f i r s t years, inexperienced
i n c l u d i n g h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o vouch f o r an
l e c t u r e r , opened t h e program to: me.
A l l o f us i n t h e Buddhist
program owe Dr. I i d a an acknowledgement f o r h i s p e r s o n a l
sponsorship o f
Professor'Nagao's 1976,visit. I f Dr. K. C i s s e l l had not spent a tremendous amount o f h e r own time t e a c h i n g me t o r e a d Buddhist C h i n e s e , t h e Chinese t e x t s would s t i l l be c l o s e d . Thank you,
Kathy.
xii
E s p e c i a l l y warm thanks are due J . R i c h a r d s o n and N. K. C l i f f o r d who, a d d i t i o n t o o f f e r i n g innumerable aid, in
g e s t u r e s o f p e r s o n a l f r i e n d s h i p and
have been i n s p i r a t i o n s t o t h e s c h o l a r l y l i f e .
in
official
From P r o f e s s o r R i c h a r d s o n
p a r t i c u l a r , I l e a r n e d t h a t the study o f another's f a i t h i s p r i m a r i l y
an
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d act o f r e s p e c t . The
importance
o f the t r i k a y a was
brought t o my
a t t e n t i o n by the
a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e T i b e t a n s p r u l - s k u , whose t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e i s informed l e g i t i m i z e d through t h i s d o c t r i n e .
T h e i r Western c a r e e r s show t h a t i t i s a
p o w e r f u l mold f o r human a s p i r a t i o n s . who
gave me many days o f h i s t i m e .
P a r t i c u l a r thanks go t o Tarthang T u l k u , I must a l s o acknowledge w i t h g r e a t r e s p e c t
the examples o f the Venerable Dezhung T u l k u and K a l u Rinpoche. paragons
Both are
o f the concepts s t u d i e d h e r e .
The u s u a l inadequate thanks go t o my w i f e , J u d i t h . a s s i s t a n c e throughout graduate
and
Her capable •
the study has a g a i n proven the t r u i s m t h a t wives
s t u d e n t s must r e a d two
c a n o n i c a l languages, be e x p e r i e n c e d
e d i t o r s , p u b l i s h e d authors and secure c i v i l
servants.
She
of
copy-
i s ; and we made i t .
1
INTRODUCTION
T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s a study o f t h e t r i k a y a
(the s o - c a l l e d " t h r e e b o d i e s
o f t h e Buddha") d o c t r i n e — o n e o f t h e main schemes through which Mahayana B u d d h i s t s have understood t h e concept
"buddha."
Buddhahood^" i s t h e most important n o t i o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e Buddhist and p r a c t i c e s o f t h e past two m i l l e n n i a . goal o f , the r e l i g i o u s l i f e .
I t i s b o t h t h e impetus
beliefs
f o r , and t h e
The Buddhist t r a d i t i o n o f f e r s a s a v i n g message t o
those enmeshed i n a p a i n - f i l l e d w o r l d .
T h i s message o r i g i n a t e d from a Buddha,
who c l a i m s t o be a r t i c u l a t i n g the method by which he p e r s o n a l l y found r e l e a s e from p a i n , and works t o convert the a s p i r a n t , who has a c c e p t e d t h e message, i n t o a Buddha. of others.
T h i s new Buddha then r e f o r m u l a t e s a message f o r t h e s a l v a t i o n
While these are two d i f f e r e n t
i n d i v i d u a l s i n s o f a r as t h e y possess
d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e y share t h e same Buddhahood i n s o f a r as the e f f i c a c y o f t h e i r t e a c h i n g i s concerned. The e a r l y I n d i a n community s p l i t numerous b e l i e f s about Buddhahood. it
i n t o s e v e r a l s c h o o l s which developed
While t h e h i s t o r y o f t h i s p e r i o d i s murky,
i s s a f e t o say t h a t many l e a d i n g masters
o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y A.D. were
a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a broad spectrum o f b e l i e f s i n every a r e a o f dogma and were attempting t o f o r m u l a t e c a t h o l i c accommodated. Yogacara
systems w i t h i n which t h e s e c o u l d be
The broadest o f t h e r e s u l t i n g s c h o o l s was t h e V i j n a n a v a d a (or
) whose development c o n t i n u e d i n b o t h T i b e t and t h e F a r E a s t .
The founders o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a d i v i d e d Buddhist t h e o r y i n t o c a t e g o r i e s o f concerns and developed a comprehensive p o r a t i n g a wide range o f o p i n i o n s , around
each.
several
t h e o r y , capable o f i n c o r -
The c a t e g o r y which i n c l u d e d
the v a r i o u s e a r l y i d e a s about Buddhahood was o r g a n i z e d around t h e hew., t r i k a y a theory.
In a d d i t i o n t o harmonizing the e a r l y i d e a s , t h e t r i k a y a has s i n c e
2
proven c a p a b l e o f s t i m u l a t i n g t h e development o f new B u d d h o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s :. i n o t h e r c u l t u r e s , and i n h a r m o n i z i n g them w i t h t h e I n d i a n ones. D e s p i t e i t s importance, no s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t r i k a y a i s available.
—
Modern i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s have f a i l e d i n a t l e a s t one o f t h r e e ways:
Many s c h o l a r s , working o n l y from t h e t r i k a y a passages o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d i n t r e a t i s e s , have produced i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which c o n t r a d i c t o t h e r key a s p e c t s o f t h e system.
—
Many have produced narrow i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f the d o c t r i n e i n one
classical
t e x t , which are i n a p p l i c a b l e t o l a t e r developments grounded i n t h e c l a s s i c a l t r i k a y a and e x p l a i n e d by r e f e r e n c e t o —
The few s c h o l a r s who
have worked
it.
3
from t h e l a t e r t r a d i t i o n s
(e.g., H. V.
Guenther) have o f t e n produced i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which appear t o be anachron i s t i c when a p p l i e d t o t h e e a r l i e r
texts.
In t h i s study I attempt t o develop an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which w i l l be c a b l e t o t h e e n t i r e range o f I n d o - T i b e t a n Buddhology.
appli-
The study i n c l u d e s a
survey o f p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p , an i n t e n s i v e examination o f t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e as i t appears i n Asanga's Mahayanasamgraha, the d e r i v a t i o n o f a s t r u c t u r a l model t h r o u g h which t o i n t e r p r e t t h e d o c t r i n e , and a b r i e f commentary o f the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h i s model t o o t h e r t e x t s . o f p r i m a r y sources f o r an expanded
In a d d i t i o n , a b i b l i o g r a p h y
study i s included ' i n Appendix B. -
While the
arrangement and a n a l y s i s o f the d a t a from t h e Mahayan as amgr aha c o n s t i t u t e s t h e b u l k o f t h e s t u d y , i t s f o c u s i s the new
structural
model.
•While f o r m u l a t i n g t h i s model , i t became obvious t h a t - t h e ' a n a l y s i s o f the :
f a c t o r s which l e d B u d d h i s t s t o r e p l a c e a two-kaya-by
a t r i k a y a t h e o r y , and t o •
3
defend the l a t t e r even w h i l e a d o p t i n g f u r t h e r m u l t i - k a y a t h e o r i e s , the broader
q u e s t i o n o f how
r i s e t o v a r i o u s two, One
o f the next
illuminates
the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s p i r a n t and o t h e r g i v e s
t h r e e and f o u r - t e r m d e s c r i p t i o n s o f r e l i g i o u s
stages i n an extended e n q u i r y would be t o b e g i n a
study o f t r i n i t a r i a n i s m on the b a s i s o f t h e s e
insights.
experience. comparative
k NOTES
^ Western emphasis on t h e h i s t o r i c a l i n d i v i d u a l has "buddha" t o a proper
term which would simply be by
In o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e
some p o l y v a l e n c e ,
read
this
"buddha" i n the t e x t s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i l l
"Buddhahood" i n t h i s
a state of being
symbolic
noun, a p e r s o n a l d e s i g n a t i o n which i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y
as "a Buddha" or "the Buddha."
rendered
degraded t h e
study.
be
P l e a s e note t h a t "Buddhahood" i s not
i n which an i n d i v i d u a l Buddha may
exist.
2 The
l a c k o f agreement on a name f o r t h i s
t r a d i t i o n s descending from the e a r l y masters simply the "Mahayana").
s c h o o l i s due
(who
t o the many
u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e i r message
L a t e r adherents t o t h i s t r a d i t i o n i n I n d i a , T i b e t ,
China and Japan understood the t e a c h i n g i n s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t ways, d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s about i t , and some saw
c a l l e d i t by d i f f e r e n t names.
t h e e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d a as s e v e r a l t r a d i t i o n s and
name t o each. (those who
applied a different
speak about v i j n a n a ) , V i j n a p t i m a t r a or C i t t a m a t r a
("Ideation-only"
Yogacara ( " P r a c t i t i o n e r s o f Yoga") or F a - h s i a n g
marks"—a Far-Eastern In the present
("Dharma-
term). study t h e e a r l y t r e a t i s e s a s c r i b e d t o Maitreya-Asanga-
Vasubandhu are regarded
as one
l o o s e "Vijnanavada"
system.
chosen over "Yogacara" because i t s t r e s s e s the s y s t e m a t i c
An
In a d d i t i o n ,
Most o f the names are v e r s i o n s o f t h r e e l a b e l s : V i j n a n a v a d a
or "Mind-only"),
meditative
accepted
T h i s term
was
r a t h e r than the
aspect. example i s the T i b e t a n i n s t i t u t i o n o f "'.sprul-sku" in- which a c e r t a i n
monastic r o l e i s c o n t i n u o u s l y
f i l l e d by the same i n d i v i d u a l v i a the
r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s or her s u c c e s s i v e r e i n c a r n a t i o n s . d e r i v e d from the t r i k a y a (";spr.ui-sku" ''Mrmanakaya," one
This i n s t i t u t i o n i s
i s simply the T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n
o f the t h r e e kayas o f the t r i k a y a ) and
o n l y through the parent
doctrine.
official
can be
understood
I f that i s i n t e r p r e t e d i n the usual
( i . e . , the Mrmanakaya i s an i n c a r n a t i o n o f a r e a l transcendent
of
way
Buddha), many
d e t a i l s o f the '. s p r u l r s k u ' s s t a t u s and* f u n c t i o n s remain-incomprehensible.
CHAPTER I REVIEW OF SCHOLARSHIP
5 The
l a c k o f any adequate i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a i s not due
n e g l e c t o f the t o p i c .
As e a r l y as 1939
l i t e r a t u r e on the t o p i c , ^ and New
Lamotte had
such a review
o f the e a r l i e r work.
and attempt t o d e f i n e
approaches which have been most (and l e a s t ) s u c c e s s f u l . s c h o l a r s h i p i s unnecessary. twentieth-century
studies.
nineteenth century
(Burnouf,
"immense"
s e v e r a l s t u d i e s have been p u b l i s h e d s i n c e .
r e s e a r c h must b e g i n w i t h a c a r e f u l review
t h i s s e c t i o n I s h a l l present
spoken o f the
to
The. f o l l o w i n g review
In
those
A complete survey
of
d e a l s o n l y w i t h t h e major
No mention has been made o f n o t i c e s from the E d k i n s , B e a l , S c h l a g i n t w e i t and Kern a l l touched
on i t ) , or o f p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e s i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l l a t e r p o p u l a t i z a t i o n s of the Mahayana.
In a d d i t i o n t o the primary
scholarly investigations, a
I n d i a n , Japanese and B r i t i s h works have been i n c l u d e d because they the p o p u l a r modern u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f the d o c t r i n e i n those
few
represent
countries.
The
e n t r i e s are i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r . As
s e v e r a l o f these
s t u d i e s are s p r i n k l e d w i t h non-standard, i n c o n s i s t e n t
r e s t o r a t i o n s o f S a n s k r i t terms and o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s , specific
1.
W.
I have not marked
errors within quotations.
W.
Rockhill.
The
L i f e o f the Buddha.
London: Kegan P a u l & Co.,
1907
( a c t u a l t r a n s l a t i o n s done i n 188^).
T h i s p a s t i c h e o f T i b e t a n t e x t s i n c l u d e s the a b b r e v i a t e d s u t r a on ^ t r i k a y a c a l l e d the
'phags-pa sku-gsum shes-bya-ba theg-pa chen-po'i
R o c k h i l l ' s t r a n s l a t i o n reads
the mdo.
as f o l l o w s :
Once I heard the f o l l o w i n g d i s c o u r s e ( s a i d Ananda), w h i l e the B l e s s e d One was s t o p p i n g at R a j a g r i h a , on the V u l t u r e ' s Peak, t o g e t h e r w i t h an innumerable number o f b o d h i s a t t v a s , devas, and nagas who were doing him homage. Then from out t h i s company, the B o d h i s a t t v a K s h i t i g a r b h a ( S a ' i - s n y i n g - p o ) , who was ( a l s o ) t h e r e , arose from h i s seat and spoke as f o l l o w s
2
6 to the B l e s s e d One: 'Has the B l e s s e d One a body?' The B l e s s e d One s a i d , ' K s h i t i g a r b h a , the B l e s s e d One, the Tathagata, has t h r e e b o d i e s : the body o f the law (Dharmakaya), the body o f p e r f e c t enjoyment (Sambhogakaya), the a p p a r i t i o n a l body (Nirmanakaya). Noble s i r ( K u l a p u t r a ) , o f t h e t h r e e b o d i e s of the T a t h a g a t a , the Dharmakaya i s a p e r f e c t l y pure n a t u r e (svabhava), the Sambhoghakaya i s a p e r f e c t l y pure samadhi; a p e r f e c t l y pure l i f e i s the Nirmanakaya o f a l l Buddhas. Noble s i r , the Dharmakaya o f the Tathagata i s the p r e r o g a t i v e o f b e i n g without svabhava l i k e space; the Sambhogakaya i s the p r e r o g a t i v e o f b e i n g v i s i b l e l i k e a c l o u d ; the Nirmanakaya b e i n g the o b j e c t o f a l l Buddhas, i s the p r e r o g a t i v e o f permeating a l l t h i n g s as does a r a i n . ' . . . The B o d h i s a t t v a K s h i t i g a r b h a s a i d t o the B l e s s e d One, 'Make v i s i b l e these d e f i n i t i o n s o f the t r u e b o d i e s o f the B l e s s e d One.' Then the B l e s s e d One s a i d t o the B o d h i s a t t v a K s h i t i g a r b h a : 'Noble s i r , the t h r e e b o d i e s o f the Tathagata w i l l be d i s c e r n e d t h u s : the Dharmakaya i s d i s c e r n i b l e i n the whole a i r o f the Tathagata; the Sambhogakaya i s d i s c e r n i b l e i n the whole a i r o f a b o d h i s a t t v a ; t h e Nirmanakaya i s d i s c e r n i b l e i n t h e a i r o f d i f f e r e n t pious'men. Noble s i r , the Dharmakaya i s the nature i n h e r e n t t o a l l buddhas; the Sambhogakaya i s the samadhi i n h e r e n t t o a l l buddhas; the Nirmanakaya i s the o b j e c t o f a l l buddhas. Noble s i r , p u r i t y i n the abode o f the s o u l , the s c i e n c e l i k e a m i r r o r (adarsadjnana), i s the Dharmakaya; p u r i t y i n the abode o f the s i n f u l mind i s t h e s c i e n c e o f e q u a l i t y (samatajnana); p u r i t y i n the p e r c e p t i o n s o f the mind, the s c i e n c e o f t h o r o u g h l y a n a l y s i n g , i s the Sambhogakaya; p u r i t y i n the abode o f the p e r c e p t i o n s o f the f i v e doors, the s c i e n c e o f the achievement o f what must be done, i s the Nirmanakaya'
(pp. 200-202).
While R o c k h i l l made no attempt t o e x p l a i n t h i s l i t t l e passage, l a t e r r e f e r e n c e s show t h a t i t p r o v i d e d a s u c c i n c t statement o f the d o c t r i n e which enabled of
2.
everyone t o d i s c u s s the same t h i n g , no
s m a l l matter i n the e a r l y days
widespread c o n f u s i o n about Mahayana t e x t s and d o c t r i n e s .
H. Kern.
"Sur.1'invocation
d'une i n s c r i p t i o n bouddhique de Battambang."
T r a n s l a t e d by La V a l l e e P o u s s i n
T (1906): i+5-66. ' . :
This
begins:
from an a r t i c l e i n Dutch, 1899-
Museon,
7 namo s t u paramarthaya vyomakalpaya yo dadhau dharma-sambhogi-nirmana-kayam ( l ) t r a i l o k y a m u k t a y e : Nous t r a d u i s o n s : "Hommage a l a supreme v e r i t e , semblable a. l ' e s p a c e v i d e , q u i pour d e l i v r e r l e t r i p l e monde, a p r i s un Dharmakaya, un Sambhogakaya, un Nirmanakaya.' (p. k9).
Kern b e g i n s by a s k i n g how
" l a supreme v e r i t e "
(paramartha) beyond t h e
r e a l m o f t h o u g h t , can c l o t h e i t s e l f i n a t r i p l e body f o r t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e world.
He proposes (somewhat d o u b t f u l l y ) t h a t t h e t h r e e are c o n v e n t i o n a l
( s a m v r t i ) b o d i e s as i s t h e w o r l d which t h e y save.
Hence t h e u l t i m a t e
does
not r e a l l y become or assume form. What r e a l l y i n t e r e s t s Kern i s t h e p l a c e o f t h i s d o c t r i n e i n I n d i a n thought.
Is i t merely a Buddhist v e r s i o n o f t h e Hindu t r i m u r t i ?
He notes
t h a t t h e t r i m u r t i r e f e r s t© b o t h : p a s t - p r e s e n t - f u t u r e , and t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e supreme being--through t h e t h r e e • gunas.
F o r t h e t r i k a y a t o be
r e l a t e d t o t h e s e , i t would have t o e x h i b i t a s i m i l a r meaning.
To determine
whether or not such a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s , he d e f i n e s t h e terms dharma, sambhoga and nirmana.
H i s d e f i n i t i o n s , and consequent i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
t r i k a y a t h e o r y w i t h t h e Samkhya, a r e simply t o o i l l - i n f o r m e d t o be
seriously
considered.
However, h i s major c o n c l u s i o n s t i l l
s t a n d s , a l t h o u g h we
might
q u e s t i o n why
he chose t h e h o r i z o n t a l t r i m u r t i r a t h e r t h a n a v e r t i c a l
triad
such as
Brahma-Visnu-Krsna:
De ce q u i precede, i l s u i t qu'entre l a T r i m u r t i et l e T r i k a y a i l y a seulement c e c i de commun q u ' i l s d i s p o s e n t en t r i a d e s l a s e r i e des phenomenes.
F i n a l l y , Kern a s k s ,
Pour q u e l l e r a i s o n l e s Mahayanistes o n t - i l s i n t r o d u i t dans l e u r systeme i d e a l i s t e , et y o n t - i l s adapte, t a l i t e r
8
q u a l i t e r , une d o c t r i n e a fondements m a t e r i a l i s t e s et r e a l i s t e s comme l ' e s t evidemment l a d o c t r i n e des t r o i s corps? Nous ne l e savons pas. On peut c o n j e c t u r e r que c e r t a i n e condescendance a l ' e g a r d d ' a d v e r s a i r e s p o r t e s a l'accommodement, avec l e s q u e l s on se s e n t a i t apparente sous beaucoup de r a p p o r t s et qu'on se s e r a i t v o l o n t i e r s a s s o c i e s c o n t r e un p u i s s a n t et commun ennemi, a eu pour consequence l a c o n c i l i a t i o n de deux systemes p r i m i t i v e m e n t d i v e r g e n t s : mais l e s donnees n e c e s s a i r e s nous manquent pour v e r i f i e r c e t t e hypothese (p. 57)-
Although
there i s l i t t l e
v a l i d f . i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s a r t i c l e , Kern's :
approach', i s v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . . ^e^does^hot"" s i m p l y q u o t e - d e f i n i t i o n s from a s a s t r a , but bases h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n on the f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s :
—
As Buddhism developed
be e x p l a i n e d i n i t s I n d i a n — to —
v i s - a - v i s o t h e r I n d i a n systems, a d o c t r i n e s h o u l d context.
C e r t a i n l o g i c a l problems are obvious r e s o l v e them w i l l
shed l i g h t on the
t o the European s c h o l a r .
An
attempt
theory.
F i n a l l y , the r a i s o n d ' e t r e o f the t h e o r y must be
considered.
Kern's a r t i c l e i s the l a s t o f the "remarks" by the o l d e r s c h o l a r s . informed
debate was
young men:
3.
i n i t i a t e d i n the same year by two
L o u i s de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n and D.
L. de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n . a Buddha ( T r i k a y a ) . "
M.
JRAS
aggressive
Suzuki.
" S t u d i e s i n Buddhist
Dogma: The
Three Bodies
of
(1906): 9U3-9TT.
La V a l l e e P o u s s i n connects
paying l i t t l e
T.
d i s s i m i l a r and
A more
the t r i k a y a w i t h the "Mahayana s c h o o l , "
a t t e n t i o n t o p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s between a c t u a l s c h o o l s i n
I n d i a , China, Japan and T i b e t *
He d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h r e e phases:
—
an e a r l y s p e c u l a t i v e d o c t r i n e o f Buddhahood drawn from Sunyavadin
—
a broadening
sources.
o f t h i s e a r l y d o c t r i n e t o cover the e n t i r e f i e l d o f dogmatics
9 (the Yogacara d o c t r i n e — a l t h o u g h La V a l l e e P o u s s i n understands Yogacara as the system o f Asvaghosa),./ —
a concluding t a n t r i c
He
phase.
i s i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n the f i r s t two
phases.
He knew, and wished t o
know, n o t h i n g whatsoever about the t a n t r a s ;
The T a n t r i c authors . . . are more obscure and a b s t r u s e the more v u l g a r and obscene are the f a c t s t h a t t h e y have made the s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f t h e i r insane or f r a n t i c l u c u b r a t i o n s . .
U s i n g the above d i v i s i o n s , La V a l l e e P o u s s i n kayas i n t u r n . p l e t e and his
few
Unfortunately, h i s understanding o f h i s comments are a c c e p t a b l e .
examines each o f the o f Mahayana t h e o r y was
I t w i l l be
I. The d o c t r i n e o f the T r i k a y a as Buddhology, a f t e r i t s comp l e t i o n , but y e t f r e e from the " o n t o l o g i c a l " and cosmogonic speculations.
(B)
(C)
The v e r y nature o f a Buddha i s the Bodhi ( E n l i g h t e n m e n t ) , o f P r a j n a p a r a m i t a ( P e r f e c t Wisdom), or knowledge o f the Law (Dharm'a), i . e . , o f the a b s o l u t e T r u t h . By a c q u i r i n g t h i s knowledge, n i r v a n a i s r e a l i z e d i n p o t e n t i a or i n actu. The Dharmakaya, Body o f the Law, o f a Buddha i s the Buddha i n n i r v a n a or i n n i r v a n a - l i k e r a p t u r e (samadhikaya = dharmakaya). A Buddha, as l o n g as he i s not y e t merged i n t o n i r v a n a , possesses and e n j o y s , f o r h i s own sake and f o r o t h e r s ' w e l f a r e , the f r u i t o f h i s c h a r i t a b l e b e h a v i o r as a Bodhisattva. The second body i s the Body o f Enjoyment or B e a t i f i c Body (sambhogakaya). Human beings known as Buddhas are m a g i c a l c o n t r i v a n c e s (nirmanakaya) c r e a t e d at 'random by r e a l Buddhas, i . e . , by Buddhas possessed o f b e a t i f i c b o d i e s , s o v e r e i g n s o f c e l e s t i a l worlds , Tusita-heavens or ' P a r a d i s e s ' ( S u k h a v a t i s ) .
II. The system. (A)
d o c t r i n e o f T r i k a y a as an o n t o l o g i c and
incom-
s u f f i c i e n t t o quote
summary:
(A)
three
cosmologic
By Body o f Law one has t o understand the v o i d and permanent r e a l i t y t h a t u n d e r l i e s every phenomenon (dharma),
or t h e s t o r e o f the dharmas,' o r more e x a c t l y t h e uncharacterized I n t e l l e c t (vijnana). Body o f Enjoyment i s the Dharmakaya e v o l v e d as B e i n g , B l i s s , C h a r i t y , Radiance, o r t h e I n t e l l e c t as f a r as i t i s i n d i v i d u a l i z e d as Buddha o r B o d h i s a t t v a . M a g i c a l o r r a t h e r T r a n s f o r m a t i o n Body i s t h e same I n t e l l e c t when d e f i l e d , when i n d i v i d u a l i z e d as 'common p e o p l e ' ( p r t h a g j a n a ) , i n f e r n a l b e i n g , e t c . (pp. 9^5-9^+6). 1
(B)
(C)
While t h i s p i o n e e r i n g study h e l p e d t o open t h e s u b j e c t t o Western scholarship, i t contains l i t t l e of
acceptable information.
h i s c a r e e r L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n was a c q u a i n t e d w i t h o n l y a few Buddhist
and l a c k e d the overview
confused and,
argument
texts,
o f Mahayana Buddhism n e c e s s a r y t o make h i s t o r i c a l and
d o c t r i n a l d i s t i n c t i o n s w i t h i n the "Mahayana s c h o o l . " is
I n t h i s e a r l y phase
H i s t h r e e - s t a g e model
s h o u l d the r e a d e r supply more a c c u r a t e d i s t i n c t i o n s , t h e
disintegrates.
Above a l l , t h e author i s not d e a l i n g w i t h the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e b u t w i t h a d o c t r i n e o f t h r e e separate kayas, each s t u d i e d i n an h i s t o r i c a l - d e v e l o p m e n t a l manner.
k.
D. T. S u z u k i .
The
O u t l i n e s o f Mahayana Buddhism.
London: Luzac, 1907-
s o l e s i m i l a r i t y between the approaches o f L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n and
Suzuki i s t h e f a c t t h a t both d e s c r i b e a Mahayana s c h o o l i r r e s p e c t i v e o f time and c u l t u r e .
L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n was t h e European s c h o l a r f o r whom Buddhism was
an e x t e n s i o n ( v i a S a n s k r i t ) o f c l a s s i c a l He
s t u d i e s — a complex t e x t u a l p u z z l e .
seems not t o have e n t e r t a i n e d the s l i g h t e s t
suspicion that a continuing
Mahayana t r a d i t i o n might be e x t a n t , o r t h a t adherents
t o i t c o u l d throw l i g h t
3 on t h e i r own s c r i p t u r e s . Suzuki's a p o l o g e t i c i s a b r e a t h o f l i f e
amidst t h i s a r i d arrogance.
Mahayana i s not a p h i l o l o g i c a l game but a d e v e l o p i n g
faith:
His
I t i s naught "but an i d l e t a l k t o q u e s t i o n the h i s t o r i c a l v a l u e o f an organism, which i s now f u l l o f v i t a l i t y and a c t i v e i n a l l i t s f u n c t i o n s , and t o t r e a t i t l i k e an a r c h e o l o g i c a l o b j e c t , dug out from the depths o f the e a r t h , or l i k e a p i e c e of b r i c - a - b r a c , d i s c o v e r e d i n the r u i n s o f an a n c i e n t r o y a l p a l a c e . Mahayanism i s not an o b j e c t o f h i s t o r i c a l c u r i o s i t y . I t s v i t a l i t y and a c t i v i t y concern us i n our d a i l y l i f e . It i s a g r e a t s p i r i t u a l organism; i t s moral and r e l i g i o u s f o r c e s are s t i l l e x e r c i s i n g an enormous power over m i l l i o n s o f s o u l s ; and i t s f u r t h e r development i s sure t o be a v e r y v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the w o r l d - p r o g r e s s o f the r e l i g i o u s c o n s c i o u s ness. What does i t matter, t h e n , whether or not Mahayanism i s t h e genuine t e a c h i n g o f the Buddha? (p. 15)-
T h i s a t t i t u d e u n d e r l i e s the e n t i r e book. t r a d i t i o n , as i t reached him,
Suzuki a c c e p t s the Japanese
as "Mahayana."
He
shows c o m p a r a t i v e l y
little
interest
i n i t s h i s t o r y , p r e f e r r i n g t o p r e s e n t a d o c t r i n e p a l a t a b l e t o West
tastes.
The
f a c t t h a t t h i s w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y be a m o d i f i e d form o f t h e
d o c t r i n e he h i m s e l f has r e c e i v e d b o t h e r s him not at a l l .
After a l l ,
been c o n t i n u o u s l y a d a p t i n g f o r more than two m i l l e n n i a — w h y
i t has
stop now?
In
b r i e f , Suzuki i s a m i s s i o n a r y . From h i s Western c o n t a c t s (e.g., P a u l C a r u s ) , Suzuki seems t o have concluded t h a t the modern c o n s c i o u s n e s s
i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y Hegelian
d e v o u t l y C h r i s t i a n , and has p r e s e n t e d Buddhism i n terms drawn from Two
and both.
c h a p t e r s o f the O u t l i n e s are e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t : c h a p t e r IX,
Dharmakaya," and chapter X,
"The
Doctrine of Trikaya."
"The
Suzuki views the
Dharmakaya as t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f h i s M a h a y a n a - H e g e l i a n - C h r i s t i a n i t y
(with
some Vedanta thrown i n f o r u n i v e r s a l i t y ) :
The Dharmakaya may be compared i n one sense t o the God of C h r i s t i a n i t y and i n another sense t o the Brahman or Paratman o f Vedantism. I t i s d i f f e r e n t , however, from the former i n t h a t i t does not stand t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l y above the u n i v e r s e , which, a c c o r d i n g t o the C h r i s t i a n view, was c r e a t e d by God, but which i s , a c c o r d i n g t o Mahayanism, a. m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the Dharmakaya h i m s e l f . I t i s a l s o d i f f e r e n t from Brahman i n t h a t i t i s mot a b s o l u t e l y i m p e r s o n a l , nor i s i t
a mere b e i n g . The Dharmakaya, on the c o n t r a r y , i s capable o f w i l l i n g and r e f l e c t i n g , o r , t o use Buddhist p h r a s e o l o g y , i t i s Karuna ( l o v e ) and Bodhi ( i n t e l l i g e n c e ) , and not the mere s t a t e " o f b e i n g . T h i s p a n t h e i s t i c and at the same time e n t h e i s t i c Dharmakaya i s working i n every s e n t i e n t b e i n g , f o r s e n t i e n t b e i n g s are n o t h i n g but a s e l f - m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e Dharmakaya. I n d i v i d u a l s are not i s o l a t e d e x i s t e n c e s , as imagined by most people. I f i s o l a t e d , t h e y are n o t h i n g , t h e y are so many soap-bubbles which v a n i s h one a f t e r another i n the v a c u i t y o f space. A l l p a r t i c u l a r e x i s t e n c e s a c q u i r e t h e i r meaning o n l y when t h e y are thought o f i n t h e i r oneness i n the Dharmakaya. The v e i l o f Maya, i . e . , s u b j e c t i v e i g n o r a n c e , may t e m p o r a l l y throw an o b s t a c l e t o our p e r c e i v i n g the u n i v e r s a l l i g h t o f Dharmakaya, i n which we are a l l one. But when our Bodhi o r i n t e l l e c t , which i s by the way a r e f l e c t i o n o f the Dharmakaya i n the human mind, i s so f u l l y e n l i g h t e n e d , we no more b u i l d the a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r o f egoism b e f o r e our s p i r i t u a l eye; the d i s t i n c t i o n between the meurn and t e m i s o b l i t e r a t e d , no d u a l i s m throws the nets o f entanglement over us; I r e c o g n i s e m y s e l f i n you and you r e c o g n i s e y o u r s e l f i n me; t a t tvam a s i . . . T h i s s t a t e o f enlightenment may be c a l l e d the s p i r i t u a l expansion o f the ego, o r , n e g a t i v e l y , the i d e a l a n n i h i l a t i o n o f t h e ego. A n e v e r - d y i n g stream" o f sympathy and l o v e which i s the l i f e o f r e l i g i o n w i l l now spontaneously f l o w out o f the f o u n t a i n h e a d o f Dharmakaya (pp. k6-kl,).
Suzuki sees the " D o c t r i n e o f T r i k a y a " as a somewhat d i f f e r e n t which he does not r e a l l y understand. does not seem to.'.utilize i t s i d e a s .
doctrine,
He quotes from the Suvarnaprabhasa Suzuki has no d i f f i c u l t y w i t h the
kaya model, i n t o which he q u i c k l y s l i p s .
but two-
The Dharmakaya i s God o r B e i n g ,
which i s m a n i f e s t e d i n the phenomenal e a r t h l y Nirmanakaya.
Suzuki
realizes,
w i t h some embarrassment, t h a t t h i s does not r e a l l y t o u c h the t h r e e k a y a d o c t r i n e , and t r i e s t o e x p l a i n away the Sambhogakaya as an
interloper:
But the c o n c e p t i o n o f Sambhoghakaya i s a l t o g e t h e r too m y s t e r i o u s t o be fathomed by a l i m i t e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s . . . . the most p l a u s i b l e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t suggests i t s e l f t o modern s c e p t i c a l minds i s t h a t the Sambhogakaya must be a mere c r e a t i o n o f an i n t e l l i g e n t , f i n i t e mind, which i s i n t e n t l y bent on r e a c h i n g the h i g h e s t r e a l i t y , b u t , not b e i n g a b l e ,
on account o f i t s l i m i t a t i o n s , ' t o grasp t h e o b j e c t i n i t s a b s o l u t e n e s s , t h e f i n i t e mind f a b r i c a t e s a l l i t s i d e a l s a f t e r i t s own f a s h i o n i n t o a s p i r i t u a l - m a t e r i a l b e i n g , which i s l o g i c a l l y a c o n t r a d i c t i o n , but r e l i g i o u s l y an o b j e c t d e s e r v i n g v e n e r a t i o n and worship. And t h i s b e i n g i s no more than t h e Body o f B l i s s . I t l i e s h a l f way between t h e pure b e i n g o f Dharmakaya and t h e e a r t h l y form o f Nirmanakaya," the Body o f T r a n s f o r m a t i o n . I t does not b e l o n g t o e i t h e r , but p a r t a k e s something o f b o t h . I t i s i n a sense s p i r i t u a l l i k e t h e Dharmakaya, and y e t i t cannot go beyond m a t e r i a l l i m i t a t i o n s , f o r i t has a form, d e f i n i t e and determinate. When t h e human s o u l i s t h i r s t y a f t e r a pure b e i n g o r an a b s o l u t e which cannot be comprehended i n a p a l p a b l e form, i t c r e a t e s a h y b r i d , an i m i t a t i o n , o r a r e f l e c t i o n , and t r i e s t o be s a t i s f i e d w i t h i t , j u s t as a l i t t l e g i r l has h e r i n n a t e and not yet f u l l y developed m a t e r n i t y s a t i s f i e d by t e n d e r l y embracing and n u r s i n g t h e d o l l , an inanimate i m i t a t i o n o f a r e a l l i v i n g baby. And t h e Mahayanists seem t o have made most o f t h i s c h i l d i s h humanness. They produced as many s u t r a s as t h e i r s p i r i t u a l y e a r n i n g s demanded, q u i t e r e g a r d l e s s o f h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s , and made t h e Body o f B l i s s o f t h e T a t h a g a t a t h e author
of a l l t h e s e works... . (pp. 267-268). Modern Mahayanists i n f u l l accordance w i t h t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e D o c t r i n e o f T r i k a y a do.not p l a c e much importance on t h e o b j e c t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e Body o f B l i s s (Sambhogakaya). They c o n s i d e r them a t b e s t t h e f i c t i t i o u s p r o d u c t s o f an i m a g i n a t i v e mind . . . modern B u d d h i s t s l o o k w i t h d i s d a i n on t h e s e e g o t i s t i c m a t e r i a l i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n s
of r e l i g i o u s l i f e
In
(pp. 268-269).
b r i e f , Suzuki s h i f t s t o a two-kaya t h e o r y i n t e r p r e t e d o n t o l o g i c a l l y ,
f i n a l attempt
A
t o d e a l w i t h t h e t r i k a y a by h o m o l o g i z i n g i t t o t h e C h r i s t i a n
t r i n i t y founders on t h e f a c t t h a t he understands t h e Holy S p i r i t no b e t t e r -than t h e Sambhogakaya...
5-
M.. P. Masson-Oursel. series
. "Les t r o i s corps du bouddha."
Journal Asiatique
2, 1 (1913): 58I-618.
M. Masson-Oursel
had t h e f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l s a t h i s d i s p o s a l : two i n -
s c r i p t i o n s , Stael-Holstein's Tibetan version o f the Trikayastava, R o c k h i l l t e x t , L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s 1906 a r t i c l e , Suzuki's O u t l i n e s , t h e t e x t o f t h e
Aphisamayalankara (which he had an u n i d e n t i f i e d m a n u s c r i p t .
r e a d w i t h S. L e v i ) , and
a related portion
He proposes a t e n t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e
m a t e r i a l s , e s p e c i a l l y o f the d a t a o f f e r e d by La V a l l e e P o u s s i n and The
a r t i c l e i s i n three
Suzuki.
parts:
—
an examination o f each kaya.
—
a d i s c u s s i o n o f the h i s t o r i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l r o o t s o f the
—
e x t r a c t s from the Abhisamayalankara and
He b e g i n s by
of
d e f i n i n g kaya as
doctrine.
the u n i d e n t i f i e d m a n u s c r i p t .
"organism" or "system" r a t h e r than "body,"
p o i n t i n g out t h a t i n Buddhist t h e o r y ,
the o n l y s t a b i l i t y i s t o be
r e l a t i o n s h i p s which o c c u r between phenomena: "Kaya designe une
found i n the
l o i de ce
genre,
par o p p o s i t i o n a l a f i x i t e r i g i d e d'une substance ou d'une p e r s o n n a l i t e . " The t i o n : the
author m a i n t a i n s t h a t
"dharma" i n "Dharmakaya" has
sense o f a moral r u l e or law
i t i s the
i s the f i r s t
first
religious principle.
the
As the p r o t o t y p e o f
As the
supreme a b s t r a c t i o n i t
metaphysical p r i n c i p l e .
While La V a l l e e P o u s s i n has Masson-Oursel c a s t i g a t e s him the
significa-
(as i n the P a l i dhammakaya), and
sense o f e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t y , r e a l i t y , t r u e n a t u r e . morality
a dual
c r i t i c i z e d Suzuki f o r a c c e p t i n g
f o r i g n o r i n g the l a t t e r .
the
former,
F u r t h e r , he p o i n t s
out
i n c o n s i s t e n c y between La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s r e j e c t i o n o f the Dharmakaya as
o n t o l o g i c a l substrate
and the o n t o l o g i c a l l y o r i e n t e d e x p l a n a t i o n
in his
1906
article. Masson-Oursel goes on t o i d e n t i f y the t a t h a g a t a g a r b h a w i t h alayavijnana
and
the
t a c k l e s the problem which t o La V a l l e e P o u s s i n had
a "cosmic" dimension:
II
peut sans doute sembler etrange que
l e Dharmakaya
presented
15
d'un Bouddha ( c a r tous l e s Bouddhas p o s s i b l e s possedent, theoretiquement, l e s t r o i s kaya) s o i t proclame l a m a t r i c e des a u t r e s Bienheureux; mais c ' e s t simplement .urie f a c o n d ' i n d i q u e r que l e Dharmakaya a p p a r t i e n t en commun a tous l e s T a t h a g a t a s , c ' e s t - a - d i r e d ' a f f i r m e r l ' u n i t e du bouddhisme, l ' i d e n t i t e de s a p h i l o s o p h i e e t de s a morale a t r a v e r s l ' i n f i n i e m u l t i p l i c i t e des Bouddhas concevables
(pp. 58^-585).
He a l s o mentions t h e m y t h i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the Dharmakaya w i t h f i g u r e s as V a i r o c a n a .
He concludes t h a t , "en r a i s o n de ses a t t r i b u t s a l a
f o i s metaphysiques et moraux, e s t proprement l a c o n c e p t i o n Mahayaniste l'absolu."
such
de
As such, i t i s somehow "above" t h e o t h e r t w o — they a r e a s p e c t s
of i t . The author t r a n s l a t e s "Sambhogakaya" l i t e r a l l y as "body o f b e a t i t u d e , " of "body o f sympathy," b u t admits t h a t t h i s h e l p s v e r y l i t t l e .
He begins
w i t h L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t , "un Bouddha, t a n t q u ' i l n ' e s t pas encore plonge d a n s - l e N i r v a n a , j o u i t , pour son propre avantage l'avantage d ' a u t r u i , du f r u i t But, o b j e c t s Masson-Oursel,
de s a c o n d u i t e c h a r i t a b l e comme B o d h i s a t t v a . "
i f t h e Sambhogakaya i s a stage p r i o r t o f u l l
Buddhahood, how can i t be a body o f t h e Buddha? e x p l a n a t i o n was t h a t
e t pour
L a V a l l e e Poussin's
second
" l e Dharmakaya evolue a l ' e t a t d ' e t r e , de b e a t i t u d e , de
c h a r i t e , d ' e c l a t lumineux ou 1 ' i n t e l l e c t a l i s e comme Bouddha ou B o d h i s a t t v a . "
( v i j n a n a ) en t a n t q u ' i l e s t i n d i v i d u -
To t h i s Masson-Oursel a s k s , "Nous
a i m e r i o n s a s a v o i r q u e l e s t l e r a p p o r t e n t r e l a j o u i s s a n c e qu'a l e Dharmakaya lui-meme, e t son e x t e r i o r i s a t i o n en d'autres e t r e s . " honest
Presumably t h i s i s an
q u e s t i o n and not a r h e t o r i c a l r e f u t a t i o n l i k e t h e l a s t .
has been a key q u e s t i o n f o r t h e B u d d h i s t s Masson-Oursel's mediate kaya,
Certainly i t
themselves.
own u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s t h a t t h e Sambhogakaya i s an i n t e r -
s h a r i n g t h e n a t u r e s o f b o t h Dharmakaya and Nirmanakaya.
It i s
16 manifested
f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s , whose n a t u r e
character of the manifestation. samadhikaya, t h e vipakakaya But
To t h i s i d e a he t i e s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e
o r punya-sambhara, and o f t h e marks o f t h e Buddha.
a l l o f t h i s does not e x p l a i n how o r why t h e t o t a l l y
Dharmakaya m a n i f e s t s
explains the
itself.
Masson-Oursel notes
transcendent
La V a l l e e Poussin's
dual
explanation:
—
t h a t t h e Buddha's s t o r e o f m e r i t a u t o m a t i c a l l y g i v e s r i s e t o a Sambhogakaya
for the s a l v a t i o n o f a l l beings. —
t h a t t h e Sambhogakaya r e p r e s e n t s a compassionate response on t h e p a r t o f
the Buddha.
But, Masson-Oursel a s k s , i f t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n i s m e c h a n i c a l o r automatic, why i s t h e concept dictory.
o f compassion necessary?
These two a r e , he f e e l s ,
contra-
We may remark here t h a t Masson-Oursel seems t o be unacquainted
with
the B o d h i s a t t v a vow and i s p r o b a b l y t r a p p e d by Western c o n n o t a t i o n s o f "compassion." To answer t h e q u e s t i o n o f how a Buddha may possess author
a Sambhogakaya, t h e
r e f e r s t o a passage o f t h e Suvarnaprabhasa quoted by S u z u k i : t h e s i m i l e
o f moon, water and v i s u a l p a t c h , a l l t h r e e o f which a r e r e q u i r e d t o c o n s t i t u t e an image,
The moon r e p r e s e n t s t h e Dharmakaya, t h e water t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , t h e
v i s u a l p a t c h t h e Sambhogakaya which u n i t e s them. obscure argument from Spinoza.
T h i s t a p e r s o f f i n t o an
F i n a l l y , he says:
La p r i n c i p a l e d i f f i c u l t e que nous eprouvons a nous f a i r e une i d e e du Sambhogakaya r e s i d e dans son c a r a c t e r e a l a f o i s o b j e c t i f , comme m a n i f e s t a t i o n , e t s u b j e c t i f , comme b e a t i t u d e . Mais t o u t e metaphysique a e t e f o r c e e , bon g r e , mal g r e , de r e c o n n a i t r e a l ' a b s o l u ces deux c a r a c t e r e s ; l e Dharmakaya n ' e t a i t - i l pas d e j a e t r e e t bodhi? Nous ne nous f l a t t o n s pas, d i a i l l e u r s de d i s s i p e r l e s i n c e r t i t u d e s q u i f l o t t e n t
17 autour du concept de Sambhogakaya: l e rendre pleinement i n t e l l i g i b l e s e r a i t se meprendre sur sa s i g n i f i c a t i o n authent i q u e , p u i s q u ' i l f a u d r a i t e t r e B o d h i s a t t v a pour p e n e t r e r v e r i t a b l e m e n t son sens, de meme que l e Dharmakaya n'est c o m p r e h e n s i b l e — a supposer qu'on a i t encore l e d r o i t .•c~ d'employer ce mot—qu'aux s e u l s Bouddhas (p. 590)-
Although
t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n i s c e r t a i n l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , Masson-Oursel
brought out two
important
points:
—
t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Sambhogakaya and
—
the i n t e r m e d i a t e , r e l a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f the Sambhogakaya.
Both o f these must be r e t a i n e d i n any The
author
has
Bodhisattva.
future discussion.
i s much more c e r t a i n about the Nirmanakaya:
Dans l e Dharmakaya l.Vessence du Bouddha e t a i t t e l l e m e n t i n t e r i e u r e a elle-meme, qu'.'elle se r e n f e r m a i t en une i n d i v i s i b l e u n i t e , s u p e r i e u r e a t o u t e c o n s c i e n c e ; dans l e Sambhogakaya c e t t e essence se rend a c c e s s i b l e , sans t o u t e f o i s se d i v i s e r , aux e t r e s devenus l e s p l u s proches d'elle-meme; dans l e Nirmanakaya e l l e s'.'exteriorise en apparences imparfaites, individuelles, multiples. . . . Nirmanakaya designe avant t o u t l e s Bouddhas sous l a forme ou i l s ont apparu ou a p p a r a i t r o n t sur c e t t e t e r r e . Au l i e u de r e s t e r i n d i f f e r e n t s . dans l ' e t e r n i t e , i l s envoient en ce monde de misere des r e f l e t s ( p r a t i b i m b a ) d'eux-memes. . .
(p.
591).
T h i s seems r e a s o n a b l e .
However, he
continues:
Le nom de Nirmanakaya s ' a p p l i q u e en o u t r e , en un sens p l u s l a r g e , a t o u t e s apparences s e n s i b l e s , aux phenomenes du monde du d e s i r (kamaloka). A u s s i ce kaya e s t - i l p r e s e n t p a r t o u t ( s a r v a t r a g a ) ; i l e s t l e c r e a t e u r ( n i r m a t a r ) de cet u n i v e r s , t h e a t r e de n o t r e v i e (p. 591)•
The
author
accounts
f o r t h e s e two
i d e a s (Nirmanakaya as Sakyamuni
and
Nirmanakaya as samsara) by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e y r e f e r t o o p p o s i t e views o f the
18 same r e a l i t y , t h a t the Nirmanakaya i s an ambiguous concept, "La meme idee retrouve
i c i sous une
saveur a u s e i n
forme p l u s
du Nirmanakaya."
imagee, dans c e t t e i d e n t i t e du c r e a t e u r Should t h i s s u g g e s t i o n r e a l l y h o l d up,
se et
i t would
p r o v i d e an a l t e r n a t i v e t o La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s h i s t o r i c a l stages s e p a r a t i n g B u d d h o l o g i c a l from the
du
the
cosmological.
A f t e r h i s review o f each kaya, the
author surveys the h i s t o r i c a l
p h i l o s o p h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the d o c t r i n e .
He
and
says f r a n k l y ,
I I e s t r e g r e t t a b l e que 1 ' i n s u f f i s a n c e des documents dont nous disposons nous a i t c o n t r a i n t de r e s t i t u e r c e t t e a b s t r u s e t h e o r i e des t r o i s corps au moyen de t e x t e s des provenances et des epoques l e s p l u s d i s p a r a t e s . Le sens de l a d o c t r i n e ne s e r a vraiment connu que l o r s q u e nous pourrons determiner dans q u e l l e s c i r c o n s t a n c e s e l l e est nee, dans q u e l l e mesure e l l e a v a r i e (p. 592).
A f t e r a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l sketch,:of the L o k p t t a r a
i d e a , Masson-Oursel
summarizes:
A i n s i , l e probleme des t r o i s corps n a q u i t d'un e f f o r t s p e c u l a t i f pour c o n c i l i e r l e s t r a i t s c o n t r a d i c t o i r e s de l a p e r s o n n a l i t e du Bouddha: l a v a l e u r absolue de son e n s e i g n e ment et l e s c o n t i n g e n c e s de sa v i e humaine. La s o l u t i o n c o n s i s t e a poser dans l ' e t e r n e l un Dharmakaya a b s o l u , et a p r o j e t e r dans l e temps, dans l ' e s p a c e , dans l e monde, une ombre de ce d i e u , l e Nirmanakaya. . . . l a d o c t r i n e prend une forme metaphysique b i e n p l u s a b s t r a i t e chez Asanga. . . . E l l e r e v e t a u s s i l a forme d'un c u l t e p o p u l a i r e ; des exvoto sont consacres au Sambhogakaya ou au Nirmanakaya comme chez nous au Sacre-Coeur. Le dogme nouveau s'etend au T i b e t , a l a Chine, a l a M o n g o l i e , au Japon, i l s'y perpetue j u s q u ' a nos j o u r s . Au cours du moyen age, l e t a n t r i s m e m u l t i p l i a s e l o n sa f a n t a i s i e l e s corps du Bouddha, qui f u r e n t q u a t r e , c i n q , ou p l u s nombreux encore (p. 59^)-
T h i s , o f c o u r s e , does not
r e a l l y e x p l a i n the t r i k a y a system, o n l y a
kaya i d e a , p l u s an added p o p u l a r c u l t . - Masson-Oursel a l s o speaks of. the
twoinfluence
o f 'Tpopula;*"' Hinduism: "Le t r i k a y a - f a i t , " en quelque . s o r t e pendant a. . l a t r i m u r t i , "
19 but does not go so f a r as t o suggest t h a t the t r i a d i c p a t t e r n was
simply a
c u l t u r a l g i v e n which c o u l d account f o r the t r i k a y a i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f .any
logic
i n t e r n a l t o the d o c t r i n e . Two to
S a n s k r i t t e x t s and t r a n s l a t i o n s d e a l i n g . w i t h the'-kayas:. are" appended
this article.
The f i r s t
i s an e x t r a c t from t h e Abhisamay&lankara.
second i s an u n t i t l e d Vijffanavadin manuscript.
The
From t h e s e he reaches the
following conclusions:
Pour c o n c l u r e , en ce q u i concerne l a t h e o r i e des c o r p s , l a c o n t r i b u t i o n p r i n c i p a l e que l e s t e x t e s c i t e s a p p o r t e n t a n o t r e enquete, c ' e s t que l e Svabhavikakaya et l e Dharmakaya sont des systemes d'ideaux (dharma, dharmata), c o n d i t i o n s a b s t r a i t e s de l a connaissance supreme, sans d u a l i t e , sans m u l t i p l i c i t y , sans developpement; que l e Sambhogakaya e s t un systeme de s i g n e s ( l a k s a n a , anulaksana) par l e s q u e l s un Bouddha se m a n i f e s t e aux B o d h i s a t t v a s | e n f i n que l e N a i r manikakaya est.un systeme d ' a c t i o n s (karmani) par l e q u e l un Bouddha se r e v e l e d'une fagon phenomenale aux Cravakas, e t c . . . . Quant a f i x e r l e sens p r e c i s de l a m u l t i t u d e de concepts auxquels i l e s t f a i t a l l u s i o n dans ces t e x t e s , c ' e s t pour 1 ' i n s t a n t une e n t r e p r i s e peu a b o r d a b l e , c a r nous n'avons guere pour l a p l u p a r t d'entre eux d'autre p o i n t de comparai-
son
6.
que l e Mahayana-SutraUamkara
L. de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n .
d'Asanga,
. . (pp. 6 l 7 - 6 l 8 ) . ,
"Note sur l e s Corps du Bouddha."
Museon,- 32
(1913): 257-29 0., La Vallee." .Poussin. rejoins:' the ' d i s c u s s i o n w i t h a f l o u r i s h . :
Pour se f a i r e une i d e e exacte des Corps du Bouddha, c ' e s t - a - d i r e d'un c h a p i t r e important de l a "bouddhologie," • i l f a u t embrasser t o u t e l ' h i s t o i r e du Bouddhisme, depuis l e s o r i g i n e s jusqu'aux mythologies et aux t h e o s o p h i e s s i penetrees de Civaisme q u ' e l l e s m e r i t e n t a p e i n e l e nom de bouddhiques. I I f a u t a u s s i p a s s e r en revue d i v e r s e s philosophies. . . . Et c ' e s t l a n o t r e ambition (p. 257)-
Although t h e notes which f o l l o w f a l l
s h o r t o f t h i s grand i n t e n t i o n , t h e y
r e v e a l the author's growing awareness o f the c o m p l e x i t y o f Buddhist
doctrine.
20
He m a i n t a i n s
h i s e a r l i e r p e r s p e c t i v e hut s u b d i v i d e s h i s t h r e e
i n t e r p r e t s them i n a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d manner. Buddhism," which r e c o g n i z e d
He f i r s t
a - v i s i b l e form (rupakaya),
ment o f t h e d o c t r i n e (Dharmakaya).
stages and
discusses
"Archaic
and t h e l i v i n g embodi-
He does not e x p l a i n h i s r e j e c t i o n o f t h e
n o t i o n t h a t t h e "kaya" i n Dharmakaya i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e was t h e l a t e r representative o f the charismatic
Buddha.
He then t u r n s t o " S c h o l a s t i c i s m , " i n which t h e Buddhists
r e t a i n e d t h e word
"Dharmakaya" but s h i f t e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f "dharma" t o an Abhidharmic Hence, Dharmakaya came t o mean:
. . . l e Bouddha lui-meme, c ' e s t l a c o l l e c t i o n , l ' a g g r e gat et l a s e r i e des elements p s y c h i q u e s e t m a t e r i e l s q u i c o n s t i t u e n t l ' i n d i v i d u qu'on a p p e l l e un Bouddha, son ame et son c o r p s , dans n o t r e langage o c c i d e n t a l . — Mais dharmakaya s'entendra au propre des "elements" q u i f o n t que c e t i n d i v i d u e s t un Bouddha. Le Bouddha, en t a n t q u ' i l e s t v i s i b l e , l e rupakaya, "corps v i s i b l e , " c o l l e c t i o n des dharmas v i s i b l e s ou m a t e r i e l s , n'est qu'une p o r t i o n du Bouddha. Ces dharmas v i s i b l e s , p l u s l e s dharmas i n v i s i b l e s , s e n s a t i o n s , pensees, e t c . , sont t o u t l e Bouddha (p. 2 5 8 ) .
However, he r e a l i z e s t h a t f i n e r d i s t i n c t i o n s must be made:
3.
Mais i l f a u t d i s t i n g u e r t r o i s
ecoles.
A. L ' e c o l e d'Abhidharma ou du P e t i t V e h i c u l e . . . . C e t t e e c o l e c r o i t a l a r e a l i t e s u b s t a n t i e l l e des dharmas, e t sa c r i t i q u e s ' a r r e t e a l a n e g a t i o n de l ' i n d i v i d u (pudgalanairatmya). B. -C. L ' e c o l e Madhyamika ou n i h i l i s t (premier s i e c l e de n o t r e e r e ? ) e t l ' e c o l e V i j n a n a v a d i n ou i d e a l i s t e (un peu p o s t e r i e u r e ? ) n i e n t . 1 ' e x i s t e n c e en s o i des dharmas: c'est l a
sense.
21 these du dharmanairatmya, q u i c a r a c t e r i s e l e s p h i l o s o p h i e s du Grand V e h i c u l e . Ces deux e c o l e s t i e n n e n t que tous l e s corps et t o u t e s l e s pensees sont " v i d e s " (gunya). La r e e l l e nature ( t a t h a t a ) des choses comme des i n d i v i d u s , des Bouddhas comme de tous l e s e t r e s , c ' e s t l a " v a c u i t e " (guriyafa); et 1'express i o n dharmakaya peut e t r e comprise dans l e sens de " r e e l l e n a t u r e , " "corps e s s e n t i e l " (svabhavika kaya) (pp. 258-259).
The author now s h i f t s t o t h e t r i k a y a . each o f the two Madhyamika p e r s p e c t i v e s .
He examines each i n t h e l i g h t o f From the c o n v e n t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e
they appear m y t h o l o g i c a l :
. . . l e s Bouddhas sont de grands personnages d i v i n s , entoures de grands s a i n t s q u i sont de f u t u r s Bouddhas; t o u s l e s e t r e s d o i v e n t , pour p a r v e n i r au N i r v a n a , p a s s e r d'abord par l ' e t a t de Bouddha. On d i s t i n g u e r a done t r o i s corps du Bouddha. 1. Le Dharmakaya, d o n t - l a d e f i n i t i o n se superpose a peu pres a c e l l e de 1'Abhidharma. C'est 1'ensemble des connaissances et des q u a l i t e s morales du Bouddha, a u s s i b i e n c e l l e s q u i se r a p p o r t e n t au monde que c e l l e s q u i sont p r o d u c t r i c e s du N i r v a n a : d'une p a r t , l a compassion, l e pouv o i r de d e t r u i r e l e s p a s s i o n s de ceux q u i v o i e n t l e Bouddha; d'autre p a r t , l e s m e d i t a t i o n s a b s t r u s e s q u i a b o u t i s s e n t a 1 ' i n c o n s c i e n c e : t e l l e p a r exemple l a m e d i t a t i o n du neant. 2. Le Sambhogakaya, corps g l o r i e u x , l e Bouddha en t a n t que v i s i b l e , " l e corps orne des t r e n t e - d e u x marques": c ' e s t l e rupakaya, l a "forme v i s i b l e " de l a v i e i l l e t r a d i t i o n . — Mais ce c o r p s , comme nous a l l o n s l e d i r e , e s t i n v i s i b l e aux simples m o r t e l s . Ceux-ci n'en a p e r g o i v e n t que des doubles magiques, p l u s ou moins ressemblants a 1 ' o r i g i n a l . 3. Le Nirmanakaya, "corps cree par magie," sur l e q u e l nous i n s i s t e r o n s davantage. .Cakyamuni, dans leBouddhisme du P e t i t V e h i c u l e , e s t un homme. . . . Cet homme o b t i n t l a q u a l i t e de Bouddha, r e v e l a l e chemin, et e n t r a dans l e N i r v a n a , desormais i n v i s i b l e aux dieux et aux hommes: c a r i l e s t d e l i v r e de 1 ' e x i s t e n c e . La s e c t e des V e t u l y a k a s que l a t r a d i t i o n p l a c e avant Agoka, e t que j e c r o i s t r e s ancienne, congut une i d e e p l u s haute de Qakyamuni et du Bouddha. . . . gakyamuni e s t devenu Bouddha i l y a t r e s longtemps; i l regne dans l e c i e l des dieux T u s i t a s d'ou on c r u t faussement q u ' i l e t a i t
descendu pour s ' i n c a r n e r et c o n q u e r i r i c i l a q u a l i t e de Bouddha; l e Qakyamuni que l e s hommes ont T U n'est qu'un fantome cree p a r l e v r a i Cakyamuni, un "corps magique" ou un "corps c r e e " (nirmanakaya). Ce docetisme a b o u t i t , dans l e Grand V e h i c u l e . . . a l a c o n c e p t i o n de Bouddhas presque e t e r n e l s , i n t e r v e n a n t i c i - b a s par des a p p a r i t i o n s magiques q u i prechent et donnent aux hommes l e s p e c t a c l e e d i f i a n t e t i n s t r u c t i f de t o u t e l a geste d'un Bouddha, de t o u t e l a genese de l a q u a l i t e de Bouddha. Les Bouddhas sont de grands dieux mythologiques, t r o n a n t dans quelque p a r a d i s ou de grands s a i n t s l e s e n t o u r e n t . A l a s e u l e a p p a r i t i o n ' magique dont p a r l a i e n t l e s premiers d o c e t e s , du moins a en c r o i r e nos s o u r c e s , beaucoup •d.'autres sont a j o u t e e s : pendant l a longue p e r i o d e de son regne, et dans 1'univers q u i e s t son "champ," un Bouddha e s t l ' u n i v e r s e l l e p r o v i d e n c e : p a r son c o r p s magique, d i v i s e a l ' i n f i n i , il " m u r i t " l e s e t r e s pour l e s a l u t (pp. 277-278).
From t h e u l t i m a t e p e r s p e c t i v e :
Nous a r r i v e r o n s au N i r v a n a en p r o f i t a n t de l ' e n s e i g n e ment que donnent l e s corps magiques (nirmanakaya, en contemp l a n t l e corps g l o r i e u x . l o r s q u e nous serons devenus des s a i n t s ( b b d h i s a t t v a s ) ; en devenant nous-memes des Bouddhas, c ' e s t - a - d i r e des dharmakayas, c o l l e c t i o n s de dharmas t r e s purs q u i c o n s t i t u e n t des e t r e s d e j a i l l u m i n e s (buddha) et t r e s proches du N i r v a n a . — E t i l n'y a pas d'autre moyen d ' a r r i v e r au N i r v a n a . Cependant, au p o i n t de vue metaphysique, l a p o s i t i o n des N i h i l i s t e s n'est pas exactement c e l l e d e s ' I d e a l i s t e s . Pour l e s N i h i l i s t e s , l e s deux premiers c o r p s (dharma° . et sambhogakaya) forment un s e u l e t r e , l e Bouddha, e t r e r e e l au p o i n t de vue de 1'experience, mais " v i d e " au p o i n t de vue metaphysique: c a r l e s dharmas q u i l e composent n ' e x i s t e n t pas en s o i . Pour l e s I d e a l i s t e s , l e dharmakaya e s t l e Bouddha t e l q u ' i l s ' a p p a r a i t a lui-meme, t e l q u ' i l a c o n s c i e n c e de s o i : connaissances p r o d u c t r i c e s de N i r v a n a et pensees mondaines, tournees v e r s l e s a l u t du monde: l e s p r e m i e r e s , l o r s q u ' e l l e s sont t r e s p u r e s , se confondent avec ce que nous avons appele " l a pensee sans p l u s " (p. 273); ce sont des connaissances d'ou 1 ' o p p o s i t i o n de " c o n n a i s s a b l e " et "connaissance" e s t exclue e t , p a r consequent, des connaissances q u i sont des non-connaissances; l e s secondes sont "imaginees" dans l a mesure, t r e s r e d u i t e , ou e l l e s comportent c e t t e o p p o s i t i o n : car l a c h a r i t e du s a i n t e s t v i d e de l ' i d e e de "donneur," de
23 don e t de "receveur"; — l e corps g l o r i e u x est l e Bouddha t e l q u ' i l a p p a r a i t aux s a i n t s ( b o d h i s a t t v a s ) , qui c r o i e n t encore a 1 ' e x i s t e n c e de l a m a t i e r e ( r u p a ) ; — l e corps magique est l e Bouddha t e l q u ' i l a p p a r a i t aux e t r e s i n f e r i e u r s (gravakadi ) q u i ne peuvent encore v o i r que des formes t r e s p a r t i c u l a r i s m s . Les deux d e r n i e r s corps a p p a r a i s s e n t aux s a i n t s e t aux e t r e s i n f e r i e u r s par l ' e f f i c a c e de l a pensee mondaine qui est une p a r t i e du dharmakaya, par l ' e f f i c a c e a u s s i du m e r i t e a c q u i s par l e s s a i n t s e t l e s e t r e s i n f e r i e u r s eux-memes. On peut, e n f i n , c o n s i d e r e r comme l e v r a i corps (kaya) du Bouddha, ce que l e Bouddha e s t au p o i n t de vue de l a v e r i t e absolue. L a nature v r a i e (dharmata) d'un Bouddha s e r a appelee son dharmakaya, en termes p l u s c l a i r s , son s v a b h a v i kakaya ou dharmatakaya, son corps v r a i . — Nous sommes r e n seignes sur l a n a t u r e v r a i e des dharmas qui c o n s t i t u e n t l e Bouddha: ces dharmas ne sont pas p r o d u i t s "en s o i " ; i l s ne sont pas p r o d u i t s , au p o i n t de vue de l a v e r i t e absolue; i l s sont " v i d e s " ; i l s ont pour n a t u r e l a " v a c u i t e " (gunyata). On peut en d i r e autant de tous l e s dharmas, e t de l a f o u l e des e t r e s que c o n s t i t u e n t l e s dharmas: t o u s l e s e t r e s ont done l e meme v r a i corps (svabhavikakaya = dharmatakaya = dharmakaya) que l e s Bouddhas. T o u t e f o i s , dans l e s Bouddhas predominent l e s dharmas p r o d u c t e u r s ^ d e N i r v a n a ( l o k o t t a r a ) , a 1 ' e x c l u s i o n des dharmas mondains. Les Bouddhas ont done, a peu p r e s , p u r i f i e l e u r v r a i corps: i l s sont v i d e s , ou a peu p r e s , au "point. '.;de .-.vue.' meme de l a v e r i t e d'apparence (pp. 279-281)..
F i n a l l y , the author notes v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y the
tathagatagarbha,
which he c o n s i d e r s t o be p a r t o f the "immanentise"Buddhology o f the Mantrayana, and
speculates
on p a r a l l e l s between Mahayana Buddhism and Vedanta.
wishes t o see the t r i k a y a w i t h i n the g e n e r a l context
He c l e a r l y
o f the development o f
I n d i a n r e l i g i o u s thought but does not have t h e n e c e s s a r y e x p e r t i s e t o do more than draw a t t e n t i o n t o a few s i m i l a r i t i e s . T h i s a r t i c l e has been quoted i n d e t a i l because, d e s p i t e shortcomings i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i t o f f e r s the f i r s t
summary o f the major f e a t u r e s which
l a t e r s c h o l a r s came t o c o n s i d e r t h e i r prime
data.
2h
7.
A.
Coomaraswamy.
Putnam's Sons,
Buddha and
the Gospel o f Buddhism.
New
York: G.
P.
1916.
T h i s hook i s important because i t e s t a b l i s h e s the p o s i t i o n found i n most l a t e r p o p u l a r I n d i a n works. o n t o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e , but
Like Suzuki,
Coomaraswamy sees the t r i k a y a as
an
draws p a r a l l e l s t o Vedanta r a t h e r t h a n C h r i s t i a n i t y .
The Mahayana i s thus d i s t i n g u i s h e d by i t s m y s t i c a l Buddha t h e o l o g y . . . . The Mahayana Buddha t h e o l o g y , as remarked by Rhys D a v i d s , " i s the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o the A g n o s t i c Atheism," which i s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Gautama's system o f p h i l o s o p h y . But t h i s o p p o s i t i o n i s simply the i n e v i t a b l e c o n t r a s t o f r e l i g i o n and philosophy, r e l a t i v e and a b s o l u t e t r u t h , and those who are i n t e r e s t e d i n the s c i e n c e o f t h e o l o g y , or are touched by a r t , w i l l not be l i k e l y t o agree i n denouncing the Buddha gods as the i n v e n t i o n s "of a s i c k l y s c h o l a s t i c i s m , h o l l o w a b s t r a c t i o n s without l i f e or r e a l i t y " : i n t h i s c o n t i n g e n t w o r l d we l i v e every day by r e l a t i v e t r u t h s , and f o r a l l t h o s e who do not w i s h t o a v o i d the w o r l d o f Becoming at the e a r l i e s t p o s s i b l e moment t h e s e r e l a t i v e t r u t h s are f a r from l a c k i n g : ' i n l i f e or r e a l i t y . The Mahayana as a t h e i s t i c f a i t h i s so o n l y t o the same extent as the Vedanta, t h a t i s t o say i t has an e s o t e r i c aspect which speaks i n n e g a t i v e terms o f a Suchness and a V o i d which cannot be known, w h i l e on the other i t has an e x o t e r i c and more e l a b o r a t e p a r t in.which the A b s o l u t e i s seen through the g l a s s o f time and space, c o n t r a c t e d and i d e n t i f i e d i n t o v a r i e t y . T h i s development appears i n the d o c t r i n e o f the T r i k a y a , the Three Bodies o f the Buddha. These t h r e e are ( l ) the Dharma-" kaya, or Essence-body; (2) i t s heavenly m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n the Sambhogakaya, or Body o f B l i s s ; and (3) the emanation, t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , or p r o j e c t i o n t h e r e o f , c a l l e d Nirmanakaya, apparent as the v i s i b l e i n d i v i d u a l Buddha on e a r t h . T h i s i s a system which h a r d l y d i f f e r s from what i s i m p l i e d i n the C h r i s t i a n doctrine of Incarnation. . . . Thus the Dharmakaya may be compared t o the F a t h e r ; the Sambhogakaya t o the f i g u r e o f C h r i s t i n g l o r y ; the Nirmanakaya t o the v i s i b l e Jesus who announces i n human speech t h a t 'I and my F a t h e r are One.' Or again w i t h the Vedanta: the Dharmakaya i s the Brahman, t i m e l e s s and u n c o n d i t i o n e d ; the Sambhogakaya i s r e a l i z e d i n the forms o f I s v a r a ; the Nirmanakaya i n every avatar. The essence o f a l l t h i n g s , the one r e a l i t y o f which t h e i r f l e e t i n g shapes remind us, i s the Dharmakaya. The Dharmakaya i s not a p e r s o n a l b e i n g who r e v e a l s h i m s e l f t o us i n a s i n g l e i n c a r n a t i o n , but i t i s the a l l - p e r v a d i n g and t r a c e l e s s ground o f the s o u l , which does not i n f a c t s u f f e r any
25 m o d i f i c a t i o n ' b u t appears t o us t o assume a v a r i e t y o f forms: we r e a d t h a t though t h e Buddha ( a t e r m w h i c h we must here u n d e r s t a n d as i m p e r s o n a l ) does not d e p a r t from h i s seat i n the tower ( s t a t e o f Dharmakaya), y e t he may assume a l l and every form, whether o f a brahma, a god, o r a monk, o r a p h y s i c i a n , o r a tradesman, o r an a r t i s t ; he may r e v e a l h i m s e l f i n e v e r y form o f a r t and i n d u s t r y , i n c i t i e s o r i n v i l l a g e s : from t h e h i g h e s t heaven t o t h e l o w e s t h e l l , t h e r e i s t h e Dharmakaya, i n w h i c h a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s a r e one. The Dharmakaya i s t h e p e r s o n a l ground o f Buddhahood from w h i c h t h e p e r s o n a l w i l l , thought and l o v e o f innumerable Buddhas and B o d h i s a t t v a s e v e r p r o c e e d i n response t o t h e needs o f t h o s e i n whom;, t h e p e r f e c t n a t u r e i s not y e t r e a l i z e d . I n some o f t h e l a t e r phases o f t h e Mahayana, however, the Dharmakaya i s p e r s o n i f i e d as Adi-Buddha (sometimes V a i r o c a n a ) who i s t h e n t o be r e g a r d e d as t h e Supreme B e i n g , above a l l o t h e r Buddhas, and whose s a k t i i s P r j n a p a r a m i t a . Dharmakaya i s commonly t r a n s l a t e d 'Body o f t h e Law,' but i t must n o t b e ' . i n t e r p r e t e d m e r e l y as e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e sum o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s (pp. 237-239). I t i s h a r d l y n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t out t h a t t h e s e remarks, w h i c h a r e grounded i n a t h o r o u g h r e d u c t i o n o f Buddhism t o V e d a n t a , a r e an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t o o l f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g a V i j n a n a v a d i n t h e o r y t o t h e modern Westerner.
They a r e u s e f u l
as a c l e a r and e l e g a n t i n t r o d u c t i o n • o f • an • u n s a t i s f a c t o r y answer w h i c h , i s met., many t i m e s i n l a t e r w r i t i n g s , f r e q u e n t l y i n an o b s c u r e d form.-
8.
Akanuma, C h i z e n .
" T r i p l e Body o f t h e Buddha."
E a s t e r n B u d d h i s t , 2 (1922):
1-29Akanuma, l i k e S u z u k i , was a b e l i e v e r , b u t one w i t h g r e a t e r knowledge and l e s s w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c e p t f a c i l e comparisons.
He r e f e r s t o a wide range o f
Indian Buddhist t e x t s . Akanuma b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e Dharmakaya was t h e f i r s t a s p e c t o f t h e t r i k a y a to
appear.
He sees t h e Dharmakaya d o c t r i n e as t h e r e s u l t o f t h r e e f a c t o r s :
The s t r o n g f a i t h o r i e n t a t i o n o f Buddhism.
There i s no doubt t h a t t h e r a p i d growth o f Buddhism i n I n d i a was c h i e f l y due t o t h e greatness o f t h e Buddha's own p e r s o n a l i t y which demanded f a i t h and l o v e i n h i s d i s c i p l e s . They were u n c o n s c i o u s l y drawn towards t h e i r l e a d e r and took i n a l l h i s words w i t h a b s o l u t e f a i t h . . . . T h i s a t t i t u d e . . . n a t u r a l l y r e f l e c t e d i t s e l f i n t h e i r conception o f the p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e Master, r e a d i l y p r e p a r i n g the way f o r h i s d e i f i c a t i o n by t h e l a t e r B u d d h i s t s (pp. 1 - 3 ) .
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Buddha and dharma.
By "Dharma," o r "Dhamma" ( i n P a l i ) , i s meant f i r s t o f a l l t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e Buddha. . . . And as t h e d o c t r i n e taught by t h e Buddha i s t h e t r u t h , u n i v e r s a l and a b s o l u t e , which was r e v e a l e d i n h i s inmost c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e term n a t u r a l l y came t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Law; and then t h e Law and t h e D o c t r i n e were c o n c e i v e d t o have u n i t e d themselves i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e Buddha. The Buddha t h e r e f o r e was not a body which was o n l y apparent t o our p h y s i c a l eye, but a s p i r i t o r a moral person i n whom t h e Dharma o r Law was i n c a r n a t e d . . . t h e D o c t r i n e i s what c o n s t i t u t e s t h e Body o f t h e Buddha, and he who sees t h e D o c t r i n e and t h e T r u t h as r e v e a l e d i n i t i s he who sees t h e Buddha. Buddhahood c o n s i s t s i n h i s s p i r i t u a l i t y and not i n h i s p h y s i c a l b e i n g , however m a j e s t i c i t may be. To i n t e r v i e w him, t h e r e f o r e , means t o understand t h e T r u t h through t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h e Buddha. When t h i s i d e a was f u r t h e r developed by the l a t e r B u d d h i s t s as one o f t h e i r m e t a p h y s i c a l problems t h e Buddha-Body came L: t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Law o r T r u t h o r T a t h a t a (suchness) . . . (pp. k; 6-7; 8-9).
The t r a n s c e n d e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e dharma.
I f a l l t h e Buddhas and Bhikkhus and i n f a c t any Buddhist f o l l o w e r s were enabled t o a t t a i n i l l u m i n a t i o n by means o f t h e one v e h i c l e (ekayana) o f t h e Dharma, i t was q u i t e n a t u r a l f o r Buddhists t o assume t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l e x i s t e n c e o f one T r u t h , which was d e s i g n a t e d by them as Dharmata o r T a t h a t a meaning the essence o r suchness o f t h i n g s . T h i s i t was t h a t would e x i s t f o r ever r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e appearance o r disappearance o f t h e T a t h a g a t a , and t h e Dharmakaya which had been understood as meaning one who e x p e r i e n c e d o r was i n p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e Dharma o r T r u t h , came t o mean one i n whom t h e T r u t h i t s e l f was embodied o r one whose body was t h e Dharma i t s e l f . ' The i d e a o f t h e Buddha as t h e Dharmakaya thus came t o be e n t e r t a i n e d by h i s d i s c i p l e s as time went on a f t e r h i s entrance i n t o P a r i n i r v a n a (p. 9 ) .
27
These t h r e e s t r a n d s converged
around
a d e v o t i o n a l i s t i c core t o form the mature
Dharmakaya.
As y e a r s r o l l e d on, the d i s c i p l e s grew more and more c o n v i n c e d o f the e t e r n a l i t y and s u p e r n a t u r a l p e r s o n a l i t y o f the Buddha. While he was w a l k i n g among them on e a r t h , the l o v e and r e v e r e n c e t h e y f e l t f o r him was r e a d i l y s a t i s f i e d , hut w i t h h i s p a s s i n g t h e i r emotional l i f e would not he p a c i f i e d w i t h empty i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m (p. 1 0 ) .
Akanuma t r a c e s the r i s e o f multi-body t h e o r i e s from t h i s Dharmakaya.
s i n g l e numinous
He sees the J a t a k a s t o r i e s , the t r a d i t i o n o f t h e t h i r t y - t w o
marks, and the l o k o t t a r a t e n d e n c i e s , as elements which were l a t e r s y s t e m a t i z e d as the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e .
He b e l i e v e s t h a t t h i s s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n f i r s t
appeared
i n those Mahayana s u t r a s ( e s p e c i a l l y the P r a j n a p a r a m i t a ) which r e v e a l e d a p l u r a l i t y o f Buddhas and c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e " N a g a r j i a n " two-kaya system o f the Ta Chih Tu
Lun.
Akanuma:..realizes
t h a t the l o g i c a l gap between the two
systems cannot be b r i d g e d by the s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t the two developed i n t o the t h r e e .
and the t h r e e - k a y a just
naturally
Furthermore, he r e j e c t s the p i o u s s o l u t i o n o f sup-
p o s i n g t h a t Nagarjuna h i m s e l f f o r m u l a t e d t h e t r i k a y a .
In d o i n g so" he i s drawn
i n t o another important problem —
do so?
Why
d i d n ' t Nagarjuna
He must'have
been a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the f i g u r e o f Amitabha i n the Pure Land s u t r a s .
Why
he not r e a l i z e t h a t Amitabha would not f i t w i t h i n a two-kaya system,
a realiza-
t i o n which would f o r c e him t o some type o f t r i k a y a ?
did
Akanuma concludes t h a t
Nagarjuna must never have grasped t h i s d i f f i c u l t y . b e c a u s e - i t i s a - h i s t o r i c a l f a c t t h a t the t r i k a y a , f i r s t
a p p e a r i n g i n such t r a n s i t i o n a l s u t r a s as the
M a h a p a r i n i r v a n a and Samdhinirmocana, p o s t d a t e s Nagarjuna. t h a t t h e f u l l t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e was graha.
He
paraphrases:
first
Akanuma m a i n t a i n s
s t a t e d by Asanga i n t h e Mahayanasam-
28 The Body o f S e l f - n a t u r e (svabhavakakaya) c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e Dharmakaya, and t h e Body o f Enjoyment (sambhogakaya) c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e Vipakakaya (Recompense Body) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Body o f T r a n s f o r m a t i o n (nirmanakaya), have f i n a l l y come t o e s t a b l i s h t h e dogma; o f t h e T r i p l e Body o f t h e Tathagata. The b a s i s and reason o f t h e T r i p l e Body i s t h e Dharmakaya, through which t h e o t h e r two Bodies a r e capable of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r e x i s t e n c e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e t h r e e s e p a r a t e b o d i e s a r e i n f a c t t h e t h r e e a s p e c t s o f one essence i n which we c o n c e i v e Tathagatahood. The o b j e c t o f worship or f a i t h has thus now been t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e h i s t o r i c a l and n a t u r a l Buddha t o t h e Vipakakaya Buddha o r Recompense Body o f Tathagatahood.
In
conclusion:
. . . t h e dogma o f t h e T r i p l e Body f i r s t s t a r t e d from the w o r s h i p f u l a t t i t u d e o f t h e e a r l i e r Buddhists towards t h e i r Master, which r e s u l t e d i n t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e Law Body (Dharmakaya), and how t h i s l a t t e r c o n c e p t i o n , once f i n d i n g an a r t i c u l a t e e x p r e s s i o n b o t h i n t h e S u t r a s and t h e s a s t r a s , s t e a d i l y grew up so as t o make Nagarjuna formulate h i s t h e o r y o f t h e Two Bodies (dvikaya) o f t h e T a t h a g a t a , and f i n a l l y how t h i s Nagarjuna d o c t r i n e developed i n t o Asang'a's • T r i n i t y where t h e t h i r d Body, t h e Vipakakaya o r the Body o f Recompense, came t o f i n d i t s l e g i t i m a t e p l a c e . The T r i n i t y , thus complete as dogma, has now put t h e V i p a kakaya Buddha i n t h e p l a c e o f t h e n a t u r a l Buddha as t h e Buddhist o b j e c t o f f a i t h , making i t s content ever deeper and ever more enhancing. This r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the theory o f the Buddha-body marks one o f t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e s between t h e Mahayana and Hinayana (pp. 28-29).
9.
L. de L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n . P a r i s : P a u l Geuthner,
V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a s i d d h i : l a s i d d h i de
Hiuan-tsang.
1928-29.
T h i s i s an annotated t r a n s l a t i o n o f Hsuan-tsang's
seventh-century
compendium o f V i j n a n a v a d i n thought, t h e Ch'.'.eng Wei S h i h Lun.
