Training Theory Book[1]

Dragan Milanović and Colleagues

TRAINING THEORY reviewed teaching materials

University of Zagreb Faculty of Kinesiology

Zagreb, 2013

Publisher: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology For the Publisher: Prof. Damir Knjaz, PhD, Dean Author: Prof. Dragan Milanović, PhD Colleagues: Prof. Sanja Šalaj, PhD Prof. Igor Jukić, PhD Cvita Gregov, Mag.Cin. Peer-reviewers: Prof. Milan Čoh, PhD, Faculty of Kinesiology University of Ljubljana Prof. Bojan Jošt, PhD, Faculty of Kinesiology University of Ljubljana Prof. Cvetan Željaskov, PhD, National Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria Translations: Marko Hrvatin, Mag.A. Željka Jaklinović, Mag.A. Lecture: Elizabeth Harrison Paj

Edition: 1st Internet edition URL: http://kif.hr/predmet/trathe Date of publication on the internet: December 2, 2013

ISBN: 978-953-317-020-6 Available in the digital catalog of the National and University Library in Zagreb

Copyright © 2013. University of Zagreb Faculty of Kinesiology. All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopyng, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher. The Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Commission for Science and Academic Literature and Publishing,on its session held on February 15, 2012, reached the decision on approving the publication of this book. Photographs from the archives of the journal Sportske novosti by kindness and permission of Director General Mr. Janko Goleš, or from the authors’ private collections.

FOREWORD In contemporary sport sports training has become an extremely complex process, involving numerous input and output variables. High-quality expert and scientific knowledge is therefore indispensable in understanding, modelling and managing sports training today. The Theory of Training – as a scientific and academic field of study taught within the master university programme for the education of kinesiologists and coaches – has to address numerous questions posed daily by sports experts as well as athletes. Future professionals in the fields of professional and school sport, sport for all, and sport for people with disabilities have many questions, such as: -

Is there a clear delineation between professional and amateur sport?

-

Which abilities, characteristics and motor skills are required to achieve top sport results in a specific sport or sports discipline?

-

Can athletes' abilities, characteristics and motor skills be objectively and reliably measured?

-

Is it possible to choose a sport that best matches the child's sports potentials based on objective indicators? Is the selection of future athletes based on intuition or scientific facts?

-

To what extent is sports talent a genetic feature and to what extent can preparedness components be developed during the sports career?

-

Is the concern regarding premature involvement of children in intensive sports training justified? Is sports training too demanding for them?

-

Which exercises, loads and methods are optimal for the development of abilities, characteristics and skills that determine sports results?

-

When is it recommendable to introduce external loads or weight training without the risk of causing locomotor system injuries?

-

What is the simplest and the quickest way to master correct technical-tactical elements in a specific sport?

-

Is there an optimum technology for the planning and programming of sports preparation process?

-

The number of competitions is increasing. What happens when competitions start to dominate sports preparation?

-

The total load in certain sports has reached over 1000 training hours per year, or over 20 hours per week. Is that not excessive?

-

Are sport and sport preparation based on professional and scientific facts or do intuition, improvisation and experience of coaches and other experts still prevail?

Of course, these are only some of the questions of professionals who want to make their contribution towards the efficiency of the sports preparation process on all levels. These are also some of the key questions that we have attempted to provide the best possible answers to in this handbook intended for the foreign students studying to become Physical Education teachers or coaches. The English handbook The Theory and Methodology of Training is divided into three main parts: 1. The Theoretical Foundations of Sport and Sports Training, 2. The Methodological Foundations of Sports Training, and 3. Sports Training Planning, Programming and Controlling. The intention behind the creation of this teaching material was to raise the quality of teaching and to facilitate participation of students in class, as well as to help them prepare for the exam in the Theory of Training and pass it successfully. The complex body of knowledge and information in the area of sport and sports training is delivered in a very simple and succinct manner to students, who need to understand, interpret and learn this information. In order to encourage active participation of students in class, each slide is followed by empty lines where the students can write down additional information obtained in class and, more importantly, their own comments that will help them better understand the presented material. In this way, the student ceases to be a passive observer of the lecture and becomes an active participant. Furthermore, each chapter of the handbook is followed by a list of key questions, which guide the student in preparing the exam and passing it. A list of references is provided at the very end of each chapter, which can be very helpful in expanding the presented information. There are many people I would like to express my gratitude to for their significant contribution in conceptualising and developing this handbook. I would primarily like to thank my closest collaborators, junior researcher Sanja Šalaj, Ph.D., professor Igor Jukić, Ph.D. and junior researcher Cvita Gregov, who have been involved in the development of this teaching material for several years. I also extend my thanks to the peer reviewers, professor Milan Čoh, Ph.D., professor Bojan Jošt, Ph.D. and professor Cvetan Željaskov, Ph.D. for their meticulous work and their valuable suggestions. My special thanks goes to Marko Hrvatin for the valuable translation work and Željka Jaklinović-Fressl for the valuable translation, editing and proofreading work. Even though we are aware of the fact that we could have been more detailed and elaborate in conceptualising and presenting the subject matter of the theory of training, we hope that this handbook will provide impetus for the development of the theory of training as a field of study and facilitate class participation and mastering of this body of knowledge.

This handbook might provide an incentive for the students enrolled in the English language programme to approach this area of applied kinesiology with an increased interest and motivation and to become better prepared for tackling the ever increasing demands of sports and sports training, both as an academic field and profession. Dragan Milanović

CONTENTS 1st chapter: The Theoretical Foundations of Sport and Sports Training 1. TRAINING THEORY 1.1. Basic fields of training theory 1.2. Training theory contents 1.3. Training theory definition 1.4. Training theory subjects 1.5. Training theory tasks 2. SPORT (CURRENT ISSUES OF SPORT IN CROATIA AND ABROAD) 2.1. Definition of sport 2.2. Sports Features 2.3. Why a special social status belongs tosport? 2.4. Sport participation and health 3. SPORT IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 3.1. Characteristics of sport in the European Union 3.1.1. NGOs in European sport 3.1.2. Association of Sports Sciences in Europe 3.2. Top level sport in European countries 3.2.1. Top level sport in Slovenia 3.2.2. Top level sport in Austria 3.2.3. Top level sport in France 3.2.4. Top level sport in the United Kingdom 3.2.5. Top level sport in Finland 4. PERSONNEL, MATERIAL, FINANCIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF SPORT AND TRAINING 4.1. Most important factors affecting the status and development of sport 4.2. Coaches and other experts in sport 4.3. Organization of sport 4.4. Sports facilities and equipment 4.5. Sport funding 4.5.1. Taxes 4.5.2. Sponsorships

5. SCIENCE, THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SPORT AND SPORTS TRAINING 5.1. Scientific research area 5.2. Theoretical work area 5.3. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level 6. SPORTS TRAINING (SPORTS PREPARATION) 6.1. Sports training – sports preparation 6.2. Sports training definitions 6.3. The essence of sports training 6.4. Sports training tasks 6.5. Cybernetic approach to sports training 7. SPORTS TRAINING – A SHORTHISTORY 7.1. A short overview of sport development in the world 7.2. A short overview of sport development in Croatia 8. ANALYSIS OF SPORT ACTIVITIES 8.1. Structural analysis of a sport activity 8.2. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities 8.3. Anatomical analysis 8.4. Functional (energy) analysis 8.5. The criteria for the classification of sports activities 8.5.1. The structural complexity 8.5.2. The complexity of the biomechanical parameters 8.5.3. The dominance of energy processes - physiological classification 8.5.4. The dominance of motor - physical abilities 9. ANALYSIS OF ATHLETES’ DIMENSIONS (COMPONENTS OF PREPAREDNESS) 9.1. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes 9.1.1. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes 9.1.2. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes 9.1.3. Performance of athletes / situation-related efficiency 9.1.4. Competition result / achievement (the final outcome of sports activities) 10. DIAGNOSTICS IN SPORT - MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF ABILITIES, FEATURES AND KNOWLEDGE OF ATHLETES 10.1. Diagnostics in sports 10.2. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes

10.3. Diagnostics in sports (10 stages of diagnostic procedure) 11. SELECTION IN SPORT(ORIENTATION TO SPORTS AND CHOICE OF SPORTS BRANCH) 11.1. System of orientation to sports – first selection 11.2. Orientation to a group of sports branches – second selection 11.3. System of selection of a sports branch – third selection 11.4. Procedure of selection 12. SPORT AND SPORTS TRAINING OF CHILDREN AND THE YOUNG 12.1. Sports schools 12.1.1. Universal sports school 12.1.2. Elementary sports school 12.1.3. Specialized sports schools 12.2. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young 12.3. Performance factors of a sports career 12.3.1. Social environment (community, peers, neighbourhood…) 12.3.2. Family 12.3.3. School 12.3.4. Sports club – sports federation 12.3.5. A training program 13. TRAINING FORFITNESSAND SPORT PREPAREDNESS 13.1. Fitness of athletes 13.2. Sport shape / preparedness 13.3. Sport shape development phases 13.4. Sport shape management 13.5. Dynamic attributes of sport shape 14. SPORTS TRAINING AS A TRANSFORMATION PROCESS 14.1. Definitions 14.2. General model of transformation process in sport 14.3. Types of trajectories of preparedness conditions 14.4. Types of transformation processes 15. SPORTS COMPETITIONS 15.1. Definition and characteristics of competitions 15.2. Classification of competitions 15.3. Planning and conducting a competition

16. RECOVERY OF ATHLETES: SUPPLEMENTAL FACTORS OF SPORTS PREPARATION 16.1. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes 16.2. Classification of recovery methods and means 16.3. Illicit pharmacological means: doping 17. BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING 17.1. Introductory observations 17.2. Adaptation in sports 17.3. Continuity of the process of training 17.4. Load progression of training and competition 17.5. Undulation of training and competition loads 18. DIDACTICAL PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING 18.1. Target orientation of training 18.2. Interaction of sports preparation programmes 18.3. Cyclic nature of training

2nd chapter: The Methodological Foundations of Sports Training 19. METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS TRAINING 19.1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training 20. THE MEANS (CONTENTS) OF SPORTS PREPARATION 20.1. Classification and characteristics of training means 20.2. The effects of training exercise implementation 20.3. Selection and order of training exercises application 21. TRAINING LOAD MANAGEMENT 21.1. Training and competition load 21.2. Total load and its components 21.2.1. Energy component of a training load 21.2.2. Information component of a training load 21.3. Effects of a training load on an athlete’s body 21.3.1. Effects of a training load on the muscle fibre 21.3.2. Effects of a training load on the nervous system 21.3.3. Effects of a training load on the oxygen transport system

21.4. Classification (characteristics) of training loads 21.5. Training load management–dosage 22. SPORTSTRAININGMETHODS 22.1. Classification and description of training methods 22.2. Exercise methods 22.2.1. Exercise method with respect to load type 22.2.2. Exercise methods with respect to the training mode 22.3. Teaching and learning methods in sport 22.3.1. Teaching methods with respect to the mode of motor information transfer and motor task assignment 22.3.2. Teaching methods with respect to motor task perfomance mode 23. ORGANISATIONAL FORMS AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMS OF TRAINING 23.1. Organisational training forms 23.1.1. Individual training 23.1.2. Group training 23.1.3. Frontal training 23.2. Methodological forms of training 23.2.1. Station methodological form (station training) 23.2.2. Circuit methodological form (circuit training) 23.2.3. Course training form (course form) 23.3. Methodological aspects of the location, training equipment and training gear use 23.3.1. Training facilities 23.3.2. Training equipment and gear 24. BASICS OF PHYSICAL CONDITIONING METHODOLOGY 24.1. Definition, structure and characteristics of physical conditioning 24.2. The effects of physical conditioning on an athlete’s body 24.3. Physical preparation types 24.3.1. General or versatile physical preparation 24.3.2. Fundamental or basic physical preparation 24.3.3. Specific physical preparation 24.3.4. Situational physical preparation 25. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES 25.1. Methodology of development and maintenance of functional abilities 25.2. Aerobic training methodology

25.3. Anaerobic training methodology 26. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF QUANTITATIVE MOTOR ABILITY 26.1. Strength training methodology 26.2. Speed training methodology 26.3. Endurance training methodology 26.3.1. Endurance training methods 26.4. Flexibility training methodology 27. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF QUALITATIVE MOTOR ABILITY 27.1. Coordination training methodology 27.2. Agility training methodology 27.3. Methodology of accuracy training 27.4. Balance training methodology 28. TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL PREPAREDNESS OF ATHLETES 28.1. Sports technique 28.2. Sports tactics 28.3. Levels of efficiency of the programme for technical-tactical command 29. TECHNICAL-TACTICAL PREPARATION METHODOLOGY 29.1. Teaching and learning the basics of technical-tactical skills 29.2. Motor learning phases 29.3. Teaching methods 29.4. The coach and athlete in the process of technical-tactical teaching-learning 30. PROGRAMMING OF TEACHING TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL SKILLS 30.1. Programme of teaching technical-tactical skills 30.2. Principles of programmed teaching – learning 30.3. Cybernetic model of programmed teaching – learning in sport 30.4. Programming of the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles

3rd chapter: Sports Training Planning, Programming and Controlling 31. PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING TRAINING COURSES 31.1. Planning of training 31.2. Periodisation

31.3. Programming of training 31.4. Types of planning and programming of training 31.5. Methods of planning and programming of training 31.6. A plan and programme modelling of training is conducted on five levels 32. LONG-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING: MULTI-ANNUAL CYCLE OF TRAINING 32.1. Long-term sports preparation periodisation 32.2. Long-term sports preparation modeling 32.3. Long-term sports preparation planning and programming 32.3.1. Universal sports school 32.3.2. Elementary sports school 32.3.3. Specialised sports school 32.3.4. Final sports specialisation 33. MID-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (OLYMPIC CYCLE) 33.1. The significance of the Olympic Games 33.2. Organisational and methodical aspects of the Olympic cycle planning 34. SHORT-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (ANNUAL AND SEMI-ANNUAL CYCLES) 34.1. Annual and semi-annual macrocycle 35. CURRENT PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING 35.1. Periods and phases characteristics 35.2. Preparatory period 35.3. Competitive period 35.3.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in competitive period phases 35.4. Transition period 35.4.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in the transition period phases 36. OPERATIVE PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (MICROCYCLE) 36.1. Planning and programming training in a microcycle 36.2. Microcycle classification 37. OPERATIVE PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (TRAINING DAY AND TRAINING UNIT) 37.1. Operative planning and programming of a day of training 37.2. Planning and programming a training unit 38. MODELLING OF PHYSICAL PREPARATION

38.1. Specificities of the competition activity in team sports 38.2. Factorial structure of readiness 38.3. Model characteristics of top athletes 38.4. Diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics 38.5. Comparison of individual and model preparedness characteristics 38.6. Methodology of physical preparation 38.7. Physical preparation plan and programme modelling in an annual training cycle 38.8. Physical preparation programme modelling in a competitive microcycle 38.9. Conclusion 39. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN SPORT 39.1. Research in the field of sport and the sports training 39.2. Structure of the scientific research in the field of sport and sports training 39.2.1. Research into sports and sports results 39.2.2. Research into characteristics of sports activities 39.2.3. Research into the athletes' dimensions 39.2.4. Research into the competition efficiency factors 39.2.5. Research into the effects of drill and teaching methods 39.2.6. Research into the effects of the programmed sports preparation process 39.3. Applicability of scientific research results in sport

TRAINING THEORY

1.1. Basic fields of training theory: Contemporary sport Theoretical fundamentals of sports training Training methods Planning, programming and control of the training process

1-1

1.2. Training theory contents: SPORT

1st level

Definition Organization Values Social significance Strategic development Sport in Croatia Sport in the EU countries

2nd level

SPORTS TRAINING

TRAINING

TRAINING PURPOSE

Definition

Fitness

Subject

Peak performance

Interdisciplinary approach

Sports results

PRINCIPLES Pedagogical and psychological principles Biological and medical principles Physical foundation

Scientific background

Transformational processes and effects

1-2

3rd level

ANALYSIS OF SPORTS ACTIVITY  Movement structures – sports techniques  Situation structures – sports tactics    

Structural analysis Biomechanical analysis Anatomical analysis Functional / energetical analysis

 Sports classification

4th level

FITNESS COMPONENTS MORPHOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS - CONSTITUTION

HEALTH

H

A

PHY

Physical

preparedness

Technical and tactical (informational)

TE preparedness

Conative characteristics - personality

Cognitive abilities – ”cleverness”

C

P

FSS= f(a1H + a2PHY + a3TE + a4P + a5C + a6A + a7E

1-3

5th level

DIAGNOSTICS AND ANALYSIS OF AN ATHLETE’S FITNESS

 selection of athletes (sample of subjects)  selection of characteristics (sample of dimensions)  selection of tests (sample of variables)  testing procedures (protocol)  editing of test results  processing of obtained data  results analysis  presentation of results to coaches and athletes  applying results in sports practice  control of training effects

6th level

SPORTS PREPARATION SYSTEM

Analysis and prognosis of sport activities and sport results Model values of sport activities and athlete’s fitness Selection – directing to and choosing a sport Training system Competition system Recovery methods Coaches and other personnel Sport organization Material and financial conditions Scientific research

1-4

7th level

GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATHLETES LEVELS OF TRAINING PROCESS (AGE CATEGORIES)

LEVELS OF SPORT PREPARATION

(TYPES OF PREPARATION)

◊ children’s training

◊ preliminary (multilateral)

◊ training of young athletes

◊ basic

◊ training of adult top level athletes (peak performance)

◊ integrated (junior to senior category)

◊ training of athletes through a prolonged sports career

◊ maintaining preparation

◊ specific

◊ final preparation for maximum sport achievements

8th level

TRAINING PRINCIPLES       

Adaptation Training specificity Training continuity Interaction of training programmes Load progressiveness Undulating training Cyclic training

1-5

9th level

TRAINING METHODOLOGY

Modelling and evaluation of training operators Means

Loads

Methods

(exercises) Organizational forms

Methodical forms

Training locations

Training aids and devices

Basic methodology of tecnical and tactical training Methodology of integrative preparation of athletes Basic methodology of physical conditioning

10th level

TRAINING PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING

TRAINING PLANNING

TRAINING PROGRAMMING

Goals, tasks, periodization and resources

Selection, distribution, organization and application of training operators

Sport preparation cycles

Sports career

Olympic cycle

Mezocycle Annual cycle

Microcycle

EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECTS

1-6

One training unit

1.3. Training theory definition Scientific-educational discipline in which the organization and function of a sport system is studied, as well as kinesiological, anthropological, methodological and methodical principles of planning, programming and control of the process of training, competition and recovery in different cycles of sport preparation.