The p e n u l t i m a t e
s e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h t h e t r i k a y a , and t h e appendix c o n t a i n s L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s mature study o f t h e t o p i c .
Having t r a n s l a t e d b o t h t h i s t e x t and t h e Abhidhar-
makosa and s t u d i e d much o f t h e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e , he has r e p l a c e d t h e v i t r i o l of
h i s e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s with concrete references.
While
no n e a r e r t o h i s •
29 grand p l a n o f 1913,
he has a more r e a l i s t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the
problem.
1. Ces notes sur l e s corps du Bouddha sont presque exclusivement d'ordre dogmatique. De t o u t e e v i d e n c e , l a s p e c u l a t i o n et l e s i n v e n t i o n s de l ' e c o l e ont l e u r s causes l o i n t a i n e s ou proches dans l e s r e l i g i o n , c u l t e , m y t h o l o g i e , i c o n o g r a p h i e . En p l u s i e u r s r e n c o n t r e s , l a c h r o n o l o g i e ne t r o u v e d'appui que dans l e s monuments f i g u r e s . La d e s c r i p t i o n des t h e o r i e s a b s t r a i t e s n'est qu'une p a r t i e , non n e g l i g e a b l e , d ' h i s t o i r e de l a bouddhologie. Ces notes ne sont pas meme un s a s t r a . N ' e c r i t pas un s a s t r a q u i veut. De graves l a c u n e s : l e Sraddhotpada deliberement exclu.. ( v o i r p. *j6k, 788); l e s grands S u t r a s , t e l s l e L o t u s , l e L a n k a v a t a r a , a p e i n e examines; l e s v a r i antes des S a s t r a s f o r t imparfaitement resumees, et 1'echeveau des s e c t e s c h i n o i s e s insoupconne ( v o i r D e m i e v i l l e , Sur 1 ' a u t h e n t i c i t y . . . ) ; sans p a r l e r de l a t h e o r i e des corps a p p l i q u e . au pantheon. Notre propos e t a i t d ' e t u d i e r l e s antecedents des d o c t r i n e s de l a S i d d h i , c a r r i e r e du B o d h i s a t t v a , T a t h a t a et l e r e s t e . I I e s t a t t e i n t s i nous avons montre qu'Asahga e s t au bout d'une l i g n e s p e c u l a t i v e t o u t e bouddhique. 2. F a u t - i l a j o u t e r que c e t t e l i g n e e s t , a u s s i b i e n , i n d i e n n e ? — S i Gaudapada emprunte des e x p r e s s i o n s bouddhiques, b i e n p l u s , s'empare des t e x t e s p r i s dans l e s C o r b e i l l e s , Mahamati s ' i n q u i e t e s i l e Bouddha du Lankavatara ne v e d a n t i s e pas. On p o u r r a i t d i r e que l e L o k o t t a r a v a d a k r i s h n a i s e . La d o c t r i n e des t r o i s corps nous a p p a r a i t comme e x c l u sivement f a i t e de materiaux bouddhiques: mais e l l e a ete e l a b o r e e dans un pays ou l ' o n a d o r a i t des A v a t a r s , ou l ' o n e t a i t anxieux de L'Absolu. Le cocher d'Arjuna e s t un nirmanakaya: l e corps sublime q u ' i l montre a A r j u n a , corps v i s i b l e aux s e u l s Y o g i n s , ' e s t l e sambhogakaya q u i • e s t v i s i b l e aux s e u l s B o d h i s a t t v a s ; et 1 ' i n e f f a b l e Brahman correspond au svabhavikakaya ou, mieux encore, a l a t a t h a t a . La comparaison des deux systemes s'impose. 3. Je s e r a i p l u s r e s e r v e en ce q u i c o n c e r n e . l e s i n f l u ences i r a n i e n n e s , o c c i d e n t a l e s , j u d e o - c h r e t i e n n e s q u ' a u r a i e n t
subies l e Bouddhisme (pp. 8 l l - 8 l 2 ) .
La V a l l e e P o u s s i n b e g i n s w i t h an e x c e l l e n t b i b l i o g r a p h y (which has been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the p r e s e n t study) and then surveys the v a r i o u s kaya t h e o r i e s t o be found i n Buddhist t e x t s .
T h i s survey may
be summarized as f o l l o w s :
30
a.
P a l i Canon t h e o r i e s
The
Nikayas d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e kayas:
—
caturmahabhumikakaya: t h e c o r r u p t i b l e body composed o f the f o u r elements.
—
manomayakaya: the body i n which t h e Buddha v i s i t s the Brahma w o r l d or i n
which he appears as Mara i n the Mara —
b.
dharmakaya: the body o f t e a c h i n g .
realm. Only m e t a p h o r i c a l l y a "body."
Sarvastivadin theories
The Abhidharmakosa mentions t h r e e kayas:
—
Dharmakaya: the c o l l e c t i o n o f anasrava
but
samskrta dharmas which form a
Buddha. —
Vipakakaya o r Rupakaya: t h e body, born
i n Lumbini' p o s s e s s i n g the t h i r t y - t w o
laksanas. —
c.
Nirmanakaya: the a p p a r i t i o n a l body c r e a t e d by the Buddha.
Lokottaravadin
theory
The L o k o t t a r a v a d i n s h e l d the Buddha t o be composed o f dharmas unconnected w i t h the t h r e e dhatus (e.g., o f t a t h a t a and t a t h a t a j n a n a ) w h i l e a p p e a r i n g i n the w o r l d by an a r t i f i c i a l body.
d.
The
B o d h i s a t t v a and Buddha o f the Ta Chih Tu
Although
La V a l l e e P o u s s i n was
t h i s t e x t he has
unable
Lun
t o e x t r a c t a coherent
summarized the v a r i o u s i d e a s i t c o n t a i n s .
Lamotte's t r a n s l a t i o n
i+
and a s y s t e m a t i c study
model i s b a s i c t o t h i s t e x t .
5
As we
system from now
have
i t i s c l e a r t h a t a two-kaya
However, i t a l s o c o n t a i n s , i n a v e r y d i s o r g a n i z e d
31
s t a t e , most o f the elements which f e d i n t o the t r i k a y a
e.
Theories
theory.
o f Asanga-Dharmapala
These i n c l u d e the mature t h r e e
and
f o u r - k a y a t h e o r i e s o f such t e x t s
the Y o g a s a s t r a , the Ahhisamayalankara and the Mahayanasamgraha. P o u s s i n t h i n k s t h a t a l l o f t h e s e t e a c h the
f.
Variant
as
La V a l l e e
same d o c t r i n e i n d i f f e r e n t ways.
theories
A number o f t e x t s i n t r o d u c e
v a r i a t i o n s on Asanga's s t a n d a r d
system.
These
i n c l u d e Vasubandhu's Saddharmapundarikasastra, the Suvarnaprabhasa, the Lankavatara and
the Avatamsaka.
He
surveys,
v e r y b r i e f l y the kayas mentioned
i n each t e x t .
g.
The
E t e r n a l Buddha
T h i s survey o f v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s about the r a i s e s p o i n t s r e l e v a n t t o our to h i s other
study, but
duration
o f a Buddha's
existence
La V a l l e e P o u s s i n f a i l s t o r e l a t e i t
comments.
In b r i e f , La V a l l e e P o u s s i n r e t a i n s the h i s t o r i c a l - d e v e l o p m e n t a l of h i s e a r l i e s t w r i t i n g s .
He
continues
t o view the t h e o r y
o f the
V i j n a n a v a d a masters as " t h e " t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e and t o c o n s i d e r ments as new
i d e a s or d e v i a t i o n s
or r e p u d i a t e
h i s notes o f 1 9 1 3 , so we
his basic interpretations.
from the b a s i c d o c t r i n e . may
early
later
develop-
'He does not
assume t h a t t h e s e s t i l l
approach
review
represent
32 10.
D. T. S u z u k i .
Studies i n the Lankavatara S u t r a .
London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul L t d . , 1932, pp. 308-338.
T h i s e x p o s i t i o n o f the t r i k a y a i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t 1906
Outlines.
from t h a t i n Suzuki's
Not o n l y has he l e a r n e d more about the d o c t r i n e , "but he
r e a l i z e d t h a t a developmental study i s a b e t t e r p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r Western r e a d e r s than a simple C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n .
He quotes e x t e n s i v e l y from t h r e e
s o u r c e s : the L a n k a v a t a r a s u t r a , the Suvarnaprabhasasutra and t h e Mahayanasraddhotpada. actual trikaya.
In the f i r s t
he f i n d s many elements o f the d o c t r i n e but
no
In the second he f i n d s the f u l l t r i k a y a , and i n the t h i r d
f i n d s the mature t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e o f the Sino-Japanese Most o f t h i s passage
tradition.
i s devoted t o an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the s e p a r a t e e l e -
ments found i n the L a n k a v a t a r a .
These
a r e : a Dharmakaya and a Dharmata-Buddha
which were t o become t h e Dharmakaya o f the t r i k a y a , a Nirmana-Buddha which to the
he
was
become the Nirmanakaya, and Nisyanda-Buddhas and Vipaka-Buddhas which were f o r e r u n n e r s o f the Sambhogakaya and the Nirmanakaya. Suzuki t a k e s v e r y s e r i o u s l y the q u e s t i o n o f why
a r o s e , a l t h o u g h h i s answers are n a i v e . i d e a " t h a t g r e a t men
are immortal
each o f t h e s e concepts
The Dharmakaya d e r i v e s from an " i n n a t e
(p. 31^).
A major reason f o r the Sambhoga-
kaya i s man's
. . . deep human l o n g i n g f o r a body o f t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n . We are not s a t i s f i e d w i t h our c o r p o r e a l e x i s t e n c e , we are a l l the time oppressed by the f e e l i n g o f imprisonment, our s p i r i t soars away from t h i s w o r l d o f p h y s i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s , we l o n g f o r e v e r f o r a manomayakaya ( w i l l - b o d y ) . T h i s p h y s i c a l body does not f u l l y express the meaning o f t h e s p i r i t , i t deranges, i t tyrannises. In f a c t a l l the r e l i g i o u s s t r u g g l e s and a s p i r a t i o n s we e x p e r i e n c e i n t h i s l i f e are c e n t e r e d on the c o n t r o l o f t h i s body.-.(p. 331).
Suzuki's p r i m a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n here i s h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e mechanism
33 whereby t h e Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya (or e q u i v a l e n t Lankavatara terms) appear
i n the w o r l d .
on the B o d h i s a t t v a vow
He understands (p. 233).
t h a t t h i s d i s c u s s i o n must remain f o c u s s e d
He a l s o r e a l i z e s t h a t t h i s vow
s e t s i n motion
a s e r i e s o f c a u s a l l y - r e l a t e d events w i t h i n the w o r l d , r a t h e r than an
irruption
o f s a c r e d r e a l i t y i n t o the w o r l d .
The n a t u r e o f a Vipaka-Buddha i s t h a t o f a NishyandaBuddha when t h i s i s understood i n the sense o f a r e s u l t f l o w i n g from an antecedent cause, t h a t i s , as one o f t h e f i v e e f f e c t s ( p a n c a p h a l a ) , .and not i n t h e sense o f something secondary w h i c h i i s s u e s out o f a more p r i m a r y substance; . . . (p. 330). Suzuki does not e x p l o r e a l l the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s p o i n t ; he does the major one.
The a s p i r a n t cannot be a p a s s i v e r e c i p i e n t
but i s h i m s e l f n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e d i n the appearance world.
That i s , the Nirmana-Buddha i s a r e l a t i o n a l
mention
o f the Buddha's a i d
o f t h e Buddha i n the
concept.
Thus, the e x i s t e n c e o f the Nirmana-Buddha can be understood i n two ways: one from the s t a n d p o i n t o f the Buddha h i m s e l f , whose l o v i n g h e a r t cannot h e l p r e s o r t i n g t o every p o s s i b l e means o f s a l v a t i o n , and the o t h e r from the s t a n d p o i n t o f s i n f u l m o r t a l s who d e s i r e every p o s s i b l e h e l p from a power h i g h e r than themselves. T h i s m u t u a l i t y has f i l l e d the w o r l d w i t h N i r m i t a - n a i r m a n i k a Buddhas * Wherever we t u r n we come a c r o s s one o f t h e s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , and i f we are earnest and s i n c e r e and l o n g i n g from the depths o f the h e a r t , we can see even the r e a l Buddha h i m s e l f i n and through them (p. 333). A s i d e from t h i s v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t , t h i s work i s s t i l l b a d l y flawed by appeals t o human n a t u r e , r a t h e r than t o V i j n a n a v a d i n theory.-
F o r example,
The r e l a t i o n o f the t h r e e Buddhas t o one another may be understood i n the analogy o f an i n d i v i d u a l person; That t h e r e i s something u l t i m a t e making up t h e reason o f t h i s i n d i v i d u a l e x i s t e n c e i s t o be g r a n t e d , because the v e r y c o n c e p t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y i s i m p o s s i b l e without p o s t u l a t i n g something b e h i n d i t . . . . T h i s corresponds t o the concept i o n o f the Dharmata, or when p e r s o n i f i e d , t o the Pharma'taBuddha.
3^
Now t h i s i n d i v i d u a l person stands i n every p o s s i b l e manner o f r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h i s f e l l o w - b e i n g s , human o r o t h e r wise. . . . In t h e case o f a l i v i n g person t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y , temporal and c o n s t a n t , reaches i t s l i m i t s . The person hims e l f has not a p p a r e n t l y changed b u t he assumes o r seems t o assume d i f f e r e n t forms t o h i s neighbours, May not t h i s aspect o f h i s b e i n g be c a l l e d h i s Nirmana value? In s p i t e o f a l l t h e s e e x t e r n a l and r e l a t i o n a l m u t a t i o n s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l has not at a l l changed t o h i s own c o n s c i o u s n e s s . That he i s h i m s e l f he at a l l times knows and he enjoys h i s p e r sonality. T h i s corresponds t o t h e Vipaka-Buddha, o r Sambhogakaya. Every c o n s c i o u s b e i n g may thus f i g u r a t i v e l y or r a t h e r m e t a p h y s i c a l l y be s a i d t o be t h e owner o f t h e T r i p l e Body. In t h e case o f the Buddha, t h e d o c t r i n e i s f i l l e d w i t h r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e and i t has p l a y e d a most important r o l e i n t h e development o f Mahayana Buddhism. One t h i n g we have t o n o t i c e here i s the r e p l a c i n g o f t h e B u d d h a - t r i n i t y by t h a t o f t h e Body (kaya). That Buddhist p h i l o s o p h e r s have come t o t a l k o f t h e T r i k a y a i n s t e a d o f Buddhatraya. I t i s not a matter o f mere change o f t e r m i n o l o g y , i t i n v o l v e s a deeper meaning. The r e a s o n i s t h a t Kaya has a more synthes i s i n g v a l u e , w h i l e Buddha suggests more o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y . The t h r e e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f Buddhahood make one t h i n k o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t , separate i n d i v i d u a l s , but t h e T r i k a y a means one p e r s o n a l i t y w i t h t h r e e a s p e c t s . In t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f the T r i p l e Body we t r a c e a s y s t e m a t i s i n g thought (pp.- 3 3 3 - 3 3 M .
T h i s analogy i s not o n l y vague, b u t , as we w i t h Asanga's f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e t r i k a y a
11.
s h a l l see l a t e r , i t i s i n c o m p a t i b l e
doctrine.
Hobogirin: D i c t i o n n a i r e encyclopedique
du bouddhisme, s.v. " B u s s h i n , " n.d.,
f a s c . 2: lT"+-l85.
This a r t i c l e i s a wide-ranging
examination o f a l l Buddhakaya
Busshin) t h e o r i e s i n c l u d i n g t h e t r i k a y a .
(Japanese:.
Most o f t h e a r t i c l e i s a survey o f
Buddhist t e x t s which mention the v a r i o u s Buddhakayas.
A b r i e f statement
of
t h e p l a c e o f each t e x t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f Buddhism i s f o l l o w e d by a summary o f r e l e v a n t passages.
T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n has been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e b i b l i o -
graphy o f t h e p r e s e n t
study.
35 In a d d i t i o n , i n the "Apergu G e n e r a l , " t h e a u t h o r ^ proposes o f t h e development o f v a r i o u s Buddhakayas.
a simple t h e o r y
He suggests t h a t the d i v e r s e conno-
t a t i o n s o f "Buddhakaya" developed from an ambiguity i n the term kaya.
I t meant
both:
—
an o r g a n i z e d body or organism,
—
a m a t e r i a l o r c o n c r e t e mass.
The
i n t h e sense o f n i k a y a .
e a r l y Buddhist community, needing an o b j e c t o f worship,
substituted
the t e a c h i n g (= Dharmakaya) f o r the d e p a r t e d Buddha. Others developed more complex Buddhologies, the Buddha was
e n t i r e l y transcendent.
The Mahasamghikas h e l d t h a t
Others s a i d t h a t the p u r e l y human Buddha
d i s a p p e a r e d at the p a r i n i r v a n a , but t h a t the "buddha elements" p e r s i s t e d . d i v i s i o n i n t o a form-body and dharma-body harmonized
This
w i t h the t w o - t r u t h i d e a
and and c o n t i n u e d i n the e a r l y Mahayana s c h o o l s , based on t h e M a h a p a r i n i r v a n a s u t r a and the P r a j n a p a r a m i t a s u t r a s .
The Avatamsaka, on t h e o t h e r hand,
m u l t i p l i e d bodies u n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y . The V i j n a n a v a d i n master Asanga f o r m u l a t e d the d e f i n i t i v e t r i k a y a on the b a s i s o f i d e a s c o n t a i n e d i n such s u t r a s as the L a n k a v a t a r a . s i x t h c e n t u r y , Paramartha the d o c t r i n e .
T h i s was
on
In the
a r r i v e d l i n China and announced t h a t I n d i a had
included i n h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of the
and i n the c h a p t e r added t o the Suvarnaprabhasasutra. -other groups b u i l t
doctrine mid-
fixed
Sraddhotpadasastra
The T ' i e n - T ' a i and
this.
The author concludes w i t h a warning t h a t i n s u f f i c i e n t
documentation
is
a v a i l a b l e f o r a p r o p e r h i s t o r y o f the t r i k a y a t o be w r i t t e n . This a r t i c l e sources.
i s e s s e n t i a l l y a b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l essay on the p r i m a r y t e x t u a l
As such i t i s a p r i m a r y r e f e r e n c e work f o r t h i s study, but c o n t a i n s
few i d e a s which c o u l d be a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a .
12.
A. K.
Chatterjee.
University,
The Yogacara I d e a l i s m .
V a r a n a s i : Benaras Hindu
1962.
T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the V i j n a n a v a d a I n d i a n s c h o l a r s h i p on the s u b j e c t . u n i f y i n g Buddhological
seems t o r e p r e s e n t contemporary
C h a t t e r j e e sees t h e Tathagata
as the
concept:
The Tathagata o c c u p i e s t h e same-place i n Buddhism as I s v a r a does i n A d v a i t a Vedanta. He i s the God o f r e l i g i o n , an o b j e c t o f worship and v e n e r a t i o n . He has a l s o i n f i n i t e compassion f o r the s u f f e r i n g mankind but f o r Whose grace t h e i r redemption would not be p o s s i b l e (p. 223).
C h a t t e r j e e d i s c u s s e s the n e c e s s i t y and the l o g i c a l t e n a b i l i t y o f t h i s concept, and then expounds h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t h r e e kayas o f t h e Tathagata.
He
draws a l l s u p p o r t i n g r e f e r e n c e s from the
Mahayahasutralankara
The concept o f the Tathagata i s c o n s t i t u t e d by d i f f e r e n t metaphysical p r i n c i p l e s . T h i s f a c t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the t h e o r y o f the t h r e e kayas o f the Buddha. I t i s one o f the most important d o c t r i n e s i n t h e whole o f Mahayana r e l i g i o n and i t i s n o t h i n g p e c u l i a r t o the Yogacara who a c c e p t e d the traditional doctrine. There are t h r e e a s p e c t s o f the God-head, t e c h n i c a l l y known as the t h r e e kayas o f the T a t h a g a t a . They a r e : 1. The Svabhavika kaya. 2. The Sambhoga kaya and 3. The Nairmanika kaya. 1. The Svabhavikakaya o f the Buddha i s the p r i n c i p l e o r pure W i l l (visuddha T a t h a t a ) which i s t h e . u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y . As such He i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h the A b s o l u t e . It i s also called dharma-kaya, b e i n g the dharmata (essence) o f t h i n g s . I t s e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r ( l a k s a n a ) i s a s r a y a p a r a v r t t i , i . e . , the withdrawing or r e t r a c t i n g o f t h e Kl&ya. When under the i n f l u ence o f A v i d y a , the i l l u s i o n o f o b j e c t i v i t y , t h e A l a y a i s compelled i n t o a forward movement. I t goes on c r e a t i n g forms o f o b j e c t i v i t y which i n t h e i r t u r n f u r t h e r r e p l e n i s h i t . On the s u b l a t i o n o f t h i s d i s t u r b i n g i l l u s i o n a r e t r a c t i n g movement o f t h i s A l a y a i s s t a r t e d . I t no l o n g e r p o s i t s an o t h e r but r e s t s i n i t s e l f . T h i s i s the s t a t e o f V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a , o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s as pure A c t . I t i s the dharmakaya o f the Buddha and i s His n a t u r a l a s p e c t . -
37
Being e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h the A b s o l u t e , the q u e s t i o n o f the number o f Buddhas has no meaning. . . . The dharmakaya o f a l l the Buddhas i s i d e n t i c a l , as a l l are i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e A b s o l u t e . I t i s a l s o beyond thought as t h i s i d e n t i t y cannot be grasped, w i t h mere c o n c e p t s . 2. The second aspect o f the Buddha i s H i s Sambhogika kaya — His body o f B l i s s . I t i s t h i s body w i t h which the Buddha enjoys H i s c r e a t i o n (dharmasambhoga). Strictly s p e a k i n g , t h i s i s the concept o f God par e x c e l l e n c e . A l l the g l o r i f i e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the Buddha found i n the s c r i p t u r e s , e.g., r a y s emanating from the innumerable pores o f H i s s k i n and p e n e t r a t i n g t o the remotest c o r n e r s o f t h e u n i v e r s e , p e r t a i n t o t h i s kaya. The Buddha d w e l l s i n the A k a n i s t h a Heaven, surrounded by a host o f B o d h i s a t t v a s and o t h e r minor personages. Sambhoga kaya i s the p e r s o n a l i t y o f the supreme God, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a l l powers and e x c e l lences. I t i s comparable t o the concept o f God i n the Brahmanical systems which f i n d s the b e s t i l l u s t r a t i o n i n the e l e v e n t h c h a p t e r o f the Bhagavad G i t a . 3. The Nairmanika Kaya i s t h e a p p a r i t i o n a l body o f the Buddha. Hence one i s e x p l i c i t l y warned t h a t the human form which the L o r d might t e m p o r a r i l y assume s h o u l d by no means be mistaken f o r H i s r e a l body. T h i s assumption i s s o l e l y f o r the purpose o f l e n d i n g succour t o mankind. The forms assumed can be i n f i n i t e i n number. . . . Whereas the body o f B l i s s c h a r a c t e r i s e s such q u a l i t i e s e x i s t i n g f o r the sake of others. . . . In s h o r t , the human Buddha who i s o r d i n a r i l y seen i n the v a r i o u s worlds and e x e m p l i f i e d i n d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s i s the nirmanakaya o f the Buddha. I t i s o f t h i s kaya t h a t any h i s t o r i c i t y can be a s c r i b e d . That body which i s v i s i b l e t o some heavenly b e i n g s i s H i s Sambhogakaya which o b v i o u s l y has no h i s t o r i c i t y . But b o t h the Kayas are h i s f r e e assumptions. The u t t e r i n d i v i s i b i l i t y . . . o f any form i s H i s Dharmakaya. T h i s i s H i s r e a l essence. The Sambhogakaya i s the supreme God w h i l e the Nirmana kaya i s the Sakyamuni who a c t u a l l y took b i r t h amongst us (pp. 230-232).
C h a t t e r j e e o f f e r s l i t t l e more than d i d Coomaraswamy i n 19l6.
The
inter-
v e n i n g developmental s t u d i e s have been i g n o r e d and the d o c t r i n e t r e a t e d as r e v e a l e d dogma.
H i s t o r i c a l a s s e r t i o n s , i . e . , t h a t the t r i k a y a was
Buddhist d o c t r i n e , not a V i j n a n a v a d i n development,
a general
are not j u s t i f i e d .
All
i n f o r m a t i o n i s drawn from a s i n g l e e a r l y t e x t which i s not one seen as c e n t r a l
38 by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s .
The g r e a t e x e g e t i c a l t r e a t i s e s i n which such t e x t s
were d i s c u s s e d and c l a r i f i e d are i g n o r e d i n f a v o r o f t h e b l i n d assumption t h a t the
V i j n a n a v a d a i s a l l but i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e Vedanta.
The r e s u l t i n g e x p l a n a -
t i o n i s simple and p r e d i c t a b l e but u s e l e s s as a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r
13.
Matsunaga,
Alicia.
The Buddhist P h i l o s o p h y o f A s s i m i l a t i o n .
Monumenta l i p p o n i c a Monograph,
studies.
Tokyo:
1969.
T h i s book i s t y p i c a l o f modern p o p u l a r works on Buddhism i n E n g l i s h .published from Japan.
I t promises to-be p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t " t© our
e n q u i r y as i t t a k e s a developmental approach, showing how became i n t e g r a t i v e c e n t e r s around which new
certain
doctrines
i d e a s c o a l e s c e d as t h e s e - d o c t r i n e s
developed and as Buddhism s p r e a d t o C h i n a and Japan. The book does not l i v e up t o i t s " i n i t i a l promise. -
the
h i s t o r y o f t h e Buddhology
are c l e a r
While t h e passages on
( a l t h o u g h adding n o t h i n g t o t h e
H o b o g i r i n a c c o u n t ) , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which the authors d e r i v e from i t i s , at
least to this writer, u n i n t e l l i g i b l e .
to
some ambiguous, u n d e f i n e d European term.
Each e x p l a n a t i o n i n v o l v e s an a p p e a l
ambiguous w i t h i n t h e modern Japanese academic
While t h e s e terms may
not be
community, t h e Western r e a d e r o f
a work w r i t t e n i n E n g l i s h expects a shared t e r m i n o l o g y . trikaya section
'.,
F o r example,
the
opens:
H i s t o r i c a l l y , i n Buddhism t h e r e have always been at l e a s t t h r e e p o i n t s o f view i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e 'Buddha'; f i r s t , as a human b e i n g , second as a s p i r i t u a l p r i n c i p l e , and l a s t l y , as something i n between t h e two former views. The a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l e x i s t e n c e o f Gotama (Skt. Gautama) Buddha has never had a tremendous s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e Buddhist f a i t h , as' he has been p r i m a r i l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be an a r c h e t y p e , and s e c o n d l y a h i s t o r i c a l personage (p. 78).
" S p i r i t u a l p r i n c i p l e " — s u r e l y the l e a s t m e a n i n g f u l term p o s s i b l e — i s not
39 explained. require
The
an e n t i r e chapter o f development b e f o r e i t would be
rejected). Jung, but ancient
statement c o n c e r n i n g the h i s t o r i c a l e x i s t e n c e
What i s meant by h i s use
"archetype"?
o f i t cannot be
That term was
our
-
vidual. is
the
But
d i v i d i n g the
which many o t h e r s c h o l a r s
C.
G.
j u s t t h a t Gautama^ "Buddha
p r i m a r i l y an a r c h e t y p e , not
more b a s i c a l l y , i n s e p a r a t i n g
author:' not
by
( C a r o l i n e Rhys-Davids n o t -
I f i t d i d , s u r e l y t h i s i n d i v i d u a l was
author- maintains, was
popularized
Even the n o t i o n t h a t the t r a d i t i o n had
a concept o f a " h i s t o r i c a l " Buddha i s q u e s t i o n a b l e
who,
a c c e p t e d (or even
s t r e t c h e d t o cover the manner i n which
B u d d h i s t s r e g a r d e d the Buddha.
withstanding).
o f Gautama would
a r c h e t y p e and
e s s e n t i a l from the
agree i s t o t a l l y a g a i n s t
a historical
indi-
historical individual,
e x i s t e n t i a l , the one the
spirit
o f the
move
trikaya
doctrine? The
remainder o f the
e x p e r i e n c e and
exposition
i s i n two
p a r t s : the t r i k a y a as r e l i g i o u s
the t r i k a y a as p h i l o s o p h i c a l d o c t r i n e .
t h e s e , or even the
grounds f o r making the
seem t o i n v o l v e t h e o r y a l t h o u g h the more Madhyamika and
the
The
d i s t i n c t i o n between
d i s t i n c t i o n , i s not
"philosophical" discussion
stated. seems t o
involve
" r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e " s e c t i o n seems t o i n v o l v e more
Vijnanavada. The
Both
p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s c u s s i o n opens as
follows:
P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , the Dharma-kaya i s e q u i v a l e n t t o sunyata, the u n i v e r s a l t r u t h d e c l a r i n g t h a t a l l s u b j e c t - o b j e c t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n based upon d i s c r i m i n a t i v e knowledge i s i n v a l i d . In more p o s i t i v e terms t h i s can be equated w i t h the essence o f Enlightenment ( n i r v a n a ) which merely c o n s i s t s o f an unders t a n d i n g o f P r a t f t y a samutpada ( r e l a t i v i t y ) or the a b i l i t y t o view t h a t - w h a t - i s - a s - i t - i s ( t a t h a t t ) . We can t h e r e f o r e say t h a t the Dharma-kaya. i s a l s o the system o f cosmic u n i t y or o r d e r t h a t e x i s t s everywhere but i s unable t o be grasped by reasoning. S i n c e the Dharma-kaya f u n c t i o n s as a u n i v e r s a l t r u t h , i t cannot remain a mere p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r i n c i p l e , but c o n s t a n t l y
1+0
appears i n r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e . Such an appearance o r z a t i o n o f t h i s t r u t h i s the Sambhoga-kaya.,
reali-
... In essence, the Sambhoga-k.aya i s a l s o the e x p e r i ence o f 'enjoyment' o f the t r u t h o f stonyata, o r the r e a l i z a t i o n o f A b s o l u t e T r u t h . . . t h e Sambhoga-kaya i s not a s t a t i c s t a t e . From t h i s r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e t h e r e comes the n a t u r a l d e s i r e t o e n l i g h t e n o t h e r s and hence t h e Nirmana-kaya o r system o f t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the essence o f Enlightenment (sunyata) i s s u e s forth'.to a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . T h i s l a s t f u n c t i o n or aspect o f Enlightenment i s s i m i l a r t o the concept o f sunyata a r t h a or f e a t u r e o f r e c o g n i z i n g the phenomenal w o r l d as based upon d i s c r i m i n a t i v e knowledge and u s i n g upaya t o l e a d s e n t i e n t b e i n g s from d i s c r i m i n a t i v e knowledge t o Enlightenment (pp. 8 l 82).
Comment i s h a r d l y n e c e s s a r y .
Every major problem i s brushed
aside.
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the Dharmakaya t o sunyata i s one o f " e q u i v a l e n c e . "
The
The
Sambhogakaya i s the r e a l i z a t i o n o f the A b s o l u t e T r u t h , and the Nirmanakaya i s due t o a " n a t u r a l d e s i r e . " all
I can see o n l y the s l i g h t e s t
o f t h i s and the c l a s s i c a l V i j n a n a v a d a
c o n n e c t i o n between
theory.
As r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , the t r i k a y a i s d e s c r i b e d by a confused of Vijnanavada
ideas:
I t was the Yogacara" w i t h t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s - ' ness ( v i j n a n a ) as the b a s i s o f Enlightenment t h a t gave a s y s t e m a t i c form t o the d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i k a y a , and i t was t h i s form t h a t permeated a l l l a t e r Mahayana. The e a r l i e s t stage o f t h e Yog&c&fa c o n c e p t i o n can be found i n .the Lankavatara Sutra. . . . In t h e f i n a l form o f t h e T r i k a y a t h e o r y t h e Dharma-kaya became t h e aspect o f Buddhahood as A b s o l u t e T r u t h or r e a l i t y , w h i l e the Sambhoga-kaya and Nirmana-kaya were upaya or manif e s t a t i o n s o f the Dharma-kaya t a i n t e d by degrees o f i l l u s i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the phenomenal w o r l d , hence h a v i n g form. We can compare b o t h the Sambhoga-kaya and Nirmana-kaya t o m i r r o r s r e f l e c t i n g the p u r i t y o f l i g h t from the U n c o n d i t i o n e d Dharma-kaya. The former i s a l i g h t and g l o r i o u s r e f l e c t i o n , but i t i s s t i l l a m i r r o r a t t e m p t i n g t o c a p t u r e the r a y s o f the i n f i n i t e and i n d e s c r i b a b l e at an i d e a l l e v e l o f r e l i g i o u s r e a l i z a t i o n , i t i s f a r removed from i t s source. The l a t t e r tends t o be a dark r e f l e c t i o n , .since i t i s c l o u d e d by i t s appearance i n the phenomenal w o r l d t h a t
scattering
Ill
can o n l y f a i n t l y glimpse the dim r e f l e c t i o n i t c a r r i e s o f the Absolute Truth. From the sphere o f r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , the Yogacara were a b l e t o t e a c h t h a t the Sambhoga-kaya and Nirmana-kaya r e p r e s e n t e d mind-made emanations from the Dharma-kaya o r one e t e r n a l Buddha. Both t h e s e l a t t e r forms a p p e a r i n g i n t h e i l l u s i v e w o r l d were u n r e a l , j u s t as a l l phenomenal e x i s t e n c e i s u n r e a l . . . . From such a b a s i s o f r e l i g i o u s understandi n g i t i s easy t o comprehend t h e source o f Mahayana m y s t i c i s m . The Yogacara emphasis.upon.the r e l i g i o u s .experience o f E n l i g h t enment symbolized as the T r i k a y a as w e l l as the importance o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s as the b a s i s f o r the movement towards Enlightenment n a t u r a l l y p l a c e d a h i g h e r v a l u e upon m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e than e m p i r i c a l knowledge (pp. 83-85).
Wot
o n l y does a l l o f t h i s a v o i d the r e a l q u e s t i o n s but i t l e a v e s a
s u s p i c i o n t h a t the authors may navadin t h e o r y .
Was
not be w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l
Vijna-
t h e r e ever a s c h o o l which d i d not r e g a r d c o n s c i o u s n e s s
Q as the b a s i s o f enlightenment?
S u r e l y Suzuki
i s correct i n saying that
V i j n a n a v a d a i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by i t s t h e o r y o f the mechanics o f the e n l i g h t e n ment p r o c e s s
( i . e . , the
asraya-paravrtti).
However, the most s e r i o u s doubts i c a l models.
Such phrases
a r i s e from the constant use o f o n t o l o g -
as " t a i n t e d by degrees
of i l l u s i o n i n r e l a t i o n to
t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the phenomenal w o r l d " seem i n c o n s i s t e n t t r i s v a b h a v a b a s i s o f the system. examining 1^.
with'the
T h i s q u e s t i o n w i l l be taken up l a t e r when
Asanga's Mahayanasamgraha.
Geoffrey Parrinder. and Comparative and Faber,
A v a t a r and I n c a r n a t i o n : The Wilde L e c t u r e s i n N a t u r a l
R e l i g i o n i n the U n i v e r s i t y o f Oxford.
London: Faber
1970.
The p r e v i o u s a r t i c l e s have been the work o f s c h o l a r s o f Buddhism or Buddhist a p o l o g i s t s . produce
I t might be argued t h a t t h e i r p r i m a r y t a s k was
not t o
an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n but t o p r e s e n t the l i t e r a t u r e and c o n s t r u c t a h i s t o r y
o f i t s development*
The
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e data might he c o n s i d e r e d a
t a s k f o r the g e n e r a l i s t such as the student o f comparative
religion,
history
o f r e l i g i o n , and so on. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , few g e n e r a l i s t s have d e a l t w i t h the t o p i c . work by P a r r i n d e r i s the most p r o m i s i n g treatment. s e c t i o n devoted t o Buddhism by n o t i n g the apparent
The
present
As he b e g i n s the s i x t y - p a g e anomaly o f a Nirmanakaya
r e s e m b l i n g an a v a t a r or i n c a r n a t i o n i n t h i s - n o n - t h e i s t i c r e l i g i o n , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o expect him t o speak d i r e c t l y t o our concern —
t o d e r i v e a frame
o f r e f e r e n c e broad enough t o accommodate b o t h Western t h e i s t i c ideas. No
and
Buddhist
T h i s would be t h e key t o i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e t r i k a y a . such d e r i v a t i o n i s f o r t h c o m i n g .
The b u l k o f the r e l e v a n t c h a p t e r s i s
simply a s y n o p s i s o f the Buddha myth from v a r i o u s s u t r a s .
P a r r i n d e r seems
unaware o f the s a s t r a s and b a d l y informed about the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e — n o t one o f the s t u d i e s i n t h i s p r e s e n t survey o f s c h o l a r s h i p appears raphy.
in his bibliog-
With the e x c e p t i o n o f Lamotte's H i s t o i r e du bouddhisme i n d i e n , h i s
secondary
sources are the l e a s t r e l i a b l e o f a l l the p o p u l a r i z e r s .
he has a c c e p t e d a s t a r t l i n g assortment
o f misunderstandings
From them
as s i m p l e d a t a :
. . . t h e Buddha was. a c t u a l l y a l l the Buddhas o f the p a s t . . . . The c o r p o r e a l l i f e o f a Buddha was i l l u s o r y anyway . . . a l l the Buddhas have the same essence . . . t h e y can appear i n v a r i o u s forms t o many b e i n g s . These are acts of grace. . . . So the i d e a o f Buddhahood was d e v e l oped i n t o a u n i v e r s a l pantheism, or r a t h e r pan-Buddhism . . . (p. 178).
These sources a l s o s u p p l i e d him w i t h a v e r y d i s t o r t e d v e r s i o n o f the t r i k a y a , o r r a t h e r w i t h t h e view t h a t the t r i k a y a was d i d not take the t r i k a y a s e r i o u s l y at a l l :
not important.
"The b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n was
Parrinder between
the p h y s i c a l body and Dharma-body, i t i s t h e s e two t h a t are u s u a l l y compared
^3 and
contrasted" From these
(p.
177).
i d e a s he draws a few
g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s , t h e most
h e i n g t h a t the Buddha t h e o r i e s are merely a "weak" (p. 2^0) d o c t r i n e and
can he d i s m i s s e d
and 19,
scholar.
The
form o f the
avatar
on the p a r t
of
along with i t .
A l l o f t h i s i n i t i a l l y appears as a p u z z l i n g n e g l i g e n c e such a r e s p e c t e d
p i c t u r e becomes c l e a r e r when, i n c h a p t e r s
P a r r i n d e r throws a s i d e h i s s c h o l a r l y g u i s e and r e v e a l s the
t h e o l o g i a n who,
books have been i n c l u d e d t o demonstrate how been done has p e n e t r a t e d
the p o p u l a r
level.
little
their
o f the r e s e a r c h which
reviewed.
15.
T r a n s l a t e d by
Wagao, G a d j i n .
"On
has
As most o t h e r w r i t e r s are f a r
more n a i v e than t h e s e , no o t h e r p o p u l a r works w i l l be
the Theory o f Buddha-Body."
Hirano
E a s t e r n Buddhist, 6 (May, 1973): 25-53.
P r o f e s s o r Nagao approaches the t r i k a y a w i t h great knowledge o f the t e x t s , and In s e c t i o n one, section
polemical
exalts Christianity i n a ringing a l t a r . c a l l .
Although n e i t h e r Matsunaga nor P a r r i n d e r h e l p s us d i r e c t l y ,
The
17
on the b a s i s o f the e a r l i e r c o n c l u s i o n s , f i n d s a l l a l i e n
r e l i g i o n s wanting and
Umeyo.
important
sympathy, profound
a cautious a t t i t u d e .
he d i s c u s s e s the v a r i o u s i d e a s which f e d i n t o the t r i k a y a .
concludes:
I t was i n the p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e Yogacara s c h o o l (or t h e V i j n a n a - v a d a s c h o o l ) r e p r e s e n t e d by Asafiga and Vasubandhu t h a t the two-body t h e o r y developed u n t i l i t was consummated i n t o a three-body t h e o r y . The i d e a s and f a i t h s t h a t became ... the m a t e r i a l s f o r the three-body t h e o r y must have been e s t a b l i s h e d i n v a r i o u s forms b e f o r e t h a t time. There was a l r e a d y a tendency toward the u n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n o f the concept o f Buddha. I t was thought t h a t Gautama Buddha was not the o n l y Buddha; t h a t t h e r e had been many Buddhas i n the p a s t , and t h e r e would be many Buddhas i n the f u t u r e ; and
hk
t h a t a c t u a l l y t h e r e e x i s t e d innumerable Buddhas i n the innumerable Buddha-lands i n the t e n d i r e c t i o n s . Thus, names o f Buddhas, such as V a i r o c a n a , Aksobhya, Amitabha, Amitayus, B h a i s a j y a - g u r u , and c o u n t l e s s o t h e r s had a l r e a d y been conceived. I t was the Y o g a c a r a - v i j n a n a s c h o o l t h a t o r g a n i z e d the three-body ( t r i - k a y a ) t h e o r y by s y n t h e s i z i n g t h e s e c o n c e p t i o n s o f the Buddha (p. 3 0 ) .
S e c t i o n two d e a l s w i t h the Yogacara t r i k a y a .
Nagao pays
particular
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e Sambhogakaya and asks why
t h e Sambhogakaya, s h a r i n g i n t h e
n a t u r e s o f b o t h Dharmakaya and Nirmanakaya,
d i d not r e p l a c e b o t h o f them:
The sambhoghika-kaya, through t h i s double c h a r a c t e r , l i e s between the svabha*vika-kaya and nairmanika-kaya, s e r v i n g as a l i n k between t h e two. No, the sambhogika-kaya r a t h e r o c c u p i e s the c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n i n the t r i p l e - b o d y doct r i n e ; e s p e c i a l l y , the s o t e r i o l o g y i n Buddhism i s developed r e v o l v i n g around the a x i s o f t h i s double c h a r a c t e r o f the sambhogika-kaya. In t h i s sense, t h e sambhogika-kaya can be c a l l e d the Buddha par e x c e l l e n c e . However, i f i t i s so, i t might be p o s s i b l e t o say t h a t the one Buddha-body o f sambho-. g i k a ^ k a y a i s s u f f i c i e n t , and n e i t h e r the svabhavika-kaya nor the nairmanika-kaya i s n e c e s s a r y . I n f a c t , such a p o s i t i o n i s p o s s i b l e , and i t might have been supported e s p e c i a l l y from the s t a n d p o i n t o f r e l i g i o u s m o n o t h e i s t i c demand. But t h e s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the Mahayanic d o c t r i n e o f Buddhabody, l i e s i n the p e r s i s t e n t maintenance o f the t r i a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n o f the t h r e e Buddha-bodies. For i n that respect t h e r e i s something f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t from e i t h e r the one-body or the two-body t h e o r y . . . . The t h e o r e t i c p e r f e c t i o n o f the d o c t r i n e o f Buddha-body l i e s ' i n the t r i a n g u l a r concept o f the t h r e e Buddha-bodies; the two-body t h e o r y would be i n s u f f i c i e n t , and the four-body and o t h e r many-body t h e o r i e s would be p l e t h o r i c i n p r i n c i p l e (pp. 3 7 , 3 8 - 3 9 ) .
Nagao b e l i e v e s t h a t t h i s t r i a d i c
scheme i s the key t o V i j n a n a v a d i n
Buddhology:
A l l the a t t r i b u t e s and v i r t u e s o f the Buddha were a l s o c l a r i f i e d i n the system o f the trikaya,. As i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e them here one by one, I s h a l l o n l y g i v e a few examples: the Buddha's wisdom was r e g a r d e d as an a t t r i b u t e e s p e c i a l l y b e l o n g i n g t o t h e svabhavika-kaya; h i s w i l l (asaya, vow) was e s p e c i a l l y t r e a t e d i n the sambhogika-kaya; and h i s a c t s (buddha karman) e s p e c i a l l y i n the n a i f m a n i k a -
kaya. But at the same t i m e , s i n c e the t h r e e Buddha-bodies are not independent o f each o t h e r but are i n the r e l a t i o n o f a b a s i s and a t h i n g based on i t , t h e s e v i r t u e s are a l s o c o n s i d e r e d t r a n s f e r a b l e t o each o t h e r . S i m i l a r l y , the e l u c i d a t i o n o f such q u e s t i o n s as whether t h e r e i s o n l y one Buddha or o t h e r Buddhas numerous i n number, or f o r what reason the Buddha i s s a i d t o be e v e r l a s t i n g and always a b i d i n g , and so f o r t h , has been attempted through the s y s tem o f the t r i k a y a . I w i l l not go i n t o t h e s e problems h e r e , but I would say t h a t , i n s h o r t , t h e s e problems w i l l not l i k e l y be answered t h o r o u g h l y without the t r i k a y a t h e o r y (p. 3 8 ) .
In s e c t i o n t h r e e , Nagao develops h i s methodology through a c r i t i q u e o f Coomaraswamy and C h a t t e r j e e ' s attempts Hindu concepts.
He
t o r e l a t e the t r i k a y a t o C h r i s t i a n
and
concludes:
The t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e developed as a system w i t h a background o f t h e s e Mahayana c o n c e p t s , which i n t h e i r t u r n became ever more s o l i d i f i e d by h a v i n g r e c o u r s e t o the t r i k a y a doctrine. T h e r e f o r e , we must say t h a t the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e i s f a i r l y d i f f e r e n t from the T r i n i t y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y o r the t r i m u r t i o f Hinduism (p. h2).
F i n a l l y Nagao p o i n t s out t h a t w h i l e the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e may Buddha's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i t does not e x p l a i n how
explain a
a-Buddha comfesf into', e x i s t e n c
I t i s t r u e t h a t by t h i s t r i k a y a t h e o r y the n a t u r e o f the Buddha and a l l h i s v i r t u e s has been d e l i n e a t e d . But as f o r how Gautama, a human b e i n g , was a b l e t o become a Buddha p o s s e s s i n g v i r t u e s e q u a l t o those o f a d i v i n e b e i n g , almost n o t h i n g has been s a i d i n t h e s e t h e o r i e s . How can a l e a p from t h e r e l a t i v e w o r l d t o the a b s o l u t e w o r l d be made? S i n c e Gautama was an e x c e p t i o n a l p e r s o n , as h i s d i s c i p l e s thought, i t might have been p o s s i b l e f o r him t o become a Buddha by d i n t o f h i s innumerable v i r t u o u s deeds accumulated i n t h e past. But i f o n l y t h a t , Gautama would have o n l y been a d i v i n e e x i s t e n c e from the b e g i n n i n g , and not a human b e i n g . Moreover, t h a t would be a unique case f o r Gautama a l o n e , and would not e x p l a i n a n y t h i n g about the e x i s t e n c e o f a l l the Buddhas i n the t e n d i r e c t i o n s . In Mahayana Buddhism, i t i s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o l d t h a t a l l l i v i n g b e i n g s are expected t o a t t a i n Buddhahood, but t h e n , i t must be asked: In what way i s i t p o s s i b l e f o r a common l i v i n g b e i n g t o become a Buddha?
1+6
The p o s s i b i l i t y o f a l l l i v i n g b e i n g s a t t a i n i n g Buddhahood i s a problem t h a t seems t o have been answered from two sides. One i s the i d e a t h a t i s m a i n l y advocated by the tathagata-garbha (tathagata-matrix) theory. The other i s the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a s r a y a - p a r a v r t t i (the r e v o l v i n g o f the b a s i s ) . . . (p. kk).
The
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s c o n s t i t u t e s the b u l k o f the
article.
While t h i s s h o r t a r t i c l e o n l y touches upon each i s s u e , i t e s t a b l i s h e s a r e a s o n a b l e model f o r a study.
Nagao's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t the t r i k a y a i s an
i n t e g r a t i v e scheme w i t h i n the V i j n a n a v a d a , and hence should be reference
t o the
ative religion.
ideas
i t i n c o r p o r a t e s , w i l l prevent much premature compar-
His separation
o f the t r i k a y a from q u e s t i o n s questions The has
from o b s c u r i n g
the
of questions
H. V.
s t r u c t u r e and
function
historical
f u n c t i o n a l ones. on Chinese t e x t s c o n t a i n e d
i n t o the b i b l i o g r a p h y
SUMMARY OF
The
about the
about i t s o r i g i n s h o u l d p r e v e n t the
b i b l i o g r a p h i c information
been i n c o r p o r a t e d
i n t e r p r e t e d by
o f the p r e s e n t
in his
study.
SCHOLARSHIP
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a by the r e m a i n i n g important "scholar,
Guenther, w i l l be
examined l a t e r i n l i g h t
o f the
f o l l o w i n g summary.
the c o n t r i b u t i o n s made by t h e s e d i v e r s s c h o l a r s over n e a r l y a c e n t u r y still
footnotes
v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o compare, I w i l l now
obtain a basis f o r planning
future
La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s 1906 Buddhological
and
summarize the p r e v i o u s
are
articles
to
research.
a r t i c l e , w i t h i t s d i v i s i o n o f the t r i k a y a i n t o a
an o n t o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e , began t o r e v e a l the
the concept and marked the
As
end o f r e d u c t i o n i s t i c t r e a t m e n t s .
complexity of L a t e r workers
g e n e r a l l y t r e a t e d i t as a symbolic or open-ended scheme f o r o r g a n i z i n g
a
1*7
v a r i e t y o f i d e a s r a t h e r than as a t i g h t l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d dogma. By 1913
he had
extended h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t r i k a y a c o u l d not be understood
t o the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t the
i n i s o l a t i o n from the h i s t o r y o f I n d i a n
Buddhism ( t a n t r i c developments, exempted) and made some p r o g r e s s toward s e e i n g it
i n that perspective.
To do t h i s he r e v i v e d Kern's use o f the
distinction
between c o n v e n t i o n a l and a b s o l u t e t r u t h t o r e s o l v e a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y n o t i o n s w i t h i n the d o c t r i n e .
While t h i s i d e a w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , i t i s
s a f e t o say t h a t La V a l l e e Poussin's.. 1913-..understanding o f the between Madhyamika and V i j n a n a v a d a taken
was
so incomplete
that-it
distinction
s h o u l d not
be-
seriously. La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s
f i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n i n the V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a s i d d h i
(1928) c o n t a i n s l i t t l e
interpretation.
t e x t u a l sources
a v o i d i n g the t a n t r i c ) and a b i b l i o g r a p h y o f s c h o l a r s h i p .
(still
I t i s an expanded s e l e c t i o n o f I n d i a n
Both are s t i l l u s e f u l . In the 1913
a r t i c l e Masson-Oursel c o n s o l i d a t e s the p r e v i o u s
conclusions
and
examines a c l a s s i c a l V i j n a n a v a d i n t e x t , from which he i s a b l e t o
two
advances.
F i r s t , he s t a t e s e x p l i c i t l y what La V a l l e e . P o u s s i n has
nized i m p l i c i t l y — t h a t
The p r e f i x
recog-
the term kaya i n the t r i k a y a i s o n l y m e t a p h o r i c a l l y a
"body" but a c t u a l l y d e s i g n a t e s hood.
formulate
a s e t o f o r g a n i c a l l y - r e l a t e d f a c t s about Buddha-
(e.g., Dharma-) i d e n t i f i e s the p a r t i c u l a r c l u s t e r o f f a c t s .
Second, he c l a r i f i e s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the Sambhogakaya, although f a i l s t o e x p l a i n i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the o t h e r two
kayas.
It i s clear that
Masson-Oursel c o u l d have r e s o l v e d h i s dilemma r e g a r d i n g the Sambhogakaya as compassionate response, Vijnanavada
had he possessed
s u f f i c i e n t g e n e r a l knowledge o f the
t o r e a l i z e the r o l e o f the B o d h i s a t t v a
vow.
he
1+8
While Suzuki's i n t e n t i o n may and the S t u d i e s presentation)
not have a l t e r e d between the O u t l i n e s
(1906)
(1930), h i s knowledge i n c r e a s e d and h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (or
changed almost beyond r e c o g n i t i o n .
few u s e f u l i d e a s , the ease w i t h which S u z u k i ,
While the O u t l i n e s
contains
as a b e l i e v e r , m o d i f i e s
the
concept o f kaya supports La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s and Masson-Oursel's i d e a t h a t i t i s not
a f i x e d "body."
discouraged
others
The
works o f t h e s e t h r e e w r i t e r s appear t o have
from w a s t i n g e f f o r t on a s e a r c h
pure" t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e .
Most c o n c e n t r a t e d
f o r the " r e a l " o r
on the i d e a s t h a t i t
"original
systematizes
i n any p a r t i c u l a r t e x t or system. Suzuki's major c o n t r i b u t i o n i n the S t u d i e s Nirmana-Buddha o f the Lankavatara (and by t h a t emerged from the t r i - B u d d h a
i s the i n s i s t e n c e t h a t
the
i m p l i c a t i o n , a l l t h r e e o f the kayas
system o f t h a t t e x t ) i s a r e l a t i o n a l
concept.
While I doubt t h a t the i d e a should be pushed as f a r as Suzuki does, i t w i l l
be
a key t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Mahayanasamgraha. Akanuma has
(1922) and Nagao (.1973) have adopted s i m i l a r approaches.
the advantage o f the i n t e r v e n i n g h a l f - c e n t u r y , h i s a r t i c l e may
as the c u l m i n a t i o n
o f Akanuma's work.
As Nagao
be
T h e i r approach i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by
p r i m a r y l o y a l t y t o the Buddhist sources r a t h e r than t o the Western or analogs. primary The
a
Indian
T h i s l o y a l t y l e a d s to" more a p p l i c a b l e c a t e g o r i e s and more r e l e v a n t 1
questions. b a s i c message o f Nagao's a r t i c l e appears i n the p o r t i o n s
A l t h o u g h i t may
other
Matsunaga.
quoted.
be u n f a i r t o c a l l t h e s e p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s " c o n c l u s i o n s , "
t h e y are the most s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s i n t h i s s e t o f The
regarded
s t u d i e s may
be
Coomaraswamy and
articles.
set a s i d e j u s t as were those o f P a r r i n d e r C h a t t e r j e e b o t h i g n o r e any
historical
or v a r i a t i o n o f the d o c t r i n e which t h e y simply
r e g a r d as a t h e i s m .
not used t h e i r knowledge o f the I n d i a n m i l i e u .
T h e i r sources are
and
development They have restricted,
h9 t h e i r methods u n c r i t i c a l and t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s r e d u c t i o n i s t i c . little
s u t r a and the H o b o g i r i n a r t i c l e have been important
suggests an
Rockhill's
sources but n e i t h e r
interpretation.
The b u l k o f t h e s e s t u d i e s a c t u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s d a t a f o r a h i s t o r y o f the V i j n a n a v a d a , i . e . , i n f o r m a t i o n about
t e x t s and c o n t e n t s , comments on
h i s t o r y , and i n s i g h t s i n t o the s t r u c t u r e o f t h e system. data i n t o a h i s t o r i c a l account of
them i s more d i f f i c u l t .
d e r i v e d from t h e s e The
first
their
Incorporation of these
i s a straightforward process.
Interpretation
A few g e n e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s can be
studies.
i s t h a t the word "kaya" i s . not a simple o b j e c t but an open
concept which has a t t r a c t e d a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
I would
suggest
t h a t t h i s n o t i o n can be m a i n t a i n e d by r e g a r d i n g kaya as a symbolic r a t h e r than a d e n o t a t i v e concept. The
g e n e r a l Buddhakaya, i n p a r t i c u l a r , has been found t o c o n t a i n s e v e r a l
general categories of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . p r a c t i c e , i . e . , i t i s something
I t i s o b v i o u s l y the r e s u l t o f r e l i g i o u s
o b t a i n e d by f o l l o w i n g the p r e s c r i p t i v e message,
.I.e., the Buddha i s , i n some sense, a r e o r i e n t e d a s p i r a n t . b i l i t y o f t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s accounted and the a b s t r a c t mechanical asrayaparavrtti theory.
q u e s t i o n o f how
The l o g i c a l
f o r by the t a t h a g a t a g a r b h a t h e o r y , i t occurs i s answered by the
T h i s aspect o f Buddhahood does not appear t o r a i s e
any problems whose answer i s not touched upon i n the
articles.
However, the Buddha i s a l s o what La V a l l e e P o u s s i n c a l l s an or
possi-
"ontological
c o s m o l o g i c a l " concept which, as a form o f t h e "dharma" o r u n i v e r s a l norm,
t r a n s c e n d s the p e r s o n a l and a c c i d e n t a l . o b j e c t o f r e l i g i o u s d e v o t i o n , t h i s may understood The
When seen a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c a l l y as an be t h e aspect which Masson-Oursel
as the cosmogonic Buddha.
c l e a r e s t agreement i s on the h i s t o r i c a l development o f the t r i k a y a .
An o r i g i n a l d o c t r i n e c e n t e r e d on Sakyamuni q u i c k l y developed form as t h e need was
f e l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h between Sakyamuni t h e t e a c h e r
o t h e r ways o f v i e w i n g him model was
i n t o a two-kaya
( e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r the p a r i n i r v a n a ) .
The
and
two-kaya
t h e e s s e n t i a l p a t t e r n u n d e r l y i n g many o f t h e multi-Buddha or m u l t i -
kaya t h e o r i e s o f the e a r l y s e c t s , e s p e c i a l l y those based on the
prajnaparami-
tasutras. The t r i k a y a was Asanga-Vasubandhu.
an i n n o v a t i o n o f the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d i n masters M a i t r e y a I t became the b a s i s f o r l a t e r m u l t i - k a y a t a n t r i c
ments i n I n d i a n and f o r v a r i o u s Sino-Japanese e l a b o r a t i o n s .
The
h i s t o r y o f the appearance o f the t r i k a y a i n the w r i t i n g s o f the masters i s more obscure
detailed Vijnanavadin
and the h i s t o r y o f the l a t e r Indo-Tibetan
Japanese developments has Kern's desideratum,
develop-
and
a t t r a c t e d even l e s s a t t e n t i o n . t h a t the t r i k a y a s h o u l d be understood
t h e g e n e r a l development o f I n d i a n r e l i g i o u s thought,
is still
i n r e l a t i o n to impractical.
S c h o l a r s became more d i f f i d e n t as they became b e t t e r a c q u a i n t e d w i t h problem.
The
g r e a t modern surveys o f I n d i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y
have simply drawn a t t e n t i o n t o the magnitude o f the remaining reliable
sources.
the
( i . e . , Renou
and F i l l i o z a t ' s L'Inde c l a s s i q u e and Dasgupta's H i s t o r y o f I n d i a n
of
Sino-
Philosophy)
t a s k and p a u c i t y
At p r e s e n t no s c h o l a r o f Buddhism can be expected
produce a d e t a i l e d h i s t o r y o f the r e l e v a n t a r e a o f I n d i a n thought
to
and then f i t
the t r i k a y a i n t o i t . While i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f a g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y i s s t i l l term desideratum,
a long-
the f a c t t h a t our authors have produced s i g n i f i c a n t
based o n l y on the i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e suggests
results that
such a h i s t o r y i s not i n d i s p e n s a b l e . F o r our purposes, opments o c c u r r e d .
the more important
Suggested reasons
q u e s t i o n i s why
f o r the s h i f t
each o f t h e s e d e v e l -
from one t o two-kaya models
51 i n c l u d e : need t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e human from t h e a b s t r a c t Buddha; need f o r a c u l t focus a f t e r the p a r i n i r v a n a ; need t o a p p l y the Madhyamika t w o - t r u t h model to
the Buddhology, e t c . The
At l e a s t
some o f t h e s e sound
d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n i s why
the two
reasonable.
kayas (which
c o u l d a c t u a l l y accom-
modate v a r y i n g number's o f kayas under a two-term-model) were t u r n e d i n t o a trikaya.
S i n c e o n l y a few o f our authors have noted the f o r c e o f t h i s
and none has produced a s a t i s f a c t o r y answer, t h i s i s one for
o f the b a s i c
question questions
f u r t h e r study. An
answer t o the above q u e s t i o n w i l l p r o v i d e the context f o r c o n s i d e r i n g
the c e n t r a l one: What i s the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e ?
While a l l w r i t e r s agree t h a t
the t h r e e kayas p r o v i d e a framework by which a p p a r e n t l y d i v e r s e a s p e c t s
of
Buddhahood may
how
be a f f i r m e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e r e i s l i t t l e
t h e d i v i s i o n s s h o u l d be understood.
agreement on
Kern's s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e y r e p r e s e n t
u l t i m a t e and c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t s i s expanded by Masson-Oursel and
the
the
o t h e r s t o encompass an i d e a o f t h r e e t r u t h s , i . e . , t h a t t h e t h r e e are t h e same Buddha seen from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s . However, t h i s n o t i o n i s o b v i o u s l y inadequate s i b i l i t y on t h e a s p i r a n t and Suzuki's
as i t throws a l l t h e
i g n o r e s t h e mechanics o f h i s B o d h i s a t t v a
responvow.
r e l a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n seems more s a t i s f a c t o r y .
Once the fundamental nature o f the t h r e e d i v i s i o n s i s s e t t l e d , the. f i n a l two
q u e s t i o n s can be r a i s e d : What i s each kaya, and what are t h e
among t h e t h r e e ?
S i n c e each i s an open-ended symbolic
concept,
relationships the "What" can
be answered o n l y by a t a b u l a t i o n o f the aspects a t t r i b u t e d t o each. c e r t a i n number o f t h e s e are found
i n the a r t i c l e s reviewed,
While a
a g l a n c e at a
major t r i k a y a t e x t (e.g., c h a p t e r X o f the Mahayanasamgraha) r e v e a l s many more. The
study o f t h e s e s h o u l d be s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . The
q u e s t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among the t h r e e s h o u l d be
answered
52 . l a s t , as i t -will "be l a r g e l y determined by the answers t o the p r e v i o u s We
need o n l y note the tremendous v a r i e t y o f i d e a s i n the a r t i c l e s .
questions.
Those
who
saw the b a s i c p a t t e r n as a t w o - r e a l i t y model had t r e a t t r o u b l e . f i n d i n g any room f o r the Sambhogakaya, l e t alone d e c i d i n g how Nagao, however, s e r i o u s l y wonders why is
i t was
any kaya o t h e r
r e l a t e d t o the
than
others.
the Sambhogakaya
necessary! Many o f the b a s i c but e l u s i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Buddhahood, such as
t a t h a t a and t a t h a t a j n a n a , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the Buddhaland, and
the
a c t i o n s o f the Nirmanakaya, a l s o seem t o be bound up w i t h the q u e s t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; and have been d e a l t w i t h as Although
understanding o f any
such.
none o f the p r e c e d i n g works c o n t a i n s a b r o a d , s o l i d framework
w i t h i n which any r e a s o n a b l e c o n s i d e r one
v e r s i o n o f the t r i k a y a may
f i n a l s c h o l a r who
be understood,
appears t o o f f e r j u s t t h a t .
o f the d o c t r i n e i s the most p r o m i s i n g ,
H. V.
and most
we
must
Guenther's
idiosyncratic,
examined so f a r .
Although
he has p u b l i s h e d o n l y short a r t i c l e s on the t r i k a y a ,
d o c t r i n e i s c e n t r a l t o h i s v i s i o n o f Buddhism and numerous p u b l i c a t i o n s .
Naropa, 1963
this
i s mentioned i n most o f h i s
P a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l passages can be found
Ornament of L i b e r a t i o n , 1959
(chapters 20 and 21); The
i n The
L i f e and Teaching
Jewel of
(pp. ^7-50, l l H - l l + 5 ) ; T i b e t a n Buddhism Without M y s t i f i c a t i o n ,
(pp. 57-59); and K i n d l y Bent t o Ease Us,
"The
T r i k a y a Idea i n I t s T i b e t a n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n " ( i n Roy
opments i n Buddhist
1966
1975 (chapter 13). The most e x t e n s i v e
development o f h i s i d e a s on the t r i k a y a i s p r o b a b l y The
of
Experience
of
Being:
C. Amore, ed.,
Devel-
Thought, 1979).
Guenther's approach t o the t r i k a y a i s unique i n t h a t he works from the l a t e r T i b e t a n t e x t s which o t h e r s have set a s i d e as " t a n t r i c " and t h e r e f o r e non-Vijnanavadin.
Guenther sees these t e x t s as c o n t a i n i n g the c u l m i n a t i o n o f
53
the V i j n a n a v a d a d o c t r i n e begun f i f t e e n hundred Asahga and Vasubandhu. his
y e a r s ago i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f
H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t r i k a y a i s i n s e p a r a b l e from
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s mature t a n t r i c V i j n a n a v a d a .
summarized i n many o f h i s books. View o f L i f e
( B e r k e l e y : Shambhala,
A t y p i c a l passage
This understanding i s
o c c u r s i n The T a n t r i c
1972):
T a n t r i s m b e g i n s w i t h t h e c o n c r e t e human s i t u a t i o n o f man's l i v e d e x i s t e n c e , and i t t r i e s t o c l a r i f y t h e v a l u e s t h a t a r e a l r e a d y i m p l i c i t i n i t . . . . i t attempts t o study t h e f i n i t e e x i s t e n c e o f man as l i v e d from w i t h i n . . . . t h e w o r l d o f man i s h i s h o r i z o n o f meaning without which t h e r e can n e i t h e r be a w o r l d n o r an understanding, o f i t so t h a t man can l i v e . This h o r i z o n o f meaning i s not something f i x e d once and f o r e v e r , but i t expands as man grows and growth i s t h e a c t u a l i t y o f man's l i v e d e x i s t e n c e . Meanings do not c o n s t i t u t e another w o r l d , but p r o v i d e another dimension t o t h e one w o r l d which i s t h e l o c u s o f our a c t i o n s . . . . There i s thus no escape from B e i n g , and what T a n t r a i s t e l l i n g us i s t h a t we have t o f a c e up t o B e i n g ; t o f i n d meaning i n l i f e i s t o become Buddha — ' e n l i g h t e n e d , ' but what t h i s meaning i s cannot be s a i d without f a l s i f y i n g i t . . . . t h e problem i s not man's essence or n a t u r e , but what man can make o f h i s l i f e i n t h i s w o r l d so as t o r e a l i z e t h e supreme v a l u e s t h a t l i f e a f f o r d s . . . . In t h e p u r s u i t o f Being t h e r e i s a joyousness and d i r e c t n e s s which appears elsewhere t o be found o n l y i n Zen, t h a t i s , t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f Sino-Japanese Buddhism. . . . T a n t r i s m can be s a i d t o be t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f I n d o - T i b e t a n Buddhism (pp. 2 - 5 ) .
In
s h o r t , Buddhism p o i n t s t o a m e a n i n g f u l p r e s e n t by a t h e o r y which
c o n c e n t r a t e s on c o n c r e t e e x i s t e n c e r a t h e r than on a b s t r a c t essence. value-charged l i f e
This
i s r e f e r r e d t o as "Buddha" and d e s c r i b e d by means o f t h e
trikaya. Guenther makes much o f t h e f a c t t h a t "kaya" was understood t o be ambiguous by t h e T i b e t a n s who t r a n s l a t e d i t ( a c c o r d i n g t o c o n t e x t ) by e i t h e r " l u s " ( t h e o r d i n a r y body) o r "sku" (the kaya o f t h e Buddha).
While he i s content t o
t r a n s l a t e l u s as "body" he m a i n t a i n s t h a t sku i s a dynamic, o r g a n i z a t i o n a l concept f o r which "body" i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e .
He w r i t e s :
5h
T h i s s i n g l e r e a l i t y has s i g n i f i c a n t r a m i f i c a t i o n s w i t h i n the l i f e o f man. I t i s t h e s e r a m i f i c a t i o n s t h a t are r e f e r r e d t o by the t e c h n i c a l term t r i k a y a (sku gsum), commonly, though q u i t e l u d i c r o u s l y , t r a n s l a t e d as the 'Three Bodies o f the Buddha,' due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e a r l y t r a n s l a t o r s and t h e i r l a t e r c o p y i s t f a i l e d t o understand or t o note the p u r e l y d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f the word buddha ( s a n g s - r g y a s ) . . . . The word buddha i s a p a s t p a r t i c i p l e o f the verb budh "to wake up," and i t s e x c l u s i v e l y a d j e c t i v a l use d e s c r i b e s the e x p e r i e n c e a person has had, but not the person. T h i s alone s h o u l d s u f f i c e t o show t h a t i t i s meaningless t o speak o f " b o d i e s . " An e x p e r i e n c e tends t o get expressed, but i t i s n e i t h e r f a c t nor bare i d e a s t h a t get expressed but " v a l u e s " : how i t f e e l s t o be; and the meaning o f f u l l n e s s o f b e i n g i s apprehended as embodied (p. 5 5 ) .
And
again:
The human b e i n g has h i s house and f a m i l y , and a l s o h i s homeland t o which he becomes a t t a c h e d . His v e r y l i f e depends on the i n t e r a c t i o n between h i s e x i s t e n c e c o n d i t i o n i n g t h i s v i t a l f i e l d and the f i e l d c o n d i t i o n i n g h i s e x i s t e n c e . T h i s e x p l a i n s why t h e w o r l d he i n h a b i t s i s c a l l e d a Nirmanakaya j u s t as he. h i m s e l f i s a Nirmanakaya (p. 5 5 ) .
T h i s f u l l n e s s o f b e i n g p r e s e n t s i t s e l f i n two ways which may e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l and
be
considered
ontological:
F u l l n e s s o f Being and the f e e l i n g o f happiness which i s at t h e same time t h e awareness o f t h i s f u l l n e s s , are not two c o n t r a s t i n g e n t i t i e s , but the two a s p e c t s o f a s i n g l e r e a l i t y . Awareness c a r r i e s w i t h i t the c e r t a i n t y t h a t awareness is_ and Being is_ i n so f a r as t h e r e i s awareness o f i t . The one i s the o t h e r and the d i s t i n c t i o n i s a matter o f emphasis r a t h e r than o f d i f f e r e n c e , . . .
The t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e i s so complex because i t may
be d e s c r i b e d from b o t h
standpoints:
kLong-chen rab-'byams-pa i n t e r p r e t s the t e c h n i c a l term sku, which I have rendered as " e x i s t e n t i a l v a l u e p a t t e r n , " i n two d i f f e r e n t ways which are n e v e r t h e l e s s i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r . The one may be c a l l e d " e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l " and the o t h e r " o n t o l o g i c a l . " The " e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l v a l u e -
55
pattern" i s " i n t r i n s i c It i s
awareness w i t h i t s o b j e c t - appearance."
"That which appears b e f o r e our senses ( i n i t s immediacy) without b e i n g i n need o f b e i n g a s s e r t e d o r d e n i e d , and t h a t which can be a n a l y z e d i n t o ( i ) the senses (as c o n t r o l l i n g powers), ( i i ) t h e p s y c h o - p h y s i c a l c o n s t i t u e n t s , and ( i i i ) the (complex o f t h e ) o b j e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n and the owner o f t h e objective situation." To term t h i s complex a " v a l u e - p a t t e r n " i s j u s t i f i e d by the f a c t t h a t v a l u e does not r e s i d e i n one aspect a l o n e , but i n the t o t a l i t y o f what c o n s t i t u t e s the p a t t e r n . The " o n t o l o g i c a l v a l u e - p a t t e r n " as a "form o f c r e a t i v i t y " i s r e p r e s e n t e d as two p a t t e r n s , the one h o l d i n g t o what i t i s on the u n e r r i n g p a t h , the o t h e r j u s t b e i n g the b e i n g - t h e r e as pure e x i s t e n c e . Of the former, kLong-chen rab 'byams-pa says: "As i t h o l d s t o what i t i s i n i t s t r i a d o f f a c t i c i t y , a c t u a l i t y , and c o g n i t i v e r e s p o n s i v e n e s s and l e a d s t o f u l l n e s s of b e i n g as g o a l , i t is'.known (by such terms) as 'great p l a y f u l f a s c i n a t i o n p a t t e r n , ' 'crown-jewel p a t t e r n , ' ' l i f e s t y l e supporting p a t t e r n . ' " The pure e x i s t e n c e p a t t e r n i s s a i d t o be "The t r i a d o f the ground, p a t h , and g o a l . The ground i s the presence o f a b s o l u t e o r i g i n a l awareness; the path i s the i n v a r i a b l e n e s s o f an outward appearance i n r a d i a n c y and as an ( a e s t h e t i c ) f i e l d p a t t e r n . The g o a l i s the a b s o l u t e n e s s o f the three e x i s t e n t i a l patterns i n e f f o r t l e s s presence." The e x i s t e n t i a l v a l u e - p a t t e r n s which are b o t h i n t r i n s i c and e x t r i n s i c , are by no means t o be c o n s i d e r e d as s t a t i c e n t i t i e s t o which man has t o submit. Rather are t h e y man's v e r y l i f e , p u l s a t i n g w i t h wondrous e x p e r i e n c e s . The manif e s t a t i o n o f t h e s e v a l u e - p a t t e r n s h o l d s a f a s c i n a t i o n which i s f e l t as pure p l a y f u l n e s s , . . . (pp. k2-h3).
A simplified
summary o f Guenther's t r i k a y a i s found i n T i b e t a n Buddhism
Without M y s t i f i c a t i o n
( L e i d e n : E. J . B r i l l ,
1966):
. . . c e r t a i n norms are r e v e a l e d , which are always a c t i v e and dynamic. They have become known by t h e i r I n d i a n names, Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Nirmanakaya, but never have been understood p r o p e r l y , w i t h i n the framework o f t r a d i t i o n a l Western semantics, because, o f the e s s e n t i a l i s t premises o f Western p h i l o s o p h i e s . Essence i s t h a t which marks a t h i n g o f f
and s e p a r a t e s i t from o t h e r e n t i t i e s o f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d . From such a p o i n t o f view a l l o f man's a c t i o n s s p r i n g from t h a t which i s c o n s i d e r e d t o he h i s i n t r i n s i c n a t u r e . I t s f a l l a c y . i s t h a t i t makes us o v e r l o o k man's r e l a t i o n a l b e i n g ; the a c t u a l person always l i v e s in_ a w o r l d w i t h o t h e r s . And, i n human l i f e , essence t e l l s man t h a t he i s a l r e a d y what he can be, so t h e r e i s no need t o s e t out on a path o f s p i r i t u a l development. Seen as e x i s t e n t i a l norms t h e s e t h r e e p a t t e r n s r e v e a l their significance. Dharmakaya i n d i c a t e s the i n t e n t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f the n o e t i c i n man. I t i s the m e r i t o f Buddhism t h a t i t has always r e c o g n i z e d t h i s f e a t u r e o f awareness: I cannot know without knowing something, j u s t as I cannot do without d o i n g something. But i n o r d i n a r y knowledge whatever I know i s overshadowed by b e l i e f s , p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , l i k e s and d i s l i k e s . However, the more I succeed i n removing m y s e l f from s e l f - c e n t r e d concerns and s i t u a t i o n s and f r e e m y s e l f from a l l b i a s , the more I am enabled t o apprehend t h i n g s as t h e y a r e . T h i s happens i n d i s c i p l i n e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l e n q u i r y through which one g r a d u a l l y approaches not h i n g n e s s and i n d e t e r m i n a c y , from the vantage p o i n t o f which one can a c h i e v e a view o f r e a l i t y without i n t e r n a l warping. T h i s c o g n i t i v e i n d e t e r m i n a c y which u n d e r l i e s the whole n o e t i c e n t e r p r i s e o f man i s r i c h e r i n c o n t e n t s and broader i n i t s h o r i z o n s than any o t h e r awareness because i t i s an u n r e s t r i c t e d p e r s p e c t i v e from which n o t h i n g i s screened or excluded. I f a n y t h i n g can be p r e d i c a t e d about i t , i t i s pure potency which, when a c t u a l i z e d , enables us t o see o u r s e l v e s and t h i n g s as we and t h e y r e a l l y a r e . In o r d e r t o g a i n t h i s c a p a c i t y we have t o develop our i n t e l l i g e n c e , our c r i t i c a l acumen, which i s the main theme o f t h e Paramitayana and without which Mantrayana i s i m p o s s i b l e . But a l l the i n f o r mation we r e c e i v e through such s u s t a i n e d a n a l y s i s i s not merely f o r the sake o f pure awareness o r c o n t e m p l a t i o n , but i n o r d e r t h a t we may a c t . Every i n s i g h t i s b a r r e n i f i t does not f i n d e x p r e s s i o n i n a c t i o n , and every a c t i o n i s f u t i l e i f i t i s not supported by sound i n s i g h t . Only when we succeed i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o u r s e l v e s , our p r o j e c t s and our w o r l d from a p o i n t o f view which i s no p o i n t o f view, w i l l a sound d i r e c t i o n o f human a c t i o n be p o s s i b l e , because i t i s no l o n g e r s u b o r d i n a t e d t o p e t t y , s e l f - c e n t r e d concerns. This a c t i v e mode o f b e i n g i s r e a l i z e d through the two o p e r a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o r norms, the Sambhogakaya and the Nirmanakaya, both o f which have t h e i r r a i s o n d ' e t r e i n the c o g n i t i v e - s p i r i t u a l mode. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , o n l y the Nirmanakaya.is p e r c e p t i b l e , , a l t h o u g h i t would be wrong t o assume t h a t i t i s o f a p h y s i c a l nature. . . . Nirmanakaya s i g n i f i e s b e i n g i n the w o r l d , not so much as a b e i n g among t h i n g s and a r t i f a c t s , but as an a c t i v e being i n r e l a t i o n to a vast f i e l d of surrounding e n t i t i e s
57
which a r e e q u a l l y v i b r a t i n g w i t h l i f e , a l l o f them o r d e r e d i n a w o r l d s t r u c t u r e . As an a c t i v e mode o f b e i n g Nirmanakaya i s the implementation o f man's whole b e i n g , t h e o r d e r i n g o f h i s world i n the l i g h t o f h i s ultimate p o s s i b i l i t i e s . . . . Real b e i n g w i t h o t h e r s must s p r i n g up on t h e spur o f t h e moment and arouse us t o our p o s s i b i l i t i e s . That which does so i s the Sambhogakaya. Grounded i n u n r e s t r i c t e d and u n b i a s e d c o g n i t i o n i t can e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r s and s t i r them t o a u t h e n t i c a c t i o n (pp. 5 7 - 5 9 ) .
From t h i s , Guenther develops w r i t e r s ' multi-kaya theories. study I w i l l
a complex i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t a n t r i c
However, as t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a stage beyond t h i s
simply p o i n t out t h a t t h e a b i l i t y o f h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o d e a l
w i t h e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e b a s i c d o c t r i n e i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t w i l l be a s e r i o u s contender
i n a broader
study.
Here we w i l l d i s c u s s o n l y t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
outlined i n the preceding quotations. An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n v o l v e s two q u e s t i o n s :
—
t h a t o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f h i s view o f t a n t r i c
Buddhism
—
that o f the v a l i d i t y o f h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a .
The l a t t e r q u e s t i o n can be answered o n l y a f t e r a p o s i t i v e answer t o t h e former. I s h a l l assume such an answer.
In p a r t i c u l a r , I s h a l l assume:
—
Guenther's acquaintance w i t h a wide v a r i e t y o f r e l e v a n t Buddhist
—
h i s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h European p h i l o s o p h y
—
t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f a hermeneutic thought-patterns
Furthermore,
which expresses Buddhist
sources
i d e a s i n terms and
drawn from contemporary p h i l o s o p h y and p s y c h o l o g y .
I must i n s i s t t h a t t h i s d i s c u s s i o n does not t u r n upon t h e
p e r i p h e r a l i s s u e (which B h a r a t i , i n h i s " T i b e t a n Buddhism i n America," J o u r n a l k, critics
Tibet
no. 3 , p. 8 , c a l l s one o f t h e " r e d f l a g s he keeps h o i s t i n g f o r h i s
and d e t r a c t o r s " ) o f whether Guenther's replacement
of "standard"
58 m i s t r a n s l a t i o n s by more a c c u r a t e E n g l i s h terms i s j u s t i f i e d . I w i l l d i s c u s s o n l y t h e second q u e s t i o n , i . e . : I s Guenther's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the d o c t r i n e s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r and
g e n e r a l t o be
a p p l i e d t o any major Indo-
T i b e t a n v e r s i o n o f the t r i k a y a , and to. any major d o c t r i n e based on i t ? can be d i v i d e d i n t o s u b - q u e s t i o n s :
This
t h a t o f the g e n e r a l i t y , and t h a t o f the
clarity. The
concern o f g e n e r a l i t y i s the more important.
I t i s u s u a l l y phrased
somewhat as f o l l o w s : Even g r a n t i n g t h a t T i b e t a n t a n t r i c Buddhism (e.g., t h a t o f Klong-chen-pa, l ^ t h c e n t u r y A.D.) Vijnanavada,
i s the l o g i c a l c u l m i n a t i o n o f the
can an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d e r i v e d from i t be a p p l i e d t o much e a r l i e r
statements o f the I n d i a n masters
(e.g., Vasubandhu, Uth c e n t u r y A.D.)?
suggest t h a t the answer depends p r i m a r i l y upon the
w r i t i n g s by r e f e r e n c e t o l a t e r a u t h o r i t i e s .
If
earlier
For example, a C h r i s t i a n w i l l
i n t e r p r e t Genesis i n l i g h t o f t h e Adam o f the New such as Aquinas or L u t h e r , who
I
interpreter's intent.
he i s p r i m a r i l y an a p o l o g i s t , i t i s mandatory t h a t he i n t e r p r e t the
theologians
Indian
Testament, u n d e r s t o o d through
w i l l themselves be
understood--via
the w r i t i n g s o f modern t h e o l o g i a n s or p o p u l a r i z e r s . S i n c e Guenther o b v i o u s l y i s such an a p o l o g i s t , and study
i s not
s i n c e the
an a p o l o g e t i c work, t h i s approach i s s u s p e c t .
I f we
present regard h i s
work as a more d i s i n t e r e s t e d study c o n t a i n i n g f a c t u a l a s s e r t i o n s , a l o g i c a l problem a p p e a r s .
I f something should be
found i n the e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e
which h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would not: a p p l y , the l a t t e r would not be general.
However, t h i s can be
been examined. without while
T h i s i s simply
a t h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may
t i o n by an o u t s i d e r can
sufficiently
determined o n l y a f t e r a l l major i n s t a n c e s have
Hence h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n cannot, on p r i n c i p l e , be
further investigation.
to
judged
an i n s t a n c e o f the t r u i s m t h a t ,
y i e l d a p r i o r i knowledge, an i n v e s t i g a -
deal only i n a p o s t e r i o r i
facts.
59 T h i s simple p o i n t
i s f r e q u e n t l y obscured by Guenther's ex
a f f i r m a t i o n s t h a t h i s i s the
c o r r e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g " o f Buddhism."
obvious t h a t h i s work i s more a p o l o g e t i c than d i s i n t e r e s t e d , we back and fit
the
r e a l i z e t h a t the
One
obvious focus
Of c o u r s e , a c o m p l e t e l y new
One
The
for this
and
administer
o f Guenther's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . previous simply
a r t i c l e s p r e v e n t s us
u s i n g t h e i r data.
The
which the
Unfortunately, from s h o r t e n i n g
formulations
the
the p r o c e s s s t i l l
As we
the t r i k a y a t e x t s . the gap
For
by
ourselves. clarity,
frequently
i n t e r p r e t s i n an
concrete
phenomena t o
involve
an
However, as Guenther
between the
a b s t r a c t and
example, h i s e x p l a n a t i o n
i n T i l o p a ' s attunement i n s t r u c t i o n s (Naropa pp.
Guenther
further
have seen, Guenther
A g a i n , a thorough answer should
a c t u a l , the answer i s p r o b a b l y no.
U^-kQ,
the
o f the t r i k a y a
lUl-155) r e a d s , ". . .
i s n i n e f o l d : attunement t o the t h r e e
or norms, w h i l e d y i n g ,
research.
of v a l i d i t y , that of
o f the t r i k a y a which he
o f t e n seems unable t o b r i d g e
...
be
d i s s i m i l a r i t y among the
Do t h e s e i l l u m i n a t e the v e r y
scheme i s a p p l i e d ?
CattunementH
other piece of
I t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o examine each t e x t
examination o f b o t h h i s work and himself
t e x t would
t o each a t e s t o f the t h e o r e t i c a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y
c a l l s f o r a more s u b j e c t i v e judgement.
e q u a l l y a b s t r a c t manner.
can
masters.
study o f each V i j n a n a v a d i n
second c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h i n the q u e s t i o n
quotes v e r y a b s t r a c t
stand
f u r t h e r study would seem t o
a c t u a l procedure would be t h a t o f any
would d e v i s e
must
i t is
c u l t u r e s can be made o n l y a f t e r t h a t
be\the d o c t r i n e i n the w r i t i n g s o f the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d i n
ludicrous.
As
judgement o f whether or not h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g
d o c t r i n e i n o t h e r t e x t s and
d o c t r i n e i s examined.
cathedra
s l e e p i n g , and becoming awake" (p.
existential
patterns
h8).
explains:
The aim o f the v a r i o u s p r a c t i c e s o u t l i n e d i n the i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n t o Naropa i s t o a r r i v e at s t a b l e s t r u c t u r e s o f
60
authentic being. S t a b i l i t y i s a c h i e v e d by shedding whatever t h e r e i s o f c o n - s t r u c t i o n s , by d i s m a n t l i n g t h e maze o f dead and deadening c o n c e p t s , and by p e n e t r a t i n g t o a s p a c i o u s n e s s that i s pulsating with l i f e . The f i r s t s t e p i s t o e x p e r i e n c e one's b e i n g - i n - t h e - w o r l d as a god o r goddess i n a mansion which has t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a magic s p e l l . I t i s t h e magic t h a t i s important, not t h e s p e l l i t s e l f o r i t s content (p. lh9) •
The problem i s o b v i o u s . r i t u a l are t r i v i a l
Guenther f e e l s t h a t t h e a c t u a l d e t a i l s o f t h e
compared t o t h e meaning.
It i s difficult
to r e a l i z e that
he i s d i s c u s s i n g c e r t a i n v e r y s p e c i f i c , complex m e d i t a t i o n r i t u a l s . d e n i g r a t i o n o f t h e r i t u a l i s not t h e T i b e t a n view. f o l l o w t h e l i t u r g i c a l axiom p r a t i q u e d'abord.
This
The T i b e t a n masters u s u a l l y
They s t r e s s t h a t t h e r i t u a l
performance ("the s p e l l and i t s c o n t e n t " ) i s t h e s i t u a t i o n from which t h e magic o r meaning w i l l
emerge.
I t i s a t t h e s p e c i f i c l e v e l t h a t important o f meaning determined
d i f f e r e n c e s (e.g., d i f f e r e n c e s
by which B o d h i s a t t v a s a r e i n v o l v e d ) a r e p r e s e n t .
not f i n d Guenther's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o be h e l p f u l f o r such
I do
questions.
In s h o r t , a l t h o u g h Guenther! s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f - t h e ' t r i k a y a
is-ivalid^and'
u s e f u l f o r g e n e r a l • d i s c u s s i o n s of-many"^aspects o f T i b e t a n .Buddhism, i t does not n e c e s s a r i l y cover t h e t h e o r y i n a l l Buddhist
s e c t s and i s not s u f f i c i e n t l y
s p e c i f i c t o c l a r i f y d e t a i l s o f p r a c t i c e ' and .theory.
Therefore, although h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e , f u r t h e r research, i s j u s t i f i e d , on t h e o l d e r t e x t s , t o r e a c h a more u s e f u l
especially
understanding.
CONCLUSION
We now possess Buddhist concept
a fair
i d e a o f t h e development o f the. s u r v i v i n g
Indian
l i t e r a t u r e , and can r e c o n s t r u c t t h e o u t l i n e s o f t h e development o f t h e o f Buddhahood.
I t i s obvious
t h a t v a r i o u s c l u s t e r s o f i d e a s about
Buddhahood became each o f the kayas. and c l a r i f i e d .
Many o f t h e s e i d e a s have been examined
However, i t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t the t r i k a y a i s more than the
sum t o t a l o f t h r e e s t r a n d s — i t
i s a unique
scheme d e f i n e d by the r e l a t i o n s h i p s
among the t h r e e terms. What i s s t i l l
l a c k i n g i s a g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the p a t t e r n s i n t h i s
r e l a t i o n s h i p , s p e c i f i c a l l y an u n d e r s t a n d i n g expressed as a h e u r i s t i c model c a p a b l e o f i n t e r p r e t i n g v a r i o u s v e r s i o n s o f the d o c t r i n e .
Guenther o f f e r s a
developed model but i t s g e n e r a l i t y and c l a r i t y are b o t h i n doubt.
Nagao has
made a modest b e g i n n i n g but has not developed i t . T h e r e f o r e , I suggest t h a t the need f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s s e l f - e v i d e n t . A l s o e v i d e n t i s the f a c t t h a t t h i s cannot be a simple c o n t i n u a t i o n o f any p r e v i o u s study but must i n v o l v e a f r e s h s t a r t and a wider scope.
As none o f
t h e p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s has a c t u a l l y a n a l y z e d i n d e t a i l the d o c t r i n e i n one a u t h o r i t a t i v e t e x t , I suggest t h a t the f i r s t
step s h o u l d be a d e t a i l e d
study
9 of
such a t e x t .
T h i s study s h o u l d be informed by the f i n d i n g s o f e a r l i e r
s c h o l a r s but s h o u l d not be bound by them. The
choice of a text i s c r i t i c a l .
I t cannot be j u s t any a v a i l a b l e t e x t
which d e a l s w i t h the t r i k a y a but s h o u l d be one which i s seen as by as many branches
o f the t r a d i t i o n as p o s s i b l e .
T h i s l i m i t s the c h o i c e t o
the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d i n w r i t i n g s i n which t h a t t r a d i t i o n was summary o f t h e s e w r i t i n g s
authoritative
first
defined.
A
follows.
As the t r a d i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d a have been summarized many t i m e s , a n d
as l i t t l e agreement e x i s t s on t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l v a l u e , t h i s
w i l l merely be a survey o f t h e major t e x t s .
More d e t a i l s on those which are
most u s e f u l f o r a t r i k a y a study w i l l be found i n Appendix B, " B i b l i o g r a p h y o f S e l e c t e d Primary
Sources."
The V i j n a n a v a d a
arose as a s y s t e m a t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h o s e Mahayana
s u t r a s which appeared i n I n d i a d u r i n g t h e f i r s t
c e n t u r i e s o f our e r a .
we
s p e c i f i c V i j n a n a v a d i n master,
do not know which s u t r a s were adopted by any
a s m a l l group i s c l e a r l y c e n t r a l t o the t r a d i t i o n . paramita
Although
I t i n c l u d e s : the p r a j n a -
(most l i k e l y the A s t a s a h a s r i k a - p r a j n a p a r a m i t a ) , t h e L a n k a v a t a r a ,
the
Dasabhumika, some o f the Ratnakuta group ( e s p e c i a l l y the S r i m a l a d e v i ) , and above a l l , the Samdhinirmocana. All
t r a d i t i o n s c r e d i t t h r e e f i g u r e s — M a i t r e y a , Asanga and V a s u b a n d h u —
w i t h the b a s i c f o r m u l a t i o n o f new
doctrine.
T h e i r major s a s t r a s are d i s c u s s e d
below.
1.
MAITREYA
M a i t r e y a i s e i t h e r an e a r t h l y t e a c h e r o r the B o d h i s a t t v a M a i t r e y a i n the T u s i t a heaven.
The
He
i s g e n e r a l l y regarded
Yogacarabhumi, which i s one
the s a s t r a s .
Although
seem t o be an important p r i o r t o the f u l l
as the author
o f t h e f o l l o w i n g works:
o f the l o n g e s t , e a r l i e s t
i t c o n t a i n s d o c t r i n e s about Buddhahood, i t does not source f o r the t r i k a y a .
I t may
s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n o f the V i j n a n a v a d a .
have been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Western
r e p r e s e n t a stage Only a few
which would be n e a r l y incomprehensible Asvabhava and S t h i r a m a t i .
chapters
languages.
The Mahayanasutralamkara, an e l e g a n t v e r s e summary o f the
Asanga has
without
Vijnanavada,
the commentaries by Vasubandhu,
i n c o r p o r a t e d p r a c t i c a l l y a l l o f the
r e l e v a n t passages on the Buddha i n t o h i s own
Mahayanasamgraha.
t h i s t e x t i s one o f t h e few V i j n a n a v a d i n works s t i l l account
and l o o s e s t o f
The
fact that
extant i n S a n s k r i t
f o r i t s p o p u l a r i t y w i t h modern I n d i a n s c h o l a r s .
may
63 The Madhyantavibhaga i s a g a i n a work which would he without t h e commentaries by Vasubandhu and S t h i r a m a t i .
incomprehensible T h i s t e x t , whose t i t l e
might be t r a n s l a t e d as " D i s c r i m i n a t i o n between the middle d e f i n e s the orthodox
and
extremes,"
("middle") V i j K a n a v a d i n m e t a p h y s i c a l s t a n c e .
o f f e r a Buddhology per se and o n l y a few
I t does not
chapters are a v a i l a b l e i n Western
languages.
The Dharmadharmatavibhaga. i s a f u r t h e r treatment s t a n c e , c e n t e r e d on the t r i s v a b h a v a . bandhu.
I t has r e c e i v e d l i t t l e
The Abhisamayalankara,
o f the
metaphysical
I t a l s o c a r r i e s a commentary by Vasu-
study i n modern times o u t s i d e Japan.
a p r a j n a p a r a m i t a t e x t w i t h commentaries by Vasu-
bandhu's p u p i l A r y a v i m u k t i s e n a
and l a t e r w r i t e r s , c o n t a i n s a s h o r t passage on
the t r i k a y a but i s not a c e n t r a l B u d d h o l o g i c a l t e x t .
I t i s b a s i c a l l y a system-
a t i z a t i o n o f the Mahayana from a Madhyamika s t a n d p o i n t which has been p l a c e d w i t h i n the V i j n a n a v a d a .
I t p r o v i d e s a v i v i d demonstration
t h a t the
Vijnanavada
masters were a t t e m p t i n g t o i n c l u d e r a t h e r than r e p l a c e the o t h e r s c h o o l s .
The U t t a r a t a n t r a (or Ratnagotravibhaga)
i n c l u d e s an important
the t r i k a y a , but i s b e s t known as the source o f the t a t h a g a t a g a r b h a
passage on theory.
Asanga has w r i t t e n a commentary t o i t .
2.
ASANGA
T r a d i t i o n h o l d s t h a t e i t h e r Asanga was M a i t r e y a , o r he was
the p u p i l o f a t e a c h e r named
taken t o the T u s i t a heaven where the B o d h i s a t t v a M a i t r e y a
d i c t a t e d t o him the Yogacarabhumi and o t h e r t e x t s .
In a d d i t i o n t o the
commentaries on the M a i t r e y a t r e a t i s e s , he i s c r e d i t e d w i t h :
6k
The Abidharmasamuccaya, a V i j n a n a v a d i n abhidharma which, l i k e v a d i n p r a j n a p a r a m i t a o f the Abhisamayalankara, i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n the V i j n a n a v a d a .
shows how
the V i j n a n a -
v
t h e e a r l i e r i d e a s were
I t c o n t a i n s no d i r e c t d i s c u s s i o n s o f the
trikaya.
The Mahayanasamgraha, a s y s t e m a t i c work which, i n c l u d i n g the
commentaries
on i t by Vasubandhu and Asvabhava, e s t a b l i s h e s the broad o u t l i n e s o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d i n system.
Asanga arranged a l l the i n d i v i d u a l elements ( i . e . ,
abhidharma, the v i j n a p t i m a t r a , the t r i s v a b h a v a , t h e p r a j n a p a r a m i t a , and t r i k a y a ) i n a new
perspective.
i t w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l
to
r i c h and
the
As t h i s t e x t i s the focus o f the p r e s e n t
study
later.
3.
The
the
VASUBANDHU
enigmatic t r a d i t i o n a l f i g u r e Vasubandhu i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d
have w r i t t e n the b r i l l i a n t Abhidharmakosa b e f o r e b e i n g c o n v e r t e d t o Mahayana
by h i s b r o t h e r Asanga.
In a d d i t i o n t o the commentaries a l r e a d y noted, Vasu-
bandhu i s c r e d i t e d w i t h s e v e r a l important p r i m a r y t e x t s .
The Karmasiddhiprakarana, dharmakosa i s developed
These i n c l u d e :
i n which the abhidharma r e a s o n i n g o f t h e A b h i -
i n a Vijnanavadin d i r e c t i o n .
L i t t l e of i t i s d i r e c t l y
a p p l i c a b l e t o the t r i k a y a q u e s t i o n .
The V i m s i k a and T r i m s i k a are c r y p t i c v e r s e s u m m a r i e s — t h e f i r s t arguments f o r t h e mind-only t h e s i s , the second system.
The
importance
o f the e n t i r e V i j n a n a v a d i n
o f the T r i m s i k a d e r i v e s from i t s use by t h e
p i l g r i m s c h o l a r Hsuan-tsang as the backbone f o r h i s Ch'eng Wei grand
of the
Chinese
Shih.Lun,
summary o f the V i j n a n a v a d i n i d e a s c u r r e n t i n seventh-century
his
India.
In
t h i s work the o p i n i o n s o f v a r i o u s I n d i a n masters are p l a c e d as commentaries t o appropriate verses regarded
o f the Trims'ika.
the Ch'eng Wei
S h i h Lun
As l a t e r Chinese and Japanese masters
as the a u t h o r i t a t i v e e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e V i j n a -
navadin system, the T r i m s i k a came t o be regarded Vijnanavadin
as the b a s i s o f t h e
Indian
traditions.
These are merely the c e n t r a l s a s t r a s .
Each o f the t h r e e masters i s
c r e d i t e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l minor works, and t h e i r d i s c i p l e s produced a f l o o d w r i t i n g s d u r i n g the f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r i e s . c o n f i n e d t o any
one
sect—most
many o f t h e i r i d e a s .
subsequent Mahayana Buddhist
not
t h i n k e r s adopted
Some attempted t o form a Vijnanavadin-Madhyamika.
l a t e r p o p u l a r i z e r s , such as S a n t i d e v a , simply
Moreover, t h e i r i n f l u e n c e was
o b v i o u s l y saw
of
t h e i r b a s i c ideas
Many as
"Mahayana Buddhism."
In China, the Ch'eng Wei Fa-hsiang
s c h o o l which has
Vijnanavada,
S h i h Lun became the t e x t u a l b a s i s f o r the
continued
t o develop i n b o t h China.and Japan.
as w e l l as the v a r i o u s Vijnanavada-Madhyamika systems, was
b a s i s f o r indigenous
T i b e t a n developments.
and Japan developed d i r e c t l y from t h e
the
T a n t r i c thought o f I n d i a , T i b e t
Vijnanavada.
A f t e r r e a c h i n g t h i s point, ( i . e . , having become a c q u a i n t e d
The
r e a d the p r e c e d i n g
w i t h the l i t e r a t u r e ) , I had the o p p o r t u n i t y ,
studies in July
and 1976,
t o d i s c u s s the c h o i c e o f a t e x t u a l focus w i t h P r o f e s s o r Nagao. In response t o a query about s c r i p t u r a l a u t h o r i t y f o r the t r i k a y a doct r i n e , he was
s a i d t h a t a s e a r c h f o r such a u t h o r i t y i n the e a r l y Mahayana s u t r a s
u n l i k e l y t o be
fruitful.
I n s t e a d , he
carabhumi might y i e l d the e a r l i e s t the chapter
suggested t h a t the voluminous Yoga-
details.
He
d i d mention one
sutra passage—
added t o the Chinese S u v a r n a p r a b h a s a s u t r a — b u t o n l y as a l a t e r
c u l m i n a t i o n o f the d o c t r i n e r a t h e r than an e a r l y a u t h o r i t y f o r i t .
66
He suggested f o c u s s i n g f i r s t on the Mahayanasamgraha and Mahayanasutral a i i k a r a and, t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , on the Abhi samayalankara. the Ratnagotravibhaga tathagatagarhha
He a l s o f e l t
that
s h o u l d not he a p r i m a r y t e x t , hut agreed t h a t i t s
t h e o r y c o u l d not he i g n o r e d .
The major Chinese sources which he recommended were Hsiian-tsang's Ch'eng Wei S h i h Lun and Hui-yuan's Ta - Slneng I Chang (T. 1851), a s i x t h - c e n t u r y survey o f Buddha-body t h e o r i e s . A f t e r a d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s 1973 t h a t he s t i l l
(above), P r o f e s s o r Nagao s t a t e d
agreed w i t h the methods and sources but f e l t t h a t he had not
s u f f i c i e n t l y emphasized At
article
the Mahayanasamgraha.
t h i s p o i n t t h e b e s t approach t o t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e appeared t o be
through an i n t e n s i v e study o f the Mahayanasamgraha.
The c h o i c e o f t h i s
text
was d i c t a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s t h e most s y s t e m a t i c o f t h e e a r l y t e x t s .
It
c o n t a i n s more d e t a i l e d arguments t h a n do t h e o t h e r s , and i t l o c a t e s them w i t h i n the context o f Asanga's complete
system.
Each o f t h e o t h e r e a r l y
sastras
e x p l a i n s some p a r t i c u l a r i d e a : t h e Abhidharmasamuccaya o u t l i n e s t h e dharma t h e o r y ; the Madhyant avibhaga- • d e f i n e s the l o g i c a l v i e w p o i n t o f t h e s c h o o l and d i f f e r e n t i a t e s i t from t h a t o f t h e Madhyamika; and t h e Ratnagotravibhanga develops t h e t a t h a g a t a g a r h h a .
Only t h e Mahayanasamgraha and t h e Mahayanasutra-
l a n k a r a i n t e g r a t e t h e s e i n t o an i n c l u s i v e s y s t e m . T h e importance o f such -
d o c t r i n a l c o n t e x t cannot be o v e r s t r e s s e d .
A study o f any s p e c i f i c n o t i o n must
be guided by an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the wider net o f t h e o r y i n which i t f u n c t i o n s . The Mahayanasutralartkara was e l i m i n a t e d from c o n s i d e r a t i o n a f t e r a c a r e f u l r e a d i n g o f b o t h i t and the Mahayanasamgraha r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e B u d d h o l o g i c a l v e r s e s o f the former were i n c o r p o r a t e d and e x p l a i n e d i n t h e l a t t e r .
Therefore,
the next s e c t i o n o f t h i s study i s an examination o f the B u d d h o l o g i c a l passages of
t h e Mahayanasamgraha.
67 NOTES
^ E t i e n n e Lamotte, tomes 1-2.
La Somme du grand v e h i c u l e
L o u v a i n : I n s t i t u t O r i e n t a l i s t e , 1973,
d'Asanga (Mahayanasamgraha), tome 2 ,
"+9-
p.
2 R o c k h i l l ' s t e x t was theg-pa chen-po'i mdo The c e n t r a l p o r t i o n
some v e r s i o n
o f the 'phags-pa sku gsum
(Suzuki r e p r i n t e d i t i o n No.
reads as
9^9:
v. 37»
P-
shes-bya-ba 108-2-2).
follows:
/ r i g s - k y i - b u de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i sku gsum n i r a n g - b z h i n rnam-par-dag-pa n i c h o s - k y i sku'o/
/ t i n g - n g e - ' d z i n rnam-par-
dag-pa n i l o n g - s p y o d - r d z o g s - p a i sku'o / /spyod-pa
rnam-par-
1
dag-pa n i sangs-rgyas thams-cad-kyi
sprul-pa'i
sku'o/
r i g s - k y i - b u de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i c h o s - k y i sku n i
nam-
mkha' l t a r r a n g - b z h i n med-pa'i don-no/ / l o n g s - s p y o d - r d z o g s p a ' i sku n i s b r i n l t a r ni
'byung-ba'i
sangs-rgyas. thams-cad-kyi
don-no/ s p r u l - p a ' i
sku
''phrin-las t e / char-ba l t a - b u
s t e thams-cad b d a s - p a ' i don-no/ /bcom-ldan-'das l a byangchub-sems-dpa' s a ' i snying-pos
' d i skad ces g s o l - t o /
/bcom-
l d a n - 'das-kyi sku gsum-gyi bshad-pa j i - l t a r b l t a r - b a r bcom-ldan-'das-kyis
bgyi/
byang-chub-sems-dpa' s a ' i s n y i n g - p o - l a
bka'-stsal-pa/ r i g s - k y i - b u de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i sku gsum n i ' d i l t a r b l t a - b a r bya'o/ / c h o s - k y i sku n i de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i
ngo-
gang l a b l t a - b a r j bya'o/ / l o n g s - s p y o d - r d z o g s - p a ' i sku n i byang-chub-sems-dpa'i ngo-gang l a b l t a - b a r bya'o/
sprul-pa'i
sku n i mos-pas spyod-pa'i so-so s k y e - b o ' i ngo-gang l a b l t a bar bya'o r i g s - k y i - b u c h o s - k y i sku n i sangs rgyas thams-cad dang r a n g - b z h i n mthun-par gnas-so/ ni so/
/ l o n g s - s p y o d - r d z o g s - p a ' i sku
sangs-rgyas thams-cad dang t i n g - n g e - ' d z i n mthun-par / s p r u l - p a ' i sku n i sangs-rgyas thams-cad dang
mthun-par
gnas-
'phrin-las
gnas-so/
r i g s - k y i - b u kun-gzhi gnas-su dag-pa n i me-long l t a - b u ' i ye-shes t e c h o s - k y i sku'o/ nyon-mongs-pa'i y i d gnas-su dag-pa n i mnyam-par-nyid-kyi ye-shes-so/ / y i d - k y i rnam-par
shes-pa
68 gnas-su
dag-pa n i s o - s o r kun-tu r t o g - p a ' i ye-shes
spyod-rdzogs-pa'i
sku'o/
s g o - l n g a ' i rnam-par shes-pa
dag-pa n i bya-ba g r u b - p a ' i ye-shes
3
te/ longs-
te sprul-pa'i
gnas-su
sku'o/
T h i s p o i n t i s e v i d e n t i n La V a l l e e P o u s s i n ' s review o f S u z u k i ' s O u t l i n e s
i n the J o u r n a l o f the R o y a l s A s i a t i c
S o c i e t y o f Great B r i t a i n and I r e l a n d ,
While he i s w i l l i n g t o extend a l l due
885-89I+.
c o u r t e s y t o Suzuki t h e
1908,
scholar,
he i s o u t r a g e d at S u z u k i t h e t h e o l o g i a n ' s m a n i p u l a t i o n s o f t h e d o c t r i n e s o f h i s own
faith.
penchant
Of c o u r s e , a good p a r t o f h i s pique i s caused by
f o r " n o u r i s h i n g h i m s e l f w i t h t h e vapours
a l e m b i c s , " and making "absurd comparisons" Buddhist
"mysticism of s o p h i s t i c
o f t h e German p h i l o s o p h i c
between C h r i s t i a n i t y and
the
nihilism"!
^ E t i e n n e Lamotte, Le T r a i t e de l a grande v e r t u de sagesse I n s t i t u t O r i e n t a l i s t e , tomes 1-k,
Suzuki's
(Louvain:
19^9-76).
^ K. Venkata Ramanan, Nagarjuna's
P h i l o s o p h y : As P r e s e n t e d i n t h e Maha-
Pra.inaparamita-Sastra (Tokyo, Vermont: C h a r l e s E. T u t t l e Company I n c . , 1966).
^ The
article
i s unsigned.
However, La V a l l e e P o u s s i n , i n a b i b l i o g r a p h -
i c a l note i n Melanges e h i r i o i s et bouddhiques,
1 (1932),
p.
399,
identifies
P a u l D e m i e v i l l e as t h e a u t h o r .
7 F o r d e t a i l s see Appendix A — B i b l i o g r a p h y o f P r i m a r y T e x t s . t h e Mahayanasutralankara tion.
i s a c u r i o u s c h o i c e f o r the s o l e source o f i n f o r m a -
I t i s an e a r l y M a i t r e y a n t e x t which i s h a r d l y comprehensible
commentary.
Asanga i n c o r p o r a t e d i t s B u d d h o l o g i c a l statements
o f h i s Mahayanasamgraha, where t h e y appear trikaya. appears
I t was
Note t h a t
as o n l y one
without
into chapter X
strand feeding into h i s
Asanga's t r i k a y a r a t h e r than t h e more p r i m i t i v e v e r s i o n s which
t o have been a c c e p t e d by t h e V i j n a n a v a d i n t r a d i t i o n s .
s u t r a l a n k a r a i s one
o f t h e few e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d i n t e x t s s t i l l
S a n s k r i t , i t i s t e m p t i n g t o wonder i f t h e author has chosen
As t h e Mahayanaextant i n
i t f o r any more
s e r i o u s reason t h a n an i n a b i l i t y t o r e a d t h e more r e l e v a n t t e x t s which are a v a i l a b l e o n l y i n Chinese or T i b e t a n .
8
See S u z u k i , S t u d i e s i n t h e L a n k a v a t a r a S u t r a , p.
l8h.
69 Note t h a t Ruegg, i n h i s Tathagatagarhha
y
led
(pp. 6-7)
says t h a t he
was
by s i m i l a r r e a s o n i n g t o base h i s study o f the•Tathagatagarhha "concept
a d e t a i l e d ' a n a l y s i s of" the There i s l i t t l e opment o f the V i j n a n a v a d a .
Ratnagotravibhaga. r e l i a b l e h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on the e a r l y d e v e l Most accounts are based on a few Chinese
T i b e t a n summaries o f the t r a d i t i o n a l l e g e n d s . summaries are c o n t a i n e d i n Paramartha's Vasubandhu, Bu-ston's Taranatha's
on
and
The most important o f these
s i x t h - c e n t u r y Chinese b i o g r a p h y o f
f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y T i b e t a n h i s t o r y o f Buddhism, and
s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y h i s t o r y o f Buddhism i n I n d i a .
The t r a d i t i o n s summarized i n t h e s e works d i s a g r e e on t h e b a s i c i c a l q u e s t i o n s , e.g.:
Was
Vasubandhus were t h e r e ?
M a i t r e y a a man
or a g r e a t B o d h i s a t t v a ?
What i s the b a s i c chronology?
How
histormany
These q u e s t i o n s have
been t h e f o c u s o f heated d i s c u s s i o n s by such s c h o l a r s as Takakusu, O b e r m i l l e r , Lamotte, Johnston, F r a u w a l l n e r , Schmithausen,
Wayman, and Anacker.
of
t h e s e c o n t r o v e r s i e s and b i b l i o g r a p h i e s may
be found i n :
—
Ruegg, Tathagatagarhha, pp. 39-55-
—
Walpola Rahula's Buddhism, v o l .
Summaries
a r t i c l e "Asanga" i n M a l a l a s e k e r a ' s E n c y c l o p a e d i a o f
2:1, pp. 133-1^6.
—
Jacques May's "La p h i l o s o p h i e bouddhique
—
Anacker's
idealiste."
"Vasubandhu: T h r e e ' A s p e c t s , " pp.
1-33,-' T h i s c o n t a i n s a n - e x c e l l e n t
summary and d i s c u s s i o n o f the t r a d i t i o n s and r e c e n t s t u d i e s c o n c e r n i n g the life
o f Vasubandhu". 1
She
1
J a n i c e D. W i l l i s a r r i v e d at a s i m i l a r view i n h e r ' " C h a p t e r 'on R e a l i t y . "
says, "Asanga authored both the Yogacarabhumi and the Mahayanasamgraha
(among o t h e r works).
Of t h e s e two,
a whole o f h i s Mahayana views"
the l a t t e r i s the most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e as
(p. 3).
CHAPTER I I THE TRIKAYA DOCTRINE IN THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA
71
A.
The Mahayanasamgraha
i s t h e most a c c e s s i b l e
a v a i l a b l e i n b o t h the T a i s h o addition, a multitextual
SOURCES
o f the e a r l y t e x t s .
(Chinese) and P e k i n g
It i s
(Tibetan) c o l l e c t i o n s .
In
comparative e d i t i o n o f f o u r Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s
(T. 159^- by Hsuan-tsang, T. 1596 by Dharmagupta, T. 1593 by Paramartha, and T. 1592 by Buddhasanta) has been p u b l i s h e d taisho
Shodaijoron.
b y , S a s a k i Gessho
Tokyo: Nakayama Shobo, 1959).
The e d i t e d T i b e t a n
t e x t •„ and', a F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c
together with t r a n s l a t i o n s of selected portions Vasubandhu and Asvabhava, has been p u b l i s h e d du grand "vehicule Chinoise
d'Asanga
by E t i e n n e Lamotte as La Somme
et commentaire.
T I b e t a i n e et
Louvain: I n s t i t u t
1973.
The p r e s e n t study i s based upon two v e r s i o n s
—
text,
o f the commentaries by
(Mahayanasamgraha), tome 1: v e r s i o n s
(Hiuan-Tsang); tome 2: t r a d u c t i o n
Orientaliste,
(Kan'yaku Shihon-
Hsuan-tsang's Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n , c a . 6h8 A.D.
o f the
(Taisho
Mahayanasamgraha:
159^; v o l . 31,
pp. 132-152), r e f e r r e d t o as "H" and c i t e d by T a i s h o page, r e g i s t e r and line.
—
The n i n t h - c e n t u r y T i b e t a n Ye-shes sde (Otani folio
numbering.
t r a n s l a t i o n by J i n a m i t r a ,
Silendrabodhi
and
55^9; v o l . 112), r e f e r r e d t o as "T" and c i t e d by P e k i n g
72
While I hare attempted t o i n t e r p r e t t h e Buddhology o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha i n terms o f i t s own
i n t e r n a l l o g i c w i t h minimal r e l i a n c e on t h e o p i n i o n s o f
l a t e r commentators, t h i s has f r e q u e n t l y proved i m p o s s i b l e . have c o n s u l t e d Vasubandhu's
—
Bhasya, which i s a v a i l a b l e i n two
Hsuan-tsang's Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n
(Taisho
1597;
vol.
31,
r e f e r r e d t o as "Bh" and c i t e d by T a i s h o page, r e g i s t e r and
—
In such cases I versions:
pp.
3 2 1 - 3 8 0 ) ,
line.
The e l e v e n t h - c e n t u r y T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n by A t i s a and T s h u l - k h r i m s (Otani
5551; v o l . 1 1 2 , pp. 2 7 2 - 3 0 7 ) , r e f e r r e d t o as "bh" and c i t e d by P e k i n g
folio
number and l i n e .
As t h e Bhasya's g l o s s e s a r e , by t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f t h a t genre o f commentary, terse
( o f t e n no: more than c l a r i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e grammar o f t h e l o s t
S a n s k r i t ) , I have f r e q u e n t l y been f o r c e d t o c o n s u l t Asvabhava's which i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e i n two
—
Hsuan-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n
Upanibandhana,
versions:
(Taisho. 1598; v o l . . 3 1 , pp. 3 8 5 - ^ 9 ) , r e f e r r e d t o
as " U " and c i t e d by Taisho- page, r e g i s t e r and l i n e .
—- The T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n by J i n a m i t r a , S i l e n d r a b o d h i and Ye-shes sde
5552; v o l . 1 1 3 , pp.
1 - ^ 3 ) ,
(Otani
r e f e r r e d t o as "u" and c i t e d by Peking f o l i o number
and l i n e .
While Asvabhava undoubtedly p o s t d a t e d Asanga, I have f e l t
justified in
c o n s u l t i n g him because h i s comments seem t o be grounded i n t h e l o g i c o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t e x t r a t h e r than i n t h e orthodoxy o f some l a t e r s c h o o l . since h i s i s the f i r s t is l i t t l e
alternative.
unambiguous
At any r a t e ,
l e v e l . o f commentary on many p a s s a g e s , t h e r e
Lamotte a l s o r e l i e d h e a v i l y on the Upanibandhana.
73
In
t h i s study, r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e Mahayanasamgraha i t s e l f a r e c i t e d
a c c o r d i n g t o Lamotte's d i v i s i o n s , w h i l e T a i s h o r e f e r e n c e s a r e r e s e r v e d f o r drawing
a t t e n t i o n t o some f e a t u r e o f Hsuan-tsang's Chinese t e x t .
the Chinese s h o u l d note t h a t , w h i l e Lamotte.. d i v i d e d t h e t e x t
Readers o f
i n t o a prastavaria'
(foreword) f o l l o w e d by t e n " c h a p t e r s , " Hsuan-tsang numbered each
section
c o n s e c u t i v e l y , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e p r a s t a v a n a . " Hence,, -Lambtte-'s c h a p t e r one w i l l be Hsuan-tsang's s e c t i o n two, and so on.
B.
WHAT IS THE VIJHAHAVADA ?
The most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e system o f which t h e t r i k a y a i s t h e culmination i s i t s inclusiveness.
G. Tucci^" wrote:
. . . we cannot f a i l t o n o t i c e a g e n e r a l and fundament a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c common t o a l l . I mean t h e attempt f o r the c o n c i l i a t i o n o f the v a r i o u s tendencies e x i s t e n t i n Buddhism. . . . . . . i t was c e r t a i n l y d i f f i c u l t t o combine i n a l o g i c a l way a l l p r a c t i c a l , d o g m a t i c a l , m y s t i c a l and t h e o l o g i c a l t e n e t s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e two s c h o o l s . T h i s was attempted by M a i t r e y a C n a t h a l i n t h e S u t r a l a n k a r a and c h i e f l y i n t h e Abhisamayalankara, where t h e Hinayana as w e l l as t h e Mahayana-c a r y a a r e combined i n the abhisamaya. . . .
The Mahayanasamgraha i s a l s o an i n c l u s i v e work, i n c o r p o r a t i n g n e a r l y every f a m i l i a r abhidharma concept, s n i p p e t s o f p r a j n a p a r a m i t a , and t h e major t h e o r i e s u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a wide v a r i e t y o f Mahayana s u t r a s •
Asanga's i n n o v a t i o n
c o n s i s t s o f t h e way i n which t h e s e a r e arranged t o form a harmonious T h i s system
system.
can be d e s c r i b e d as..'a/hierarchy o f n e s t e d concerns and t h e o r i e s
each c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n , and o r i e n t e d by, i t s s u p e r i o r . r e l a t i v e importance
An understanding'.of t h e
and r o l e o f each l e v e l o f t h e h i e r a r c h y w i l l prevent
either
7^
under- or o v e r - e v a l u a t i o n the
of.- any
sub-theory (such as the t r i k a y a ' ) , and thus i s
fundamental p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r more d e t a i l e d A f t e r a c a r e f u l reading
research.
o f the Mahayanasamgraha and
associated
literature,
I have concluded t h a t the o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f i t s system i s as f o l l o w s : primary concern i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l — s p i r i t u a l career.
Within
t h i s , the
the e n t i r e t e x t i s a guidebook f o r a secondary concern i s - . e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l
Asanga wishes t o e l u c i d a t e the mechanism which w i l l a l l o w the a s p i r a n t p r o g r e s s toward the u l t i m a t e
g o a l o f enlightenment
t o the t r i k a y a considerations Any
As t h i s c o n c l u s i o n
why
approach the
that l e d to i t .
accept t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n
f o r the
simple f a c t t h a t
the V i j n a n a v a d a t o be
i d e a s have been i n c l u d e d .
an
the
idealism.
d o c t r i n e o f the Mahayanasamgraha,
must e x p l a i n e x a c t l y what type o f an i d e a l i s m i t i s , and why idealist
various
and; d i r e c t l y opposed t o the u s u a l view, I s h a l l summarize
o f contemporary s c h o l a r s c o n s i d e r
Should we
Finally,
i s b o t h c r u c i a l t o my
d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s t o p i c must b e g i n w i t h the
majority
to
(or " o m n i s c i e n c e " ) .
at a t e r t i a r y l e v e l o f concern, Asanga i s attempting t o i n t e g r a t e the t h e o r i e s i n t o a metaphysics.
The
Should we
r e j e c t i t , we
certain
:
we'
non-
must demonstrate
so many competent s c h o l a r s have been mistaken. For the purposes o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , B. K. M a t i l a l ' s i s t h e b e s t
c e r t a i n l y one
o f the broadest d e f i n i t i o n s o f i d e a l i s m : ".
common-sense view t h a t m a t e r i a l / e x t e r n a l
objects
mind, i . e . , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e i r b e i n g At
first
samgraha.
glance,
. .a
d e n i a l of
e x i s t independently of
d o c t r i n e o f the Mahayana-
For example, Asanga '<(-i"21-)v says :
In s h o r t , the a l a y a v i j n a n a
i s a resulting-vijnana experienced whose n a t u r e
the
the
perceived."
t h i s seems t o d e s c r i b e the
E i . e . , r e s u l t i n g from p r e v i o u s
and
75 i s a l l t h e seeds [ o f f u t u r e experienceH. (samgrhita; and
Obviously,
) ^ a
a l l stations of rebirth.
the alayavijnana
o f "mind") c o n t a i n s not
bsdus;
relate to ordinary
bodies i n the three
(which i s f r e q u e n t l y t r a n s l a t e d as some s o r t However, t h i s one i d e a does
More d e t a i l s a r e r e q u i r e d , e.g.: How does t h i s
experience?
religious aspirations?
worlds
3
the e n t i r e perceived world.
comprise a metaphysic.
I t embraces
What guidance does i t g i v e i n f u l f i l l i n g
What does i t r e a l l y mean?
i n v e s t i g a t o r s have reached w i d e l y v a r y i n g
I t i s c l e a r that the various
conclusions..
P. T. Raju, -in I d e a l i s t Thought i n I n d i a , sees t h e V i j n a n a v a d a as a minor v a r i a t i o n o f t h e A d v a i t a Vedanta.
Therefore,
t h e i d e a l i s m l a b e l f r e e s him from
the n e c e s s i t y o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e problems a t a l l . all
footnotes
The V i j n a n a v a d a t e x t s a r e
t o t h e h i s t o r y o f Vedantac -though**-;-
Jacques May i n "La P h i l o s o p h i e bouddhique i d e a l i s t e " takes t h e i d e a l i s t i c nature o f t h e d o c t r i n e as an a p r i o r i
fact.
Western d i s c u s s i o n o f i d e a l i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y .
I t i s simply
part o f the general
As he e x p l i c i t l y d i s r e g a r d s any
i d e a s which he i s unable t o i n t e g r a t e w i t h i n h i s i d e a l i s t i c
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , no
problems ( o r f r e s h i n s i g h t s ) can a r i s e . B. K. M a t i l a l i n h i s " C r i t i q u e o f Buddhist I d e a l i s m "
has taken t h e t e x t u a l
evidence ( c h i e f l y from s u r v i v i n g S a n s k r i t t e x t s ) much more s e r i o u s l y . ' '
He has
seen t h a t as an i d e a l i s m t h e d o c t r i n e i s a f a i l u r e , and i s f o r c e d t o note t h e religious
The
( i . e . , s o t e r i o l o g i c a l ) i d e a s n e c e s s a r y t o make sense o f i t .
best
known modern i n t e r p r e t e r i s p r o b a b l y A. K. C h a t t e r j e e who, i n
Yogacara I d e a l i s m ,
has a l s o worked from t h e s u r v i v i n g S a n s k r i t t e x t s .
gards t h e fundamental p r o j e c t s o f H e g e l i a n
philosophers
He r e -
and t h e V i j n a n a v a d a
76 t h i n k e r s as v e r y s i m i l a r .
The major d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t Hegel r e t a i n e d b o t h
s u b j e c t and o b j e c t , w h i l e t h e V i j n a n a v a d a masters have r e j e c t e d t h e o b j e c t t o establish
a
pure A b s o l u t e .
He sees t h i s n o t i o n as t h e l o g i c a l
o f t h e c r i t i c a l and s u b j e c t i v i s t i c t r e n d s p r e s e n t philosophy.
culmination
throughout a l l Buddhis.ts
S o t e r i o l o g i c a l ideas a r e unconnected w i t h t h e e s s e n t i a l p h i l o s o p h -
i c a l concepts.
These premises a r e r e f i n e d and r e s t a t e d but not changed i n h i s
Readings on Yogacara Buddhism. While r e v i e w i n g
Yogacara I d e a l i s m A l e x Wayman s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e s
j e e ' s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e fundamental Yogacara p o s i t i o n i s t h a t ness i s t h e s o l e r e a l i t y .
Chatter-
conscious-
He suggests t h a t , i n f o r e i n g 't:h.e d o c t r i n e i n t o such a
mold, C h a t t e r j e e has produced an: inadequate and m i s l e a d i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . While Wayman does not develop h i s own view, i t i s c l e a r t h a t he would p l a c e g r e a t e r emphasis on t h e demands o f s o t e r i o l o g i c a l p r a c t i c e s m e d i t a t i o n ) , on t h e Abhidharma p o r t i o n , and on t h e t f i s v a b h a v a . Wayman i n s i s t s t h a t those passages which d e s c r i b e t h e g e n e s i s world
(especially
Above a l l ,
o f the perceived
from mind must be r e a d i n t h e l i g h t o f s i m i l a r Samkhya d o c t r i n e s which he
sees as t h e i r
prototype.
A l a t e r essay by C h a t t e r j e e , c o n t a i n e d
i n F a c e t s o f Buddhist
Thought, i s
more c l o s e l y reasoned and meets some o f Wayman's c r i t i c i s m , b u t does not show any
fundamental change i n s t a n c e . Although o t h e r s have w r i t t e n on t h e s u b j e c t , these
most r e s p e c t e d .
s c h o l a r s a r e among t h e
T h e i r work shows t h a t i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e V i j n a n a v a d a as an
i d e a l i s m r a i s e s problems which a r e almost i m p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e without portions o f the t e x t s .
ignoring
A f r e s h .approach i s i n d i c a t e d .
A second major reason
for questioning the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e i r
notions
i s t h a t they have drawn t h e i r i d e a s from a v e r y narrow s e l e c t i o n o f t h e e a r l y
77
V i j n a n a v a d a works, c h i e f l y t h e few s u r v i v i n g i n S a n s k r i t . example, i n C h a t t e r j e e ' s comment t h a t " . . . e x c l u s i v e l y t o the Yogacara, comprehensible,
canonical l i t e r a t u r e ,
i s not p l e n t i f u l . " ^
i f i n c r e d i b l e , when we
This i s clear, for
T h i s statement
pertaining
becomes
r e a l i z e t h a t he"'is i g n o r i n g t h e immense
corpus o f T i b e t a n and Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s and b a s i n g h i s r e s e a r c h on t h e Mahayanasutralankara
w i t h some r e f e r e n c e t o the Madhyantavibhaga and Vasu-
bandhu' s V i m s a t i k a and T r i m s i k a . I f the author's primary concern are two
i s not i d e a l i s t i c , w';at.,.may;...it'-~be? '' There
p o s s i b i l i t i e s : s o t e r i o l o g i c a l or p h i l o s o p h i c a l .
I f the former,
the
t e x t w i l l p r e s e n t a d o c t r i n e which w i l l p r i m a r i l y advance the a s p i r a n t ' s s p i r i t u a l progress.
Although we
should expect most o f the d o c t r i n e t o be
l o g i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t , i f some aspect does not seem t o f i t ,
our q u e s t i o n would
be, "Does i t , or does i t ' n o t , f u r t h e r the a s p i r a n t ' s p r o g r e s s ? " and n o t , " i s it
l o g i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the r e s t o f the t e x t ? " I f the t e x t i s b a s i c a l l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l , i t .may
or m e t a p h y s i c a l .
I f the former, we
s h o u l d expect
o f the v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s open t o man.
be e i t h e r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l - .
a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the
There would be no n e c e s s i t y f o r an
e x p l a n a t i o n o f the l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s . metaphysical an account
s h o u l d we
expect
causes
Only i f i t i s p r i m a r i l y
a l l o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o
o f the l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f such
experience.
Some comments by H. V. Guenther w i l l h e l p us t o see p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s to idealism.
In "Mentalism
and Beyond i n Buddhist
P h i l o s o p h y " and
i n Buddhist
P h i l o s o p h y i n Theory and P r a c t i c e , he i m p l i c i t l y r e j e c t s any p o s s i b i l i t y s e p a r a t i n g s o t e r i o l o g y from p h i l o s o p h y —
of
b o t h are a s p e c t s o f t r u e p h i l o s o p h y .
What, t h e n , do we have t o understand by 'philosophy'? C e r t a i n l y , i t can never be an achievement; i t remains a movement, a c o n t i n u a l s t r i v i n g f o r t r u t h by p r e - e m i n e n t l y
78 i n t e l l e c t u a l means. In t h i s quest f o r t r u t h p h i l o s o p h y b r i n g s about a change i n o u r s e l v e s by opening our eyes t o wider h o r i z o n s . Such a v i s i o n i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the d e s i r e t o c u l t i v a t e and r e f i n e the p e r s o n a l i t y . Moreover, p h i l o s o p h y as an encompassing v i s i o n wants t o know a l l t h a t i s knowable; u n l i m i t e d c o g n i t i o n i s i t s b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Any l i m i t a t i o n imposed on i t w i l l i n e v i t a b l y k i l l i t . But the most d e c i s i v e p o i n t i s t h a t i n t h i s s t r i v i n g f o r t r u t h , t r u t h i t s e l f i s the p r i m a l source o f our t h i n k i n g . Yet i t becomes p e r v e r t e d e a s i l y by p o s i t i n g as a b s o l u t e something which i s v a l i d from c e r t a i n p o i n t s o f view and i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s and at a p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l o f t h i n k i n g . It also becomes f a l s e by c o n s i d e r i n g the p a r t i c u l a r knowledge o f something w i t h i n B e i n g as the knowledge o f B e i n g as such and as a whole. P h i l o s o p h y as a quest f o r t r u t h born out o f t r u t h i s t h e r e f o r e c o n s t a n t l y s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t i t s two f o e s : a b s o l u t i z a t i o n and c o n c r e t i z a t i o n . T h i s i s t h e theme o f Buddhist p h i l o s o p h y i n p a r t i c u l a r . I t b e g i n s w i t h a v i s i o n o f what t h e r e i s , and t h e n p r o g r e s s i v e l y e n l a r g e s this vision. I t s r e j e c t i o n o f the non-Buddhist systems, a l l o f which i n some way succumb.to a n t i - p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e n d e n c i e s , as w e l l as i t s t r e n c h a n t c r i t i q u e o f i t s own d i g r e s s i o n s i n t o t h i s dangerous t e r r i t o r y , are due t o , and r e f l e c t , the endeavour t o keep the p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p i r i t alive.'''
T h i s n o t i o n t h a t the V i j n a n a v a d a m a i n t a i n s the
congruence o f
philosophy
and
s o t e r i o l o g y i s a t t r a c t i v e t o an i n t e r p r e t e r o f the Mahayansamgraha.
two
are not
separated
introducing original..
i n the t e x t
such a s e p a r a t i o n , The
the r e s u l t i s l i k e l y t o be
understood without
f a i t h f u l to
problem t h a t a r i s e s ^ i s t h a t Western i n t e r p r e t e r s , l i k e
are apt-t'o r e s p e c t the t r u t h by
and,' i f i t s message can be
;
such a p h i l o s o p h y
much more than i n t e l l e c t u a l means. techniques.. ( V : 2 . 1 0 ) .
How
the Guenther,
o n l y i n s o f a r as i t embodies a search
" p r e - e m i n e n t l y i n t e l l e c t u a l means." It authorizes
can t h e s e p o s s i b l y " f a l l
However, t h e t e x t meditational t h i n any
The
and
for
contains even m a n t r i c
Western concept 1
of
philosophy? Guenther's answer i s t h a t
such a
and
m e t a p h y s i c a l components.
The
can
c e r t a i n l y i n v o l v e the v a r i o u s
'philosophy'
includes both
former, c o m p r i s i n g t h e
epistemological
'mind-only'
doctrine,
p s y c h o l o g i c a l techniques f o r understanding
79 t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p e r c e p t u a l mechanism.
But t h i s can never be a m e t a p h y s i c a l
d o c t r i n e o f any k i n d , l e t alone an i d e a l i s m . The m e t a p h y s i c a l d o c t r i n e s are not t h e 'mind-only' bhava and the t r i k a y a , which Guenther
ones, but the t r i s v a -
d e s c r i b e s i n Buddhist Philosophy'.
However, such a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n between epistemology and does not o c c u r i n the e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d a t e x t s .
Guenther
metaphysics
attributes
this
absence.to a c o n f u s i o n on the p a r t o f the e a r l y t h i n k e r s :
I t i s a l s o obvious t h a t t h e I n d i a n Buddhist i d e a l i s t s whose thought i s r e f l e c t e d by the bKa'-brgyud-pas, were above a l l concerned w i t h e p i s t e m o l o g y , t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e p s y c h i c event o f the moment w i t h i t s o b j e c t i v e d u p l i c a t e . Only s e c o n d a r i l y were t h e y m e t a p h y s i c a l l y i n t e r e s t e d , as when t h e y reduced the whole o f r e a l i t y t o the one p a r t i c u l a r e x i s t e n t o f sems (mind). I t seems t h a t the bKa -brgyud-pas, j u s t as t h e i r I n d i a n p r o t o t y p e s , due t o t h e i r p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l problems, misunderstood the l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f the m e t a p h y s i c a l premise. They saw sems 'mind' as a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t on which o t h e r a s s e r t i o n s were t o be based, i n a word, as the b a s i c premise, summed up i n the words: "The whole o f r e a l i t y i s mental." 1
However, epistemology i s one f a c t o f p h i l o s o p h y , metap h y s i c s another. What d i s t i n g u i s h e s a m e t a p h y s i c i a n from o t h e r p h i l o s o p h e r s i s not the premise he s t a r t s from but the p r i n c i p l e o f ^ i n t e r p r e t a t i o n he b r i n g s t o b e a r . He c e r t a i n l y does not c l a i m t o r e v e a l t r u t h s about a w o r l d which l i e s beyond the r e a l m o f the senses. H i s concern i s w i t h how t o take what happens here and now or how t o get the t h i n g s o f t h i s w o r l d i n t o p e r s p e c t i v e . . . .9
L a t e r , w h i l e summarizing
the'Dk d o c t r i n e , I s h a l l show t h a t t h i s comment
i s d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o the Mahayanasamgraha, and argue t h a t ..the t a s k o f i n t e r p r e t i n g i t s d o c t r i n e i n v o l v e s d e r i v i n g a metaphysics which w i l l w i t h the s t a t e d epistemology.
harmonize
80
C.
Our
VIJNANAVADA OF THE MAHAYANASAMGRAHA
study must b e g i n .with Asanga's foreword -(prastavana) w i t h i t s c o n c i s e
a p o l o g e t i c f o r "the Mahayana" ( i . e . , t h e V i j n a n a v a d a ) . c o n s t i t u t e a c l e a r statement
o f t h e p r i m a r y concern o f t h e t e x t , i t i s almost
i m p o s s i b l e t o f o r c e i n t o an i d e a l i s t i c mold. an i d e a l i s t i c
While t h i s appears t o
I f t h e body o f t h e t e x t c o n t a i n s
system, t h i s foreword i s an embarrassing
appendage.
I f , however,
the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e c o n t e n t s a r e not an i d e a l i s m i s a l l o w e d , t h e n foreword becomes a key t o t h e author's
this
intent.
Asanga s t a t e s t h a t t h e Mahayana message c o n s i s t s o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e t e n c h a p t e r s o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha arranged i n t h e o r d e r n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e a s p i r a n t ' s s p i r i t u a l development. enlightenment
(mahabodhi).
They c h a r t a c r e d i b l e , l o g i c a l p a t h t o g r e a t
That i s , h i s primary i n t e n t i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l ,
and w i t h i n t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n he has arranged and i n t e g r a t e d t h e t e a c h i n g s i n t o a coherent
system.
H i s aim i s fundamentally
s o t e r i o l o g i c a l and s e c o n d a r i l y
philosophical. T h i s viewpoint w i l l a f f e c t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f every element o f t h e system.
I f t h e Mahayanasamgraha were r e g a r d e d as a p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e x t , t h e
u n i f y i n g p r i n c i p l e would have t o be p h i l o s o p h i c a l .
As t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l major
p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e t e x t , one would have t o be e l e v a t e d t o a primary p o s i t i o n .
As we have seen, t h e u s u a l c a n d i d a t e has been t h e c l u s t e r
of i d e a l i s t i c notions.
However, t h i s means t h a t those o t h e r i d e a s - t h a t w i l l
not f i t must be e x p l a i n e d away o r s e t a s i d e . I f however, t h e u n i f y i n g v i e w p o i n t i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l , t h e r e i s no need t o a s s e r t t h e primacy
o f any one o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s so l o n g as t h e i r
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be shown.
F r e e d from t h e n e c e s s i t y t o e l e v a t e t h e
81 content
o f one
o f the
chapters
t o the s t a t u s o f " t h e " core o f the
can examine the secondary l e v e l o f concern w i t h
system,
fewer p r e c o n c e p t i o n s .
we
Asanga
l a y s out the s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s secondary l e v e l i n h i s foreword. [The
a c t u a l content
I.
The
o f each chapter
a l a y a v i j n a n a i s c a l l e d the
(jneyasraya; shes-bya'i II.
The
o f the Mahayanasamgraha:" i s : D
support ^fj
gnas;
o f the knowable
%0
)•
t r i s v a b h a v a : i . e . , the p a r a t a n t r a s v a b h a v a ,
the
p a r i k a l p i t a s v a b h a v a , and the p a r i n i spanrias vabhava, are the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e knowable shes-bya'i III.
mtshan-nyid; - ^ J
Ideation-only
^
$
IV.
The
^S-
)•
(vi.jnaptimatrata) i s the e n t r y i n t o
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the knowable s n e s
(jneyalaksana;
~ k y ' i mtshan-nyid-la' jug-pa; a
the
(jneyalaksanapravesa; ^
Jifj
^ Q
s i x paramitas are the cause and the r e s u l t
). of t h i s
entry. V.
The
t e n bodhisattvabhumis are the v a r i o u s ways i n which
the cause and r e s u l t o f t h i s e n t r y are VI.
The
Bodhisattva
cultivated.
d i s c i p l i n e i s the h i g h e r
morality
(adhisila) involved i n t h i s . VII.
The
samadhis ... are the h i g h e r mentation
(adhicitta)
involved i n t h i s . VIII.
Non-discriminating
awareness ( n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) i s the
h i g h e r awareness ( a d h i p r a j n a ) i n v o l v e d i n t h i s . IX.
N o n - s t a y i n g n i r v a n a i s the
severance-result
(phalaprahana) o f t h i s . X.
The
trikaya
... i s the a w a r e n e s s - r e s u l t
(phalajnana)
of t h i s .
82 The act
key n o t i o n i s o b v i o u s l y "the knowable" and the b a s i c
i s the " e n t r y " (pravesa;
'jug-pa; ^
soteriological
) t o the knowable.
The term "the knowable" i s not a focus o f i n t e r e s t by i t s e l f . (Bh 322b29-cl; bhll+5al) g l o s s e s i t as " t h a t which may
be
Vasubandhu
Cor "should
be"]
known,''"'"" and
i d e n t i f i e s ^ i t w i t h ,the s o i l e d and p u r i f i e d dharmas, or w i t h
t r i svabhava.
Furthermore, he says (Bh322c7-8; b h l ^ a ^ O t h a t the e n t r y can
1
the be
equated w i t h v i j n a p t i m a t r a t a i n the sense t h a t t h i s s p e c i f i e d the manner or'., means o f e n t r y . Asanga i s not p o s i t i n g some new Had
transcendent
e n t i t y c a l l e d "the knowable."
he wished t o do t h i s , he a l r e a d y had a q u a s i - o n t o l o g i c a l t a t h a t a at hand.
I can o n l y conclude t h a t t h i s term throws the e n t i r e t h e o r y i n t o an epistemol o g i c a l form. has
That i s , w i t h i n t h i s p r i m a r y s o t e r i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e , Asanga
chosen t o o r d e r the i n d i v i d u a l i d e a s i n an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e
i n d i c a t e d by "the knowable."
He
i s l e s s concerned.with d e s c r i b i n g how
world l o o k s from a l i b e r a t e d viewpoint
the
than w i t h e x p l a i n i n g the mechanism
whereby the a s p i r a n t can a c q u i r e such a
viewpoint.
Only at a t e r t i a r y l e v e l o f emphasis does Asanga i n t r o d u c e the
individual
t h e o r i e s , such as t h a t o f the a l a y a v i j f l a n a or v i j napt imat r a t a, which might be termed i d e a l i s t were they p r e s e n t e d not.
on the primary l e v e l .
They are on the same l e v e l as, and
t r i s v a b h a v a , paramitas, n i r v a n a and t r i k a y a .
However, they
are
elaborately interconnected with,
the
bhumis, samvara, samadhi, n i r v i k a l p a j nana, a p r a t i s t h i t a -
The
t r a p f o r the unwary i n t e r p r e t e r i s the f a c t t h a t
o f t h e s e , i n the hands o f a determined r e d u c t i o n i s t , c o u l d be made t o a l l the o t h e r s and thus become "the e s s e n t i a l " d o c t r i n e . t i v i t y t o Asanga's s t a t e d aim can we
contain
Only by some s e n s i -
a p p r e c i a t e the importance o f each,
hence be i n a p o s i t i o n t o i n v e s t i g a t e h i s use o f any
one
any
theory.
and
83 The
view o f chapters
I - I I can be summarized as f o l l o w s : Asanga, l i k e a
Western phenomenologist, wishes t o b e g i n h i s p r o j e c t w i t h t h e raw f a c t s o f experience. experiences
To him, r e a l i t y i s composed o f a b e g i n n i n g l e s s
s e r i e s o f these
which, because t h e y make themselves known d i r e c t l y t o t h e mind,
are c a s t i n m e n t a l i s t i c terms.
The ground f o r t h e e n t i r e e x p e r i e n t i a l p r o c e s s
i s c a l l e d t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a and each experience
i s termed v i j n a p t i .
Questions
about t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h i s m e n t a l i s t i c language t o o r d i n a r y uses o f t h e s e are d i f f i c u l t
and complex.
some supermind. of the events,
terms
I w i l l o n l y p o i n t out t h a t t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a i s n o t
I t belongs t o a l e v e l o f d i s c o u r s e i n which i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s such as t h e n o t i o n t h a t they p e r t a i n t o a "mind" ( i n any common
sense) have been s e t a s i d e . The
v i j n a p t i a r e not simply raw s e n s e - d a t a b u t , because o f t h e o r g a n i z i n g
e f f e c t o f past
experiences,
present
themselves as f u l l - b l o w n p e r c e p t i o n s .
These i n c l u d e t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f o n e s e l f as a p e r c e i v e r w i t h body and mind; t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a sensory
apparatus;
t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f an o b j e c t o f p e r c e p t i o n ,
and t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f r l i n t e r p r e t a t i v e schema ( 1 1 : 2 ) .
As t h e s e have no indepen-
dent r e a l i t y but a r e merely moments i n t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a ,
they
are s a i d t o be dependent on t h e a l a y a v i j nana. The ceptions.
common man. .may adopt one o f two p o s s i b l e a t t i t u d e s toward these He u s u a l l y h y p o s t a t i z e s them i n t o c o n c r e t e
t h i n g s , thus
strengthening
t h e n o t i o n t h a t he i s a person surrounded by an environment o f o b j e c t s . terms such o b j e c t s " t o t a l l y i m a g i n a r y "
(II:3).
per-
Asanga
On t h e other; hand, under t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f Mahayana t e a c h i n g s , he may b e g i n t o see t h r o u g h t h e apparent s u b s t a n t i a l i t y o f these p e r c e p t i o n s . i d e a s t h a t he and h i s surroundings o
brought t o p e r f e c t i o n " ( I I : M .
12
As he does s o , he becomes f r e e from t h e
a r e immutable o b j e c t s .
His perceptions are
8k In e i t h e r case t h e p e r c e i v e r , o b j e c t and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e m u t u a l l y
13 dependent and c o - v a r i a b l e . change.
None o f them remains c o n s t a n t w h i l e t h e o t h e r s
There i s no room i n t h i s t h e o r y f o r a s i n g l e o b s e r v e r who sees t h i n g s
d i f f e r e n t l y o r who sees, d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s ; t h e r e i s no n o t i o n o f a r e a l which appears
d i f f e r e n t t o common man and Buddha.
world
There i s no need t o h o l d
any o f t h e s e terms c o n s t a n t , s i n c e c o n t i n u i t y i s p r o v i d e d by t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a : the p e r c e p t u a l a c t i v i t y from which t h e common man and h i s w o r l d , and t h e
- Ik Buddha and h i s w o r l d , may-emerge..
The way i n which t h e s e i d e a s a p p l y t o t h e
i n d i v i d u a l on t h e r e l i g i o u s path i s worked out i n d e t a i l throughout
the text.
F i n a l l y , we s h o u l d note an i n t e r e s t i n g e x t e n s i o n o f t h e Abhidharmic dharma t o generate terms which a p p l y t o t h e Buddha.
term
Asanga e a s i l y f i n d s terms
f o r t h e o r d i n a r y p e r c e i v e r , t h e o b j e c t o f h i s p e r c e p t i o n and t h e s e i z i n g p e r c e p t i o n s he employs, b u t a problem a r i s e s when speaking o f t h e Buddha, t h e environment which he p e r c e i v e s and t h e way i n which he p e r c e i v e s i t . s o l u t i o n i s t o adopt
a t e r m i n o l o g y based
on t h e word dharma.
Asanga's
Whereas t h e
common man sees h i m s e l f as a s p e c i a l s o r t o f o b j e c t surrounded
by o t h e r o b j e c t s
at which he g r a s p s , t h e Buddha sees h i m s e l f as a group o f dharmas (Dharmakaya), surrounded
by dharmas over which he e x e r c i s e s s o v e r e i g n t y .
The f i e l d w i t h i n
which t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n occurs i s c a l l e d t h e "dharma-realm" (dharmadhatu).""" ^ The
i n t e r p r e t a t i v e , scheme t h a t h a s . l e d him'to t h i s v i s i o n i s c a l l e d t h e "
"Mahayana dharma,"
:
As i t has been g i v e n t o him by o t h e r s who have p r e v i o u s l y
a t t a i n e d such a v i s i o n , i t i s c a l l e d an " o u t f l o w " o f t h e dharmadhatu.
85 D.
A STUDY OF VIJNANAVADA BUDDHQLOGY IN THE
MAHAYANASAMGRAHA
As we have seen, Asanga has c i t e d a great number o f t r a d i t i o n a l about
Buddhahood from the a u t h o r i t a t i v e s u t r a s and s a s t r a s .
He does not
t o have s e l e c t e d t h e s e f o r c o m p a t i b i l i t y s i n c e even the most notions
"facts" appear
contradictory
(e.g., t h e r e i s one Buddha/there are many Buddhas) are reproduced.
the h i s t o r y and development o f many o f t h e s e have been s t u d i e d e l s e w h e r e , ^
As I
have examined an i n d i v i d u a l n o t i o n i n d e t a i l o n l y when such i n f o r m a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o understand t h e use o f i t i n t h i s
text.
The p r e s e n t study w i l l be p r i n c i p a l l y concerned w i t h those d o c t r i n e s by which Asanga attempts
t o r e s o l v e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s between the i n d i v i d u a l i d e a s .
The g e n e r a l procedure.was as f o l l o w s : were l o c a t e d .
A l l statements
Where t h e y o c c u r r e d i n c l u s t e r s , the.degree
between contiguous elements
was
about
Buddhahood
of r e l a t i o n s h i p
a s s e s s e d and a d e c i s i o n made on whether
c o u l d stand alone or whether the c l u s t e r should be r e t a i n e d i n t a c t . each statement
was
i s o l a t e d as f a r as l o g i c a l l y p o s s i b l e .
judgement proved e a s i e r than expected. o f the Buddha at 11:33
each
That i s ,
In most c a s e s , t h i s ,
For example, as t h e twenty-one gunas
are o b v i o u s l y l i f t e d en b l o c from the Samdhinifmocana-
s u t r a and are s e p a r a t e d from t h e o t h e r Buddhology and i n t e r p r e t e d i n a d i f f e r e n t manner by Asanga, t h e y s h o u l d be kept t o g e t h e r . a p p l i e s t o the " a s s o c i a t e d " gunas a t X:9-2T.
The. same r e a s o n i n g
On t h e o t h e r hand, many s t a t e -
ments are c l e a r l y d i s c r e t e o r are embedded i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f some o t h e r t o p i c . In e i t h e r c a s e , t h e y may
be removed from c o n t e x t and regrouped t o
illustrate
f e a t u r e s o f the b a s i c framework, e.g., t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r a l l statements r e f e r r i n g t o the Dharmakaya. The
ease with, which t h i s r e g r o u p i n g i s p o s s i b l e r e f l e c t s the e a r l y
state
86
of
this text.
Although
the c h a p t e r s
d o c t r i n e w i t h i n the chapters m e a n i n g f u l o r d e r , and may
are i n a l o g i c a l o r d e r , many b l o c k s
( e s p e c i a l l y i n chapter X) are i n no
be rearranged.'
These.passages f e l l
c a t e g o r i e s , each o f which r e q u i r e d a d i f f e r e n t
1.
The
list
o f gunas at 11:33
The
obviously
into three
treatment:
stands by i t s e l f .
As
i t i s not r e a l l y i n t e g r a t e d
w i t h the r e s t o f the t e x t , i t r e c e i v e d o n l y a c u r s o r y
2.
of
examination.
passages d e a l i n g w i t h the Dharmakaya showed t h a t Asanga had used t h i s
term as a synonym f o r Buddhahood i n g e n e r a l .
These passages c o n t a i n most o f
the t r a d i t i o n a l i d e a s w i t h which he d e a l s , but c o n t r i b u t e d i r e c t l y t o h i s s y s t e m a t i c p r o j e c t o n l y by answering t h e q u e s t i o n o f how T h e r e f o r e , I have s t r u c t u r e d the examination
3.
o f t h e s e around t h a t
question.
Those passages (mainly from chapter X) which show Asanga's attempts t o
s y s t e m a t i z e the B u d d h o l o g i c a l primary
focus o f t h i s
Before beginning,
i d e a s by the t r i k a y a scheme.
a p o s s i b l e source
o f c o n f u s i o n must be noted. on the term "body."
t r a n s l a t e d a v a r i e t y o f T i b e t a n and Chinese terms by regarded
I found t h a t he has used '"le
f o r any
Lamotte
aspect
o f a Buddha (e.g., 'Nirmanakaya, These were
undoubtedly kaya i n t h e S a n s k r i t .
T: l u s and Hi'jpj?
The has and
Examining the t e x t s ,
c o r p s " f o r the f o l l o w i n g terms:
Sambhogakaya, Dharmakaya, Svabhavikakaya).
2.
the
" l e c o r p s " ("body"),
them a l l as e q u i v a l e n t t o the S a n s k r i t "kaya."
T: sku, H:
These are
study.
Buddhology o f the Mahayanasamgraha hinges
1.
Buddhahood i s o b t a i n e d .
f o r the p h y s i c a l b o d i e s o f o r d i n a r y b e i n g s ,
87 of
Sravakas and o f Pratyekabuddhas
(e.g.,
'1:1+8; 1:50; 11:2.2;
11:11, etc. ). 3.
T: lus_ and H: C t l
f o r "category or " c l a s s "
(l:ll,
I:2l).
Thus, by t a k i n g b o t h T i b e t a n and Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s i n t o account, i t i s always p o s s i b l e t o determine which o f t h e t h r e e senses o f "body" i s i n t e n d e d .
1.
11:33
11:33 THE TWENTY-ONE GUNAS OF THE BUDDHA
c o n t a i n s a s h o r t , and a p p a r e n t l y s e p a r a t e , Buddhology based on t h e
following l i s t
of qualities
(gunas) o f a Buddha.
This l i s t
i s drawn from a
' ' ~ 17 prominent passage o f t h e Samdhinirmocanasutra. The Buddha:
0.
Has a v e r y pure
intelligence
s h i n - t u rnam-par dag-pa'i b i o mnga'-ba
&
1.
:
i
M>
Acts i n non-duality kun-tu spyod-pa'i g n y i s mi-mnga'-ba
* 2.
—
n
E n t e r s t h e c h a r a c t e r l s t i c l e s s dharma mtshan-nyid med-pa'i c h o s - l a mchog-tu g z h o l - b a r mdzad-pa
88
3.
R e s i d e s i n t h e Buddha-residence s a n g s - r g y a s - k y i gnas-pas- gnas-pa
4i k.
f&
it
O b t a i n s an e q u a l i t y w i t h a l l
Buddhas
sangs-rgyas thams-cad dang mnyam-pa-nyid b r n y e s - p a
l i . f l
5.
-
M
ih
if- %
ML
Having no o b s t a c l e s , reaches an u n d e r s t a n d i n g S g r i b - p a mi-mnga'-bas r t o g s - p a r t h u g s - s u chud-pa
6.
Has a dharma which cannot be o v e r t u r n e d p h y i r m i - z l o g - p a ' i chos dang-ldan-pa
7.
I s not d i m i n i s h e d by h i s sphere o f a c t i o n s p y o d - y u l - g y i s mi-'phrogs-pa
8.
Has a system which i s i n c o n c e i v a b l e rnam-par bzhag-pa bsam-gyis
9.
mi-khyab-pa
Has reached the e q u a l i t y o f t h e t h r e e times dus-gsum mnyam-pa-nyid-du t h u g s - s u chud-pa
89 10.
Has a body t h a t extends over a l l
areas o f t h e u n i v e r s e
' j i g - r t e n - g y i khams thams-cad-du khyab-pa'i sku dang-ldan-pa
11.
Has a v e r i d i c a l awareness o f t h i n g s chos-thams-cad-la the-tshorn med-pa'i ye-shes mnga'-ba
%>
12.
_
n
; i *j ^
ii.
Has a mind c o n t a i n i n g a l l p r a c t i c e s •spyod-pa thams-cad dang-ldan-pa'i b i o mnga'-ba its
13.
—
w
it
tt
K
Has-an e r f o r l e s s _ k h o w l e d g e o f t h i n g s chos mkhyen-pa-la nem-nur med-pa
*• Vi lh.
it *t fe Jk
Has a body CH: "as p e r c e i v e d by o r d i n a r y b e i n g s " ] which i s not
imaginary
rnam-par ma-brtags-pa'i sku mnga'-ba
15.
Has.an awareness which i s t h e g o a l o f t h e vows o f a l l
Bodhisattvas
ye-shes byang-chub sems-dpa' thams-cad-kyis yang-dag-par mnos-pa [ s i c ]
- I. 16.
§ .
%
n
*
«
Has t r u l y reached t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e non-dual Buddha-residence s a n g s - r g y a s - k y i gnas-pa g n y i s - s u med-pa dam-pa'i p h a - r o l - t u p h y i n - p a
4!
& -
^
;T4JUf'.
90 17.
Has
arrived, at the c u l m i n a t i o n o f the Tathagata's
undefiled
l i b e r a t i n g awareness de-bzhin gshegs-pa
ma-'dres-pa'i
rnam-par t h a r - p a r mdzad-pa'i
y e - s h e s - k y i mthar phyin-pa
18.
Has
reached the e q u a l Buddhaland which has n e i t h e r c e n t e r nor
o u t l y i n g areas mtha'-dang dbus med-pa'i s a n g s - r g y a s - k y i sa mnyam-pa n y i d - d u t h u g s - s u chud-pa
19.
Has reached the dharmadhatu chos-kyi dbyings-kyis klas-pa
ft
20.
Has
TY>
%~
reached the l i m i t o f open
space
nam-mkha'i khams-kyi mtha' gtugs-pa
21.
Completely reaches t h e f i n a l phyi-ma'i mtha'i mur
limits
thug-pa
Asanga's r e a s o n f o r g r a f t i n g t h i s passage t e n u o u s l y onto the-..end o f the
»•
t r i svabhava
v
l8
chapter',, r a t h e r than: i n t e g r a t i n g i t w i t h i n the t r i k a y a , i s obscure.
However, as he has kept i t s e p a r a t e and i n t e r p r e t e d i t d i f f e r e n t l y , almost t o the p o i n t o f d e v e l o p i n g an a l t e r n a t e Buddhology, I have m a i n t a i n e d h i s d i v i s i o n
91 and p l a c e d a s h o r t study o f i t i n the f o l l o w i n g
section.
The most obvious c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the above l i s t evokes a mythopoeic cosmic
dimensions
i s i t s imagery.
image o f a v i r t u a l l y o m n i s c i e n t and omnipotent
i n h a b i t i n g a Buddha-residence,
s t a t e o f p e r f e c t knowledge.
The remainder
Buddha o f
w i t h i n a Buddhaland, i n a
o f 11:33
interpretation"*"^ t o which Asanga s u b j e c t e d t h i s l i s t and Asvabhava's expansion o f t h i s
It
shows us the
existential
as w e l l as Vasubandhu's
interpretation.
I must r e p e a t t h a t t h e s u b j e c t under i n v e s t i g a t i o n here i s not the t r a d i t i o n a l image.but the manner i n which Asanga has i n t e r p r e t e d i t .
Unfortu-
n a t e l y , h i s o n l y e x p l i c i t p r i n c i p l e i s expremely
puzzling.
"The
phrase,
( b u d d h i ) ' i s c l a r i f i e d by t h e
'The Buddha has a v e r y pure i n t e l l i g e n c e
other phrases." is
He s a y s ,
A l l v e r s i o n s add, "Thus, the X i s p r o p e r l y e x p l a i n e d . " 'f'jr
v a r i o u s l y , dharmata ( T i b e t a n and H),
santa) dr
(Dharmagupta and Buddha-
(Paramartha), o r " l a n a t u r e du Buddha" (Lamotte).
The
o b v i o u s l y wishes t o subsume a l l o t h e r gunas under the u n d e f i n e d concept "pure b u d d h i . "
N e i t h e r Vasubandhu nor Asvabhava o f f e r s s u b s t a n t i a l
and the i d e a i s not a major f o c u s elsewhere o n l y suggest t h a t i t may
"X"
author of
commentary,
i n the Mahayanasamgraha.
I can
r e f e r t o the d o c t r i n e which D. S. Ruegg has
called
20 "la to
l u m i n o s i t e n a t u r e l l e de l a pensee,"
but i t s importance here i s i m p o s s i b l e
determine. Asanga's comments r e v e a l a c o n s i s t e n t and comprehensible
interpretation.
He sees each g u n a — e v e n those o s t e n s i b l y d e s c r i b i n g t h e Buddha's r e s i d e n c e , e t c . — a s a r e f e r e n c e t o some q u a l i t y o f t h e Buddha's p e r s o n a l i t y .
These
may
be g e n e r a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o those gunas which he r e g a r d s as r e f e r e n c e s t o the Buddha's n o e t i c a b i l i t i e s , and those which he r e g a r d s as r e f e r e n c e s t o the Buddha's e f f e c t i v e
abilities.
92 a.
The
Noetic
Abilities
S t r a n g e l y enough, Asanga i n t e r p r e t s the two us o f the way
gunas which o s t e n s i b l y i n f o r m
i n which the Buddha " a c t s " or "moves" as r e f e r e n c e s t o h i s n o e t i c
r a t h e r than h i s e f f e c t i v e a b i l i t i e s : 1.
"CThe Buddha] a c t s i n n o n - d u a l i t y " i s g l o s s e d as "the q u a l i t y o f
a b s o l u t e l y unimpeded entrance to o b t a i n i n g an a c c u r a t e
t o the knowable."
" E n t e r i n g the knowable" r e f e r s
comprehension o f the o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f p e r c e i v e d
r e a l i t y , a comprehension which w i l l i t s e l f ensure a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n .
•-
comprehension i s d e s c r i b e d i n the t r i s v a b h a v a d o c t r i n e ( I I : 9 ) supports
t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by d e f i n i n g " n o n - d u a l i t y " as "not
encountering
o b s t a c l e s and
sometimes not
encountering
This
- •'' 21
Asvabhava sometimes
them," thus s t e e r i n g the
reader away from the obvious c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the " n o n - d u a l i t y " c o u l d r e f e r t o a non-dichotomizing
conceptual
process,
a n o t i o n not i n a c c o r d w i t h
the
trisvabhava. 2.
"He
e n t e r s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e s s dharma" i s i n t e r p r e t e d as "he
has
gone t o the supremely pure t a t h a t a which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n o n - d u a l i t y b e i n g and non-being."
of
Asvabhava r e f e r s t h i s concept t o the t r i s v a b h a v a doc-
t r i n e which i n the Mahayanasamgraha i s invoked
t o e x p l a i n a l l such a s s e r t i o n s .
22 Thus, "Buddha a c t i o n " i s i n t e r p r e t e d as an unhampered n o e t i c a c t together with
" e n t r y , " r e f e r s t o g a i n i n g a proper
i . e . , an understanding
by the b.
The activity.
understanding
of
which,
reality,
trisvabhava. The
Effective
Abilities
remainder o f the gunas are r e f e r e n c e s t o the Buddha's a l t r u i s t i c These may
be s u b d i v i d e d - i n t o those which o s t e n s i b l y describe- the
93
domain or p l a c e i n h a b i t e d by the Buddha, 'and those which d e s c r i b e t h e Buddha himself.
i.
5.
The Domain o f the Buddha
"Having no o b s t a c l e s , he reaches an u n d e r s t a n d i n g . "
s a y s , "He
has reached the non-impeded p l a c e
(lUlb26).")
(.The
Chinese
Asanga e x p l a i n s t h i s
as the q u a l i t y o f h a v i n g c u l t i v a t e d the a n t i d o t e t o a l l o b s t a c l e s . Asvabhava adds t h a t t h i s
" c u l t i v a t i o n " i s the p r a c t i c e o f t h e n o b l e p a t h .