Analysis of results in the long jump 9.00

X X X X

X X

8.50 X

4 8.00

X X

3

7.50

X X

X

X

7.00

2 6.50

1

6.00

X X

1948

1896 1868 80

92

16

28

40

1-7

1968 52

64

76

1996 88

2000

Diagnostics of individual characteristics of handball players (Milanović et al., 2004) Variables

Player X (back)

Player Y (wing)

1. Height

cm

192,8

184,5

2. Weight

kg

89,0

83,6

3. Shoulder wideness

cm

43,0

44,5

4. Arm wideness

cm

200,0

183,5

5. Hand wideness

cm

25,4

24

6. Ball throw 800 gr.

m

38,07

32,53

7. Horizontal jump

cm

259,67

269,33

8. Vertical jump – both legs

cm

62,33

68,33

9. Vertical jump – unilateral

cm

62,33

73

10. Lateral stepping

s

7,22

6,35

11. Triangle movement

s

6,17

5,82

12. Abdominal crunches

n

26,33

36,33

13. Bench-press

kg

85

85

14. Shuttle run

s

30,45

29,05

15. 30m sprint

s

4,85

4,51

Basic statistical parameters of motor characteristics of handball players (Milanović et al., 1997) Motor abilities

AS

SD

MIN

MAX

1. MAGKUS

6,92

0,45

6,25

8.25

2. MBKPOP

12,66

1,49

9,79

14.40

3. MFPTAP

33,07

3,38

28,00

38.00

4. MFLPRR

65,64

13,94

38.00

84.00

5. MFABP

77,71

10,60

60.00

95.00

6. MRCTRB

32,07

4,38

21.00

38.00

7. MBF30V

4,19

1,77

3.95

4.50

8. SBFV30

4,35

1,70

4.12

4.73

9. MFEBMR

28,64

1,95

26.00

33.00

10. MFESVM

67,78

5,53

57.00

77.00

1-8

Example of maximum strength training 1. Training purpose:

Development of maximum strength

2. Athletes:

Adult athletes in preparatory and competition period

3. Training methods:

Repetition method – maximum interval training

4. Loads: 4.1. Intensity:

80-90-100% (1RM), 60% warm-up

4.2. Volume:

Number of repetitions (R): 5-3-1 Number of sets (S): 2-4 sets at each load Number of sets (S): 6-12 per exercises

4.3. Rest:

2-4 minutes (sets), 3-5 (load)

4.4. Tempo

Load appropriate

4.5. Activity during rest Stretching and relaxation 5. Exercises

Basic and specific exercises with weights

Structure of microcycle in second part of preparatory period (Grosser et al., 1986) 100%

Load level

IV 80%

Total load

III

Intensity

60%

Volume

II 40%

I M T 1T 2T SpF TeTa SpB SBF SPI

W 1T AeI akO

F Su Th Sa 2T 2T 1T 1T sBKK SpF sBKK akO Te SpB BI SpB SPI aBF

SpF – specific strength, SpB – specific speed, BF – speed power, SPI – specific endurance, AeI – aerobic endurance, akO – active rest, BKK – speed coordination, B - speed, Te – technical training, BI – speed endurance

1-9

1.4. Training theory subjects The first subject of training theory is studying the sport system with respect to historical, cultural, economical and political aspects of structure and activities at state, regional and local level. The second subject of training theory is studying the transformational processes that enable the functioning of an integral system: the athlete, the sport activity and the sport environment in the sport preparation process.

 Thanks to sport science research, we understand the psycho-physical reactions of an athlete and the training adaptation better than 10 or 20 years ago.  It is our constant obligation and challenge to analyze the current principles of training theory and adjust them to the needs of contemporary sport and new technologies.

1 - 10

Today, it is possible to develop certain models of training (for different sports and athletes of different ages and quality) that are based on the newest scientific information concerning means, loads and methods of sport preparation.

1.5. Training theory tasks: Training theory ascertains the principles by which it is possible to identify and analyze: a) Different sport systems in Croatia and abroad b) Resources on which the position and development of sport at local, regional and global level depend c) External characteristics of sport activities (structural, biomechanical, functional and motor characteristics) d) Internal characteristics of athletes (basic, specific and situational abilities and knowledge that affect its success - the success equation in sports)

1 - 11

e) Diagnostic procedures and test results in the function of the selection of athletes and their successful training f) Selection procedure for directing to different sports and choosing sports branches (disciplines) g) Sports training as a transformation process aimed at a full development of fitness components and top level results

h) Peak performance as a state of an athlete’s fitness that allows him/her to achieve top results in major competitions i)

Methodology procedures directed to the full development of fitness components and athletic performance (strength and conditioning and technical-tactical training)

j) Models of plans and training programmes according to the goals, fitness level, competition calendar and conditions for the implementation of sports training.

1 - 12

Lesson 2:

SPORT (current issues of sport in Croatia and abroad)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define sport as an occupation  Discuss contemporary sports characteristics  Define the characteristics of a professional or selective sport and mass sport or sport for all  Explain the special status of sport in society  Discuss the health benefits of sport

2-1

2.1. Definition of sport The law on sport in Croatia defines a sport as an activity that enables children, youth and adults to meet the needs for movement and play, develop qualities, skills and motor knowledge, sports and creative expression, preservation and promotion of health and sports achievements at all levels of competition.

Sport by definition can be: Top level Elite

Selective Quality

Sport for all Mass Non-selective Questionable quality

Sport by definition can be: Professional Olympic In sport clubs Sport of healthy persons

Amateur Non-olympic In schools/high schools Sport of persons with disabilities

2-2

Quality level

TOP LEVEL – SELECTIVE

Types of sport Professional

MASS – NON-SELECTIVE SPORT

++

Amateur

+

++

In sport clubs

++

+

In schools

+*

++

Recreational – SPORT FOR ALL

++

SPORT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

+

++

MILITARY SPORT (CISM)

+

++

* Most succesfull in USA

2.2. Sports Features 1. Sport with a suitable system of training and competition gives children opportunities to meet a large number of biological motives and psychogenic needs, especially gifted children have the opportunity to confirm their creative potential through sport. 2. Sport and sport training must be realized as the union of effective educational influences in the shaping of a 'healthy' personality.

2-3

3. Sport is full of events that enables (top) athletes to experience success, selfactualization through their own activity and effort. In that way, an athlete experiences joy and enjoys training and competition. 4. Sport is an area of interest of the broad layers of society.

5. Sport is very encouraging for different forms of communication 6. Sport and sports training should be a child's wish, not pressure from parents or coaches. 7. Sports activities should not harm the school or professional education. 8. It is useful to orient young athletes to sports models 9. Athletes are true idols of young people on all continents. 10. Sporting achievements can not be achieved without scientific research carried out by the best experts, interdisciplinary.

2-4

2.3. Why does a special social status belongs to sport? 1. Sporting activity allows each individual to meet primary human needs: the basic biological need for movement and play, the need for safety, order, belonging and love, esteem and self-actualization. 2. Sport and sport activities significantly affect the desirable psychosomatic development of children and young people, they improve and maintain health.

3. Sport activities raise the quality of life - it is the foundation of mental and physical health and well-being. 4. Engaging in sports is an important factor in preventing various types of addictions. Members of sports teams can be an important support to young athletes. Besides the family, an athlete still has a protective layer that defends him/her against negative environmental influences.

2-5

5. Sport and exercise enhance one’s abilities for coping with stress and trauma. 6. In addition to affirming an individual, sport can promote the state, nation, region or local environment. 7. Sport is extremely encouraging for interaction and communication, regardless of educational, generational, gender or other status - and thus highly affects the current social processes and forms of social awareness.

Medal and other results at the Olympic Games in Athens, 2004. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Total state USA CHN RUS AUS JPN GER FRA ITA KOR GBR CUB UKR HUN ROM GRE NOR NED BRA SWE ESP

G 35 32 27 17 16 14 11 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 6 5 4 4 4 3

S 39 17 27 16 9 16 9 11 12 9 7 5 6 5 6 9 3 1 11

B 29 14 38 16 12 18 13 11 9 12 11 9 3 6 4 1 9 3 2 5

4. 24 16 19 20 6 12 9 4 3 10 4 7 8 5 4 2 4 5 8 7

Results 5. 6. 21 17 8 18 18 11 8 16 10 8 22 23 19 12 12 4 8 5 13 10 4 1 16 9 8 6 7 4 11 7 1 1 9 6 6 1 2 2 14 8

7. 16 17 10 11 7 23 15 11 16 16 3 12 5 8 8 2 2 4 3 13

2-6

8. 15 10 13 12 9 13 9 15 8 8 7 10 4 5 14 1 3 4 5 10

9. 20 17 27 16 8 13 11 9 6 11 5 13 1 4 11 3 6 7 6 7

10. 13 10 10 8 9 8 14 16 5 7 3 14 6 2 5 3 4 4 9

1-3 103 63 92 49 37 48 33 32 30 30 27 23 17 19 16 6 22 10 7 19

Sum of results 4-10 1-10 126 229 96 159 108 200 91 140 57 94 114 162 89 122 71 103 51 81 75 105 27 54 81 104 38 55 35 54 60 76 10 16 33 55 31 41 30 37 68 87

Medals won by Croatian national selections in sports games at the European and World championships and Olympic games HANDBALL

10

BASKETBALL

4

WATERPOLO

7

FOOTBALL

1

VOLLEYBALL (F)

3

25

2.4. Sport participation and health • Longitudinal study (Lee and Paffenbarger, 1994) on sporting activities, social habits and health of 36,500 men who joined Harvard University between the years 1916 and 1950, which resulted in the knowledge of the causes of illness and death.

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• Students who spent more than 2000 kcal per week in sporting activities, were compared to the less active students and had a quarter lower likelihood that they would suffer from cardiovascular disease that could cause death. • "The defensive influence" of early sport participation does not count if one does not continue to lead a physically active life.

• Students who sit a lot, but choose an active lifestyle, have a much lower probability of morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease than former student-athletes who have abandoned or reduced physical activity in middle age. • Most at risk were students - athletes who had suddenly stopped any physical activity.

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It is important that athletes never forget that!

Society focused on the future development is aware of the sport potential and provides the conditions for engaging in sports activities for its members. Special conditions for the highest sports achievements society provides for talented and positively selected young athletes.

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Lesson 3:

Sport in European countries

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Distinguish between the non-governmental and the governmental vertical of sport organisation  Define and describe non-governmental organisations in European sport  Discuss physical education in European countries  Describe examples of the professional sport structure and operation in some European countries

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3.1. Characteristics of sport in the European Union  Sport is a major social movement in Europe.  Sport is very important as an element that brings people and nations together.  Interest and willingness to establish cooperation between countries is often stronger in sports than in many other spheres of life.  This means that the sport can be often ahead of politics in the European integration process.  As a result, a complex system of European sports organizations was created.

 They represent “european sport” in institutional frames.  Many countries have adopted or rebuilt legislation in sport by accepting the European Sports Charter.  There is a general increase in attention to different groups in society: people with disabilities, the elite and professional athletes, foreign citizens, the elderly, the armed forces, women and workers (Sport in the workplace or supported by the company).  Attention is directed towards sustainable development in sport (Finland, Great Britain, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Portugal).

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 4 out of 10 Europeans exercise at least once a week  the numbers are rising from year to year  in the Scandinavian countries, most citizens exercise  Men go to training programmes more than women 41%: 35%  There are different interests in sport by age: 15-24 =60%; 25-39 = 41%; 40-54 = 34%; 55 and more = 28%.  More educated citizens are more likely to do sports (completion of schooling to age 15 - 20% with 16-19 years-32% 20 years and more = 50%)  Typically, the modern lifestyle (lack of time) is a reason not to exercise, rather than the cost of equipment, facility or exercise programme.

3.1.1. NGOs in European sport  National sports federation  National sports federations provide a basis for the European sports system, representing about 700,000 sports clubs and approximately 70 million members.

 National Sports Confederation  In almost all European countries in sport, there is one umbrella sports organization: a community of sports federations or a National Olympic Committee

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 European sports federations  Federations of certain types of sports are organized into European federations at the level of the community of the European states. Some of these federations (eg UEFA - Union of European Football Associations) play a major role in the politics of European sport.

 NOC's (NOC - National Olympic Committees)  National Olympic Committees are 1) representatives of the Olympic Movement in their country (eg. NOK, Germany) or 2) act as a national umbrella sports organization (eg. CONI, Italy)

 EOC (European Olympic Committees)  The European Olympic Committee is an umbrella organization of the national Olympic committees in Europe. Formerly called AENOC (Association of European National Olympic Committees) and was founded in Versailles, France in the year 1997.  At this point, the EOC has 48 member organizations.

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3.1.2. Association of Sports Sciences in Europe ENSSEE (European Network of Sport Sciences, Education and Employment)  The European Network of Sport Sciences was founded under the name ENSSHE (European Network of Sport Sciences in Higher Education) that was changed to ENSSEE in 2001.  It was the first step in 1989 towards the europeanization of sports science.

 The primary aims of the network which currently numbers 200 institutes from 30 countries are:  To nourish a comprehensive European cooperation  to promote mobility and increase the number of exchange programmes between educational institutions, persons in employment and students

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ECSS (European College of Sport Science)  ECSS, which was founded in 1995, is another organization that strives to promote sports science in Europe.  Unlike ENSSEE it is not an association of institutes and organizations of sports science, but associations of sports scientists in Europe.  To integrate sport science in Europe, ECSS brings together and publishes new scientific information from various fields of sports science.

3.2. Top level sport in European countries 3.2.1. Top level sport in Slovenia  Under the law of sport in Slovenia, top level sport is specifically classified as a subject of public interest, which the state is responsible to maintain.  Top athletes have established a special system of health insurance.  The State has provided conditions of employment for the top 200 athletes in the state administration.

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 Direct government support for sport, which is determined by the national sports programme divides roughly 8% of public funds for the top level sport.  The fund of the State lottery gives 16-20% for top level sport activities.  Particular attention in Slovenia is placed on supporting talented children and young athletes.

3.2.2. Top level sport in Austria  With little more than 8 million people, Austria is one of the smallest EU member states.  114 medals won at World Championships and 101 medal at the European championships by the athletes of various sports federations and the federation of sport for people with disabilities.  In 2000 a total of 1.2 million euros was allocated to professional sports, and the allocation of resources was based on the principle of promoting competitive sport.

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3.2.3. Top level sport in France  The organization of top sport in France is governed by different sport laws.  The government's responsibility is to facilitate the necessary funds on the one hand, and ensuring social security for the athletes on the other.  To meet the requirements for continuing support athletes train in different groups (elite, seniors, juniors, perspective). Deployment in one of these categories is based on specific national performance criteria.

 During their sporting careers, top athletes (sportifs de haut niveau) receive compensation, aid:  On the one hand, there are special sports boarding schools offered for schooling and/or university education or vocational education.  On the other hand, athletes are provided with assistance to facilitate their reintegration into the sport field of work after their athletic career.  With INSEP there are top sports institutions at the regional level.  Since France has a unique school system, talent identification starts in elementary school.  Well-organized school sports association conducts the selection of potential athletes

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3.2.4. Top level sport in the United Kingdom  Support for top sport in the UK comes in the form of a “World Class” programme and the Sport Institute of the UK.  The programme ''World Class'' has activities at three levels: World Class Performance, World Class Potential, World Class Start.  The first level is strictly related to athletes with the potential to win a medal at the Olympic or Paralympic Games.

 The Sports Institute of Great Britain consists of a network of centers located throughout the UK and a central office based in London.  The aim of the institute is to provide the best male and female athletes the best conditions they need for competition and winning at top level.  The central office in London provides professional knowledge in sport science, sport training, sports medicine, planning of competitions and informational technology. It is concerned with the education of coaches and other professional personnel in different sports.

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3.2.5. Top level sport in Finland 1906: first participated in the Olympics 1600 top level athletes, 35 internationally famous athletes (cross-country running, javelin, marathon, ski jumping, ice hockey, motor racing, orienteering, swimming, aerobics) Now enters as one of the top 10 countries in the winter and summer Olympics

 21% of the population are members of sports clubs in more than 60 sports (football, skiing, ice hockey, swimming, athletics, skating, cycling, football, gymnastics, hiking)  50% of children exercise in sports clubs  50% male and 25% of women attend sports events  90% of the population follows sporting events via television, 58% through the press  Top level sport is considered a good example to young people

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 Support networks to athletes and coaches: National coaching centers, research institutions of Sports Medicine, Research Institute for Olympic Sports, Faculty of Sport and Medical Sciences, Finland sports federations and the Ministry of Education in collaboration with the SOK  10% (550,000) participates at competitions

 Sports Schools: 12 sport high schools (1400 young athletes in 35 sports), professional schools for athletes (14 professional institutions in the form of sports classes), the Finnish Defence Forces School (160 persons per year do military service in the sports school)  Sport buildings and fields (Venues): 28,000 (one for every 180 people)  Finnish sports organizations – constitutes 114 organizations from all areas of sports (advocating competitive and recreational sport, the promotion of cooperation between member states)

3 - 11

Volunteering in sport  800,000 volunteers work in sports organizations, whose work is estimated at more than $ 800 million annually  A country with a high GDP (more than 30,000 $ PC) allows citizens a better fulfillment of their free time and often they do voluntary work

Sports Centers  In 1909 was founded the first Finnish Institute of Sport  Today: there are 11 national and 3 regional centers for physical education.

 Centers for preparation of elite athletes:  Kurtane Sport Institute (track and field, wrestling, shooting, rhythmic gymnastics),  Finnish Institute of Sport (hockey, basketball, athletics, tennis, golf, squash),  Vuokati Institute of Sport (skiing, ski jumping, Nordic combined, biathlon),  Sports Center Pujalahti (badminton, wrestling, athletics)

3 - 12

Scientific research in sport  More than 60 years have been spent on research  The headquarters are at the Faculty of Sport and Health at the University of Jyväskylä:  Department of Physical Education (teaching physical culture, training, motor skills, motivation)  Department of Social Sciences in Sport (sports and social phenomenon of social behavior)  Department of Biology and physical activity (structure, operation, control and adjusting the body to move in terms of training),  Department of Medicine (functional ability, health and habits of the elderly)

3 - 13

Lesson 4:

Organizational, material and financial resources in sport and sport training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Understand factors affecting the status and development of sport  Discuss about coaches and other experts in sport  Describe basic strategic tasks for upgrading the quality of expertise in sport  Discuss on organization of sport, sports facilities and equipment and sport funding

4-1

 Recent sports issues that every country is dealing with, and therefore so is Croatia, are directly connected to people, organizational material and financial resources.  Therefore, it is necessary to determine the standards and criteria for the optimal status of sport, and to prioritize its aspects which are to be developed in order to achieve the main goals.  Developmental strategy and sports programme basics must define its actual status, and interventions for the enrichment of conditions in which the sports activity is carried out

Factors affecting the status and development of sport 1) Government authorities and society in general, take the stand that sport is a profession and include people working in sport, especially physical education/kinesiology teachers, sports coaches and other sports professionals/experts as well as athletes. 2) Organizational and programme framework in the field of top level sport and quality sport.