T h i s p o i n t i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o 1. and 2., but s t r e s s e s the
state
a c h i e v e d r a t h e r than the a c t i o n o f a c h i e v i n g i t . 3-
"He
r e s i d e s i n the Buddha-residence
(vihara)" i s interpreted
as
showing "the q u a l i t y o f r e s i d i n g i n .unceasing, spontaneous B u d d h a - a c t i v i t y . " By v a r i o u s examples o f " r e s i d e n c e " (Devavihara , the f o u r Brahmaviharas, dhyanas, sunyata, a n i m a t t a , e t c ) , Asvabhava (UUl0c27-29).explains to
be
any fundamental
the
"residence"
stance or p r i n c i p l e i n which an i n d i v i d u a l i s grounded
and from which he a c t s .
Asvabhava i d e n t i f i e s the Buddhavihara
w i t h the
s p o n t a n e i t y w i t h which a Buddha takes any a p p r o p r i a t e stance t o a i d s e n t i e n t b e i n g s , not by some p a r t i c u l a r Buddha-stance. Here a l s o , a statement a reference to a c t i v i t y .
a s c r i b i n g a determinate
s t a t e i s i n t e r p r e t e d as
Asanga i s not o n l y i n t e r p r e t i n g a s p a t i a l myth i n
a c t i v e terms but i s a l s o a f f i r m i n g t h a t the manner o f the Buddha's a c t s
cannot
be e x h a u s t i v e l y s p e c i f i e d , but o n l y l a b e l l e d "unceasing spontaneous Buddha actions." T h i s phrase r e v e a l s the t h r e e parameters in specific
circumstances.
g o v e r n i n g the Buddha's a c t i o n
"Unceasing" w i l l be d e a l t w i t h i n number 21 below.
9k
" S p o n t a n e i t y " r e v e a l s t h e Buddha's freedom t o respond t o t h e needs o f o t h e r s . The t h i r d , " B u d d h a - a c t i v i t y , " i s determined by the p a t t e r n o f a c t i o n s set up d u r i n g the graded p r a c t i c e o f the paramitas which l e d t o Buddhahood.
This
p a t t e r n i s the s u b j e c t o f the next guna. 16.
"He
has t r u l y reached the p e r f e c t i o n
Buddha-residence."
(paramita) o f the
non-dual
Asanga says t h a t t h i s i s "the q u a l i t y o f h a v i n g a t t a i n e d
t h e paramitas i n the e q u a l Dharmakaya."
To Asvabhava t h i s means t h a t a l l the
paramitas have been developed t o t h e h i g h e s t degree and are " e q u a l " or d u a l " i n s o f a r as t h e y cannot be q u a n t i f i e d still
on the bhumis).
pattern of action.
"non-
(as t h e y c o u l d w h i l e t h e Buddha
A g a i n , the Buddha-residence
was
i s more than a determinate
I t i s the terminus o f the development by which t h e
B o d h i s a t t v a became a Buddha, and as such d e f i n e s the manner i n which t h e Buddha w i l l a c t . 22 18.
"He
has reached
outlying areas."
the e q u a l Buddhaland which has n e i t h e r c e n t e r nor
Asariga says t h a t t h i s r e v e a l s the q u a l i t y o f n o n - l i m i t a t i o n
o f the sphere o f the t h r e e Buddha-kayas. o n l y two
Asvabhava adds a s e r i e s o f comments,
o f which are o f i n t e r e s t h e r e : "the Dharmakaya, e t c . l i v i n g i n t h i s
u n i v e r s e because
t h e r e i s no p l a c e e l s e " and "the Dharmakaya, e t c . p e n e t r a t e s
everywhere i n o r d e r t o p r o c u r e t h e w e l f a r e o f s e n t i e n t b e i n g s While the Buddha-residence
was
..."
the f a c t o f the Buddha's a l t r u i s t i c
the Buddhaland i s the p l a c e o f the a c t i o n .
action,
Asvabhava concludes t h a t t h i s p l a c e
cannot be o t h e r than the u n i v e r s e f i l l e d w i t h the b e i n g s f o r whose sake the a c t i o n i s performed. 19.
"He
has reached the dharmadhatu" shows the q u a l i t y o f h a v i n g
devoted
h i m s e l f t o the w e l f a r e and happiness o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s u n t i l the end o f samsara.
Asvabhava says t h a t the dharmadhatu can g i v e r i s e t o o u t f l o w s
such
95
as s u t r a s and t e a c h i n g s .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e Buddha who
reaches t h e dharmadhatu
devotes h i m s e l f t o t h e w e l f a r e and happiness o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . s p a t i a l language
Here t h e
i s i n t e r p r e t e d as r e v e a l i n g t h e a l t r u i s m o f t h e Buddha's
actions. 20.
"He has reached the l i m i t s o f open space" r e v e a l s t h e q u a l i t y o f
indestructibility
(or""inexhaustibility").
.Asvabhava adds t h a t
i s a metaphor for-'the Dharmakaya which, without
"open space"
i t s e l f a l t e r i n g of imposing
l i m i t s , w o r k s . f o r t h e w e l f a r e and happiness o f s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . 21.
"He c o m p l e t e l y reaches t h e f i n a l l i m i t s . "
There i s no comment by
Asanga and Asvabhava makes t h i s a p a r t o f number 20., but a l s o suggests t h a t the " f i n a l l i m i t s " r e f e r t o a p e r p e t u a l n o n - i n t e r r u p t i o n o f t h e B u d d h a - a c t i v i t y , s i n c e t h e r e w i l l never be an end t o b e i n g s t o be t r a i n e d .
Thus, t h e s p a t i a l
l i m i t s are i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e l i m i t l e s s n e s s o f t h e a c t i o n . 7.
"He i s not d i m i n i s h e d by h i s sphere o f a c t i o n CH: " H i s a c t i o n s are
unimpeded"]."
Asanga e x p l a i n s t h i s as "the q u a l i t y o f not b e i n g d i m i n i s h e d by
w o r l d l y t h i n g s a l t h o u g h born i n the w o r l d . "
ii.
The
Buddha-body
Only two gunas d e a l e x p l i c i t l y w i t h t h e body o f t h e Buddha: 10.
"His body extends over a l l areas o f t h e u n i v e r s e " means t o Asanga
t h a t he m a n i f e s t s a Sambhoghakaya and Nirmanakaya i n a l l areas o f t h e u n i v e r s e . Asvabhava adds t h a t t h i s i s f o r t h e w e l f a r e and happiness o f a l l b e i n g s t o be disciplined. ih.
"His body CH: "as p e r c e i v e d by o r d i n a r y b e i n g s " ] i s not i m a g i n a r y . "
Asanga says t h a t "he m a n i f e s t s h i m s e l f a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s Cof t h o s e whom he t e a c h e s ] . "
Asvabhava adds t h a t a l t h o u g h he may m a n i f e s t h i m s e l f w i t h
96 a g o l d c o l o r , e t c . , h i s body i s not Note t h a t the term " i s not
imaginary.
imaginary"^
means t h a t the o b j e c t
perceived
has not been generated by c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g a c t i v i t y o f the s u b j e c t , as i s t h e case w i t h o r d i n a r y p e r c e p t i o n o f another's body. k.
"He
o b t a i n s an e q u a l i t y w i t h a l l Buddhas."
i s no d i v e r g e n c e
Asanga e x p l a i n s t h a t
between Buddhas as f a r as t h e s u p p o r t ,
t h e i r Dharmakaya are concerned.
i n t e n t i o n and a c t i o n o f
Asvabhava adds t h a t the support
i s the
v i suddhaj nana; i n t e n t i o n s are the i n t e n t i o n t o work f o r the w e l f a r e and a c t i v i t i e s r e f e r t o the r e s u l t i n g a c t i o n s which a l l accomplish Nirmanakaya and
which he 11.
of
others,
through
Sambhoghakaya.
iii.
The
The
Buddha-mind
remainder o f the gunas d e a l w i t h the Buddha's a w a r e n e s s — t h e way sees, knows and "He
there
has
in
understands.
a v e r i d i c a l awareness'
of t h i n g s . "
Asanga c a l l s t h i s
"the
q u a l i t y o f c u t t i n g o f f doubts," and Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t , l a c k i n g doubt h i m s e l f , he 15.
i s a b l e t o cut o f f the doubts o f
others.
"His awareness i s the g o a l o f t h e vows o f a l l B o d h i s a t t v a s . "
e x p l a i n s t h a t "by
i n c a l c u l a b l e numbers o f b o d i e s 25
takes the t r a i n i n g
CH:
" o f supports"!] he
Asanga under-
^ of sentient beings."
"bodies" belong to the Bodhisattvas s a t t v a s t r a n s m i t t h i s t e a c h i n g and
Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t
whom t h e Buddha t r a i n s .
The
the
other
so o b t a i n the awareness which i s the
Bodhiobject
o f the vows o f a l l B o d h i s a t t v a s . 13.
"His knowledge o f the dharma i s f r e e from e r r o r . "
he knows the
f u t u r e a r i s i n g o f dharma.
the Buddha, u n l i k e the
Sravaka,
According
Asanga says t h a t
t o Vasubandhu and
Asvabhava,
i s a b l e t o p e r c e i v e t h e s u b t l e s t seeds o f
97
f u t u r e Buddhahood i n some a p p a r e n t l y i n c o r r i g i h l e i n d i v i d u a l , and so t o encourage him. 9.
"He has reached t h e e q u a l i t y o f t h e t h r e e t i m e s . "
he " i n s t r u c t s " ( o r " p r e d i c t s , " v y a k a r a n a ) .
Asanga adds t h a t
Asvabhava adds t h a t t h i s means t h e
Buddha can know and e x p l a i n t h i n g s i n t h e past o r f u t u r e as i f t h e y were current
events.
8.
" H i s system i s i n c o n c e i v a b l e . "
s y s t e m a t i z i n g t h e dharma."
To Asanga t h i s i s "the q u a l i t y o f
Asvabhava adds t h a t t h e system cannot be compre-
hended by f o o l s o r w o r l d l i n g s i n g e n e r a l . 6.
" H i s dharma cannot be o v e r t u r n e d . "
To Asanga t h i s means "he i s not
overcome by any t i r t h i k a s . " 17.
"He has a r r i v e d a t t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e Tathagata's u n d e f i l e d
l i b e r a t i n g awareness." undefiled
Asanga i n t e r p r e t s t h i s as t h e q u a l i t y o f m a n i f e s t i n g
(H: " v a r i o u s " ) Buddhalands i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f b e i n g s .
Asvabhava i n t e r p r e t s " l i b e r a t i n g awareness" as "awareness o f a s p i r a t i o n (vimoksa)."
That i s , Asvabhava i n t e r p r e t s t h i s guna as t h e Buddha's a b i l i t y ,
t o be aware o f t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f each s e n t i e n t b e i n g . 12.
" H i s mind c o n t a i n s a l l p r a c t i c e s . "
Asanga says t h a t t h i s i s "the
q u a l i t y o f c a u s i n g Cthose whom he t e a c h e s ] t o e n t e r a l l s o r t s o f p r a c t i c e s . "
The Buddha who emerges from 1 1 : 3 3 i s c e r t a i n l y not i r r e c o n c i l a b l e w i t h the f i g u r e found l a t e r i n c h a p t e r X.
However, apart from h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f
the t e n t h guna, Asanga has simply not r e c o n c i l e d them.
While t h i s c u r i o u s
o m i s s i o n should make us v e r y wary o f s i m p l y r e a d i n g 1 1 : 3 3 and c h a p t e r X t o g e t h e r , one common element i s o b v i o u s .
Both a r e permeated by t h e i d e a o f
b e i n g - i n - c o n t r o l , an i d e a which t h e Mahayana l a b e l s "mastery" ( v a s i t a , see note
h2 below).
That
i s , e x p e r i e n c e s do not s i m p l y impinge upon t h e Buddha;
he takes
an a c t i v e r o l e i n p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g
h i s world.
From t h i s
under-
s t a n d i n g he i s a b l e t o a c t , spontaneously and c r e a t i v e l y , i n o r d e r t o t r a n s m i t t h i s understanding
to others.
2.
THE DHARMAKAYA
The second major Buddhology i s found i n passages d e s c r i b i n g t h e Dharmakaya. I t d e p i c t s Buddhahood as a s i n g l e e n t i t y and p r o v i d e s questions,
"How
i s i t obtained?"
the o p p o r t u n i t y
and "What i s i t ? " The former e l i c i t s
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the a s p i r a n t t o h i s g o a l . provides the occasion f o r developing
a.
a metaphysical
f o r the a
The l a t t e r
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Buddha.
O b t a i n i n g t h e Dharmakaya
While the e n t i r e Mahayanasamgraha i s one l o n g p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r o b t a i n i n g the Dharmakaya, a few passages g i v e a s y n o p s i s
of the process.
d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e groups a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t y l e o f e x p l a n a t i o n
— the —
These may be i n each:
a highly abstract epistemological explanation i n v o l v i n g re-orientation.of alayavijnana a v e r y concrete
e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l one, s t r e s s i n g m e d i t a t i o n
and i l l u s t r a t i n g
the p e r c e p t u a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e Dk —
an a c t i v e answer which i n v o l v e s t h e a c t i o n o f t h e Dk. i n t h e world.
i.
I;l+6-U8
R e - o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e A l a y a v i j nana
The author has r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f how the s e e d - f i l l e d the cause o f emotional
alayavijnana,
involvement i n the w o r l d , can a l s o be t h e seed o f ways
99 o f t h i n k i n g which c o u n t e r a c t such involvement. w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g thought
i s the i m p r e s s i o n formed i n the a l a y a v i j n a n a by
h e a r i n g t h e dharma ( s r u t a v a s a n a ) •
The
a g r e a t e r one as the s u b j e c t i s thought i s meditated all
initial
small impression gives r i s e t o
out, and t o a s t i l l
g r e a t e r one
as i t
upon, u n t i l i t c o m p l e t e l y t a k e s over the a l a y a v i j nana and
seeds o f e m o t i v i t y .
o f the
He answers t h a t the seed o f
The
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e s s shows the
dispels
beginnings
Dk:
1:48.
" T h i s s m a l l , medium or g r e a t seed implanted by h e a r i n g i s a l s o the seed o f the Dharmakaya. not the a l a y a v i j n a n a .
I t c o u n t e r a c t s the a l a y a v i j n a n a — i t i s
Although
i t i s w o r l d l y , as i t i s an
outflow
o f the t r a n s w o r l d l y and v e r y pure dharmadhatu, i t i s the seed o f w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g thought.
Even b e f o r e w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g
thought
a r i s e s , i t [ t h e seed implanted by hearing"! c o u n t e r a c t s the snare the k l e s a s , Cthe p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e b i r t h : inD a r e a l m o f and a l l bad a c t i o n s . "it
of
suffering,
I t h e l p s one t o meet Buddhas and B o d h i s a t t v a s .
i s i n v o l v e d w i t h ^ the Dharmakaya o f t h e neophyte
Bodhi-
27 sattvas Sravakas it
and i t i s a l s o i n v o l v e d w i t h the Vimuktikayas and Pratyekabuddhas.
Although
i s i n v o l v e d w i t h the Dharmakaya and "As
of the
i t i s not the a l a y a v i j n a n a , Vimuktikaya.
i t develops through t h e stages o f s m a l l , medium and
large,
t h e v i p a k a v i j n a n a w i l l become d e v o i d o f seeds and a l l i t s a s p e c t s w i l l be cut o f f . " Here the Dk
i s p r e s e n t e d as a r e o r i e n t e d a l a y a v i j f i a n a .
( v i j n a n a ) o f o r d i n a r y man i n the f u t u r e .
e s t a b l i s h i n him the tendency
The t o t a l set o f such t e n d e n c i e s
The
perceptions
t o have s i m i l a r ones
( a l a y a - v i j n a n a ) i s the b a s i c
100 substratum o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y .
According
t o t h i s passage, t h e dharma which a
man hears a c t s i n an analogous way but e s t a b l i s h e s a new substratum, t h e bodyof-dharma (Dharmakaya) which e v e n t u a l l y r e p l a c e s t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a as t h e foundation
of his existence.
T h i s i s confirmed
by X : 7 . 1 :
"by r e o r i e n t i n g t h e
alayavi.]nana, t h e Dharmakaya i s o b t a i n e d . " T h i s dharma, which comes from those who have a l r e a d y reached e n l i g h t e n ment, i s c l e a r l y t h e Mahayana t e a c h i n g , as t h e neophyte (adikarmika)
Bodhisat-
t v a s have t h e Dk but t h e §ravakas and Pratyekabuddhas have a Vimuktikaya instead. Asvabhava (U 395bl-9) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e Vimuktikaya i s f r e e ..only from t h e klesavarana,
whereas t h e -Dk i s f r e e from both k l e s a v a r a n a
However, he t h e n attempts t o e x p l a i n how a B o d h i s a t t v a o f h i s c a r e e r , be s a i d t o be f r e e from b o t h . p r i n c e who has been imprisoned
and
jneyavarana.
can, at t h e v e r y
onset
He l i k e n s t h i s B o d h i s a t t v a t o a
immediately a f t e r r e c e i v i n g a b h i s e k a .
When he
i s f i n a l l y f r e e d from prison',, he w i l l immediately r e g a i n h i s p r e r o g a t i v e s . seems t o suggest t h a t a p o t e n t i a l Dk i s o b t a i n e d on t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ing
a t t h e moment o f s e t t i n g out
c a r e e r ,vbut i s - a c t u a l i z e d o n l y l a t e r .
This notion of acquir-
a p o t e n t i a l Dk seems t o o v e r l a p w i t h t h a t o f b e i n g born i n t h e Tathagata's
. 28 gotra. +
ii.
X:k
This
O b t a i n i n g t h e Dharmakaya: The E p i s t e m i c
"How i s t h e Dharmakaya i n i t i a l l y o b t a i n e d
Explanation
CT: 'by c o n t a c t ' 1 ? "
Both Vasubandhu and Asvabhava agree t h a t t h e term " o b t a i n e d " i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e Dk i s not something "produced" because t h e body i s p e r p e t u a l .
101 By Non-Conceptual and Subsequent Awareness*"^
The
first
X:4.1
answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f how t h e Dk i s i n i t i a l l y
" . . . by non-conceptual
obtained i s :
awareness ( n i r v i k a l p a j nana) and subsequent
awareness ( p r s t h a l a b d h a j n a n a ) which take as t h e i r o b j e c t t h e common Mahayana dharmas."
Vasubandhu does not comment, w h i l e Asvabhava (U
^37b28) says o n l y , " t h e
meaning i s easy t o understand," p r o b a b l y because t h e s e terms have a l r e a d y been d e f i n e d i n e a r l i e r passages which w i l l now be examined. Chapter
I I has d e s c r i b e d t h e way i n which t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r b e g i n s t o
understand t h e view o f r e a l i t y s e t out i n t h e f i r s t the B o d h i s a t t v a p a t h .
c h a p t e r s and hence e n t e r s
111:12 d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o g r e s s on t h e p a t h :
By a calm and i n s i g h t f u l w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g awareness which t a k e s as i t s o b j e c t t h e common dharmas, and by subsequent
multiple-
v i j n a p t i awareness, he has a t t e n u a t e d a l l t h e image-producing seeds b e l o n g i n g t o t h e a l a y a v i j f i a n a and s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e seed of
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e Dharmakaya.
A f t e r r e o r i e n t i n g t h e base, by
p e r f e c t i n g a l l t h e Buddhadharmas he a c q u i r e s o m n i s c i e n t awareness.
. . . The
subsequent
awareness, which'sees e v e r y t h i n g " a r i s i n g
the a l a y a v i j n a n a and merely mental
appearances
i l l u s i o n , a r i s e s by i t s v e r y n a t u r e f r e e from
from
t o be l i k e an misapprehensions.
Thus, j u s t as a magician i s f r e e from misapprehensions
about t h e
r e a l i t y o f t h i n g s he has c r e a t e d , so t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , a l t h o u g h speaking o f cause and e f f e c t , i s always f r e e from about
them.
misapprehensions
102
T h i s i s r e p e a t e d at I I I : l 4 :
In t h e t e n B o d h i s a t t v a bhj'imis . . . . because Cthe B o d h i s a t t v a ] p r a c t i c e s , f o r many m i l l i o n s o f k a l p a s , t h e calm and i n s i g h t f u l w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g awareness which t a k e s as i t s o b j e c t the common dharmas h i s bases.
and t h e subsequent awareness, he r e o r i e n t s
In o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e t h r e e a s p e c t s o f t h e Buddha-
kaya, he has p r a c t i c e d i n t h i s way.
F i n a l l y , i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a bhumis at V:2.10:
Why i s t h e t e n t h bhumi c a l l e d t h e dharma-cloud? awareness o f a l l
Because i t s
dharmas which t a k e s as i t s o b j e c t t h e common
Cdharmas1 c o n t a i n s t h e e n t i r e Cgroup o f ] means t o l i b e r a t i o n i n v o l v i n g dharartrs and samadhi C j u s t as a c l o u d c o n t a i n s w a t e r ] , because i t o b l i t e r a t e s major impediments as a c l o u d the sky, and because i t f i l l s
t h e Dharmakaya.
The commentaries t o a l l t h r e e passages a r e s i m i l a r . f e r e n c e s i n terminology,, .they a l l
obliterates
D e s p i t e minor
dif-
d e a l w i t h t h e same two t y p e s o f "awareness"
( j n a n a ) , a term never used f o r o r d i n a r y common-sense "awareness-of-something" ( v i j n a n a ) but r e s e r v e d f o r awareness e x e r c i s e d by t h e Buddha and B o d h i s a t t v a . The two t y p e s o f j nana a r e "calm and i n s i g h t f u l w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g
aware-
ness which t a k e s as i t s o b j e c t t h e common dharmas" and "subsequent awareness." As Asvabhava (U hl6o5-6)
i d e n t i f i e s t h e f i r s t w i t h t h e n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a , .these
are t h e same i d e a s as i n t h e o r i g i n a l passage a t X:h. In t h e phrase "calm and i n s i g h t f u l w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g awareness which takes as i t s o b j e c t t h e common dharmas," Asvabhava (U
^l6c6)
g l o s s e s t h e terms
103 "calm" and " i n s i g h t f u l " r e s p e c t i v e l y as " i n a s t a t e o f m e d i t a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n " (samahita) and " f r e e from misapprehensions."
That i s , t h e y a r e t o he under-
s t o o d i n t h e i r u s u a l sense as m e d i t a t i o n a l terms where "calm" (samatha) r e f e r s t o t h e u n t r o u b l e d s t a t e o f mind gained through one-pointed m e d i t a t i o n , and " i n s i g h t " (vipasyana) r e f e r s t o t h e a c c u r a t e view gained by a mind i n t h i s state. ^ T h i s awareness i s a l s o " w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g " ( l o k o t t a r a ) , g l o s s e d by Asvabhava (U U l 6 c 5 ) as " l e a d i n g t o enlightenment" (anasrava) and " f r e e from concepts" (nirvikalpa).
That i s , i t a i d s t h e ^ B o d h i s a t t v a i n h i s p r o g r e s s a l o n g -
the path but s h o u l d not be misunderstood as an awareness " o f " a t r a n s c e n d e n t r e a l i t y , o r a c l a s s o f mental o p e r a t i o n s y i e l d i n g knowledge about such a r e a l i t y . F i n a l l y , t h i s awareness takes as i t s o b j e c t t h e "common (samsrsta) dharmas'.' T h i s i s t h e most p u z z l i n g aspect o f t h e term. ness have an o b j e c t ?
Asvabhava (U 4l6c2) e x p l a i n s that, "common
dharmas" means t h a t t h e awareness bears upon ( i s t i c s "common" passage
(
How.can a non-conceptual aware-
$$jfL
(f^jL
£yj&.
)
) the manifest character-
) t o a l l things, i . e . ,tathata.
While a v e r y s i m i l a r
(VIII:5) c o n t a i n s no mention o f t a t h a t a , t h a t term occurs i n t h e
g l o s s e s t o b o t h 111:12 and V I I I : 5 .
As t h e use o f t a t h a t a i n t h i s
literature
has not been p r o p e r l y s t u d i e d , and as i t seldom appears i n t h i s t e x t , t h e few passages which mention
i t have been s e t a s i d e .
In o t h e r words, t h i s i s aware-
ness o f t h e r e a l i t y common t o a l l p e r c e p t i o n , a r e a l i t y n o r m a l l y
misapprehended
and c o n c r e t i z e d i n t o v a r i o u s r . i s o l a t e d c o n c e p t s . While t h e "subsequent" o f "subsequent
awareness"
( p r s t h a l a b d h a ) can merely
mean "coming a f t e r , " here i t r e f e r s t o t h e s t a t e subsequent
t o m e d i t a t i o n when
the calm and i n s i g h t f u l mental a t t i t u d e i s c a r r i e d over i n t o p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e ordinary world.
As 111:12 says, i t
10k .
. . sees e v e r y t h i n g a r i s i n g from the a l a y a v i j n a n a
a l l merely mental appearances t o be l i k e an i l l u s i o n , by i t s v e r y nature
and
arising
f r e e from m i s a p r e h e n s i o n s .
In terms o f the t r i s v a b h a v a view o f t h i s t e x t , by subsequent awareness one
sees the
v i j n a p t i , which are p a r a t a n t r a , but
t h e i r nature
i s " l i k e an i l l u s i o n . "
i . e . , are not p a r i k a l p i t a .
31
appreciates the f a c t
T h e r e f o r e , t h e y are not 32
"Misapprehension"
e x p l a i n e d i n the Abhidharmakosa.V:9: "Taking
misapprehended,
i s a widely-used
term
the impermanent as permanent, ,,the
s u f f e r i n g - f i l l e d as s a t i s f y i n g , the impure as p u r e , and t h a t which has atman as-having prehensions
an atman."
that
Here, Asvabhava (U U l 6 c l 9 - 2 0 )
no
i d e n t i f i e s misap-
as erroneous i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f p a r a t a n t r a , i . e . , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
whose acceptance g i v e s r i s e t o p a r i k a l p i t a and whose r e j e c t i o n g i v e s r i s e parinispanna. In 111:12, t h e n o n - c o n c e p t u a l and
.
subsequent awareness are s a i d t o :
. . a t t e n t u a t e a l l the image»producing seeds
t o the a l a y a v i j n a n a , and
to
strengthen
belonging
the seeds o f
contact
w i t h the Dharmakaya.
The
p r a c t i c e of non-conceptualization
r e i f y experience. Dharmakaya"
33 a s
weakens the i n v e t e r a t e t e n d e n c i e s
to
Asvabhava (U l + l 6 c l l - 1 2 ) g l o s s e s "seeds o f c o n t a c t w i t h "the i n f l u e n c e o f h a v i n g h e a r d much Mahayana [ t e a c h i n g ! , "
thus i d e n t i f y i n g i t as a development o f the i n f l u e n c e which o r i g i n a l l y set p r a c t i t i o n e r on the p a t h . ^
T h i s may
a l s o e x p l a i n the phrase "by
the T i b e t a n v e r s i o n o f the o r i g i n a l q u e s t i o n at The
the
end o f t h i s p r o c e s s
contact" i n
X:^+.
i s d e s c r i b e d r e s p e c t i v e l y as
(at 111:12), " t r i p l e Buddhakaya" (111:1"+) and
the
"filling
3 6
"omniscience""
the Dharmakaya"
105
(V:2.10).
As the passages are "very s i m i l a r , i t . i s - r e a s o n a b l e ' t o see t h e s e
synonymous terms.
The
f a c t t h a t one
speaks o f "Buddhakaya" w h i l e the
speaks o f a l l t h r e e kayas suggests t h a t the Dk hut
can s t a n d f o r a l l t h r e e .
ness"—not
as
other
i s not merely one o f t h e t h r e e
They are a l s o synonymous w i t h "omniscient
aware-
a n : . i n f i n i t e e x t e n s i o n o f . t h e o r d i n a r y epistemie process but., ' as
Asvabhava (uHl6cl.5.-l6) glos.ses, "a s t a i n l e s s and unimpeded
jnana."
By the F i v e - f o l d P r a c t i c e
. The
second answer t o the q u e s t i o n o f how
the Dharmakaya i s f i r s t
acquired
is:
X:h.2
"By the f i v e - f o l d
Vasubandhu does not comment. from V:h
practice."
Asvabhava (U
!+37b28-c5) quotes t h e e x p l a n a t i o n
and a l s o says t h a t the f i v e aspects are no b i r t h , no d e s t r u c t i o n ,
p r i m o r d i a l calm, e s s e n t i a l peace, and no s e l f - n a t u r e . are a p p a r e n t l y The bhumis.
explanations
alternatives.
e x p l a n a t i o n at Y:h The
These two
i s embedded i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f the t e n B o d h i s a t t v a
r e l e v a n t p o r t i o n i s as f o l l o w s :
How
s h o u l d we
understand
B o d h i s a t t v a who,
the p r a c t i c e o f t h e s e bhumis?
The
on bhumi a f t e r bhumi, p r a c t i s e s samatha and
v i p a s y a n a does so by a f i v e - f o l d p r a c t i c e . of i t are: 1.
common p r a c t i c e
2.
characteristicless
3.
spontaneous p r a c t i c e
k.
intensive practice
practice
The
five
aspects
106 5.
insatiable
practice
By t h i s f i v e - f o l d p r a c t i c e the B o d h i s a t t v a a c h i e v e s
five
types o f r e s u l t : 1. "In each i n s t a n t a l l the supports 2.
3.
o f a f f l i c t i o n are
He
i s f r e e d from v a r i o u s n o t i o n s and o b t a i n s the p l e a s u r e s
of
the garden o f the dharma.
Accurate
awareness o f the incommensurable m u l t i p l i c i t y
appearances o f the dharma and the t r u l y endless t i o n s ofD h.
The
of
[manifesta-
i t s aspects.
signs^which^,accompany purity^, and.'are not j u s t
are m a n i f e s t e d 5.
destroyed.
in-him'.-
In o r d e r t h a t , h e may
imagined, ..
fulfill
( p a r i p u r i ) and p e r f e c t
( p a r i n i s p a t t i ) t h e Dharmakaya, he s e i z e s upon the most perfect
cause.
Asvabhava (U U2l+c28-^25a29) shows t h a t t h e s e are a l l m e d i t a t i v e and t h a t each element o f the second l i s t p r a c t i c e i n the
techniques
i s the r e s p e c t i v e r e s u l t o f each
first.
Asvabhava and Vasubandhu (Bh359b21-2"+) s u b s t a n t i a l l y agree t h a t "the most p e r f e c t cause"
i s the " i n s a t i a b l e p r a c t i c e , " i . e . , the t o t a l i t y o f h i s p r a c -
t i c e s up t o t h a t t i m e , and t h a t " f u l f i l l m e n t " r e f e r s t o the Dk
on the t e n t h
bhumi, w h i l e " p e r f e c t i o n " r e f e r s t o r e s i d e n c e i n the Buddhaland. T h i s passage strengthens gained e a r l i e r but not j u s t the Sbk,
the p r e v i o u s evidence t h a t the Dk
f u l f i l l e d at the h i g h e s t s t a g e . can l i v e i n (
) a Buddhaland.
i s something
I t a l s o shows t h a t the
Dk,
107 By Amassing the Accumulation o f Equipment on A l l Bhumis
The t h i r d way
X:k:3
i n which the Dharmakaya i s o b t a i n e d i s :
By amassing the accumulation o f equipment
(sambharasamcaya)
on a l l bhumis.
There i s no commentary h e r e , but at
111:15 and 18 (U l+17b26-28 and U iil8bl6-20)
Asvabhava d e f i n e s i t as the s t a b i l i z e d p r a c t i c e o f the s i x paramitas from h a v i n g p r a c t i c e d them throughout innumerable p a s t ages.
resulting
This i s i n accord
37 w i t h the normal use o f the term.
By the Vajropamasamadhi X:4.H
By the Vajropamasamadhi which breaks the avaranas.
Immediately
difficult-to-break
a f t e r t h i s samadhi t h e y are s e p a r a t e d
from a l l the avaranas. 1
" ' •• m —
"Vajropamasamadhi" d e s i g n a t e s the f i n a l s t a t e o f m e d i t a t i o n i n which the
38 l a s t d i f f i c u l t i e s are overcome and f u l l enlightenment a c h i e v e d . o b s t a c l e s t o enlightenment
(avaranas) are " s u b t l e and d i f f i c u l t
These
t o break."
Asvabhava (U *+37c7-8) g l o s s e s t h i s as "unemotional n o n - a w a r e n e s s . " ^ d e f i n e s these as the l a s t and most d i f f i c u l t but not by the A r h a t .
final
Ting*
40
'
o b s t a c l e s severed by the Buddha
Hence the Buddha a c h i e v e s o m n i s c i e n c e .
That i s , the avaranas are commonly d i v i d e d i n t o k l e s a v a r a n a s ( o b s t a c l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f b l i n d emotional r e a c t i o n ) and jneyavaranas o f unawareness).
(obstacles
consisting
The former are more e a s i l y overcome than are the l a t t e r . •
• • —
1
*
—
" s u b t l e d i f f i c u l t - t o - b r e a k avaranas" are the l a s t and most d i f f i c u l t jneyavaranas.
o f the
The
108
X:"+."+
T h i s i s the way
i n which r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the-support i s -
obtained.
T h i s c l o s i n g l i n e v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i f i e s o b t a i n i n g the Dharmakaya w i t h r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e support. skandhas i s i m p l i c i t
iii.
The
i n T and
That t h i s " s u p p o r t " e x p l i c i t i i n H's
passage has
p e r c e p t u a l stance o f the a s p i r a n t who may
l e g i t i m a t e l y request
individual. upon two
five
translation.
Dharmakaya as R e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e Skandhas
While the p r e c e d i n g
we
i s each o f the
d e s c r i b e d the a l t e r a t i o n i n the b a s i c moves from common man
t o Dharmakaya,
a more d e t a i l e d account o f t h e changes i n t h i s
Such an account i s found at X:5.
The
explanation
key terms: " r e o r i e n t a t i o n " ( p a r a v r t t i ) ^ and
at X:5
rests
"sovereignty"
(vibhutva).^ To say t h a t some aspect
o f the a s p i r a n t has been r e o r i e n t e d means t h a t
i t has not been a b o l i s h e d but has been put t o a new
use w i t h i n t h e
new
personality. Asvabhava (U U37cl8-22) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e Sravaka, e t c . , attempts t o a b o l i s h h i s m i s e r y by d e s t r o y i n g the suicide.
The
leper w i l l
Bodhisattva
skandhas j u s t as a f o o l i s h l e p e r commits
attempts t o r e o r i e n t each skandha j u s t as a wise
seek a cure which w i l l t r a n s f o r m h i s d i s e a s e d body i n t o a h e a l t h y
one. A c t i o n s which have been r e o r i e n t e d are termed " s o v e r e i g n t i e s . " non-reoriented
e x i s t e n c e i s composed o f skandhas which are f o r c e d i n t o a
determinate form by t h e e f f e c t s o f past trapped
Ordinary
i n t o e x i s t e n c e i n a c e r t a i n type
a c t i o n (karma).
The
individual is
o f w o r l d by what appear t o be
powerful
109
external forces. The
Buddha i s not t r a p p e d hut i s h i m s e l f i n c o n t r o l — he e x e r c i s e s
"sovereignty."
While o r d i n a r y man p e r c e i v e s a s i t u a t i o n f o r c e d upon him, t h e
Buddha c r e a t e s o r m a n i f e s t s
a s i t u a t i o n i n response t o t h e needs o f o t h e r s .
Hsuan-tsang c e r t a i n l y understood
" s o v e r e i g n t y " i n t h i s sense, as" he r e p e a t e d l y
t r a n s l a t e s Asvabhava's commentary by: "He o b t a i n s t h e s o v e r e i g n power o f manifesting . . . "
X:_l
By how many s o v e r e i g n t i e s does t h e Dharmakaya o b t a i n sovereignty?
X:5.1
The answer i s , i n s h o r t , by f i v e o f them.
By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e rupaskandha i t o b t a i n s sover=e i g n t y over t h e B u d d h a f i e l d , t h e body, t h e l a k s a n a s , t h e minor marks, t h e i n f i n i t y o f phonemes, and t h e i n v i s i b l e c r a n i a l mark.
A p o s s i b l e misunderstanding
o f X:5 can be avoided b y b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t
the skandhas a r e not f i v e groups o f f a c t o r s c o m p r i s i n g are t h e f a c t o r s c o m p r i s i n g epistemic
They
a moment o f r e l a t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e — i n c l u d i n g t h e
s u b j e c t , t h e e p i s t e m i c o b j e c t , t h e schemata o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and
the f i n a l p e r c e p t i o n s . becoming B u d d h a f i e l d s
T h e r e f o r e , when t h e t e x t speaks o f t h e rupaskandha e t c . , i t i s not p o r t r a y i n g t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e i n d i -
v i d u a l ' s p h y s i c a l form i n t o a cosmic Buddha. ordinary world The
an i n d i v i d u a l .
I t i s simply
( i n c l u d e d i n t h e rupaskandha) i s t r a n s f o r m e d
saying that the i n t o a Buddhaland.
statement a t X:5.1 says t h a t t h e Buddhaland r e p l a c e s t h e former
p h y s i c a l world.
Asvabhava says they may be g o l d o r s i l v e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
d e s i r e s o f s e n t i e n t beings.. The
Buddha a l s o o b t a i n s t h e a b i l i t y t o m a n i f e s t
a body w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o
110
Asvabhava, corresponds t o the c a p a c i t i e s o f b e i n g s t o be t a u g h t , i . e . , the Nirmanakaya.and Sambhogakaya. that
While t h i s w i l l be d e a l t w i t h l a t e r , l e t us
note
"Dharmakaya" i s here used as a g e n e r a l term f o r Buddhahood,' while., the-
rupakaya
i s the s p e c i f i c way
i n which i t appears.
The l a k s a n a s and minor marks are the 32 major and the 80 minor marks o f a ^3 g r e a t man.
The
i n f i n i t y o f phonemes r e f e r s t o t h e Buddha's a b i l i t y t o speak
t o any s e n t i e n t b e i n g i n any The
invisible
situation.
( t o gods and men)
c r a n i a l mark i s t h e usntsa, or - f l e s h y
kk protuberance on t h e - crown o f t h e headT' - The author's reason f o r m e n t i o n i n g i t here i s obscure. X:5.2
By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the vedanaskaridha i t o b t a i n s s o v e r e i g n t y over the i r r e p r o a c h a b l e , immeasurable, v a s t happy residences. The vedanaskaridha i s the second l o g i c a l moment i n p e r c e p t i o n .
o b j e c t and f a c u l t y are j u x t a p o s e d , the immediate r e s u l t
When sense
i f vedana—"sensation"—
t h e f e e l i n g o f p l e a s u r e , p a i n or i n d i f f e r e n c e which i s i n h e r e n t i n any p e r c e p t i o n , and over which one has no c o n t r o l . o f involvement The t e x t
normal
These s e n s a t i o n s are the b a s i s
i n samsara. i s s a y i n g t h a t , f o r the Dk,
c a l l e d "residence."
r e o r i e n t e d vedana i s a s o v e r e i g n t y
Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t " i r r e p r o a c h a b l e " means t h a t t h e r e
are no k l e s a s , "immense" t h a t t h e y are r e p l e t e w i t h gunas, and " v a s t " t h a t t h e y surpass a l l the p l e a s u r e s o f the t r i p l e
world.
I t i s not c l e a r i f t h i s i s one r e s i d e n c e or s e v e r a l , o r i f s u k h a v i h a r a i s synonymous w i t h brahmavihara toned r e a c t i o n s
( o f X:10).
However, i t i s c l e a r t h a t
feeling-
( k l e s a s ) based on past encounters w i t h a c e r t a i n c l a s s o f
Ill
o b j e c t have "been r e p l a c e d by " b l i s s "
( s u k h a ) — a t r a n s c e n d e n t p l e a s u r e grounded
i n the a t t i t u d e o f the Buddha r a t h e r than the appearance o f the o b j e c t .
X:5-3
By r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the samjnaskandha i t o b t a i n s s o v e r e i g n t y over e x p l a i n i n g groups"of names, o f statements,
and
o f phonemes.
The
samjnaskandha i s the aspect o f the p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s i n which the
p e r c e p t i o n , h a v i n g a c q u i r e d the f e e l i n g - t o n e o f vedana, i s i d e n t i f i e d as a c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c by the a f f i x a t i o n o f a v e r b a l l a b e l . thought
In B u d d h i s t
such l a b e l s are d i s c u s s e d under the t h e o r y o f "names, statements
phonemes."^
and
When r e o r i e n t e d the samjnaskandha becomes the a b i l i t y t o master
this verbalization.
As t h e r e are v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s , and Vasubandu and Asvabhava
d i s a g r e e on the exact import o f t h i s passage, i t i s p r o b a b l y unwise t o push i n t e r p r e t a t i o n much f u r t h e r .
X:5.^
By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the samskafaskandha i t o b t a i n s s o v e r e i g n t y over c r e a t i o n
(nifmana), t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , • c o n -
v e n i n g the g r e a t a s s e m b l i e s , and c o l l e c t i n g white
The
dharmas.
samskaraskandha i s t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s which
have been b u i l t up through p a s t e x p e r i e n c e i n t h i s and former
lives.
They are
the f o r c e s d r i v i n g the i n d i v i d u a l i n t o c e r t a i n types o f a c t i o n which l e a d t o c e r t a i n types o f p e r c e p t i o n .
Asvabhava
(u
him
*+38a8) says t h a t here the author
i s r e a l l y speaking about c e t a n a , " m o t i v a t i o n , " ^
6
the a l l - i n c l u s i v e
samskara.
In the Dk t h i s has been r e o r i e n t e d t o y i e l d t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f c r e a t i n g appearances and.of t r a n s f o r m i n g t h i n g s •' as - d e s i r e d , o f b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r great assemblies o f those who
wish t o l e a r n , and of b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r white
dharmas.
112
A g a i n , the b a s i c i d e a i s a s w i t c h (cetana), to being
X:5.5
from b e i n g
able to create appropriate
driven into situations
ones.
By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the v i j n a n a s k a n d h a i t o b t a i n s
sover-
e i g n t y over the m i r r o r - l i k e j nana, the self-same j nana, the contemplative
1
j n a n a , and the a c t i o n - a c c o m p l i s h i n g
In abhidharmic thought the v i j S a n a s k a n d h a i s the
fifth
skandha, the
f l e d g e d f e e l i n g - t o n e d r e c o g n i t i o n o f an o b j e c t a r i s i n g from the process.
In the V i j n a n a v a d a , v i j f l a n a r e t a i n s t h i s sense but
t o an o v e r a r c h i n g While t h i s was c o u l d be
framework w i t h i n which the o t h e r
not
o f a process
including a l l ,
Second, the k l i s t a m a n a s
atmadrsti
(the i d e a o f the
divides.
T h i r d , a r i s i n g from the k l i s t a m a n a s ,
place.
who
i t s detailed
posited
four
as the l o c u s
serves
of
s e l f as a d i s c r e t e e n t i t y ) , which d i s c r i m i n a t e s
s y n t h e s i z i n g - d i s c r i m i n a t i n g consciousness F i n a l l y , the
elevated
F i r s t , the a l a y a v i j n a n a which s t o r e s the b i j a s and
as the ground f o r the o t h e r s .
data.
i s also
i n s o f a r as each skandha
development became a major concern o f the V i j n a n a v a d i n s , s t r a t a of vijnana.
full-
preceding
skandhas f i n d t h e i r
e n t i r e l y absent i n e a r l i e r s c h o o l s
d e s c r i b e d o n l y as an aspect
j n a n a.
and
the manovijnana, the c e n t r a l
where concepts are formed from sense
sense data from each o f the f i v e sense f a c u l t i e s are _
c a l l e d a v i j n a n a and the f i v e t o g e t h e r
are c a l l e d p r a v r t t i v i j n a n a — " a c t i v e
vijnana." As
each o f t h e s e f o u r c l a s s e s o f v i j K a n a i s r e o r i e n t e d , an
"accurate
awareness" ( j n a n a ) " r e s u l t s . . The
sense i n which t h i s jnana i s an " a c c u r a t e "
the t r i s v a b h a v a t h e o r y r e a l t h i n g , nor
o f chapter
II.
The
awareness i s e x p l a i n e d
jnana i s not
an awareness o f
i s i t some amorphous m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e .
by
the
Both common man
and
113 Buddha f i n d themselves engaged i n a p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n common man r e i f i e s h i s p e r c e p t i o n s and mistakes The
Buddha sees through
(.paratantra).
them f o r o b j e c t s
t h i s r e i f i c a t i o n and so understands
be j u s t t h a t ( p a r i n i s p a n n a ) .
The
(parikalpita).
the perceptions t o
The former type o f p e r c e p t i o n i s v i - j n a n a ,
"awareness o f c e r t a i n t h i n g s , " w h i l e t h e l a t t e r i s jnana, " a c c u r a t e awareness." The
r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a g i v e s t h e " M i r r o r - l i k e jnana" which
p r o v i d e s an a c c u r a t e r e f l e c t i o n unhindered The
by s p a t i a l o r temporal
r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e k l i s t a m a n a s y i e l d s t h e self-same
barriers.
jnana which i s aware
o f t h e l a c k o f d i f f e r e n c e between o n e s e l f and o t h e r s and so i s a b l e t o m a n i f e s t images o f t h e Buddha as r e q u i r e d . The
r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e manovijnana y i e l d s t h e
"Contemplation-jnana"
which i s t h e r e a s o n i n g aspect o f t h e Buddha. F i n a l l y , t h e f i v e sensory v i j n a n a s a r e r e o r i e n t e d t o o b t a i n t h e " A c t i o n accomplishing
j n a n a " which comprises
the e n t i r e D k — p e r c e p t i o n
b.
t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s o f a Buddha.
and a c t i v i t y — i s
The Dharmakaya —
Thus,
i n c l u d e d i n X:_5.
What I s I t ?
In t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s we have seen t h a t , ,inthe Mahayanasamgraha, t h e Dharmakaya, h a v i n g b o t h e f f e c t i v e and n o e t i c a s p e c t s , i s a synonym f o r Buddhahood.
These s e c t i o n s have shown t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f common man and Dk by
l i m i t i n g t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n t o those
s e t s o f concepts
a p p l i c a b l e t o b o t h , and
by s t r e s s i n g t h e p r a c t i c e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e d i t a t i v e ones, which e f f e c t t h e t r a n s i t i o n from one t o t h e o t h e r . However, t h e Dk i s not simply t h e terminus new r e a l i t y . it?"
o f t h e p r a x i s but i s a l s o a
We may legitimately.; ask-, "What i s i t ? " as w e l l as - "What was
As t h e r e - i s ho m e t a l a n g u a g e i n which a " t r u e " d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
Ilk
Dharmakaya may
he
framed (see
X:3-5=
" i n c o n c e i v a b i l i t y "*),.. Asanga i s l i m i t e d t o
.the Abhidharmic concepts which-were t h e s t a n d a r d t o o l s o f He
Buddhist-reasoning.
a t t a c k s from a v a r i e t y o f angles w i t h v a r i o u s q u e s t i o n s ,
d i f f e r e n t type
of^answer;
each y i e l d i n g
-
I n t e r p r e t i n g these r e d u c t i o n i s t i c answers p r e s e n t s
a formidable
challenge.
F i r s t , the Abhidharmic language, which i s i t s e l f m y s t e r i o u s t o u s , must t r a n s l a t e d i n t o contemporary concepts. the f a c t t h a t Asanga has samgraha i s not
The
Chapter X o f the Mahayana-
a s y s t e m a t i c t r e a t i s e on Buddhahood, but
t h i s d o c t r i n e i s merely n a s c e n t .
be
more s e r i o u s problem a r i s e s from
done o n l y p a r t o f the t a s k .
t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s toward such a work.
i s more l i k e
Even w i t h the commentator's
a collec-
opinions,
I m p l i c a t i o n s are not worked'-out, minor
i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s remain u n r e s o l v e d ,
a
simple
S i n c e Asanga's approaches f o l l o w no d i s c e r n i b l e p a t t e r n , they w i l l
simply
t h e o r y o f t h e Dk been s e p a r a t e d
be taken as they
i.
The
X:3.1
a
l o o s e ends abound, and nowhere has
from the c o n f u s i n g mass o f
details.
occur.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( l a k s a n a s ) o f t h e Dharmakaya
Dharmakaya has
five
characteristics:
R e o r i e n t a t i o n : because it:'_is r e o r i e n t e d toward the t i o n of a l l obstacles belonging o f the p a r a t a n t r a svabhava and
t o the samklesa
aspect
C i t i s r e o r i e n t e d ] toward
o b t a i n i n g l i b e r a t i o n from a l l the o b s t a c l e s t o over t h e dharmas; and .because_it presence o f the pure a s p e c t - o f
destruc-
sovereignty
i s r e o r i e n t e d toward the
paratantra.
T h i s passage i s v e r y c o n c i s e because " r e o r i e n t a t i o n " has
a l r e a d y been
115 d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l at IX:1-2, where the n o t i o n t h a t the w o r l d
i s renounced,
upon r e a c h i n g enlightenment i s i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n the V i j n a n a v a d a . passage ( I X : . l ) reads:. nirvana.
emotions'
key.
non-abiding
I t s l a k s a n a i s the r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e double support, i . e . ,
r e j e c t i n g the does not
" R e n u n c i a t i o n • i s the Bodhisattva's-
The
samklesas w h i l e not r e j e c t i n g samsara."
imply
an escape from the w o r l d , but
That i s , " r e n u n c i a t i o n "
o n l y from those d i s t u r b i n g
(samklesa) which are c o n t i n u a l l y d r i v i n g man
i n t o improper, m i s e r y -
inducing perceptions
and r e a c t i o n s .
This in-the-world-but-not-of-it state,
c a l l e d "non-abiding"
( a p r a t i s t h i t a ) n i r v a n a , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by " r e o r i e n -
tation. " Here, at X:3.1, Asanga p l a c e s t h i s i d e a w i t h i n the s t r u c t u r e o f the Mahayanasamgraha by r e l a t i n g i t t o the t r i s v a b h a v a d o c t r i n e .
The
"double
support"
whose r e o r i e n t a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s r e n u n c i a t i o n i s simply the p ar at ant r a- s vab ha va, the
"given-ness"
of a perceptual
situation.
ambiguity o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n , which may world
be
The
experienced
or as an o c c a s i o n f o r e n l i g h t e n e d a c t i o n .
t i e s i s e x p l a i n e d i n chapter i n samsara when t h e emotional
III.
An
term "double" p o i n t s t o
The
e i t h e r as a determinate first
o f these
possibili-
i n d i v i d u a l becomes more deeply
enmeshed
reactions attached t o h i s b e l i e f i n h i s
own
u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y f o r c e him t o a s c r i b e a f a l s e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y t o the ( p a r a t a n t r a ) p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n , thus t r a n s f o r m i n g imaginary
(parikalpita) perception.
it.
On the o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s a l s o the
r a t h e r then r e i f y i n g i t , simply
T h i s i s the p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s
given
i t into a t o t a l l y
p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o r r e c t l y a p p r e c i a t i n g ( p a r i n i s p a n n a ) the t r u e nature p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n and,
the
o f the e n l i g h t e n e d
o f the
a c t i n g p r o p e r l y upon
individual.
Therefore,-.Asanga i s s a y i n g t h a t when the s u t r a s a p p l y the term t i o n " t o a Buddha they do not mean t h a t he has become c u t - o f f from
"renuncia-
experience.
116 They mean t h a t h i s r e a c t i o n i n a p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n i s an a c c u r a t e a p p r e c i a t i o n r a t h e r than a r e i f i c a t i o n . Furthermore,
a t IX:2.5-6, Asanga d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e Hinayana
from t h e Mahayana r e o r i e n t a t i o n , and l i s t s t h e "advantages" latter.
reorientation
(anusamsa) o f t h e
T h i s p r o v i d e s y e t another c a p s u l e d e f i n i t i o n o f Buddhahood.
reads: " . . .
IX:2.6
The. B o d h i s a t t v a s understand dharmanairatmya, and, c o n s i d e r i n g
samsara t o he p e a c e f u l , t h e y sever a l l t h e d i s t u r b i n g emotions abandon Cthe worldD. . ."
The advantages
but do not
o f t h i s a r e : "Being grounded i n
t h e i r own r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e base, they o b t a i n s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l samsaric things.
By m a n i f e s t i n g . a p p r o p r i a t e s e n t i e n t b o d i e s t o t h e d i f f e r e n t
classes
o f . M i v i n g b e i n g s , ..they use t h e i r p r o s e l y t i z i n g s k i l l s t o a i d t h e c o n v e r t e d beings t o o b t a i n t h e h i g h e s t b i r t h s and t o s e t out on t h e t h r e e s p i r i t u a l careers (yanas)." .That i s , a r e o r i e n t e d , a c c u r a t e a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e t r u e nature o f t h e p e r c e i v e d w o r l d a u t o m a t i c a l l y e n t a i l s a compassionate
involvement w i t h h e l p i n g
others i n i t . T h i s b r i n g s us t o t h e second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e Dk,- i t s t r u e n a t u r e .
X:3.2
Having white dharmas as i t s r e a l n a t u r e
(svabhava),
because
t h e t e n m a s t e r i e s ( v a s i t a ) a r e o b t a i n e d through t h e f u l f i l l ment o f t h e s i x p a r a m i t a s .
To t h e d i r e c t
q u e s t i o n , "What r e a l l y i s t h e nature o f t h e Dk?" Asanga
r e p l i e s t h a t i t i s not a s t u f f
( v a s t u ) o f any k i n d — i t
simply an i n d i s c r i m i n a t e omnipotence, but a s p e c i f i c
i s ability.
s e t o f a b i l i t i e s which
have been developed by l o n g p r a c t i c e on t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s t a g e s . ities
a r e i n d i c a t e d by t h e term "white dharmas,"
Nor i s i t
These
abil-
which.are here synonymous
w i t h the
"masteries."' ^ 4
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o imagine a s t r o n g e r p o s s i b l e a f f i r m a t i o n o f the c o n t i n u i t y between t h e i n d i v i d u a l who Dk which i s the e v e n t u a l r e s u l t . developed
has
set out on the Mahayana path and
The t r u e n a t u r e o f the l a t t e r
a b i l i t i e s which have been c u l t i v a t e d by t h e
Each o f the t e n m a s t e r i e s (U i+36bli+-l8) are i n square
i s described.
i s simply
former.
Asvabhava's e x p l a n a t i o n s
brackets.
(1) By f u l f i l l i n g the danaparamita the B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s the a y u r v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o abandon l i f e o f one's own
free
w i l l l , the c i t t a v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o undergo t r a n s m i g r a t i o n without b e i n g s o i l e d ! and the p a r i s k a r a (sambhara) v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o accumulate f o o d , d r i n k , e t c . , as one
wishes!.
(2) By f u l f i l l i n g the s i l a p a r a m i t a t h e B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s the k a r m a v a s i t a
[ a b i l i t y t o do o n l y good a c t s ! and
the
u p a p a t t i v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o be born i n whichever d e s t i n y one
wishes!.
(3) By f u l f i l l i n g
the k s a n t i p a r a m i t a the B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s
t h e a d h i m u k t i v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o change a l a n d t o g o l d , e t c . , simply by forming as a s p i r a t i o n t o do
(k) By f u l f i l l i n g
so!.
the v i r y a p a r a m i t a the B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s
the p r a n i d h a n a v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o r e a l i z e one's
(5) By f u l f i l l i n g
the dhyanaparamita the B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s
the r d d h i v a s i t a [ a b i l i t y t o accomplish miraculous
vowsl.
a l l types
of
deeds! t h a t . goes a l o n g w i t h the f i v e a b h i j n a .
the the
(6) By f u l f i l l i n g t h e p r a j n a p a r a m i t a t h e B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s the
j n a n a v a i l i t a C r o u g h l y — a b i l i t y t r u l y t o understand
t e a c h i n g ] , and t h e dharmavasita [ a b i l i t y t o p r e a c h as one wishes].
In
each case t h e f o r c e s which d r i v e an o r d i n a r y man through samsara
been mastered and can now be used by t h e Dk f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f o t h e r s .
have There-
f o r e , t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f t h e Dharmakaya i s mastery. A c l o s e l y r e l a t e d passage Tathagata's Dharmakaya because over a l l t h e dharmas." term Dharmakaya.
appears a t X : l . l :
"The Svabhavikakaya
i s the
i t i s t h e support f o r s o v e r e i g n t y ( v i b h u t v a )
Asvabhava (U l 4 3 6 a l - 5 ) suggests two e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e
E i t h e r , " i t i s c a l l e d Dharmakaya because t h e nature o f t h e
dharma (dharmata) i s t o be a body," o r , " i t i s c a l l e d Dharmakaya because the
support f o r a l l dharmas."
The p h r a s e , ". . . because
i t i s t h e support f o r
s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas," i s g l o s s e d as ". . . because for
i t is
i t i s t h e support
o b t a i n i n g s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas." That i s , kaya i m p l i e s b o t h a coherent o r g a n i c u n i t , and a support o r
o c c a s i o n f o r something,
X:3.3
j u s t as a human body supports human a c t i v i t i e s .
N o n - d u a l i t y (advaya): (a) Of Being and Non-Being, because the
Con t h e one hand] none "of"
dharmas e x i s t s , Chut on t h e o t h e r hand] t h e i r
istic,
sunyata, r e a l l y does e x i s t .
(b) Of samskrta and asamskrta because not
character-
Con-the one. h a n d ! i t i s
caused by karma o r k l e s a s , Chut on t h e o t h e r hand] i t
does possess t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f b e i n g a b l e t o appear as conditioned.
119 (c) Of p l u r a l i t y and u n i t y , because Con the one support
o f a l l the Buddhas i s not d i f f e r e n t i a b l e ,
the o t h e r ] innumerable streams o f e x i s t e n c e are
T h i s passage p r e s e n t s two u n f a m i l i a r concepts, The
d i f f i c u l t i e s : t h a t caused
and t h e fundamental one
t h r e e s e t s are u n e x p l a i n e d
s t a n d i n g o f them.
The
first,
o f the V a i b h a s i k a s .
by the t h r e e s e t s o f
existence/non-existence
o f the dharmas, harks schools, especially
These were f i r s t d i v i d e d
i n t o those which were b e l i e v e d t o r e p r e s e n t e x i s t e n t t h i n g s
The
enlightened.
simply because Asanga presupposes an under-
They began w i t h e x p e r i e n c e s .
those which were i l l u s o r y
[while.on
o f g r a s p i n g t h e sense o f advaya.
back t o the d i c h o t o m i z i n g a n a l y s e s o f the e a r l y Buddhist
true existence.
hand! the
("being"),
and
("non-being"), the outcome o f the i n t e r p l a y o f the
e x i s t e n t s were f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o samskrta, which
p a r t i c i p a t e i n the i n t e r a c t i o n which engenders the i l l u s o r y , and the
asamskrta
which do n o t , and which thus become the key t o the e v e n t u a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f the illusory.
T h i s r e d u c t i o n o f the e x i s t e n t c o n t i n u e d u n t i l a c e r t a i n set o f
fundamental t h i n g s (dharmas) were p o s i t e d . the i l l u s o r y n o n - e x i s t e n t s t h i s p r o c e s s was
g a i n credence
also analyzed.
found the tendency t o d i v i d e e x p e r i e n c e s
" o t h e r s , " a tendency v i r t u a l l y passage
was
In a d d i t i o n , t h e p r o c e s s by which Near the b a s i s o f
i n t o "mine" and
synonymous w i t h the " u n i t y / p l u r a l i t y " o f
our
(Ui+37aT-8).
T h i s passage emphasizes t h e inadequacy o f the o l d a n a l y s i s i n the f a c e o f Mahayana i d e a s .
F i r s t , the d i s t i n c t i o n between the c o n c r e t e l y e x i s t e n t and
i l l u s o r y f a i l s when one
takes the Mahayana p o s i t i o n
(developed
the
at g r e a t l e n g t h
i n the p r a j n a p a r a m i t a
l i t e r a t u r e ) t h a t none o f the dharmas are c o n c r e t e
ities.
simply mean t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s s h i f t e d t o the non-being
T h i s does not
category.
These dharmas do have one
t r u l y existent aspect—the
real-
fact that
they
120
are
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by sunyata,- w h i c h y o n
a purely predicative l e v e l , implies a
complete absence o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . " ^ the
While t h i s has s h i f t e d t h e sense o f
term " e x i s t i n g " from " b e i n g a c o n c r e t e t h i n g " t o " b e i n g an a b s o l u t e l y t r u e
f a c t , " t h e l a t t e r i s merely a wider d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e same t y p e , not a new l i n e o f thought. the
We must remember t h a t even t h e V a i b h a s i k a s d i d not r e g a r d
dharmas as r e a l i n t h e common Western
sense o f b e i n g s e l f - e x i s t e n t
S e c o n d l y , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between'samskrta
and asamskrta f a i l s .
entities. In Abhi-
dharma thought samskrta ("put t o g e t h e r " ) r e f e r s t o t h e f a c t o r s composing moment i n t h e r e l a t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e o f an o r d i n a r y b e i n g . t o g e t h e r i n t h i s moment by p a s t a c t i o n l i s h e d by p a s t e x p e r i e n c e ( k l e s a ) . the
a
They a r e brought
(karma) and automatic r e a c t i o n s e s t a b -
The a c t i v i t i e s o f t h i s assemblage
c o n d i t i o n s f o r f u t u r e combination.
s e t up
The asamskrta, on t h e o t h e r hand,
a r i s e from a c e r t a i n few a c t i o n s such as m e d i t a t i o n , but do not engender f u t u r e combinations o f dharmas. and l e a d s t o n i r v a n a . such an a n a l y s i s .
Hence, t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n breaks down samsara,
The Mahayana concept o f Dharmakaya does not submit t o
I t i s not brought about by karma o r k l e s a but by t h e v a r i -
ous p r a c t i c e s a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d .
While t h i s might be s a i d o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
asamskrta, t h e Dk cannot s i m p l y be asamskrta s i n c e i t l e a d s not s i m p l y t o n i r v a n a but t o f u t u r e appearances
i n samsara.
F i n a l l y , the u n i t y / p l u r a l i t y category also f a i l s .
This point i s very
important'.to Asanga s i n c e i t becomes v i r t u a l l y synonymous w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f how many Buddhas a r e i n e x i s t e n c e .
H i s d e n i a l o f u n i t y i s e a s i l y understood.
I n s o f a r as many i n d i v i d u a l s o b t a i n Dharmakayas upon r e a c h i n g enlightenment, t h e r e a r e many Dharmakayas.
H i s f u r t h e r c o n t e n t i o n , t h a t t h e concept o f
m u l t i p l e Dharmakayas i s a l s o u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , i s more complex. the
Dk cannot be e n t i r e l y p l u r a l because
He says t h a t
"the support o f a l l Buddhas i s not
121
d i f f e r e n t i a b l e (T: 'not m u l t i p l e ' ) . "
To t h i s Asanga has appended two s t a n z a s
w h i c h have been commented upon by Asvabhava. The second s t a n z a (X:3.3b) g i v e s a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s f o r w h i c h t h e i d e a of
e i t h e r one Buddha o r many i s u n a c c e p t a b l e .
I t s p l a c e here suggests t h a t
Asanga d i d n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e between "Buddha" and "Dharmakaya."
Asvabhava's
commentary t o t h e f i r s t s t a n z a ( l A 3 7 a 6 - 1 3 ) says t h a t t h e concept o f p l u r a l i t y does n o t a p p l y t o t h e Dharmakaya because t h i s concept i s based on a d i v i s i o n of t h e w o r l d i n t o " I " and " o t h e r s , " a d i v i s i o n n o t made by a Dharmakaya. c u r i o u s r e a s o n i n g b r i n g s us t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e problem.
This
.By a p p e a l i n g t o t h e
p u b l i c , o b s e r v a b l e f a c t t h a t , many i n d i v i d u a l s have r e a c h e d e n l i g h t e n m e n t , Asanga has proven t h a t t h e Dk cannot be u n i t a r y .
That i s , t h e o r d i n a r y man has
made a common sense and ( t o t h e b e l i e v e r ) v e r i f i a b l e o b s e r v a t i o n .
Now, t o
support h i s d e n i a l o f t h e e n t i r e t r u t h o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n , Asanga a p p e a l s t o a p u r e l y i n t e r n a l , p r i v a t e f a c t about t h e Dk's perceptions. the
Suddenly he i s no l o n g e r s p e a k i n g about how t h e Dk appears t o
o b s e r v e r , b u t about how t h e o b s e r v e r appears t o t h e Dk'.
Our t a s k i n under-
s t a n d i n g t h i s s e c t i o n now becomes one o f f i n d i n g a h e r m e n e u t i c a l framework w h i c h w i l l r e s o l v e t h e apparent c o n f u s i o n . At of
t h i s p o i n t i t w i l l be h e l p f u l t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e g e n e r a l B u d d h i s t use
t h e t e r m advaya from t h e V e d a n t i c a d v a i t a w h i c h i s a l s o o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d by
"non-dual."
The B u d d h i s t t e r m never stands f o r an u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
u n d e r l y i n g appearances, w h i l e t h e V e d a n t i c one may.
reality
As T. R. V. M u r t i s a y s :
Advaya i s knowledge f r e e from t h e d u a l i t y o f t h e extremes of ' I s ' and 'Is n o t , ' B e i n g and Becoming, e t c . I t i s knowledge f r e e d o f c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . A d v a i t a i s knowledge o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n l e s s e n t i t y . . . . 'Advaya' i s a p u r e l y e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l approach, t h e a d v a i t a i s o n t o l o g i c a l . 5 1
122 In the p r e s e n t understanding
i n s t a n c e , t h i s should warn a g a i n s t an o v e r l y
o f the E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f advaya l a k s a n a as a "non-dual
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the Dharmakaya." existent thing. previous
Asanga i s not a s c r i b i n g a q u a l i t y t o
Such a q u a l i t y would be
passage (X:3.2).
a svabhava and would b e l o n g
Asanga i s not making any
division into " i "
and
an
i n the
a s s e r t i o n s about
o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f e i t h e r Dk or p e r c e i v e r o f i t . Once we
the
"go b e h i n d " t h e
" o t h e r , " our q u e s t i o n about "Whose p e r c e p t i o n ? " must
dropped, as i t i s an o n t o l o g i c a l l y based one which simply t h i s system.
literal
cannot occur
I f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c "non-dual" d e s c r i b e s the p r o c e s s
be
within
of percep-
t i o n r a t h e r than e i t h e r s u b j e c t or o b j e c t , the problem becomes, "What does i t r e v e a l about t h i s p r o c e s s ? " d u a l " d e f i n e s the viewpoint which one
simultaneously
r e a c h i n g Buddhahood, and between Buddhas. the t r i s v a b h a v a )
I can see no a l t e r n a t i v e t o c o n c l u d i n g t h a t or stance
o f the p e r c e i v e r .
That i s , a stance
p e r c e i v e s , on a c o n v e n t i o n a l l e v e l , the on an u l t i m a t e l e v e l , the l a c k o f
differentiation
i s the s u b j e c t o f the e n t i r e Madhyantavibhaga.
d e f i n i t i o n would a l s o apply t o the e a r l i e r p o i n t s
(a) and
from
Bodhisattvas
T h i s b i f o c a l view i s developed e a r l i e r i n t h i s t e x t and
"non-
(ill, This
(b) o f the
above-
quoted passage.
X:3.4
P e r p e t u i t y , because i t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the o f the t r u e n a t u r e ,
purification
i t i s the outcome o f a former vow,
and
i t s a c t i v i t y i s never completed.
I t would seem n a t u r a l t o extend the r e a s o n i n g
o f the p r e c e d i n g
s e c t i o n on
n o n - d u a l i t y t o the t r a n s i t o r y / e t e r n a l dichotomy which, f o r s c h o o l s l i k e V a i b h a s i k a s , was
v i r t u a l l y synonymous w i t h the
the
samskrta/asamskrta c a t e g o r i e s .
Asanga's c l e a r statement t o the c o n t r a r y warns us t h a t the s u b j e c t i s much more
123 complex.
He i s not merely e s t a b l i s h i n g a method f o r a v o i d i n g any
but i s making a s s e r t i o n s about
specific
extremes,
cases.
He t a k e s t h e same b i f o c a l view as i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , s e e i n g the Dharmakaya i n b o t h an u l t i m a t e and a r e l a t i v e sense. characteristic
" p e r p e t u i t y " a p p l i c a b l e t o b o t h views.
a w o r l d l y s t a n d p o i n t the Dk completed,
But he now
f i n d s the
The argument t h a t
from
i s perpetual,'because i t s a c t i v i t y i s never,
i s e a s i l y understood.
Note t h a t t h i s u n c e a s i n g a c t i v i t y i s not
e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , but an o b s e r v a b l e f a c t about the Dk.
an
Note a l s o t h a t
a g a i n t h e Dk_ i t s e l f i s c a p a b l e o f a c t i o n w i t h no r e f e r e n c e t o a Sambhogakaya o r a Nirmanakaya. The
former-vow argument i s much the same.
The B o d h i s a t t v a on the way
to
a c q u i r i n g t h i s Dharmakaya has vowed t o c o n t i n u e a c t i n g i n the w o r l d so l o n g as s e n t i e n t b e i n g s r e q u i r e h i s a i d ; and, s i n c e many have s t i l l the Dharmakaya c o n t i n u e s t o a c t . common w o r l d : f i r s t , through a vow the a c t i v i t i e s o f o t h e r s .
not reached n i r v a n a ,
A g a i n , i t s c o n t i n u a t i o n i s grounded i n the taken by the B o d h i s a t t v a ; second,
through
The l o g i c o f t h i s w i l l be worked out i n d e t a i l
by
use o f the t r i k a y a at X:37-39. F i n a l l y , the Dk
i s a l s o p e r p e t u a l i n the u l t i m a t e sense because
i t is
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a pure t r u e n a t u r e ( t a t h a t a ) , which Asvabhava (u437b7-8) says i s p e r p e t u a l and
immutable.
T h i s r a i s e s a major problem o f V i j n a n a v a d a s c h o l a r s h i p . statements—such
Asanga makes
as "the Dharmakaya i s e t e r n a l " — w h i c h appear t o a t t a c h the :
same p r e d i c a t e t o an o b j e c t from b o t h the u l t i m a t e and the c o n v e n t i o n a l viewp o i n t s , and by t h e s e t o e x p l a i n t h e way
i n which t h e two
interact.
F o r example,
the f a c t t h a t the Dk i s e t e r n a l l y p r e s e n t i s the b a s i s f o r i t s c o n s t a n t work f o r the w e l f a r e o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s .
To be a b l e t o do t h i s , Asanga p o s i t s
12k
a "true nature"
( t a t h a t a ) which, as the u l t i m a t e o b j e c t , h e a r s the
T h i s reduces many problems t o one—"What i s t a t h a t a ? "
predicate.
If i t is a truly exis-
t e n t r e a l s t u f f , then t h i s d o c t r i n e d i f f e r s r a d i c a l l y from t h a t i n the r e s t o f t h i s system (or indeed, c a l l i t perpetual
o f any Buddhist system).
any more t h a n e x i s t e n t ?
the V i j n a n a v a d a s a s t r a s ,
X:3.5
Inconceivable
i t does not
I f n o t , how
can one
While t h i s q u e s t i o n
possibly
i s examined i n
seem t o concern the author o f t h i s t e x t .
( a c i n t y a ) , because i t s t r u e , pure n a t u r e
must be known by i n t r o s p e c t i o n , because t h e r e e q u i v a l e n t , and because i t i s not
i s no
worldly
an o b j e c t f o r s p e c u l a t i v e
reasoners.
Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t the p h r a s e , " . . .
because t h e r e i s no
worldly
e q u i v a l e n t , and because i t i s not the o b j e c t f o r s p e c u l a t i v e r e a s o n e r s , " a b b r e v i a t i o n i n d i c a t i n g the e n t i r e process sion, i n c l u d i n g reasoning,
of reaching
r e f l e c t i o n , meditation,
That i s , the u l t i m a t e n a t u r e . o f
a firm logical
s p e c u l a t i o n and
i s an
conclu-
examples.
the Dharmakaya i s i n c o n c e i v a b l e because i t 53
cannot be
a s c e r t a i n e d by normal
However, t h e r e must be
reasoning.
some sense i n which the t r u e n a t u r e o f the Dk
is
knowable, o t h e r w i s e the e n t i r e concept o f a Dk would be merely a l o g i c a l a r t i f a c t — p a r i k a l p i t a r a t h e r than p a r i n i s p a n n a . " i t s t r u e , pure n a t u r e must be known by t a r i e s leave
introspection."
" i n t r o s p e c t i o n " ^ ^ undefined,
Mahayana debates on p e r c e p t i o n .
T h i s sense i s d e f i n e d A l t h o u g h our
by, commen-
t h i s term i s common throughout
the
I t r e f e r s t o the V i j n a n a v a d a b e l i e f t h a t
p r i m a r y sense-data are a source o f a b s o l u t e l y v a l i d knowledge ( i . e . , knowledge o f the
" t r u e , pure n a t u r e , "
c i a t e d or misapprehended.
nirmalatathata)
which may
be
e i t h e r c o r r e c t l y appre-
Other Buddhist s c h o o l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the
Prasangika,
125
rejected this d o c t r i n e . ^ nature
T h e r e f o r e , Asanga i s m a i n t a i n i n g
o f t h e Dk can be a p p r e c i a t e d o n l y by d i r e c t
t h a n by r e a s o n i n g
that the r e a l
experience
of i t rather
about i t .
ii.
X:7
The Buddhadharmas
Asvabhava (U,U38c25) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n , "How many Buddhadharmas are i n v o l v e d i n t h e Dharmakaya?" i s a request nature
(svabhava) o f t h e Dk.
The ensuing
list
f o r i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e t r u e o f s i x Buddhadharmas which
comprise t h e svabhava i s r e l a t e d t o t h e laksanas laksana."
Each r e o r i e n t e d aspect
of the Bodhisattva
which b e l o n g s t o t h e svabhava o f t h e Dk. via X:3.2,
via X : 3 . 1 , "reorientation r e s u l t s i n an a t t r i b u t e
There a l s o may be some r e l a t i o n s h i p
"having-white-dharmas-as-svabhava-laksana," but Asvabhava g l o s s e s
them i n q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ways.. The
X:7.1
first
Buddhadharma i s :
Purification
( v i s u d d h i ) because by r e o r i e n t i n g t h e a l a y a -
v i jnana, t h e Dharmakaya" "Is
Asvabhava
(u.U38c26-l+39a3)
f r e e from t h e t e n d e n c i e s the Dk i s fundamentally
obtained.
e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e Dharmakaya i s "pure" as i t i s
t o b l i n d emotional
r e a c t i o n s (samklesabij a).
d e f i n e d as t h a t which i s f r e e from k l e s a s .
Thus,
As t h e s e
are f a c t o r s which d r i v e t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t o i n c r e a s i n g l y unhappy s i t u a t i o n s , t h i s p o i n t may be p o s i t i v e l y e x p r e s s e d
by s a y i n g t h a t t h e Dk i s t h a t which can
c o n t r o l o r dominate ( v a s i t a ) i t s s i t u a t i o n , an i d e a a l r e a d y seen at X : 3 . 2 and developed below at X : 7 « ^ . We have a l r e a d y encountered t h e i d e a o f r e o r i e n t i n g t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a a t X:5.5.
However, t h e r e t h e r e o r i e n t e d a l a y a v i j n a n a was t h e M i r r o r - l i k e
126 awareness.
Here, i t i s the Dk
itself.
T h i s apparent
d i f f e r e n t ways o f r e g a r d i n g the a l a y a v i j n a n a . perceptual process.
X:7.2
Result
At X:5
c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s due i t was
to
the b a s i s o f the
Here, i t i s t h e c o n t a i n e r f o r impure t e n d e n c i e s .
(vipaka) because by r e o r i e n t i n g the r u p e n d r i y a , the
vipakavijnana i s obtained.
V i p a k a may
simply mean t h a t one t h i n g i s the outcome or r e s u l t o f
another.
In the AbhidharmakoIa i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t something ( e s p e c i a l l y an i n d r i y a ) p e r t a i n s t o a l i v i n g b e i n g and a r i s e s from e a r l i e r causes but good or bad.
i s not
itself
F o r example, the j i v i t e n d r i y a , the simple f a c t o f b e i n g
i s v i p a k a because the i n d i v i d u a l i s a l i v e through
alive,
h i s p a s t . a c t i o n , y e t has
the
o p t i o n .,of •' moving toward e i t h e r samsara or n i r v a n a . The p r e s e n t passage r e t a i n s t h i s g e n e r a l meaning.
When the m a t e r i a l sense
organs ( r u p e n d r i y a ) o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a are r e o r i e n t e d , he o b t a i n s a new of
awareness ( j n a n a ) .
By l a b e l l i n g t h i s awareness " v i p a k a , " Asanga s t r e s s e s -
t h e i d e a t h a t t h e Buddha's awareness r e v e a l s no new which the B o d h i s a t t v a i s suddenly
and independent r e a l i t y t o
opened upon r e a c h i n g enlightenment,
the outcome o f the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p r e v i o u s s t a t e .
Residence
(vihara)
but i s
T h e r e f o r e , i t i s the
nature o f the Dharmakaya t o be grounded i n the sensory l i f e
X:7.3
type
o f the
very
Bodhisattva.
because by r e o r i e n t i n g t h e r e s i d e n c e s ,
such as the a c t i v e - l i f e - o f - d e s i r e r e s i d e n c e , e t c . , the immeasurable j n a n a - r e s i d e n c e
i s obtained.
By s t r e s s i n g the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , r a t h e r than the e l i m i n a t i o n , o f a cific
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the w o r l d
Dharmakaya i s r e j e c t e d .
( v i h a r a ) , the i d e a o f an u t t e r l y
The l i f e
spe-
transcendent
dominated by w o r l d l y d e s i r e i s r e p l a c e d by
one
dominated by Obviously,
immeasurable'jfiana. v i h a r a , l i k e the previous
Buddha's awareness.
The
two
model here i s one
Buddhadharmas, d e a l s w i t h
o f b r o a d e n i n g , from a l i f e
r e a c t i n g t o a c e r t a i n narrow range o f p l e a s u r a b l e take
i n and
J.:J.k
of
s t i m u l i , t o an a b i l i t y
a p p r e c i a t e the immeasurable r i c h n e s s o f
• Sovereignty",
the
to
reality.
'..^-because, by r e o r i e n t i n g the v a r i o u s
lucrative
a c t i o n s , t:he; s o v e r e i g n t y o f the j n a n a , which i s a b h i j n a unhindered throughout a l l the r e g i o n s o f the w o r l d , i s obtained.
The
" l u c r a t i v e a c t i o n s " are w o r l d l y o c c u p a t i o n s
commerce.
The
such as a g r i c u l t u r e and
"jnana which i s a b h i j n a u n h i n d e r e d throughout a l l the r e g i o n s
t h e w o r l d " i s not
a member o f the t r a d i t i o n a l l i s t
of a b h i j n a s . ^
of
Asvabhava
(U439al0-12) seems t o h o l d t h a t i t r e f e r s t o the e n t i r e l i s t , t o the g e n e r a l idea of
abhijna.
T h i s passage c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t the kaya does not
d i s p l a c e the
shift
from common man
t o Dharma-
c o g n i z i n g i n d i v i d u a l from h i s c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n .
seems t o mean t h a t h i s " l u c r a t i v e " a s s i m i l a t i o n o f the w o r l d
i s replaced
It
by
unhindered a p p r e c i a t i o n o f i t .
X:7>5
Discursus
(vyavahara)v°
vecause, by " r e o r i e n t i n g the- d i s c u r s u s
o f e v e r y t h i n g seen, h e a r d , f e l t ,
and known, the
sovereignty
c o n s i s t i n g of-.the awareness which s a t i s f i e s the. mind o f a l l centient beings i s
Asvabhava speaking
obtained.
(uU39al2-15) seems t o understand by t h i s t h a t o r d i n a r y ways o f
about e x p e r i e n c e
become, f o r the Dharmakaya, a way
o f speaking
which
128 is
i n e v i t a b l y able t o s a t i s f y
(Lamotte: "charm") a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s .
I f this
i s Asanga's meaning, t h e r e i s no i d e a o f t h e Dk i n h a b i t i n g some i n e f f a b l e absolute.
X:7.6
Ordinary
speech simply
changes t o p l e a s i n g
speech.
Expulsion
(samudgh£ta), because, hy. r e o r i e n t i n g toward an
expulsion
o f s u f f e r i n g and f a u l t s , a d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e
s u f f e r i n g and f a u l t s o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s i s o b t a i n e d .
Following
Asvabhava (U*l39al5-l8), because t h e Dharmakaya has e x p e l l e d i t s
own s u f f e r i n g and f a u l t s , i t can then d e s t r o y others. awareness
t h e s u f f e r i n g and f a u l t s o f
T h i s i s p o s s i b l e because t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n y i e l d s t h e marvelous that
destroys
iii.
t h e s u f f e r i n g s and f a u l t s o f o t h e r s .