4-2

3) Basic material, financial i spatial conditions for sports programmes functioning. 4) Entrepreneurial programmes and marketing that significantly affect the financial status of sport.

5) The number and professional expertise of personnel functioning in sport (PE/kinesiology teachers, sports coaches and other personnel from related fields) 6) Quality of the educational system in qualifying and specialization for sports needs 7) Level of sports results compared with international competition 8) Scientific basis of sport, that is, the application of scientific research results in the selection and preparation of athletes (of different ages and quality levels).

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4.2. Coaches and other experts in sport  Coaching education for higher qualifications in Croatia, is achieved via two professional degrees (undergraduate), two university degrees (graduate) and via the specialized postgraduate degree for the highest qualifications in sport.  Coaches in Croatia are educated via courses for coaches, teachers and instructors.

Educational system of sports experts in the Republic of Croatia (professional degree) 2 year SPECIALIST GRADUATE SPECIJALISTIČKI DIPLOMSKI PROFESSIONAL STRUČNI STUDIJ STUDIES (4 sem.) (Professional (Viši bachelor of specijalista) sport – a specialist coach) trener

Coach in different sports Coach in Track and recreation Coach in field physical Swimming conditioning Archery Wrestling Coach in Judo fitness Handball Coach / Basketball instructor Soccer in police, UNDERGRADUATE Volleyball army Tennis PROFESSIONAL STUDIES etc.

(Professional bachelor of sport – a coach) UNIVERSITY STUDIES

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES

4-4

3 years (6 sem.)

 Basic strategic tasks for upgrading the quality of expertise in sport are:  A continuous selection of potential sports coaches candidates,  eduaction of coaches and other experts based on recent discoveries and knowledge which is supposed to improve their coaching efficiency/successes,  providing professional qualifications for coaches through seminars, conventions and other national and international conferences.

 other than coaches, experts of different profiles must be involved in the training process  Their expertise and responsibilities should be strategically defined and distributed  A team of experts, led by a sports coach, in contemporary Croatian sport should be a warranty for achieving the highest sports results.

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4.3. Organization of sport  In order for a sport system to operate efficiently, the tasks and interrelations between key institutions in the organizational scheme which is made up of the Croatian Olympic Committee, Ministry of Science, education and sport and the Croatian Faculties of Kinesiology must be defined.  National and regional sport research and development centres should be added to that scheme, especially the future Croatian Sport Institute.

Relations between governmental and nongovernmental organization of Croatian sport with scientific, educational and research institutions S C H O O L S P O R T

Croatian Olympic Committee National sports federations

Ministry of Science, Education and Sport of the RC District offices for education, science, culture and sport

Municipal offices for education, science, culture and sport

Scientific and educational and research institutions (Faculty of Kinesiology, Research Centres)

Unions of the district sports federations…

Municipal sports federations (Zagreb Sports Federation, e.g. Zagreb Athletic Federation, Athletic clubs)

Other Governmental Ministries of the Republic of Croatia Public, media, sponsors, social institutions…

4-6

T O P L E V E L S P O R T

4.4. Sports facilities and equipment  Sports facilities must comply with standard sizes, qualities and other demands. The lack of sports halls, swimming pools and playing fields in Croatia is evident. It is necessary to review the current facilities’ infrastructure and draw attention to the need for building new ones.  It is very important to implement the required equipment for carrying out the training process. Contemporary apparatus, devices and equipment facilitate the quality of training.

 It is also necessary to ensure considerable financial means for the supply of modern diagnostic and training equipment for top level athletes.  Sports centers must be equipped with diagnostic apparatus that enable an objective assessment of athletes’ preparation/fitness and a continuous control of performance.

4-7

4.5. Sport funding  By sport development activities are determined  Sport funding/financing is the most important resource in all sport systems  It is necessary to additionally motivate investors through tax relief or significant benefits of the invested money. It is also necessary to design different enterpreneurial programmes and sports marketing.

 The Republic of Croatia, local and territorial (regional) governments and the City of Zagreb shall determine the public purpose of sport and, for their implementation, provide funds from their budgets in accordance with the law on sport.  In determining the public needs it is started from the needs and opportunities of society and in the modern world of sports achievements.  The minister responsible for sport, by law sets the minimum standards for the funding of sport in Croatia.

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4.5.1. Taxes  Countries in the transitional stage of development have not provided tax relief in the same way for sports organizations as other European countries have.  Croatia has not yet provided an affordable way to solve the question of tax relief for investment in high-performance athletes. In this sense, a top sport in Croatia has a large reserve.

4.5.2. Sponsorships  Sponsorships are usually included in the toplevel and popular sport.  It is often difficult to achieve an implementation of the financial structure recommended by the European Charter, which does not encourage public and private financial support for sport.

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Lesson 5:

Science, theory and practice of sport and sports training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to: • Explain the importance of scientific research in sport • Talk about the theoretical work area in sport • Explain the correlation between the coach and an athlete • Present and explain fitness profiles of toplevel athletes • Explain the correlation between training programme and fitness level

5-1

5.1. Scientific research area Scientific research System kinesiology

Biomechanics

Pedagogy Didactics

IT Mathematics

What enables a top level performance in sport? What are the factors enabling a successful selection of future top level athletes?

Sport kinesiology

What are the reasons for the great results of Croatian athletes?

(Research in sport)

Sports physiology

Sports medicine

Sports psychology

Sports sociology

How can one create and evaluate training, competition and the recovery process?

 A scientific work/paper is an original contribution to the knowledge of something general or specific and is oriented towards discovering new universal laws or methods.  In contemporary sport the training process has become so complex and therefore impossible to manage without the implementation of scientific information.  Scientists and their research may contribute greatly to sport and sports preparation enhancement.

5-2

 Constant cooperation between researchers and coaches, as well as keeping up with the new information in professional papers and periodicals, and attending conferences and professional seminars definitely influences the improvement of the coaches’ professional work level.

 “Nowadays, the highest sports results are achieved by extremely talented athletes due to a programmed training process based on scientific knowledge”, Gambetta (1989)  The relationship between sport and science, that was founded a long time ago, has reached its full potential nowadays.

5.2. Theoretical work area Training theory – scientific and teaching discipline Training theory (integration of scientific research results)

Theoretical basics Methodics Programming and control Sports performance

5-3

Sports training

Sports preparation

Sport

 Theory, in general, denotes a system of knowledge which is aimed at the explanation of successful functioning of a certain expertise.  Accordingly, the Training theory systematically explains the functioning of sport and sports training along with all its components.  The training theory contains the broadest generalizations by which the facts and laws of training based on sports practice or scientific research are explained.

5.3. Practical work area 5.3.1. Correlation between the coach and an athlete Fitness level (effects)

Model

Athlete – sports team

Athlete X

Coach – expert team

Training plan and programme

(operators)

5-4

Disrupting variables

 A very important part of the previous figure represents the correlation between the model and an athlete X

 The coach who designed the training programme must be informed about the fitness of a top level athlete (the model), the fitness characteristics and the fitness characteristics of an athlete that is being trained (an athlete X)  Those characteristics are, in fact, the test results obtained by evaluating any athlete’s abilities and skills.

Model characteristics/values of physical fitness in top level football/soccer players (Vazny, 1978) ANTROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

MODEL VALUES

1. Body height (cm)

178.0

2. Body weight (kg)

74.0

3. 30 m run FLYING (s)

3.30

4. 10×30m run p’15 (s)

40.0

5. Standing high jump (cm)

65.0

6. Running high jump (cm)

75.0

7. Pull ups (repetitions)

10.0

8. Deep squat (kg)

111.0 kg (150% BW)

9. Slalom run (s)

8.60

10. Slalom run with a ball (s)

10.10

11. Oxygen uptake – VO2 (ml/kg/min)

68.00

12. Cognitive test 1

6.00


70% (+)

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Test results of an X player in the variables to assess their fitness (Vazny, 1978) ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

FOOTBALL PLAYER X’s TEST RESULT

1. Body height (cm)

176.3

2. Body weight (kg)

72.0


3.48

4. 10×30m run p’15 (s)

43.2


56.7

6. Running high jump (cm)

62.6


7.0

8. Deep squat (kg)

96.4 kg (134% body weight)

9. Slalom run (s)

8.80


10.71


62.78


4.40


45% (+)

Football player’s (X) test results and model values comparison (Milanović, 2005, according to Vazny, 1978)

ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

MODEL VALUES

FOOTBALL PLAYER X’s TEST RESULT

1. Body height (cm)

178.0

176.3

2. Body weight (kg)

74.0

72.0


3.30

3.48

4. 10×30m run p’15 (s)

40.0

43.2


65.0

56.7

50

6. From a moving high jump (cm)

75.0

62.6

40


Points 70 60

10.0

7.0

30

111.0 kg (150% BW)

96.4 kg (134% BW)

20

8.60

8.80


10.10

10.71


68.00

8. Deep squat (kg) 9. Slalom run (s)

1

2

6.00

4.40


70% (+)

45% (+)

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Characteristics and abilities

62.78


3

5-6

Top level Croatian basketball players’ results in tests for assessment of basic and specific motor abilities (according to Milanović et al., 1989)

Guards Measuring instruments - tests

Demanded result

Player 1

Player 2

1. Standing high jump (jumping explosive power)

82 cm

82 cm

64 cm

2. Standing triple jump (jumping explosive power)

8,50 m

8.60 m

7.80 m

3. Shuttle run (speed endurance)

25,5 s

25,3 s

27,04 s

4. Chest ball-throw (throwing explosiv power)

18 m

18,5 m

16,30 m

5. Standing 20-m sprint (strating explosive power)

2,85 s

2,86 s

3,03 s

6. Relative oxygen uptake (aerobic capacity)

65 ml/kg/min

70 ml/kg/min

74 ml/kg/min

7. Sit ups (abdominal musculature strength)

40

42

36

Top level basketball player’s fitness profile (T.K.) 0 = group of top level basketball players’ average results (0 to 1 = model values) Z-values

3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

TRB 20VS OSMB TROJ 4*5B VUK SAR2 OSMS 4*5S SPR SMB AEC SAR1 TROS BLG

5-7

Tests

Top level basketball player’s fitness profile (A.K.) 0 = group of top level basketball players’ average results (0 to 1 = model values) Z-values

3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3


Tests

5.4. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level Fitness level (effects)

Model

Athlete – sports team

Athlete X


Training plan and programme (operators)

5-8

Disrupting variables

 In sports training practice there is a continuous correlation between the training plan and the programme - and the training work and the athletes’ fitness  The training plan and programme change the athletes’ fitness level into the desired direction according to the set goals of a certain sports preparation cycle.  Information regarding the athletes’ fitness level, during any part of the training process, represents a basic resource of information for defining the contents, loads and training methods.

 Training operators, implemented in the training programmes, represent the stimuli that produce quantitative and qualitative fitness level changes in athletes.  The application of certain training operators results in fitness level changes, i.e. training effects. Those effects confirm the correctness and weaknesses of any prevously applied training programme, competition system and recovery methods during a certain sports preparation cycle.

5-9

Correlation between training programmes and training effects TRAINING PROGRAMME Training stimulus Training session

A T H L E T E

TRAINING EFFECTS Functional reaction Acute effects

Microcycle

Prolonged effects

Mesocycle phase

Cummulative effects

Mesocycle period Macrocycle

C O A C H

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Peak performance Fitness (trainability)

Lesson 6:

Sports training (sports preparation)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the relation between sports training and sports preparation  Define sports training  Analyse the essence of sports training  Define and describe sports training objectives  Explain the cybernetic approach in sports training  Define the control and the regulation of the sports training process

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6.1. Sports training – sports preparation Training – trahere (lat.) pull, work; denotes each form of exercise, learning and preparation

Sports training represents a pedagogical and biological process oriented at the acquisition of physical abilities, knowledge, skills and habits (routines). Sports training is a system comprised of all procedures aimed at sports perfomance enhancement.

6.2. Sports training definitions: Sports training, in general, represents a longterm process of athletic preparation for the greatest and highest sports achievements. Specifically, it is physical, technical, tactical, intellectual, psychical and other forms of athletic preparation, it is achieved by practice and activity of the highest possible physicial load on organs and organic systems. Therefore, in athletic circles we can often hear the following slogan: “WITH THE CESSATION OF HEAVY PHYSICAL AND MENTAL WORK, STARTS THE SPORTS TRAINING.”

6-2

D. Harre (1982) has defined sports training as an

organized and longterm process of sports performance enhancement that is based on pedagogical, biological, psychological, sociological, medical, biomechanical and methodical principles. With a planned approach and systematic work it affects the development of such abilities, skills and characteristics which enable the highest sports achievements at the most important competitions.

C. Vittori (1990) defined sport training as a complex, pedagogical process which is manifested in organized and scientifically based exercise - work that is repeated with a specific load in order to ensure the activation of the physioogical processes of supercompensation and adaptation in the human organism. Consequently, a development of athletes’ physical, technical and tactical capacities is achieved. These capacities are manifested in an improvement and stabilization of sports performance results.

6-3

Different loads cause different reactions of the athletes’ organism

MA

SMA

ME

MI

Load: MA

maximal

SMA

submaximal

ME

medium

MI

minimum

6.3. The essence of sports training Ensues from all definitions and theoretical approaches:

1)Causes adaptational changes Adaptation is a characteristic of every living organism. An athlete’s condition is, thereby influenced by training stimuli. It actually represents the changes specific to the different demands of each sport.

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2) It represents a form of work: physical and mental There is always a relation between physical and mental engagement in sports training. More complexed motor tasks increase an athlete’s mental abilities’ activation.

3) It is systematic and regular Training should be continuous without disruptions. Athletes should train on a daily basis, changing only the volume and methods of training. Any longer disruptions in training might put the sports development in jeopardy.

4) It is planned and programmed A plan and a programme minimize all coincidences. We must always be aware of “the place we’re at” and what we want to accomplish in order to determine the procedures which lead to the achievement of the goals.

5) It is longterm and goal oriented To plan perspectively a sports career. To secure the full development of fitness (preparedness) in each phase of a longterm sports preparation. Premature forcing of sports talents never yields the expected performance and

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6) Repetitive Training stimuli, training sessions and training cycles are repetative. A stable and automated performance is possible to achieve only with a large number of repetitions.

7) It is conducted by over-thethreshold loads – maximal efforts

Training loads must be over-thethreshold. It is necessary to provoke very large, but controlled physiological reactions.

8) It is specific regarding the level of sport fitness (preparedness) Age, sex, health status specificity and an athlete’s level must be taken into account. Every sport is determined by a specific structure of dimensions that influence the sports performance and results.

6-6

9) It is oriented at maximizing motor abilities, skills and performance achievements necessary to accomplish sports results. Sport results at competitions represent an indicator of an athlete’s training status, training programme and recovery methods’ quality.

6.4. Sports training tasks: 1) Formation and enhancement of athletes’ specific skills and abilities for performing movement structures which make the SPORTS TECHNIQUE TECHNIQUE stands for a biomechanically correct and rational movement structure performance.

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2) Formation and enhancement of athletes’ skills and abilities for the realization of situational structures which makes SPORTS TACTICS. TACTICS – represents optimal movements modes of one or more athletes in situational training or competitive conditions. It is actually an efficient situational problem solving

3) Improvement and stabilization of primary and specific functional/energetic capacities and motor abilities which comprise the athletes’ STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING.

STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING stands for an optimal state of the athletes’functional/energetic capacities and motor abilities.

6-8

4) Development and maintenance of athletes’ MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES. Each sport “demands” specific anthropometric measures and somatotypes. 5) To influence an ATHLETE’S PERSONALITY development. It includes self-evaluation and auto regulation, and also self-confidence and selfrespect. 6) Improving the level of mental, COGNITIVE processes functioning which are specific for different ways and levels of technical and tactical behavior in sport.

7) Improving the ability of MICROSOCIAL ADAPTATION. It is actually an adjustment to the rules of conduct in a sports team and a quality emotional and functional positioning of an individual in a group. 8) Positive athletes' ATTITUDES, INTERESTS, SYSTEM OF VALUES and MOTIVATIONAL orientation.

6-9

9) Preserving and enhancing athletes’ HEALTH. A sport in which professional knowledge is implemented, and which is led by qualified coaches, preserves and enhances athletes’ health. An athlete cannot participate in training and competition if a medical team has determined a health disability or danger of deterioration in the health status.

10) Formation of INTEGRAL ACTION EFFICIENCY, always with regard to an interaction between each of the sports success determinants. For an athlete to be motivated and successful in training and competition, he/she must be healthy and have optimally developed physical abilities, morphological features and motor skills of a certain sport. While participating in sports activities, an athlete must find himself/herself in situations in which he/she will achieve success, and cognitively asses his/her abilities and features so high that participation in a certain sport represents a challenge even during the most difficult training periods and competitions.

6 - 10

6.5. Cybernetic approach to sports training  Cybernetics is a science of management

and regulation of interdependent processes occurring in complex systems (Wiener, 1948).

 BRANCHES of cybernetics: – System theory – Information theory – Management and regulation theory – Communication theory – Games theory – Algorithms theory  Sports training is a manageable process. All processes that can be managed may be simply described by the cybernetic approach.