X:9-27
Gunas A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Dharmakaya
F i n a l l y , t h e Dharmakaya i s d e s c r i b e d Unlike the inherent
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (laksanas)
the gunas a r e merely " a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " ) t h e Dk.
by a'set
of qualities
(gunas).
o r fundamental n a t u r e
(samprayukta; T: dang-ldan-par; H:
T h i s term u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e s : e x i s t e n t i a l c o n j u n c t i o n
r a i s i n g the question
(dharma),
of essential basis.
without
Here, Asvabhava (U^39bl2) r e g a r d s i t
as an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e s e gunas a r e not e x c l u s i v e t o t h e Dk but a l s o occur w i t h t h e Sravakas, and so on. does not come i n t o q u e s t i o n ,
Perhaps because t h e e s s e n t i a l b a s i s f o r them
t h i s passage a f f o r d s l i t t l e
fresh insight into
the, author's p r i n c i p l e s . These gurtas a r e , i n f a c t , merely an o l d and w i d e l y a c c e p t e d s e t o f concomi t a n t s t o Buddhahood... . The . f a c t t h a t ' t h i s , t r a d i t i o n a l "list... i s . there a p p l i e d t o the Dk i s y e t another i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , f o r Asanga, "Buddhahood" equals "Dharmakaya."
129 This p a r t i c u l a r l i s t
and
explanatory
Mahayanasutralaxtkara, XXI:43-59. provided
k a r i k a s are drawn d i r e c t l y from the
As t h e y are w e l l known and
as Lamotte
has
e x c e l l e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o o t h e r t e x t s i n which t h e y are d i s c u s s e d
defined, "^" I have simply reproduced the b a s i c l i s t 6
r a t h e r than t r a n s l a t e d a few
o f the more obscure
and
below, and have p a r a p h r a s e d
ideas.
X:10
The
f o u r immeasurables
X:ll
The
e i g h t freedoms-from (vimoksa), the e i g h t f o l d n o n - d i s t u r b i n g
perception
(apramana).
(abhibhvayatana); and the t e n a l l - b a s e s (krt snayat ana).
X:12
The
a b i l i t y t o prevent emotional r e a c t i o n s i n o t h e r s
(arana).
X:13
The
awareness which i s an outcome o f the B o d h i s a t t v a
vow
(pranidhijnana).
X:lk
The
f o u r aspects
o f e x p e r t i s e i n the study and p r o c l a m a t i o n
of
62 the dharma
(pratisamvid).
X:15
The
s i x s u p e r i o r knowledges ( a b h i j n a ) .
X:l6
The
t h i r t y - t w o major and
Asanga l a y s v e r y l i t t l e Dk's
e i g h t y minor marks o f a s u p e r i o r
s t r e s s on t h e s e .
When he l a t e r d i s t r i b u t e s the
a t t r i b u t e s among the t h r e e kayas, he does not
Nirmanakaya or Sambhogakaya e x h i b i t s them.
r e a l l y say whether the
They remain simply
"associated
w i t h " Buddhahood.
X:17
The
fourfold universal purity
X:l8
The
t e n powers ( b a l a ) .
man.
(sarvakaraparisuddhi).
X:19
The f o u r grounds f o r s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e
X:20
The t h r e e f o l d absence o f anything-to-conceal three a p p l i c a t i o n s o f mindfulness
(vais"aradya).
(araksya),
and t h e
(smrtyupasthana).
X:21
The t o t a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f h a b i t u a l r e a c t i o n s
X:22
Opportune a i d t o o t h e r s
X:23
Great compassion
X:2h
The e i g h t e e n
(vasanasamudghata).
(asammosata).
(mahakaruna).
a t t r i b u t e s s p e c i f i c t o t h e Buddha
(avenika
Buddhadharmah)..
X:25
U n i v e r s a l awareness
(sarvakarajnata).
X:26
F u l f i l l m e n t o f the s i x perfections
(paramitaparipuri).
Asvabhava's commentary on u n i v e r s a l awareness (X:25) and t h e summary (X:2T) w i l l be examined l a t e r , as t h e y c o n t a i n
c.
The
information
on t h e t r i k a y a .
The Dharmakaya as -Seen by t h e B o d h i s a t t v a
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Dharmakaya thus f a r might be termed p h i l o s o p h i c a l .
That i s , t h e s c r i p t u r a l f a c t s have been arranged i n a r a t i o n a l p a t t e r n h e n s i b l e t o any r e a s o n i n g
man.
compre-
No e x t r a - r a t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s — n o m y s t i c a l i n s i g h t
or b e l i e v e r ' s commitment—have been r e q u i r e d .
Since, t o the Vijnanavada;
common man and Buddha a r e not two d i f f e r e n t b e i n g s , but two d i f f e r e n t e p i s t e m i c a t t i t u d e s , there
i s no e s s e n t i a l reason t h a t t h e Buddha cannot" be d e s c r i b e d
i n common language. None o f t h i s r e a s o n i n g
would be a l i e n o r incomprehensible t o a Western
131 metaphysician—provided
he was induced t o accept t h e above s e t o f " f a c t s . "
Our
r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r , however, cannot be content w i t h merely d e s c r i b i n g how t h e Dk appears t o o r d i n a r y man.
He not o n l y b e l i e v e s t h a t h i s r e a d e r
(originally
" a u d i t o r " ) can make t h e g r a d u a l t r a n s i t i o n t o Buddhahood but wishes t o encourage him t o do so.
T h e r e f o r e , t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s t r a n s i t i o n he o f f e r s s e v e r a l
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f Buddhahood, each from a viewpoint
nearer the f i n a l g o a l .
The major such i n t e r m e d i a t e stage i s t h a t o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a .
The Bodhi-
s a t t v a 's view o f t h e Dk i s not c a s t i n t h e same l o g i c a l form as t h a t o f t h e common man, because t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p e r c e p t i o n s a r e not l i m i t e d by t h e same l o g i c a l categories. "profound"
In-the Mahayanasamgraha h i s view i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as
(gambhira) and i s d e s c r i b e d a t X:28 by passages o b v i o u s l y taken
from or i n s p i r e d by t h e p r a j n a p a r a m i t a w r i t i n g s .
Asvabhava (\jhk3b6-9)
i d e n t i f i e s t h i s passage as t h e B o d h i s a t t v a view by m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t
"profound,
v e r y p r o f o u n d " means t h a t n e i t h e r w o r l d l y sages nor Sravakas can understand-
63 the b a s i c nature o f t h e Dk. ,
„
The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Dk proceeds i n t h e normal p r a j n a p a r a m i t a Each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
i s mentioned t w i c e — o n c e
i t , t h e p a i r o f a n t i t h e t i c a l statements verse.
to affirm i t ,
style.
and a g a i n t o negate
being fused i n t o a s i n g l e l i n e o f
The r e s u l t i n g n o n s e n s i c a l image d e r i v e s i t s c o n v i n c i n g power from
p o e t i c e f f e c t s e s p e c i a l l y when t h e s t a n z a i s chanted.
That
i s , t h e r e i s no
b e i n g born at t h e Buddha's b i r t h , h i s r e s i d e n c e : i s no r e s i d e n c e , and so on, through
a list
o f twelve
While X:28 expresses
topics. t h e "profound" b i f o c a l v i s i o n o f t h e Buddha
enjoyed
by t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , i t g i v e s no h i n t o f t h e i n t e n s e p o s i t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e Buddha expected
from a p r a c t i t i o n e r .
T h i s view o f Buddha h e l d by B o d h i s a t t v a -
as-devotee i s c o n t a i n e d i n X:29 where i t i s c a l l e d "review
o f t h e Dharmakaya."
132
The term " r e v i e w "
( a n u s m r t i ) i s d e r i v e d from s m r t i , an ambiguous term whose
r o o t meaning "memory" g i v e s l i t t l e c l u e t o the complex s e r i e s o f terms generated
from i t .
B a s i c a l l y , i t r e f e r s t o the process of m a i n t a i n i n g a
s t a b l e e p i s t e m i c o b j e c t f o r purposes o f m e d i t a t i o n . In t h i s passage the o b j e c t o f a t t e n t i o n i s t h e Buddha. (\]kh^c2-3)
Asvabhava
comments t h a t a n u s m r t i means a s t a b l e r e c o l l e c t i o n o f the Buddha.
The Mahayanasamgraha and i t s commentaries t e l l us n o t h i n g about t h e a c t u a l m e d i t a t i o n r i t u a l , but X:29
says t h a t when t h e B o d h i s a t t v a does f i x h i s
a t t e n t i o n upon t h e Buddha he f o c u s e s upon seven p r o p e r t i e s : X:29.1
The Buddhas have o b t a i n e d s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas because t h e y have o b t a i n e d u n h i n d e r e d
awareness w h i c h p e n e t r a t e s
throughout t h e e n t i r e w o r l d . To t h i s i s added a s t a n z a t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t Buddha does not enjoy a s i m i l a r s o v e r e i g n t y over t h e b e i n g s i n the w o r l d .
Asvabhava (uUU5t>l—5) e x p l a i n s t h a t ,
w h i l e t h e Buddha enjoys s o v e r e i g n t y i n t h e sense t h a t he i s aware o f e v e r y - " t h i n g , he cannot abrogate the law o f karma and i m m e d i a t e l y
introduce a l l
beings to nirvana.
X:29.2
The b o d i e s o f t h e T a t h a g a t a s a r e e t e r n a l because t h e T a t h a g a t a s are c o n t i n u a l l y f r e e from s t a i n .
65
Here, as elsewhere i n t h i s t e x t , t h e e p i t h e t " e t e r n a l " i m p l i e s not an i n f i n i t e s u b s t a n t i a l e x i s t e n c e b u t an u n i n t e r r u p t e d c o n t i n u i t y o f some f o c a l c h a r a c t e r istic X:29-3
( i . e . , freedom from s t a i n ) . The T a t h a g a t a s are t o t a l l y i r r e p r o a c h a b l e because t h e y t o t a l l y exempt from t h e k l e s a and j n e y a
avaranas.
are
133 X:29.k
The Tathagatas a r e spontaneous because a l l t h e i r Buddha a c t i o n s flow i n an u n i n t e r r u p t e d e f f o r t l e s s
X:29-5
stream.
The Tathagatas enjoy g r e a t p l e a s u r e due t o t h e p l e a s u r e s o f the pure B u d d h a f i e l d and o f t h e dharma.
X:29.6
The Tathagatas a r e u n s o i l e d because, although
appearing
i n the
w o r l d , they a r e not s o i l e d by any w o r l d l y dharmas.
X:29.7
The Tathagatas have a grand purpose because, by m a n i f e s t i n g enlightenment
and n i r v a n a , they mature a l l s e n t i e n t beings
who
are not y e t matured and l i b e r a t e those who a r e a l r e a d y matured.
d.
I t i s now obvious designates
The Dharmakaya—A Summary
t h a t , i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha, t h e term Dharmakaya
Buddhahood, t h e terminus o f t h e Mahayana p r a c t i c e s .
summarized i n t h e t i t l e
It i s well
o f c h a p t e r X: "Resulting-Awareness" ( p h a l a j f i a n a ) .
The
Dk i s a " r e s u l t " i n t h e sense t h a t each o f i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s t h e f u l f i l l ment o f some p r a c t i c e p r e v i o u s l y adopted by t h e B o d h i s a t t v a . i n v o l v e a r e b i r t h o r any s o r t o f new b e i n g . does not d e f i n e i t s o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t e .
I t does not
C a l l i n g t h i s r e s u l t an "awareness"
I t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e Dk i s b e i n g
d e s c r i b e d w i t h i n t h e same e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l framework t h a t was a p p l i e d t o t h e common man and t h e a s p i r i n g B o d h i s a t t v a .
W i t h i n t h i s framework, t h e p h y s i c a l
body o f t h e common man i s an " i d e a " ( v i j n a p t i ) r e s u l t i n g from a l i m i t e d , b i a s e d awareness ( v i j n a n a ) . of a " s e l f - i m a g e . "
T h i s n o t i o n o f t h e body as v i j f i a p t i i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t
As t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e g i n a Mahayana p r a c t i c e s and h i s v i s i o n
broadens, t h e v i j n a n a changes (through t h e stages o f p r e p a r a t o r y , and
fundamental
subsequent) i n t o a n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t i n g awareness ( n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) o r , i n
13k
t h i s t e x t , simply "awareness" ( j n a n a ) .
His s t a t i c
r e a l i z a t i o n o f h i m s e l f as the p e r f e c t embodiment
self-image
g i v e s way
t o the
(kaya) o f the Mahayana i d e a l s
(dharmas), i . e . , a Dharmakaya. The n o t i o n o f " s e l f - i m a g e " must not be p r e s s e d t o o f a r , s i n c e i t p r e s u p poses some " s e l f " Such an ego Asanga has
(pudgala) or t r a n s c e n d e n t a l ego t o e x p e r i e n c e
i s denied throughout Buddhist
maintains
The
mechanism
i t s e l f i s described.
i n which t h i s can be r e o r i e n t e d t o become the r e s u l t i n g - a w a r e n e s s
the DJk i s e x p l a i n e d . i o u s ways.
And
p r e t e d as a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e Incessant w h i l e the concept
Even a t t r i b u t e s o f the
i s immortal
(nitya). i s i n t e r -
nature o f the p e r c e p t i o n .
Dk.
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Dk as r e s u l t i n g - a w a r e n e s s
a c t i v i t i e s which occurs when one
I t prevents sees the Dk
i s t h e key t o underthe misunderstanding as a g o d - l i k e
e x e r t i n g s o v e r e i g n t y o r mastery over the t h i n g s o f t h i s w o r l d .
the Dk.
The
concept but
" t h i n g s " t o be mastered by
a c t i o n s through which mastery or s o v e r e i g n t y i s e x e r c i s e d are
themselves a s p e c t s o f t h e awareness. i f we
of
figure
i s awareness, not an a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n o f e x t e r n a l e n t i t i e s
o f v i s i o n , reminds us t h a t t h e r e are no The
Therefore,
:
s t a n d i n g most o f the p r e v i o u s passages.
a breadth
For
o f " s e l f - i m a g e " i s . a p p l i c a b l e t o the .common man's v i j n a p t i ,
i s not a p p l i c a b l e t o the
t h a t the Dk
Dk
i n t e r p r e t e d i n e p i s t e m i c terms.
example, the apparent a f f i r m a t i o n t h a t the. Dk
the Dk's
which i s
But t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s are c o n f i n e d t o the p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n .
— w h i c h appears t o imply an o n t o l o g y — a r e
The
The
the r e s u l t i n g awareness i t s e l f i s d e s c r i b e d i n v a r -
There i s no mention of a r e a l p e r c e i v e r or o b j e c t .
it
image.
In the Mahayanasamgraha
c a s t the t h e o r y e n t i r e l y i n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l terms.
by which the s e l f - i m a g e o f the common man way
thought.
the
T h i s p o i n t can be understood
compare the a c t i o n s o f the common man,
more c l e a r l y
the B o d h i s a t t v a and the
Dk.
135
For t h e common man, past events have p l a n t e d t h e seeds o f p r e s e n t p e r c e p t i o n s , which present a c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n i n c l u d i n g w o r l d , and p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e world.
individual,
The i n d i v i d u a l i s d r i v e n t o c e r t a i n
a c t i o n s by t h e s i t u a t i o n , and p e r c e i v e s " h i m s e l f " c a r r y i n g out t h e a c t i o n s . When t h e a s p i r a n t e n t e r s t h e Mahayana and becomes a B o d h i s a t t v a , he develops
t h e s i x p e r f e c t i o n s (paramitas) which w i l l e v e n t u a l l y form t h e Dk.
These a r e c u s t o m a r i l y d i v i d e d i n t o two groups: t h e f i r s t
f i v e , which d e f i n e
t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s a c t i o n (upaya); and t h e s i x t h , t h e i n s i g h t i s h i s perception o f the s i t u a t i o n .
( p r a j n a ) which
A p p l i e d t o the present t e x t ,
c a t e g o r i e s can be m i s l e a d i n g , s i n c e t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s
insight
these
( p r a j n a ) can
be e a s i l y confused w i t h t h e awareness ( n i r v i k a l p a j nana) which i s t h e b a s i c nature o f t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s .
A l l s i x paramitas,
i n c l u d i n g both
insight
and a c t i o n , a r e simply a b s t r a c t i o n s from t h e t o t a l i t y o f one p a t t e r n (see IV:7.6) which, when f u l l y developed,
i s c a l l e d t h e Dk.
At t h i s p o i n t , t h e
p e r c e p t i o n i s no l o n g e r i n t e r p r e t e d as " s e l f " and " o t h e r " l o c k e d i n t o a fixed relationship.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e i d e a o f p e r c e i v i n g an environment and
then a c t i n g on t h e p e r c e p t i o n , w h i l e m i s l e a d i n g when a p p l i e d t o t h e Bodhis a t t v a , i s i n c o r r e c t when a p p l i e d t o t h e Dk.
The Dk's awareness i n c l u d e s
the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t b o t h i t s view and i t s a c t i o n s have t h e same l o g i c a l s t a t u s , i . e . , they a r e a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r c e p t i o n .
I t i s often easier to
c o n s i d e r them both as " a c t i o n s " through which t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o r mastery i s exercised. Because t h e Dk i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e p a r a m i t a s ,
i t s ac-
t i o n s do not c o n s t i t u t e an empty omnipotence o r simple "freedom-from."
As t h e
outcome o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a vows and p r a c t i c e s , a l l a c t i v i t y i s d i r e c t e d toward the w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s
( s t r i c t l y d e f i n e d as a i d i n g o t h e r s eventually;,to"develop
136 a similar outlook).
F r e e d from concern f o r i t s " s e l f , " t h e Dk can r e a c h out
w i t h compassionate concern.
This outreach involves p e r c e i v i n g ( i . e . , creating)
a s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n which t h e needs o f o t h e r s a r e b o t h a p p r e c i a t e d and s a t i s f i e d . The
a p p r e c i a t i v e i n s i g h t ' " ( p r a j n a ) i n t o t h e i r p l i g h t is-.-not^'pure. openhess.-to
e x p e r i e n c e , f o r t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o be e x p e r i e n c e d . o f t h e mature p a t t e r n e d concern f o r o t h e r s .
I t i s t h e e p i s t e m i c aspect
The a c t i o n which s o l v e s t h e
problem i s not a m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e l i v e s o f o t h e r s , f o r t h e r e a r e no l i v e s t o be manipulated.
The p e r c e i v e d - e n c o u n t e r ,
c r e a t e d by compassionate
concern,
w i t h i n which t h e needs o f t h e o t h e r can be a p p r e c i a t e d , i s a l s o t h e v e r y one w i t h i n which t h e s e needs a r e s a t i s f i e d . .
T h a t - i s , through t h e v e r y
process o f a p p r e c i a t i n g the o t h e r ' s problem, t h e s o l u t i o n
develops"
spontaneously. T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n r a i s e s t h e obvious problem o f t h e l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f t h e r e c i p i e n t o f t h e Dk's a s s i s t a n c e .
He seems t o have no s t a n d i n g - a p a r t
the s i t u a t i o n which has been c r e a t e d by t h e Dk.
from
There can be no q u e s t i o n o f
t r a d i t i o n a l s o l i p s i s m because t h e r e i s no r e a l s e l f i n v o l v e d , but some s o r t o f q u a s i - s o l i p s i s m appears
t o be u n a v o i d a b l e .
I b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s problem i s
i n h e r e n t i n t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h i s t e x t as a byproduct epistemology
d i v o r c e d from metaphysics.
o f t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an
The l a t e r V i j n a n a v a d a
t o have r e a l i z e d t h e problem and developed
t h i n k e r s seem
doctrines that avoid i t .
T h i s b r i n g s us t o t h e r e a l m e t h o d o l o g i c a l problem o f t h e p r e s e n t t h a t o f p r o p o s i n g a m e t a p h y s i c a l . i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Asanga's t h e o r y . f i r s t note t h a t t h e pure epistemology w i t h i n t h e samgha. While
We must
o f t h e t e x t a p p a r e n t l y s a t i s f i e d many
Why?.
t h i s q u e s t i o n must be l e f t
s u g g e s t i o n based
section,
t o t h e h i s t o r i a n , I w i l l make a simple
on o b s e r v a t i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y bKa'-brgyud-pa communities
137 that follow a s i m i l a r doctrine. "believer who
I suspect
t h a t e p i s t e m o l o g y may
l i v e s w i t h i n a d i s c i p l i n e d community under the
i n s p i r a t i o n o f a s p i r i t u a l master.
He may
how
He may
require•the
h i s p r a c t i c e s and m e d i t a t i o n a l
o f Buddhist dogma.
theory
the
d i r e c t i o n and
draw d i r e c t l y from h i s i n t e r a c t i o n
w i t h the master the" reassurance.and guidance t h a t we i c a l statement.
satisfy
expect from a metaphys-
t o do n o t h i n g
more than t o e x p l a i n .
e x p e r i e n c e s are r e l a t e d ' t o the main p o i n t s
Such a requirement .would "be e a s i l y met
by the t h e o r y
of
.the Mahayanasamgraha. The
s c h o l a r needs more.
The
of h i s g o a l , c o n t i n u a l l y b e f o r e
p r a c t i t i o n e r has
him.
His t a s k
d i s c u s s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f h i s e x i s t e n c e . persons.
He
scholar deals
i n ideas,
i t must g i v e him
to
not
o f the Buddha r a t h e r than
l e g i t i m a t e l y a s k s , "What i s the Dharmakaya?"
e n t i r e l y s a t i s f y i n g , but
symbol
i s t o emulate the guru, not
He r e q u i r e s an i n t e l l e c t u a l f o r m u l a t i o n
incarnation. not be
The
h i s guru, a l i v i n g
some concrete
The
answer
an
may
p o r t r a i t of
the
Buddha. We and
c o u l d , l i k e Guenther, t u r n t o a l a t e r s c h o o l o f V i j n a n a v a d a thought
accept i t s metaphysic.
I f such a s c h o o l had
Asafiga I n d i a , t h i s would be the proper t a c t i c . f e r r e d t o the w r i t i n g s o f t h a t a forerunner
s c h o o l , and
o f the mature d o c t r i n e .
appeared i n immediate
post-
Emphasis c o u l d then be
trans-
the Mahayanasamgraha i n t e r p r e t e d as
However, Guenther's s o u r c e — t h e
rNying-
ma-pa m a s t e r s — a p p e a r e d much l a t e r , i n a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e , and were i n f l u e n c e d by
i n t e r v e n i n g developments; i t s i d e a s may
i n t e r p r e t i n g the
e a r l y Indian t r a d i t i o n .
not be
a legitimate vehicle for
Therefore,
I s h a l l attempt t o
derive
an answer d i r e c t l y from the c o n t e n t s o f the Mahayanasamgraha. At t h i s p o i n t
i d e a l i s m reappears.
Even though Asanga has
failed
to
develop such a d o c t r i n e , i s i t not the obvious concomitant t o h i s epistemology?
The
answer i s Ho.
An
able alternatives-.
idealistic
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n v o l v e s one
o f two
unaccept-
E i t h e r some element o f the e p i s t e m i c p r o c e s s must
d e c l a r e d more b a s i c than the o t h e r s , or some v e r y a b s t r a c t u n i f y i n g such as an " a b s o l u t e , " must be i n t r o d u c e d .
be
concept,
In the former case i t i s v i r t u a l l y
i m p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d r e g a r d i n g the chosen element as an e x i s t e n t e n t i t y , i n t r o d u c i n g an unacceptable
substantialism.
thus
A crude example o f t h i s would be
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the a l a y a v i j n a n a as a r e a l substratum
of personal
existence. I f the second c h o i c e i s accepted transcendent has
and
an A b s o l u t e
that i s s u f f i c i e n t l y
t o a v o i d o n t o l o g i c a l problems i s p o s i t e d , the u n i f y i n g p r i n c i p l e
simply been e l e v a t e d t o a r a r e f i e d s t a t u s where i t i s o f s l i g h t h e l p
with
a c t u a l problems. The t a s k of: d e r i v i n g a. more s a t i s f a c t o r y • e x p l a n a t i o n i s rendered
both more and l e s s d i f f i c u l t by the need t o a v o i d o n t o l o g y .
more d i f f i c u l t because we v i d u a l who manner.
simultaneously
cannot simply use the p u d g a l i s t i c n o t i o n o f an
sees t h i n g s f i r s t
Nor
epistemology
can we
It i s
as a common man
and l a t e r In an
indi-
enlightened
a s s i g n o n t o l o g i c a l s t a t u s t o any o t h e r element o f the
theory.
The .=task. becomes l e s s , d i f f i c u l t because we view o f many p h i l o s o p h e r s t h a t the m e t a p h y s i c i a n ' s
are f o r c e d t o acknowledge t h e t a s k i s not t o uncover
real
e n t i t i e s , but t o d e v i s e a scheme w i t h i n which e x p e r i e n c e
may
In the words o f A. N. Whitehead, " S p e c u l a t i v e P h i l o s o p h y
i s the endeavour t o
frame a coherent,
l o g i c a l necessary
every element"of our e x p e r i e n c e
be i n t e r p r e t e d .
system o f g e n e r a l i d e a s i n terms o f which
can be i n t e r p r e t e d . "
66
As a demand f o r a p e r f e c t system, t h i s sounds l i k e an o n t o l o g i c a l quest in disguise.
However, Whitehead means i t o n l y as the i d e a l i n the sense t h a t
139
a p e r f e c t s c i e n t i f i c h y p o t h e s i s i s the i d e a l . acceptable,
a l t h o u g h f a l l i n g short o f t h i s .
Any He
a c t u a l t h e o r y may
still
be
adds:
P h i l o s o p h e r s can never hope f i n a l l y t o f o r m u l a t e t h e s e m e t a p h y s i c a l f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s . Weakness o f i n s i g h t and d e f i c i e n c i e s o f language stand i n the way i n e x o r a b l y . Words and p h r a s e s must be s t r e t c h e d towards a g e n e r a l i t y f o r e i g n t o t h e i r o r d i n a r y usage; and however such elements o f language be s t a b i l i z e d as t e c h n i c a l i t i e s , t h e y remain metaphors mutely a p p e a l i n g f o r an i m a g i n a t i v e l e a p .
Throughout t h i s study I use the term "metaphysics" t o mean t h i s f o r an i n t e g r a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e . The
That i s , I s h a l l f o l l o w what S. K. Verma i n
Nature o f Metaphysics c a l l s the Our
search
"root-metaphor" t h e o r y
o f a scheme embracing the t o t a l i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e .
not be t o t a l l y
drift
o f metaphysics.
problem i s much more modest than t h a t o f the g e n e r a l m e t a p h y s i c i a n i n
metaphor t h a t i s c a p a b l e o f u n i f y i n g the
will
search
ideas
s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t , i t must be
s t a y - f i r m l y i n our-mind and
We
need o n l y a r o o t -
about the Dk.
While i t need
a v i v i d , concrete
metaphor which
( a l m o s t . M i t e r a l l y ) r e s t r a i n the tendency t o
o f "into meaningless inhuman a b s t r a c t i o n s . Materials
f o r such a metaphor l i e r e a d i l y at hand.
ground, seeds, m a t u r a t i o n and
fruit
suggests
an o r g a n i c
Asanga's t a l k o f metaphor i n whiclf'the
o r d i n a r y p e r s o n a l i t y becomes a s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g weed-patch ( k l e s a s ) . paramitas are d e s i r a b l e p l a n t s which, i f p l a n t e d tended, w i l l e v e n t u a l l y
crowd them out.
The
among the weeds and
The properly
r e s u l t i s a mature crop o f
p a r a m i t a s , which i s c a l l e d the Dharmakaya. T h i s metaphor has than a metaphor.
No
several useful features.
one w i l l take i t l i t e r a l l y .
o f the most p u z z l i n g a s p e c t s o f the Dk: the
s t a r t o f the a s p i r a n t ' s c a r e e r and
the
F i r s t , i t c l e a r l y i s no more Second, i t i l l u s t r a t e s
f a c t that i t i s both obtained
developed throughout and the
fact
two at that
iko
it
i s n e i t h e r s i n g u l a r nor p l u r a l .
The o r d i n a r y use o f t h e term
"crop"
e x h i b i t s e x a c t l y those p e c u l i a r i t i e s .
Furthermore, t h e n o t i o n o f a " c r o p " and
"seeds" i s e a s i l y extended t o account
f o r t h e i d e a s o f t h e dharma which, as an
o u t f l o w o f t h e dharmadhatu, i n i t i a t e d t h e spread o f Dharmakaya(s). the metaphor m a i n t a i n s
Finally,
t h e c o n t i n u i t y between common man and Dk.
I t s f a i l u r e s a r e i n h e r e n t i n t h e nature o f metaphor.
The a c t u a l
s i t u a t i o n i s always p e r c e i v e d from w i t h i n by one s t a n d i n g somewhere on t h e continuum between common man and Dk. from w i t h o u t , situation.
Yet t h e metaphor p o r t r a y s a s i t u a t i o n
as a t h i n g , thus r e i f y i n g and d i s t o r t i n g t h e "ground" o f t h e
T h e r e f o r e , d e t a i l e d c o n c l u s i o n s about t h e ground o r b a s i c nature
cannot be drawn from such a p o r t r a i t . D e s p i t e t h e apparent
t r i v i a l i t y o f t h i s metaphor, i t i s a t r u e
m e t a p h y s i c a l view which w i l l p h i l o s o p h i c a l terms.
serve b e t t e r than many couched i n more f o r m a l
I t i s a model which e x h i b i t s many important
character-
i s t i c s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d by Asanga, and can e a s i l y be kept
i n mind t o
p r o v i d e a p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h i n which any i d e a s about t h e Dk can be kept w i t h i n the system.
No one h a v i n g t h i s metaphor i n mind c o u l d mistake
t h e Dk f o r a
d e i f i e d f i g u r e , speak o f a cosmic Buddha, or see i t as a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f some i n e f f a b l e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y .
I t p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l way t o grasp Asanga's
g e n e r a l sense o f Buddhahood and w i l l be h e l p f u l l a t e r as we d e a l w i t h
specific
q u e s t i o n s under each o f t h e t h r e e kayas i n t o which t h e Dk may be a n a l y z e d . The most s t a r t l i n g aspect o f t h i s p o r t r a i t may be i t s c o n s e r v a t i s m . s c h o l a r s have seen t h e Mahayana Buddhology as a r a d i c a l departure
from
Most
earlier
concepts, i n v o l v i n g the s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a t h e l s t i c , g o d - l i k e , transcendent
68 Buddha f o r t h e e a r l i e r awakened a s p i r a n t . none o f t h i s .
Y e t , t h e p r e v i o u s passages c o n t a i n
The Dk i s not a god and h i s a c t i v i t i e s a r e not g o d - l i k e . H i s
abilities
are
remarkable o n l y f o r t h e i r s o t e r i o l o g i c a l e f f i c a c y , i . e . , he
c o n t r o l both h i m s e l f and is, no He
s u g g e s t i o n o f any
c e r t a i n l y i s no
latter's benefit. that .individual's
the
s i t u a t i o n i n order to teach e f f e c t i v e l y .
cosmic powers such as w o r l d c r e a t i o n
He
karma o f another without
i s even unable t o abrogate the
conscious co-operation
THE
even f o r
the
(X:38-39)-
TRIKAYA
p r e c e d i n g i d e a s d i r e c t l y from o t h e r
arrangement o f t h i s f i n a l
set i n t o a t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e
authorities,
appears t o be
his
contribution. I shall first
as the
v e r i f y t h a t Asanga a c t u a l l y p o s i t s
a unified trikaya,
t e x t mentions f o u r kayas, d i s c o v e r which t h r e e form the
c l a r i f y t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the examination o f the
fourth.:
The
c o r e o f the
follow.
u t i l i t y o f the t r i k a y a i n s o l v i n g them. t r i k a y a doctrine
which can
a.
P. 3-10 X:l
The
p r e s e n t study,
an
develop-
I-shall,investigate'the
guide i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . i n t o
related
doctrines.
A U n i f i e d T r i k a y a or Three Kayas?
"triple
triple
and
F i n a l l y , • I s h a l l propose a model o f
l a t e r s t a n d a r d term " t r i k a y a " i s not
Asanga speaks o f the
and,
As Asanga mentions s e v e r a l ' p e r e n n i a l •• .
.'Buddhological dilemmas i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h these kayas,
The
trikaya
r e l a t i o n s h i p between'the t h r e e elements and-.of the
ment o f the-key i d e a s , w i l l
the
dissolution.
f a t e o f man,
While Asanga drew the
own
There
deus ex machina meddling w i t h the
3.
the
or
can
used i n the
Mahayanasamgraha;
Buddhakaya" ( s a n g s - r g y a s - k y i sku-gsum; ^~j$f
Buddhakaya . . .
i s the 'phala.jnana o f t h e s e
^
):
lh2
[three Bodhisattva
observances!.
111:2; 111:1"+ and V:2.10 [These t h r e e s i m i l a r passages l a b e l t h e r e s u l t o f p r a c t i s i n g non-conceptual "omniscience," Dharmakaya,"
V I I I : 13
and subsequent awareness as
"the t r i p l e Buddhakaya," and " f i l l i n g t h e
respectively.!
. . . t h e terminus
o f t h e n i r v i k a l p a . j n a n a i s t h e obtainment
of the t h r e e pure kayas and o f t h e h i g h e s t m a s t e r i e s . Vasubandhu (Bh
To
365b8), "pure" i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y have
reached the t e n t h bhumi.
X:28
By t h e t h r e e
kayas,
You have o b t a i n e d t o t a l mahabodhi
X:28.2
II:33.l8
A l l Buddhas have t h r e e
e
. . .
kayas.
. . . t h e u n l i m i t e d domain of• t h e t r i p l e
In t h e s e passages, p r e v i o u s l y examined.
Buddhakaya.
" t r i p l e Buddhakaya" i s synonymous w i t h t h e "Dharmakaya"
Furthermore,
none o f t h e s e passages suggests t h a t one
kaya may be o b t a i n e d by i t s e l f or b e f o r e 'the" others-. assumption
This strengthens the
t h a t none o f them can stand a l o n e , and t h a t t h e " t r i p l e
Buddhakaya"
i s a u n i t a r y concept, e q u i v a l e n t t o Dharmakaya or "Buddhahood." The evidence t h a t i t s t h r e e a s p e c t s are o b t a i n e d and developed ously
(VIII:13; X:25) a l s o warns us not t o m i s c o n s t r u e
simultane-
the various a s s e r t i o n s
t h a t one kaya "depends upon" another as an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t one i s t e m p o r a l l y p r i o r t o the o t h e r s .
11*3
b.
Which Three Kayas?
The i d e n t i t y o f the t h r e e kayas Nirmanakaya,
(are t h e y Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya, and
or are t h e y Svabhavikakaya, Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya?) i s
bound up w i t h t h e meaning o f t h e term Svabhavikakaya. answered
This question w i l l
be
on t h e b a s i s o f the f o l l o w i n g passages:
P.3.10
The t r i p l e Buddhakaya: Svabhavikakaya, Sambhoghakaya and \
Nirmanakaya,
i s the r e s u l t i n g awareness
of these [Bodhi-
sattva practices! . . .
There can be no m i s t a k e .
The f i r s t
i s d e f i n i t e l y Svk, not Dk, i n t h e
T i b e t a n as w e l l as the Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s by Hsuan-tsang, Dharmagupta and Paramartha.
Buddhasanta uses
c e r t a i n l y be a l s o understood as
j|l
r a t h e r than
|j 'l"-^
but t h i s s h o u l d
"svabhava."
Vasubandhu (Bh 32.3&?.3-?h ) comments t h a t •
The t r i p l e Buddhakaya i s c a l l e d the ' r e s u l t i n g awareness' — ' . ' r e s u l t i n g ' because' i t - i s t h e result, o f p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d p r a c t i c e s and ' r e s u l t i n g awareness' because t h i s r e s u l t i s aware. [Thus,] i t s b a s i c n a t u r e (svabhava) i s t o be 'the aware result of these.' ;
Now, i f t h e r e were no Svabhavikakaya ET:- ' i f - t h e r e were no svabhava'] t h e r e would be. no Dharmakaya . . .
Asvabhava
(U38lal6) says t h a t the t h r e e are t h e Svk, Sbk and Nk,
(,38lcll|) t h a t the "Svabhavikakaya i s unimpeded and s t a i n l e s s awareness As such, i t i s a term f o r Dharmakaya."
X:l.l
The Svabhavikakaya i s the Tathagata's Dharmakaya because it
i s the support f o r the s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas.
and
adds
(jnana).
(uH36al-5) o f f e r s s e v e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e term Svk i n t h
Asvabhava above
passages:
I t i s c a l l e d 'svabhava' because i t c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g a r t i f i c i a l and 'kaya' because i t i s t h e support. Because t h e dharman a t u r e (dharmata) i s a body, i t i s c a l l e d 'Dharmakaya' Cu333al: "the body composed o f t h e dharmas i s t h e dharmatakaya"j or because i t i s t h e support f o r t h e dharmas, i t i s c a l l e d 'Dharmakaya.' The phrase, ' i t i s t h e support f o r s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas' means i t i s t h e support f o r o b t a i n i n g such s o v e r e i g n t y .
X:3.2
[The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s explained.
( l a k s a n a s ) o f t h e Dharmakaya a r e b e i n g
The second l a k s a n a i s : II "Having white
dharmas
as s v a b h a v a — b e c a u s e t h e t e n m a s t e r i e s a r e o b t a i n e d the f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e s i x p a r a m i t a s . " are e x p l a i n e d by t h e commentators.
through
[The t e n m a s t e r i e s
These w i l l be t a k e n up
later.1
X:25
"The t h r e e kayas.
. ." g l o s s e d by Asvabhava as "the
Svabhavikakaya,"-etc.
X:28.2
[Vasubandhu. r e f e r s t o t h e f i r s t
X:23.1
A l l Buddhas have o b t a i n e d s o v e r e i g n t y over a l l dharmas, because throughout
o f t h e t h r e e as
"Svabhavikakayav
t h e e n t i r e w o r l d they have o b t a i n e d
unhindered p e n e t r a t i n g awareness . . .
X:31
The Buddha's dharmadhatu a t a l l times e x h i b i t s f i v e of
activity
. . . [Asvabhava
i d e n t i f i e s t h e dharmadhatu as
the Dk.:
X:35
sorts
Why i s t h e Sambhoghakaya not t h e
Svabhavikakaya?
11+5
X:36
Why
i s the Nirmanakaya
The answers t o X:35 ways.
not t h e Svabhavikakaya?
s t r e s s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Svk cannot appear i n d i v e r s e
The answers t o X:36. s t r e s s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Svk cannot a c t i n an
i n c o n s i s t e n t manner.
Asvabhava
(Tjl+U8bl5-l6) seems t o suggest t h a t t h e Svk i s
e n l i g h t e n e d i n t h e T u s i t a heaven but a c t s i n the w o r l d by means o f a nirmana. These passages appear t o c o n t a i n two c o n t r a d i c t o r y
—
t h a t Svk is. synonymous w i t h Dk.
—
t h a t Svk r e f e r s t o the f i r s t
ideas:
o f t h r e e kayas, whereas Dk has been used as a
g e n e r a l term f o r enlightenment, r o u g h l y synonymous w i t h t h e " t r i p l e
Buddha-
kaya."-.'
The o n l y d i r e c t d i s c u s s i o n o f whether
Dk and Svk are synonymous,,- Vasuban—•
dhu's commentary t o P:3.10 (Bh 323a23-bl+), i s r e n d e r e d no more i n t e l l i g i b l e Asvabhava's
apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
by
T h i s q u e s t i o n must be r e s o l v e d by
comparing statements about t h e Svk w i t h t h o s e made about t h e Dk.
Before doing
t h i s , two t y p e s o f passages must be d e l e t e d from the d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e Svk. Those i n which the Svk i s equated w i t h t h e Dk and t h o s e i n which t h e Svk i s listed
as t h e f i r s t
o f t h e t h r e e merely r e p e a t our b a s i c problem.
In a d d i t i o n ,
those t h a t speak o f t h e "svabhava o f t h e Dharmakaya" w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d as r e f e r e n c e s t o the Svk. Two
types o f d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e Svk. (or the svabhava o f the Dk)
remain.
They a r e :
—
an awareness
r e s u l t i n g from t h e B o d h i s a t t v a p r a c t i c e s
T h i s compound i d e a may
(.P:3.10; X:35-6 ( U ) ) .
be d i v i d e d i n t o t h o s e concepts o f b e i n g a
o f B o d h i s a t t v a p r a c t i c e s , and o f b e i n g e s s e n t i a l l y
'awareness.'
'result'
146 —
a support
f o r s o v e r e i g n t y o r mastery over t h e dharmas ( X : l . l ;
X:3.2).
Thus, t h e Svk e n t a i l s t h r e e b a s i c concepts: r e s u l t , awareness and sovereignty.
I n o r d e r t o e x p l o r e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Svk and t h e Dk,
we w i l l now r e o r g a n i z e t h e Dk passages from t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n under t h e above t h r e e Again,
headings. c e r t a i n passages which would obscure
aside: the l i s t
t h e argument have been s e t
o f e i g h t e e n a v e n i k a Buddhadharmas a t X:24 (which a r e c l e a r l y
of
little
i n t e r e s t t o Asanga and c o n t a i n n o t h i n g new), t h e p r o f u n d i t y o f t h e
Dk
(X:28; which d e a l s w i t h t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s view and has been e x p l a i n e d as
s u c h ) , and t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether t h e Dk i s u n i t a r y (X:8; which w i l l be considered
later).
When t h e remaining passages a r e examined, we f i n d t h a t t h e Dk, l i k e t h e Svk,
i s the culmination or r e s u l t o f the Bodhisattva p r a c t i c e s .
by " B o d h i s a t t v a p r a c t i c e s , " i . e . , by p r a c t i s i n g t h e paramitas
I t i s obtained
(X:4.3; X:26),
by l i s t e n i n g t o the dharma ( 1 : 4 6 - 4 8 ) , and by meditation. (.III:12,l4; V:2.10; X : l ; X:4.2, 4; X:7-2). L i k e t h e Svk, t h e Dk i s "awareness" ( j n a n a ) . in
great d e t a i l .
which prevent
Dk awareness i s d e s c r i b e d
I t i s pure and u n o b s t r u c t e d by vasanas, k l e s a s and avaranas
a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n (.1:46-48; X:7.1; X : l l ; X:17; X:20; X:21;
X:29.3; X:29.6). T h i s awareness i s an omniscience s a l v a t i o n o f others
d i r e c t e d t o questions necessary
( X : l l ; X:13; X : l 4 ; X:15; X:19; X:25).
f o r the
As such, i t i s n o t
merely an a c c u r a t e , unemotional p e r c e p t i o n o f s u r r o u n d i n g o b j e c t s , b u t i s
compassionate concern f o r others* w e l f a r e (.X:6.1; X:7-3; X:10; X:23). From t h i s concern
s p r i n g t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s o f p r o t e c t i o n and a i d
which e v e n t u a l l y l e a d o t h e r s t o a s i m i l a r way o f p e r c e p t i o n (,X:6.2-3; X:7-6;
X : l 6 ; X:22;
X:29-7; X : 3 l ) .
As t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s are c e a s e l e s s or at l e a s t
coterminous w i t h the l i b e r a t i o n o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s , the Dk may
be
called
e t e r n a l (X:3.^; X:29.2,k). The
c e n t r a l i d e a t h a t awareness n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e s a c t i o n i s t r e a t e d as
a t h i r d category: the Svk as the support The
c o n n e c t i o n between s o v e r e i g n t y
f o r s o v e r e i g n t y over the dharmas.
(or mastery) and awareness i s e x p l a i n e d at
X:29-l, w h i l e s o v e r e i g n t y i s d e s c r i b e d at X : l . l ; X:3-2; X:7.^ The key passage at X:5 man
o u t l i n e s the way
and X:7.5.
i n which each skandha o f o r d i n a r y
i s r e o r i e n t e d i n order t o o b t a i n a s p e c i f i c
s o v e r e i g n t y o f Buddha.
Reori-
e n t a t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d i n s e v e r a l passages, but X : 3 - l i s e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t t o the present t o p i c .
D e t a i l s on s o v e r e i g n t y may
be found at X : l l , 1 2 and
X:l8.
From the ease w i t h which the Dk passages have been subsumed under the t h r e e a s p e c t s o f the Svk, we may
conclude
d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s or even the same e n t i t y types o f i n d i v i d u a l s .
to
detailed.
("Buddhahood") viewed by
The
Svk
different
i s v e r y g e n e r a l , w h i l e the Dk i s
When Asanga wishes t o r e i f y the phenomenon o f Buddhahood
"a Buddha," he uses Svk or Dk i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y .
the broader
two
They are d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the same phenomena viewed at
different levels of generality. exceedingly
t h a t the Svk and the Dk are not
When he wishes t o s t r e s s
c a t e g o r i e s , he r e f e r s t o the "svabhava o f the Dharmakaya," or
"Svabhavikakaya."
His p r i n c i p a l use o f t h i s term i s as the f i r s t member o f
the t r i k a y a , t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e the f a c t o f b e i n g a Buddha from the way
i n which
the Buddha appears t o s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . In b r i e f , the members o f the t r i p l e Buddhakaya are Svabhavikakaya, Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya, and t o g e t h e r t h e y form a u n i t y which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o the term "Dharmakaya."
Ik8
c.
The Nirmanakaya
The
Nirmanakaya: Buddha i n the World
i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o "be t h e form i n which Buddhahood
i s m a n i f e s t e d w i t h i n the w o r l d ,
i . e . , the h i s t o r i c a l Buddhas such as Dipaiiikara,
Sakyamuni or M a i t r e y a .
P:3-10
[Commenting on the f i r s t mention o f the NkT,. Vasubandhu (Bh323a29) s a y s : ! I f t h e r e were no Nirmanakaya, the B o d h i s a t t v a s on ^
^
TO'
-
the
^
adhimukticaryabhumi .' and the Sravakas
etc
/whose a s p i r a -
t i o n i s i n f e r i o r , would not be a b l e t o escape from samsara. VI:5.2
[Asanga i s e x p l a i n i n g t h a t the supreme m o r a l i t y i s t o l e a d o t h e r s t o p r a c t i c e the dharma, and t h a t the q u e s t i o n o f means used t o do t h i s t r a n s c e n d s
ordinary categories of
morality,3 "Furthermore, the a f f e c t e d
(nirmana) b o d i l y and v o c a l
a c t i o n s a r e t o be understood the B o d h i s a t t v a . ing
as t h e profound m o r a l i t y o f
By them, he e x e r c i s e s a u t h o r i t y , i n f l i c t -
v a r i o u s torments on s e n t i e n t beings
them i n [ t h e p r a c t i c e o f l Buddhist
VIII:10
The
retribution
secure
d i s c i p l i n e (vinaya)."
(vipaka) o f the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s
pajnana occurs i n the two p r e p a r a t i o n and
i n order to
Buddha assemblies
nirvikal-
according to
acquisition.
" R e t r i b u t i o n " i n d i c a t e s ' t h e f a t e o f an i n d i v i d u a l i n h i s next i n c a r n a t i o n . ». "Nirvikalpajnana"
71 ( n o n - c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g awareness) i s a g e n e r a l term f o r
e n l i g h t e n e d awareness.
Here the q u e s t i o n i s , "Where w i l l the B o d h i s a t t v a
who
Ik9
p o s s e s s e s n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a be r e b o r n ? "
The
commentators (Bh
365alO-l"+;
U"+30cl8-2"4-) agree t h a t , i f h i s n i r v i k a l p a j nana i s o n l y i n p r e p a r a t i o n , he
will
be b o r n i n the Nirmanakaya assembly, while» i f he has a c t u a l l y a c q u i r e d n i r v i k a l p a j S a n a , he w i l l be r e b o r n i n the Sambhogakaya That i s , the assembly
s u r r o u n d i n g the Buddha's Nk_ i s composed o f t h o s e
are " p r e p a r i n g " t h e i r awareness. (vTII:l"+) by a s p i r a t i o n
X:1.3
assembly.
This preparation i s further
(adhimukti)
and simple c o n f i d e n c e
who
characterized
(sraddhamatra).
The Nirmanakaya a l s o depends upon the Dharmakaya because i t m a n i f e s t s Lthe f o l l o w i n g B u d d h a - a c t i v i t i e s ! :
residing
i n the T u s i t a heaven, descending, b e i n g b o r n , l e a v i n g the household l i f e ,
frequenting t i r t h i k a s , p r a c t i c i n g auster-
i t i e s , a r r i v i n g at mahabodhi, and e n t e r i n g
mahaparinirvana.
Asvabhava (U"+36al7-19) s a y s , "Because o f h i s developed i n s i g h t , he l e a v e s the. T u s i t a heaveniCand^performs nirvana.
Such i s the way
a l l the Buddha a c t i v i t i e s ! ,
i n which anthropomorphic
finally•entering
mental images a r i s e i n
another's stream o f b e i n g . "
X:6.3
CThe Dharmakaya! i s the support f o r the v a r i o u s Nirmanakayas because
Asvabhava
i t p r i n c i p a l l y assures the m a t u r a t i o n o f the
(u"+38cll-15) e x p l a i n s t h a t " p r i n c i p a l l y " i n d i c a t e s t h a t . t h e
B o d h i s a t t v a s on the lowest l e v e l — t h e a d h i m u k t i c a r y a b h u m i — a l s o "Because o f t h e i r i n f e r i o r a s p i r a t i o n , the
because
need the
Nk:
Sravakas and a d i k a r m i k a B o d h i s a t - -
t v a s are not c o m p l e t e l y matured i f t h e y do not see t h e Buddha. s a t t v a s who
Sravakas.
But t h e B o d h i -
have e n t e r e d the g r e a t bhumis are not matured by the Nirmanakaya
they p e n e t r a t e the v a s t and p r o f o u n d dharma."
150 X:8
[To the q u e s t i o n o f whether o r not the v a r i o u s Sarabhogakayas are d i f f e r e n t or not d i f f e r e n t , Asanga r e p l i e s : " ! . . .
As
t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s and a c t i o n s do not d i f f e r , t h e y are not different.
I t i s not the case t h a t t h e i r d i f f e r e n t
do not d i f f e r — a n found.
supports
immeasurable v a r i e t y o f supports are
The p r e c e d i n g remarks on the Sambhogakaya a l s o a p p l y
t o the Nirmanakaya.
X:12
[Asvabhava
(u440cl-l6) i s commenting on the a b i l i t y o f the
Tathagata t o d e s t r o y k l e s a s o f s e n t i e n t b e i n g s .
He
says
t h a t , i f t h e T a t h a g a t a sees t h a t s e n t i e n t b e i n g s w i l l
produce
k l e s a s i n r e g a r d t o the Buddha's body, i f t h e y are capable o f e n j o y i n g a nirmana skillfully
o f the Buddha, he approaches
d i s c i p l i n e s them.
Asvabhava c o n t r a s t s t h i s
T a t h a g a t a w i t h the Sravaka who, i n a town or grove might
them and
upon f i n d i n g t h a t h i s presence
excite passion, refrains
from
entering it.1
X:l6
When a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s see
you,
They r e c o g n i z e you as a mahapurusa. By a mere glimpse t h e y a c h i e v e Homage t o you, the e f f e c t i v e
Asvabhava
faith.
one.
(uU4lbT-12) says t h a t s e n t i e n t b e i n g s see t h e t h i r t y - t w o major
and e i g h t y minor marks which convince them t h a t the Buddha i s the good a r r a n g e r (H: "dharma-opener") o f the w o r l d . o f which kaya(.s) manif e s t (s) t h e s e , and Nk,
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s no c l e a r Hsuan-tsang
indication
p r o b a b l y understood both. Sbk.
but t h i s i s not supported by.the T i b e t a n .
151 X:27
...
[You
assemblies.
the BhagavanH are i n the w o r l d and
. . the Nirmanakaya i s m a n i f e s t e d i n ( &
the w o r l d , w h i l e the Sambhogakaya r e s i d e s i n (
[The
Dharmakaya] p r o t e c t s
) the great
as b l i n d n e s s ,
the
)
assembly."
s e n t i e n t beings from s u f f e r i n g
because a mere glimpse o f i t p r o t e c t s a g a i n s t
Asvabhava
Buddha
. .
Asvabhava (u4U3a23) says,".
X:31.1
i n the
such
miseries
d e a f n e s s , madness, e t c .
(W6cl6-21; u351b8-352a3) d e a l s w i t h the d i f f i c u l t y r a i s e d by
f a c t t h a t elsewhere the Dk
"mere g l i m p s e " o f i t p r o t e c t
has
been d e c l a r e d t o be
someone?
He
invisible.
How
can
a
replies:
[ I w i l l now e x p l a i n the way i n which o r d i n a r y b e i n g s may"! 'see the Dharmakaya.' The Dharmakaya i s p e r f e c t e d by the p r o j e c t i n g power o f i t s p r e v i o u s Great Vow. I t then m a n i f e s t s a f u n c t i o n i n g ( $\ ) Nirmanakaya which causes the b l i n d t o see, e t c . From the p r o j e c t i n g power o f p r e v i o u s equipment i t o b t a i n s ( ^ ) the Dharmakaya, spontaneously ) s e n d i n g f o r t h [ a c t i o n s 1 l i k e a wheel which f i n a l l y returns to i t s s t a r t i n g point. So a l t h o u g h we say t h e y 'see the Dharmakaya; t h e y r e a l l y see o n l y a nirmana.
X:36
Why
i s the Nirmanakaya not
This question
the
Svabhavikakaya?
r e c e i v e s a complex r e p l y i n e i g h t s e c t i o n s .
In the
f i v e , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s p r a c t i c e d by a Buddha between h i s l a s t r e b i r t h and h i s p a r i n i r v a n a are (Nk) were, q u i t e simply,
shown t o be
the Buddha.
sary t o p o s i t an e a r t h l y body (Nk)
X:36.1
and
To
the
imperishable
earthly
inexplicable i f t h i s worldly
form
a v o i d such, c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , i t i s neces-
an e s s e n t i a l body
I t i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a acquired
first
who
has
(Svabhavikakaya).
long
ago
samadhis, should be born i n
the T u s i t a heaven o r among
men.
A b e i n g i s reborn a c c o r d i n g to" h i s past a c t i o n s
.arid 'the a c t i o n "of
p r a c t i s i n g the m e d i t a t i o n i n v o l v i n g i m p e r i s h a b l e samadhis throughout B o d h i s a t t v a c a r e e r cannot r e s u l t i n r e b i r t h i n the kamadhatu.
But
the scripture
r e v e a l s t h a t the Buddha i s r e b o r n i n the T u s i t a heaven and then i n Jambudvipa, b o t h o f which are i n the kamadhatu.
Thus, we
must p o s i t a bimodal Buddha.
T h i s r e a s o n i n g i s extended i n Paramartha's t r a n s l a t i o n o f Vasubandhu's Bhasya (T. to
v o l . 31, p. 26Tcl6) ,' where t h e human body t h a t t h e Buddha t a k e s i n o r d e r convert
s e n t i e n t beings
i s s a i d t o e x i s t without
t h e r e f o r e t o be Nk r a t h e r than Vipakakaya o r That
i s , we
cause (^^,
1^1 ) and
Svabhavikakaya.
must a l s o r e c o g n i z e t h a t no r e l a t i o n o f karmic
h o l d s between the two
modes.
T h i s w i l l be an important
causality
point for
understanding
the sense o f "nirmana•"
X:36..2
I t i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a , who
has l o n g s i n c e
remembered h i s . former b i r t h s , s h o u l d The Ignorant 'of •• '• -•• '• w r i t i n g , c a T c u l a t i o h , numbers, f i n g e r r e c k o n i n g , 1
:
..
75 arts,
s c i e n c e s , and the enjoyment o f o b j e c t s o f d e s i r e .
X:36.3
It
i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a , who
known the dharma, b a d l y preached go t o the
X:36.U
It
has l o n g s i n c e
or w e l l preached,
should
tirthikas.
i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a , who
has l o n g s i n c e
known the good dharma o f t h e p a t h o f the t h r e e
vehicles,
should p r a c t i c e a s c e t i c i s m .
X:36.5
It
i s i l l o g i c a l t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a s
s h o u l d n e g l e c t one
- -
153 hundred k o t i s o f Jambudvipas i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e complete, enlightenment and t u r n the dharmkacakra i n a s i n g l e p l a c e .
The problem i s here thrown i n t o t h e s t a r k e s t p o s s i b l e r e l i e f by t h e cosmological s e t t i n g .
To t h e Mahayana a u t h o r s , the cosmos c o n s i s t s o f e n d l e s s
r e p l i c a t i o n s o f the f o u r - c o n t i n e n t . u n i v e r s e .
Now,
the B o d h i s a t t v a has vowed
t o save a l l b e i n g s , presumably i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f o t h e r u n i v e r s e s .
I f the
Buddha were merely a s i n g l e e n t i t y , he would have t o choose one o f these i n which t o e x e r c i s e h i s s a l v i f i c
a c t i v i t y , thus v i o l a t i n g h i s vow.
Furthermore,
Asvabhava (uUl+8bl2) says t h a t these d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s are i d e n t i c a l .
Thus,
the c h o i c e i t s e l f would n e c e s s a r i l y be made on p u r e l y f o r t u i t o u s grounds, a concept a l i e n t o Buddhist thought.
X:36.6
I f , i n s t e a d o f m a n i f e s t i n g complete enlightenment Cin every JambudvipaU, t h e Buddha performed Buddha a c t i v i t i e s everywhere e l s e by Nirmanakayas Ewe c o u l d say t h a t l he had reached enlightenment o n l y i n t h e T u s i t a heaven.
X:36.7
Why
not admit t h a t i n Jambudvipas, Buddhas are born
simultaneously? this
There i s no s c r i p t u r e or reason h i n d e r i n g
conclusion.
Asvabhava (U^"+8bl5) sees t h i s as a r e p l y t o those who would attempt t o m a i n t a i n t h e i d e n t i t y o f Svk and Nk by p o s i t i n g a q u a s i - u n i t a r y Buddha who becomes e n l i g h t e n e d i n t h i s Jambudvipa and sends nirmanas t o a c t i n o t h e r Jambudvipas.
S u r e l y these t h i n k e r s would be w i l l i n g t o go f u r t h e r and admit
t h a t the enlightenment t a k e s p l a c e i n the T u s i t a heaven and t h a t a l l i n the Jambudvipas a r e by means o f nirmanas.
activities
Asvabhava sees no harm i n t h i s ,
and such an admission i s q u i t e enough t o support the c l a i m t h a t the Svk must be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the Nk. T h i s argument assumes t h a t v a r i o u s Nks may be p r e s e n t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . The author must now e x p l a i n why t h i s does n o t c o n t r a d i c t the s c r i p t u r a l maxim t h a t two Buddhas cannot a p p e a r - i n _ t h e w o r l d a t the'same t i m e .
X:36.8
Even i f many nirmanas
appear, because
He says:-
"the w o r l d " i s a
f o u r - c o n t i n e n t world-system, the b i r t h o f two Tathagatas i n the w o r l d does not c o n t r a d i c t the s u t r a which
[asserts 1
t h a t two Tathagatas do not a r i s e i n the w o r l d , j u s t as two C a k r a v a r t i n s cannot a r i s e i n the same w o r l d .
Asvabhava
e x p l a i n s t h a t the " w o r l d " o f the s u t r a i s one f o u r - c o n t i n e n t
world-system, n o t an e n t i r e u n i v e r s e c o n t a i n i n g one thousand world-systems.
four-continent
There i s no s c r i p t u r a l o b s t a c l e t o simultaneous Buddhas, as
l o n g as each world-system c o n t a i n s o n l y one; A s t a n z a i s quoted t o c l o s e t h i s . a r g u m e n t : Many o f the Buddha's s u b t l e Nirmanakayas Are i n t h e womb s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , In o r d e r t o m a n i f e s t The M a n i f o l d Enlightenment.
The commentary (Bh 379b8-13; U 41i8c2-5) i n t r o d u c e s an important i d e a . When the Buddha's Nk descends nirmana !3ravakas such as t h e i r mothers' wombs. would not be apparent.
from'the T u s i t a heaven
Sariputra
i n t o i t s mother's womb,
are c r e a t e d by the Buddha and descend t o
Without t h e i r i n f e r i o r i t y , t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f the Buddha T h i s s u r p r i s i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n shows t h a t the phrase
155
" m a n i f o l d enlightenment"
77
i s not "the v a r i o u s t y p e s o f enlightenment," hut
s i n g l e synonym f o r t h e h i g h e s t enlightenment, thus j u s t i f y i n g the o f the Mahayana enlightenment.
While I t may
a
superiority
he p o s s i b l e t o see t h i s as the
b a s i s o f the l a t e r n o t i o n t h a t v a r i o u s b e i n g s may
be Nks, t h e r e i s no
indica-
t i o n t h a t Asanga o r h i s commentators e n t e r t a i n e d such a n o t i o n .
X:36.8
CThe Buddha"! made h i s vow
and p r a c t i s e d the r e l i g i o u s
i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e g r e a t enlightenment and happiness o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s .
f o r the w e l f a r e It i s i l l o g i c a l to
h o l d t h a t he has c o m p l e t e l y gone t o n i r v a n a , because would render h i s vow
Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t we e n t e r e d n i r v a n a i s the Nk,
life
and p r a c t i c e s t e r i l e and
that
useless.
are t o conclude t h a t the Buddha who
distinct
has
from the Svk, which i s s t i l l p r e s e n t t o
aid others.
X:37
CIn t h i s d i s c u s s i o n
(which w i l l be s t u d i e d l a t e r ) o f whether
the Buddha's body i s e t e r n a l , Asanga m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e i s not e t e r n a l
X:38
Nk
( n i t y a ) but i s r e p e a t e d l y m a n i f e s t e d . ]
The Nirmanakayas o f the Buddha Bhagavans do not
remain
Cin the w o r l d l f o r s i x reasons: ( l ) Because t h e i r . a c t i v i t y i s complete when the matured s e n t i e n t b e i n g s have been l i b e r a t e d .
The Nk i s c l e a r l y a r e l a t i o n a l body whose appearance Buddha and the s e n t i e n t b e i n g s f o r whom i t i s m a n i f e s t . need i t ,
i t w i l l disappear.
depends on both the When t h e y no l o n g e r
156 (2) To prevent [ s e n t i e n t beings3 from not d e s i r i n g
nirvana
w h i l e s e e k i n g t h e Tathagata's e t e r n a l body. (3) To prevent mistaken i d e a s
about t h e Buddha and t o cause
sentient beings t o understand the profound teachings o f the t r u e dharma. (U) In o r d e r t o cause [ s e n t i e n t beings!] t o l o n g f o r t h e Buddha's profound b i r t h because t h e y [ t h e BhagavansU f e a r t h a t , i n those who o f t e n
see t h e Buddha, a f e e l i n g
o f contempt w i l l a r i s e . (5) In o r d e r t o cause [each s e n t i e n t b e i n g l p e r s o n a l l y t o e x e r t h i m s e l f when he knows t h a t t h e r e a l t e a c h e r i s difficult (6)
to find.
In o r d e r t h a t not
s e n t i e n t b e i n g s be q u i c k l y matured by
r e j e c t i n g t h e yoke o f p e r s o n a l
These a r e a l l s p e c i f i c
exertion.
i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f one p o i n t .
The Nirmanakaya e x i s t s
because i t i s t h e most e f f i c a c i o u s way i n which t h e Buddha may a i d s e n t i e n t beings.
The h e l p which can be g i v e n
stimulus
to personal
eternally-present
i s not an a c t i o n - o n - b e h a l f - o f ,
e x e r t i o n and a d i r e c t i o n f o r i t .
Buddha would be u s e l e s s
as an e x t e r n a l , a u t h o r i t a t i v e , g o d - l i k e
t o the
figure.
but i s a
F o r t h i s purpose, an
Sravaka
who sees t h e Buddha
To one w i t h such an a t t i t u d e ,
the d e b i l i t a t i n g p r e s e n c e o f t h e e t e r n a l w i t h i n t h e t r a n s i t o r y would l e a d t o a passive
dependency, t h e p r e c i s e o p p o s i t e
i.
The
of the desired maturation.
The Nirmanakaya: a Summary
p r e c e d i n g passages p o r t r a y t h e Nirmanakaya as t h e Buddha-form
157
m a n i f e s t e d i n the w o r l d by the Dharmakaya.
As such, i t i s the f a m i l i a r Buddha
(Dipamkara, iSakyamuni, M a i t r e y a , e t c ) d e f i n e d by a set p a t t e r n o f a c t i o n s . These passages a l s o suggest s o l u t i o n s t o t h e p r i n c i p a l problems from such a p o r t r a y a l . simple as i t may
Sravakas
who
appear.
The f i r s t
problem,
"Who
arising
can see the Nk?",. i s not•as
While VIII:10 suggests t h a t the Nk appears t o t h o s e
have made some s p i r i t u a l p r o g r e s s , t h e remainder o f t h e passages
suggest t h a t the Nk i s v i s i b l e t o a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s , but i s n e c e s s a r y o n l y for
the s p i r i t u a l p r o g r e s s o f the
caryabhumi.
Sravakas
and B o d h i s a t t v a s on the a d h i m u k t i -
That i s , a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s can see t h e Nk, but o n l y t h e
!3ravakas and n o v i c e B o d h i s a t t v a s b e n e f i t from t h i s
exposure.
A second problem i n v o l v e s t h e a c t i o n o f the Nk. the
Nk do?" r e c e i v e s two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f answers.
The q u e s t i o n , "What does First,
(VI:5-2) Asanga
suggests t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a , by means o f b o d i l y and v o c a l a c t i o n s which are nirmanas, can do a n y t h i n g ( i n c l u d i n g apparent harm) which might h e l p e s t a b l i s h s e n t i e n t b e i n g s i n the Mahayana d i s c i p l i n e .
While t h i s passage appears t o
r e f e r t o the Nk, t h e r e are no s i m i l a r ones elsewhere i n the Mahayanasamgraha. Furthermore, the T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t o r i s c a r e f u l t o use the word l u s ( " p h y s i c a l body") r a t h e r than sku used elsewhere, t o t r a n s l a t e the kaya o f
Nirmanakaya.
T h e r e f o r e , t h i s i d e a o f t a k i n g d i r e c t a c t i o n upon the a s p i r a n t does not seem to
b e l o n g t o Asanga's b a s i c v i s i o n o f the Nk.
actions i n a prescriptive mythical patternhold l i f e ,
Second, the Nk performs
certain
I t i s b o r n , l e a v e s the house- .
a c h i e v e s enlightenment, t u r n s the dhafmacakra,
and so on.
The
p a t t e r n o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s d e f i n e s the Nk_ and c o n s t i t u t e s i t s h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y , i . e . , i t s v i s i b i l i t y to sentient beings.
However, t h e r e i s no
Sravakas—is
sugges-
t i o n t h a t the Nk's
main t a s k — m a t u r a t i o n o f the
d i r e c t l y achieved
by t h e s e a c t i o n s .
Not even p r e a c h i n g ( " t u r n i n g the dharmacakra") i s c e n t r a l
to
this soteriological
action.
T h i s m a t u r a t i o n seems t o he a c h i e v e d not by t h e Nk 'doing' something t o the
laravaka, but
by t h e s i t u a t i o n i n which t h e Nk (present by v i r t u e o f t h e
Buddha a c t i v i t i e s ) i s seen by t h e Sravakas, by B o d h i s a t t v a s on t h e a d h i m u k t i caryabhumi,
and by s e n t i e n t b e i n g s i n g e n e r a l .
a c t i o n , a mere glimpse o f t h e Nk p r o t e c t s t h e This maturation involves f a i t h
I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s maturing
Sravakas
from w o r l d l y c a l a m i t i e
(sraddha) and a s p i r a t i o n ( a d h i m u k t i ) .
VIII:10 h o l d s t h a t t h e Sravaka must have t h e s e i n o r d e r t o be born i n t h e presence o f a Nk; X:6.3 says t h a t t h e i r i n f e r i o r adhimukti c a l l s f o r a glimps of
t h e Buddha; and X : l 6 says t h a t t h i s glimpse r e s u l t s i n adhimukti. A r e a s o n a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s would be t h a t t h e Sravakas
and t h e
B o d h i s a t t v a s see t h e Nk because t h e y have a c e r t a i n c o n f i d e n c e and a s p i r a t i o n and t h a t t h e s e a r e strengthened by t h e e x p e r i e n c e .
T h i s i s i n g e n e r a l agree-
ment w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f h e a r i n g about t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f the Tathagatas which i s found i n t h e Abhidharmakosa v i i l : 3 ^ c L . The verb " t o s e e " ( ^ , mthong-baj i m p l i e s o r d i n a r y g r a s p i n g p e r c e p t i o n and I s c o n t r a s t e d by Asvabhava a t X:6.3 w i t h t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s " p e n e t r a t i o n " of
t h e dharma.
T h i s l e a d s i n t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n between Nirmana-
kaya, Sambhogakaya and Dharmakaya, a d i s c u s s i o n which w i l l be taken up a f t e r the data on t h e Sbk have been examined. But what does ' s e e i n g t h e Nirmanakaya' mean?
Does Asariga l i t e r a l l y
mean
t h a t t h e mere s i g h t o f t h e Nk i s e f f i c a c i o u s , o r i s t h i s a metaphor f o r b e i n g able" t o meet w i t h , and undertake Buddha? for
We should f i r s t
t h e r e l i g i o u s l i f e under, an h i s t o r i c a l
note t h a t ' s e e i n g ' t h e Buddha cannot be a metaphor
h e a r i n g o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e Buddha-word.
Both h e a r i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g
have t h e i r own c o n s i s t e n t t e r m i n o l o g y throughout
t h e Mahayanasamgraha, and
159 t h a t t e r m i n o l o g y i s not found here.
Furthermore,
to
While t h e r e i s a l s o some chance t h a t
"anthropomorphic mental images."
' s e e i n g ' means j o i n i n g the Buddha's entourage, t o be based upon the more l i t e r a l n o t i o n .
Asvabhava (Ulj-36al9) r e f e r s
the m a j o r i t y o f passages seem
Asvabhava's statement
that the
glimpse o f the Buddha i s a c t u a l l y a glimpse o f h i s t h i r t y - t w o major and e i g h t y minor c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e essence-of•the
(X:l6) ' suggests t h a t the r e c o g n i t i o n o f a B u d d h a i s t h e
soteriological
event.
Such an u n d e r s t a n d i n g makes good sense o f these passages. t i e n t b e i n g s can see, but not r e c o g n i z e , the Nk. it.
The Sravaka
Ordinary
sen-
does r e c o g n i z e
H i s c a r e e r i s a l r e a d y w e l l l a u n c h e d — h e knows the b a s i c d o c t r i n e , p r a c t i c e
t h e m e d i t a t i o n , and keeps t h e p r e c e p t s .
He r e q u i r e s assurance.
A 'mere
glimpse' o f the Buddha w i l l indeed assure him t h a t the g o a l and f o u n d a t i o n o f his
p r a c t i c e i s r e a l i z a b l e , and w i l l t h e r e f o r e i n c r e a s e h i s c o n f i d e n c e
and
aspiration. The q u e s t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Nirmanakaya and kaya w i l l be taken up
d.
Svabhavika-
later.
The Sambhogakaya—-Buddha i n the B u d d h a f i e l d
In the Mahayanasamgraha, the Sambhogakaya i s the form i n which Buddhahood r e s i d e s w i t h i n a B u d d h a f i e l d , t e a c h i n g an e n j o y a b l e d o c t r i n e t o t h e B o d h i s a t tva.. 1. The
Relevant passages w i l l be examined under t h r e e Sambhogakaya; i i . The B u d d h a f i e l d ; i i i .
i.
Prastavana
3.10
The
The
headings:
Bodhisattva.
Sambhogakaya—General
LThe commentators (Bh323a25-29; U 3 8 l c l 7 - 2 0 ) say t h a t , due
l6o
t o the Sambhogakaya, the Great
B o d h i s a t t v a s who
e n t e r e d the great bhumis e x p e r i e n c e
have
the p l e a s u r e s o f the
dharma and t h e s e p l e a s u r e s assure the p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e i r equipment.1
VIII:10
[ T h i s passage on the r e t r i b u t i o n o f n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a was quoted when d i s c u s s i n g the Mrmanakaya.
Asvabhava adds
t h a t b e i n g born i n the Sambhogakaya Buddha assembly i s t h e r e t r i b u t i o n f o r h a v i n g o b t a i n e d the
fundamental
n i r v i k a l p a j nana ( d e s c r i b e d at V I I I : i h t ) . ]
The
i m p l i c a t i o n seems t o be t h a t t h e fundamental n i r v i k a l p a j nana l e a d s
t o r e b i r t h i n t h i s assembly, and t h a t t h e r e the "subsequent n i r v i k a l p a j nana," "whose p o s s e s s o r
(.prsthalabdha)
c a n . c i r c u l a t e throughout the world
without
being s o i l e d , " i s obtained.
X:6.2
[The Dharmakaya] i s t h e support
f o r t h e v a r i o u s Sambho-
gakayas because i t assures the m a t u r a t i o n
o f the
Bodhisattvas.
X:8
[To the q u e s t i o n o f whether the v a r i o u s Sambhogakayas are d i f f e r e n t ^ o r not d i f f e r e n t , Asanga r e p l i e s : ] . . . As t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s and not d i f f e r e n t . supports
Asvabhava
a c t i o n s do not d i f f e r , t h e y
I t i s not the case t h a t t h e i r
do not d i f f e r — i n n u m e r a b l e supports
are
various occur.
(.UU39b2-5) e x p l a i n s t h a t the Buddhaf i e l d s , a s s e m b l i e s , v e r b a l
e x p r e s s i o n s , s i z e s o f the b o d i e s , major and minor marks, taste'O'f the d o c t r i n e ,
161
etc., d i f f e r i n various universes.
X:27b
. . . [You, t h e Bhagavan! a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e w o r l d and the Buddha a s s e m b l i e s . ... .
Both commentators agree t h a t t h e Buddha appears i n t h e w o r l d by t h e Nirmanakaya
and i n t h e Buddha assemblies by t h e Sambhogakaya.
X:35
Why i s t h e Sambhogakaya not t h e Svabhavikakaya?
For s i x
reasons:
(1) Because a rupakaya can be seen.
A g a i n , Vasubandhu i s ambiguous.
Asvabhava
(;Tjl+l+7c27-28). s a y s , " . . . t h e
Sambhogakaya has a m a t e r i a l (rupa) appearance w h i l e t h e Svabhavikakaya does n o t . " (2) Because
i t appears v a r i o u s l y i n t h e innumerable
Buddha a s s e m b l i e s .
Asvabhava
(u"+"+7c29-^8al) says t h e Sambhogakaya e x h i b i t s d i v e r s e forms
whereas t h e Svabhavikakaya does n o t .
(.3) Because
i t can be seen a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a s p i r a t i o n s
Cof t h e d e v o t e e ] , i t appears t o have an i n d e t e r m i n a t e svabhava.
Asvabhava
(uHU8al-l+) says t h a t t h e Sambhogakaya i s m a n i f e s t i n a c c o r d
with the " a s p i r a t i o n s "
(adhimukti)_ o f t h e o b s e r v e r and l a c k s a f i x e d n a t u r e .
He quotes "a s u t r a " t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t some see a ' 'Sambhoga-Buddha, o t h e r s a' young man, and s t i l l
others a c h i l d .
(h) Because i t appears i n d i f f e r e n t ways, i t can be seen
162 t o have a changing svabhava.
Asvabhava e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e Sbk appears d i f f e r e n t t o t h e same o b s e r v e r at v a r i o u s
times.
(5) Because i t can be seen mixed w i t h v a r i o u s of Bodhisattvas,
The
term "mixed"
assemblies
Sravakas, devas, e t c .
i s t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d by t h e commentators.
means t h a t t h e Sbk i s seen "as a member o f " t h e v a r i o u s
I t probably
assemblies.
This i s
c e r t a i n l y t h e case at X:1.2 where t h e Sbk i s s a i d ". . . t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e v a r i o u s fields.
Buddha assemblies because i t e x p e r i e n c e s t h e v e r y pure Buddha-
..."
(6)
Because t h e two r e o r i e n t a t i o n s - o f - s u p p o r t , t h a t o f the a l a y a v i j n a n a
and t h a t o f t h e p r a v r t t i v i j n a n a ,
do not appear l o g i c a l l y t o c o i n c i d e .
Asvabhava (uUWalC—12) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n " o f t h e a l a y a v i jnana y i e l d s t h e Svabhavikakaya w h i l e t h a t o f t h e other
active vijnanas
y i e l d s the
Sambhogakaya.
X:37
As n e i t h e r t h e Sambhogakaya nor t h e Nirmanakaya i s e t e r n a l , how can t h e s u t r a say t h a t t h e Tathagata's body 1
i s eternal?
Because b o t h Nisyandakaya and Nirmanakaya
depend upon t h e e t e r n a l Dharmakaya.
As t h e enjoyment i s
never i n t e r r u p t e d and t h e nirmanas a r e r e p e a t e d l y it
i s proper t o regard
Asvabhava ( u W 8 c l 9 )
manifest,
t h e Tathagata's body as e t e r n a l . . . .
equates t h e Nisyandakaya w i t h t h e Sambhogakaya.
163 X:1.2
The Sambhogakaya depends on t h e Dharmakaya and i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by v a r i o u s Buddha assemblies experiences
t h e v e r y pure B u d d h a f i e l d s
because i t
and p l e a s u r e s
o f t h e Mahayana dharmas. 80 The term " i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by"
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s i s t h e way the
Buddha i s p e r c e i v e d , not t h a t t h e Buddha a s s e m b l i e s ,
e t c . are i n h e r e n t
characteristics. Asvabhava (TjU36a6-12) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e " B u d d h a f i e l d " i s a g a t h e r i n g ' o f v a r i o u s groups o f Great
Bodhisattvas
(as i n S u k h a v a t i ,
a r e : t h e p l e a s u r e s o f jewels and p r e c i o u s m e t a l s ;
etc.).
The " p l e a s u r e s "
the p l e a s u r e s o f
understanding
the meaning o f Mahayana s u t r a s , e t c . ; and t h e p l e a s u r e s o f s c h o l a s t i c enjoyed by t h e Buddha and B o d h i s a t t v a s .
reasoning
I t might be p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t
Asvabhava (.TjU36all-12) as s a y i n g t h a t both t h e Buddhas and t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s possess
Sambhogakayas, but t h i s passsage i s obscure and i s not supported
by
the T i b e t a n . In t h e s e passages, t h e B o d h i s a t t v a who has p e r f e c t e d n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a f i n d s h i m s e l f i n the presence of the Tathagata
( t h e Sambhogakaya) i n a Buddha
assembly.
The p h y s i c a l appearance (rupa) o f t h e Sbk i s p r o j e c t e d by t h e
aspiration
(adhimukti)
situation.
o f the observer,
and hence v a r i e s from s i t u a t i o n t o
The B o d h i s a t t v a t a k e s g r e a t p l e a s u r e i n t h e o c c a s i o n , and h i s
pleasure i s instrumental i n f u r t h e r i n g h i s s p i r i t u a l
progress.
There i s no s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e Sbk can appear apart from t h e B u d d h a f i e l d ; it
i s an i n t r i n s i c p a r t o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f Sbk.
t o d e s c r i b i n g the B u d d h a f i e l d than t o t h e Sbk
Asanga devotes more space
itself.
161+
ii.
The primary
The
Buddhafield
Q-i
d e s c r i p t i o n o f the B u d d h a f i e l d o c c u r s at X:30.
o f t h i s passage s h o u l d be understood
as the Sbk
of others.
The
Bhagavan
To the p o s s i b l e
o b j e c t i o n t h a t i f Asanga had meant "Sambhogakaya" he would have used t h a t term, I can o n l y r e p l y t h a t , asX:30 i s based upon a d i r e c t text
q u o t a t i o n from an
earlier
(presumably a v e r s i o n o f the Samdhinirmocanasutra), i t i s determined by
the l a t t e r ' s
terminology.
J u s t as the Sambhogakaya c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d the s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n o f an appearance p r o j e c t e d by the B o d h i s a t t v a on the f a c t o f Buddhahood, so the B u d d h a f i e l d can be
c o n s i d e r e d t o be
a symbol which m a i n t a i n s
t h e p e r f e c t congru-
ence o f t h e image o f a s p a t i a l country r u l e d by t h e T a t h a g a t a , o f the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s
and t h e n o t i o n
s o t e r i o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n which j o y f u l and e n r i c h i n g
communion i s p o s s i b l e .
X:30
How
s h o u l d we
Buddhas?
understand
In the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the
satasahasrikasutra,
The
(.1)
the pure B u d d h a f i e l d s
Bodhisattvapitaka-
they are d e s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s :
Bhagavan r e s i d e s i n an i n f i n i t e grand p a l a c e :
which i s adorned w i t h the b l a z e o f the seven f i l l i n g the i n f i n i t e u n i v e r s e w i t h a g r e a t
(.2)
whose immense rooms are w e l l
(.3)
whose compass i s unbroken,
radiance,
the t h r e e dhatus,
which a r i s e s from supremely wholesome w o r l d transcending roots.
jewels
disposed,
(.k) whose domain t o t a l l y t r a n s c e n d s (.5)
o f the
165 At X:30
the p h y s i c a l model f o r the B u d d h a f i e l d
with jewels, possessing and
immense, w e l l - p r o p o r t i o n e d rooms, an u n l i m i t e d a r e a
immeasurable dimensions.
transcends
i s a great palace b l a z i n g
Asvabhava (uU^6al2-ll+) e x p l a i n s " i t s domain
the t h r e e dhatus" t o mean t h a t the B u d d h a f i e l d
i s not
something
t h a t can be e i t h e r d e s i r e d o r a t t a i n e d l i k e an o r d i n a r y p h y s i c a l p a l a c e . R a t h e r , i t " a r i s e s from supreme and w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g
wholesome r o o t s , " which
Vasubandhu
(Bh377alO) i d e n t i f i e s as. non-conceptual awareness and
awareness.