6 - 11

 Management – Is a group of momentary actions or actions in time by which a satisfying system functioning is trying to be achieved. (Achievement – reaching peak performance during preparatory period) 100 80

60 1. Phase of entering peak 2. Phase of maintaining 3. Phase of temporary performance peak performance loss of peak performance Preparatory/control competitions

Official competitions

Other competitions (tournaments, meetings)

Preparatory period

Competition period

Transitional period

Mesocycles (phases)

Mesocycles (competiotion seasons)

Mesocycles (phases)

Microcycles

Microcycles

Microcycles

 Regulation – Is a group of momentary actions or actions in time by which a satisfying system functioning is trying to be achieved within demanded or given boundaries. (Peak performance maintenance during a competition period) 100 80

60 1. Phase of ulaska entering of maintaining 3. 3. Phase of temporary 1. Faza u peak 2. 2.Phase Faza održavanja Faza privremenog performance peak performance loss ofsportske peak performance sportsku formu sportske forme gubitka forme Preparatory/control Pripremno-kontrolna competitions natjecanja Preparatory period Pripremni period Mesocycles (phases) Mezociklusi(etape) Microcycles Mikrociklusi

Official competitions Službena natjecanja Competitionperiod period Natjecateljski

Othernatjecanja competitions Ostala (turniri, mitinzi) (tournaments, meetings) Transitional period Prijelazni period

Mesocycles (phases) Mesocycles Mezociklusi (sezone Mezociklusi(etape) (competiotion seasons) natjecanja) Microcycles Mikrociklusi

6 - 12

Microcycles Mikrociklusi

 Cybernetics enables a simplified approach in analyzing complex systems and processes, and represents a special operational method.  Cybernetics in training theory brings mathematics and statistics as operational methods. Sports training science becomes an exact, scientific and teaching discipline.

System approach System: A group of elements with clearly determined characteristics and interrelations  A system is a specification of relations between input, condition and output  System condition is determined by output variables  Change of input variables causes a change in output variables  Input variables represent causes, and output variables represent the consequences of the system processes.

6 - 13

A simple cybernetic model of sports training (modified according to Mraković, 1994) disruptions

INPUT I

ATHLETE

OUTPUT O

Achieved condition

TRAINING PLAN AND PROGRAM


Analysis of training effects

(management and regulation)

Expected condition

Cybernetic model of information exchange between coach and athlete Training model given by a coach

Disruptions F I L T E R

Athlete’s/team’s condition model – seen and understood by a coach

Almost no entropy.

Athlete – Sports team

Coach Almost no entropy.

Training model understood by an athlete - team

F I L T E R Disruptions

6 - 14

Athlete’s/team’s real condition model = training effects

Lesson 7:

Sports Training – A Short History

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Describe the beginning of sport development  Explain the developmental stages of sport and define the development indicators  Discuss the new technologies in sports preparation  Define the implicit and the explicit phase of sport development  Talk about the beginning of academic research and the application of research findings in sport

7-1

7.1. A short overview of sport development in the world  Data on horse training were found on a clay plate from the 14th century B.C. and data on athletes’ training on a clay plate from the 7th century B.C.  Ancient Greece: Advanced physical activity in the education of youth. Special attention was given to the preparation for the Olympic Games.

Sport in the Middle Ages  The cult of the spirit prevails over the cult of the body – the influence of medieval Christianity  Physical activity and sport played one of the key roles only in a knight’s education - military training  Knights’ tournaments – a central social event

7-2

Renaissance  Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) – “The Art of Gymnastics” – the book that summarises all knowledge on sport in ancient Greece - in the next three centuries it would have a significant impact on the development of sport in Europe

Age of Enlightenment  Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)  Physical activity is an integral part of education  Swimming, jumping, running, throwing, and games

Gymnastics systems  BEGINNING OF SYSTEMATIC PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN EUROPE - 19th century (German, Swedish, French, Czech)

 Gymnastics systems can be perceived as the precursors of sport, which started to develop rapidly in those countries

7-3

 Since its beginning (19th century) training was under the influence of gymnastics and physical activity systems from Germany, Sweden, the Czech Republic and England.  In England, contours of modern sport start to appear - the concept of training is adapted - to exercise, to train or to repeat mechanically an exercise with the goal of performance improvement - J. Walsh, 1856.

 First research into the correlation between physical exercises and morphological characteristics (Sargent, 1879)  Strength training prevails in the conditioning of motor abilities basic training principles and methods are defined (Blaikie, 1879; Anderson, 1883; E. Sandow 1894)

 1888 - Legrange gives the definition of training: Training refers to the activities whose purpose is to prepare a man or an animal for a certain type of work.

7-4

Modern sport  Developed in England in the second half of the 19th century

The Olympic Games  Pierre de Coubertin (1863 – 1937)

 1. The Olympics in Athens in 1896 played a key role in the development and popularisation of sport in Europe and the world

 Gradually,the first serious analyses of sports training are published, which enrich the training methodology (E. Sandow 1897, Murphy, 1913, B. Kotov 1916/1917)

 After the second and the third Olympics it became clear that results can be obtained only by the employment of multilateral and balanced exercise

7-5

 The American scientist M. Murphy publishes "athletic preparation" and recommends that preparatory training should last 8 to 10 weeks, and that it should be based on specific and "aiding/helping" exercises.

 The Russian scientist B. Kotov (1916/1917) clearly formulates the ideas on continuity and different stages (periodisation) of the training process – he also distinguishes between three periods: general training, basic training, and specific training.

 In Finland the interval training method is used for the first time (L. Pikhala, 1930), which gives excellent results in long-distance and middle-distance running  The first serious articles on training are published - V. Gorinevski «Scientific foundations of training», 1922; G. Birsin «Training essence» from 1925.

 The rapid development of sport in the period between the two World Wars is accompanied by the development of sports training technology.

7-6

 From 1932 to 1936 the participation of other academic and study disciplines can be observed: sports medicine, physiology, psychology, pedagogy. Eventually, the profile of sports specialists is developed.  Interval sports preparation starts to be employed (coach - W. Gerschler, runner – R. Harbig 800m)  By World War II the level of 400 to 500 training hours in the annual cycle of sports preparation is reached and there is a tendency for the employment of two training sessions per day.  The idea of peak performance and its tapering for important competitions is considered.

 After World War II (1948 to 1952), especially at the Olympics in Helsinki, first top sports results are achieved by the athletes from the “Eastern block"  The experts “are aware of/come to realize" the structure of the success factors in different sports disciplines and study the methodological problems connected to each of the sports preparation segments  There is a shift from the level of a general approach to the level of an individual approach

7-7

 The first big athletic stars are P. Nurmi, J. Owens and E. Zatopek - track and field, J. Weismuller - swimming  The importance of physical conditioning in the training structure constantly increases  E. Müller and T. Hettinger introduce new strength training methods (isometrics) in 1953

 In 1959, R. Morgan i G. Adamson propose the circuit training method, which is improved by M. Schölich in the 1960s.  The annual number of training hours is around 800.  Sports preparation systems for important competitions (the Olympics, World Championships and European Championships) are designed  Special attention is given to the functional preparedness and training methods for the development of motor abilities. Interest for strength training in basketball, swimming, and track and field is increasing

7-8

 In the training of Australian (coach P. Cerutty – runner H. Elliot 1500m) and New Zealand (coach A. Lydiard – runner P. Snell 800m and 1500m) (1960 – 1968) track and field athletes, new training methodology is applied (e.g. "complex training") leading to the highest sports results in the world.

 Increasing body of published academic research in all areas of sports training leads to a qualitative leap.

 Important research in the field of sports training periodisation is conducted (S. Letunov, 1959, L. Matveev 1962)  After the Olympic Games in Mexico in 1968 the interest for "altitude training" increases among the coaches and sports scientists, and the first specialised centres for altitude sports preparation are built

7-9

 The desire to speed up the recovery process results in the use of prohibited pharmacological substances by the end of the 1970s.

 Conditions for sports preparation are significantly improved and an improved means of recovery are developed

 Science becomes the leading generator of positive change in sport  Commercialisation of sport during the 1990s gives sport its cosmopolitan character and creates conditions for athletes to become professionals  At the beginning of the 21st century sports training becomes an academic system led by specialised teams of experts. This ensures the further development of sports preparation on the basis of the most recent academic findings and technologies

7 - 10

 The intuitive and empirical approach prevails until the end of the 1960s, when the high-quality sports preparation systems are defined, drawing on the experience of the leading world coaches (implicit stage)

 The year 1966 marked the beginning of the dominance of the academic approach. Academic research results are applied in the selection, methodology, programming, and control of the sports preparation process (the explicit stage)

7.2. A short overview of sport development in Croatia  Shooting - the first sport  Popularisation of sports and the establishment of sports clubs - second half of the 19th century  Cycling - most popular in the 19th/20th century  Franjo Bučar 1866-1946  Football in Croatia since 1903

7 - 11

 Between two World Wars:           

Basketball Handball Volleyball Water polo Track and field Boxing Golf Ice hockey Kayaking/canoeing Table tennis Tennis

Croatian Falcon was a well-organised physical activity system  The members cherished proper education (discipline, friendship, devotion) and physical preparedness for serving the nation  At that time, physical education teachers were advocates of the positive role of sport and physical exercise in the education of youth

7 - 12

Croatian sport after World War II  A successful period for sport development in Croatia  The 1948 Olympic Games in London, the first international success of Croatian athletes – the Yugoslavian national football team won the silver medal  While performing for the former Yugoslavia, Croatian athletes accomplished significant results in team sports, tennis, rowing, boxing, swimming, wrestling etc.

Medals won by Croatian athletes at the Olympic Games since 1992 G

S

B

T

Athletics

-

1

0

1

Handball

2

-

-

2

Basketball

-

1

-

1

Water polo

-

1

-

1

Tennis

-

-

3

3

1

1

2

1

2

2

2

Rowing

-

Weightlifting

1

Taekwondo

-

-

Swimming

-

1

-

1

Alpine Skiing

4

5

-

9

Biathlon

-

-

1

1

Shooting

-

-

1

1

Gymnastics

-

1

-

1

Total

7

11

9

27

7 - 13

 Significant features of the contemporary Croatian sport are:  Croatian athletes achieve significant results at important competitions. This is the result of great talent and motivation  A strategy and a national programme for the development of sport do not exist  Croatia hosts important competitions in various sports disciplines  There is a lot of room for improvement regarding the education of coaches, the structure, international cooperation, material and technical conditions and academic research

7 - 14

Lesson 8:

Analysis of sport activities

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Distinguish between the movement structures and      

the situation structures, i.e. technique and tactics elements Define a structural analysis and explain the structural properties of a sports activity Define the biomechanical analysis and explain the biomechanical properties of a sports activity Explain muscle contraction types Define an anatomical analysis and explain the anatomical properties of a motor activity Define a functional analysis and explain the energy processes in sports activities Describe the criteria for a sports activity classification

8-1

8.1. Structural analysis of a sport activity Two components define a sport activity:

Movement structures

Sport technique

Situation structures

Sport tactics

Sports are differentiated by the number and complexity of movement structures and situations: that is, the technical and tactical elements.

a)Phases b) Subphases

c) Structural elements

 There is a definite number of structural elements in each sport.  Success in sport is dependant on a correct performance.  A motor learning process enables constant learning and improvement of technical and tactical knowledge.

8-2

Typical sport activities in which technical and tactical actions appear A - approaching, B - jump, C – flying and kicking the ball in a dual action

A structural analysis of a sport activity implies four steps: 1) Identification of typical structures of movement and structures of situations 2) Registration of structures of movement and structures of situations during a competition 3) Determining the frequencies (successful, unsuccessful) of structures of movement and structures of situations during a competition 4) Determining the value of structures of movement and structures of situations for sport results

8-3

Distances covered by soccer players from different positions (Verheijen, 1997)

Level / Posit ions Country

Study

N

Distance in meters Walk

Jogging

Side movement

Sprint

2100

300

Bangsbo al.

et 1st league/ Denmark

14 3600

5200

Knowles Booke

& 1st league/ England

40 1703

2610

Mohr et al.

1st league/ Italy

D W L A

9 11 13 9

Reilly T.

1st league/E ngland

D W L A

8 7 11 14

2292 1777 2029 2309

2902 2910 4040 2771

Backward movement

250

2460 1690 2230 2280

650 640 440 440

1583 1898 2159 1755

783 830 1059 1066

668 651 510 495

Legend: D- defence; W-wing; L-line; A-attack

8.2. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities  Biomehanical analysis enables an evaluation of

the movement structure qualities.  Gives us numerical values of movements  In motor teaching coaches must use understandable biomechanical terms  Based on the biomechanical parameters during the performance of athletes and a model, motor errors can be determined

8-4

Kinematic parameters:  spatial (path, trajectory, angle relations)  time (duration) and  space - time (speed, acceleration)

Dynamic parameters:



 muscle forces,  the forces of resistance,  reactive power

 Electromyographic parameters

Speed curves of sprinters of different quality compared to the model (according to Letzelter and Letzelter, 2002)

Running velocity



Model Top level sprinter Medium quality sprinter Lower quality sprinter

Distance

8-5

Speed curves of body parts of a young football player while kicking the ball (Kollath, 1990 according to Milanović, 1997) Velocity m/s

Ball contact

Top of foot

Ankle

Knee

Hip

Top level basketball players results in a modified Sargent test from a tensiometric platform (Milanović et al., 1999) Kinematics

Subjects V.S. K.T. D.V. P.Ž. Z.J. Č.Z. C.D. R.Z. R.Z.

Maximu m reach in jump (cm) 352 341 334 321 318 314 310 306 305

Kinetics Measured

Maximum reach (cm)

Take-off force (N)

75 75 70 56 70 60 59 69 66

3580 2685 3246 2320 2762 2570 2682 2856 2608

8-6

Calculated

Duration Force/body of takeweight off (ms) 220 240 250 200 200 220 190 210 170

3,1 3,1 2,9 2,3 3,2 2,7 2,9 3,3 3,2

m. ext. carpi

m. flex. carpi m. biceps brachii

Electromyographic activity during a jump shot in handball

m. triceps brachii

m. deltoideus

(Muller et al., 1992)

m. trapezius m. pectoralis major

Types of muscle contractions

1.

2.

1.

3.

1. ISOMETRIC – placing feet on the ground 2. ECCENTRIC – amortization 3. CONCENTRIC – take-off

8-7

3.

8.3. Anatomical analysis The performance of motor actions involves different: topological regions of the body (arms and shoulder girdle) muscle group (flexor muscles / flexor forearm) muscles (flexor / flexor forearm m. biceps brachii)

Analysis of muscle strain in abdominal crunch (Delavier, 2001)

8-8

Analysis of muscle strain in the forearm flexion (Delavier, 2001)

Dominant muscle groups in various sports disciplines

muscles and muscle groups - extensors

muscles and muscle groups - flexors

8-9

The order of activation of leg muscles during cycling 1. m. quadriceps femoris 2. m. triceps surae

5. m. biceps femoris

3. m. flexor digitorum

6. m. tensor fasciae latae

4. m. gluteus maximus

7. m. tibialis anterior

8.4. Functional (energy) analysis In different sports activities various energy processes are activated : Aerobic (O2) mixed (aerobic - anaerobic) Anaerobic - glycolitic (LA) Anaerobic - phosphate (ATP / CP)

These energy processes can be measured by a number of physiological - biochemical parameters in a laboratory and in the field heart rate body temperature lactate concentrations

8 - 10

The involvement of energy processes in different sports in % (by Bompa, 1994) SPORT

Kayak: K1 1000m Rowing Rugby Archery

ATP/CP

LA

O2

20

50

30

2

15

83

30-40

10-20

30-50

0

0

100

Skiing: alpine slalom

40

50

10

giant slalom 70’’-90’’

45’’-50’’

30

50

20

super G 80’’-120’’

15

45

40

downhill 90’’-150’’

10

45

45

Skiing: nordic

0

5

95

Soccer

60-80

20

0-10

Swimming 100m

23.95

51.10

24.95

10

20

70

Tennis

1500m

70

20

10

Volleyball

40

10

50

Waterpolo

30

40

30

Wrestling

90

10

0

Heart rate during a football match (a) the relationship between HR and VO2 in the treadmill run test (b)(Bangsbo, 1994) At the mean HR of 171 and 164 r / min in the first and second half the achieved VO2 is: 51.1 ml / mol / kg (78% VO2 max) and in the second 46.2 ml / mol / kg (72% VO2 max)

VO2 max = 65,3 ml/min/kg

8 - 11

8.5. The criteria for the classification of sports activities 8.5.1. The structural complexity Monostructural sport activities Activities in which there are one or more movement structures of a cyclic or acyclic character, which are successively repeated. Defined as standard forms of motion with the lowest variability of biomechanical parameters.

Monostructural cyclic sports activities In their basis are simple structures of movement: closed or semi-open type. It is a repetition of the same movement, or cycles, such as a step in walking, running,a stroke in swimming or rowing, a cycle in cycling…

8 - 12

Monostructural acyclic sports activities More complex structures of movement, and semi-open and open type, consisting of several phases. Activities are performed in the standard forms with respect to biomechanical principles for overcoming one's own body space, missile, or with the help of an external force (athletic jumps and throws, alpine skiing, weightlifting, sailing ...)

Polystructural sport activities Semi-open and open movement structures that are performed in variable conditions. They are dominated by the complex structure of an acyclic movement character in which there is a direct, - wrestling opponents (wrestling, judo), or indirect - kicking, countering the opponent (boxing, karate, taekwondo, fencing)

8 - 13

Complex sports activities Characterized by simple and complex movements in terms of cooperation, cooperation between members of sports teams during the game. The aim of this cooperation is to achieve supremacy over opponents - individuals or teams. It may vary from one-subject (tennis, table tennis) to multisubjects (team sports games). In these activities maximum demands on the type of tactical decision-making and action are set.

Conventional - aesthetic sports activities Contain aesthetically designed and choreographed sets of movement structures which are performed under standard conditions. There are obligatory and free competition programmes, with a subjectively assessed value of technical and artistic interest (diving, figure skating, gymnastics ...). Ski jumping is evaluated in jump distance and quality of performance.

8 - 14

8.5.2. The complexity of the biomechanical parameters  Control of kinematic and dynamic parameters (sports, gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming)  Control of dynamic parameters (track and field, rowing and swimming)  Sports with a high variability of biomechanical parameters (martial arts and sports games)

8.5.3. The dominance of energy processes - physiological classification  Aerobic sports (long-distance running, cross country skiing)  Mixed sports (athletic decathlon, triathlon)  Lactate - glycolytic anaerobic sports (martial arts, running the middle distance, sports gymnastics)  Phosphate anaerobic sports (sports games, sprint running, diving)

8 - 15

8.5.4. The dominance of motor physical abilities      

Sports Sports Sports Sports Sports Sports

dominated dominated dominated dominated dominated dominated

by by by by by by

power speed and agility endurance balance coordination precision

8 - 16

Lesson 9:

Analysis of athletes’ dimensions (components of preparedness)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Explain the hierarchical structure of the factors of athletes’ fitness;  Define and describe basic anthropological characteristics of athletes;  Define and describe athletes’ specific abilities, characteristics, knowledge and skills;  Define and describe situation-related efficiency (performance) indicators of athletes;  Define and explain competition results (achievements) in sports

9-1

9.1. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes IV. Competition result Indicators of performance in the phase of defense

Indicators of performance in the phase of offense/attack

Other performance indicators

III. Performance efficiency of athletes Specific physical conditioning fitness

Specific abilities, skills and knowledge – technical preparedness

Specific abilities, skills and knowledge – tactical preparedness

Specific theoretical knowledge

II. Specific abilities, characteristics, knowledge and skills Health status

Morphological Work capacities characteristics (Functional abilities)

Motor (physical) abilities

Cognitive abilities

Personality traits (innate)

I. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes

9.1.1. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes Health status

Morphological characteristics

Work capacities (functional abilities)

Motor (physical) abilities

Cognitive abilities

Personality traits (innate)

I. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes

 Health status – Sports and sport training should never jeopardize health of athletes. – To fight against substance abuse in sport is an obligation of each and every participant.