T h i s idea- o f an e p i s t e m i c nature
(.6)
which may
be
i s supported
by
subsequent
(.6):
c h a r a c t e r i z e d as v e r y e f f i c a c i o u s
and
v e r y pure v i j n a p t i •
Asvabhava (U^U6al7-20) e x p l a i n s t h a t no j e w e l s , e t c . , can be found from the awareness o f them. than the common world.
Thus, the B u d d h a f i e l d i s not a "more r e a l " p l a c e
Both are " i d e a s " ( v i j n a p t i ) ; the d i f f e r e n c e o r i g i n a t e s
from the d i f f e r i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s p l a c e d on e x p e r i e n c e Sravaka and
the'Bodhisattva
confirmed
the s u g g e s t i o n
man,
(noted p r e v i o u s l y at V I I I : 1 0 ) t h a t
i n the B u d d h a f i e l d e x e r c i s e s subsequent awareness
As t h i s i s the awareness whose p o s s e s s o r
throughout the w o r l d without Buddhafield
by t h e common
Bodhisattva.
Vasubandhu has
jnana).
apart
can c i r c u l a t e
b e i n g s o i l e d , t h i s i s another
i s not some " p l a c e " apart from the world.
B u d d h a f i e l d i s simply the p r e s e n t p e r s p e c t i v e occur
(prsthalabdha-
freely
indication that
the
F u r t h e r , h i n t s t h a t the
environment viewed from a r e v a l u a t i n g
at X:35-6," where Asvabhava .affirms t h a t the r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f -
the a l a y a v i j n a n a y i e l d s the Dharmakaya, w h i l e r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the a c t i v e v i j n a n a s y i e l d s the Sambhogakaya; and at X:5> the rupakaya i s s a i d t o y i e l d
other
where t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n of
s o v e r e i g n t y over the B u d d h a f i e l d ,
i . e . , the
166 Buddhafield
i s a r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e common
world.
(.7) which i s t h e r e s i d e n c e o f t h e Tathagata.
X:30.lU
[The BuddhafieldH
surpasses
a l l other arrays
(vyuha)
because i t i s d i s p l a y e d by t h e Tathagata's b l e s s i n g .
Asvabhava ( U ^ 6 b 5 ) says t h a t i t surpasses because i t i s t h e seat
the arrays o f the Bodhisattva
(asana) o f t h e Tathagata's m a n i f e s t a t i o n .
These passages, which p o r t r a y a f i g u r e seated i n t h e m i d d l e " o f arranged has
and b e a u t i f i e d by his. p r e s e n c e j
a r e a l i t y apart from t h e ' B o d h i s a t t v a ,
l e a v e no doubt-that
t h e Tathagata
even though t h e l a t t e r ' s
•provides t h e • form under which he,..beholds t h e Tathagata.
a space
expectation
...
L a t e r i n X:30 we f i n d :
'
"(••.15'-') whose roads a r e g r e a t memory, i n t e l l i g e n c e and insight, (.16) whose v e h i c l e s a r e samatha and v i p a s y a n a , (.17) which i s e n t e r e d through t h e g r e a t doors t o liberation:
sunyata
and a n i m i t t a .
(.18) which r e s t s upon t h e arrangement c o n s i s t i n g o f a g r e a t j e w e l l e d r o y a l l o t u s ornamented by innumerable
qualities.
L i k e a p h y s i c a l r e g i o n , t h e B u d d h a f i e l d has g a t e s , roads and v e h i c l e s . The
gates a r e t h e g r e a t e n t r i e s t o l i b e r a t i o n — s u n y a t a , . a n i m i t t a , . a n d p a s s i o n -
lessnessV
The roads a r e t h e paths (marga) t o l i b e r a t i o n — h e a r i n g ,
and m e d i t a t i o n .
The v e h i c l e s a r e calm (samatha) and i n s i g h t
reflection
(vipasyana).
F i n a l l y , i t r e s t s upon a "great j e w e l l e d r o y a l l o t u s " which Asvabhava
(U*+"+6bl5-23) Tathagata
says may
be e i t h e r a p h y s i c a l t h i n g or the l o t u s seat o f the
himself.
X:30
(.10)
which i s m a i n t a i n e d dharma and g r e a t
(.11)
bliss,
whose a c t i o n s a r e e n t i r e l y f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a l l sentient
Any
by the j o y f u l t a s t e o f the
beings,
(.12)
which t o t a l l y excludes
(.13)
which expels
The
torments,
a l l maras.
d i f f i c u l t y i n understanding
from our p r e c o n c e p t i o n s .
klesa-induced
Asanga's concept
o f the B u d d h a f i e l d
f i r s t preconception.comes from our
arises
familiarity
with' t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s p l a c e d upon such passages by t h e Pure Land s c h o o l s o f China and Japan, which r e g a r d the B u d d h a f i e l d as a p l a c e reached as an a e r i a l r e g i o n ? i n which one may meditation. symbolic
These i d e a s may
pilgrimage,
be r e b o r n or as a s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e d by
be comprehended by r e g a r d i n g the B u d d h a f i e l d as a
environment i n which both the p h y s i c a l p l a c e and the
s i t u a t i o n are e q u a l l y and
by
soteriological
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I n d i c a t e d by the'term' "Buddha-
field." But tion „
He
such a symbolic
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n cannot be a p p l i e d t o Asanga's
explana-
g i v e s a h i g h l y r a t i o n a l i z e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f the B u d d h a f i e l d which so
e x h a u s t i v e l y i n t e r p r e t s the myth o f the B u d d h a f i e l d that i t r e t a i n s l i t t l e
of i t s polyvalence.
a d i d a c t i c a l l e g o r y i n which B u d d h a f i e l d s
as a b e a u t i f u l
dwelling
I n s t e a d , the d e s c r i p t i o n becomes a r i s e from supremely pure,
t r a n s c e n d i n g r o o t s ; t h e i r roads are g r e a t memory, i n t e l l i g e n c e and they are t r a v e l l e d by the v e h i c l e s o f samatha and v i p a s y a n a , the most b a s i c s p a t i a l q u e s t i o n : Where i s the B u d d h a f i e l d ? "
and
world-
insight;
so on..
is left
Even
dangling.
168 (uU36a9) says t h a t t h e y a r e " S u k h a v a t i , e t c . i n t h e f o u r d i r e c t i o n s . "
Asvabhava
However, t h e r e i s no o t h e r mention i n t h i s t e x t o f t h i s n o t i o n . The
d i d a c t i c nature o f X:30 i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t Asanga has not
a p p l i e d t h e same type o f hermeneutic as he d i d t o t h e e a r l i e r t i o n of the Buddhafields
and r e s i d e n c e s .
the p r e s e n t d e s c r i p t i o n — i t
iii.
The
(11:33) d e s c r i p -
There i s l i t t l e need t o i n t e r p r e t
i s i t s e l f an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e myth.
Bodhisattvas—Residents
of the Buddhafield
Buddhafield:
X:30
(.8) i s t h e r e f u g e o f t h e Great
Bodhisattvas,
(.9) i s t h e promenade o f i n f i n i t e numbers o f nagas, yaksas,
gandharvas, a s u r a s , garudas, kimnaras,
mahoragas, manusyas, and amanusyas.
The
image o f t h e Buddha surrounded
scene from t h e s u t r a s .
At X:
by assemblies
o f Sravakas,
devas, and so
30.8-9, Asvabhava (u4^6a21-26) r e c o n c i l e s t h e s e by s a y i n g t h a t t h e
Buddhafields
a r e r e a l l y i n h a b i t e d o n l y by t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s who have e n t e r e d
the g r e a t bhumis, and who a s s i s t t h e Tathagata.
The remaining i n h a b i t a n t s —
the devas, nagas, and so o n — a r e nirmanas, not r e a l a s p i r a n t s . of whether t h e Sravaka
The q u e s t i o n
i s , i n any sense, capable o f e n t e r i n g a B u d d h a f i e l d o r
s e e i n g t h e Sbk i s not answered i n t h i s text,Sbk,
i s a familiar
At X:1.2 t h e f o l l o w e r s a r e o n l y B o d h i s a t t v a s , w h i l e a t
X:35-5 t h e Sambhogakaya i s surrounded on.
by a group o f a t t e n d a n t s
h i s Buddha i s t h e Nk.
However, even i f he can see t h e
The Sbk i s t h e f o r m . r e l a t e d t o t h e Great
Bodhi-
sattvas . The
B o d h i s a t t v a p e r c e i v e s t h e Buddha and h i s environment as a Sambhogakaya
i n a Buddhafield.
Both a r e permeated w i t h p l e a s u r e
(sambhoga: enjoyment;
s u c c e s s f u l l o v e ; s e x u a l u n i o n ) j u s t as t h e w o r l d o f t h e common man o r t h e Sravaka Sbk
i s pervaded w i t h s u f f e r i n g
(duhkha).
Even t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c e n t r a l
" d w e l l s " w i t h i n t h e f i e l d r a t h e r than b e i n g "manifested ,' as was t h e Nk, i s v
i n t e r p r e t e d as a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e a s p i r a n t ' s constant p l e a s u r e , r a t h e r than as an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e presence important and
of a subsistent being.
T h i s p l e a s u r e r l s such an
element o f t h e t h e o r y t h a t a s y s t e m a t i c examination
cause w i l l
understanding
o f i t s nature
form an e x c e l l e n t framework w i t h i n which t o examine Asanga's o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a who. e x p e r i e n c e s i t .
Let us f i r s t
note t h a t t h i s p l e a s u r e - f i l l e d B u d d h a f i e l d i s one o f t h e
most s u r p r i s i n g i n n o v a t i o n s t o appear w i t h i n t h e Buddhist t h i n k e r s had p i c t u r e d a w o r l d permeated w i t h t h e m i s e r y
tradition.
Earlier
a r i s i n g from t h e
i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n v e t e r a t e tendency t o c l i n g t o o b j e c t s generated by r e i f i c a t i o n of experience.
Such immediate and l i m i t e d p l e a s u r e as might be g a i n e d
t h e s e pseudo-objects
would be more than o f f s e t . b y t h e pain, and f r u s t r a t i o n
r e s u l t i n g from t h e i n e v i t a b l e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c e x p e r i e n c e . o f Buddhist
from
The o b j e c t
p r a c t i c e was seen as t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o f t h e misapprehensions t h a t
caused t h e r e i f i c a t i o n .
When t h i s p r a c t i c e was s u c c e s s f u l , t h e a s p i r a n t was
beyond s u f f e r i n g and, i n c i d e n t a l l y , beyond p l e a s u r e . Suddenly, t h e V i j n a n a v a d a
p r e s e n t s , a l o n g with, t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l model,
the n o t i o n t h a t t h e B o d h i s a t t v a enjoys p l e a s u r e r a t h e r than abandoning both p l e a s u r e and p a i n as he nears
enlightenment.
How can Asanga h o l d t h a t t h e
B o d h i s a t t v a s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p e r i e n c e s p l e a s u r e and abandons p l e a s u r e ? We cnannot a v o i d t h e problem by t h e f a c i l e assumption t h a t " p l e a s u r e i n the B u d d h a f i e l d " denotes a B o d h i s a t t va-emotion grasp o f o r d i n a r y man.
which i s f o r e v e r beyond t h e
Statements o f t h a t type a r e c l e a r l y l a b e l l e d
"profound"
170
(gambhira),
a l a b e l not a t t a c h e d t o these p l e a s u r e s .
Asanga i s a t t e m p t i n g
c o n s t r u c t a r a t i o n a l system, and h i s i d e a s must be g i v e n a l o g i c a l
to
inter-
pretation. At f i r s t
r e a d i n g , the Mahayanasamgraha might appear t o c o n t a i n a
symbolic
83 arrangement such as t h a t f r e q u e n t l y found
i n l a t e r Indo-Tibetan
works,
which
would e x p l a i n the c o n t r a d i c t i o n : the a s p i r a n t abandons the t h r e e b a s i c k l e s a s i n r e v e r s e o r d e r , i . e . , he f i r s t p l e a s u r e , and
abandons r e v u l s i o n - m i s e r y , then d e s i r e -
f i n a l l y nescience-dullness.
The
a s p i r a n t who
was
originally
dominated by misery moves t o a s i t u a t i o n dominated by p l e a s u r e . would be
This
i n a c c o r d w i t h the move o f t h e a s p i r a n t t o the B u d d h a f i e l d .
certainly I t would
reduce the p l e a s u r e s o f the B u d d h a f i e l d t o a s p e c i a l case o f the o l d e r t h e o r y , i.e.,
the B o d h i s a t t v a has
simply not y e t abandoned them.
p a t t e r n the t e x t would then
However, i n t h i s
show him moving t o a s i t u a t i o n dominated by
n e s s , and then t o f u l l enlightenment.
The Mahayanasamgraha does not mention
the d u l l n e s s , and the f u l l enlightenment
i s not
simply a f u r t h e r s t a g e .
a d d i t i o n , the p l e a s u r e s o f the B u d d h a f i e l d are o b v i o u s l y not t h e r e s u l t l i n g e r i n g k l e s a s — t h e y are h e a l t h y , p o s i t i v e f a c t o r s . nation
dull-
Therefore t h i s
In of
expla-
fails.
I suggest
t h a t the problem
can
be r e s o l v e d by v i e w i n g the concept
of
p l e a s u r e w i t h i n the b a s i c t r i s v a b h a v a framework o f the Mahayanas amgraha. i s , both common man
and B o d h i s a t t v a are c o n s t a n t l y engaged i n p e r c e p t u a l
' s i t u a t i o n s t h a t may
be analyzed'through
t h e same c a t e g o r i e s — t h e skandhas.
These i n c l u d e t h e vedanaskandha'- ( f e e l i n g - t o n e ) o f which p l e a s u r e i s p o s s i b l e aspect.
That
one
'-The' d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e common m a n - r e i f i e s h i s • exper-
iences and.finds himself within"a f i e l d dominate h i s e x i s t e n c e .
The
of f i x e d external objects that
B o d h i s a t t v a may
be
s a i d t o share the
same b a s i c
171 e x p e r i e n c e , but i n a r e o r i e n t e d manner.
He sees t h r o u g h t h e nature
(which i s
t h a t o f mere i d e a , v i j n a p t i ) of. the e x p e r i e n c e by h i s non-conceptual
awareness
(jnana o r n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) , and so i n h a b i t s a w o r l d o f c r e a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s . Rather
than b e i n g d r i v e n by imaginary
e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s , he h i m s e l f c r e a t e s ,
or e x e r c i s e s sovereignty over, the world. w h i l e t h e common man e x p e r i e n c e s
Both may e x p e r i e n c e p l e a s u r e b u t ,
i t as an i n h e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c e r t a i n
t r a n s i t o r y o b j e c t s , t h e Bodhisattva experiences can
i t as a phenomenon which he
maintain. I s h a l l now v e r i f y t h e above s o l u t i o n by examining r e l e v a n t passages o f
the t e x t .
As t h e s e a r e s c a t t e r e d throughout
t h e Mahayanasamgraha, t h e y w i l l be
a b s t r a c t e d and arranged under t h e f o l l o w i n g headings:
Pleasure, Reorientation,
S o v e r e i g n t y , Awareness, P l e a s u r e and t h e Other, P l e a s u r e and t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s Maturation.
Pleasure The
B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p l e a s u r e i s d e f i n e d as " t h e enjoyment o f t h e Mahayana
dharma" (X:1.2).
T h i s has b o t h an obvious
and a s u b t l e sense.
The obvious
g l o s s i s g i v e n by Asvabhava (.U*+36a9-12) as t h e enjoyment o f t h e j e w e l s , e t c . , i n t h e B u d d h a f i e l d and t h e p l e a s u r e o f d i s c u s s i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e Mahayana t e x t s . Buddhafield.
T h i s must be i n t e n d e d f o r those w i t h a l i t e r a l
concept
of the
The " j e w e l s " a r e t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e B u d d h a f i e l d , and a r e seen
as v a l u a b l e j u s t as t h e " o b j e c t s " o f t h e common w o r l d a r e v a l u e l e s s . The p l e a s u r e s o f d i s c u s s i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h e t e a c h i n g s a r e almost
certainly
an i d e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e f a m i l i a r monastic d e l i g h t i n t h e evening d i s c u s s i o n between master and d i s c i p l e s . is
c e n t r a l o r i s developed
Neither o f these r a t h e r l i t e r a l
further.
explanations
172 The
s u b t l e sense i s r e a l i z e d when we
means h i s t r i s v a b h a v a - b a s e d understanding r e o r i e n t e d way
r e c a l l t h a t by
d o c t r i n e , and t h a t chapters
the d o c t r i n e and b e i n g a b l e t o understand i t d e s c r i b e s are e q u i v a l e n t .
"the Mahayana" Asanga II-IV teach that one's w o r l d
i n the
T h e r e f o r e , enjoyment o f the
Mahayana dharma i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s e e i n g the w o r l d
i n a r e o r i e n t e d manner.
Reorientation
X:5.2
By r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the vedanaskandha i t Cthe
Sbk]
a t t a i n s s o v e r e i g n t y over i r r e p r o a c h a b l e , immeasurable, immensely p l e a s a n t
Both Vasubandhu is
(Bh372a3)
"immensely" {J^jf
p l e a s u r e s o f the t h r e e
residences.
and Asvabhava
(U^38a2)
agree t h a t the
) p l e a s a n t because i t " t r a n s c e n d s "
(
fcji
residence
) the
worlds.
That i s , the B o d h i s a t t v a a l s o experiences p l e a s u r a b l e or i n d i f f e r e n t b u t , because he evaluates i t d i f f e r e n t l y .
any p e r c e p t i o n as
painful,
sees through i t s n a t u r e ,
he
U n l i k e the o r d i n a r y i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n "the
w o r l d s , " the B o d h i s a t t v a does not
a s c r i b e these
three
f e e l i n g s t o some e x t e r n a l
o b j e c t and hence h i s p l e a s u r e i s not l i m i t e d by the c a p r i c e o f such an o b j e c t . He
e x e r c i s e s s o v e r e i g n t y which i s "immense" and
"transcendent."
Sovereignty Sovereignty
( y i b h u t v a ) and mastery ( v a s i t a ) both
relationships within a l i f e , aspect o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p . is
r e p l a c e d by
r a t h e r than-the
imply a r e v e r s a l o f
abandonment o f any maj-or
In the most g e n e r a l sense, the
"drivenness"
" c o n t r o l , " even i f the a c t u a l a c t i o n s are i d e n t i c a l .
example, the B o d h i s a t t v a abandons l i f e
o f h i s own
For
f r e e w i l l r a t h e r than
being
"taken" by death;
he i s a b l e t o choose t h e s t a t i o n o f r e b i r t h r a t h e r
than
b e i n g d r i v e n t o a womb; he i s a b l e t o p e r c e i v e a c c u r a t e l y and m i n i s t e r e f f e c t i v e l y i n s t e a d o f b e i n g g r i p p e d by misapprehensions and p r e a c h e d t o b y o t h e r s . The most important
such r e v e r s a l i s connected w i t h t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s vow
t o work f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s . g a i n , i s permeated w i t h m i s e r y .
The common man, working f o r h i s own w o r l d l y
The Sravaka, working f o r h i s own s p i r i t u a l
b e n e f i t , becomes f r e e from m i s e r y .
But t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , working f o r t h e
s p i r i t u a l w e l f a r e o f others (X:7.6; X:10; X:12; X:29-5; X:37), i s permeated with pleasure. aspects
While t h e common
man.or Sravaka
strives t o ingest.desirable
o f h i s environment, t h e B o d h i s a t t v a donates these t o o t h e r s .
former a c t i v i t y engenders s u f f e r i n g ; t h e l a t t e r , The
The
pleasure.
i d e a t h a t t h e w o r l d s o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a and o f t h e common man a r e
mirror-images suggests
the p o s s i b i l i t y that the Bodhisattva's
a n t i t h e s i s o f t h e common man's s u f f e r i n g .
pleasure i s the
Such an i d e a would be v e r y conven-
i e n t , f o r , w h i l e t h e p l e a s u r e s -of• t h e B u d d h a f i e l d a r e d i s c u s s e d i n g e n e r a l , o b l i q u e , and symbolic dictum
terms, s u f f e r i n g
(duhkha)—in
" a l l t h a t is:'Impermanent i s s u f f e r i n g "
p a r t i c u l a r , t h e famous
(yad - anityam t a d duhkham)—has
been t r e a t e d v e r y d i r e c t l y and e x h a u s t i v e l y i n t h e Abhidharma l i t e r a t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , we should expect the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s
t h i s l i t e r a t u r e t o f u r t h e r our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
pleasure.
T h i s l i n e o f thought l e a d s t o a f a s c i n a t i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n . view t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s of reference
Were we t o
p l e a s u r e i n a s t r i c t Abhidharmic
( i . e . , not i n v o k i n g t h e t r i s v a b h a v a ) , i t c o u l d be r e p h r a s e d as
f o l l o w s : The B o d h i s a t t v a must have t h e same i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s , p l e a s a n t o r p a i n f u l , as does t h e common man. pleasant.
frame
How can t h i s be?
either
The o v e r a l l tone, however, i s
How can a s p e c i f i c p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e
have an
o v e r a l l p l e a s a n t tone? is
a mirror-image
The i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g about t h i s q u e s t i o n i s t h a t i t
o f t h e a c t u a l Abhidharma q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g m i s e r y .
How can
l i f e , which has b o t h p l e a s a n t and p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e s , be s a i d t o be permeated with
suffering? The answer o f t h e Abhidharmasamuccaya ( a l s o a t t r i b u t e d t o Asanga) may be
summarized as f o l l o w s .
Various s p e c i f i c
instances o f misery or s u f f e r i n g
(duhkhaduhkhata) a r e concomitants t o common e x p e r i e n c e s .
However, t h i s ex-
p e r i e n c e i s not s u f f e r i n g as such, but i s only, one l i m i t e d - a s p e c t . o f a broader, phenomenon: " s u f f e r i n g
ofi a l l conditioned existence"
(samskaraduhkhata).
B. K. M a t i l a l has d e s c r i b e d t h i s as t h e "anguish o f t h e human h e a r t caused by
8h our constant awareness o f l a c k o f freedom." S i n c e b o t h p l e a s u r e and s u f f e r i n g are f e e l i n g s t h a t r e s u l t from t h e primary p r o c e s s e s , t h e y need not be understood.as joy
t i g h t l o g i c a l concepts.
The
which an i n d i v i d u a l may o c c a s i o n a l l y f e e l need not i n v a l i d a t e t h e statement
that h i s l i f e
i s permeated w i t h m i s e r y ( o r a n g u i s h ) , n o r i s i t n e c e s s a r y t o
deny t h e s i m i l a r i t y between t h e momentary j o y and t h e p e r v a s i v e , anguish. I f t h i s way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g m i s e r y i s a p p l i e d t o t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s •
.
p l e a s u r e , t h e l a t t e r i s seen as a thoroughgoing enjoyment o f t h e B u d d h a f i e l d , d i f f e r e n t o n l y i n degree from common p l e a s u r e .
I can f i n d no passages
i n the
Mahayanasamgraha which would r u l e out such an u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and many t a c i t l y support i t .
F o r example, i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e B u d d h a f i e l d at X:30.12-13,
Asanga says t h a t i t i s f r e e from a l l t h e torments a l l t h e maras a r e e x p e l l e d .
caused by k l e s a s and t h a t
T h i s does not n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e an absence o f
p a i n caused by t h e automatic emotional r e a c t i o n s
(klesas).
Asvabhava (U^l+8b3)
says t h a t e v e r y t h i n g a s s o c i a t e d t w i t h f e a r , i . e . , klesamara, skandhamara, r
mrtyumara (death) and devaputramara
(the d e v i l ) , i s e x p e l l e d .
Again, while
175
p a i n may be p r e s e n t , i t does not engender d r i v i n g f e a r . N o t i c e t h a t we have been a b l e t o e x p l a i n t h e p l e a s u r e i n Abhidharmic terms, without
recourse t o the trisvabhava.
Thus, b o t h t h e t r i s v a b h a v a e x p l a n a t i o n and our Abhidharma-derived view show t h e c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n between o r d i n a r y p l e a s u r e and t h e p l e a s u r e o f t h e B u d d h a f i e l d , and s t r e s s t h e concept
o f s o v e r e i g n t y as t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g
factor.
Awareness (inana o r n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a )
An
examination
o f the l o g i c a l status o f the pleasurable
r e v e a l s s t i l l more f e a t u r e s . ontology.
Asanga regards
preconscious experience
process
experience
As we have seen, t h i s t e x t does not c o n t a i n an
any s i t u a t i o n as an e x p e r i e n c e
( c a l l e d "dependent upon another,"
can appear o n l y as t h e e x p e r i e n c e
formed by a complex
paratantra).
The
o f a s u b j e c t who completes i t by
t a k i n g a c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e , thus a s s i g n i n g t o i t some p a r t i c u l a r s t a t u s . the o b s e r v e r
i s a commoner o r Sravaka, t h e e x p e r i e n c e
"awareness o f " ( v i - j n a n a ) some t o t a l l y imaginary
i s r e i f i e d i n t o an
(parikalpita) object.
i s a B o d h i s a t t v a , he sees through t h e nature o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e "non-conceptual awareness" ( n i r v i k a l p a - j nana) without
If
I f he
and so has a
any o n t o l o g i c a l
referent, i . e . , i t i s "perfected" (parinispanna). We can i n f e r t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s
pleasurable perceptions are the
non-conceptual awareness, and t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e l a t t e r w i l l a l s o be i n d i r e c t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e former.
T h i s i n f e r e n c e i s upheld by
X:7-3:
CThe Svk i n v o l v e s t h e a t t r i b u t e ofH " r e s i d e n c e " because from t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e l i f e
of d e s i r e , etc., the
immeasurable "awareness" (jnana) r e s i d e n c e i s o b t a i n e d .
Chapter V I I I , which appears t o he the c h i e f passage i n V i j n a n a v a d a s a s t r a s devoted t o the n i r v i k a l p a j nana, i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l .
It lists
t h r e e types o f n i r v i k a l p a j nana:
—
t h e p r e p a r a t o r y n i r v i k a l p a j nana (prayogika°), t h e attainment o f which enables t h e a s p i r a n t t o e n t e r t h e Nirmanakaya
—
the fundamental n i r v i k a l p a j nana (mula°)—often
assembly. s i m p l y c a l l e d n i r v i k a l p a j nana
or even j n a n a — t h e attainment o f which enables t h e a s p i r a n t t o e n t e r t h e Sambhogakaya assembly o r B u d d h a f i e l d . —
t h e subsequent n i r v i k a l p a j f i a n a
(prsthalabdha° ) which i s developed by t h e
B o d h i s a t t v a w i t h i n the B u d d h a f i e l d , and which enables him t o c i r c u l a t e i n the w o r l d w i t h o u t b e i n g s t a i n e d .
The n o t i o n o f t h e subsequent n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a has been n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y when examining the way worth
i n which t h e Dk may
be o b t a i n e d .
The b a s i c passage i s
repeating:
111:12
. . . t h e subsequent awareness,.which
sees-everything
arising
from t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a and merely mental appearances t o be l i k e an i l l u s i o n , a r i s e s by i t s v e r y n a t u r e f r e e from misapprehensions.
Thus, j u s t as a m a g i c i a n i s f r e e from misappre-
h e n s i o n s about the r e a l i t y o f t h i n g s he has c r e a t e d , so the B o d h i s a t t v a , a l t h o u g h s p e a k i n g o f causes and e f f e c t s , i s always f r e e from misapprehensions about them.
Furthermore, we have a l s o seen (at X-,30.5 and . 6 ) t h a t t h e B u d d h a f i e l d arises
from supremely wholesome w o r l d - t r a n s c e n d i n g r o o t s
(.which Vasubandhu
i d e n t i f i e s as fundamental and subsequent n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) , and t h a t i t may c h a r a c t e r i z e d as v e r y e f f i c a c i o u s
and v e r y pure v i j n a p t i •
be
177 These passages l e a v e no doubt t h a t , d e s p i t e the n e g a t i v e form o f the term n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a , the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s awareness ("subsequent"- n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ) -" i s not a mental blankness
or an i n e f f a b l e s t a t e .
environment which, a l t h o u g h i t may common man,
i s understood
I t i s the p e r c e p t i o n o f an
have the same form as t h a t p e r c e i v e d by
t o be simply a t r a n s i e n t e x p e r i e n c e
r a t h e r than
the a
b i n d i n g and o p p r e s s i n g assemblage o f o b j e c t s . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n suggests t h a t the p l e a s u r e e x p e r i e n c e d by the i s connected
w i t h h i s awareness o f freedom.
Bodhisattva
I f m i s e r y r e s u l t s from a
t i o n o f o n e s e l f as d r i v e n w i t h i n a w o r l d o f o b j e c t s , then p l e a s u r e
percep-
results
from a p e r c e p t i o n o f o n e s e l f as b e i n g i n a c o n t r o l l i n g p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a o f experiences..
R e v e r s i n g M a t i l a l ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f duhkha g i v e s an e q u a l l y
good d e s c r i p t i o n o f p l e a s u r e : the j o y o f the human h e a r t caused by constant
field
awareness o f the presence
our
o f freedom.
P l e a s u r e and the Other The p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e r e i s s t i l l
something
about a p p l y i n g such an a p p a r e n t l y e g o c e n t r i c f e e l i n g as p l e a s u r e t o a e g o c e n t r i c phenomenon.
odd non-
T h i s o b j e c t i o n d i s a p p e a r s b e f o r e the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t
the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p l e a s u r e i i s not s e l f i s h but
i s the p l e a s u r e taken i n the
l i b e r a t i o n o f b o t h s e l f and others.. The key t o f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n i s the note
at P r a s t a v a n a :
3.10
s t a t e s t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n t e r s the B u d d h a f i e l d s g r e a t bhumi, the j o y f u l
(pramudita)
bhumi.
and
The V i j n a n a v a d i n d o c t r i n e
i n the Dasabhumikasutra.
t e x t , the Mahayanasutralamkara (XX-XXII, 32) and the Mahayanasamgraha a l l agree t h a t :
first
Therefore, a description of t h i s
bhumi w i l l a l s o d e s c r i b e the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p l e a s u r e . of t h e bhumis f i n d s i t s c l a s s i c a l statement
which
That (V:2)
178 V:2.1
[The pramud.itabhumi takes i t s name from the f a c t t h a t thereD to
. . . one
o b t a i n s , f o r the f i r s t
assure both h i s own
joy,
It
Sravaka,
working o n l y f o r h i s
j o y which w i l l c o n t i n u e u n t i l
i s tempting
t h i s assumption.
Note t h a t Asanga i s not s u g g e s t i n g t h a t the
Sravaka
p l e a s u r e and t h e B o d h i s a t t v a e g o c e n t r i c a l l y t o "evaluate h i s d i f f e r e n t l y from those o f o t h e r s .
to
feel
experiences
Both o f t h e s e i d e a s a r e r e j e c t e d i n t h e
The
B o d h i s a t t v a has vowed t o e s t a b l i s h a new
l i f e based upon an a l t r u i s t i c r e g a r d f o r o t h e r s .
and
pattern of
While t h i s i s d e s c r i b e d i n
chapter IV, i t I s e a s i l y o v e r l o o k e d i n the p r e s e n t c o n t e x t . Asvabhava
Sravaka
B o d h i s a t t v a f e e l s p l e a s u r e i n h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f both h i m s e l f
o t h e r s as l i b e r a t e d .
support
l i b e r a t i o n w h i l e the B o d h i s a t t v a takes p l e a s u r e i n
the l i b e r a t i o n o f o t h e r s , an i d e a which would r e q u i r e the
The
full
t o suppose t h a t the former i s t h e b a s i c n i r v i k a l p a j nana
takes p l e a s u r e i n h i s own
text.
feel
i s reached.
and the l a t t e r i s the subsequent n i r v i k a l p a j nana, but t h e r e i s no r e a l for
own
(abhisamaya) but does not and never w i l l
whereas the B o d h i s a t t v a e x p e r i e n c e s
enlightenment
ability
p e r s o n a l w e l f a r e and t h a t o f o t h e r s .
Asvabhava (ul+2^al8-23) adds t h a t the welfare, obtains a clear insight
t i m e , the
At X:30.8,
(uU"+6a23) says t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a " a s s i s t s " the T a t h a g a t a , and at
VII:5 t h i s assistance i s described: " . . .
CThe B o d h i s a t t v a , ! w h i l e
residing
i n m e d i t a t i v e b l i s s , t a k e s b i r t h where he w i s h e s . "
P l e a s u r e and the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s
Maturation
The B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p l e a s u r e has been p i c t u r e d as an epiphenomenon a r i s i n g from h i s engagement w i t h h i s world. commentators who,
T h i s i m p r e s s i o n i s c o n t r a d i c t e d by
the
i n s e v e r a l passages (e.g., P:3.10, Bh323a25-29; U38lcl7-20),
i n s i s t t h a t the p l e a s u r e i s i t s e l f i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s
maturation,
179 or i n the c o l l e c t i o n or p e r f e c t i o n o f h i s equipment At X: 30.10
(samhhara).
Asvabhava (Ul+U6a27) says t h a t i n the pure B u d d h a f i e l d the j o y
and p l e a s u r e i n the t a s t e o f the Mahayana dharma serves as f o o d , and at
X:8
(uU39b5) t h a t i n each u n i v e r s e the "enjoyment o f the t a s t e o f the dharma" i s special. 15)
The
same p o i n t i s made i n d i r e c t l y at X:6.3, where Asvabhava (uU38clU-
comments, " . . .
the B o d h i s a t t v a s who
have e n t e r e d the g r e a t bhumis do
not
need t o see the Buddha's Nirmanakaya i n o r d e r t o be matured,' because t h e y themselves p e n e t r a t e the profound
and
e x t e n s i v e dharma."
the " p e n e t r a t i n g ( i . e . , understanding) p l e a s a n t awareness has been The
concept
The
the dharma" and o f - t h e
equivalence
of
Bodhisattva's
noted.
o f p l e a s u r e cannot be f u l l y understood
u n t i l the mechanism
whereby i t a s s u r e s t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s m a t u r a t i o n has been accounted
for.
The
f a c t t h a t the Mahayanasamgraha does not e x p l a i n i t d i r e c t l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t Asanga had
some s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d concept
i n mind, p r o b a b l y t h a t the p l e a s u r e i s
simply the motive f o r the B o d h i s a t t v a p r a c t i c e s .
The Mahayanasamgraha maps
the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s p r o g r e s s w i t h i n the B u d d h a f i e l d i n t o t e n stages
(bhumis,
c h a p t e r V ) , which t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ascends as he develops t h e s i x f a c e t s o f a l t r u i s t i c p e r s o n a l i t y (paramitas, chapter IV).
I t mentions the vow
t h i s a l t r u i s t i c a c t i v i t y i s d i r e c t e d and c h a n n e l l e d .
by which
What i t does not mention
i s the m o t i v a t i o n r e q u i r e d by any model o f g o a l - o r i e n t e d a c t i v i t y . The
common man's m o t i v a t i o n i s the p l e a s u r e and
through h i s l i v e s . (sraddha)
In t h e
and a s p i r a t i o n
Nirmanakaya.
s u f f e r i n g t h a t d r i v e him
Sravaka, the motive f o r c e i s t h e c o n f i d e n c e
(adhimukti)
i n s p i r e d by h i s encounter
with
the
I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t h a t the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s motive f o r c o n t i n u a l
p r a c t i c e of the paramitas f i r s t bhumi onward.
i s t h e i n c r e a s i n g j o y which i s p r e s e n t
from the
180
e.
The
essence
The Three Kayas: I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
o f the t r i k a y a doctrine l i e s
i s r e l a t e d t o each o f t h e o t h e r s . directly.
P:3.10
i n t h e way i n which each member
Only a few passages address
this
question
They a r e :
The t h r e e types o f Buddhakaya: Svabhavikakaya, Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya, a r e t h e -awareness-result
of-these
[Bodhisattva p r a c t i c e s ] .
Both commentaries e x p l a i n t h i s by a s u c c i n c t preview o f t h e t r i k a y a doctrine.
Vasubandhu (,Bh 323a22-b4) s a y s ,
The t r i p l e Buddhakaya i s c a l l e d t h e 'aware r e s u l t ' ( p h a l a j n a n a ) — ' r e s u l t ' because i t i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y mentioned p r a c t i c e s , and 'aware r e s u l t ' because t h i s r e s u l t i s aware. [Thus,] i t s b a s i c nature (svabhava) i s t o be 'the aware r e s u l t o f t h e s e . ' Now i f t h e r e were no Svabhavikakaya [ T : " i f t h e r e were no svabhava ] , t h e r e would be no D h a r m a k a y a — t h i s i s s i m i l a r t o t h e c a k s u r i n d r i y a . I f t h e r e were no Dharmakaya, t h e r e would be no Sambhogakaya—this i s s i m i l a r t o t h e c a k s u r v i jnana. I n t h i s s i m i l e t h e support and t h e supported s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d as e q u a l s . I f t h e r e were no Sambhogakaya, t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s would not enjoy t h e p l e a s u r e o f t h e dharma a f t e r e n t e r i n g t h e g r e a t bhumis. Without t h i s p l e a s u r e t h e i r equipment f o r e n l i g h t e n ment would not be p e r f e c t e d — t h i s i s s i m i l a r t o t h e rupa [bh: " s i m i l a r t o not s e e i n g t h e r u p a " ] . I f t h e r e were no Nirmanakaya, t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s on t h e a d h l m u k t i - p r a c t i . c i n g bhumi, and t h e Sravakas, e t c . o f l e s s e r adhimukti, would f a i l ' from t h e v e r y f i r s t t o .'leave t h e stations of rebirth (gati).' Therefore, i t i s established t h a t t h e r e must be t h r e e kayas.
VIII:10
[ T h i s passage on t h e r e t r i b u t i o n o f t h e n i r v i k a l p a j nana has a l r e a d y been i n c l u d e d under b o t h Nirmanakaya and
181 Sambhogakaya.
Vasubandhu (Bh
kayas are t h e o u t f l o w s
365all+) adds t h a t b o t h
(nisyanda) o f t h e n i r v i k a l p a j nana.
I f the Dharmakaya (or Svabhavikakaya) i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a , we
now
between i t and the o t h e r two
VIII:13
have the r e l a t i o n o f kayas.
"outflow"
T h i s term i s not imply
as
simple as i t appears,
s i n c e i t cannot
temporal
p r i o r i t y and
s t i l l be
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h V I I I : 1 3 , below. 1
The terminus
o f the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s n i r v i k a l p a j nana i s the
acquisition
o f the t h r e e pure Buddhakayas and h i g h e s t
sovereignty
(vasita)»
Vasubandhu (Bh
365b7-9) and Asvabhava ( U ^ 3 1 a l 0 - l l ) agree t h a t the t h r e e
are o b t a i n e d on the f i r s t bhumi, but t h a t t h e y become "pure" o n l y on the t e n t h . T h i s s u r e l y e l i m i n a t e s any p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t one might be
acquired p r i o r to
the o t h e r s . The
commentators a l s o i d e n t i f y the s o v e r e i g n t y w i t h those s o v e r e i g n t i e s
whose s v a l a k s a n a i s d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , presumably at X:3.2.
X:1.2
The
Sambhogakaya depends upon ( b r t e n - p a ;
) the
Dharmakaya . . . because i t e x p e r i e n c e s the v e r y pure B u d d h a f i e l d s and the enjoyment o f the Mahayana dharma.
Asvabhava (U^36a6) e x p l a i n s t h a t "depends upon" means t h a t "because o f the e x i s t e n c e o f a, Dharmakaya, a Sambhogakaya i s 'obtained."
X:1.3
The
Nirmanakaya depends upon the Dharmakaya because i t
manifests
Cthe v a r i o u s Buddha a c t i v i t i e s 3 .
182 X:5
[ T h i s passage was
quoted e a r l i e r .
Each o f the
skandhas,
when r e o r i e n t e d , becomes an aspect o f the Dharmakaya. Two
X:5.1
o f them are r e l e v a n t t o the t r i k a y a q u e s t i o n : :
By a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the rupaskandha, i t Cthe Dharmakaya1 o b t a i n s s o v e r e i g n t y over the B u d d h a f i e l d , t h e body, the l a k s a n a s , the minor m a r k ( s ) ,
the i n f i n i t y o f phonemes
and the i n v i s i b l e c r a n i a l marks,
From t h i s we might conclude the Sambhogakaya and (Bh
t h a t a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the rupaskandha y i e l d s
associated Buddhafields, etc.
However, both Vasubandhu
371c24-29) and Asvabhava (U^37c22-29) say t h a t the "body" i s m a n i f e s t e d i n
v a r i o u s g r e a t assemblies
a c c o r d i n g t o the p a r t i c u l a r c a p a c i t i e s o f the s e n t i e n t
beings t o be t a u g h t .
I f the Sambhogakaya i s - v i s i b l e o n l y t o the
then t h i s passage may
a l s o r e f e r t o the Nirmanakaya.
X:5 -^
Bodhisattva,
[ R e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the samskaraskandha r e s u l t s i n s o v e r eignty over:
...
great assemblies,
nirmana, t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , convening and c o l l e c t i n g white dharmas.
T h i s would appear t o i n d i c a t e the Nirmanakaya, but do not support
such a view.
the
a g a i n the
commentators
They e x p l a i n t h e s e as the Buddha's a b i l i t i e s
c r e a t e , t r a n s f o r m , e t c . , as d e s i r e d , but do not l i n k t h e s e a b i l i t i e s more d i r e c t l y t o the
X:6
How
Nk.
many t h i n g s does the Dharmakaya
(1) I t i s the support (2) I t [the Dk:
support?
f o r the v a r i o u s Buddha r e s i d e n c e s . . .
i s the support
f o r the v a r i o u s Sambhogakayas
because i t a s s u r e s the m a t u r a t i o n
o f the
Bodhisattvas.
to
183
The
Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n
(U*+38clO-ll) o f the key p o r t i o n o f the Asvabhava
commentary d i f f e r s from the T i b e t a n
(u337b2).
The
Chinese says t h a t the
Dharmakaya i s the a d h i p a t i p r a t y a y a f o r the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a Sambhogakaya, but not i n the same way "The
t h a t the sun supports
Dharmakaya i s the support
e x i s t s , then i t m a n i f e s t s rays."
i t s rays.
f o r the Sambhogakaya.
Cthe Sambhogakaya!.
I t i s p r o b a b l y unwise t o conclude
the Sbk i B p r i m a r i l y dependent upon the
(3) I t i s the support
...
Tibetan
says:
I f i t Cthe Dharmakaya!
T h i s i s l i k e the sun and i t s
a n y t h i n g beyond the simple
fact that
Dk.
f o r the v a r i o u s Nirmanakayas because
i t p r i n c i p a l l y assures the m a t u r a t i o n
X:37
The
o f the Sravakas.
both the nisyandakaya C i . e . , the Sambhogakaya! and
the Nirmanakaya depend upon the e t e r n a l Dharmakaya . . . Calthough i n d i f f e r e n t ways!.
In these passages, the key term i s o b v i o u s l y "dependence." Nk
each "depend upon" or "are supported
by" the Dk,
The
Sbk
and
but do not depend upon
each o t h e r . We Dk
s h o u l d note i n p a s s i n g t h a t t h i s e l i m i n a t e s any p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t the
(or Svk)
i s the .real^transcendent Euddha^wha^msnif est.s a- Sbk which i n t u r n
m a n i f e s t s a w o r l d l y Nk_. the
The
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f b o t h Nk
and Sbk
i s d i r e c t l y to
Dk. The most important
c l u e t o a proper u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f the dependence
r e l a t i o n s h i p i s Asvabhava's commentary t o P:3.10 i n which he compares the kayas t o the p e r c e p t u a l t r i a d : r u p a - c a k s u r i n d r i y a - c a k s u r v i j n a n a .
Unfortunately, i t
i s not c l e a r which f a c t o r i s b e i n g l i k e n e d t o which kaya, and the d e t a i l s v e r y ambiguous.
However, I f t h i s s i m i l e simply means t h a t the
are
relationship
181*
between the kayas should be understood i n the same way perceptual
elements,':the d e t a i l s are s u p e r f l u o u s .
as t h a t between the
I t i s based upon t h e
Abhidharmic a n a l y s i s o f a moment o f r e l a t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e i n t o : an object
( i n t h e case o f v i s i o n , the r u p a ) , an e p i s t e m i c
subject
epistemic
(the
faculty
o f v i s i o n or c a k s u r i n d r i y a ) , and the awareness a r i s i n g from t h e i r
conjunction
(the c a k s u r v i j n a n a ) .
object
Most t h e o r e t i c i a n s a c c e p t e d
the s u b j e c t and
dharmas ( i . e . , components found at a f i n a l l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s ) and
d i d not
attempt t o go f u r t h e r t h a n s a y i n g t h a t t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f s u b j e c t and gave r i s e t o awareness.
The
j u x t a p o s i t i o n was
as
object
e x p l a i n e d by o t h e r f a c t o r s i n
the t o t a l s i t u a t i o n , such as h a b i t s and memories. The kayas.
s i m i l e must mean t h a t we
s h o u l d adopt a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e t o the
I n s t e a d o f s e a r c h i n g f o r the mechanism by which t h r e e
e n t i t i e s are r e l a t e d , we
three
different
should r e g a r d them as a b s t r a c t i o n s from a s i n g l e
g i v e n s i t u a t i o n c a l l e d Buddhahood or Dk.
The
reasons f o r p o s i t i n g the
and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between them, become e q u i v a l e n t q u e s t i o n s
t o be
three,
answered
by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r power o f e x p l a i n i n g s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f t h e t o t a l group o f phenomena termed "Dk."
Thus, the statement t h a t the Nk
and
Sbk
"depend
upon" the Dk p o i n t s t o the l a r g e r s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n which each o f them makes sense. This l i n e of reasoning it
experiences
i s e x a c t l y the one
the v e r y pure B u d d h a f i e l d s
because i t p r i n c i p a l l y assures i t p r i n c i p a l l y assures commentary t o X:6.2
may
support
i t suspect.
o f the B o d h i s a t t v a s
o f the Sravakas.
. . .."
The
. . .
. . . because Asvabhava
t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n even more e x p l i c i t l y ,
t e x t u a l problems, i n c l u d i n g wide divergences v e r s i o n s , render
. . because
. . . because i t m a n i f e s t s
the maturation
the m a t u r a t i o n
f o l l o w e d at X : l : ".
between the Chinese and
but
Tibetan
185 i.
The
question
about the Nk
and
Nirmanakaya and
o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be Sbk
are
summarized and
t h a t b o t h are ways i n which the
as do the Dk can be
compared.
or the Svk,
i . e . , each i s the
as an awareness, and
That i s , the
Sbk
The
o f the Buddha.
f a c t t h a t b o t h e x h i b i t the
described
first
This
observers,
interpretation is
same t h r e e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e s u l t o f c e r t a i n p r a c t i c e s , each
each e x h i b i t s
than a c o n c r e t e o b j e c t .
This
F i n a l l y , l i k e the
L i k e the
Svk,
is'implicit Svk,
ideas
similarity is
sovereignty.
r e s u l t s from the p r a c t i c e s by which the a s p i r a n t
h i s non-conceptual awareness.
X:35»6(u).
seen more c l e a r l y i f Asanga's
Buddha appears t o a c e r t a i n c l a s s o f
r a t h e r than b e i n g a s p e c t s or p a r t s v a l i d a t e d by the
Sambhogakaya Compared
the
Sbk
i s an
"awareness" r a t h e r
i n the p r e v i o u s p o i n t
the Sbk
exercises
perfects
and
sovereignty,
explicit
at
which
i n v o l v e s the j o y or p l e a s u r e aroused i n the B o d h i s a t t v a (P:3.10; X:1.2; X:30.10; X : 3 l ) , and which ensures h i s m a t u r a t i o n (P:3.10; X:6.2). i s e t e r n a l because t h i s maturing a c t i v i t y does not The one
s i x d i f f e r e n c e s between the
point—the
Sbk,
u n l i k e the
forms depending upon s p e c i f i c The
Svk,
and
o f the
r e a l l y Bodhisattva
Sravakas
l i s t e d at X:35
are v e r y s i m i l a r i n form and may
types o f p r a c t i c e s : t h o s e by the Buddha and
p l i s h e d by
(X:3l).
appears i n a s e r i e s o f s p e c i f i c
same t h r e e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
the l a t t e r are not
the Sbk
amount t o determinate
be
grouped
L i k e the Sbk,. i t r e s u l t s from those by the a s p i r a n t .
p r a c t i c e s i n s o f a r as they are
or l o w - l e v e l B o d h i s a t t v a s .
The
two
However, accom-
a c t i o n o f the Buddha, not
a s p i r a n t , i s emphasized.
The
Nk_ and
Sbk
Sbk
circumstances.
passages d e s c r i b i n g the Nk
under the
Svk
cease
L i k e the Svk, the
b o t h appear i n s i t u a t i o n s where b o t h the Buddha, who
vowed t o a i d a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s , and
a s e n t i e n t b e i n g who
i s prepared to
has
186
accept such a s s i s t a n c e , are p r e s e n t .
The Buddha's vow
remains the same i n each
c a s e , but the stage o f the i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r o g r e s s e l i c i t s
e i t h e r a Nk o r a
The v a r i o u s passages examined g e n e r a l l y agree t h a t t h e Nk appears t h e Sravakas
and t o the adhimukticaryabhumi
Bodhisattvas
on the f i r s t and lowest B o d h i s a t t v a l e v e l ) .
X:l6,
be r e a d as s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o r d i n a r y b e i n g s who the Nk, will
(presumably
as
only to
(novice Bodhisattvas
the o n l y passage which might
are not B o d h i s a t t v a s may
i s g l o s s e d by Asvabhava as a r e f e r e n c e t o t h o s e who,
see the Nk
Sbk.
sooner
or
see later,
Sravakas).
A major problem a r i s e s from the d i f f e r e n c e s between the i n f o r m a t i o n i n In V I I I : 1 0 - l U t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s who
chapter V I I I and chapter X. their nirvikalpajnana—who
l i s t e n t o o t h e r s e x p l a i n t h e non-conceptual
k a l p a ) c h a r a c t e r o f t h i n g s but cannot be r e b o r n i n the Nk
are " p r e p a r i n g "
assembly.
see i t d i r e c t l y t h e m s e l v e s — a r e
The B o d h i s a t t v a s who
(nirvisaid to
have p e r f e c t e d t h e i r
n i r v i k a l p a j nana—who have p e r s o n a l l y grasped the t r u t h o f t h i s d o c t r i n e — a r e r e b o r n i n the Sbk says t h a t the Dk
assembly.
On the o t h e r hand, at X:2T
is:" i n v i s i b l e t o gods and men,
the Nk ) the
These two
v e r s i o n s must be based
d i f f e r e n t viewpoints.
Asvabhava
i s manifested i n ( assembly.
e i t h e r upon d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s o r upon
S i n c e the Mahayanasamgraha
i s reasonably free of
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , I b e l i e v e t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e i s one o f v i e w p o i n t . a m y t h i c a l statement cosmic
VIII:10 i s
o f an o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r r e c o u n t i n g , from some
s t a n d p o i n t , the p l a c e o f each i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e b i r t h .
chapter I , on t h e c o n t r a r y , i s t h a t o f an o r d i n a r y man to
(U^ll3a23-26)
The v i e w p o i n t
f o r whom t h e Nk
" e n t e r " the w o r l d as a p r o j e c t i o n from somewhere o u t s i d e .
detached
The Sbk
of
appears assembly,
on t h e o t h e r hand, i s i t s e l f o u t s i d e t h i s commonplace w o r l d and i t s a s p i r a n t is
seen t o move toward i t .
187
Sbk,
The
Sbk
a f f o r d s a more complex s i t u a t i o n .
but
an e n t i r e t r a n s f o r m e d environment i n which he
r e c e i v e the Buddha-word from which he pleasure. and
This pleasure
i n t h i s way
The
aspirant
sees not
t o c o n t i n u e p r a c t i c i n g the
helps perfect a l i f e dedicated
the
i s a b l e t o hear or
a t t a i n s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g which
encourages him
only
t o the w e l f a r e
of
involves
paramitas
others.
E x a c t l y what the a s p i r a n t must do t o enter the Buddhaland i s u n c l e a r . chapter V I I I Asanga suggests t h a t he
i s reborn there.
l a t e r p r a c t i c e , t h a t the Buddhaland i s e n t e r e d
The
In
i d e a , known i n
during meditation
i s not
85 c o n t r a d i c t e d i n the Mahayanasamgraha.
F i n a l l y , the t r a d i t i o n
many y e a r s o f r i t u a l p r a c t i c e Asanga was by M a i t r e y a
may
a l s o be ii.
that a f t e r
taken t o the T u s i t a heaven and
taught
relevant.
The
T r i k a y a and the C l a s s i c a l Problems
Many developments i n Buddhology appear t o have been f o r c e d by the need t o r e s o l v e c e r t a i n b a s i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n the ubiquitous
o f t h e s e can be
considered
concept o f the Buddha.
t o be the
The
" c l a s s i c a l " problems.
most They
are:
—
One
Buddha, or many Buddhas?
—
Is the Buddha m o r t a l ,
—
Does the Buddha remain i n n i r v a n a , o r not?
As the the
or- immortal?
i n t e l l e c t u a l horizons
o f the
e a r l y Buddhist t h i n k e r s expanded
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i r b a s i c dogmas became b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d ,
attempts t o set a s i d e such q u e s t i o n s inadequate.
or t o p r o v i d e
I t became c l e a r t h a t t h e s e q u e s t i o n s
a t r a n s c e n d e n t Buddha i n w o r l d l y terms.
and
earlier
simple answers were seen as c a l l e d f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of
A s a t i s f a c t o r y answer must be
mediated
188 by
a frame o f r e f e r e n c e which w i l l a l l o w the
As
the
trikaya
expect t h a t tions. its
i s the
have encouraged the
One
h i s commentators would have a p p l i e d
following
effectiveness,
section,
development o f t h i s
r a i s e s the
has
and,
from
degree t o which such q u e s t i o n s might concept.
Buddha, or Many Buddhas?
t r a i n i n g a d i s c i p l e who,
to
i t t o t h e s e ques-
I s h a l l examine t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n
attempt t o judge the
A l l Buddhist t r a d i t i o n s
one
concept.
fundamental Buddhology o f the Mahayanasamgrahawe should
Asanga and
In the
ambiguity i n h e r e n t i n t h i s
share a common myth o f s u c c e s s i v e Buddhas, each
upon r e a c h i n g Buddhahood, t r a i n s another.
u n i t y / p l u r a l i t y problems t h a t
hand, "Buddha" i s a c e r t a i n speak o f more than one.
a r i s e from one
cluster of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
It i s a single
become coterminous w i t h t h i s i d e a l .
concept a p p l i e d
On
the
can
individuals
and who
does speak o f the
personalities
have reached Buddhahood.
sense o f p l u r a l i t y t o the
dilemma.
and
On
I t makes no when an
of
Note t h a t
this is a
Buddha-
various
I t seems unreasonable t o deny
r e s u l t i n g Buddha(s).
sense
the
i n a s t a t e known as practices
the
individual
o t h e r hand, a l t h o u g h
Buddhist cannot speak o f a p l u r a l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s hood, he
basic
T h i s myth
any
peculiarly
Buddhist problem.
In almost a l l o t h e r systems o f thought a d i s t i n c t i o n between
the
h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must be
i n d i v i d u a l and
of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s be the
s o l v e d simply by set
the
maintained.
i n d i v i d u a l a c q u i r e d , the
c o u n t i n g the
of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
individuals
In the
i n the
matter what
an
c l a s s of those possessing
aspirant
who
has
no
successfully
"Buddha"—totally.
Most Buddhist t h i n k e r s have s o l v e d the
set
or many".problem c o u l d
Buddhist system, which r e c o g n i z e s
i n d i v i d u a l a p a r t from h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , taken on those o f Buddha i s
"one,
No
problem by
r e c o g n i z i n g a Buddha
189
p o s s e s s i n g two a s p e c t s .
F o r example, i n Abhidharmakosa, v i i : 3 U t h e q u e s t i o n ,
"Are t h e Buddhas s i m i l a r t o each o t h e r ? " r e c e i v e s t h e r e p l y , "The Buddhas are s i m i l a r w i t h r e g a r d t o equipment f o r enlightenment, service of sentient beings.
Dharmakaya, and t h e
They are d i s s i m i l a r w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e l e n g t h o f
l i f e , c a s t e , h e i g h t , and so on."
The subsequent
commentary i m p l i e s a t h r e e - f o l d
Buddha: a Dharmakaya and i t s v i s i b l e aspect c a l l e d the rupakaya
(which a r e
i d e n t i c a l f o r a l l Buddhas), and t h e appearance o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l who e v e n t u a l l y reaches Buddhahood (which d i f f e r s from one Buddha t o a n o t h e r ) . i s adopted
X:8
T h i s argument
and expanded i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha:
I s i t n e c e s s a r y t o say t h a t t h e Dharmakayas o f Buddhas are d i f f e r e n t o r not d i f f e r e n t ? As t h e i r s u p p o r t , i n t e n t i o n , and a c t i o n s do not d i f f e r , we must say t h a t t h e y a r e n o t d i f f e r e n t . as innumerable
But, i n s o f a r
persons r e a c h enlightenment, we must say
t h a t t h e y do d i f f e r . What has been s a i d about t h e Dharmakaya may a l s o be a p p l i e d t o the Sambhogakayas.
As t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s and
a c t i v i t i e s a r e not d i f f e r e n t , then we must say t h a t are not d i f f e r e n t .
they
But as t h e i r supports a r e d i f f e r e n t ,
t h e y a r e not n o n - d i f f e r e n t because innumerable
supports
appear. 'The p r e c e d i n g remarks on t h e Sambhogakaya a l s o a p p l y t o the Nirmanakaya.
Asvabhava (Ul*39a25-b6)
e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e " s u p p o r t " ( f o r t h e Dk) i s
t a t h a t a ; i t s " i n t e n t i o n " i s t h e i n t e n t i o n t o work f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a l l
190
sentient beings;
and i t s " a c t i o n s " a r e t h e v a r i o u s B u d d h a - a c t i v i t i e s .
The supports
t h a t d i f f e r f o r t h e Nk and Sbk a r e t h e B u d d h a f i e l d s , t h e
assemblies,
t h e s i z e o f b o d i e s , and so on.
X:3i3
[The Dharmakaya i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n o n - d u a l i t y ] o f p l u r a l i t y and u n i t y because, Eon the'one hand,! t h e support of
a l l t h e Buddhas i s not d i f f e r e n t i a b l e , ' [ w h i l e , on t h e
o t h e r , ! innumerable streams o f e x i s t e n c e a r e e n l i g h t e n e d .
Two stanzas
develop
this point.
These a r e bext
expressed
by a paraphrase
based upon Asvabhava's commentary:
In t h e case o f a Dharmakaya, no element i n t h e c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i s i d e n t i f i e d as more fundamental than t h e o t h e r s , i . e . , as an " I " o r a " s e l f . " T h e r e f o r e , no d i v i s i o n i n t o " i " and " o t h e r , " o r i n t e r i o r and e x t e r i o r o c c u r s . S i n c e no s e l f and no d i v i s i o n i s r e c o g n i z e d , and t h e Dharmakaya c e r t a i n l y i s hot seen; as a s e l f , then t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o speak o f s e v e r a l Dharmakayas. However, from a w o r l d l y v i e w p o i n t , m a n y . i n d i v i d u a l s appear t o have reached Buddhahood. Therefore., we must a l s o say t h a t t h e r e a r e m u l t i p l e Dharmakayas.
The second s t a n z a
(drawn from Mahayanasutralamkara IX:77) o f f e r s a s e r i e s
86 of
reasons
t o r e j e c t t h e "one, o r many" c h o i c e .
on t h e concept I will
of gotra o r . s p i r i t u a l lineage.
The f i r s t
reason
i s based
As t h i s i s a complex passage,
paraphrase: There a r e two types o f l i n e a g e s — i n n a t e and a c q u i r e d . When we r e g a r d o n l y t h e f i r s t , we can say t h a t because t h e same i n b o r n t e n d e n c i e s l e a d t o enlightenment, t h e r e s u l t i s the same. However, t h e a c q u i r e d l i n e a g e which depends on t h e . s p i r i t u a l guide, e t c . , i s o f d i f f e r e n t types and l o g i c a l l y s h o u l d g i v e r i s e t o d i f f e r e n t Buddhas. I t i s i n a d m i s s i b l e to m a i n t a i n o n l y t h a t t h e r e i s one Buddha, because: —
i f o n l y one Buddha a r r i v e d a t enlightenment,
the p r a c t i c e s
191
— —
o f h i s f e l l o w B o d h i s a t t v a s would he i n v a i n , an i n a d m i s s i b l e conclusion. t h e r e must be more than one Buddha i n o r d e r t o l e a d various types o f beings t o enlightenment. i t i s always n e c e s s a r y f o r a B o d h i s a t t v a t o p r a c t i c e under a Buddha, who must h i m s e l f have p r e v i o u s l y p r a c t i c e d under a Buddha. Thus, t h e r e must be a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f Buddhas.
On.the o t h e r hand, we cannot simply say t h a t t h e r e i s a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f Buddhas because t h e "immaculate" ( i n t h e sense t h a t i t d e s t r o y s a d v e n t i t i o u s s t a i n s ) support or dharmadhatu cannot c o n t a i n d i f f e r e n t Buddhas.
X:33
I f t h e Dharmakayas o f a l l Buddhas a r e t h e same, why we
speak o f many Buddhas?
do
T h i s q u e s t i o n i s answered i n
a stanza: CWe
say t h e r e i s one BuddhaD because t h e r e are not two
Buddhas i n t h e same w o r l d .
CHowever,_i because
innumer-
a b l e [ B o d h i s a t t v a s I f i n i s h c o l l e c t i n g t h e i r equipment a t the same t i m e , because Cthe i d e a ofl an o r d e r l y p r o g r e s s i o n Cof Buddhas! a r r i v i n g at enlightenment i s i n a d m i s s i b l e , we a f f i r m t h e p l u r a l i t y o f Buddhas.
The p r e c e d i n g passages a l l o f f e r s i m i l a r arguments which do not depend upon, or even harmonize w i t h , t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e .
They group t h e Nk and Sbk
t o g e t h e r as the p l u r a l , and r e g a r d t h e Dk as t h e s i n g u l a r , aspect o f t h e Buddha.
To t h e o b j e c t i o n t h a t a p l u r a l i t y o f Nks c o n t r a d i c t s t h e maxim t h a t
o n l y one Buddha may
X:36.8
appear at one t i m e , Asanga
replies:
Even:".if many nirmanas appear, because "the w o r l d " i s a f o u r - c o n t i n e n t w o r l d system, t h e b i r t h o f two Tathagatas i n t h e w o r l d does not c o n t r a d i c t t h e s u t r a which CassertsD t h a t two Tathagatas do not a r i s e i n the w o r l d , j u s t
as
192
two C a k r a v a r t i n s cannot a r i s e i n the same w o r l d .
That is-, t h e a f f i r m a t i o n o f the::existence o f s e v e r a l Nks i s orthodox i f t h e y inhabit different
world-systems.
From t h i s i t appears not o n l y t h a t Asanga d i d not need the t r i k a y a i n o r d e r t o s o l v e t h e one-or-many problem, b u t t h a t he was a two-kaya system t o d e a l w i t h t h i s
Is the Buddha M o r t a l , or
f o r c e d t o reduce i t t o
problem.
Immortal?
The most obvious approach t o t h i s problem, v i a the Buddhist concept o f
87 t i m e , i s i m p r a c t i c a l because no s u i t a b l e study o f t h a t t o p i c i s a v a i l a b l e . T h e r e f o r e , I w i l l merely p o i n t out a few c o n c l u s i o n s a r i s i n g d i r e c t l y from our text. The Majjhima Nikaya: 63 l i s t s
f o u r q u e s t i o n s which t h e Buddha d e c l i n e d t o
answer on t h e grounds t h a t t h e answer would not be conducive t o s a l v a t i o n : the u n i v e r s e e t e r n a l ? identical?
Is the u n i v e r s e i n f i n i t e ?
Does the T a t h a g a t a s u r v i v e death?
Is
Are the j i v a and t h e body
I suggest t h a t l a t e r
thinkers
devoted a g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f i n a l q u e s t i o n because i t proved t o be f a r from p e r i p h e r a l f o r s o t e r i o l o g i c a l purposes.
The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e
Mahayanasamgraha i n v o l v e s two t y p e s o f answers: an a b s t r a c t , p h i l o s o p h i c a l answer which shows t h a t t h e m o r t a l / i m m o r t a l dilemma cannot undermine l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a system; and a s p e c i f i c
answer which shows
t h a t orthodox statements q u e s t i o n i n g t h e Buddha's:'immortality cannot his soteriological
the
undermine
dependability.
The most fundamental d i s c u s s i o n i s found at 11:30 where any dharma ( i n c l u d i n g the Buddha) i s s a i d t o be e t e r n a l , t r a n s i t o r y , o r n e i t h e r , depending on whether
one i s speaking o f p a r i n i s p a n n a , p a r i k a l p i t a , o r p a r a t a n t r a .
In
193
the
case o f the Buddha, t h i s means t h a t the experience
w i l l e i t h e r be r e i f i e d as an i n d i v i d u a l who
"Buddha"
w i l l inevitably perish
p i t a ) ; or i t w i l l be understood as pure e x p e r i e n c e
and
p r a c t i c e s o f the
depends upon the past
(parikal-
so become one
a l i b e r a t i n g encounter, i n which case i t need never end o f t h e s e views;'.is f o l l o w e d
(paratantra)
pole
(parinispanna).
experience
and
religious
(the
soteriological
sense o f n i t y a ) o f the Buddha, r a t h e r than w i t h the s t r i c t l y l o g i c a l T h i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l sense i s best
Abhidharma from which i t developed. experience
The
i n t o a number o f c o n s t i t u e n t s
groups: samskrta or asamskrta.
The
(dharmas), which f e l l
worldly
samskrta dharmas were d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g
tics, typically:
jati
f o r some t i m e ) , j a r a
i n t o one
of existence). o f one
two
t h o s e which asamskrta.
t h r e e or f o u r b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s (remaining
o f t h e i r t e r m ) , and
in
existence
a n i t y a t a (going
out
While t h e s e were understood i n v a r i o u s ways, t h e y are a l l forms
i d e a which i n the Abhidharmasamuccaya i s c a l l e d a n i t y a t a , "impermanence."
Therefore,
as the major c r i t e r i o n o f asamskrta. dharmas was
t h a t term came t o d e s i g n a t e n i t y a i f i t provides
ultimate r e l i a b i l i t y .
a firm basis for personal
n i t y a t a , "permanence,"
T h i s i d e a t h a t something i s
s a l v a t i o n u n d e r l i e s the Mahaya-
nasamgraha. In passages which equate the Buddha w i t h a u n i t a r y Dk t h e
following
statements appear:
X:3.1+
of
event i n samsara
s i t u a t i o n s were c a l l e d
(coming i n t o e x i s t e n c e ) , s t h i t i ( r e a c h i n g the end
the
Abhidharma masters a n a l y z e d a l l
dharmas composing any
c o u l d be r e l i e d upon not t o c r e a t e new
question
expressed i n terms o f
were termed s a m s k r t a — " p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the c a u s a l p r o c e s s " — w h i l e
The
Which
aspirant.
Asanga i s p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h the d e p e n d a b i l i t y
of immortality.
of
CA l a k s a n a o f the Buddha's Dharmakaya isH n i t y a because
±9h
it
i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d hy the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
nature;
i t i s the outcome o f a former vow;
true
and i t s
a c t i v i t y i s never completed.
In t h e f i r s t
statement n i t y a t a r e f e r s t o the t r u e pure' nature
which Asvabhava i d e n t i f i e s w i t h t h e Dk.
(tathatavisuddhi)
T h i s i s equivalent t o the
trisvabhava
e x p l a n a t i o n at 11:30, s i n c e the t a t h a t a v i s u d d h i c h a r a c t e r i z e s the
parinispanna.
The
adds t h a t
same p o i n t i s r e p e a t e d
at X:29-2 where Asvabhava (lAU5bl5-l6)
" e t e r n a l " r e f e r s t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Dk's u n a l t e r a b l e and
immutably pure.
Buddha's a c t i v i t y .
pure t a t h a t a , i t s r e a l n a t u r e , i s
The.other two
explanations
As t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between nature
t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between Svk
and
refer to
the
activity i s just
and Nk-Sbk, t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f n i t y a can
be
brought i n t o harmony w i t h t h e t r i k a y a . The
argument i s f u r t h e r developed at X:37,
which begins
from t h e
contra-
d i c t i o n g e n e r a t e d by a n a i v e view o f t h e term n i t y a :
X:3T
As t h e Sambhogakaya and Mrmanakaya a r e not
eternal,
how
can the s u t r a say t h a t t h e Tathagata's body Is e t e r n a l ? Because both the Nisyandakaya and the Nirmanakaya depend upon t h e e t e r n a l Dharmakaya. As the enjoyment i s never i n t e r r u p t e d and the are r e p e a t e d l y m a n i f e s t ,
i t i s proper
T a t h a g a t a ' s body as e t e r n a l . t h a t , "CHe~] always
nitya.
How
to regard
This i s s i m i l a r to
the saying
nourishes."
That i s , w h i l e the author must accept i s n i t y a , t h e Sk and Nk,
nirmanas
the t r a d i t i o n t h a t the Tathagata's body
which are c e r t a i n l y b o d i e s
i s t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o be
explained?
of the Tathagata,
are
not
195
Asvabhava ( l A l + 8 c l 8 ) advances two if
i t s substance ( f £
) is n l t ^ ,
support i s n i t y a , as i n the o t h e r two two
depend upon the Dk
explanation
By divorces
l n
t h e
kayas.
c
a
s
e
o
f
be
t h e
m
Hence, the
c o n t a i n s a t a c i t d i s t i n c t i o n between the
s a l v i e r e l i a b i l i t y ) , and
are not
a s
i s s u f f i c i e n t to characterize
n i t y a ( i n which a l l t h r e e may i n the
c r i t e r i a " f o r c a l l i n g something n i t y a ; a
n
„
d
l t
.
f a c t t h a t the
other
a l l t h r e e as n i t y a .
This
s o t e r i o l o g i c a l sense o f
c a l l e d n i t y a as t h e y possess or p a r t i c i p a t e the p h i l o s o p h i c a l sense: i n which the Nk
and
Sk
nitya. f u r t h e r e x p l a i n i n g the i t from any
(lM8c27-28)
s o t e r i o l o g i c a l sense as constant r e p e t i t i o n , he
f l a v o r o f an e t e r n a l l y s u b s i s t i n g t h i n g .
As
Asvabhava
says,
The Buddha's Nirmanakaya i s t o be understood i n t h i s way: i t i s not freedom from b i r t h and death which earns i t the e p i t h e t n i t y a , but the f a c t t h a t i t i n c e s s a n t l y appears a g a i n and a g a i n a c c o r d i n g t o the needs o f beings to- be converted.- T h i s is>the i n t e n t i o n o f the term n i t y a .
T h i s i s supported at
X:29.h
... actions
The
f i n a l two
X:29.^:
The
Tathagatas are spontaneous because t h e i r
flow i n an u n i n t e r r u p t e d ,
passages ( X : 3 8 ,
39)
e f f o r t l e s s stream.
o f our t e x t e x p l a i n the n e c e s s i t y
m a i n t a i n i n g a c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e between a Dk which i s n i t y a , and not.
At X : 3 9
the n o t i o n t h a t an e t e r n a l Dk
religions!
cause ( i . e . ,
a v a i l a b l e t o the t h e o l o g i a n s o f
T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e must be two
Nk which i s v i s i b l e t o the a s p i r a n t .
a Nk which i s
necessarily leads to quietism
r e f u t e d on the grounds t h a t i t would then undercut i t s own t u a l e f f o r t ) , a unique argument not
for
a s p e c t s : the
Asahga has
e t e r n a l Dk,
already
is spiri-
theistic
and
a mortal
( X : 3 8 ) shown t h a t
the
196 second i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e Ek which does not "remain" ( t i s t h a t e ; gtan-du bzhugs;
^*^>
) -*- ^ n
In c o n c l u s i o n ,
e
"world.
an answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e Buddha's
immortality,
l i k e t h a t o f h i s p l u r a l i t y , r e q u i r e s a two-term r a t h e r than a t h r e e - t e r m The
model.
t r i k a y a i s unnecessary and must "be reduced t o a two-kaya by grouping t h e
Nk and Sbk as one term.
Does t h e Buddha Remain i n N i r v a n a ,
o r Not?
T h i s p e r e n n i a l q u e s t i o n , l i k e t h e l a s t one, a l s o concerns t h e Buddha's soteriological
VIII:22
efficacy.
CThe awareness (jnana)] o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a
i s distinguished
from t h a t o f t h e Sravaka by i t s " n o n - s t a y i n g " s t h i t a ) , because i t s t a y s i n n o n - s t a y i n g
(aprati-
nirvana."
[This
awareness i s f u r t h e r e x p l a i n e d a t X:13.1
Asvabhava (U"+3^all-12) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e nirvana while the B o d h i s a t t v a s b e c a u s e
Sravakas,
e t c . , stay only i n
o f t h e i r karuna and prajna-, s t a y i n
non-staying
nirvana.
X:36.8
CThe BuddhaH made h i s vow and p r a c t i c e d t h e r e l i g i o u s life
i n order t o achieve
welfare
g r e a t enlightenment f o r t h e
and happiness o f a l l s e n t i e n t b e i n g s .
i l l o g i c a l t o h o l d t h a t he has completely because t h a t would render and
The
It i s
gone t o n i r v a n a ,
h i s vow and p r a c t i c e s t e r i l e
useless.
a p f a t i s t h i t a - n i f v a n a i s o n l y h a l f o f Asanga's v i s i o n .
The complete
197
statement
X:3k
at X:3h
reads:
How do we know t h a t t h e Buddha's Dharmakaya i s n e i t h e r w h o l l y i n n i r v a n a nor not w h o l l y i n nirvana?.
The
q u e s t i o n i s answered by t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a n z a :
Because Che Isl f r e e from a l l o b s t a c l e s , and Because C h i s I a c t i v i t y i s not completed. The Buddha i s Cat t h e same timeD w h o l l y i n n i r v a n a Cbutn w h o l l y not i n n i r v a n a .
T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e Buddha's a c t i o n s as t h e c o n t i n u i n g w o r l d l y aspect i s t h e key t o t h e Mahayanasamgraha?s answer. (Ukh6cl8)
At X:31.1, Asvabhava
says t h a t t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s proceed v i a t h e Nk.
i m m o r t a l i t y f o r t h e Nk.
T h i s does not imply
As we have seen, each Nk has a normal human l i f e s p a n ,
although a r e p e a t e d s e r i e s o f them i s . p o s s i b l e .
Even s o , t h e s e r i e s w i l l end
when a l l beings a r e saved. The o n l y . d i r e c t mention o f t h e f u l l t r i k a y a - i n - connection, with.-, t h i s • problem
i s X:28.2:
X:28.2
. . .
The Buddha's a c t i v i t y i s s t a b l e (dhruva; b r t a n - p a ;
) and u n s t a b l e , because a l l Buddhas have t h r e e kayas.
Here a l s o , t h e t r i k a y a i s more an embarrassment than a n e c e s s a r y
concept.
Both commentators reduce t h e t r i k a y a t o a two-kaya model, a l t h o u g h not i n t h e same way.
Asvabhava says t h a t t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e Svk i s s t a b l e , w h i l e t h a t
o f t h e Nk and Sbk i s u n s t a b l e .
Vasubandhu h o l d s t h a t t h a t o f t h e Sbk i s
s t a b l e w h i l e t h a t o f t h e Nk i s u n s t a b l e .
198
Conclusion
The
importance o f these
c l a s s i c a l problems tempts us t o r e g a r d
a b i l i t y o f the t r i k a y a (or any
other Buddhological
as t h e key t o t h e d o c t r i n e ' s p o p u l a r i t y . 6,
Buddhist, not
1,
no.
p. 38).
simply unnecessary, but
On
Nagao has
the
d o c t r i n e ) t o r e s o l v e them taken t h i s view
(Eastern
c l o s e r examination, the t r i k a y a seems t o
even a hindrance
to t h e i r s o l u t i o n .
reduced i t t o a two.,kaya system when d e a l i n g w i t h them.
Asanga
Therefore,
be has
these
problems cannot have been t h e motive f o r c e b e h i n d the development o f the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e , and my
attempt t o develop an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i l l not
be
f o c u s s e d on them.
f.
Why
Three Kayas?
There seem.to be t h r e e p o s s i b l e c l a s s e s o f reasons why develop a t r i k a y a r a t h e r than simply modify one
Asanga chose t o
o f the two-kaya t h e o r i e s .
These a r e :
(a)
He may
have been the f i r s t
t o r e a l i z e t h a t the e a r l i e r schemes were
inadequate f o r the d o c t r i n e s which they p u r p o r t e d (b)
He may
have i n c o r p o r a t e d r a d i c a l l y new
to
systematize.
i d e a s , which f o r c e d the a d d i t i o n
o f a t h i r d term i n t o h i s system. (c)
He may
have been l e d t o a t r i a d i c
scheme by e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , e.g.,
a
g e n e r a l I n d i a n vogue f o r t r i n i t i e s .
In the l i g h t o f the p a u c i t y o f h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on I n d i a n c u l t u r e , the l a s t
i s the l e a s t d e s i r a b l e c h o i c e , and w i l l be
o f the f i r s t
two
seems p l a u s i b l e .
considered only i f neither
199
The
second c h o i c e
r e s o l v e d the b a s i c Svk
seems most l i k e l y .
c l a s s i c a l dilemmas hy
or Dk.
cible doctrines.
have seen, e a r l i e r
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the v i s i b l e rupakaya from a a d d i t i o n a l , mutually i r r e d u -
The
o f b e n e v o l e n t conduct
i n any
f i r s t was
t h a t o f the vow
aspirant binds himself to continual
form n e c e s s a r y f o r the
a c t o r , he
As the
Provided
o n l y t h a t the p r a c t i t i o n e r : . i s a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e
o f the B u d d h a f i e l d
c o n t r o l o f the encounter w i t h them.
d i r e c t l y c o n t r a d i c t e d by the
the Buddha, the
second new
which the a s p i r a n t reaches by h i s own
doctrine, that
e f f o r t s , and
within
encounters the Buddha.
Although the'other
two
p o s s i b i l i t i e s cannot be
the need t o m a i n t a i n both the u n i t y and
the Buddhaland were present f i r s t to recognize
e a r l i e r , and we
the nascent I n d i a n
might say t h a t Asanga was
t h e s e two..,
the
Furthermore,, i t i s d i f f i c u l t
However, d u r i n g h i s e r a b o t h o f t h e s e
d o c t r i n e s had become so e x p l i c i t t h a t he was
forced to d i f f e r e n t i a t e
the p r a c t i t i o n e r } , a Sbk
t i o n e r approached i n a Buddhaland), and
and
by the t r i a d i c t e n d e n c i e s throughout
theistic traditions.
between a Nk. (which, went o u t . t o
I suggest t h a t
Embryonic forms o f the vow
the problem t h a t they r a i s e d .
t o imagine t h a t he remained u n a f f e c t e d
ignored,
the mutual i r r e d u c i b i l i t y o f t h e s e
concepts f o r c e d Asanga t o adopt t h e t r i k a y a .
new
worldly
himself.
T h i s seems t o be
which he
i s i n general
(bhadra-
s a l v a t i o n of s u f f e r i n g sentient
beings.
l a t t e r presents
thinkers
Asanga found h i m s e l f w i t h two
carya-pranidhana) by which the manifestation
As we
(which the
practi-
a Svk which m a i n t a i n e d the u n i t y
of
200 NOTES Giuseppe T u c c i , On Some A s p e c t s o f t h e D o c t r i n e s o f MaitreyaCnathaH and Asanga ( C a l c u t t a : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l c u t t a , 1930; r e p r i n t e d by Chinese M a t e r i a l s C e n t e r , I n c . , 1975), PP- 18-20.
2 B i m a l K r i s h n a M a t i l a l , "A C r i t i q u e o f B u d d h i s t I d e a l i s m , " i n L. C o u s i n s et a l . , eds., B u d d h i s t S t u d i e s i n Honour o f I . B. Horner ( D o r d r e c h t and B o s t o n :
197M,
p. 139The w o r d i n g o f t h e T i b e t a n and t h e Chinese (l35a20-2l) v e r s i o n s
differ.
I have t r a n s l a t e d f r e e l y i n o r d e r t o emphasize t h e l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e .
The
v e r b "embraces" i s no t i g h t e r i n t h e T i b e t a n (bsdus) t h a n i n t h e Chinese (J^l
).
I t s e x a c t meaning must be u n d e r s t o o d from t h e c o n t e x t .
See a l s o
note 26 below. h
A p a r t i c u l a r l y v i v i d example o f t h i s procedurerxs h i s d i s m i s s a l o f t h e trisvabhava doctrine: C'est a i n s i que j e ne t r a i t e r a i pas de l a t h e o r i e des t r o i s n a t u r e s , i m a g i n a i r e , dependante e t a c c o m p l i e , b i e n q u ' e l l e a p p a r t i e n n e en p r o p r e au V i j n a n a v a d a ; e l l e n ' o f f r e en e f f e t aucun element de n a t u r e v e r i t a b l e m e n t i d e a l i s t e ( p . 272). ^ M a t i l a l does r e f e r t o t h e L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e Ch'eng Wei S h i h Lun, and t r a n s l a t e s a k e y passage o f t h e Samdhinirmocanasutra Lamotte's r e c o n s t r u c t e d S a n s k r i t .
from
The l a t t e r c o n t a i n s a good example o f t h e
p e r i l s o f r e l y i n g on such r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
He has m i s s e d t h e problem r a i s e d by
d i s c r e p a n c i e s between t h e Chinese ( B o d h i r u c i — T . 675; H s u a n - t s a n g — T .
676) and
T i b e t a n ( O t a n i 77^) d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p a r i k a l p i t a and p a r i n i s p a n n a . ^ Ashok Kumar C h a t t e r j e e , Readings on Yogacara Buddhism ( V a r a n a s i : C e n t r e o f Advanced Study i n P h i l o s o p h y , Banaras Hindu U n i v e r s i t y , 1971).
7 H e r b e r t V. Guenther, B u d d h i s t P h i l o s o p h y i n Theory and P r a c t i c e
(Balti-
more: P e n g u i n , 1972). pp. 13-1h. Q H, V. Guenther, B u d d h i s t P h i l o s o p h y i n Theory and P r a c t i c e , pp. 98-103H. V. Guenther, " M e n t a l i s m and Beyond," JAOS, 86, no. 3:297-30*+.
201 T h i s statement
i s a paraphrase from P r a s t a v a n a : ^ .
The
original
S a n s k r i t must have been ambiguous, as b o t h commentators have g l o s s e d t h e key terms
(U382al8-27; Bh323bl6-27) and the T i b e t a n and Chinese
(l33a21-22)
t r a n s l a t o r s seem t o have understood t h e grammar d i f f e r e n t l y . The key terms d e s c r i b i n g the path a r e : , —
" l o g i c a l l y sound":
shin-tu
'thod-pa
j|:
iL»
upapanna^._.and t r a n s l a t e s , "pleinement j u s t i f i e s " ) .
(Lamotte
reconstructs:
T h i s c o u l d be understood i n
many ways, but the commentators agree t h a t a l o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y i s meant. —
"orthodox": mthun-pa;
translates, —
(Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s : anukula, and
"conformes").
" n o n - c o n t r a d i c t o r y " : 'gal-ba med-pa;
jjt^.
a v i r u d d h a , and t r a n s l a t e s , "sans c o n t r a d i c t i o n " ) .
(Lamotte
reconstructs:
Both commentators
stress
the i d e a o f l o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y . The T i b e t a n r e a d s : shes-par bya-bas na shes-bya'o, w h i l e the Chinese reads:
. ;
.
Both are s t r o n g e r than s i m p l y "may
be."
12 These l a s t two paragraphs are an extremely s i m p l i f i e d statement "three natures" (trisvabhava) d o c t r i n e .
Both t h e c h a r a c t e r and
fundamental".
importance o f t h i s d o c t r i n e are f r e q u e n t l y misunderstood by t h o s e who the V i j n a n a v a d a t o be an i d e a l i s m . as more e a r l y t e x t s become known.
o f the
suppose
A more a c c u r a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s emerging An e x c e l l e n t modern work embodying such an
a p p r e c i a t i o n i s S t e f a n Anacker's Vasubandhu: Three A s p e c t s .
Anacker's work
has been p a r t i c u l a r l y encouraging f o r t h i s study as he, working from the Karmasiddhiprakarana and Madhyantavibhagabhasya,
has a r r i v e d at t h e same view^
o f the V i j n a n a v a d a as I have d e r i v e d from t h e Mahayanasamgraha. He summarizes t h e importance o f t h e t r i s v a b h a v a as f o l l o w s : Rather than p o i n t i n g towards an i d e a l i s t i c system, t h e t h e o r y o f the s t o r e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s used f o r t o t a l l y d i f f e r ent purposes by Vasubandhu. I t i s the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t one's normal mental and p s y c h i c a l i m p r e s s i o n s are c o n s t r u c t e d , i . e . , a l t e r e d and seemingly s t a t i - i z e d by our consciousness-comp l e x e s , t h a t forms the a c t u a l main p o i n t o f the Trims-ika. " C o g n i t i o n - o n l y " i n v o l v e s p r i m a r i l y the d o c t r i n e o f the t h r e e natures o f r e a l i t y and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . In f a c t , the s t o r e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s s e r v e s o n l y as a b r i d g e t o t h i s more e s s e n t i a l d o c t r i n e , which i n the l a s t a n a l y s i s reduces i t s e l f t o a Sunyavada which i s t h o r o u g h l y a l l - e m b r a c i n g (p. 70). J a n i c e D. W i l l i s comes t o a s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n . , In "A Study o f t h e Chapter t
202 on R e a l i t y , Based upon t h e T a t t v a r t h a - P a t a l a m o f Asanga's
Bodhisattvabhumi"
(p. 87) she s t a t e s t h a t t h e t r i s v a b h a v a i s Asanga's b a s i c o n t o l o g y i n a l l t e x t s except t h e Yogacarabhumi.
13 T h i s i s : . i m p l i c i t throughout statement
chapter I I .
The most n e a r l y e x p l i c i t
occurs a t I I : l 6 .
Ik . A v e r y h e l p f u l work f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h i s i d e a i s H a r o l d N. Lee, P e r c e p t s , Concepts
and T h e o r e t i c Knowledge: A Study i n E p i s t e m o l o g y
(Memphis:
Memphis S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973). Dr. Lee has c o n s t r u c t e d an epistemology
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f Asanga.
His
comments on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between such an epistemology and o n t o l o g y a r e d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o our problem: When I speak o f t h e f l u x o f p r o c e s s , I make an o n t o l o g i c a l assumption, but i t i s a most g e n e r a l o n e — s i m p l y t h a t something i s going on and i t i s c o n t i n u o u s . The f l u x i s p o s i t e d t o g i v e a context f o r e x p e r i e n c e — p a r t s o f t h e f l u x i n t e r a c t , a f f e c t each o t h e r , and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f each p a r t (p. 2h). The Mahayanasamgraha a l s o r e q u i r e s t h e o n t o l o g i c a l assumption
that
"some-
t h i n g i s g o i n g on and t h a t i t i s c o n t i n u o u s " whether t h e a c t i o n i s thought o f i n terms s u g g e s t i n g a c o n t a i n e r (the a l a y a v i j n a n a ) , o r an o b j e c t o f p e r c e p t i o n ( j n e y a , "the knowable").
However, h i s work demonstrates
t h a t , f o r purposes o f
c o n s t r u c t i n g an epistemology, t h e o n t o l o g y need be taken no f u r t h e r ; t h a t t h e r e i s no need f o r a r e a l something When throughout
(such as a mind) i n which such a c t i v i t y o c c u r s .
t h e pre'sent study I deny t h a t t h e Mahayanasamgraha c o n t a i n s
o n t o l o g i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , I am not denying t h i s most g e n e r a l sense o f o n t o l o g y , merely
any more s p e c i f i c and d e t a i l e d a p p l i c a t i o n .
That
"something
i s g o i n g on" i s i n d i s p u t a b l e , but Asahga has a v o i d e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether it
i s m e n t a l , m a t e r i a l , o r something
else.
I t would r e q u i r e a s e p a r a t e study
(based on a d i f f e r e n t t e x t ) even t o c o n f r o n t .the q u e s t i o n o f whether, or-not-he c o n s i d e r e d such a q u e s t i o n t o be l e g i t i m a t e . ^
Dharmadhatu, t h e r e a l m o r sphere o f dharma ( o r " t h e dharmas"), i s a
u b i q u i t o u s term which has been used i n a number o f ways by Buddhist The V i j n a n a v a d a use o f t h i s term i s s t i l l u n c l e a r .
writers.
David S e y f o r t Ruegg
touches up t h e q u e s t i o n s e v e r a l times i n L a T h e o r i e du t a t h a g a r b h a et du g o t r a ( P a r i s : E c o l e F r a n c a i s e d'Extreme-Orient,
1969), but no comprehensive
study
203 is
available. The
f i r s t o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e term i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha i s a t
where the seed o f enlightenment
o b t a i n e d by h e a r i n g the dharma i s d e c l a r e d t o
be an o u t f l o w from the t r a n s c e n d e n t
and v e r y pure dharmadhatu, i . e . , the
dharmadhatu i s the provenance o f the p r e a c h i n g which i n i t i a t e s the career.
At 11:9
convert's
and 11, the dharmadhatu i s t h e realm o f p a r i n i s p a n n a , i n
which the B o d h i s a t t v a r e s i d e s by d i r e c t p e r c e p t i o n , o r which he At X:31,
I:H8,
penetrates.
the dharmadhatu i s s a i d t o undertake f i v e k i n d s o f a c t i o n .
dharmadhatu as a c t o r r a t h e r than
The
'realm' c r e a t e s problems which both Vasubandhu
and Asvabhava s o l v e by g l o s s i n g i t as "Dharmakaya." These passages suggest
t h a t t h e dharmadhatu i s t h e Buddha's p e r c e p t u a l
s i t u a t i o n and t h a t t h i s i s not a s t a t i c way of
o f .'seeing the t r u t h , ' but
a state
c o n t i n u a l o u t r e a c h t o others.. In a d d i t i o n t o t h e a r t i c l e s mentioned i n t h e e a r l i e r survey o f s c h o l a r -
s h i p , see E. Lamotte, Le T r a i t e ' d e ' l a grande v e f t u de sagesse, tome
3 (1970),
and a r t i c l e s on "Buddha" and r e l a t e d compounds i n G. P. M a l a l a s e k e r a ,
Encyclo-
p a e d i a o f Buddhism '(Sri Lanka: Government o f S r i Lanka, 1973), v o l . 3. 17 E t i e n n e Lamotte, ed. and t r a n s . , Samdhinirmocanasutra ( L o u v a i n : s i t e de L o u v a i n , 1935), T i b e t a n t e x t at I n t r o d u c t i o n , 2, p. 32; pp.
l67-l68.
See
Univer-
translation,
a l s o the sources l i s t e d by Lamotte i n h i s end-note t o
11:33
o f t h e Mahay arias' amgraha.
18 To Lamotte's note we may it
(.see end-note t o chap. I l l ) t h a t I I I - X form a u n i t y ,
add t h a t I-II. do a l s o :
As each o f t h e s e segments ends i n a Buddhology,
i s p o s s i b l e t h a t the Mahayan as amgr aha was
l a t e r fused.
c o n c e i v e d as two
However, i n the absence o f e a r l y manuscripts
t e x t s t h a t were
i n which t h e y
are
s e p a r a t e , o r even o f any S a n s k r i t o r i g i n a l which might be a n a l y z e d f o r s t y l i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s , such n o t i o n s must remain as c o n j e c t u r e .
19 A c o n c i s e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e s s i s g i v e n by John •MaeQuarrie i- n The
Scope o f Demythologizing
(.New
York: Harper Torch-books, i 9 6 0 ) , p.
19:
But a l t h o u g h e x i s t e n t i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a s t o r y does not i n i t s e l f deny the f a c t u a l content o f the s t o r y , i t c e r t a i n l y does put t h a t content ' i n b r a c k e t s , ' so t o speak. The o b j e c t i v e r e f e r e n c e becomes b r a c k e t e d i n t h e sense t h a t i n t e r e s t has s h i f t e d away from i t t o t h e e x i s t e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . The
20h q u e s t i o n o f f a c t i s no l o n g e r b e i n g r a i s e d . We are not aski n g what happened but about what t h e s t o r y says t o us i n our s i t u a t i o n now. The o b j e c t i v e r e f e r e n c e has somehow become irrelevant. Whether we a f f i r m i t or whether we deny i t or whether we suspend judgement about i t , the e x i s t e n t i a l r e l i g i o u s message o f the s t o r y can s t i l l speak home t o us . . .
20
^ Ruegg, Tathagatagarhha, pp.
kll-k^h.
21 F o r Asvabhava's
291bU.
commentary t o
11:33,
see
U4l0c22-iillb3
No i n d i v i d u a l r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h i s passage w i l l be
22
and
u287a3-
given.
.
t r a n s l a t e b o t h the S a n s k r i t r o o t
The T i b e t a n t h u g s - s u chud-pa i s used t o Jjna
("to understand") and
y/gam ("to go"),
The passage seems t o r e a d b e t t e r i f we use " t o u n d e r s t a n d " but as a l l Chinese v e r s i o n s have
("to a r r i v e at a c e r t a i n s t a t e or s i t u a t i o n " ) , t h e t r a n s l a -
t i o n must be "has gone t o . "
23 ^
The same a p p l i e s t o t h i s term i n 5. and 9'f
A v i k a l p i t a ; T: rnam-par ma b r t a g s - p a ; H:
of
">$j?
t h e - t shorn med-pa' i y e - s h e s ; ^
$ ] 1
• • Lamotte
reconstructs:
"nihsamsayaj nana." The key t o t h i s compound i s "doubt" (the-tshom; v i c i k i t s a ) , an Abhidharmic term which Vasubandhu (Abhidharmakosa incorrect perception.
v.32c-33)
p l a c e s near t h e v e r y r o o t o f
He says t h a t from n e s c i e n c e
which l e a d s t o doubt about t h e Buddhist t r u t h s . views and hence t o the deluded l i f e .
Asahga,
(avidvjO
arises
confusion
T h i s doubt l e a d s t o the f a l s e
i n t h e Abhidharmasamuccaya
(pp. 10, hi), agrees. The term i s l i t e r a l l y u t t e r absence o f doubt
"the a c c u r a t e awareness
(vicikitsa)."
(jnana) which i n v o l v e s the
T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t " a c c u r a t e awareness"
i s not something complete apart from "doubt" as a c o n t e n t ^ o r an
evaluation.
The doubt i s a f o r m a t i v e f a c t o r which d i s t o r t s t h e e n t i r e p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s . I t s absence i s synonymous w i t h t h e " a c c u r a c y " o f t h e awareness. f a c t t h a t t h i s compound,is•one.awareness,
.To s t r e s s t h e
not an awareness whose "freedom from
doubt" i s a secondary n o n - e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , I have t r a n s l a t e d
"veridi-
c a l , awareness."
5
y i n a y a ; T:
'dul-ba; H: \ ^
^
.
T h i s i s the b r o a d e s t term f o r the
a c t i o n s whereby a B o d h i s a t t v a l e a d s s e n t i e n t b e i n g s toward enlightenment.
205 Other t r a n s l a t i o n s , such as "to d i s c i p l i n e " and ^
"Involved with"
6
(bsdus-pa; jfj^j ) i s r e c o n s t r u c t e d hy Lamotte as
s a m g r h i t a and t r a n s l a t e d , " r e s s o r t i r au." c o n j u n c t i o n o f two
"to t e a c h , " are too narrow.
As i t simply
indicates general
t h i n g s , such t r a n s l a t i o n s as " c o n t a i n e d
i n " or "belongs t o "
are much t o o s p e c i f i c .
27 adikarmika ^1
H:
b o d h i s a t t v a ; T: byang-chub-sems-dpa' las-dang-po-pa,
^
.
sattva's career. i n Herbert
V.
T h i s i s the f i r s t
According
Guenther's The
t o the summary o f t h i s t h i r t e e n - s t a g e t h e o r y Jewel Ornament o f L i b e r a t i o n by
( B e r k e l e y : Shambhala, 1 9 T l ) , PPto
232-256, the adikarmika
the sambharamarga (Path o f P r e p a r a t i o n )
i n d i v i d u a l s who
stage o f the t h i r t e e n i n a B o d h i -
and
have j u s t begun Mahayana p r a c t i c e s .
adhimukticaryabhumi
sGam-po-pa
stage
designates
found
i s equivalent
the l e v e l o f
those
I t i s f o l l o w e d by
the
( e q u i v a l e n t t o the prayogamarga,.Path o f A p p l i c a t i o n ) , the
t e n great B o d h i s a t t v a bhumis and
a f i n a l buddhabhumi.
28 For a d i s c u s s i o n o f the use
of t h i s s i m i l e to i l l u s t r a t e a s i m i l a r
q u e s t i o n about the b i r t h o f an i n d i v i d u a l i n the t a t h a g a t a f a m i l y , see Ruegg, Tathagatagarbha,pp. l l i | - 1 1 5 .
29 The
v a r i o u s types
o f n i r v i k a l p a j nana mentioned i n these passages
are
d i s c u s s e d by A l a n Sponberg i n h i s "Dynamic L i b e r a t i o n i n Yogacara Buddhism" (.The
J o u r n a l o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f Buddhist
(1979): iih-65).
S t u d i e s , ,2,-- no.. 1
'.
30 See Walpola Rahula, t r a n s . , Le Compendium de l a
super-doctrine
(.philosophie), Abhidharmasamuccaya, d' Asanga ( P a r i s : E c o l e F r a n g a i s e
d'Extreme-
O r i e n t , 1971), p. I l 6 . 31 Note t h a t t h i s i s a s i m i l e , not illusory. tions.,
The
t r i s v a b h a v a t h e o r y i s not
a statement t h a t the v i j n a p t i concerned w i t h
are
such o n t o l o g i c a l ques-
Asanga uses the s i m i l e o f someone s e e i n g through an i l l u s i o n t o
the e n l i g h t e n e d mode,of p e r c e p t i o n .
The
classic
describe
set o f the- s i m i l e s - u s e d f o r t h i s :
purpose i s . found i n the Samdhinirmocanasutra, chapter VI., 32 M i s a p p r e h e n s i o n ( v i p a r y a s a ; • T: p h y i n - c i - l o g - p a ; H: jj|
)
is
206 described
by Edward Conze i n "The Mahayana Treatment o f Vi.paryas.us,"
Extremus, L e s s i n g Memorial (February implicit
1962): 35-1+7- U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
Orlens-
Conze's
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Mahayana and p r a j n a p a r a m i t a d i s t o r t s t h e p r e s e n t
V i j n a n a v a d a use o f t h e term.
33
^
A
Lamotte's "Dharmadhatu," both t e x t and commentary.
r a t h e r than "Dharmakaya," i s i n c o r r e c t i n
^
See Lamotte, Mahayanasamgraha, 1:1+5
^
Sarvaj naj nana; T: thams-cad mkhyen-pa'i y e - s h e s ; R:
36
itf]
—
^3
"-fe
T: yongs-su r d z o g s - p a ; H: )JJ yplRt
37
and 111:1.
.
Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s :
paripiparti.
* See L o u i s
bandhu," Melanges
de La V a l l e e P o u s s i n , t r a n s , , "L'Abhidharmakosa de Vasuchinois,- et bouddhiques, 16
des Hautes Etudes C h i n o i s e s ,
( B r u x e l l e s : l ' I n s t i t u t Beige
1 9 7 l ) , y i i : 3 3 , and.Honda Megumu, t r a n s . , Annotated
T r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e Dasabhumika Sutra, §ata-pitaka S e r i e s , v o l . 7*+ (New r
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Academy o f Indian
38
C u l t u r e , n . d . ) , f n . 12, p. 2 l 6 .
See L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n , t r a n s . , Abhidharmakosa, ; i i i :
' ' 53b-55d; i v :
I05c-d; i v : 112b; v i : l+l+d-1+5; and Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhidharmasamuccaya, ^
H: ^
' • > Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s :
aklistam
19^6), p.
p. 127.
ajnanam.
^° T i n g Fu-pao, Fo-hsiieh t a - t z ' u - t i e n (.Taipei: Tung Yii Wen She,
Delhi:
Hua Ch'u Pan
599b.
1+1 The S a n s k r i t p a r a v f t t i means, " t u r n i n g back, r e v o l v i n g , change." T i b e t a n '.gyur-ba i s extremely b r o a d : " t o change, t o become, t o
revolve."
" 1+ 3 can be read ehuan : " t o r e v o l v e , " o f chuan : " t o change d i r e c t i o n . " abandoned t h e u s u a l t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e s e as " r e v o l u t i o n " or "Revolution"
i s unsuitable
because: Ca)
change o f d i r e c t i o n i s meant, not a
The
I have
"reversion."
throughout the Mahayanasamgraha a
180°
360° one; (b) t h e T i b e t a n would c e r t a i n l y
have chosen skor-ba (as i n " t u r n i n g t h e dharmacakra") had t h e t r a n s l a t o r understood " r e v o l u t i o n " ; and ( c ) " r e v o l u t i o n " i s now a p o l i t i c a l o r at l e a s t a s o c i a l term, and sounds odd i n t h i s more p s y c h o l o g i c a l
context. . "Reversion"
207
Buddhist thought.
"Reorientation"
(from " o r i e n t a t i o n " — t h e
churches i n an e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n ) c a r r i e s the 1+2
correct
implication.
Mahayanasamgraha c o n t a i n s two
important r e l a t e d terms f o r
Mahayana i d e a l o f c o n t r o l o f a l i f e - s i t u a t i o n : v a s i t a and d i f f i c u l t t o judge how
as
o r i g i n a l Sanskrit
t h e s e d i f f e r as the v a r i o u s term i n each passage.
The
vibhutva.
lators:
T:
dbang-sgyur-ba; H:
|"5 ^fc. .
LC_ and Mvy
p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t the
It i s
t r a n s l a t i o n s have obscured
main o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e s e
jj^jjj.
^
; a l l o t h e r Chinese
t r a n s l a t e t h i s as v a s i t a (the sgyur and
- t a ending).
Lamotte, however, r e c o n s t r u c t s :
contains a l i s t
o f t e n dbang-ba; H:
.
transJ^^-
vibhutva,
Lamotte's
t i o n o f v a s i t a , " l a m a i t r i s e , " i s c l e a r l y c o r r e c t as t h i s i s the ten Bodhisattva-vasita X:5;
X:7.1*: T:
i n Mvy,
dbang-'byor-ba, which Mvy .
"la
However, he has
souverainete."
which stands f o r the translated:
reconstruc-
same as
gives
Lamotte again r e c o n s t r u c t s : reconstructed
c o n t e n t s o f X:5
as v a i b h u t i k a m; a l l Chinese v i b h u t va,
the
and
translates:
a b b r e v i a t e d dbang or
i n the v e r s e summary at X:2
as v a s i t a ,
" l a maitrise."
V I I I : 1 3 ; the terminus o f the r e l i g i o u s path i s s a i d t o i n v o l v e the
"les
mchog; H: maitrises
^
^x.
little
f o l l o w Lamotte's r e a d i n g .
v i b h u t v a at X:2, is,
which Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s :
X:5
and
I f we
r e a d v a s i t a at X : l , X:3.2
(paravrtti).
s p e c i f i c a l l y mentioned.
t h a t v a s i t a seems t o have been the Mvy,
771-780,; o r f
;
the n t s
of
T h i s may
erence t o Lamotte's, and
terms i f and
V i b h u t va
T h i s may
reflect
V a s i t a i s used r e f l e c t the
customary term through the Mahayana
fact schools.
Bodhisattva-vaiita.
Throughout the present study I have adopted the
as
translates:
and V I I I : 1 3 ,
X:7-l+, a d i f f e r e n c e does become apparent.
o f the term i n t h e Mahayanasutralahkara, IX: 1+1-1+8.
when r e o r i e n t a t i o n i s not
See
and
l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e s e two
i n each c a s e , the outcome o f r e o r i e n t a t i o n
the use
agravaslta
dbang-
superieures."
There appears t o be we
the
771-780.
translators-: ^
gi
are
translates: " l a souverainete." X:3.2
and
the
follows: X: 1.1:
and
facing
^ ^ The
the
p r a c t i c e of
l a t t e r readings i n p r e f -
have t r a n s l a t e d v i b h u t v a as " s o v e r e i g n t y , "
and
vasita
"mastery." 1+3
These t h i r t y - t w o
laks anas and
eighty
anuvyanj anas are the
observable
208
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a g r e a t man (mahapurusa), whether a w o r l d r u l e r v a r t i n ) o r a world savior
(.Buddha).
(.Cakra-
. .
They i n c l u d e b o t h v i s i b l e b o d i l y c h a r a c -
teristics
such as f o r t y t e e t h , a. golden hue, and so on, and b e h a v i o r a l c h a r a c -
teristics
such as b o d i l y b e a r i n g and tone o f v o i c e .
Asvabhava o b v i o u s l y
understands them t o be t h e most e x o t e r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Buddha, by which he may be r e c o g n i z e d by even t h e d u l l e s t o f s e n t i e n t b e i n g s . A list his
o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and r e f e r e n c e s a r e g i v e n by Lamotte i n
end-notes
to X : l 6 .
To t h e s e s h o u l d be added t h e expanded l i s t in
and r e f e r e n c e s by Leon H u r v i t z
" C h i h - I , " Melanges c h i n o i s e t bouddhiques 5 , no. 1 2 (.Bruxelles: l ' I n s t i t u t
Beige des Hautes Etudes C h i n o i s e s , 1 9 6 0 - 6 2 ) , pp. 3 5 3 - 3 6 1 . kh See T i n g Fu-pao, Fo-hsiieh t a - t z ' u - t i e n , p. 1 9 5 2 c . translation:
incorrect.
See Abhidharmakosa, i i : UT •
^ ^
" l e s marques" i s c e r t a i n l y
Lamotte's p l u r a l
6
Note t h a t t h e common m i s t r a n s l a t i o n o f c e t a n a as " v o l i t i o n " would
render t h i s passage n o n s e n s i c a l .
Cetana i n d i c a t e s t h a t l i t t l e
volition i s
p o s s i b l e , that the i n d i v i d u a l i s driven or motivated t o a c e r t a i n type o f perc e p t i o n o r a c t i o n by e x t r i n s i c p r e v i o u s i n f l u e n c e s .
See H e r b e r t V. Guenther,
P h i l o s o p h y and Psychology i n t h e Abhidharma (Lucknow: Buddha V i h a r a , 1 9 5 7 ) ,
pp. 61-70. hi See A l e x Wayman, "The M i r r o r - l i k e Knowledge i n Mahayana Buddhist L i t e r a t u r e , " A s i a t i c a S t u d i e n , 25 (.1971): 353..
h8 The term "white dharmas" d e s i g n a t e s a v a r i e t y o f d e s i r a b l e t h i n g s . , For
a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s term i n Abhidharma thought, see Abhidharmakosa, h9 See above,, note h2, ^
A Madhyamika u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f sunyata must not b e b l i n d l y a p p l i e d
Both, the Madhyamika and t h e Yogacara
iv:60.
here.
accepted the prajnaparamita l i t e r a t u r e
w i t h i t s terms such as sunyata and t a t h a t a , but each, worked out t h e i m p l i c a tions differently.
The Yogacara view o f s u n y a t a i s found i n c h a p t e r V I I o f
the Samdhinirmocanasutra,
and i s embedded i n t h e t r i s v a b h a v a d o c t r i n e o f t h e
209 Mahay anas amgr aha. between the two and MV,
G. M.
i n "From Madhyamika t o Yogacara: An A n a l y s i s o f MMK,
1.1-2," The
Studies,
2,
no.
Nagao offer's u s e f u l g u i d e l i n e s f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g
J o u r n a l o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f Buddhist
(1979'): 29-*-3. 1
1
T. R. V. M u r t i , The A l l e n and Unwin L t d . , use
XXIV.18
Central Philosophy
i960),
p. 217-
of Buddhism (.London: George
A l t h o u g h M u r t i goes on t o d i s c u s s
o f advaya i n the V i j n a n a v a d a w r i t i n g s , h i s a n a l y s i s i s muddled and
ficial.
the super-
A b r i e f mention o f t h i s i s s u e a l s o appears i n Ruegg, T a t h a g a t a -
garhha , p.
3.
52 For example, see P a u l W i l f r e d O ' B r i e n , A Chapter on R e a l i t y from Madhyantavibhaga S a s t r a (Tokyo: Monumenta N i p p o n i c a ,
vol
5,
1953-5^1,
"TX-X.
J a n i c e Dean W i l l i s , "A Study'of the Chapter", on R e a l i t y , Based upon, the
vahd
Tattvartha-Patalam University,
o f Asahga's B o d h i s a t t v a b h u m i " (Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Columbia
1976).
53
^
See a l s o Ruegg, Tathagatagarhha, f n ; 1, p. 298, s i m i l a r passage o f t h e R a t n a g o t r a v i b h a g a. .'" Pratyatmavedha; T: r a n g - g i s
rig-pa;
H:
f o r comments on
rt ?
as an a b i l i t y o f the
same p o i n t i n a n e g a t i v e Cthe Dharmakaya"! by The vatara.
s p i r i t u a l l y advanced. manner: ".
identifying
Asvabhava (ljl+37b20) makes the
. . Cthe o r d i n a r y man3 can o n l y adhere t o
faith."
doctrine i s explained
B r i e f English-language
Buddhist L o g i c , 2 v o l s . (.New and
i n chapter
accounts may
VI o f C a n d r a k i r t i ' s Madhyamakabe
found i n Th.
York: Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s ,
i n Guenther, Buddhist P h i l o s o p h y
^
Abhidharmakosa li.:57a-b.
^
V i h a r a : T: gnas-pa; H: Iff
i n Theory and
.
The
1962),
Stcherbatsky, v o l . 1, p.
P r a c t i c e , pp.
b a s i c meaning o f "a
state of being
o f the u n i v e r s e .
or major p r e o c c u p a t i o n
Hence, v i h a r a d e s i g n a t e s
dwelling
t o the r e s i d e n t s o f each not
163,
91-93-
p l a c e " must be understood w i t h i n the Buddhist cosmology, which a s s i g n s tain
a
Vasubandhu
(Bh371c2) g l o s s e s t h i s as, "the Tathagata's i n t r o s p e c t i o n , " thus it
the
a cer-
division
o n l y a monastery, e t c . , but
210 a l s o the predominant f a c t o r s i n an i n d i v i d u a l
life.
E-Q
Vibhutva. ^
The
See above, note
k2.
a b h i j n a s are the a b i l i t i e s which, i n Buddhist mythology, are
by a Buddha d u r i n g the n i g h t o f h i s enlightenment.
gained
By the. e x e r c i s e o f t h e s e
a b i l i t i e s he d i s c o v e r s the t r u t h s which form the content o f h i s e v e n t u a l preaching.
The V i j n a n a v a d i n l i s t
muccaya, pp.
i s found
i n Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhidharmasa-
166-167.:
—
rddhyabhijna—the
—
d i v y a s r o t a b h i j n a — t h e d i v i n e ear;
—
c et ahparyayabhij n a — t h e a b i l i t y t o know the thoughts
—
purvanivasanusmrtyabhi j n a — t h e a b i l i t y t o remember p r e v i o u s
—
cyutyupapadabhijna—the
—
a s r a v a k s a y a b h i j n a — t h e a b i l i t y t o see the e x t i n c t i o n o f i m p u r i t y . . ^
s u p e r n a t u r a l powers such as f l y i n g ,
of others;
a b i l i t y t o see the b i r t h s and
Vyavahara: T: tha-snyad-pa; H:
by which communication o c c u r s .
^t-Xj
etc.;
lives;
deaths o f o t h e r s ;
'• "the outward s i g n or
I t i s u s u a l l y , but not n e c e s s a r i l y , v o c a l .
T h i s passage p o i n t s -out the communicative n a t u r e o f the Buddha. Abhidharmakosa i v : 7 ^ - 7 5 and F r a n k l i n Edgerton, and D i c t i o n a r y , 2 v o l s . • ^
Buddhist
passages,
See
see Abhidharmakosa y i i : 2 8 - 5 6 ,
Abhidharmasamuccaya, pp. 163-176.
The most.exhaustive
p.
5l6.
F o r t r a n s l a t i o n o f the and Rahula, t r a n s . , d i s c u s s i o n of these i s
found i n v o l . 3 o f Lamotte's t r a n s l a t i o n o f the de l a grande v e r t u de sagesse
also
H y b r i d S a n s k r i t Grammar
( D e l h i : M o t i l a l B a n a r s i d a s s , 1 9 7 2 ) , v o l . 2,
Lamotte's r e f e r e n c e s are a l l t o p r i m a r y t e x t s .
more important
signal
'• Le
Traite
( L o u v a i n : I n s t i t u t O r i e n t a l i s t e , 1970).
62 For a d e f i n i t i o n o f the p r a t i s a m v i d s , see Asvabhava's commentary t o
V : 2 . 9 (.UU2Ubl8-2U). 63
A c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t gambhira was
the B o d h i s a t t v a ' s view i s found reads
commonly, understood
to refer to
i n Lamotte, t r a n s . , Le T r a i t e , v o l . 1.
in part: I I en va de meme pour l a pensee: l e sot ( b a l a ) , par I ' a c t i o n du s a v o i r c o n c e p t u e l , decouvre dans l e s Dharma d i v e r s c a r a c t e r e s . V o i r que l e v r a i c a r a c t e r e des Dharma n'est n i v i d e (sunya) n i non-vide (asunya), ni. e x i s t a n t
This
211 ( s a t ) n i n o n - e x i s t a n t ( a s a t ) , et p e n e t r e r profondement dans c e t t e d o c t r i n e sans detours n i a r r e t s , c ' e s t ce qu'on nomme " e t r e passe a l ' a u t r e r i v e de l a p a t i e n c e r e l a t i v e aux Dharma p r o f o n d s " (gambhiradharmaksantiparamgata) (p. 338). 2. En o u t r e , l e s B o d h i s a t t v a ont un s a v o i r (jnana) p r o f o n d (gambhira) et a i g u i s e ( t i k s n a ) . . . (p. 370).
6k See Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhi dharma s amuc caya, p. 88 f f . ;
Abhidharmakosa
ii:2l+.7<
A good summary i s g i v e n i n Guenther, t r a n s . , Jewel Ornament, pp.
229-230.
A v e r y c l e a r e x p l a n a t i o n by Tsong-kha-pa
i s t r a n s l a t e d by A l e x
Wayman i n Calming the Mind and D i s c e r n i n g t h e R e a l (.New
York: Columbia U n i v e r -
s i t y P r e s s , 1978), pp. 129-130; and a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n by Kumarajiva i s found i n Lamotte, Le T r a i t e , v o l . 3, pp. 1329-11+30. 6
5
T &r H. t r a n s l a t e s , »". . . because the_ t^ a.j.,. t h a.t,a ~ (I jit -£tl
IS
6
6
) i s f r e e from s t a i n . "
A l f r e d North Whitehead, Process and R e a l i t y : An Essay i n Cosmology
(New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1960),.pp.
k-6.
6"7 Samarendra
Kumar Verma, The Nature o f Metaphysics (.Varanasi: B h a r a t -
B h a r a t i , 1976), Chapter ^
F o r example,
k.
see Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought
i n I n d i a (.Ann A r b o r :
Ann A r b o r Paperbacks, 1970), pp. 172-173, 232; and D a v i d J . Kalupahana, Buddhist P h i l o s o p h y : A H i s t o r i c a l A n a l y s i s Hawaii, 1976).
(Honolulu: U n i v e r s i t y Press of
X:38-39.
69 The term Nirmanakaya l a t e r arguments
cannot be t r a n s l a t e d without s e v e r e l y b i a s i n g
about i t s meaning.
E a r l i e r s c h o l a r s who
d i d not doubt the
t h e i s t i c n a t u r e o f t h e Mahayana Buddha u s u a l l y t r a n s l a t e d i t as " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n body," i . e . , as a form i n t o which the Buddha t r a n s f o r m s h i m s e l f a c c o r d i n g t o the needs o f the a s p i r a n t .
However, t h i s study q u e s t i o n s the t h e i s t i c premise.
The word nirmana i s so ambiguous t h a t i t b r i n g s l i t t l e compound.
i n h e r e n t meaning t o t h e
I f the s e a r c h f o r the " b a s i c " meaning o f nirmana i s l i m i t e d t o the
Mahayanasamgraha, we
f i n d o n l y a few uncompounded examples
o f the term.
bhava 's commentary t o X:30.9 ((,Ul+l+6a25; u350b8) s a y s , i n Lamotte's t h a t the devas, nagas, e t c . , o f the Buddhalands
Asva-
translation,
are nirmanas," but as n e i t h e r
the Chinese nor the T i b e t a n uses the same term here as t h e y do elsewhere f o r
212
nirmana i n Nirmanakaya, t h i s i s a q u e s t i o n a b l e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
The
only
u n e q u i v o c a l d e f i n i t i o n i s g i v e n by Asvabhava at uUUlb20 where he d e f i n e s nirmana as a c r e a t i o n o f a form not p r e v i o u s l y i n e x i s t e n c e , i . e . , as the very opposite of a "transformation." TO
^ The
of
adhimukticaryabhumi i s the stage immediately
the t e n great B o d h i s a t t v a bhumis.
the stage o f the B o d h i s a t t v a who
p r e c e d i n g the
first
In the Mahayanasamgraha t h i s i s p r o p e r l y
has heard, and adheres t o , the t e a c h i n g t h a t
a l l dharmas are v i j napt imat r a ( I I I : 3 ) , but Asanga o f t e n uses i t simply as a c a t e g o r y f o r those who the Sravaka,
but who
have the a t t i t u d e o f simple c o n f i d e n c e and d e v o t i o n o f
h o l d a Yogacara r a t h e r than a Hmayana p h i l o s o p h y .
a l s o Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 1^5
( f o r adhimukticarya-
b o d h i s a t t v a ) , and pp. 158-159; G. P. M a l a l a s e k e r a , ed., E n c y c l o p a e d i a Buddhism (Ceylon: Government P r e s s , 19&3), f a s c . 2,
s.v.
see below, note
71
Por
72.
». N i r v i k a l p a j nana i s a g e n e r a l term f o r e n l i g h t e n e d awareness.
not be misunderstood s i v e thought.
I t must
as a s t a t e - o f mind which i s n e c e s s a r i l y l a c k i n g i n d i s c u r -
I t i s d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n chapter V I I I o f the Mahayanasamgraha
where i t i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e t y p e s : to
of
adhimukti-carya-
bhumi , pp. 202-203; and Guenther, t r a n s . , Jewel Ornament, p. 239adhimukti,
See
f u l l n i r v i k a l p a j n a n a ; (2)
( l ) p r a y o g i k a , the awareness p r e p a r a t o r y
n i r v i k a l p a j nana p r o p e r ; and
(3)
prsthalabdha /
the awareness subsequent t o n i r v i k a l p a j nana. F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n see A l a n Sponberg, "Dynamic L i b e r a t i o n i n Yogac a r a Buddhism," J o u r n a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f Buddhist
Studies
2, no. 1 (1979): kk-6h. Adhimukti; act
T: mos-pa; H:
T h i s term u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o the
o f d i r e c t i n g the a t t e n t i o n t o a s p e c i f i c o b j e c t w i t h a c l e a r , or even
fervent, expectation of a certain perception. r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the Buddha, adhimukti
As t h i s o b j e c t i s o f t e n a
i s frequently t r a n s l a t e d , "devotion."
But, as the e x p e c t a t i o n can amount t o p r o j e c t i n g a v i v i d
visualization,
adhimukti
should sometimes be " c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n . "
important
i n t h i s t e x t , I have f o l l o w e d Lamotte's " a s p i r a t i o n . "
makosa, i i : 2 l + . 9 ;
S i n c e b o t h elements are See
72. h; Rahula, t r a n s . , Abhidharmasamuccaya, p. 180;
Guenther, t r a n s . , Jewel Ornament, p.
37•
Abhidharand
213 73
^ The p r e c i s e meaning o f "simple c o n f i d e n c e " (sraddhamatra; T: dad-pa
feam; H:
^\%
) .is. u n c l e a r .
t r u s t i n g confidence.
In g e n e r a l , sraddha d e s i g n a t e s a warm and
Rahula, i n h i s Abhi dharmas amuc caya, pp. 1U8-1U9 and
lkQ,
fn. 2, drawing from t h e Majjhimanikaya, p i c t u r e s an a s p i r a n t c a l l e d a sraddhan u s a r i n — a r a t h e r d u l l i n d i v i d u a l o f no g r e a t s p i r i t u a l a b i l i t i e s who
attains
enlightenment due t o the c o n f i d e n c e w i t h which he f o l l o w s i n s t r u c t i o n . V i j n a p t i m a t r a t a s i d d h i , p. 3 2 0 , was
mentions
t h r e e t y p e s o f sraddha i n a l i s t
l a t e r r e g a r d e d as a s t a n d a r d V i j n a n a v a d a d o c t r i n e , e.g., see
Guenther,
Furthermore, sraddha i s f r e q u e n t l y combined w i t h a d h i m u k t i , e.g., (Abhi dharmas amuc c aya,
But t h e term sraddhamatra text.
which
19-21.
t r a n s . , Jewel Ornament, pp.
dimukta
The
p. 1U9):
" l a personne
sraddha-
devouee a l a c o n f i a n c e . "
c o n j o i n e d w i t h adhimukti seems t o occur o n l y i n t h i s
I have simply taken the term as an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t the members o f t h i s
assembly
cannot see t h e t r u t h s t h e m s e l v e s , but are w i l l i n g t o f o l l o w the
i n s t r u c t i o n s of the
Nk.
^
See U U U 9 b l l ( ^
^
Mudra; T: l a g - r t s i s ; H: £."p
ditional l i s t
'ft-k ) and u3*+2b3-U. , i s the most obscure member o f t h i s
o f s u b j e c t s s t u d i e d or r e c a l l e d by the B o d h i s a t t v a .
tra-
The common
meanings such as " r i t u a l hand g e s t u r e " o r " o b j e c t o f a symbolic encounter' (e.g., karmamudra)" o b v i o u s l y English Dictionary Divyavadana,
do not a p p l y .
M. M o n i e r - W i l l i a m s i n A S a n s k r i t -
(Oxford: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 8 9 9 )
5
P-
822,
c i t i n g the
suggests t h a t t h i s mudra r e f e r s t o a form o f r e c k o n i n g on the
T h i s i s supported by J . J . Jones, t r a n s . , The Mahavastu, 3 v o l s . ,
fingers.
S a c r e d Books o f t h e B u d d h i s t s S e r i e s , v o l s . 16-19 S o c i e t y and Luzac, 1 9 ^ 9 - 5 6 ) , v o l . 2 ,
p. 376, who
(London: The P a l i Text summarizes the comments o f
s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s and o p t s f o r " r e c k o n i n g w i t h t h e f i n g e r s . " Lamotte's translation
" l a g r a v u r e " almost c e r t a i n l y was
(paraphrase?) o f Vasubandhu's e x p l a n a t i o n as
^g. ( T a i s h o v o l . 3 1 , p. ^
H:
—
\J\
-jj^
yl*
^
£jl
j<5^
367c25).
T: mthun-pa; H: ^
ontological identity. ^
suggested by Paramatha's
^yXw
i m p l i e s a v e r y c l o s e s i m i l a r i t y , not an
Lamotte t r a n s l a t e s :
^ ^ j " ^ ^
'
r
n
a
m
~^
"pareil."
u
n
mngon-rdzogs byang-chub-pa, but
21k u
(335a6) r e a d s : rnam-pa thams-cad mngon-par rdzogs-par byang-chub-pa. 78 The
i d e a t h a t the Buddha i s not" immediately
r e c o g n i z a b l e t o the
b e l i e v e r forms an e a r l y and p e r s i s t e n t f e a t u r e o f the accounts life.
non-
o f Sakyamuni's
See the s t o r y o f h i s encounter w i t h Upaka, t r a n s l a t e d from s e v e r a l
sources by Andre Bareau i n Recherches sur l a b i o g r a p h i e du Buddha dans l e s S u t r a p i t a k a et l e s V i n a y a p i t a k a a n c i e n s , 3 v o l s . d'Extreme-Orient, ^
T:
(Paris: Ecole Francaise
1963), v o l . 3, pp. 155-160.
'dres-pa;
^fci^L i
H:
Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s :
samsrsta.
80 Rab-tu-phye-ba; H omits t h i s phrase;
Lamotte r e c o n s t r u c t s : p r a b h a v i t a .
8l Lamotte's t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s term i s p u z z l i n g . used " B u d d h a f i e l d "
(Buddhaksetra; T:
throughout most of the t e x t .
sangs-rgyas-kyi
Both T and H have
z h i n g ; H:
j£_
)
Lamotte, however, sometimes r e c o n s t r u c t s : Buddha-
bhumi ("les t e r r e s du Buddha") and
sometimes: Buddhaksetra ("les champs
des
Buddha"). Many summaries o f the l i t e r a t u r e on the B u d d h a f i e l d concept i n Western languages. and E a r l y Use
The
c l a s s i c study i s T e r e s i n a Rowell's "The
o f the Buddha-ksetra Concept," E a s t e r n Buddhist
three installments: T h i s i s s t i l l one
are a v a i l a b l e Background
(published i n
6, no. 3 (193*0 ,' 6, no. £"(1935), 7, no. 2 (1937)...
o f the b e s t summaries o f d a t a towards a h i s t o r y o f t h e
proto-Mahayana developments. Ms.
R o w e l l i d e n t i f i e s t h e e a r l i e s t B u d d h a f i e l d concept
with the idea that
S a k y a m u n i c o u l d see a n y t h i n g
i n h i s world
he c o u l d e x e r c i s e benevolent
i n f l u e n c e o r c o n t r o l over t h i s f i e l d .
( h i s " f i e l d " o f knowledge), and t h a t
type o f i n f l u e n c e i s h i s t e a c h i n g t o the B o d h i s a t t v a s . e a r l y w r i t i n g s on how
She
t h e B o d h i s a t t v a o b t a i n s and p u r i f i e s t h i s f i e l d
However, her arguments about t h e developed
t h i n as she attempts t o cover too many t e x t s and
C h a p p e l l i n "Chinese Buddhist
by
the Buddha.
ideas.
are i n t r o d u c e d by
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e Pure Lands" i n
-Michael Saso and David.W. C h a p p e l l , eds.*., Buddhist .'and T a o i s t S t u d i e s •'.(Honolulu: U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii P r e s s ,
the
Mahayana t r a d i t i o n wear
F a r - E a s t e r n developments o f the B u d d h a f i e l d concept D a v i d W.
main
also discusses
p u r i f y i n g h i s mind and a c t i n g f o r o t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y by w o r s h i p p i n g
extremely
The
1977), pp. 23-5** •
I
215 82
I n h i s end-notes t o X:30,
that t h i s text i s a v e r s i o n of the
Lamotte notes a s u g g e s t i o n hy D e m i e v i l l e Samdhinirmocanasutra.
See F r a n c e s c a Fremantle and Chogyam Trungpa, t r a n s , and comment., The T i b e t a n Book o f the Dead: The Great L i b e r a t i o n through H e a r i n g i n the Bardo ( B e r k e l e y : Shambhala, 1975)8k Bimal K. M a t i l a l , a t a l k d e l i v e r e d t o the Department o f R e l i g i o u s S t u d i e s , UBC, O
i n October
1975.
r
See E. O b e r m i l l e r , t r a n s . , H i s t o r y o f Buddhism by Bu-ston 1931;
Suzuki R e p r i n t S e r i e s ) , pp.
(Heidelberg:
137-1^0.
86 Ruegg has p u b l i s h e d an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s s t a n z a i n h i s T a t h a g a t a garbha, p. 83. it
differs
As i t i s drawn from Vasubandhu's
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from Asvabhava's
Mahayanasutralamkarabhasya
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , which has been
summarized h e r e . 87 One o f t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g attempts t o date i s N i s h i t a n i "Emptiness and Time" i n E a s t e r n B u d d h i s t , 9 ,
no. 1:
While t h i s Heidegger-on-his-head work i s a b r i l l i a n t
U2-71; 10,
Keiji's
no. 2:
1-30.
a p o l o g e t i c f o r the
author's Z e n - o r i e n t e d r e l i g i o n , i t l a c k s the h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f any u s e f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e a r l i e r I n d i a n Buddhism.
required
CHAPTER I I I CONCLUSION
217
In the l a s t were a n a l y z e d
s e c t i o n , the B u d d h o l o g i c a l
and the
f u n c t i o n o f the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e was
study o f t h i s d o c t r i n e would r e q u i r e two (a) An
examination. o f other, t e x t s .
(b) An
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of "the"doctrine. .
These c o u l d be
passages o f the Mahayanasamgraha
further
•
accomplished by two
full
steps:
possible strategies: a h i s t o r i c a l ( b ) ; or a h i s t o r i c a l ,
d o c t r i n a l : a n a l y s i s i n which (b) would be undertaken b e f o r e
i n the
A
-
approach i n which (a) would be undertaken b e f o r e
The
clarified.
(a).
h i s t o r i c a l approach would i n v o l v e a n a l y z i n g o t h e r V i j n a n a v a d a t e x t s
same way
as was
the Mahayanasamgraha, and
assembling a comparative
h i s t o r y o f the t r i k a y a from the r e s u l t s o f t h e s e a n a l y s e s .
The
p r e t a t i o n c o u l d then be
list
done i n l i g h t o f t h i s h i s t o r y .
The
actual
of texts
examined would i n c l u d e , at a minimum, the R a t n a g o t r a v i b h a g a ( e a r l y V i j n a n a v a d a ) , the Buddhabhumisutra ( I n d i a n and S h i h Lun
(Far-Eastern
t r a d i t i o n s ) , and
T h i s i s a p o p u l a r approach.
one
Far-Eastern),
the
Indian
Ch'eng
o f Guenther's T i b e t a n
I t i s the methodology i m p l i c i t
inter-
Wei
sources.
i n many o f
the
s t u d i e s which have been noted, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e by La V a l l e e P o u s s i n and Hobogirin
article.
Its c l a s s i c a l formulation
i s g i v e n by E l i a d e i n "Methodo-
l o g i c a l Remarks on the Study o f R e l i g i o u s Symbolism,"
1
"where he
the e s s e n t i a l methodology f o r the h i s t o r i a n o f r e l i g i o n s . t o the u s u a l h i s t o r i a n ' s demand t h a t the phenomenon be h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g , he adds the phenomenon must a l s o be
s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t any
examined.
the
accepts
In t h a t
it-as
article,
examined w i t h i n i t s
possible variants of
His example, a study o f the
the
Cosmic T r e e ,
shows the proposed method:
S u f f i c e : i t t o say t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o understand the meaning o f the Cosmic Tree by c o n s i d e r i n g o n l y one or some o f i t s v a r i a n t s . I t i s o n l y by the a n a l y s i s o f a
218
c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f examples t h a t the s t r u c t u r e o f a symbol can be c o m p l e t e l y d e c i p h e r e d . Moreover, one can understand t h e meaning o f a c e r t a i n t y p e o f Cosmic T r e e o n l y a f t e r h a v i n g s t u d i e d t h e most important types and v a r i e t i e s . Only a f t e r an e l u c i d a t i o n o f the s p e c i f i c meanings o f t h e Cosmic Tree i n Mesopotamia o r i n a n c i e n t I n d i a can one understand the symbolism o f Y g g d r a s i l or the Cosmic Trees o f C e n t r a l A s i a and o f S i b e r i a . In the s c i e n c e o f r e l i g i o n s , as elsewhere, comparisons are made i n o r d e r t o f i n d b o t h p a r a l l e l s and d i s t i n c t i o n s . But t h e r e i s s t i l l more. Only a f t e r t a k i n g account o f a l l the v a r i a n t s do the d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e i r meanings f a l l into r e l i e f . I t i s because t h e symbol o f the Indonesian Cosmic Tree does not c o i n c i d e w i t h t h a t o f the A l t a i c Cosmic Tree t h a t the f i r s t r e v e a l s a l l i t s importance f o r t h e s c i e n c e of r e l i g i o n . Thus t h e q u e s t i o n i s posed: I s t h e r e , . i n e i t h e r i n s t a n c e , some i n n o v a t i o n , o b s c u r a t i o n o f meaning, o r a l o s s o f the o r i g i n a l meaning? S i n c e we know what the Cosmic Tree means i n Mesopotamia, i n I n d i a , or i n S i b e r i a , the q u e s t i o n a r i s e s : Because o f what r e l i g i o - h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , o r by what i n t e r i o r r e a s o n , does t h e same 'symbol i n I n d o n e s i a r e v e a l a d i f f e r e n t meaning? (p. 9*0.
T h i s t y p e o f study i s based upon t h e r e s u l t s o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s by specialists.
As E l i a d e s a y s , t h e . t a s k o f t h e h i s t o r i a n o f r e l i g i o n s i s ,
To i n f o r m h i m s e l f o f t h e p r o g r e s s made by the s p e c i a l i s t s : ' i n each o f t h e s e a r e a s . One i s a h i s t o r i a n o f r e l i g i o n s not by v i r t u e o f m a s t e r i n g a c e r t a i n number o f p h i l o l o g i e s , but because one i s a b l e t o i n t e g r a t e r e l i g i o u s d a t a i n t o a g e n e r a l perspective. The h i s t o r i a n o f r e l i g i o n s does not act as a p h i l o l o g i s t , but as a hermeneutist (p. 9l).
While t h i s i s an a t t r a c t i v e p r o c e d u r e , i t i s p o s s i b l e o n l y when the s p e c i a l i s t s have a c t u a l l y made p r o g r e s s and when t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r t h a t t h e r e s u l t s may
be compared.
This i s a reasonable
e x p e c t a t i o n when s t u d y i n g a simple symbol l i k e the Cosmic T r e e , but the d a t a on the t r i k a y a
( i . e . , the d o c t r i n e from each t e x t ) are a l r e a d y the r e s u l t
complex and s e l e c t i v e s t u d i e s . any two
of
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o compare the c o n c l u s i o n s - o f
o f the s c h o l a r s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned.
219
Therefore, s p e c i a l i s t who obtain
the
g e n e r a l i s t who
himself
s t u d i e s the t r i k a y a must a l s o be
s e l e c t s , t r a n s l a t e s , and
arranges e a c h , ' i n o r d e r t o
comparable d a t a f o r a meaningful h i s t o r y .
The
e f f o r t necessary f o r
such a p r o j e c t r e n d e r s the h i s t o r i c a l approach i m p r a c t i c a b l e The
a l t e r n a t e s t r a t e g y i s t o d e r i v e an
from the d a t a i n the Mahayanasamgraha, and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p l i e s t o the
doctrine
("primitive")
i n the o t h e r t e x t s .
f o r the
material.
from the l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f the
A great
innovative
study o f a
sophis-
d e a l o f meaning, can be
d o c t r i n e , i . e . , from the way
development o f each kaya i s not t o t a l l y unknown. p r o v i d e the
guidance o f a
study o f l e s s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y
mass o f d a t a has been woven i n t o a coherent d o c t r i n e .
not
doctrine
then t o determine i f t h i s
f u l l h i s t o r y , such guidance i s l e s s important f o r the
theological
at t h i s time.
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the
Although t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n must be made without the
t i c a t e d d o c t r i n e than i t would be
the
i n which
show the
the
Furthermore, the
While p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s
d e t a i l e d d a t a t h a t would be r e q u i r e d t o a p p r e c i a t e
nature o f the t r i k a y a , they do
deduced
concepts t h a t
do
the
fed into
each kaya. Note t h a t a legitimate:, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may i f t h i s t e x t i s known t o c o n t a i n The
interpretation derived
investigator to appreciate
be
derived
from an
other formulations.
Fortunately,
indigenous t h e o l o g i a n ' s
learned
judgement. much the
Buddhist t r a d i t i o n s have l o n g
The
the
s c h o l a r may
only
doctrine.
i d i o s y n c r a t i c t e x t would not p r e p a r e
on which the
discusses
text
the b a s i c or c e n t r a l v e r s i o n o f the
a s u i t a b l e t e x t i s the type o f q u e s t i o n
textual c r i t i c ,
from one
the
choice
of
trust
the
Buddhist b e l i e v e r , a c t i n g
same problems as does the
scholar.
f o s t e r e d examinations o f the r e l a t i v e
The
as
220
importance and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e s a s t r a s .
Buddhist t h i n k e r s ,
other
modern s c h o l a r s and m y s e l f have found t h e Mahayanasamgraha t o he t h e c e n t r a l text o f the e a r l y Indian Vijnanavada t r a d i t i o n . Therefore,
I s h a l l now develop an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e
d i r e c t l y from t h e p r e c e d i n g reference
a n a l y s i s o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha w i t h
t o t h e e a r l i e r s c h o l a r s h i p and t o o t h e r V i j n a n a v a d i n
A.
occasional
texts.
CRITERIA FOR A MODEL
A s u c c e s s f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a doctrine w i l l describe or imply i t s major f e a t u r e s
i n assertions acceptable
t o a modern Western non-
2 believer.
The d e s c r i p t i o n w i l l
c o n s i s t o f some type o f analogy o r model.
T h i s analogy need not have been r e c o g n i z e d
w i t h i n e i t h e r t h e Buddhist o r
Western t r a d i t i o n s , but must summarize t h e message t h a t an informed Westerner would r e c e i v e from t h e t e x t . The
model must s a t i s f y two c r i t e r i a :
coherence and c l a r i t y .
ence" I mean t h a t , i n t h e words o f A. N. Whitehead,
"Fundamental i d e a s , i n
terms o f which t h e scheme i s developed, presuppose each o t h e r l a t i o n they are meaningless."
By "coher-
so t h a t i n i s o -
T h i s means t h a t , as t h e t e x t c o n t a i n s
a unified
t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e r a t h e r than t h r e e d o c t r i n e s o f s e p a r a t e kayas, i t must one
explanation By
r a t h e r than t h r e e l o o s e l y - r e l a t e d e x p l a n a t i o n s
receive
o r models.
" c l a r i t y " I mean p r i m a r i l y t h a t no element o f t h e model can r e q u i r e
the r e a d e r t o be a b e l i e v e r i n o r d e r t o assent i n v o l v e s any t y p e o f non-shared b e l i e f unsatisfactory. that portrays
T h i s demand again
t o i t . An e x p l a n a t i o n
that
(not o n l y i n Buddhist dogma) i s
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e inadequacy o f any model
an e s s e n t i a l Svk a p p e a r i n g i n t h e B u d d h a f i e l d
and descending
221
i n t o the w o r l d , an i d e a which i s a c c e p t a b l e p o s s i b i l i t y o f such a g o d - l i k e b e i n g . the p r e s e n t
o n l y t o those who
believe
I have b e l a b o r e d t h i s p o i n t
in'the
throughout
study because such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are the most tempting e r r o r
because the model t o be proposed has been shaped by the dynamics o f the
and
search
f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e . The
c l a r i t y c r i t e r i o n i n v o l v e s a second demand: t o a v o i d any
requires
further explanation
o r ~ i s not
That i s , any model t h a t c o n t a i n s
on the
same?logical
element t h a t
l e v e l as the r e s t .
a v e i l e d t h i n g - i n - i t s e l f i s u n a c c e p t a b l e as
t h i s element would then r e q u i r e another model t o " u n v e i l i t s meaning. i n t e r p r e t i v e model must be s e n s i b l e and Models and
a simple analogy t h a t r e p r e s e n t s
generally acceptable
Paradigms, "The
terms.
Ian G.
the d o c t r i n e i n
Barbour says i n Myths,
m e t a p h y s i c i a n takes a ' c o - o r d i n a t i n g
some r e l a t i o n s h i p s he
judges t o be
model which can order
a d i v e r s i t y o f kinds
The
As
s p e c i a l l y important and
demand f o r c l a r i t y e l i m i n a t e s
any
The"-
analogy' from
from i t d e r i v e s
o f e x p e r i e n c e . . ." (p.
6k).
p o r t r a y a l o f a s a c r e d Buddha (which
would r e q u i r e f u r t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) v i s - a - v i s a s e c u l a r or p r o f a n e
aspirant.
I t a l s o e l i m i n a t e s E l i a d e ' s p l a u s i b l e model o f a t h r e e - t i e r e d u n i v e r s e which the
s a c r i l i t y o f the h i g h e r
regions
d i s c o n t i n u i t y o f the w o r l d a x i s .
In t h i s c a s e , c l a r i t y i s e q u i v a l e n t
As B a i r d ^ has
i n ••"..:'
i s communicated t o the lower v i a the
avoidance o f normative o n t o l o g i c a l elements i n an e x p l a n a t i o n i c a l Buddhist dogma.
a
to
the
o f non-ontolog^-
shown, such elements are i n h e r e n t
in
E l i a d e ' s model.
B.
The (a) The
ELEMENTS OF THE
model must p o r t r a y two
MODEL
classes of f a c t s :
fundamental n a t u r e o f the t o t a l s i t u a t i o n or p r o c e s s .
T h i s must
be
222 d e c i d e d "before the i n d i v i d u a l elements (h) I n d i v i d u a l elements mentioned of
can he r e p r e s e n t e d ,
i n the d o c t r i n e , i . e . , each kaya, each t y p e
a s p i r a n t , the f i e l d s i n which t h e y i n t e r a c t , and the r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between them. We
have seen t h a t Asanga has c o n s t r u c t e d h i s V i j n a n a v a d a around
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r a t h e r than the n a t u r e , o f e x p e r i e n c e . is
" a w a r e n e s s " — i n d i c a t e d " by terms based upon
v i j n a n a , n i r v i k a l p a j nana, y i f r i a p t i , e t c . sub-doctrine
the
His u n i f y i n g
concept
V j n a , e.g., p r a j n a , j n a n a ,
T h e r e f o r e , the b e s t analogy f o r some
(such as the t r i k a y a ) would appear t o be an e p i s t e m i c model.
As
the t r i k a y a can be seen as an e p i s t e m i c encounter between a s p i r a n t and Buddha w i t h i n a c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n , and t h e s e can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h o s e o f the s u b j e c t - o b j e c t - f i e l d t r i a d , I suggest t h a t such an encounter form the b a s i c model f o r the t r i k a y a .
T h i s model w i l l e x h i b i t coherence
( i t i s meaningless
to
speak o f an o b j e c t l e s s s u b j e c t ) and c l a r i t y
(none o f the t h r e e terms r e f e r s
to
a n y t h i n g m y s t e r i o u s or hidden b e h i n d the s i t u a t i o n p o r t r a y e d ) . T h i s i s not a c l a i m t h a t Asanga's d o c t r i n e does (or does not)
r e f e r t o such an encounter between Buddha and a s p i r a n t .
really
As Asanga does not
admit t h a t e i t h e r o f them e x i s t s , such a c l a i m would be n o n s e n s i c a l . an analogy.
I w i l l argue below t h a t the most u s e f u l answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f
. the r e a l n a t u r e o f the t r i k a y a i s t h a t i t i s a pure s t r u c t u r e . e p i s t e m i c encounter i s o n l y one p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s is
This i s
While
the
structure, i t
the most s u i t a b l e one f o r s t u d y i n g the c o n t e n t i o n s embodied i n the
• ...
Mahayanasamgraha. , T h e ' i n d i v i d u a l - , elements • or:es of
are
the Svk, Nk,
r e q u i r e . l i t t l e " immediate d i s c u s s i o n .
The main
Sbk, the S r a v a k a and B o d h i s a t t v a , p l u s the common w o r l d
m i s e r y and the j o y - f i l l e d B u d d h a f i e l d .
These f a l l
i n t o r e l a t e d s e t s : the
223
Sravaka and Nk i n h a b i t t h e common w o r l d , w h i l e t h e B o d h i s a t t v a and Sbk i n h a b i t the
Buddhafield.
Each i n c l u d e s t h e a s p i r a n t
(as Sravaka o r B o d h i s a t t v a ) who
p e r c e i v e s t h e Buddha (as Nk or Sbk) w i t h i n a f i e l d field).
(common w o r l d o r Buddha-
The Svk, which appears t o be a s p e c i a l c a s e , can be i g n o r e d f o r t h e
moment. The s e t s a r e r e l a t e d i n a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d manner. a l o n g a l i n e a r continuum
o f "awareness"
They a r e l o c a t e d
(jnana) d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r V I I I .
It
s t r e t c h e s from t h e p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual awareness o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l who i s not y e t a Sravaka, through t h e fundamental
and subsequent
awarenesses.
Sravaka-Nk i s l o c a t e d i n t h e
The common w o r l d c o n t a i n i n g t h e
non-conceptual
fundamental non-conceptual awareness r e g i o n o f t h e continuum, w h i l e t h e B u d d h a f i e l d c o n t a i n i n g t h e B o d h i s a t t v a - S b k i s l o c a t e d a t t h e subsequent nonc o n c e p t u a l awareness r e g i o n .
COMMON WORLD
PREPARATORY NON-CONCEPTUAL AWARENESS
BUDDHAFIELD
SRAVAKA
BODHISATTVA
NK
SBK
FUNDAMENTAL NON-CONCE PTUAL AWARENESS
Figure 1
SUBSEQUENT NON-CONCEPTUAL AWARENESS
22k
Note t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e between s i t u a t i o n s a l o n g the continuum
of
awareness i s s o t e r i o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e measured i n degrees o f non-conceptual awareness, not n e c e s s a r i l y temporal d i s t a n c e .
As Asanga views
temporal
d i s t i n c t i o n s as c o n v e n t i o n a l ( v i j n a p t i , 1 1 : 2 ) , the model need temporal c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n l y when t h e y correspond t o
illustrate
soteriological
development.
C.
STRUCTURALISM?
Another b r i e f c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f methodology i s n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e we proceed t o develop the model.
I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i g n o r e the
between" F i g u r e 1 and those models developed by contemporary
can
similarities
Structuralists-
T h i s r e a l i z a t i o n i s encouraging because, as s t r u c t u r a l i s m i s a p o p u l a r t r e n d , we may
expect t o f i n d u s e f u l s u g g e s t i o n s i n i t s immense l i t e r a t u r e .
However, t h e l a b e l i s a p p l i e d t o a b e w i l d e r i n g d i v e r s i t y o f methodo l o g i e s i n l i n g u i s t i c s , mathematics,
a n t h r o p o l o g y , p s y c h o l o g y and
P r a c t i c a l a i d can be expected o n l y from someone who
deals either with
s i m i l a r q u e s t i o n s (improbable) o r w i t h s t r u c t u r e s s u f f i c i e n t l y t h a t t h e y may
sociology.
be used f o r such a r a d i c a l hermeneutic.
abstract
The i n t e r e s t s o f the
l i n g u i s t s and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s are much too narrow, and o t h e r s ( e . g . , P i a g e t ) are more h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e movement than p r a c t i t i o n e r s . the work o f one s c h o l a r i s a p p l i c a b l e and
Fortunately,
accessible.
In t h i s study, " S t r u c t u r a l i s m " w i l l d e s i g n a t e the methodology o f Claude L e v i - S t r a u s s . Not o n l y has he s t u d i e d s t r u c t u r e s u n d e r l y i n g a broad range o f p r a c t i c e s and b e l i e f s , but h i s models are v e r y s i m i l a r t o ours.
225
This
s i m i l a r i t y can he seen by comparing F i g u r e
1 with h i s . c r i t e r i a f o r
a s t r u c t u r a l model.- I n : S t r u c t u r a l Anthropology he says: -
The q u e s t i o n t h e n becomes t h a t o f a s c e r t a i n i n g what k i n d o f model deserves t h e name " s t r u c t u r e . " T h i s i s not an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n , but one which belongs t o t h e methodology o f s c i e n c e i n g e n e r a l . Keeping t h i s i n mind, we can say t h a t a s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s o f a model meeting with s e v e r a l requirements. F i r s t , the structure exhibits the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a system. I t i s made up o f s e v e r a l elements, none o f which can undergo a change without e f f e c t i n g changes i n a l l t h e other elements. Second, f o r any g i v e n model t h e r e should be a p o s s i b i l i t y of ordering a series o f transformations r e s u l t i n g i n a group o f models o f t h e same t y p e . T h i r d , t h e above p r o p e r t i e s make i t p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t how t h e model w i l l r e a c t i f one or more o f i t s elements a r e submitted t o c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s . f • F i n a l l y , t h e model should be c o n s t i t u t e d so as t o make immediately i n t e l l i g i b l e a l l t h e observed f a c t s (.pp. 279-280). A l l o f t h e s e a r e s a t i s f i e d by t h e model o f F i g u r e 1. • I must s t r e s s t h a t t h i s study f o l l o w s h i s methodology i n a v e r y manner.
I am not o b l i g e d t o defend any o r a l l o f h i s o p i n i o n s
unrelated matters. our d a t a ,
loose
on r e l a t e d o r
The S t r u c t u r a l i s t approach i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e n a t u r e o f
and i t i s o n l y common sense t o accept guidance from o t h e r s who have
f a c e d s i m i l a r problems. A r e a l o b j e c t i o n must be f o r e s t a l l e d .
Structuralism i s often
said
( e s p e c i a l l y by l i n g u i s t s ) 'to d e a l o n l y w i t h i m p l i c i t
( i n the jargon,
scious") patterns
The s t r u c t u r a l i s t ' s
i n myth, s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , e t c .
o f exposing p a t t e r n s
"uncontask
n o r m a l l y obscured by c o n s c i o u s d o c t r i n e i s seen as a
v a r i e t y o f Kantian a n a l y s i s . date Asanga's e x p l i c i t
6
I f t h i s were s t r i c t l y t r u e , an attempt t o e l u c i -
dogmas c o u l d not be S t r u c t u r a l i s m .
However, such an
226
u n d e r s t a n d i n g g r o s s l y o v e r s i m p l i f i e s the method. Levi-Strauss
In S t r u c t u r a l Anthropology
says:
A s t r u c t u r a l model may he c o n s c i o u s or unconscious without t h i s d i f f e r e n c e a f f e c t i n g i t s nature. I t can o n l y he s a i d t h a t when the s t r u c t u r e o f a c e r t a i n type o f phenomena does not l i e at a great depth, i t i s more l i k e l y t h a t some k i n d o f model, s t a n d i n g as a screen t o h i d e i t , w i l l e x i s t i n the c o l l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . For c o n s c i o u s models, which are u s u a l l y known as "norms," are by d e f i n i t i o n v e r y poor ones, s i n c e t h e y are not i n t e n d e d t o e x p l a i n the phenomena hut t o p e r p e t u a t e them. T h e r e f o r e , s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s i s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a s t r a n g e paradox, w e l l known t o the l i n g u i s t , t h a t i s : the more ohvious s t r u c t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s , the more d i f f i c u l t i t becomes t o r e a c h i t because o f the i n a c c u r a t e c o n s c i o u s models l y i n g across the path which l e a d s t o i t . From the p o i n t of view o f the degree o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t i s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h two kinds o f s i t u a t i o n s . He may have t o c o n s t r u c t a model from phenomena the s y s t e m a t i c c h a r a c t e r o f which has evoked no awareness on the p a r t o f the c u l t u r e ; t h i s i s the k i n d o f s i m p l e r s i t u a t i o n r e f e r r e d t o by Boas as p r o v i d i n g the e a s i e s t ground f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l research. Or e l s e t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t w i l l be d e a l i n g on t h e one hand w i t h raw phenomena and on the o t h e r w i t h the models a l r e a d y c o n s t r u c t e d by the c u l t u r e t o i n t e r p r e t the former. Though i t i s l i k e l y t h a t , f o r the reasons s t a t e d above, t h e s e models w i l l prove u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , i t i s by no means- n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h i s should always be the case. As a matter o f f a c t , many " p r i m i t i v e " c u l t u r e s have b u i l t models o f t h e i r marriage r e g u l a t i o n s which are much more t o the p o i n t than models b u i l t by p r o f e s s i o n a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s . Thus one cannot d i s pense w i t h s t u d y i n g a c u l t u r e ' s "home-made" models f o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e s e models might prove t o be a c c u r a t e o r , at l e a s t , t o p r o v i d e some i n s i g h t i n t o the s t r u c t u r e o f the phenomena; a f t e r a l l , each c u l t u r e has i t s own t h e o r e t i c i a n s whose c o n t r i b u t i o n s deserve the same a t t e n t i o n as t h a t which the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t g i v e s t o c o l l e a g u e s . And, second, even i f the models are b i a s e d or erroneous, the v e r y b i a s and t y p e o f e r r o r are a p a r t o f the f a c t s under study and p r o b a b l y rank among the most s i g n i f i c a n t ones. But even when t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e s e c u l t u r a l l y produced models, t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t does not f o r g e t — as he has sometimes been accused o f d o i n g — t h a t the c u l t u r a l norms, are not o f themselves s t r u c t u r e s . R a t h e r , t h e y f u r n i s h an important c o n t r i b u t i o n t o an understanding'.of the s t r u c t u r e s , e i t h e r as f a c t u a l documents or as t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t h i m s e l f (pp. 281-282).
227
By t h e s e standards the p r e s e n t study i s c e r t a i n l y S t r u c t u r a l i s t r e s e a r c h . Asanga p r e s e n t s the raw phenomena (the agreed-upon f a c t s about t o g e t h e r w i t h a home-made model (the t r i k a y a ) . r e g a r d e d as an i m p l i c i t
Buddhahood)
I suggest t h a t the t r i k a y a be
s t r u c t u r e u n d e r l y i n g the d o c t r i n e s about
Buddhahood.
In the p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , f o l l o w i n g Asanga's c a t e g o r i e s wherever p o s s i b l e , his
d e r i v a t i o n o f the t r i k a y a was
examined.
In t h i s s e c t i o n i t w i l l
be
c a r r i e d one stage deeper t o a r r i v e at a s t r u c t u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a b s t r a c t t o be c r e d i b l e t o those o u t s i d e t h e c i r c l e o f b e l i e v e r s . In
the course o f t h i s d e r i v a t i o n , L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s models w i l l p r o v i d e
s u g g e s t i o n s on how s o l u t i o n be adopted
p a r t i c u l a r problems may simply because
D.
be s o l v e d .
he has chosen a s i m i l a r
a
one.
DEVELOPING THE MODEL
L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s s t r u c t u r a l models e x h i b i t two approaches
At no time w i l l
t o d e v e l o p i n g our own
model.
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that
suggest
The most n o t a b l e f e a t u r e s are t h e
s e t s o f s t r u c t u r e s t h a t can be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o one another a c c o r d i n g t o certain rules.
That i s , the same s t r u c t u r a l elements
s t r u c t u r e o f the set a l t h o u g h t h e y may
are p r e s e n t i n each
take d i f f e r e n t names, forms, e t c .
These are d e f i n i t e l y not the same " t h i n g s " a p p e a r i n g i n d i f f e r e n t ways.
The
Structuralist
so
f o c u s s e s on the p a t t e r n s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between them and
g a i n s the a b i l i t y t o speak o f one t h i n g t u r n i n g i n t o another without becoming e n t a n g l e d i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f essence.
I t i s t h i s a b i l i t y t h a t recommends
the S t r u c t u r a l i s t method f o r the study o f Buddhist m a t e r i a l .
We
can speak o f
the Nk and Sbk as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f one another without b e i n g f o r c e d t o e x p l a i n how
t h i s can o c c u r .
I s h a l l r e f e r t o each s i t u a t i o n , such as t h e Sravaka-Nk
i n t h e common w o r l d or the B o d h i s a t t v a - S b k i n the B u d d h a f i e l d , as a " s t r u c t u r e , "
228
to
t h e movement whereby one
to
t h e complete set o f s t r u c t u r e s as a "model." The
changes i n t o the o t h e r as a " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , " and
second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a S t r u c t u r a l i s t model i s i t s tendency t o
7 c o n t a i n p a i r s o f b i n a r y o p p o s i t e s mediated by an i n t e r v e n i n g term.
. These
i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r e s are o r g a n i z e d i n t o f u l l models which d i s p l a y a
similar
symmetry. With t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n mind, the asymmetry o f F i g u r e 1, by t h e p e c u l i a r protuberance t h a t the model may Svk
(which was
of p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual
be i n c o m p l e t e .
caused
awareness,
suggests
The most obvious p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t t h e
set a s i d e ) i s the m i s s i n g complement t o the p r e p a r a t o r y
c o n c e p t u a l awareness, and may
non-
be p l a c e d t o the r i g h t o f the Sbk t o b a l a n c e
p r e p a r a t o r y awareness at the l e f t .
As one
the
o f the b a s i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the
Svk has been "awareness" (jHana), t h i s must be i t s l a b e l on the b a s e l i n e . However, Asahga g i v e s no reason t o r e g a r d i t as the terminus of
non-conceptual
awareness.
Both the Svk and
d i s c o n n e c t e d from the B u d d h a f i e l d .
o f the
continuum
i t s awareness seem t o be
T h i s d i s c o n t i n u i t y w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by a
heavy broken l i n e . Although
t h i s i s t h e o n l y l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n f o r t h e Svk,
i t s jnana i s
c l e a r l y not t h e m i s s i n g complement t o t h e p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual The
l a t t e r i s p a r t o f the continuum, the former i s not. 8
complement f o r the Svk by n e s c i e n c e
i s a v a i l a b l e as the P r t h a g j a n a
awareness.
Furthermore, a t r u e
or w o r l d l i n g dominated
(avidya) or c o n c e p t u a l awareness ( v i j n a n a ) .
Although
he i s not
mentioned i n the t e x t , the t h e o r y o f the Prthagjana, and the i n t e n t i o n o f t h e Mahayana t o o f f e r s a l v a t i o n t o a l l , i s c l e a r . left
o f the diagram, p a s t the S r a v a k a - N k .
d e s i g n a t e d "conceptual.awareness,"•
He w i l l be l o c a t e d t o the f a r
.His segment o f the b a s e l i n e can
"vijnana."•
T h i s p o s i t i o n does n o t
imply
be
229
t h a t he i s t h e lower terminus o f t h e awareness continuum.
While h i s v i j n a n a
may appear t o he t h e l o g i c a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e d e v e l o p i n g non-conceptual awareness,
t h e t e x t does n o t s t a t e t h a t t h e r e i s a c o n t i n u i t y between t h e two.
T h i s q u e s t i o n w i l l be taken up l a t e r . The a d d i t i o n o f t h e s e two s i t u a t i o n s has not removed t h e asymmetry a r i s i n g from t h e p r e p a r a t o r y n o n - c o n c e p t u a l awareness.
I t i s now c l e a r t h a t
t h i s awareness must p e r t a i n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t a n d i n g between t h e s t a t e s o f P r t h a g j a n a and message.
Sravaka,
i . e . , one who has heard but not developed t h e Buddhist
As Asanga g i v e s no simple l a b e l f o r such an i n d i v i d u a l , I w i l l
him t h e "Neophyte." These a d d i t i o n s g i v e t h e model i n F i g u r e 2.
PRTHAGJANA
vijnana avidya
NEOPHYTE
SRAVAKA
BODHISATTVA
NK
SBK
PREPARATORY FUNDAMENTAL SUBSEQUENT NON-CONCEPTUAL NON-CONCEPTUAL NON-CONCEPTUAL AWARENESS AWARENESS AWARENESS
Figure 2
SVK
jnana
call
More d e t a i l can be added.
Asanga i d e n t i f i e s t h e Buddha, a s p i r a n t ,
environment and i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i n each s i t u a t i o n .
They can be p o r t r a y e d
a f i e l d c e n t e r e d upon whichever f i g u r e i s f e l t , by the a s p i r a n t , t o be most important.
The
o t h e r one
in
the
can be p i c t u r e d at a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e from the
c e n t e r , r e p r e s e n t i n g the d i s t a n c e remaining
between the a s p i r a n t and
Buddha-
hood . F i r s t , the P r t h a g j a n a present.
The
occupies
Neophyte's s i t u a t i o n i s not d e s c r i b e d .
c e n t e r o f h i s w o r l d , where he c e n t e r o f the B u d d h a f i e l d , Bodhisattva. Buddha.
the c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n and no Buddha i s The
i s approached by the Nk.
Sravaka o c c u p i e s
The
Sbk,
i s approached more c l o s e l y by the a s p i r a n t
Asanga i s ambiguous about whether the l o n e Svk
The
t o the Sravaka, and reasonable
Buddha i s absent from the Prthagjana's still
c l o s e r t o the B o d h i s a t t v a
t o assume t h a t the two
merge i n the f i n a l
i s the abrupt
I suggest t h a t we
turn-about
Nk
and Neophyte, and w i l l
w i t h the
is a
i n the B u d d h a f i e l d .
It i s
situation. of the
Sravaka-
t h a t Asahga c a l l s " r e o r i e n t a -
r e g a r d t h e model as symmetrical
I f i t i s , then t h e Buddhaland must be
as
world, i s c l o s e r
Note t h a t , i n t h i s diagram, t h e t r a n s i t i o n from the w o r l d Nk t o t h e B u d d h a f i e l d
the
i s a s p i r a n t or
However, the p a t t e r n a c r o s s the model suggests t h a t t h e Svk
f u s i o n of both.
tion."
occupying
the
e q u i v a l e n t t o the
about t h i s p o i n t .
s i t u a t i o n s o f Sravaka-
c o n t a i n a l l phases o f the a s p i r a n t ' s i n t e r a c t i o n
Sbk.