9-2

 Morphological characteristics of athletes - These are body composition indicators, somatotype characteristics of athletes – important sport performance factors. - Variuos sports require various somatotypes (ectomorph, mesomorph, and endomorph) - For high achievements in certain sports morphological characteristics are crucial, decisive.

Skinfold measurements (Beachle & Earle, 2009)

Anthropometric characteristics of athletes: body height, body mass, somatotype of basketball players (Milanović et al., 1989) (M - Mean, SD - standard deviation)

Player Test

/

01 02 03 04 05* 06 07 08 09 10* 11 12 M SD

Height (cm)

Mass (kg)

Somatotype

198.3 204.9 212.9 187.0 207.6 205.5 206.5 190.7 187.6 208.5 217.7 194.4 201.7 10.03

91.3 97.0 110.3 81.8 85.7 101.0 97.6 81.0 85.7 110.8 117.4 86.0 95.5 12.31

4.5/2.6/4.5 2.5/2.9/4.0 3.0/4.0/4.0 3.5/4.5/3.0 2.0/1.0/6.0 3.0/3.4/3.0 3.0/2.9/4.5 1.5/4.0/3.5 2.5/4.1/2.5 4.5/4.4/3.0 2.0/3.9/4.0 2.5/3.8/3.5 2.9/3.5/3.8 0.93/0.98/0.94

9-3

 Work capacities / functional (energy supply) abilities of athletes – Related with the efficiency of the oxygen transport system (aerobic ability) and anaerobic energy supply capacities (phosphogenic and glycolitic metabolic processes). – Athletes may significantly differ among themselves by the aerobic abilities as well as by anaerobic capacities. – In certain sports the anaerobic glycolitic energy production process prevails, whereas in others theaerobic metabolic process is predominant.

Characteristic metabolic processes in various performance time intervals of high intensity sport activity (Bompa, 1994) Energy intensity of the activity

A

100%

P

G

anabolic (A) phosphogenic (P) gliycolitic (G) 50%

aerobic

seconds 30

60

90

9-4

120

150

• Each sport event can be described in terms of particular energy supply mechanisms: anabolic (A), - phosphogenic (P), glycolitic (G) and aerobic (oxydative; O).

Aerobic and anaerobic energetic processes in sports events of various duration (Bompa, 1994) Anaerobic

Energy supply system

Alactic

Basic energy sources

Phosphate system (ATP and CP from muscles)

Duration

0s

Sports events

10s

Aerobic Lactic

Lactic system (glycogen  lactic acid) 40s

70s

Glycogen (completely burns outin presence of O2)

2 min

6min

25min

Fats

1h

Proteins

2h

200-400m

800 m

Medium distance (running, speed skating, swimming)

Long distance (running, swimming, speed skating, kayak-canoe)

Throwing events

500m speed skating

100 m swimming

1000m kayakcanoeing

Cross-country skiing

Jumping events

Artistic gymnastics

500m canoeing

Boxing

Triathlon

Weight lifting

50m swimming

1000m speed skating

Wrestling / Combat sports

Cycling, road race

Ski jumping

Floor routine (artistic gymnastics)

Figure skating

Diving

Alpine skiing

Rowing

Vault (art. gymn.) Sports games, individual (net&wall) games, sailing

Activity

3h

100m track sprinting

Acyclic

Acyclic and cyclic

9-5

Cyclic

• The differences between test results in rest and parameters obtained under competition loads are frequently analysed to determine specific work (functional) responds/capacities of athletes. Functional indicators of elite rowers in rest and in competition (Körner & Schwanitz, 1985, according to Milanović, 1997)

FUNCTIONAL (WORK CAPACITY) PARAMETER

VALUES IN REST

VALUES IN COMPETITION

HR (heart rate)

40

200.0

Respiratory volume (l/min)

8.0

200.0

Oxygen consumption (O2l/min)

0.5

6.5

Lactate (mmol/l)

1.0

20.0

Average values of maximal oxygen uptake in athletes of various sports (Bangsbo, 1994)

mlO2/min/kg

soccer team handball

80

medium distance running untrained individuals

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 women

men

9-6

Values of absolute and relative oxygen uptake (VO2) of Australian athletes (Pyke, 2001)

Average absolute VO2max L/min)

Range

Average relative VO2max (ml/kg/min)

Range

M

4.9

3.9-5.7

75

65-80

W

3.5

2.9-4.2

65

55-70

M

4.8

4.3-5.1

65

55-70

W

3.4

3.1-3.8

52

45-60

M

5.8

4.8-6.4

80

65-85

W

3.7

3.0-4.0

63

55-70

M

4.8

4.4-5.2

60

55-65

W

3.1

2.8-3.5

50

45-55

M

4.6

4.0-5.2

60

55-65

W

3.1

2.8-3.5

50

45-55

Sport

Running Rowing Cycling Canoeing Soccer

 Motor abilities of athletes – Represent efficiency of the neuro-muscular system responsible for intensity, duration and regulation of movements. – They enable either powerful, quick, longlasting, accurate, coordinated, or combined performance of various motor tasks.

9-7

 Motor abilities are the aspects of intensity and extensity (volume) of any motor activity that can be described with the same parameter system and measured with the identical group of measuring instruments; onset of analoguous physiological, biochemical, morphological and biomechanical mechanisms is typical for each of them.  McCloy (1886-1959) defines motor, i.e. physical potential of athletes as the maximum limit of physical work ability which an individual reaches, or realizes his/her potential with sports training.

• According to Meinel (1977, in Milanović, 1997), it is a complex structure of quantitative (STRENGTH/POWER, SPEED, ENDURANCE and FLEXIBILITY) and qualitative (COORDINATION, AGILITY, BALANCE and ACCURACY) motor abilities.

9-8

 The quantitative motor abilities enable a high level of work intensity and extensity, whereas the qualitative motor abilities enable an athlete to perform work of high structural and biomechanical complexity of any sports activity.

 Bompa (2006) defines the structure of motor abilities as consisting of BASIC BIOMOTOR CAPACITIES, like strength/power, speed, endurance, coordination and flexibility.  The derived motor abilities are also important to sport performance. They are a result of the correlation of the basic motor abilities.  Therefore, there are POWER/EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH (interaction of strength and speed), SPEED ENDURANCE (interaction of speed and endurance), and SPEED COORDINATION (interaction of speed and coordination).

9-9

Interdependence among biomotor abilities (modified according to Bompa, 2006)

Strength/Power

Endurance

Repetitive strength

Speed

Speed endurance

Coordination

Agility

Flexibility

Dexterity

Power

Maximal strength

Anaerobic endurance

Aerobic endurance

Speed strength

Speed coordination

Dynamic mobility

Results of soccer players of different standards in tests of motor abilities Tests

Standard levels of soccer players A

B

C

D

E

30m dash from the standing start (s)

3.85

3.85-3.98

3.99-4.12

4.13-4.26

4.26 >

30 m dash from the flying start (s)

3.15

3.15-3.27

3.28-3.40

3.42-3.53

3.53 >

SAR vertical jump (cm)

43.0

40.0-43.0

36.0-39.0

32.0-35.0

35 <

COOPER test (km)

3.35

3.26-3.35

3.16-3.25

3.06-3.15

3.06 <

10m dash from the standing start (s)

1.66-1.70

1.69-1.73

1.71-1.77

1.75-1.78

1.78 >

9 - 10

 Cognitive abilities of athletes – Enable reception, processing, retention and utilization of motor information resulting in quick and correct decision making during training and competition activities. – Their influence is higher in the more complex sports activities.

 Conative characteristics/ personality traits – Crucial for the efficient adaptation to strenuous work conditions of sports and sport training. – Personality traits are responsible for athletes’ behaviour and their engagement level/ commitment and drive during training and competition.

9.1.2. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes Specific and situational physical condition/fitness

Specific abilities, Specific abilities, Specific skills and knowledge skills and knowledge theoretical – technical – tactical knowledge preparedness preparedness

II. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge

9 - 11

 Specific and situational physical condition/fitness – It is manifested within specific movement patterns and game situation patterns of a particular sport. – Integration of physical condition/fitness and technical (specific) preparedness as well as of physical condition/fitness and tactical preparedness (situational). – Considerable influence of physical fitness abilities on performance of technical elements and correlation of physical fitness and technical skills with the quality of tactical performance

Indicators of basic and specific physical fitness of elite basketball cadets (C) and juniors (J) (Milanović et al., 1997) Mean - C S.D. - C

Mean - J S.D. - J

SAR cm

70.02

7.57

74.08

6.55

TRO cm

754.60

40.80

764.42

53.44

BLG cm*

1513.30

135.10

1560.70

119.52

CAT rps.

27.87

2.53

32.06

2.27

VS20 s*

3.23

1.83

3.06

0.18

DO30 rps.*

22.73

0.15

24.42

2.53

S4×5 s*

5.26

0.50

5.34

0.51

OSMS s*

9.09

0.44

8.93

0.63

KUS s

7.69

0.35

6.82

0.32

SMB s*

29.46

1.52

27.56

1.54

TRB rps.

29.60

2.44

31.23

3.91

Mean – arithmetic mean, S.D. – standard deviation * - tests of specific physical condition/fitness

9 - 12

Technical, tactical and theoretical preparedness  A high level and integrated utilization of technical-tactical skills and knowledge by athletes provide successfull situational problem solving during sports training and competition.  It is a consequence of a correct, adequate longlasting TE-TA training with a myriad of repetitions

Efficiency levels of TE-TA activity programs  Sports technique and tactics consist of a repertoire of motor programs embracing clusters of edited and hierarchically arranged motor information.  Performance efficiency depends the number and quality level of the stored motor information and on the athlete’s ability to harvest and apply them timely.

9 - 13

Motor programs can be at various efficiency levels: Level one:  Inicitial information are adopted,  Fragmetary knowledge,  Rough performance,  Poor movement control,  Constant interventions of a trainer are needed,  The program often needs to be reconstructed,  Consciuos control over all movement phases,  A high activity level of cortical part of the central nervous system,  A good basis for further learning.

Level two:  The motor program has not been completed yet,  Additional information are constantly needed,  The trainer must control performance strictly,  The program needs to be upgraded constantly,  “Fine” movement coordination is required,  Athletes’ active mental participation is needed

9 - 14

Level three:  Stabile performance is resistance to hindering environmental influences,  Movement parameters selfcontrol,  Kinestetic sense,  High achievement,  Individual style specific performance is tolerated (conditioned by individual features of athletes),  Subcortical movement regulation

Level four:  athletes’ reflex reactions in movement performance and in game situations solving,  movement automatization,  any kind of a signal is enough (from outside, or from any part of the CNS) to activate the motor program,  almost nothing can impede quality performance,  unconscious movement performance control (athletes do not think about the action, they “feel” it)

9 - 15

9.1.3. Performance of athletes / situation-related efficiency Indicators of Indicators of performance in the performance in the phase of phase of defense offense/attack

Other performance indicators

III. Performance of athletes

Registration and analysis of situationrelated efficiency indicators in sports  In contemporary sports the structure of competition activity parameters is the basis to a comparative analyses of performance of athletes and teams. It is especially important for the efficient programming of sports preparation.  One of the research directions in the kinesiology of sport is oriented towards the analysis of standard indicators of competition situation-related efficiency.  During observation (monitoring) in the real time of sports “combat” their frequency and effects can be noted (notation analysis) or registered  The influence of these indicators on the final sport result in competitions can be investigated

9 - 16

Parameters of situation efficiency of athletes in certain sports branches (standard and derived) – Each competition/game offers information about types, amount and quality of activities performed by individual players and teams (e. g. In basketball: the number of assists, rebounds, 3-point throws made …) – They are the basis for the performance comparison analyses of individual athletes and teams, quality selection of tactical behaviour in relation to the opponent strength, and for the sports preparation efficacious programming

 Every bout in combat sports is an opportunity for the registration of many efficiency indicators. The following can be noted and evaluated: diverse types of holds, throws, punches, kicks, evasions, defensive blocks, counterattacks, etc., which “award” certain points to a fighter and so determine the final outcome of the bout.

9 - 17

 In sports games every match offers a lot of data on types, amount and quality of competition activities of individual players and teams (e.g. in volleyball: the number of serves made, serve receptions, blocks and spikes, evaluated on a scale of +2 to -2)

 Performance indicators/parameters in the phase of defense and the phase of offense/attack can be separately analysed, as well other parameters pertaining to the fields of tactical responsibility, drive, commitment and behaviour.  Registration and analyses of situation parameters can result in the model values of team efficiency / performance and in model patterns of individual performance of individual players in the phases of defense and offense/attack

9 - 18

Basic indicators of situation efficiency of the Croatian water polo team at the 1996 OG Opponent

FSTBRK

BP

CP

UU/PG

%

POWER PLAY

%

RESULT/ SCORE

Team A

0

3

2

20/8

40

4/3

75

8:5

Team B

0

2

2

21/11

52

12/7

58

11:6

Team C

0

0

0

23/8

35

16/8

50

8:10

Team D

2

4

2

37/16

43

9/8

89

16:8

Team E

0

4

1

21/10

48

10/3

30

8:10

Team F

1

2

0

21/8

38

9/5

56

8:6

Team G

0

0

0

19/7

37

10/5+2 4m

50

7:6

Team H

1

2

0

24/5

21

9/2

22

5:7

Total

4

17

7

202/71

35

79/41+2 4m

52

 The Croatian water polo national team at the 96 OG won the silver medal  The team was most efficient in scoring from the back/perimeter positions – 17, whereas from the hole set (central position) only 7 goals were scored  Too few goals were scored from fastbreaks – 4  The realization of the attacks with man-up was satisfying (41 goals scored + 2 penalties) – over 50% of the total number of the goals scored

9 - 19

Basic indicators of competition activity in basketball Distances covered (expressed in metres) by various kinds of ambulatory movements during a basketball match RESEARCH

SAMPLE OF SUBJECTS

Gradowska (1972) Cohen (1980) Colli & Faina (1985) Moreno (1988) Janeira & Maia (1998)

National team (Poland) First league (France) First league (Italy) First league (Špain) First league (Portugal)

TOTAL (m)

WALKING

JOGGING

RUNNING (MEDIUM SPEED)

SPRINT

942

1542

991

3809 3890 3475 5763

828

3091

1577

267

4955

1838

1905

734

478

Basic indicators of competition activity in team handball Distances players covered by running in a handball game (Bon et al., 2002) first half

2560

second half

2230

entire match

4790

0

1000

2000

3000

9 - 20

4000

5000

6000

Basic indicators of competition activity in soccer / assoc. football Distances covered by players (Verheijen, 1997) Walking

Jogging

Running

Sprint

Total

1st league

3.2km

2.0km

1.4km

1.4km

8.4km

3rd league

4.2km

1.7km

0.7km

0.5km

7.6km

1st league

2.6km

5.2km

1.8km

1.1km

10.9km

3rd league

3.1km

3.3km

1.0km

0.6km

9.0km

1st league

3.4km

2.0km

1.6km

1.8km

9.8km

3rd league

4.0km

1.4km

1.0km

0.9km

7.6km

Defenders

Midfielders

Attackers

Table of various activities of players by playing positions (Verheijen, 1997)

Slide tackles

Jumps

Shots on target

Duels

Total

Defenders 1st league

9x

15x

24x

34x

82

3rd league

19x

23x

19x

37x

98

1st league

6x

11x

37x

56x

110

3rd league

19x

9x

32x

42x

102

1st league

6x

17x

32x

36x

91

3rd league

7x

22x

19x

24x

72

Midfielders

Attackers

9 - 21

Lactic acid concentration in blood of top-level soccer players during game Country

Research study

N

Agnevik

Sweden

10

Bangsbo

Denmark

14

Brower & Davis

Sweden

6

Ekblom

Sweden

Gerish et al.

Germany

Smaros Smith et al.

Lactates in the first half-time (mmol/L)

Lactates in the second halftime(mmol/L)

During

During

Post

Post 10.0

4.9

3.7

4.4

5.1

4.6

9.5

7.2

59

5.6

4.7

Finland

7

5.1

3.9

England

6

4.9

4.1

Basic statistic indicators of shots taken by the winning (WIN) and the defeated (DEF) teams at the 2000 European Handball Championship for Men (Vuleta et al., 2003) VARIABLES

MEAN WIN

S.D. WIN

MEAN DEF

S.D. DEF

SHO7MMADE

3.26

1.62

3.40

1.88

SHO7MMISSED

1.00

0.91

1.77

1.50

SHOT6MMADE

4.91

2.20

4.00

2.44 1.47

SHOT6MMISSED

1.63

1.77

1.71

SHOTWINGMADE

4.11

1.95

3.20

2.11

SHOTWINGMISSED

3.40

1.50

3.49

2.01

SHOT9MMADE

8.26

3.64

6.94

2.63

SHOT9MMISSED

10.86

3.45

14.4

4.83

SHOTFASTBRMADE

3.66

2.38

3.31

2.23

SHOTFASTBRMISSED

1.29

1.56

1.26

1.38

SHOTPRMADE

2.09

1.72

2.09

1.34

SHOTPRMISSED

0.69

0.87

0.63

0.94

9 - 22

Game statistics of the elite NBA basketball player (D.P.)(absolute and relative) 5

5

4

4

3

3

2

2

1

1

0

0

-1

-1

-2

-2

-3 ZFG 2p

ZFT 1p

-3 ZFG3 ZREB ZAST ZSTL ZVTD ZPTS ZBLK RANG 3p rebound assists turnovers points screens steals

0 = NBA average in particular variables

Comparison of average values of male and female 100m runners

Speed of running (m/s)

(according to Letzelter & Letzelter, 2002)

Male sprinters Female sprinters

Distance (m)

9 - 23

Z- scores relative

Z- scores absolute

(absolute – total; relative – total through minutes in play)

 Experts in sports practice ask frequently why is so much attention paid to these indicators of competition activity and efficiency?  There are several answers among which are the following:  The determination of the criteria of successful competition performance,  The determination of the standards of sports training,  The possibility to obtain / create the model of competition activity of the opponent,  An objective, unbiased evaluation of actual performance (quality) of individuals and teams.

9.1.4. Competition result / achievement (the final outcome of sports activities)  Situated at the top of the pyramid of athletes’ abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge is competition result / achievement  It depends on both the level and structure of all the factors situated at the lower pyramid levels

9 - 24

 In competition result the entire system of sports preparatin is reflected and work effects of trainers and members of the professional coaching team  Within a sports career there is a peak, a period when an athlete achieves his/her best results.  Within an annual cycle sport shape/form should be taperred and peaked for the best achievements at the biggest competitions

 Since the beginning of modern sports, Olympic games in particular, a constant progress in achievements is obviouse as well as in performance quality in most sports disciplines and events.  Development trend of abilities and results of world class elite track-and-field athletes has such a progressive character which is considerably higher than the same trend in general population.

9 - 25

Development trend of abilities in population vs. elite athletes Level of physical abilities

x

Development trend of abilities of the top-level track-and-field athletes

x

x

d3

d2

d1

x

Development trend of abilities of population Time

Trend of results in discus throwing (Harasin, 2002) Model: dis1=b0+b1*v1+b2*v1**2 y=(-6134.747)+(6.0039726)*x+(-0.0014508)*x**2 75 SYD2000 SEO1988ATL1996 MON1976 MOS1980 ANG1984 BAR1992 MEX1968 MUN1972

65

TOK1964 ROM1960 MEL1956 HEL1952 LON1948

55 DIS1

BER1936 ANG1932 AMS1928 PAR1924 STO1912ANT1920

45

LON1908 LOU1904 PAR1900

35 ATH1896

ATH1896 PAR1900 LOU1904 LON1908 STO1912 ANT1920 PAR1924 AMS1928 ANG1932 BER1936 LON1948

PREDICTED VALUES 33,48 35,46 37,41 39,3 41,15 44,7 46,41 48,08 49,69 51,26 55,69

HEL1952 MEL1956 ROM1960 TOK1964

57,07 58,41 59,7 60,95

MEX1968 MUN1972 MON1976 MOS1980 ANG1984 SEO1988 BAR1992

62,14 63,3 64,4 65,46 66,47 67,44 68,36

ATL1996 SYD2000 ATH2004

69,23 70,06 70,77

25 1896 1904 1912 1920 1928 1936 1944 1952 1960 1968 1976 1984 1992 2000 2008 GOD

9 - 26

Lesson 10:

DIAGNOSTICS IN SPORT

Measurement, assessment and evaluation of abilities, features and knowledge of athletes

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the position and relevance of diagnostic/assessment procedures in the process of sports preparation;  Define Müller’s model of sports preparation process optimization;  Specify the stages of a diagnostic procedure and explain them;  Understand the potential of the abilities and characteristics of the athletes to be tested;  Talk about the possibilities of test results application to the planning and programming of training;  Graphically present the test results of an athlete x and compare them to a top-level athlete model.

10 - 1

10.1. Diagnostics in sports  The primary goal of any sports training is the improvement of competition efficiency, performance and achievements.  Therefore, it is important to have an insight into the state of fitness / readiness of athletes: what is the developmental level of performance relevant abilities, characteristics and skills in any stage of long-term sports preparation?

 Based on the diagnosed values, i.e. the determined fitness, as in the strong and weak sides of one athlete or a sport group, it is feasible to set goals and assignments of a training procedure and design training programmes for particular cycles through which sports preparation is realized.

10 - 2

 Training effects are unbiasedly detectable only by testing, i.e. by the measurement of the dimensions and their changes, that have been the targets of the influence of training.  The efficacy of an executed training procedure is determined with the application of the objective diagnostic procedures (testing, measurement) and with subjective assessments.

Model of the sports preparation process optimization (modified according to Müller, 1999)

Planning (goals and periodization)

Programming Training of training implementation (procedures) Interpretation (application) of the results of sports diagnostics

10 - 3

Training efffects

Sports diagnostics

 Training optimization requires the knowledge of fitness relevant characteristics’ actual, current state  Assessment of fitness/preparedness is realized through the measurements in laboratories and in the field.  Specified dimensions are tested or measured according to the determined methodological rules (kinesiometry)  Diagnostic procedures in sport are a part of everyday practice and routine

Levels of motor abilities of an elite ATP tennis player (Müller, 1999) 3 2 1 0 -1 (12 min running)

Endurance

(shuttle running)

Endurance

Strength (left leg)

Strength (right leg)

Strength (fist grip)

Agility (side steps)

(shuttle running)

Power (jump)

norm x sd

2.98

42.75 23.85 13.02 32.80 47.95 81.75 81.75 72.25

0.12

2.50

2.30

0.83

2.00

5.90

8.50

8.50

4.50

190

1996 1995

2.98

42.80

24.80

12.03

34.90

49.00

90.40

83.70

73.96

3420

3.01

36.10

23.80

13.60

35.20

53.00

91.30

87.60

74.50

3350

Agility

Sprint

Power (throwing)

-2

10 - 4

3105

10.2. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes  The application of measurement procedures makes it feasible to establish the features due to which elite athletes, who accomplish the highest results, stand out and distinguish themselves

 A model of a top-level athlete is, in fact, a reproduction of the selected main relevant characteristics of a contemporary extra class quality athlete in a particular sports discipline.  Model characteristics are test results, scores achieved by elite athletes in the primary and secondary anthropological variables and indicators of situational efficacy/performance.

10 - 5

Results of a top-quality basketball player in the tests aimed at assessing motor and functional/ cardiorespiratory and metabolic abilities (Milanović, 1997) TEST

SCORE (actual value)

MODEL (required values)

1. SAR

79 cm

82 cm

2. DSM

260 cm

280 cm

3. 20M

2.99 s

2.85 s

4. 20Y

4.57 s

4.30 s

14 throws scored

15 throws scored

59.04 s

52.00 s

75 kg

100 kg

8. NAB

82.5 kg

120 kg

9. TRB

38 rep

60 rep

5. 3L 6. 300Y 7. BP

10. SKL 11. 2400

15 rep

40 rep

10.02 min

8.30 min

Model results in the test 20m sprint, registered at the Australian Sport Institute (Pyke, 2001)

Sport Basketball

Cricket

Softball

Soccer

Group

5m sprint (s)

10m sprint (s)

20m sprint (s)

Adult (w)

1.04

1.95

3.38

Adult (m)

1.05

1.81

3.12

Adult (w)

2.07

3.52

Adult (m)

1.76

2.99

M - U-19

1.04

1.79

3.09

W - U-19

1.16

1.98

3.43

M - U-18

1.08

1.79

3.02

W - U-18

1.16

1.96

3.32

10 - 6

 In the everyday life of sports, coaches and expert teams continuously measure and evaluate the condition of the components of fitness/preparedness and performance and sport achievements of athletes participating in the process of training.  The focus of preparation should be directed primarily on the components most responsible for competition efficiency/performance and on the characteristics of the athlete most distant from the model values.

10.3. Diagnostics in sports

(10 stages of diagnostic procedure) 1. Defining and using the equation of success in sport specification (based on either an expert assessment or/and research findings). The hierarchical structure of the performance factors in a particular sport should be respected.

10 - 7

Soccer Strength /power 20%

Endurance 30%

Coordination 15%

Flexibility 10%

Speed 25%

2. Selection (choice) of athletes – a sports group 3. Selection of abilities, characteristics and knowledge/ skills to be diagnosed

4. Selection of measuring instruments/ tests aimed at assessing the abilities, features and skills/knowledge of athletes

10 - 8

5. Procedure of measurement/ testing (in either a laboratory or in field conditions) 6. Procedure of processing the collected data

7. Presentation of the obtained results and their interpretation

Points 70

60 50

8. Presentation of the results to the coach and members of the expert team

40

30

20

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Abilities

10 - 9

13

Model anthropological characteristics and test results of two handball players (X & Y) ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

1. Body height 2. Body mass

MODEL VALUES

BACKCOURT PLAYER X, RESULTS

LINE PLAYER Y, RESULTS

192.0

192.8

184.5 83.6

90.0

89.0

3. Shoulder width

44.30

43.0

44.5

4. Arm span

195.0

200.0

183.5

5. Palm span 6. Throwing the ball (800gr) 7. MSD

25.2

25.4

24

32.59

38.07

32.53

262.42

259.67

269.33

8. Two-legged vertical jump

59.42

62.33

68.33

9. One-legged vertical jump

65.71

62.33

73

7.57

7.22

6.35

6.6

6.17

5.82

10. Sit-ups

29.17

26.33

36.33

11. Bench-press

88.13

85

85

12. “Suicide-running” (shuttle running)

30.78

30.45

29.05

13. 30 m running from a standing start

4.82

4.85

4.51

9. Side steps 11. Two-triangle defensive stance movement

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3 PLAYER X

9. Results application to the planning and programming of training 10. Control of the sports preparation process effects (diagnostics of fitness or final readiness state)

10 - 10

PLAYER Y

10 stages of diagnostic procedure 1) Defining and using the equation of success in sport specification 2) Selection (choice) of athletes – a sports group 3) Selection of abilities, characteristics and knowledge/ skills to be diagnosed 4) Selection of measuring instruments/ tests 5) Procedure of measurement/ testing (in either a laboratory or in field conditions) 6) Procedure of processing the collected data 7) Presentation of the obtained results and their interpretation 8) Presentation of the results to the coach and members of the expert team 9) Results application to the planning and programming of training 10)Control of the sports preparation process effects (diagnostics of fitness or final readiness state)

10 - 11

Lesson 11:

Selection in sport (orientation to sports and choice of sports branch)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Talk about the importance of the selection of future athletes  Define and describe the system of orientation to sports  Define and describe the system of orientation to a group of sport branches  Define and describe the system of selection of a sport branch  Differentiate among the criteria (model characteristics) for the selection of a particular sport branch  List the orientation age terms for the beginning of a systematic training of selected young athletes  Determine the importance of both the chronological and biological age in the process of selection  Talk about all phases in the process of selecting future elite athletes

11 - 1

 A quality system of sports training for children and the young consists, in most countries, of a well defined procedure of potential toplevel athletes’ selection.  Sports schools should be places of a high concentration of those talented for sports. In countries where sports are well developed their advantage is in their well organized sports schools, centres or camps, where high quality training programmes are executed with selected groups of athletes.

11.1. System of orientation to sports - first selection  It is a procedure of selecting children generally talented for sports.  The orientation system should be applied as soon as it is possible to establish the existence of the most important abilities and characteristics of potential athletes as well as their interest to be involved in sport.  This is a time when neither the group of sports nor sports branch is known, in which a child might have the greatest opportunities to be successful.

11 - 2

 Within the programmes of a universal sports school a child participates in diverse motor/ sporting activities, i.e. he/she gains elementary experiences in various motor activities and sports.

11.2. Orientation to a group of sports branches – second selection  As a selection interphase it is useful to execute orientation to a group of sports branches (combat sports school, or team games sports school, or water sports school…)  This phase is a substantial one because in young athletes-to-be it is sometimes hard to establish with certainty their potential for a particular sports event/discipline. It is much easier to determine this for a group of sports branches/events/disciplines.

11 - 3

Orientation terms for the beginning of a systematic training programme in particular sports disciplines (modified by Martin, 1982) Age

Sports disciplines

6-7

artistic gymnastics (w), figure skating

7-8

rhythmic gymnastics, swimming, tennis

8-9

artistic gymnastics (m), alpine skiing, diving, table tennis

9-10

football/soccer, basketball, volleyball, karate

10-11

athletics (running - sprint, jumps), kayaking – canoeing, handball, rowing, judo, wrestling, taekwondo, equestrian events, rugby, luge tobogganing, speed skating, badminton

11-12

athletics (throwing), ice hockey, field hockey, water polo, cycling, fencing, shooting, nordic skiing

12-13

weight lifting, athletic heptathlon & decathlon, athletics (middistances running), boxing, boccie, golf, baseball

13-14

athletics (long-distance running, walking), bowling crosscountry skiing

11.3. System of selection of a sports branch - third selection  It is the procedure to select talented individuals for the highest sports achievements in a particular sports branch or discipline.  The selection of children is based on the similarity of the child’s anthropological profile with dimensions from the structure of the specification equation of the sports discipline in question.  An expected trend must be predicted of the sports results the individual would most probably be able to achieve in the future.

11 - 4

Normative scores in basic and specific exercises of boys and girls in handball (Milanović, 2006) Age Exercise / motor test

Boys

30m running (s)

Girls

10

12

13

9

10

11

5.4

5.0

4.9

5.8

5.6

5.4

5×30m – average time (s)

5.3

5.2

5.0

5.4

5.3

5.2

2× running in a triangle (s)

18.5

18.3

18.0

21.0

19.0

18.5

60m running (s)

10.1

9.4

9.0

10.9

10.5

9.5

30m slalom with the ball (s)

11.0

9.4

8.7

12.3

11.4

10.7

Long jump (m)

3.30

3.80

4.05

2.90

3.10

3.40

Vertical jumping ability – SAR (cm)

27

40

47

Small ball throwing (m)

24

37

43

Handball throwing (m)

21

27

12 min running (m)

25

30

21

23

26

13

16

19.5

2100 2300 2400

2000

Results in running 12 minutes (Cooper’s test) of children and young people of various ages (according to Hahn, 1982)

Girls – young women Age

7/8

9/10

11/12

13/14

15/16

17/18/19/20

Low limit score

1500m

1700m

1900m

2100m

2300m

2500m

Good score

1800m

2000m

2200m

2400m

2600m

2800m

Boys – young men Age

7/8

9/10

11/12

13/14

15/16

17/18/19/20

Low limit score

1700m

1900m

2100m

2300m

2600m

2800m

Good score

2000m

2200m

2400m

2600m

2900m

3100m

11 - 5

11.4. Procedure of selection  To provide a high certainty of selection it is crucial to determine the tempo of the biological development of potential elite athletes.  A certain lagging of motor preparedness/ fitness of individual athletes at any time point does not necessarily mean a resulting lower level of fitness in the later stages of sports progression.

Developmental dynamics of motor abilities according to different tempos of biological development of potential elite athletes (Hofmann & Schneider, 1985)

Motor ability (m) Normal biological development

Early biological development

Late biological development

A – time point of selection

A

Chronological age (d)

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 Both age indicators – of the chronological and of the biological age should be always taken into account in the execution of selection.  Namely, late developers are sometimes, with no substantial reason, negatively selected, although their chances of being successful are bigger than the chances of their peer counterparts exhibiting a higher level of abilities in the earlier stages of the training process.

Fitness development tempo in two athletes: although in the beginning (t1) the b athlete may be weaker than the a athlete, the latter catches up with the athlete b (t2) and later becomes even better (t3) Fitness indicators

a

t1

t2

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t3

b

Developmental phases

System of sports selection – repeated activity with a constant monitoring of the development of childrenfuture athletes

Selection Sports selection

Natural selection Positive prognosis

Tendencies to the positive prognosis

As regards elite sports

As a rule, lost for sports

Negative prognosis

Monitoring of athletes’ development

Mass sport, recreation sport, leisure-time sport

Elite sports

In order to understand better the selection system and to implement it successfully the following is necesssary:   

To identify the abilities and characteristics of athletes that are under a high influence of genetic factors, thus being training-influence-resistant. To identify the abilities and characteristics that are under a smaller influence of genetic factors, thus being training-influence-sensitive. To recognise the level of interest and willingness to become involved in the systematic and demanding programme of long-lasting sports preparation

11 - 8

Algorithm of the process of selecting potential top-level athletes (the defined criteria should be satisfied prior to a positive selection) Is there an adequate level of transformation-resistant abilities ?

yes

Is there an adequate level of transformation-sensitive abilities?

yes

no

yes

Is there adequate motivation to be subjected to elite sports training?

no

no yes Any compensation possibility?

Any possibilities to correct or compensate for sport-related drawbacks?

no

Any possibility to correct drawbacks?

no

no Positive selection

To be oriented to any other sporting activity/branch

yes

yes

Prognosis of max. potential Target of long-term preparation stages Prospective training plan

11 - 9

Lesson 12:

Sport and sports training of children and the young

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define and analyse a pyramid-like system of long-term sports preparation  Talk about the aims and characteristics of a universal sports school  Talk about the aims and characteristics of an elementary sports school  Talk about the aims and characteristics of a specialised sports school  Analyse the association of biological factors of sports development and training effects  List and describe the fundamental rules of sports training for children and the young  List and describe the performance factors a of sports career (social environment, family, school, sports club, trainer)

12 - 1

Pyramid-like system of long-term sports preparation (according to Hoffmann & Schneider, 1985)

Area of elite selective sports

High performance training

SPORTSRECREATION GROUPS

SCHOOL SPORTS CLUBS (SECTIONS)

Final sports 11-12 god perfection Specialisation sports schools 15-16 Specialised training 7-8 god C) CRITERIA FOR Commence of sports SPORTS EVENT 13-14 specialisation AND TEAM Elementary POSITION sports schools SELECTION 11-12 Directed sports preparation 3-4 god B) SPORTS BRANCH D) SELECTION CRITERIA FOR APPEARANCE AT THE MAIN WORLD COMPETITIONS

SELECTION CRITERIA

9-10

A) ORIENTATION TO SPORTS 7-8 CRITERIA

Versatile-basic sports priprema Universal sports schools Preliminary sports preparation

Population of non-trained girls and boys

12.1. Sports schools 12.1.1. Universal sports school  Children of superior motor abilities, positively evaluated in the process of orientation, join a universal children sports school that most commonly embraces age categories from 6-7 to 10 yrs.  The duration of this school is shorter for future gymnasts and rhythmic gymnasts since the selection for these sports commences earlier.