These a d d i t i o n s g i v e the model shown i n F i g u r e
3-
231
NK z o PRTHAGJANA
NEOPHYTE
SRAVAKA
5 z
u O
SBK
SVK
BODHISATTVA
u vijoana avidya
PREPARATORY FUNDAMENTAL I SUBSEQUENT NON-CONCEPTUAL NON—CONCEPTUALj NON-CONCEPTUAL | AWARENESS AWARENESS AWARENESS
jnana
Figure 3
At t h i s p o i n t each s i t u a t i o n o f t h e emerging p o r t r a i t may be examined i n more d e t a i l .
1.
The
Prthagjana
THE PRTHAGJANA
(pure w o r l d l i n g ) , untouched by t h e Buddhist
d i s c u s s e d i n t h e Abhidharma l i t e r a t u r e . nescience; they are conceptual interpretation
message, i s
H i s p e r c e p t i o n s a r e dominated by
( v i j f i a n a ) , molded by t h e g e n e r a l schemata o f
( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f space and t i m e , see II:2-11) as w e l l as
more i d i o s y n c r a t i c p r e j u d i c e s . o b j e c t surrounded
T h e r e f o r e , he e x p e r i e n c e s h i s " s e l f " as an
by o t h e r o b j e c t s — b o t h s e l f and o t h e r generated
r e i f y i n g p e r c e p t i o n s — a c l o s e d and f r u s t r a t i n g w o r l d cannot l e a d t o i n s i g h t o r improvement.
i n which
by h i s
experience
232
As t h e P r t h a g j a n a i s an added l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y , i t need not he an" i n h a b i t e d , or e v e n - h a b i t a b l e , c a t e g o r y .
Asanga may n o t - h a v e - b e l i e v e d
b e i n g c o u l d remain untouched by t h e Buddhist message.
that'any
T h i s q u e s t i o n w i l l be a
key t o l a t e r developments o f the•-model. •.
2.
The
THE NEOPHYTE
d i s c o n t i n u i t y between P r t h a g j a n a and t h e r e s t o f t h e diagram marks
the p r e c i s e p o i n t a t which t h e Buddhist Buddhahood, o r non-conceptual
message i s addressed
awareness, develops
t h i s seminal message ( s r u t a v a s a n a b i j a ) .
t o the Prthagjana.
from, t h e i m p r e s s i o n l e f t by
The message c o n s i s t s o f t h e i d e a s
c o n t a i n e d i n t h e t e x t , i n c l u d i n g t h e moral r u l e s , t h e p r e s c r i b e d m e d i t a t i o n , and t h e appearance o f t h e Nk w i t h i t s t h i r t y - t w o and e i g h t y marks. to
i t i n v o l v e s l i v i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e code, p e r f o r m i n g
o r d e r t o develop t h e non-conceptual a specific The in
Attending
the meditation i n
awareness, and a w a i t i n g a Buddha who has
appearance.
gradual t r a n s i t i o n t o the world
i n which t h e Nk has appeared appears
t h e model as movement a l o n g t h e continuum.
3.
THE NIRMANAKAYA-SRAVAKA
As t h e p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual s i t u a t i o n becomes t h a t o f t h e aspirant s t i l l
awareness d e v e l o p s , t h e Neophyte's or novice Bodhisattva.
While t h e
o c c u p i e s t h e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n , a Nk, b e a r i n g the. marks•of a
Buddha, has e n t e r e d t h e f i e l d . activities.
Sravaka
ENCOUNTER
He proceeds through
H i s v i s i b l e presence
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Buddha
seems t o be n e c e s s a r y
f o r the
Sravaka's
m a t u r a t i o n , b u t Asanga p l a c e s no s t r e s s on p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n , except f o r
233
the f a c t t h a t the Nk The
d i s c i p l i n e s or teaches
the
Sravaka
through
pain.
q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the Nk t o the o t h e r kayas can now
raised.
Sufficient
emphasis has been p l a c e d on the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a
Buddha b e h i n d the Nk t o make the advantages o f a S t r u c t u r a l i s t model In such a model each s i t u a t i o n may
be t r a n s f o r m e d
he
"real"
obvious.
i n t o another without
gaining
o r l o s i n g elements, i . e . , "For a g i v e n model t h e r e s h o u l d be a p o s s i b i l i t y
of
o r d e r i n g a s e r i e s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s ^ r e s u l t i n g in.a" group o f models o f the same type." I f t h i s i s a p p l i c a b l e , t h e Nk would be a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f some element present, i n d i f f e r e n t (Bodhisattva-Sbk) be r e g a r d e d
forms, i n both the p r e c e d i n g
s i t u a t i o n s . ' " T h i s seems'to be the case as t h e Nk
as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f one
Sravaka
and the B o d h i s a t t v a .
present
i n the Neophyte's s i t u a t i o n ?
present
i n the form
aspirant.
(Neophyte) and f o l l o w i n g
But
another,
as may
may
the Neophyte, the
s u r e l y t h e r e i s no form of the Buddha I suggest
t h a t the Buddha i s f u l l y
o f the message or d o c t r i n e (dharma) i n t e r n a l i z e d by
When he moves t o the
Sravaka-Nk
the
s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e i s no need t o
p o s i t an e x t e r n a l Buddha i n a d d i t i o n t o the d e v e l o p i n g message. a c t s o f the Nk
and Sbk
are s u p p l i e d from the memorized d e s c r i p t i o n s .
The marks
and
The presence
of
the Buddha, i . e . , the f a c t t h a t he i s r e c o g n i z e d , comes from the a s p i r a n t ' s p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual
awareness developed
T h i s s o l u t i o n , which r e q u i r e s no new p u z z l i n g f a c t t h a t the Nk tva
facilitates
by the p a i n o f the p a r l n i r v a n a .
the
through
or mysterious
Sravaka's
meditation. terms, e x p l a i n s t h e
maturation
into a Bodhisat-
I f the Sravaka. i s a Neophyte who
b o t h knowledge o f Buddhahood and an openness o f p e r c e p t i o n , he w i l l the Buddha image a s he would any o t h e r : he w i l l and d i s a p p e a r i n g .
The
disappearance
will
see i t a p p e a r i n g ,
has
gained
perceive
remaining
cause p a i n a s would t h a t o f any
other
23h
valued object.
But t h e Sravaka w i l l b e n e f i t from t h i s p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e by ^
g
A
a d o p t i n g t h e Mahayana p r a c t i c e s ,
which w i l l a l l o w him t o share t h e Buddha's
company i n a B u d d h a f i e l d . Another way o f a p p l y i n g t h i s s o l u t i o n i s t o r e g a r d t h e Buddha, as - a s i n g u l a r " a c t i v e " type o f o b j e c t .
Attachment t o t h e Buddha p a i n s t h e a s p i r a n t ,
as does attachment t o any t r a n s i t o r y o b j e c t . passive object.
However, t h e Buddha i s not a
S i n c e a l l aspects o f i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i n c l u d i n g t h e p a i n f u l
ones, have been r e o r i e n t e d i n t o m a s t e r i e s , t h e Buddha can p l a y an a c t i v e in the aspirant's perception.
The p a i n a r i s i n g from i t s disappearance
grounded s o l e l y i n t h e Sravaka's mentation, the i n t e r p l a y between Buddha and
k.
The
Sravaka
Sravaka. REORIENTATION
of t h e Nk b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e Sbk's B u d d h a f i e l d . i s t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n by which domination That
awareness i n t h e presence The e n t r y t o t h e B u d d h a f i e l d
o f t h e a s p i r a n t by p e r c e p t i o n s i s
i s , the q u i e t i s t i c
c e p t u a l awareness which can c i r c u l a t e f r e e l y throughout
5.
fundamental non-conthe world.
THE SAMBHOGAKAYA-BODHISATTVA ENCOUNTER
T h i s i s a mirror-image to
i s not
but i s a s t i m u l u s whose l o c u s i s
develops h i s b a s i c non-conceptual
r e p l a c e d by a mastery o f them.
role
o f t h e Nk-Sravaka encounter.
t h e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n and has changed from a p l a i n
The Buddha has moved
( i n the iconographic
sense o f l a c k i n g j e w e l s , g o l d , r o b e s , e t c . ) mahapurusa form, t o one which varies..,according t o t h e a s p i r a t i o n o f - t h e o b s e r v e r but which, tends toward t h a t of
a b e j e w e l l e d Sambhoga-Buddha.
235
The
a s p i r a n t who
monk) has now
was
heen t r a n s f o r m e d
w i t h t h e Buddha.
Sravaka
formerly a
( s u r e l y t o he p i c t u r e d as a p i o u s
i n t o a B o d h i s a t t v a and has
I n s t e a d o f s i t t i n g at the c e n t e r a w a i t i n g the Nk,
approaches t h e Sbk who.is s e a t e d at t h e c e n t e r . has
exchanged p l a c e s
The
he
d i s t a n c e between t h e
two
decreased. The n a t u r e o f the f i e l d - h a s a l s o a l t e r e d .
common o b j e c t s has
of
changed i n t o a B u d d h a f i e l d o f p l e a s u r e - y i e l d i n g j e w e l s .
Most i m p o r t a n t , t h e t e a c h i n g i s now the Buddhist
The . p a i n ^ - f i l l e d w o r l d
pratityasamutpada
v i a p l e a s u r e r a t h e r than p a i n .
Using
scheme, we might say. t h a t the Nk teaches
means o f o l d age-death w h i l e t h e Sbk,
by
r e p r e s e n t e d by a c h i l d , young man
Sambhoga Buddha, teaches by means o f b i r t h and l i f e .
or
Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,
t h e j o y "matures" the B o d h i s a t t v a by a i d i n g the development o f
non-conceptual
awareness.
6.
The
Svk
THE
SVABHAVIKAKAYA
appears as the a n t i t h e s i s o f the P r t h a g j a n a .
Buddhahood; the l a t t e r i s untouched by Buddhahood..
The
The
former i s pure aware-
ness ( j n a n a ) ; t h e l a t t e r i s c o n c e p t u a l awareness ( v i j n a n a ) . o p p o s i t e ends o f t h e model but n e i t h e r i s a d i r e c t
former i s pure
They l i e at
c o n t i n u a t i o n of the
central
situations. The
d i s c o n t i n u i t y between Svk
development o f t h e model. in
each-of As
its
three
and t h e B u d d h a f i e l d i s a key t o f u r t h e r
A r e v e a l i n g approach i s the c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the
a s p e c t s • ( r e s u l t , awareness, and
support
for sovereignty).
" r e s u l t " i t i s the c u l m i n a t i o n o f a l i f e based upon an acceptance
the dharma and attendant p r a c t i c e s . an encounter
w i t h t h e Nk,
The
Svk
of
i n i t i a l t a s t e o f the dharma l e a d s t o
t o a c l o s e r encounter
w i t h t h e Sbk,
and t o e v e n t u a l
i d e n t i t y w i t h the Svk. "result"
Thus, i t appears t o he t h e l o g i c a l terminus o f a
continuum.
As "support f o r s o v e r e i g n t y " and "awareness," a transformation of the c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s . t i n u i t y i s obvious.
In the f i r s t
c a s e , the d i s c o n -
A support f o r a c t i o n s must be more than the e v e n t u a l
r e s u l t o f those a c t i o n s . supports.
the Svk cannot be seen as
I t must s t a n d beneath o r b e h i n d t h a t which i t
In t h e second c a s e , the t e x t o u t l i n e s a p r o c e s s by which
p r e p a r a t o r y non-conceptual awareness develops i n t o t h e Sravaka's n o n - c o n c e p t u a l awareness and f i n a l l y c o n c e p t u a l awareness.
the
fundamental"
i n t o t h e B o d h i s a t t v a ' s subsequent
Asafiga mentions
no "super-subsequent"
non-conceptual
awareness t h a t c o u l d p e r t a i n t o the Svk o r be e x p e r i e n c e d s e p a r a t e l y . merely matches "awareness"
(jnana) and
7.
non-
He
Svk.
THE FULL MODEL
The model o f F i g u r e 3, w i t h P r t h a g j a n a at-.one'end and Svk at the o t h e r , ' i s ambiguous. enlightenment.
In some ways, i t seems t o be a map
o f p e r s o n a l p r o g r e s s toward
In o t h e r s , a t r u n c a t e d v e r s i o n o f such a map
(i.e.,
Neophyte-
S r a v a k a - B o d h i s a t t v a ) appears t o be caught between t h e two end terms, are
d i s c o n n e c t e d from t h e f a c t s o f p e r s o n a l
which
development.
I suggest t h a t t h i s ambiguity a r i s e s from the s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f two i d e a s on the same a x i s .
The
first
i s the i d e a o f a continuum
basic
of developing
Buddhahood r u n n i n g from Neophyte, through Sravaka t o B o d h i s a t t v a . i s t h a t o f t h e g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e as an
The
second
encounter
between P r t h a g j a n a and B u d d h a — a n encounter which t a k e s t h e form o f t h e t h r e e central situations.
These are c l o s e l y r e l a t e d but s e p a r a b l e .
As b o t h i d e a s share the c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s , t h e y may
be b e t t e r
displayed
237
"by t u r n i n g the Prthagjana-Svk a x i s at r i g h t
angles t o the continuum.
This
y i e l d s a two-dimensional diagram i n which the former t e r m i n a l p o i n t s w i l l
he
on the v e r t i c a l a x i s and the t h r e e c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s w i l l he on the h o r i z o n t a l axis.
As development i s c u s t o m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r i s i n g , t h e Svk w i l l
at t h e t o p o f t h e diagram and t h e P r t h a g j a n a s i t u a t i o n s may o f F i g u r e k.
be l e f t
i n the same o r d e r as i n F i g u r e 3 .
The
l o g i c a l p l a n e and
has two
central
T h i s g i v e s the model
I t w i l l be used throughout the remainder o f t h i s
The model now
different
at the bottom.
he
study.
dimensions which, w h i l e they are on the same
share the same c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s , appear t o p o r t r a y q u i t e
approaches t o t h e d a t a .
These d i f f e r e n c e s can be understood
c o n s i d e r i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the upper and lower terms t o t h e
by
central
situations. The
first
q u e s t i o n i s t h a t o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the P r t h a g j a n a
r e s t o f the model. Prthagjana
a b s o l u t e i s the d i s c o n t i n u i t y ?
ever become a Sravaka o r a B o d h i s a t t v a ?
would p r o b a b l y c o n t a i n s no
In p a r t i c u l a r , how
r e p l y i n the a f f i r m a t i v e .
statement t o t h a t e f f e c t .
t o the
Most B u d d h i s t s
Can
the
or scholars
However, the Mahayanasamgraha
The
v e r y term " P r t h a g j a n a "
the t e x t d e s c r i b e s o n l y the development o f the Neophyte who
has
i s not
already
found; heard
the dharma. Support f o r t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e P r t h a g j a n a comes from a p r e v i o u s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g .
We
i s an empty c a t e g o r y
also
have noted t h a t t h e diagram o f
F i g u r e 3 c o n t a i n s f o u r s i t u a t i o n s : those o f the Neophyte, the Sravaka, t h e B o d h i s a t t v a and the Svk.
Each o f t h e s e
c o n t a i n s an element t h a t may
be
regarded
as a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the a s p i r a n t , and an element t h a t may
regarded
as a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Buddha.
c o n t a i n s o n l y one
element was
The
f a c t t h a t the Svk
e x p l a i n e d by assuming t h a t the Svk
be
situation
i s the f u s i o n
jnana
4
DHARMA
N K z o NEOPHYTE
SRAVAKA
H <
u z
o
SBK BODHISATTVA
w CA
PREPARATORY NON-CONCEPTUAL AWARENESS
SUBSEQUENT FUNDAMENTAL NON-CONCEPTUAL NON-CONCEPTUAL AWARENESS AWA R E N E S S
vijnana
PRTHAGJANA Figure k
239
of
a s p i r a n t and Buddha.
The f i r s t
s i t u a t i o n contains only the aspirant, the
second and t h i r d both c o n t a i n a s p i r a n t and Buddha, and t h e f o u r t h c o n t a i n s t h e Svk, which may he e i t h e r a s p i r a n t o r Buddha. However, t h e P r t h a g j a n a i s a p a r t from t h e Neophyte.
While t h e Neophyte
encounters t h e Buddha i n t h e form o f the Buddhist dharma, t h e P r t h a g j a n a l a c k s even t h a t c o n t a c t .
T h e r e f o r e , h i s s i t u a t i o n cannot he a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
o t h e r s , and thus cannot he one o f t h e s e t composing a S t r u c t u r a l i s t model. Furthermore,
i f t h e Buddha develops from t h e dharma, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o
understand how t h e u t t e r l y c l o s e d i n d i v i d u a l , who has not h e a r d t h e message, c o u l d hear o r develop i t . Asanga g i v e s no h i n t o f another term t h a t c o u l d become t h e message. The f i n a l
p i e c e o f evidence t h a t t h e P r t h a g j a n a cannot be another
h a b i t a b l e c a t e g o r y i s t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e V i j n a n a v a d a l i t e r a t u r e , where he i s known as an a g o t r a k a (one b e l o n g i n g t o no " f a m i l y " o f p r a c t i t i o n e r s ) , o r an;.icchantika (one who
i s ' " c u t • off."
from t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f enlightenment)'.
A l t h o u g h t h e s e are not d i s c u s s e d i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha, t h e r e l a t e d
litera-
t u r e ^ shows t h a t the V i j n a n a v a d i n s abandoned the p o s s i b i l i t y o f such a c l a s s 1
of
individuals. T h e r e f o r e , t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l dimensions 'represent a l t e r n a t e
ways o f r e g a r d i n g the Buddhology and must be e x p l a i n e d d i f f e r e n t l y . t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s o f the model be r e g a r d e d as a d i a l e c t i c a l between two p o l a r o p p o s i t e s , r a t h e r t h a n as a continuum
p o r t r a y e d on the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s .
relationship
of related
The d i a l e c t i c a l t e n s i o n between them g i v e s r i s e t o the m e d i a t i n g
I propose
situations.
situations
That i s , "Man" and "Buddha" are t h e a b s t r a c t
terms whose i n t e r a c t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o the e x i s t e n t i a l encounters p o r t r a y e d on the h o r i z o n t a l - a x i s . •
The
most v a l u a b l e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s model i s i t s openness t o a
variety of applications. it
While i t shows t h e p o s s i b l e p a t t e r n s
does not s p e c i f y t h e " t r u e " n a t u r e o f any element
of interaction,
( a s p i r a n t , Buddha, o r
environment) and does not l i m i t t h e fundamental nature o f t h e p r o c e s s . Although epistemic
terms were adopted as a h e u r i s t i c analogy, t h e y do not
imply t h a t t h e t r i k a y a i s r e a l l y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n . The
importance o f t h e openness i s apparent when we c o n s i d e r ,
t h a t o n l y t h e most n a i v e
reading
f o r example,
o f Asanga's account o f t h e a s p i r a n t ' s
encounter w i t h Nk_ and Sbk would i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e a r e n e c e s s a r i l y meetings w i t h t h e Buddha, e i t h e r i n p e r s o n a l termination
"historical
h i s t o r y (as Nk), o r a f t e r t h e
o f same (as Sbk i n t h e B u d d h a f i e l d ) .
Not o n l y do Buddha-figures
appear i n m e d i t a t i o n
and v i s i o n s , but P r t h a g j a n a and Svk can a l s o be r e g a r d e d
as t h e l o g i c a l p o l e s
i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f an i n d i v i d u a l l i f e , mind, moment
of perception,
o r even l i n e a g e .
While i t i s s e n s e l e s s
to attribute extra-
t e x t u a l i d e a s t o Asanga, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e a l i z e t h a t he has sketched an o u t l i n e that
can accept a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and i s capable o f
o r g a n i z i n g new i d e a s .
I suggest t h a t t h i s t h e o r y
has proven so e n d u r i n g
because i t e l u c i d a t e s one o f t h e major unconscious .structures - i n h e r e n t i n the Buddhist view o f r e a l i t y .
8.
THE MODEL APPLIED
I w i l l now reopen d i s c u s s i o n o f s e v e r a l o f t h e most important encountered i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha.
With guidance from F i g u r e
improve and expand t h e former t e n t a t i v e answers.
questions
h, we can
2^1
a.
R e o r i e n t a t i o n and S o t e r i o l o g i c a l
Progress
The t e x t d e s c r i b e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s open t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
Although
those a r e mapped more c l e a r l y than a r e o t h e r t o p i c s , and we have examined t h e r e l e v a n t passages, an important
an a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e model o f F i g u r e h t o t h e d a t a r e v e a l s
concept.
In F i g u r e 3, t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r o g r e s s was r e p r e s e n t e d as a motion a l o n g a continuum on t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s .
I t began w i t h t h e Neophyte, who i s both
enmeshed i n t h e w o r l d and has some knowledge o f t h e Buddhist choose whether t o d i s r e g a r d t h e message o r b e g i n t o develop
dharma. it.
He'.must'
Although
Asanga has not s t r e s s e d t h e element o f c h o i c e , he c e r t a i n l y does not b e l i e v e t h a t t h e Buddha can f o r c e anyone t o become e n l i g h t e n e d . When t h e Neophyte chooses t o advance, he develops p r e p a r a t o r y nonc o n c e p t u a l awareness and becomes a Sravaka. develop
subsequent non-conceptual
He encounters
a Nk, b e g i n s t o
awareness, and moves i n t o t h e B u d d h a f i e l d ,
but does not c o n t i n u e t o some f i n a l r e a l m c e n t e r e d on t h e Svk. The p o i n t o f r e o r i e n t a t i o n i s ambiguous i n t h i s model.
While
t o be an abrupt a l t e r a t i o n , chapter IX d e s c r i b e s a g r a d u a l p r o c e s s Neophyte,
Sravaka,
from t h e attempt
and B o d h i s a t t v a ( l X : l - 2 ) .
involving
T h i s i s another ambiguity
t o r e p r e s e n t two i d e a s on t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s .
the one-dimensional
i t appears
arising
In developing
diagram o f F i g u r e 3, r e o r i e n t a t i o n was p l a c e d as a f i x e d
p o i n t between t h e common w o r l d o f Sravaka-Nk and t h e B u d d h a f i e l d o f t h e Bodhisattva-Sbk.
The shortcomings
o f t h i s diagram can be exposed by a t t e m p t i n g
t o t r a c e t h e a s p i r a n t ' s development. moving from l e f t t o r i g h t .
T h i s must be r e p r e s e n t e d by a p o i n t
However, as t h i s p o i n t passes through t h e p o s i t i o n
o f r e o r i e n t a t i o n , we s h o u l d expect i t t o r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n , never r e a c h i n g t h e Buddhafield.
The e n t i r e t h e o r y demands t h a t i t does r e a c h t h e extreme r i g h t
2h2
o f t h e diagram "before moving back toward a new a s p i r a n t . portray
F i g u r e 3 cannot
this.
In t h e two-dimensional model o f F i g u r e h, t h e problem has been s o l v e d by moving s o t e r i o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s t o t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s .
The a s p i r a n t
ascends
from P r t h a g j a n a t o Svk, but does so by means o f t h e p r o c e s s e s i l l u s t r a t e d on the h o r i z o n t a l process.
axis.
He then reaches back t o h e l p o t h e r s t h r o u g h t h i s same
The i n t e r p l a y o f t h e a s p i r a n t ' s
r i g h t - l e f t motion c o n s t i t u t e s The
l e f t - r i g h t motion and t h e Buddha's
t h e dynamics o f t h e model.
ambiguity i n r e o r i e n t a t i o n was caused by t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s concept
belongs t o t h e v e r t i c a l r a t h e r
than t h e h o r i z o n t a l
l a t t e r o n l y because i t a l s o marks t h e p o i n t
i t s o n l y r e m a i n i n g p o i n t was t h e
o f i n t e r s e c t i o n with the h o r i z o n t a l
a x i s i s examined, r e o r i e n t a t i o n Prthagjana.
I t appears i n t h e
o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e two axes.
Thus, when t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s was e l i m i n a t e d , single point
axis.
axis.
i s i n d i c a t e d by a p o i n t
I f only the v e r t i c a l midway between Svk and
As t h e o n l y r e p r e s e n t e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e h o r i z o n t a l
i t w i l l s t a n d f o r t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s p o r t r a y e d on t h a t reorientation
axis.
axis,
That i s ,
occurs throughout t h e s i t u a t i o n s o f Neophyte, Sravaka and
Bodhisattva. I believe new model.
t h a t " t h i s i s one o f t h e most u s e f u l i n s i g h t s a r i s i n g from t h e
I t j u s t i f i e s regarding the h o r i z o n t a l
p o r t r a i t o f t h e encounter between man and Buddha. c i e n t l y general that enlightenment. reconcile the
i t can r e c o n c i l e
diverse
a x i s as a s i n g l e , coherent This p o r t r a i t i s s u f f i -
i d e a s about t h e achievement o f
I t i s e s p e c i a l l y p r o m i s i n g as a framework w i t h i n
statements found i n t h e "sudden v e r s u s g r a d u a l " polemic
a c q u i s i t i o n o f enlightenment.
which t o regarding
21+3 b.
The
Svabhavikakaya, Dharmakaya, and Support f o r t h e Rupakayas
d i s t i n c t i o n between Svk
o f the Manayanasaihgraha.
and Dk was
The more important
e i t h e r o f them t o the Nk
and Sbk was
w i l l review the concepts
o f Dk
e x p l o r e d i n the p r e c e d i n g
question o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
not answered.
and Svk
In the p r e s e n t
i n terms o f t h e new
show t h a t t h i s model can account f o r Asahga's concept r e l a t i o n s h i p between the Svk We
and
d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of g e n e r a l i t y .
The
and Dk
section, I
model, and
o f the
will
supportive
c e n t r a l kayas.
have found t h a t Asahga uses Svk
He uses Svk
study
Svk
and Dk t o d e s c r i b e Buddhahood at
i s v e r y g e n e r a l , w h i l e Dk
i s detailed.
i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y when r e i f y i n g h i s s u b j e c t ' t o "a Buddha."
c h o i c e o f Svk u s u a l l y s t r e s s e s t h e f i r s t
o f Buddhahood, r a t h e r than
e i t h e r o f the
aspect o f t h e t r i k a y a , . the
specific
appearances.
fact
In o r d e r t o
d i s c o v e r f u r t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s , the p e c u l i a r r e l a t i o n s h i p of the Svk t o the c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s must be
re-examined.
I have argued t h a t Svk as " r e s u l t " i s a l o g i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l s i t u a t i o n s , b u t , as "awareness" and simply t h e l o g i c a l p o l e o f a d i a l e c t i c . are d i s c u s s i n g i n d i v i d u a l p r o g r e s s r e s u l t as w e l l as a g o a l . the Svk must be
The
for sovereignty," i s
That i s , depending upon whether
or o v e r a l l p a t t e r n , the Svk may
l a t t e r i d e a has been d i s c u s s e d .
As
we
appear as a "result,"
added t o the set o f h a b i t a b l e s i t u a t i o n s : the Neophyte's
dharma; the- Nk,. the Sbk.,-' and now,
t h e Svk. "The
i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e b o l d l i n e i n - F i g u r e 5.. I suggest
"support
t h a t t h i s a r e a corresponds
a r e a occupied'.by t h e s e ' f o u r
. '
,,- ' '
t o the Dharmakaya.
That i s , i t i s
p o r t r a y e d as an i n c l u s i v e c a t e g o r y t h a t c o n t a i n s the. Svk. as one v a l u e o f t h i s p o r t r a y a l w i l l be I t i s tempting
element.
The
shown below.
t o c r e a t e a p e r f e c t l y symmetrical
model by assuming t h a t
Figure 5
the Dk
i s b a l a n c e d by a complementary a r e a
Sravaka of
( i n c l u d i n g P r t h a g j a n a , Neophyte,
and B o d h i s a t t v a ) r e p r e s e n t i n g " S e n t i e n t B e i n g , " t h e l o g i c a l
the Dk.
suggests
However, the t e n o r o f Asanga's r e a s o n i n g throughout
the t e x t
t h a t he b e l i e v e s i n e v e n t u a l s a l v a t i o n f o r a l l , and t h a t those
have reached
Buddhahood do not r e v e r s e t h e i r p r o g r e s s .
became e x p l i c i t
dogma w i t h i n t h e V i j n a n a v a d a
t r a n s l a t e i n t o some asymmetry i n the model. p o s s i b i l i t y by imposing
tradition. We
between i c c h a n t i k a and
T h i s b e l i e f might
must a v o i d e l i m i n a t i n g such
s a t t v a i n the I n d i a n V i j n a n a v a d a
c e n t r a l unanswered q u e s t i o n o f t h i s
shows the Dk
t h a t c o n t a i n s them.
concepts and Sbk.
above d e p i c t i o n o f the d i s t i n c t i o n between
the Svk
kayas as the g e n e r a l
or
Dk
Svk
category
q u e s t i o n o f how
text. the Svk
supports the Nk
and Sbk may
be
approached
F i r s t , , - i t . has been s i m p l i f i e d by the argument t h a t
cannot be a f u l l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the Nk
and Sbk
a s , o f the
t h a t d e f i n e i t , o n l y " r e s u l t " shows i t t o be continuous When i t i s regarded
i s not a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f them. We
does t h e Svk
T h i s simple i n t e r p r e t a t i o n appears t o e x p l a i n a l l
from s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . t h e Svk
The
relation
literature.
study i s : How
s u p p o r t i n g the c e n t r a l two
r e l e v a n t passages o f the The
a
an a r b i t r a r y symmetry not supported by d o c t r i n e .
support the Nk and Sbk? and Dk
who
Both i d e a s q u i c k l y
T h i s p o i n t c o u l d be s e t t l e d o n l y by f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t o the
The
opposite
as "awareness" or "support
three
w i t h the
Nk
for sovereignty," i t
T h e r e f o r e , o n l y the former must be
explained.
have n o t e d s e v e r a l times t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y a r i s e s from t h e f a c t t h a t seems t o r e s i d e at the f a r r i g h t o f t h e diagram when r e g a r d e d
" r e s u l t " but o c c u p i e s t h e t o p i n a l l o t h e r c a s e s .
as
An a c c e p t a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n
s h o u l d encompass b o t h . I suggest
t h a t the key t o such an e x p l a n a t i o n i s the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t the
2k6
Svk,
as r e s u l t , i s e q u i v a l e n t
a x i s : the
dharma, Nk,
existence
apart
and
t o the
Shk.
The
aggregate o f a l l kayas on the Svk
t a k e s a l l o f t h e s e forms hut
"reorientation."
aspirant w i l l
encounter and
The
study has
t i o n s h i p between P r t h a g j a n a and The
model can
d i s p l a y another aspect We to,
o f the
have seen t h a t the Nk
the
aspirant.
We
stands t o the Nk. and
Svk,
that
Sbk.
a l s o d i s p l a y the
The
feeling-tone
and,
the
and
Svk
can be
Bodhisattva
the p l e a s a n t
through attachment consumption, and
as t h e
possi-
i n which the
a c t i o n s o f Nk_ and
Sbk.
Svk
Such
useful. 1 1
an
the
egocen-
self-aggrandisement
desirable objects
t h r o u g h avoidance
can
an
"three p o i s o n s " ' — t h e i d e a that
(raga) t o t h i n g s b e l i e v e d t o be
seen as i n h e r e n t l y p a i n f u l or h a r m f u l .
Svk
found f o r the r e l a t i o n s h i p
(moha), a subsequent
an o t h e r - d e p r e c i a t i o n
pleasure
Prthagjana
a t r i a d of emotional r e a c t i o n - p a t t e r n s :
or c o n f u s i o n
so,
Sbk.
i t I s r e a s o n a b l e t o examine t h e
d o c t r i n e i s that of the
(avidya)
i n doing
affords
symmetry by which the
Sravaka and
rela-
feeling-tone of that
does exist,.'.and i t s i n v e r s i o n does appear t o be
nescience
axes,
equivalent
elements i n the
i t s converse w i l l h e l p us u n d e r s t a n d t h e way
relevant
concept
ascends
w i l l t h e n he
on t h e
i n f l i c t s p a i n upon, and
former two,
P r t h a g j a n a i s dominated by tric
Shk
r e l a t i o n s h i p between S v k j Nk,
I f an e x p l a n a t i o n
support b o t h the p a i n f u l and explanation
and
w h i l e i g n o r i n g the
have a l s o n o t e d the
of the Prthagjana t o the
a l l o f the kayas as he
concentrated
stands i n a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the
bility
no
Svk.
s e c t i o n o f the
relationship.
acquire
a c q u i s i t i o n o f the Nk
attainment o f the
This
suggested p r e v i o u s l y f o r t h e
I f r e o r i e n t a t i o n i s the p o i n t • o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f the
the v e r t i c a l a x i s . t o the
has
from them.
T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n agrees w i t h t h a t
then the
horizontal
(dvesa) o f
for things
T h i s d o c t r i n e shows t h e same p a t t e r n as t h a t d i s p l a y e d hy t h e lower p o r t i o n o f F i g u r e k. by a v i d y a .
The P r t h a g j a n a
i s t h e model o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l dominated
The Neophyte, dominated by a v i d y a , r e i f i e s t h e Buddha, o f whom he
has heard, i n t o an e x t e r n a l g o d l i k e " o t h e r " t h a t may be t h e o c c a s i o n f o r e i t h e r p a i n f u l abandonment
(by t h e Nk) o r p l e a s a n t presence
(.of t h e Sbk).
Thus, t h e
d o c t r i n e o f t h e t h r e e poisons p r o v i d e s t h e p a t t e r n o f support between t h e P r t h a g j a n a and t h e Sravaka
and B o d h i s a t t v a .
An inversion', o f t h i s d o c t r i n e can be a p p l i e d t o t h e upper p o r t i o n o f t h e model.
J u s t as t h e P r t h a g j a n a i s dominated by nescience,, the Svk i s , o r i s
dominated by,
i t s o p p o s i t e , "awareness" ( j n a n a ) .
J u s t as t h e a s p i r a n t (as
Sravaka) i s p a i n e d by t h e l o s s o f t h e Nk, so t h e S v k — a s N k — e x h i b i t s mental non-conceptual (VIII:lU). presence
J u s t as t h e a s p i r a n t (as B o d h i s a t t v a )
involvement
experiences pleasure i n the
o f a Sbk i n t h e B u d d h a f i e l d , t h e S v k — a s S b k — e x h i b i t s a subsequent
non-conceptual That
awareness, t h e t o t a l absence o f p a i n f u l
funda-
awareness t h a t can c i r c u l a t e in'.the w o r l d w i t h o u t b e i n g
soiled.
i s , t h e B o d h i s a t t v a goes t o a c l o s e d s i t u a t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g t h e Buddha,
w h i l e t h e Sbk expands t h i s s i t u a t i o n t o encompass t h e w o r l d .
E.
FINAL COMMENTS
In t h i s c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r , I have exposed t h e s t r u c t u r e u n d e r l y i n g t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha, and demonstrated t h a t an a b s t r a c t model o f i t can e l u c i d a t e and harmonize t h e main f e a t u r e s o f t h e Buddhology. The
study i s . complete. The next
stage i n a c o n t i n u i n g study w i l l be an examination
a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e model t o r e l a t e d t e x t s . examined
first.
Appendix B l i s t s
o f the
those t o be
2k8 •
Figure 6
2h9 The
immediate t e s t o f t h i s model would he an attempt t o d e s c r i b e t h e
a l t e r n a t e Buddhology w i t h i n t h i s
same t e x t
t h e Buddha (see above, pp. 8 7 - 9 0 ) .
As Asanga has quoted 11:33 from t h e
Samdhinirmocanasutra and kept i t s e p a r a t e , the commentaries t o t h a t t e x t
i t should be understood by means o f
(see below, Appendix B) r a t h e r than through
those t o t h e Mahayanasamgraha. the present
(.11:33), t h e twenty-one gunas o f
Such a t e s t
i s t o o complex t o undertake w i t h i n
study.
In a d d i t i o n t o d i s p l a y i n g t h e fundamental V i j n a n a v a d a i d e a s about Buddhahood, t h i s model can a l s o serve as a framework w i t h i n which t h e r e l a t i o n o f any B u d d h o l o g i c a l a systematic
i d e a t o any o t h e r V i j n a n a v a d a dogma may be e x p l o r e d .
While
treatment o f t h e many p o s s i b l e combinations i s i m p r a c t i c a b l e , t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e model t o any problem w i l l u s u a l l y be o b v i o u s .
I shall
examine one, v e r y s u p e r f i c i a l l y , t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h i s method. We have seen t h a t Asanga r e f e r s t o t h e r e o r i e n t e d a l a y a v i j n a n a as b o t h M i r r o r - l i k e Awareness (X:5•5» see above, pp. 1 1 2 - 1 1 3 ) , ( X : 7 . 1 ; see above, pp. 125-126).
and as Dharmakaya
T h i s was e x p l a i n e d by t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t ,
when Asanga needed-.a-value-free term t o d e s i g n a t e t h e b a s i s o f p e r c e p t i o n , he used t h e former; tendencies
when he needed a v a l u e - l a d e n
term f o r t h e c o n t a i n e r o f
t o b i a s e d p e r c e p t i o n , he used t h e l a t t e r .
T h i s i s not a t o t a l l y
s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n , as t h e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e two concerns i s merely implicit.
When we r e f l e c t t h a t t h e y cannot be two ways o f speaking
same t h i n g ( t h e a l a y a v i j n a n a i s not a " t h i n g " ) , t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n less
o f the
seems even
satisfactory. The
ideas.
S t r u c t u r a l i s t model p r o v i d e s The two e x p l a n a t i o n s
a framework t h a t can encompass b o t h
c o n t a i n t h r e e terms: a l a y a v i j n a n a , Dharmakaya,
and
" M i r r o r - l i k e Awareness."
the a l a y a v i j n a n a , hut the Dk
d i r e c t l y , and
Our
model does not
c o n t a i n an e x p l i c i t term f o r
does c o n t a i n terms f o r the o t h e r two. e x h i b i t s v a r i o u s types
c l e a r e s t : i t i s the category the statement t h a t t h e Dk
o f "Awareness."
Figure The
Dk i s
c o n t a i n i n g a l l o f t h e Buddhakayas.
Therefore,
i s a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the a l a y a v i j n a n a suggests t h a t
the l a t t e r i s t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e diagram complementary t o the Dk. it
5 shows
i s the area c o n t a i n i n g the P r t h a g j a n a ,
Neophyte, Sravaka and
That i s ,
Bodhisattva.
T h i s area matches :.the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the a l a y a v i j f i a n a as the c o n t a i n e r f o r (or -
"composed o f " ) impure t e n d e n c i e s . F i g u r e 6.
I t has been p o r t r a y e d and l a b e l l e d i n
Note t h a t i t i s t h e a r e a t h a t was
earlier
t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g " S e n t i e n t The t o the text
"Awareness" can be
( X : 5 - 5 U)
seen i n t h e model.
enjoys '.the -
i n c l u d e s the awareness o f b o t h Nk
The
images p e r c e i v e d by the Buddha. and
perceptions.
Sbk.
With t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ,
The
Therefore,
the
the
simply the a b i l i t y t o
i s t h e a b i l i t y t o mold a s i t u a t i o n f o r the
i t can a l s o be
c a l l e d Dk.
t h a t caused the problem i n t h e s e c t i o n can now the continuous/discontinuous
with
former i s the awareness t h a t forms
However, t h e e n l i g h t e n e d awareness i s not
benefit of a l l .
That i s ,
I f so, i t i s c o e x t e n s i v e
a c c o r d i n g t o p r e j u d i c e s ; the l a t t e r a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s
see t h i n g s "as t h e y a r e , " but
and
a l a y a v i j n a n a and M i r r o r - l i k e Awareness are
complementary, g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s . perceptions
t o both Fundamental
i s a c c u r a t e , unhampered by time or
the category t h a t contains both.
problem has been s o l v e d .
(adarsajnana),
short d e s c r i p t i o n i n the
appears t o i n c l u d e i d e a s t h a t b e l o n g
space, non-conceptual and
t h e Dk,
The
2^5)
Being."
r e l a t i o n o f the f i n a l term, " M i r r o r - l i k e Awareness"
Subsequent Non-conceptual A w a r e n e s s — i t
it
(see above, p.
be
The
two
descriptions
seen as s p e c i a l i n s t a n c e s
of
problem t h a t has been d i s c u s s e d at l e n g t h above.
251
F i n a l l y , I wish t o note t h a t t h e S t r u c t u r a l i s t model i s a u s e f u l t o o l f o r comparing t h e r e s u l t s o f Western I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o Buddhist i d e a s . t h e s e a r e o f l i m i t e d v a l u e , simply hecause i t i s d i f f i c u l t other studies.
sible.
t o compare them t o
The wide v a r i e t y o f d i s c i p l i n e s and approaches
the d e r i v a t i o n o f a coherent p o r t r a i t
Many o f
i n use makes
o f any aspect o f Buddhism n e a r l y impos-
The S t r u c t u r a l i s t model p r o v i d e s a framework w i t h i n which r e s u l t s
from
these d i v e r s e s t u d i e s may be compared. For example, w h i l e John Strong's r e c e n t a r t i c l e s on e a r l y d e v o t i o n a l practices
("Gandhakuti: The Perfumed Chamber o f t h e Buddha"; "The T r a n s f o r m i n g
G i f t s : An A n a l y s i s o f D e v o t i o n a l A c t s o f O f f e r i n g i n Buddhist Avadana L i t e r a ture") obviously deal with similar materials, i t i s d i f f i c u l t d i f f e r e n t approaches
t o t h e same t r a d i t i o n .
t o see them as
When we a l s o i n c l u d e an a r t i c l e
such as Roy C. Amore's " G i v i n g and Harming: Buddhist Symbols o f Good and E v i l , " which r e g a r d s s i m i l a r i d e a s as Buddhist E t h i c s t o be approached R i c o e u r ' s phenomenology, i t i s d i f f i c u l t under study. necessary.
A broader p i c t u r e t h a t T r a d i t i o n a l Buddhist
through
t o b e l i e v e t h a t a common s u b j e c t i s
shows t h e p o s i t i o n o f each o f t h e s e i s
c o n c e p t s , addressed t o t h e b e l i e v e r ,
offer
l i t t l e h e l p , as t h e y were developed t o r e c o n c i l e d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n w i t h i n one t r a d i t i o n , not t o r e c o n c i l e h e r m e n e u t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s from o u t s i d e any Buddhist
tradition.
The model o f F i g u r e k can c o n t a i n a l l t h e s e s t u d i e s as d e t a i l s o f t h e symbolic l e s s e n i n g o f t h e d i s t a n c e between a s p i r a n t and Buddha i n t h e s i t u a t i o n of
Sravaka-Nk and B o d h i s a t t v a - S b k .
As such, t h e y can e a s i l y be r e l a t e d t o
each o t h e r , and t o any o t h e r s t u d i e s o f p r a c t i c e s s t u p a s , mandalas, w o r s h i p , their goal.
( i n v o l v i n g Buddhalands,
e t c . ) whereby e a r l y Buddhists attempted
t o approach,
252
NOTES
See M i r c e a E l i a d e , " M e t h o d o l o g i c a l Remarks on t h e Study o f R e l i g i o u s Symbolism,"
i n M. E l i a d e and J . M. Kitagawa
Essays i n Methodology
(eds.), History o f Religions:
(Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1959).
2 See above, pp. 139-1^0.
F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n , see Ian G. Barbour,
Myths, Models . and Paradigms: A Comparative Study i n S c i e n c e and R e l i g i o n
(.New
York: Harper and Row, 197*03 See A l f r e d North Whitehead, P r o c e s s and R e a l i t y : An Essay i n Cosmology, c o r r e c t e d e d i t i o n , D. R. G r i f f i n and D. W. Sherburne
(eds.) (New York: The
F r e e P r e s s , 1978), p. 3.
k T h i s model appears i n most o f E l i a d e ' s works.
The c l e a r e s t
statement
i s i n The Sacred and t h e P r o f a n e (New York: Harper and Row, 1 9 6 l ) . ^ See Robert D. B a i r d ' s "Normative Elements i n E l i a d e ' s Phenomenology o f Symbolism," 6
Union Seminary Q u a r t e r l y Review, 2k, no. k (.1970).
P a u l R i c o e u r has developed t h i s
characterization.
His description of
L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s work and o f t h e l a t t e r ' s response i s d i s c u s s e d i n P h i l i p P e t t i t , The Concept o f S t r u c t u r a l i s m : A C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s
( D u b l i n : G i l l and
M a c m i l l a n , 1975). 7 Models based on p a i r s o f b i n a r y o p p o s i t e s a r e found throughout t h e mature works o f L e v i - S t r a u s s .
They a r e so b a s i c t o h i s approach t h a t t h e r e i s
p r o b a b l y no s i n g l e passage t h a t may be t a k e n as h i s s t a n d a r d e x p l a n a t i o n o f the.topic.
A good c o l l e c t i o n o f s h o r t essays on b i n a r y models i n a r t , mythol-
ogy, s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and v i l l a g e geography,
i s found i n Claude L e v i - S t r a u s s ,
S t r u c t u r a l A n t h r o p o l o g y (New York: B a s i c Books, 1963).
F o r a thorough d e v e l -
opment o f one b a s i c model i n Amerindian c u l t u r e , see h i s The Raw and t h e Cooked, and Honey and Ashes. 8 While t h e v a r i o u s e a r l y systems d e f i n e d t h e p r t h a g j a n a i n s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t ways, t h e term always r e f e r s t o t h e deluded i n d i v i d u a l who has not started
( o r who has b a r e l y s t a r t e d ) on t h e Buddhist p a t h .
Vasubandhu, i n
253
Abhidharmakosa, i i :
9 b-d, quotes the Samyuttanikaya:•
" C e l u i a q u i manquent
completement, a quelque degre que ce s o i t , tous ces c i n q i r i d r i y a s , l a f o i , e t c . , j e l e d e c l a r e homme du dehors, appartenant And
a g a i n , at i i :
20c-d:
a l a c l a s s e des P r t h a g j a n a s . "
"Le P r t h a g j a n a e s t appele i g n o r a n t ( b a l a ) p a r c e
qu'il
n'a pas v u l e s v e r i t e s . " 9 A l t h o u g h t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f Buddhist p r a c t i c e s i s o b s c u r e , i t i s c l e a r t h a t p r a c t i c e s and symbols d e r i v e d from the p a r i n i r v a n a and
cremation
( e s p e c i a l l y the stupa symbol) have been c e n t r a l t o the d e v o t i o n a l p a t h
since
very early times. ^
See Ruegg, Tathagatagarbha,
p a r t i c u l a r l y Deuxieme Partie,.-Chap. II.:;
"La t h e o r i e de l ' E v e i l u n i v e r s e l et de 1'ekayana dans l e s commentaires 1'Abhisamayalamkara," pp. 1
1
de
189-235-
While t h i s g e n e r a l t h e o r y i s . b a s i c t o Buddhist .thought.,^the.«.elements
are c a l l e d by d i f f e r e n t names ( e . g . , k l e s a , anusaya, and are l i s t e d as p a r t s o f d i f f e r e n t
s e t s i n almost
and r e l a t e d
compounds),
every major t e x t .
A
thorough account i s found i n H o b o g i r i n ( s . v . "Bonno," pp. 121-13*+). Asanga does not e x p l a i n t h i s i d e a i n t h e Mahayanasamgraha, but
simply
mentions t h e "snare (or ' e x p l o s i o n ' ) " o f t h e p a s s i o n s ;_. However, i t i s i m p l i c i t i n t h e - d o c t r i n e o f t h e a l a y a v i j r i a n a ( I : . 29-3*+) and t h e acceptance o f t h e :
twelve-linked chain of causation.
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P a r i s : E c o l e F r a n g a i s e d'Extreme-Orient,
Manuel des
P a r i s : Payot, 1953.
etudes
19*+7-^9; tome
2,
260
Reynolds,
Frank E.
"The S e v e r a l Bodies
N e g l e c t e d Aspect no. h
(May.1977):
R o c k h i l l , W. W.
o f t h e Buddha: R e f l e c t i o n s on a
o f Theravada T r a d i t i o n . " 37^-389.
The L i f e o f t h e Buddha.
Rowell, Teresina.
London: Kegan P a u l & Co., 1907.
"The Background and E a r l y Use o f t h e Buddha-ksetra Concept."
Eastern Buddhist, Ruegg, David S e y f o r t .
6, no. 3: 199-21+6; 6, no. h: 379-^31; 7 , no. 2: 131-176. L a T h e o r i e du t a t h a g a t a g a r h h a
E c o l e F r a n c a i s e d'Extreme-Orient, Sponherg, A l a n .
History of Religions, l 6 ,
et du g o t r a .
1969.
"Dynamic L i b e r a t i o n i n Yogacara Buddhism."
I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f Buddhist S t c h e r b a t s k y , Th. S t r o n g , John S.
Buddhist
"Gandhkutl:
Paris:
Logic, 2 vols.
Journal of the hh-Sh.
S t u d i e s , 2 , no. 1 (1979): New York: Dover, 1962.
The Perfumed Chamber o f t h e Buddha."
History of
R e l i g i o n s , 1 6 , no. k (May 1977): 390-1+06. .
"The T r a n s f o r m i n g
G i f t : An A n a l y s i s o f D e v o t i o n a l A c t s o f O f f e r i n g
i n Buddhist Avadana L i t e r a t u r e . " (February 1979): S u z u k i , D. T. .
H i s t o r y o f R e l i g i o n s , 1 8 , no. 3
221-237-
O u t l i n e s o f Mahayana Buddhism.
S t u d i e s i n t h e Lankavatara
Sutra.
London: Luzac, 1907. London: Routledge & Kegan P a u l
L t d . , 1930. T i n g Fu-pao.
Fo-hsueh t a - t z ' u - t i e n
(Great D i c t i o n a r y o f Buddhism).
Taipei:
Fung Yu. Wen Hua Ch'u Pan She, 19^6. Tucci, Giuseppi. Asanga. .
On Some Aspects
o f t h e D o c t r i n e s o f MaitreyaLnatha"] and
C a l c u t t a : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l c u t t a , 1930.
"Ratnakarasanti
on A s r a y a - p a r a v r t t i . " A s i a t i c a ,
Festschrift
F r i e d r i c h W e l l e r , 1951+: 765-767. Verma, Samanarendra Kumar.
The Nature o f M e t a p h y s i c s .
Varanasi:
Bharat-
B h a r a t i , 1976. Wayman, A l e x .
Calming t h e Mind and D i s c e r n i n g t h e R e a l .
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1978.
New York: Columbia
Wayman, A l e x .
"The M i r r o r - l i k e Knowledge i n Mahayana Buddhist
Asiatica..Studien-,
25
Whitehead, A l f r e d North.
(1971):
353.
P r o c e s s and R e a l i t y : An E s s a y i n Cosmology.
C o r r e c t e d e d i t i o n , D a v i d Ray G r i f f i n and Donald W. New
York: The F r e e P r e s s , 1 9 7 8 .
W i l l i s , J a n i c e D.
Literature.
F i r s t published
Sherburne
(eds.).
1929-
"A Study o f the Chapter on R e a l i t y , Based upon the
T a t t v a r t h a - P a t a l a m o f Asanga's Bodhisattvabhumi." Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ,
1976.
Ph.D.
dissertation
APPENDIX B BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCES
263
T h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y c o n t a i n s the most important a study
t e x t s and t r a n s l a t i o n s f o r
o f the t r i k a y a concept i n t h e I n d i a n V i j n a n a v a d a .
mentioned i n t h e p r e s e n t expanded
It includes
those
study and those t h a t would be most u s e f u l f o r an
study.
These are e i t h e r I n d i e language t e x t s t h a t have been p r e s e r v e d
i n Tibetan
and/or Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s , or are T i b e t a n or Chinese commentaries. As
indigenous
s c h o l a r s i n b o t h c u l t u r e s soon e l a b o r a t e d and m o d i f i e d
d o c t r i n e , a l l t e x t s t h a t go beyond an a c c u r a t e been excluded.
the
r e f l e c t i o n o f I n d i a n i d e a s have
V e r y c o n s e r v a t i v e c r i t e r i a have been employed i n o r d e r
to
o b t a i n a r e l i a b l e b a s i s f o r f u t u r e work. With the e x c e p t i o n o f the t h r e e fundamental s u t r a s , the b i b l i o g r a p h y excludes
t e x t s t h a t do not
c o n t a i n a coherent
t r i k a y a , and
does not
contain
minor t e x t s or t e x t s c o n t a i n i n g o n l y p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e s t o the t r i k a y a . The
number accompanying t h e t i t l e
o f a T i b e t a n work i s i t s number i n t h e
T i b e t a n T r i p i t a k a Research I n s t i t u t e ' s r e p r i n t o f the Peking known as the O t a n i number).
tripitaka
Those accompanying the t i t l e s o f . C h i n e s e
(also texts
r e f e r t o t h e T a i s h o e d i t i o n o f t h e ' C h i n e s e canon. The
c h i e f s t u d i e s on,
languages have been noted. has
and t r a n s l a t i o n s o f , t h e s e t e x t s i n European Modern Japanese work, apart
from e d i t i o n s o f t e x t s ,
not been i n c l u d e d .
I.
INDIAN TEXTS AND
A.
The V i j n a n a v a d a was within
the
Buddhist
formulated
COMMENTARIES
SUTRAS
as an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e new
ideas
t r a d i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n a few Mahayana s u t r a s .
appearing Although
a study o f t h e t r i k a y a w i l l be based upon the s a s t r a s , i t must not l o s e s i g h t o f the contents not
o f t h e t h r e e extant
and
accessible sutras.
A l t h o u g h they
do
c o n t a i n a f u l l t r i k a y a , they are the u l t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y from which i t was
derived.
261+
1. S a A d h i n i r m o c a n a s u t r a The c e n t r a l and most b a s i c s u t r a o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a t r a d i t i o n . t r i k a y a may be t h e o n l y d o c t r i n a l i d e a not developed i n i t . t r a d i t i o n must b e g i n w i t h t h i s t e x t . a.
Sanskrit text
The
Any study o f t h e
lost.
Translations: i.
Tibetan P. 77*+.
'phags-pa dgongs-pa nges-par ' g r e l - p a theg-pa chen-po'i
mdo.
T r a n s l a t o r not r e c o r d e d . ii.
Chinese -T.
678 ( v o l .
16,
lWTl8a)'#*t %
pp. 7
by Gunabhadra
(*+35—hl+3 A.D.).
fflJ** ^
This i s a p a r t i a l
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o chapter IX o f the T i b e t a n .
* translation
See a l s o T. 679 f o r
anonymous t r a n s l a t i o n o f c h a p t e r X. —T. All
;3JL3F ?}f
675
by B o d h i r u c i
t e n c h a p t e r s complete.
—T.
f$. %.'^ Z
677
t»y Paramartha ( 5 5 7 - 5 6 9
l
P a r t i a l ; corresponds t o f i r s t —T. In b.
(ca. 5 l £ A . D . ) .
yjjL^ &fL
676
b
A.D.).
four chapters of Tibetan.
y Hsiian-tsang ( c a . 61+7 A.D.).
f i v e c h a p t e r s ; corresponds t o f u l l t e n c h a p t e r s o f T i b e t a n .
Commentaries i.
Sanskrit Note: While a l l V i j n a n a v a d a s a s t r a s a r e "commentaries" on t h i s this l i s t
includes only d i r e c t
sutra,
commentaries on t h e t e x t .
— A s a n g a ' s Aryasamdhinirmocanabhasya. T i b e t a n P.
5U8I:
'phags-pa dgongs-pa nges-par
1
grel-pa'i
rnam-par bshad-pa. — ( a u t h o r unknown) Aryasamdhinirmocanasutrasyavyakhyanam. T i b e t a n P.
581+5:
rnam-par bshad-pa.
'phags-pa dgongs-pa nges-par ' g r e l - p a ' i
mdo'i
265
— J n a n a g a r b h a ' s Aryasamdhinirmocanasutra a r y a m a i t r e y a k e v a l a p a r i v a r t a bhasyam. T i b e t a n P. las ii.
:5535: 'phags-pa dgongs-pa nges-par ' g r e l - p a ' i mdo
'phags-pa byams-pa'i le'u.
n y i t s h e ' i bshad-pa.
Chinese Lamotte (Samdhinirmocana, p. 11) mentions an Aryagambhirasamdhinirmoc ana silt r a t i k a by Yuan-ts-'e (]"^J
).
T h i s does not seem t o be i n t h e
T a i s h o , but a t r a n s l a t i o n by Chos-sgrub i s extant i n T i b e t a n : P.
5517:
rgya-cher tse c.
'phags-pa dgongs-pa zab-mo nges-par ' g r e l - p a ' i 'grel-pa.
T h i s would have been w r i t t e n c a . 683, when Yuen-
r e s i d e d a t Ch'ang-an.
Western Language i.
mdo'i
Translations
E t i e n n e Lamotte.
Samdhinirmocanasutra.
L o u v a i n : Bureaux de R e c u e i l .
B i b l i o t h e q u e de l ' U n i v e r s i t e , 1935T h i s , the sole French t r a n s l a t i o n , i s i n three p a r t s : —preface —an
e d i t e d T i b e t a n t e x t based upon Fonds t i b e t a i n o f t h e B i b l i o .
Nat., No. £ 1 0 . —a
F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n based upon t h e T i b e t a n , Hsiian—tsang's C h i n e s e , and Asanga's
AVyasamdhinirmocanabhasya.
To t h i s may be added an a r t i c l e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e same y e a r : E t i e n n e Lamotte, "Les T r o i s C a r a c t e r e s et l e s t r o i s absences de n a t u r e p r o p r e dans l e Samdhinirmocanasutra, c h a p i t r e V I . " B u l l e t i n de l a C l a s s e des L e t t r e s e t des S c i e n c e s morales et p o l i t i q u e s . Academie Royale de B e l g i q u e , 1935, ii.
Bruxelles:
pp. 289-303.
— A n E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n from t h e T i b e t a n by B r i a n C u t i l l o and Geshe Jampel Thardo w i l l be p u b l i s h e d i n an E n g l i s h T r a n s l a t i o n S e r i e s o f Asanga's works
(announced i n Buddhist Text I n f o r m a t i o n , The C e n t r e f o r
Advanced S t u d i e s i n World R e l i g i o n s . #2, March d.
Western Language
1975).
Studies
T h i s s u t r a has a t t r a c t e d l i t t l e
a t t e n t i o n , as most
philosophical
s t u d i e s have f o c u s s e d on t h e voluminous s a s t r a l i t e r a t u r e .
A s i d e from
266
b r i e f passages i n the
standard
surveys
(e.g., W i n t e r n i t z ) , I have been
unable t o f i n d s u b s t a n t i a l m a t e r i a l . See 2.
(1961), pp.
a l s o B i b l i o g r a p h i e Bouddhique x x v i i i - x x x i
167-168.
Lankavatarasutra Of the t h r e e
trikaya.
s u t r a s , the L a n k a v a t a r a c o n t a i n s
Suzuki's study o f the t r i k a y a passages was
o f the p r e s e n t
study.
The
S a n s k r i t t e x t has been
N a n j i o Bunyiu ( e d . ) . Press, a.
the d o c t r i n e n e a r e s t
The
the
i n chapter I
published:
Lankavatara Sutra.
( r e p r i n t e d 1956
1923
introduced
to
Kyoto: O t a n i
University
as v o l . 1 o f B i b l i o t h e c a O t a n i e n s i s ) .
Translations i.
Tibetan —P.
775-
'phags-pa l a n g - k a r
gshegs-pa t h e g - p a ' i
i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e g a r d e d as Chos-grub ( / Chinese t o T i b e t a n ii.
d u r i n g the 9th
mdo. who
The
translator
t r a n s l a t e d from
century.
Chinese —T.
670
(ca kk3 one
?°J
4^0 A.D.).
j|_
776.
i n k f a s c . by
^
Gunabhadra
The. s h o r t e s t and most p o p u l a r v e r s i o n .
u s e d by Bodhidharma.
as: P.
*|f
I t was
'phags-pa l a n g - k a r
Probably
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o T i b e t a n by gshegs-pa r i n - p o - c h e ' i mdo
the
Chos-grub l a s sangs-
rgyas thams-cad-kyi gsung-gi snying-po zhes-bya-ba'i l e ' u .
b.
—T.
671
X
—T.
672
^ C ^ .
jilQ 7^
by B o d h i r u c c i 1$
J1]Q
(ca.. 513
A.D.).
"by Siksananda and
others
( c a . 700
A.D.).
Commentaries No i.
S a n s k r i t commentaries
survive,
Chinese —T.
A. $ 5
1790
£
,y
%
by.-Fa-tsang.. ( c a . 700
A.D.•)'..- T h i s - •
i s a s h o r t , e x p o s i t o r y t r e a t i s e — r e a l l y a commentary on the
Siksananda
translation. The
D a i n i h o n zoku zokyo (Great
Japanese Supplement t o the
Kyoto: 1905-1912, f a s c . 25-29 c o n t a i n a t o t a l o f f i f t e e n
Canon).
commentaries
267
on t h e Lankavatara.
These i n c l u d e two from t h e Tang, f o u r from t h e
Sung, and seven from t h e Ming d y n a s t i e s . c.
Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s and S t u d i e s i.
D. T. S u z u k i .
Studies i n the Lankavatara Sutra.
London: Routledge
& Kegan P a u l , 1930. ii:'
D. T. S u z u k i .
The L a n k a v a t a r a S u t r a : T r a n s l a t e d f o r t h e F i r s t
from t h e O r i g i n a l S a n s k r i t . iii.
D. T. S u z u k i .
London: Routledge
Time
& Kegan P a u l , 1932.
An Index t o t h e L a n k a v a t a r a S u t r a .
To kyo': Suzuki v
Research F o u n d a t i o n , I 9 6 5 . These a r e workmanlike sources o f i n f o r m a t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e " s t u d i e s " a r e more l i k e
"sermons" on t h e s u t r a .
Suzuki e x p l a i n s i t i n
l i g h t o f h i s own b e l i e f i n Mahayana Buddhism. 3.
S r i m a l a d e v i s imhanandasutra A l t h o u g h t h i s e a r l y s u t r a does not c o n t a i n a t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e , i t does
e s t a b l i s h t h e r e l a t e d n o t i o n o f the tathagatagarhha.
S i n c e a modern t r a n s -
l a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e which i n c l u d e s an e x t e n s i v e study o f t h e s u t r a , i t s h i s t o r y and t r a n s l a t i o n s , t h i s t e x t
s h o u l d be a r e f e r e n c e f o r any study i n
Vijnanavada theory. a.
Translation i.
A l e x Wayman and Hideko Wayman.
The L i o n ' s Roar o f Queen S r i m a l a :
A Buddhist S c r i p t u r e on t h e Tathagatagarhha
Theory.
New York:
Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 197*+.
B.
The study. k.
SASTRAS
s a s t r a s , and s c h o l a r s h i p on them, have been d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s Those l i s t e d below a r e s i m p l y t h e most p r o m i s i n g s o u r c e s f o r a study.
Mahayanasutralamkara T h i s v e r s e summary o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a must be understood through t h e
commentaries.
The B u d d h o l o g i c a l
passages have been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
Mahayanasamgraha. S a n s k r i t t e x t e d i t e d and t r a n s l a t e d hy S y l v a i n L e v i . lamkara, 2 v o l s .
B i b l i o t h e q u e de l ' E c o l e des Hautes Etudes:
r i q u e s et P h i l o l o g i q u e s . a.
Mahayana-SutraSciences
Histo-
P a r i s : L i b r a i r e Honore Champion, 1907-1911.
Translations i.
Tibetan —P.
5521,
theg-pa chen-po'i
mdo-sde'i r g y a n - g y i t s h i g l e ' u r byas-pa.
T r a n s l a t e d by Sakyasimha and d P a l - b r t e g s . ii.
Chinese —T.
b.
1601+ %J^_
by Prabhakaramitra
Commentaries i.
Sanskrit — S u t r a l a m k a r a - b h a s y a by Vasubhandu. Apparently
T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n P. 5527-
no Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n .
— M a h a y a n a - s u t r a l a m k a r a - t i k a by Asvabhava. P. 5530: Apparently
theg-pa chen-po'i
Tibetan
mdo-sde'i r g y a n - g y i
rgya-cher
bshad-pa.
by S t h i r a m a t i .
T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n P. 5531; mdo-sde r g y a n - g y i Apparently
translation:
no Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n .
—Sutralamkara-vrtti-bhasya
c.
( c a . 630-633 A.D.)
' g r e l bshad.
no Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n .
Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s See
above, S y l v a i n L e v i .
Giuseppe T u c c i (ed. and t r a n s . ) .
Mahayanasutralamkara.
Serie
O r i e n t a l e Roma, IX, 1956. d.
Western Language S t u d i e s G a d j i n M< Nagao.
An Index t o t h e Mahayanasutralamkara.
Sanskrit-Tibetan-Chinese.
Part
Tokyo: Nippon Gakujutsu S h i n k o - k a i ,
P a r t 2: T i b e t a n - S a n s k r i t and C h i n e s e - S a n s k r i t .
Tokyo, 1961.
1: 1958.
269
5.
Mahayanasamgraha a.
o f Asahga.
Sanskrit text
lost.
Translations i.
Tibetan —P.
ii.
-
T
•'
.
• -
5 5 ^ 9 ; theg-pa chen-po bsdus-pa.
Chinese —T.
j^<%.\%
1592:
— T . 1593:
^
Buddhasanta ( c a . 531 A.D.).
by Paramartha ( c a . 5 6 U A . D . ) . j^fe.
— T . 159U: ^
b
P u b l i s h e d by S a s a k i Gessho.
Y Hsuan-tsang ( c a . 6U8 A.D.).
Kan'yaku S h i h o n - t a i s h o S h o d a i j o r o n .
Tokyo: Nakayama Shobo, 1 9 5 9 . b.
Commentaries i.
Mahayanasamgrahabhasya by Vasubandhu. T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n , P. 5551^ theg-pa chen-po b s d u s - p a ' i ' g r e l - p a t r a n s l a t e d by D i p a m k a r a s r i j n a n a and T s h u l - k h r i m s . Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s : T. 1 5 9 5 by Paramartha C c a . 56U A.D.); T. 1 5 9 6 by Dharmagupta all
ii.
( 6 0 5 - 6 l 6 A.D.); T. 1 5 9 7 by Hsiian-tsang ( c a . 6 U 8 - 6 ^ 9 A.D.); j ^ - f e
are t i t l e d
%% ^%
.
Mahayanasamgrahopanibandhana by Asvabhava.
Sanskrit text
lost.
T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n : P. 5 5 5 2 ; theg-pa chen-po bsdus bshad sbyor. Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n : T. 1 5 9 8 : c.
Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n- . Et ienne Lamotte. 1'Institut Vol.
L a Somme du grand v e h i c u l e d'Asanga.
P u b l i c a t i o n s de
O r i e n t a l i s t e de L o u v a i n , no. 8 , 1 9 7 3 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1 9 ^ 9 ) .
1 c o n t a i n s an e d i t e d T i b e t a n t e x t and a p h o t o - r e p r i n t o f t h e T a i s h o
e d i t i o n o f Hsiian-tsang's t r a n s l a t i o n . lation 6.
by Hsuan-tsang.
V o l . 2 contains the French t r a n s -
and commentary.
Abhisamayalamkara T h i s t e x t appears t o be p r a j n a p a r a m i t a but i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a V i j n a n a -
vada s a s t r a .
I t c o n t a i n s a B u d d h o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n t h a t promises t o be a good
source f o r d a t a t h a t c o u l d r e l a t e t h e P r a j n a p a r a m i t a u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the Dk t o t h e one developed i n t h i s
study.
270
F u l l d e t a i l s o f the available texts i n E. Conze. a.
( S a n s k r i t and T i b e t a n ) may be found The Hague: Mouton and Co., i 9 6 0 .
The P r a j n a p a r a m i t a L i t e r a t u r e .
Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s i.
Abhisamalankara-Prajnaparamita-Upadesa-sastra: Bodhisattva Maitreya.
E d i t e d and t r a n s l a t e d by Th. S t c h e r b a t s k y
and E. O b e r m i l l e r , 1929. ii.
Edward Conze.
The Work o f
Osnabruck: B i b l i o V e r l a g , 1970.
Abhisamayalahkara.
Rome: S e r i e O r i e n t a l e Roma,
V I , 195U.
7.
Ratnagotravibhaga
(Uttaratantra.).
Sanskrit t e x t : Ratnagotravibhaga-Mahayanottaratantra M a i t r e y a o r t o Saramati. Johnston.
attributed to
E d i t e d w i t h Vyakha, a t t r i b u t e d t o Asanga, by E. H.
Patna: B i h a r Research S o c i e t y , 1950.
Z. Nakamura's
(Tokyg, 196l) i n c l u d e s both S a n s k r i t t e x t and Chinese
edition
translation.
T h i s w i l l be one o f t h e most important t e x t s f o r an expanded study a s , l i k e the
Srimaladevisutra,
t a g a r h h a and dharmadhatu.
i t r e l a t e s t h e t r i k a y a t o t h e concepts o f t a t h a g a While t h e s e a r e not important i n t h e Mahayana-
samgraha, they became major f e a t u r e s o f t h e I n d i a n V i j n a n a v a d a . a.
Translations i.
Tibetan —P.
5525: theg-pa chen-po rgyud-bla-ma'i
T r a n s l a t o r : B l o - l d a n shes-rab ii.
bstan-bcos.
( c a . 11th c e n t u r y ) ,
Chinese by Ratnamati
( c a . 511 A.D.).
— M o d e r n p u b l i c a t i o n s : see above, Z. Nakamura. b.
Commentarie s i.
Sanskrit —Ratnagotravibhaga
ii.
vyakya, by Asanga; see above, E. H. Johnston,
Tibetan —P.5526: theg-pa chen-po r g y u d - b l a - m a i bstan-bcos rnam-par bshad-pa. 1
T r a n s l a t o r : B l o - l d a n shes-rab.
271 c.
Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s —E.
Obermiller, trans.
Salvation." — J .
"The Sublime S c i e n c e o f t h e Great V e h i c l e t o
Acta O r i e n t a l i a ,
Takasaki.
9 (1931).
The Ratnagotravibhaga.
Rome: S e r i e O r i e n t a l e Roma,
1966. d.
Western Language S t u d i e s — D . S. Ruegg.
L a T h e o r i e du t a t h a g a t a g a r h h a
E c o l e F r a n c a i s e d'Extreme-Orient, — J .
Takasaki.
e t du g o t r a .
Paris:
1969-
"A Study o f Ratnagotravibhaga
(Uttaratantra)."
Ph.D.
t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Poona, u n p u b l i s h e d .
C.
8.
MISCELLANEOUS TRIKAYA TEXTS OF INDIAN ORIGIN
A number o f s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e d o c t r i n e , whose o r i g i n a l t i t l e s were p r o b a b l y K a y a t r a y a s t o t r a o r T r i k a y a s t a v a , e x i s t i n Chinese translations.
Little
i s known o f t h e s e t e x t s , but t h e y s h o u l d be i n c o r -
p o r a t e d i n t o any f u r t h e r a.
Chinese —T.
or Tibetan
study.
Texts
1677: X - ^
^
1^
•
T h i s appears
t o be t h e t e x t t h a t Baron
von S t a e l - H o l s t e i n p u b l i s h e d as Bermerkungen zum T r i k a y a s t a v a ( I z d . Imp.
Ak. Nauk B u l l e t i n : Academie I m p e r i a l e des S c i e n c e s de P e t e r s b u r g ,
Ser. V I , TV pp. 837-8H5, 1911). -T. b.
1678:
4^^
\f
•
T i b e t a n Texts —P.
9^9:
'phags-pa s k u gsum shes-bya-ba theg-pa
chan-po'i mdo
( r e c o n s t r u c t e d as A^rya-kayatraya-nama-mahayana-sutra).
One f o l i o .
T h i s t e x t has been r e p r i n t e d i n note 2 t o c h a p t e r 1 o f t h e p r e s e n t - - Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n :
W. W. R o c k h i l l .
The L i f e of the Buddha.
Tremh, ' Triibner & Co. L t d . , 1907, pp. 200-202.
London: Kegan P a u l ,
study.
272
—P.
2015: sku gsum-la bstod-pa shes-bya-ba
e d i t o r s as Kayatraya-stotra-nama).
( r e c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e Japanese
W r i t t e n by Nagarjuna
and t r a n s l a t e d "
i n t o T i b e t a n by K r s n a p a n d i t a and Tshul-khrims r g y a l - b a . Only one f o l i o i n l e n g t h . P a r t o f t h i s t e x t i s t r a n s l a t e d by L a V a l l e e P o u s s i n i n h i s "Three Bodies o f a Buddha," 1906 (pp. U55-^56). —P.
2016: sku gsum-la bstod-pa shes-bya-ba'i rnam-par 'grel-pa° ( r e c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e e d i t o r s as K a y a t r a y a - s t o t r a - n a m a - n i v a r a n a ) . T h i s i s a commentary t o No. 2015.
I t was w r i t t e n by Nagarjuna
and r e v i s e d by Sraddhakaravarman and Rin-chen bzang-po. —P.
Eight
5290: sku gsum-la ' j u g - p a ' i sgo shes-bya-ba'i bstan-bcos
folios.
(recon-
s t r u c t e d by t h e e d i t o r s as Kayatrayavatara-mukham-nama-sastra). W r i t t e n by Nagamitra Fifteen —P.
and t r a n s l a t e d by Prajnavarma
and Ye-shes sde.
folios.
5291: sku gsum-gyi ' g r e l - p a ( r e c o n s t r u c t e d as K a y a t r a y a - v r t t i ) .
W r i t t e n by Jnanacandra Seventy-two
and t r a n s l a t e d by Prajnavarman
and Ye-shes sde.
folios.
Texts 5290 and 5291 appear t o c o n t a i n a v e r y thorough d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e developed t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e . studied.
Very l i t t l e
However, t h e s e t e x t s have not been e d i t e d o r
i s known about t h e i r a u t h o r s .
The e d i t i n g and p r e l i m i n a r y
t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e s e t e x t s , t o render them u s e f u l sources o f d a t a , would be a major u n d e r t a k i n g .
I n t h e immediate f u t u r e , a few g e n e r a l i d e a s c o u l d be
o b t a i n e d from them, and, i n t h e l o n g r u n , t h e y may be t h e most important
texts;
but t h e y a r e u n l i k e l y t o be a v a i l a b l e as r e l i a b l e sources f o r some t i m e . c.
Sanskrit
texts
— R a t n a k a r a s a n t i ' s commentary on t h e Khasamatantra. l i s h e d a v e r y b r i e f p a l m - l e a f manuscript
G. T u c c i has pub-
from N e p a l , a l o n g w i t h i t s
T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n from t h e sDe-dge and sNar-thang bstan-'gyur.
G. T u c c i .
editions of the
" R a t n a k a r a s a n t i on A s r a y a - p a r a v r t t i . "
A s i a t i c a , F e s t s c h r i f t F r e i d r i c h W e i l e r , 195*+: 765-767. This l i t t l e
text
c o n t a i n s an extremely c l e a r treatment o f t h e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p o f t h e concept o f r e o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e t r i k a y a i n l a t e I n d i a n Buddhist thought.
273 II.
9•
CHINESE TEXTS AND COMMENTARIES
Suvarnaprabhasottamasutra This i s a popular
and w i d e l y - s t u d i e d
sutra.
Early versions, including
t h e s u r v i v i n g S a n s k r i t t e x t , d i d not mention t h e t r i k a y a .
A separate
chapter,
which became one o f t h e fundamental statements o f t h e d o c t r i n e i n t h e F a r E a s t , appears i n I - T s i n g ' s
translation
( l a t e 7th c e n t u r y ) , and i n t h e T i b e t a n t r a n s -
l a t i o n from h i s Chinese by Chos-grub (9th c e n t u r y ) .
T h i s chapter was commented
upon by many l a t e r Chinese w r i t e r s . The
Dainihon
zoku zokyo (Great Japanese Supplement t o t h e Canon), v o l s .
30-32, c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l commentaries.
Hui-chao's l i n e - b y - l i n e
commentary
appears t o c o n t a i n t h e most i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t r i k a y a d o c t r i n e . U n l i k e most o t h e r t e x t s , t h i s one has been v e r y c a r e f u l l y e d i t e d and translated.
J . Nobel has p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s .
the b a s i s f o r any study o f t h e t r i k a y a chapter sutra.
L e i d e n : E. J . B r i l l , 1958-
Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n
(T.
665:
The one t h a t would be
i s h i s Suvarnaprabhasottama-
This contains a photo-reprint o f I-Tsing's
-
)»
a
n
e d i t e d and
t r a n s l i t e r a t e d v e r s i o n o f Chos-grub's t r a n s l a t i o n s , and a German t r a n s l a t i o n .
10.
Buddhabhumi s ut r a While t h e p l a c e o f t h i s
is
s u t r a w i t h i n t h e development o f I n d i a n Buddhism
s t i l l u n c l e a r , i t a r t i c u l a t e s a Buddhology t h a t i s v e r y c l o s e t o t h a t o f
Asahga.
I t should be i n c l u d e d i n any expanded study.
The s u t r a , t o g e t h e r
w i t h a commentary (vyakhyana) by Silabhadra,' was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Chinese by Hsuan-tsang
(T. 680:
^
and T.
1530: \%
Iflf
IjL
), and i n t o
T i b e t a n by E d i t e d T i b e t a n t e x t s o f b o t h , and Japanese t r a n s l a t i o n s and commentary, a r e found i n : N i s h i o , Kyoo.
The Buddhabhumi-sutra and t h e Buddhabhumi-
vyakhyana o f S i l a b h a d r a , 2 v o l s .
11.
Nagoya: Hajinkaku P u b l i s h i n g Co., n.d.
Ch'eng Wei-Shih Lun $it_
•
T h i s i s a summary o f t h e V i j n a n a v a d a .
I t was composed
by t h e p i l g r i m Hsuan-tsang and h i s d i s c i p l e K ' u e i - c h i a f t e r t h e former's r e t u r n
27k
t o China i n t h e mid-seventh century Vasubandhu's T r i m s i k a , and
Dharmapala.
A.D.
I t i s arranged as a commentary on
and draws most o f i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s from
Sthiramati
I t became t h e fundamental t e x t f o r t h e Sino-Japanese h e i r s
to the Vijnanavada t r a d i t i o n . While t h i s t e x t i s p r o b a b l y c l o s e r i n s t r u c t u r e t o t h e Mahayanasamgraha than any o t h e r ,
and a l s o ends w i t h a Buddhology, i t i s p r o p e r l y t h e b e g i n n i n g
of t h e F a r Eastern t r a d i t i o n s rather than a culmination very
f a c t t h a t Hsiian-tsang,
t o arrange h i s g e n e r a l
o f the Indian.
The
t h e t r a n s l a t o r o f t h e Mahayanasamgraha, p r e f e r r e d
e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n around t h e ambiguous
verses
o f t h e Trimsika,. r a t h e r than around t h e formeri.text, i n d i c a t e s t h a t he was developing a.
a Chinese i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t r e q u i r e d a f r e s h
formulation.
Translations There a r e no T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t i o n s and, o f c o u r s e , no S a n s k r i t
b.
text.
Commentaries i.
ii.
P r i n c i p a l T'ang commentaries: —T.
1830: }ijL,
—T.
1831 :*J^
—T.
685: ijjfo ifa
—T.
686: j
^
;g
|
by K ' u e i - c h i
In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e
^
^
.
The major work.
a l s o by K ' u e i - c h i .
A condensed manual.
j j ^ tf_> •
by T a o - i by -ft 0.
.
a r e s e v e r a l l e s s orthodox (to t h e dharmalaksana
t r a d i t i o n ) i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s from f o l l o w e r s o f K ' u e i - c h i ' s Korean-born
c.
-T.
689:
—T.
690:
Yuan-ts'e
| j ] :JlJ
by fifr
r i v a l , the
(613-696):
.
(incomplete) by >||g.
.
P r i n c i p a l sub-commentaries t o K ' u e i - c h i ' s
d.
—T.
1831: ' f ^ ' l f j f -
—T.
1832
O'^'y^i Y
—T.
1833
3f
b
by K ' u e i - c h i . |L
by
^
>tZ ]£]
( - T l * ) , second p a t r i a r c h o f t h e s e c t . d
1
.
Western Language T r a n s l a t i o n s —
Louis
de l a V a l l e e P o u s s i n , t r a n s , and ed.;
l a s i d d h i de Hsiian-tsang. 1928.
Index p u b l i s h e d
Buddhica, tome I .
Vijnaptimatratasiddhi: P a r i s : Paul
i n Buddhica, tome V I I I , 1948.
Geuthner,
275
—
Wei T a t , t r a n s .
Ch'eng Wei-shin Lun.
Lun P u b l i c a t i o n Committee, 1973.
Hong Kong: The Ch'eng Wei-shih