12 - 2

ADOLESCENTS’ TRAINING

17-18

CHILDREN’S TRAINING

SPORTS CLUBS OF LOWER QUALITY RANKING

(maximum 19-20 realisation, effects)

ADULTS’ TRAINING

Area of mass sports

Suitable age of children and the young when starting with training in certain stages of sports improvement (modified according to Martin, 1982) Start of the systematic training in the chosen sport (years)

Start of the elite adult athletic training principles application (years)

Figure skating

6-7

15

Artistic gymnastics (w)

7-8

14

Swimming

7-9

15-16

8

14-15

Sports discipline

Rhythmic gymnastics Diving

8-9

16

Tennis

8-9

16-17

Skiing

9

17

Artistic gymanstics (m)

9-10

15-16

Football / Soccer

10-11

17-18

Basketball

10-11

18

Athletics (jumps and throws)

10-12

20-21

Volleyball

11-12

18-19

Ice hockey

11-13

19-20

Endurance sports disciplines

12-14

20-21

12.1.2. Elementary sports school  From the fifth primary school grade at the latest, i.e. for the children of 10 or 11 yrs of age, which have satisfied the selection criteria for the inclusion in the systematic sports training process of most sports disciplines, elementary sports school starts.

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 For stage one (age group 10-12 yrs) the beginning is characteristic of the directed sports preparation, whereas for stage two (age group 13-14 yrs) the beginning of sports specialisation is characteristic.

12.1.3. Specialized sports schools After primary school (age 14 yrs), young quality athletes start their involvement in the systematic club training, first as cadets (14-16 yrs), and afterwards as juniors (17-18 yrs).

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12.2. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young  Detection and development of children talented for sports is performed by their constant selection in the universal and elementary sports schools.  For each child the “right” sport should be found, i.e. the one in which his/her chances for success are greatest.

 The process of sports preparation of children and the young is executed, in accordance with the chronological and biological characteristics of their age, through several developmental stages (stages of long-term sports training).

 It is indispensable to provoke children and young athletes into action and to insist on their need – habit to learn and exercise regularly, persistently and ‘hard’

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 There is no doubt that nowadays premature specialisation in many sports and forced participation in competition starts at an early age.  However, lively discussion is going on about which age is suitable, beneficial to start with a pronounced/ enhanced sports specialisation.  The forcing of sports talents too early does not have the wanted effects. Parents, trainers and sports scientists are unanimous in this opinion.

 Every exercise must be repeated many times. Yet, any repetition with an error must not be allowed. An already acquired erroneous performance is very hard to correct later.  The development of abilities and the teaching/learning of motor skills/knowledge is executed by means of adequate contents, loads and variable training methods.  In the first years of the training process the sports development of children is predominantly influenced by biological determinants, whereas the later progressive influence of training effects becomes obvious.

12 - 6

FITNESS LEVEL (SIZE OF CAPABILITIES)

Fitness development of children and the young is influenced by both biological determinants and the training process (Hoffmann & Schneider, 1985) DETERMINANTS AND FACTORS OF BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

INTEGRAL TRAINING EFFECTS

AGE – TRAINING EXPERIENCE OF ATHLETES

 Prior to the systematic training a young athlete should be subjected to a detailed and comprehensive orthopaedic and medical check-up.  With as high certainty as possible the following should be excluded: any possible negative findings and degenerative changes in the active and passive parts of the locomotor system and cardio-pulmonary system, which can present a danger for a young athlete.

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 When working with children and young athletes a trainer must invest his/her maximum effort and engage his/her entire body of knowledge and all his/her abilities.  One must be extremely careful not to jeopardize the health and entire development of young athletes due to his/her insufficient or ‘obsolete/out-ofdate’ knowledge.  A coach should contact, refer to professionals and scientists to find help from those who have renown expertise in the interdisciplinary area of sports preparation.

12.3. Performance factors of a sports career SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT (community, peers, neighbourhood…)

SCHOOL

CHILD ATHLETE • sports talent • health status • basic and specific abilities • knowledge, skills, habits • personal strategies of problem solving • personality traits • emotional states (moods)

TRAINING

12 - 8

SPORTS CLUB / SPORTS FEDERATION

FAMILY

12.3.1. Social environment (community, peers, neighbourhood…)  It respects and acknowledges a child’s involvement in sports and evaluates positively his/her abilities and characteristics;  A milieu in which a child can satisfy his/her need for belonging and respect despite his/her differences;  Where a child can satisfy his/her interests and needs he/she cannot satisfy in a sports club.

12.3.2. Family  family members, by their attitude towards a child-athlete, encourage his/her talent and support his/her participation in the process of sports training and competition by providing: - adequate living conditions (accommodation, nutrition, rest, etc.) - adequate psychological (emotional) support - material and other conditions necessary for training and competition.

12 - 9

12.3.3. School should provide children’s successful involvement in sports by the following: - adequate system of schooling; - adequate academic work loads; - support when the missed parts of the school programme due to training and competition have be caught up with - to provide in general a positive class and school atmosphere supporting the expression of special qualities

12.3.4. Sports club – sports federation is organised and financed in a way so as to be able to offer to every athlete the following: - material and humane support in training and competition; - stability as regards the engagement of a coach and other working conditions in training and competitions - correct reviewing and evaluation of an athlete’s sports achievements

12 - 10

12.3.5. A training program should be designed and executed so as to ensure: - the correctness of work – work adequate to the trainees’ individual and age features/characteristics; - adequate training loads (stimuli duration and intensity); - adequacy of sports achievements (correspondence of aims and results).

In the training process for children special care should be devoted to the following:  working conditions of sports preparation (arriving at and leaving the training premises, time between two training sessions);  expert competency of trainers and other members of the expert coaching team guarantees the security of young athletes in the training process, during competition and recovery;  trainer’s relationship with his/her trainee in which they both strive to achieve the same aims.

12 - 11

Lesson 13:

Training for fitness and sport preparedness

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to: Define and analyse training fitness levels Understand and describe the condition of sport shape Define the characteristics of conditions of sport shape Talk about the developmental phases of sport shape Define the regularities of sport shape management and be able to analyse its characteristics in relation to sport-specific characteristics, to the athlete and to its dynamic of development and maintainance  Determine the specificities of the prolonged (delayed) training effects in a preparation period     

13 - 1

13.1. Fitness of athletes  Sports training fitness is a very complex category. It denotes the optimal condition and functioning of an athlete in the process of training and competition.  It implies:  a superb health status  the highest level of physiological functions (energy supply capacities) and motor abilities (physical condition)  technical and tactical effectiveness  adequate mental stability of an athlete  high motivation/drive  the best structure of morphological characteristics.

 The optimal state of an athlete means his/her ever possible functioning in relation to his/her individual characteristics and the working conditions of the process of training and competition.  Fitness determines the level of the specific work potential of an athlete, his/her potential, capability and actual quality to accomplish high sports achievements/results.  Sports fitness is a product of diverse (all) sports preparation programmes and traits of any (living) organism to change/ transform and improve (adaptation) under the influence of certain environmental stimuli, incitements.

13 - 2

13.2. Sport shape / preparedness  Sport shape is the heighest level of sportspecific fitness; it enables the athlete to perform at his/her best, to accomplish the best results at the most important, main competitions.

 Sport shape is a period of athletes’ heighest sports achievements in their sport within the perennial (lifetime sport shape) and the annual (targeted sport shape) training cycle.

General attributes of an athlete in a high-achievement sport shape:  the sense of being healthy is pronounced,  expresses an urge, a need to work out,  the drive to perform his/her best at a competition is clearly manifested,  quick adaptation to all training and competition demands.

13 - 3

Biomotor indicators of a good sport shape:  Biochemical state of the organism (blood lactate and urea concentration, status of glykogen and catecholamine…)  Physiological state of the organism (heart frequency, spiroergometric indicators, body temperature, blood pressure…)  Motor condition of the athlete (motor abilities tests) Economical functioning of all the organ systems is manifested as a lower energy consumption in a work unit; it facilitates and accelerates the process of restoration and recovery.

Psychological indicators of a good sport shape:  High level of mental stability under stressful competition conditions  Pronounced maximal mobility of mental processes  Enhanced range of motivation responses which provides excessive physical loads tolerance  Optimism  Achievement drive

13 - 4

13.3. Sport shape development phases In the dynamic process of developing high achievements sport shape within one macrocycle three typical phases can be recognised:  Phase 1: entry into the high achievement sport shape (preparedness for high results)  Phase 2: stabilization and maintenance of peaks (peaking of sport shape for the main

competitions)

 Phase 3: temporary underperformance / loss of sport shape (temporary loss of sport shape at

the end of one macrocycle, detraining).

Development phases of sport shape % 100 90

80 70 Phase 1: level of sport shape gained

Phase 2: sport shape maintenance

Phase 3: sport shape loss; detraining

Preparation-control competitions

Main official competitions

Other competitions (meetings)

Preparation period

Competition / Inseason period

Transition period

Mesocycles (stages)

Mesocycles (competition season(s))

Mesocycles (stages)

Microcycles

Microcycles

Microcycles

13 - 5

 For sports practice it is of the outmost importance that the so defined phase-like form of high achievement sport shape can be manifested in a curve-like form with one, two or more peaks, depending on the following:  (prolonged) duration of competition period or  specific distribution of competitions in the competition period,  multicycle training periodization of the annual cycle.

Development curve of high achievements sport shape (prolonged competition period duration in an annual cycle) (according to Platonov, 1997) % 100 90 80 70 60

A Preparation period

B

C

Competition period

Transition period

B

C

Competition period

Transition period

% 100 90 80 70 60

A Preparation period

13 - 6

Development curve of high achievements sport shape (multicycle annual training periodization) % 100

(according to Platonov, 1997)

90 80 70 60

A

B

PP

CP

C

TP

A

B

PP

CP

C

TP

% 100 90 80 70 60

XI

A

B

PP

CP

XII I

II

C

TP III

IV

A

B

PP

CP

V

VI

C

TP VII

A

B

PP

CP

VIII

C

TP IX

X

13.4. Sport shape management  Sport shape should be managed because an athlete does not always need to perform his/her best (and he/she cannot), but when it is most important  The determination of orientation curves of training loads is a crucial part of sport shape management  Extensity (volume) (stimulus duration, number of repetitions, work duration)  Intensity (stimulus potency, force magnitude, strength/power, tempo, speed)

13 - 7

 In the first part of the preparation period the volume of training work prevails, to which intensity is added in the second part.  Intensity of workouts is the component of physical training loads that, together with the application of situation-like exercises and competition-like models of loads, provides a quick and safe gain of high achievements in sport shape.

Orientation curve of training loads and sport shape dynamics within the annual training periodization of soccer players (according to Bauer, in Grosser et al, 1986) 100

90

80

Last round

First round

70

Sp. shape Volume Intensity

60

1 VI

High results sport shape Periods

2 VII

3 VIII

4 IX

5 X

6 XI

7 XII

8 I

9 II

III

11 Mesocycles

10 IV

V

Sp. shape building

1st wave of high sport shape

Shape 2nd wave of high loss sport shape

Shape loss

Preparation period

1st competition period

Transition period

Transition period

13 - 8

2nd competition period

Months

 In small cycles sport shape (peaking) follows the competition participation rhythm (7-day or threeday rhythm)  According to the competition participation rhythm work ability of the CNS varies like “the ebb and flow of the tide”.  In the moments of “flow, high tide” the athlete is able to accomplish the greatest sports results.

13.5. Dynamic attributes of sport shape  The FIRST attribute of sport shape is: every sports branch has its specific model of high sport shape gain and maintenance.  Diverse competition calendars – various training periodizations  Specific structures of competition activities of various sports branches and the respective anthropological characteristics of preparedness of athletes

13 - 9

Development curve of sport shape within an annual training cycle (a – one cycle, b – two cycle) 100%

70%

a XI XII

I

II III IV

Preparation period

V

VI

VII VIII IX

Competition period

X

Transition period

100%

70%

b VI

VII VIII IX

PP

X

CP

XI XII

PP

I

II III IV

CP

V

TP

 The SECOND attribute of sport shape is: its individual character as regards the abilities and traits of individual athletes.  Individual characteristics determine the development dynamics of sport shape  Some athletes gain their high achevements sport shape earlier, others later – heterochronicity.  Some athletes are able to maintain a high level of their sport shape longer than others.  General condition of training fitness is in the function of sport shape development dynamics.

13 - 10

 The THIRD attribute of sport shape is its dynamic character.  Sport shape may vary within acceptable boundaries. % 100

5%

90 80 70 60

A

B

C

 However, if performance crosses the boundaries of the oscillation-allowed space and becomes lower than the wanted one (underperformance), the coach/trainer must apply managing actions in order to restore performance to the wanted level as soon as possible. % 100

?!?

90

Alarming condition

80 70 60

A

B

13 - 11

C

 The FOURTH attribute of sport shape is the occurrence of the delayed - prolonged transformation (training) effects.  Training effects can be manifested either simultaneously with an increase of training loads (A), or later (B and C).  The phenomenon of the delayed - prolonged training effects is not a negative, unwanted one in the training process; it is associated with peaking.

If after the application of input (training stimulus) the resulting changes (trainee’s responses) are analysed in certain parts of the system or in the entire system, then the following becomes obvious: 1. Responses are simultaneous with the training itself, or they occur immediately after the training application % 30 20 10 1

2

3

4

5 months

% 140 120 1

2

3

100

4

5 months

80

13 - 12

 According to Siff and Verkhoshansky (1999), in sports practice training effects can occur later, i.e. some time after the period in which the training with high and overlaping loads has been applied during a preparation period (PTE).

Occurrence of the prolonged transformation effects (Siff & Verkhoshansky, 1999) % 30 20 10 1

2

3

4

5 months

%

Competition period starts

140 120 100

1

2

3

4

5 months

80

13 - 13

Onset of the prolonged transformation effects in certain sports branches Specific takeoff abilities

% 130 120 110 100 90

HIGH JUMP

1

Absolute strength

2

4

3

5

months

6

Power/ explosive strength

% 130 120 110 100 90

VOLLEYBALL

1

2

3

Absolute strength

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

weeks Power / explosive strength

%

140 130 120 110 100 90 80

11

Absolute strength

TENNIS

X

XI

XII

I

13 - 14

II

III

months

Lesson 14:

Sports training as a transformation process

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define and describe a general model of the transformation process in sports;  Talk about and compare the diverse types of trajectories of fitness/preparedness condition during a training process;  Describe the vectors of fitness condition of athletes  Talk about the deterministic and the stochastic process  Define and discuss the importance of the process of sports training management and regulation

14 - 1

14.1. Definitions  Sports training is a programmed transformation process by means of which the initial condition, described with a set of fitness/preparedness indicators, transforms into the new desired condition in line with training periodization, the competition calendar and acceptable recovery measures

 The transformation process is a change of input, condition and/or output of any system over a period of time. The change is a result of material, energy and information communication with the environment or among system parts.

14 - 2

14.2. General model of transformation process in sport

So Tf = Sf So – the condition of an athlete at the beginning of the training process (starting, opening, or initial)

Tf – the training operator which produces

transformation (which changes) the known condition of the athlete described with the So vector

Sf – the condition of the athlete at the end of the training process (finishing, closing, or final)

SoT1= St1

(initial state x 1st training operator = 1st transition statue)

St1T2= St2

(1st transition state x 2nd training operator = 2nd transition state) (2nd transition state x last but one training operator = last but one transition state)

St2Tf-1= Sf-1 Sf-1Tf= Sf

(last but one transition state x final training operator = final state of fitness /preparedness)

f

T =  Tt t=1 f

S =  Ss s=1(i)

T = T1,T2,T3,Tf-1,Tf Training operators S = Si,St1,St2,St3,Sf-1,Sf States of preparedness

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Conditions of athletes are interdependent (correlated): S1 S3

S2 S2

S3 S1

The condition of athletes at any point of the transformation process depends on his/her condition at previous points, and the final condition of athletes depends on all the previous ones (the Markov chain, i.e. process)

Response of an athlete’s organism to the training operators Response is a timely function (response time) (t). It is obtained as the output value of the system (training effects) if its input (training programme) has been any standard function U(t)

U(t)

Input

S Condition

14 - 4

I(t) = f((u(t))

Output

It practically means that, if the chracteristics of an athlete are known at the beginning of the training process (So) and if a set of management actions is also known (from To to T1), the characteristics of the future condition (St1) can be determined with a high level of certainty

P Si – p Sf = MAX The aim of training is to maximize the distance between the measured initial condition and the achieved final condition of an athlete within the specified time interval P Sf – o Sf = MIN The aim of training is also to minimize the difference between the achieved final condition and the desired final condition of an athlete

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Vectors of athletic conditions

(to assess particular conditions the same sets of measuring instruments should be used) Zi1 Zi2 Zi3 Zi4

Si = Zi5

Zi6 Zi7 Zin-1 Zin

Zf1 Zf2 Zf3 Zf4

Sf =

Zf5 Zf6 Zf7 Zfn-1 Zfn

Zf1 Zf2 Zf3 Zf4

– – – –

Zi1 Zi2 Zi3 Zi4

Sf – Si = Zf5 – Zi5

Zf6 – Zi6 Zf7 – Zi7 Zfn-1 – Zin-1 Zfn - Zin

14.3. Types of trajectories of preparedness conditions

Progressive type of preparedness condition trajectory Fitness indicators

Si T1

(Si to Sf) (Milanović, 2010) Reinforcing environmental influences

St2

Sf-1

Tf-1

Tf

Sf

St1

T2

Tf+1 Cycles of sports preparation

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Prolonged type (prolonged transformation) of preparedness condition trajectory (Si to Sf) (Milanović, 2010) Fitness indicators

Reinforcing environmental influences

Sf Si T1

Sf-1

St1

St2

T2

Tf-1

Tf


Unfavourable type (alarming condition) of preparedness development trajectory (Si to Sf) (Milanović, 2010) Fitness indicators

Reinforcing environmental influences

Sf

S

St1

?!

Sf-1

St2

T2

Tf-1

Tf

i

T1

14 - 7


14.4. Types of transformation processes Deterministic process The process is a deterministc one if the programmed management actions transform the known athletic condition into the only one possible condition. Stochastic process The process is a stochastic one if the programmed management action transform the known athletic condition into one out of many from a set of potential conditions.

When any input or management action (training) has an influence on a system (status of an athlete), then changes in its function, i.e. his/her sports performance are caused.

14 - 8

Lesson 15:

Sports competitions

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define sports competition as a component of sports preparation;  Talk about the fundamental characteristics of sports competitions;  Describe and compare particular types of competition;  Talk about the process of planning and carrying out a competition  Discuss the set standards, i.e.qualification criteria for participation in big competitions

15 - 1

15.1. Definition and characteristics of competitions  Thiess (1978), Željaskov (2004) and Bompa (2006) define a competition as the process of comparing sports condition between individuals and teams according to the defined rules and norms. They define it as a social phenomenon.  Sports competitions are sports performances or events. They are crucial components of the sports condition and sports form management.  In competitions there are always two individuals or two teams in a state of opposition to each other. One of the opponents tries, by their actions, to destroy the actions of the opponents, that is, to overpower the rivals.

A competiton presumes civilized behaviour of all the participants: athletes, referees, trainers and spectators.  The foundation of every competition is the equality principle of all the participants, meaning also that opportunities should be the same for every sports contestant in order to enable an unbiased comparison of an individual and/or team sports condition.

15 - 2

 However, equal opportunities objectively do not exist due to diverse training programmes, work and material conditions, but, unfortunately, also due to manipulations (doping, etc.).  Even the impact of referees and a different interpretation of the rules contribute to a bias in competition conditions.

 The competition system must be in the function of the development of the sports branch in question.  Competition experience induces ideas to introduce changes of competition rules which then in turn incite changes in the sports training of individuals and teams (e.g. a quick throw-off in team handball, a point counting change in volleyball, etc.)

15 - 3

 Much more intensive stimuli occur in a competition than in a training session, which is caused by environmental, extrinsic factors (limited time, sports adversary, spectators, referees, behaviour limiting factors, etc.)

15.2. Classification of competitions  Sports competitions can be classified according to various criteria. There are, for example, cup competitions, then control preparation competitions, or doubles competitions.  In every sports branch there are competition systems developed in line with the sports characteristics, age categories and historical factors.

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INTRODUCTORY/ PRELIMINARY

C L A S S I F I C A T I O N

C O M P E T I T I O N

BY COMPETITION CALENDAR

PREPARATION CONTROL OFFICIAL MAIN ROUND-ROBIN SYSTEM

BY COMPETITION SYSTEM

CUP SYSTEM TOURNAMENT SYSTEM MEETINGS OCCASIONAL REVIVAL COMPETITIONS COMBINED SYSTEM

BY COMPETITION TYPES

INDIVIDUAL, SINGLES PAIRS, DOUBLES TEAM SELECTIONS

15.3. Planning and conducting a competition  An athlete should perform, participate in a competition only if he/she can satisfy the set standards with his/her physical, TE-TA abilities and personality features.  Only athletes who have met the participation standards can appear at big competitions.

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 There are norms, i.e. participation criteria, determined in advance, for every big competition (ECs, WCs & OG).

 A definite number of participating countries (national teams) is usually defined for any big competition (in the basketball Olympic Games’ tournament 12 teams participate from every continent).  In the world competitions in track-and-field and swimming only athletes who have met the result norms (e.g. for men, 20m in shot put or 5.50m pole vault) can participate.

 The plan and programme of sports preparation should be defined with the optimal ratio of training and competition activities.  It is one of the crucial preconditions for sports preparation effects to be accomplished and for the full expression of an athlete’s potential (abilities and skills) at qualification and main competitions.

15 - 6

Competition days and appearances of top-level athletes in an annual cycle (Platonov, 1997) NUMBER OF COMPETITION DAYS SPORTS

NUMBER OF STARTS (appearances)

Adult athletes

Young athletes

Adult athletes

Young athletes

ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS

25-35

20-25

210-250

180-210

DIVING

25-35

20-25

275-360

250-275

FENCING

30-40

25-30

415-480

350-400

SOCCER

70-85

60-70

70-85

60-70

TABLE TENNIS

75-80

60-75

380-420

300-360

WATERPOLO

60-65

50-60

60-65

50-60

 Event programs should ensure the atmosphere of strong competition to participants, thus enabling the complete mobilization of athletes’ biological and mental reserves as well as TE-TA skills and knowledge.  That will further enable athletes to perform at their best, and therefore to accomplish their best records.  Each competition is a demonstration to both the trainer and athlete of the extent of improvement in performance (results) and how efficient the sports preparation done for the target competition has been.

15 - 7

Lesson 16:

Recovery of athletes: supplemental factors of sports preparation

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the recovery of athletes as a component of sports preparation.  Describe and represent graphically the importance of recovery in sports.  Compare the time line of a training programme with and withot recovery measures.  List all the recovery methods and means.  Talk about some of the forbidden pharmacological substances as the greatest danger for sports and athletes.

16 - 1

16.1. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes  An enhanced volume of work, especially a high intensity of workloads in training and competitions require adequate recovery during rest time.  Recovery implies the application of diverse procedures that can enable the quick regeneration of athletes and the re-establishment of homeostatis which the previous exertion has disturbed.  Simultaneously with the development of training methods recovery methods have also been developed. By the application of these methods one can prevent the onset of overload and overtraining.

Application of efficacious recovery methods contributes considerably to the enlargement of the number of training sessions within a time unit (Platonov, 1997)

a

b

T

T

T

T

o

T

T

o

T

o

16 - 2

o

Main functions of recovery are:  Normalization of biological functions in an athlete’s organism  Normalization of the homeostatic balance  Restoration of energy supply reserves with the establishment of temporary supercompensation  Reconstructional effects in relation to cell structures and enzymic systems The first and the second function are realized within several minutes, rarely several hours (quick recovery), whereas the third and fourth are realized over a longer period of time, up to 72 hours after the work-out.

fatigue

The next work-out a is the most efficient if it comes at the moment of the reestablished, or, even b better, enhanced work capability. Recovery methods c considerably contribute to that.

recovery time

time

fatigue

recovery time

time

d

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 Correct training programming with adequate means, methods and workloads should provide a proper recovery of an athlete’s organism, which is manifested in the readiness of the athlete to perform well in training and competition on a day to day basis:  “I don’t care at all whether Ančić performs poorly in the next

tournament, whether he will lose or win. I am only interested in his capability to train normally the next day. If he were not be able to do so, if he needed much more for his recovery, then we would have done nothing.” (Freddy Rossengren, SN, 2007)

In practice special recovery measures are applied prior to a work-out aimed at the development of a particular ability (e.g. anticatabolic agents) (Platonov, 1997) 1

2

3

AN

A

B 2

o

1

o

16 - 4

3

 Gambetta (1989) asserts that 20% of training contents and 30-35% of workload must be automatically reduced when training is conducted without a pharmacological means aid.  These substances atheletes can use under the strict supervision of a physician.

16.2. Classification of recovery methods and means

Recovery level control -tests-

16 - 5

Pedagogical means

Motivational methods

Suggestive techniques

Psycho-pedagogical methods

Autogenic training

Pharmacological means

Technical means

Bio-medical methods

Physical means

Nutrition

Social status

Life style/regime

Primary methods

Types of means aimed at the recovery of athletes 1. Pharmacological means  Energetic substances  Anabolic substances  Catalysers and regulators of metabolism: metabolites, enzymes, minerals  Pharmacological doping: hormonal preparations !?!

2. Physiotherapeutical means      

Massage Sauna Hydrotherapy: baths Application of warmth Cryotherapy, application of cold Other procedures

3. Psychological means    

Psycho-regulative training Autogenic training Suggestive techniques, hypnosis Attractiveness of programme

4. Special means    

Altitude * mountain training Hypoxia * hyperoxia Hyperthermia * hypothermia Electro-stimulation * stretching

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16.3. Illicit pharmacological means: doping

(the greatest threat to athletes and sports)  Doping is the use of the forbidden chemical and other substances during sports preparation with the sole intention of artificially increasing sports or work performance and improving sports results.

 It is forbidden to give illicit substances (doping) to athletes and persons connected to them. They must not take any illicit substance or they may contravene the rules of the Croatian Olympic Committee and International Olympic Committee.  The National Antidoping Agency in sports is the specialized institution responsible for monitoring and the implementation of the Croatian antidoping legislation and international antidoping conventions in the Republic of Croatia.  World Antidoping Agency; WADA

16 - 7

1. Stimulants  Medications, prescription drugs: amphetamines, ephedrines – increase natural human fatigue tolerance in athletes, i.e. prolong the onset of the sense of exhaustion 2. Opiates (narcotics, opioids)  Derivates of opium: codeine – causes the “stop reflex” to be switched off in the central nervous system 3. Anabolic substances  Hormonal preparations – testosterone  Anabolic steroids – enhance protein synthesis and voluminosity of muscles in power sports.

4. Corticosteroids 

Hormones of the adrenal cortex – improve performance in continuous intermittent workloads

5. Blood autotransfusion 

800-1200ml of blood + erythrocytes (haemoglobin)

6. Beta-blockers (beta- adrenergic blocking agents) 

Improve concentration and alertness

7. Sedatives/tranquilizers 

Substances induce sedation and relaxation

8. Local anaesthetics 

Increase pain tolerance

16 - 8

Lesson 17:

Biological principles of sports training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Talk about the recruitment levels of the energy supply reserves of athletes.  Talk about the principles of adaptation.  Discuss the principle of training continuity.  Analyse and graphically present the supercompensation (overcompensation) occurrence.  Talk about the principle of load progression in training and competition.  Talk about the wavy shape (undulation) of training and competition load programming and define the law of progressive intermittent load and the law of contrast loads.

17 - 1

17.1. Introductory observations  In any activity that is to be successful, one has to define and strictly respect its regularities and principles.  Such behaviour enables a quality construction and implementation of sports preparation programmes and a safe accomplishment of the wanted effects.  Principles and rules are the results, findings of scientific research studies and of the corroborated experience of coaches and “their” athletes.

Recruiting levels of athlete’s functional reserves (diverse loads induce different levels of fatigue and exhaustion) Vital protective reserves of the organism

100% 90%

Area of life-threatening exhaustion Area of borderline exhaustion Area of great physical, mental & emotional fatigue

Area of considerable fatigue Area of moderate fatigue

80%

Life threat

doping

fear

Training influence-action efficiency of athletes Mobilization threshold

Simple recruiting levels of functional reserves

Physiological fitness /readiness for sport effect

17 - 2

T R A I N I N G

70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Strength development training (A) and strength level maintainance with training sessions of variable frequency %

(according to Hettinger, in Melerović & Meler, 1975)

Daily training regime

100

No training (B1)

Strength progression

50 0

Individual training session

100

Insufficient frequency of trainng sessions (B2)

50 0 100

Optimal frequency of training sessions (B3)

50 0 10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Tjedni

17.2. Adaptation in sports  Adaptation is a process of transformation, the changing of an athlete’s characteristics and abilities, relevant to his/her best, or at least, acceptable functioning in either standard or variable conditions of athletic work.

 The nature of sports adaptation is clearly manifested in the mechanism of homeostasis – always at a higher, i.e. more efficient level of activity or functioning in sports.

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 By means of training athletes achieve the state of fitness (optimal condition), which ensures high efficiency / economy,a rationality of psychomotor performance and the accomplishment of the wanted competition results.  This includes structural, metabolic and functional changes in an athlete’s organism.  We are dealing with the long-term

adaptation of particular organs and organic systems to certain programmes of motor actions and to certain types of neuro-muscular activities and energy processes.

 In sports practice adaptation finds its expression in the specific transformations of an athlete’s conditions under the influence of training effects, competition system and recovery measures.

17 - 4

 In the area of top-level sport the basic issue is an individual course of the process of adaptation to the requirements of the highlevel sports activity (sports can be differentiated one from the other by these requirements).  For each stage of the long-term sports specialization clearly defined levels or phases of adaptation processes are characteristic.

17.3. Continuity of the process of training 

Sports training is a long-term process of improvement which should proceed continuously, with no interruption, through an incessant alternation of the intervals of work and of rest.

17 - 5



The interval of work is a stimulation part of the process, whereas the interval of rest ensures regeneration, recovery for a new training experience.



Work causes exhaustion, whereas rest enables the re-establishment of work ability first and then it elevates the work ability to a higher level. In that way an athlete prepares for a new training session.

The occurrence of supercompensation is a basic acute, immediate functional response of the organism on which effects accumulation and the development of sports shape are based. A correctly prescribed load causes corresponding fatigue and exhaustion, whereas a correct recovery produces the corresponding course of restoration and occurrence of elevated work ability, required for the next training session.

17 - 6

Supercompensation in the process of training (Milanović, 2005, according to Weineck, 1988, and Željaskov, 2004)

TRAINING

RECOVERY

Starting condition level of an athlete’s organism

Returning to the starting level Compensation Exhaustion of the organism

Supercompensation

Supercompensation can be monitored through the changes of biochemical parameters (Grosser et al., 1986) Load

Enlargement of energy reserves – supercompensation (glycogen is here an ability enhancement factor)

I

Decrease of energy reserves (after 1- 2 days)

Starting level

E Time (day, week…)

Consumption of energy substances (glycogen here)

Exhaustion of the organism

Time interval of recovery – compensation (during 1- 2 days) through diverse biochemical processes Training application time interval (prescribed intensity and volume of load)

17 - 7

Physiological and biochemical reactions during load and recovery intervals (Neumann, 1993) % 400

Heart rate

300

Cortisol

200

100

Urea in blood

+

Free fat acids

Lactates Athete’s condition prior to the game or training

Training or game course

-

Recovery course Weight Insulin

%

Creatine kinase

Acute protein synthesis

Glycogen

100 150 1

2

3

4 5 min

1 h

Load training

3 h

1

2

3

4

5

day

Rest- recovery

 The trainer must recognize the dynamics and intensity of the particular recovery phases separately in each athlete because it is optimal, as a rule, to apply the next training session simultaneously with the peak of the supercompensation wave.

17 - 8

I. Supercompensation dynamics when the next training session comes too late

(Milanović, 2006, according to, Hahn, 1982, Weineck, 1988, Matvejev, 2000)

II. Supercompensation dynamics when the next training session comes too early (subcompensation)

(Milanović, 2006, according to Hahn, 1982, Weineck, 1988, Matvejev, 2000)

17 - 9

III. Supercompensation dynamics when the next training session comes at the best moment

(Milanović, 2006, according to Hahn, 1982, Weineck, 1988, Matvejev, 2000)

When constructing several microcycles (MC), the dynamics of supercompensation processes should be respected (modified according to Željaskov, 1998) 3 MC 2 MC

1 MC

There is a possibility that the next few work-outs may “fall” in the period of subcompensation. If that is the case, an extended rest should be planned to induce the occurrence of supercompensation.

17 - 10



Training sessions of diverse goal orientation produce very specific dynamics of exhaustion and recovery (supercompensation). After a work-out aimed at, e.g. speed development, three compensation waves are manifested for: 1. the repeated speed training 2. the repeated anaerobic training 3. the repeated aerobic training.

Dynamics of supercompensation waves after the training sessions aimed at the development of speed (B), anaerobic (AN) and aerobic abilities (A) (Platonov, 1997)

B

Speed training Aerobic training

Anaerobic training 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 hours

A

AN

hours 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 hours

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6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48



Known data about the total load and time needed for a complete recovery (induced occurrence of supercompensation) after various types of physical conditioning training sessions.

Load

MA SMA ME Motor abilities

Coordination

Speed

Strength/ power

Recovery (h)

6 12 24 48 72



The influence of the next training session is based upon traces of the previous training session (training effects). This postulate is valid for the selection of training contents, loads and training methods evenly.

17 - 12

Endurance

Strength endurance

Speed endurance

17.4. Load progression of training and competition 

During a long-term process of sports preparation loads constantly grow and become ever greater.



In one developmental stage loads are at the highest border of absolute total load (volume+intensity) and at the upper limit of an athlete’s cardio-respiratory, motor and psychological capacities.

Increment dynamics of training load indicators in sports preparation of athletes of diverse age categories Stages of perennial sports preparation in sports games

Indicators of absolute training load volume (%)

A

6-10 years Universal sports preparation

30 – 45 %

B

11-14 years Oriented sports preparation

45 – 60 %

C

15-17 years Sports specialization

60 – 75 %

D

18-19 years Highly specialized sports preparation executed by the rules of the training for adult top-level athletes

75 – 90 %

E

20 and more years Stage of high performance/high sports achievements (training of adult top-level athletes)

90 – 100 %

17 - 13



Requirements of a training process are continuously increased; every load stagnation causes a stagnation in the fitness/training condition and top performance/sports achievements



In every new stage of sports development an athlete’s organism is subjected to the requirements that are close to his/her upper functional capacity limits.



Load level is a relative category.



The same volume/intensiy load will over some time produce ever smaller functional changes due to the adaptation responses of the organism and the athlete will subjectively experience them as lower loads.



Further increments of certain components of total load are expected in the future.

17 - 14

Standards of weekly and annual work volume within certain stages of long-term sports preparation (modified according to Platonov, 1997) 23-26 18-22 1200-1400

14-16

Weekly training volume (hours) Annual training volume (hours)

900 - 1100

8-12 600 - 800

3-6 350 - 500 100 - 250

E1

E2

E3

E4

Stage of the Stage of Stage of Stage of first max. initial basic special individual preparation preparation preparation performance

E5 Stage of the max. individ. performance maintenance

Stages of sports perfection

Progressiveness is realized in a perennial cycle through:  increases of the total annual volume of work from 250-400 hours to 1300-1500 hours and more;  increases in the number of training hours within a weekly microcycle from 3-6 to 14-20 and more;  increases in the number of individual training sessions from one to three within one training day with high load;  increases in the number of high impact training sessions within a microcycle up to 5 or 6 or more  increases in the number of competitions.

17 - 15

 In a perennial cycle a constant progression of

the relative total load is obvious.  In any following macrocycle the load is bigger than it was in the previous one – the preparation, competition and transition/ closing period.  Each year, we should start with a greater load.  The maximum load level is in any following year higher than it has been ever before.

These postulates are distinctively valid for young athletes’ preparation programmes

17.5. Undulation of training and competition loads 

The process of sports training is characterized by the permanent wavy dynamics of loading and unloading. There are periods of enhanced and periods of decreased total load.

17 - 16



Periods of high total load volume and their components in mesocycles and microcycles alternate constantly with the cycles of lower training load. Thus, favourable conditions are created for recovery and the efficacious flow of adaptation changes in the function of producing accumulation effects.

Wavy shape curve of load intensity (A) and volume (B) in an annual cycle A load intensity

General preparation exercises Competition-like exercises Specific exercises

B load volume

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

MONTHS

I

II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Precomp.

STAGES PERIODS

PREPARATION

17 - 17

1st comp.

OP 2nd comp.

COMPETITION

TRANSITIONI

 The distribution of loads and relaxation is a very important component of sports training programming. The distribution of loads follows the curve of a progressive intermittent character The expression 3:1 means that after 3 training sessions of enhanced load, a reduced load follows in the fourth training session, or after 3 days of a high-impact work, on the fourth day’s work-out the intensity should be reduced.

Wavy shape of load (Matvejev, 1999) opt

’ minutes

4

opt 4 3

3 2 2 1 1

30’

45’

15’

45’

30’

T Mon

Training unit

T Tue

T T T Wed Thu Fri

Microcycle

opt 4 3 2 1

1st week

2nd week

Mesocycle

17 - 18

3rd week

T Sat

O Sun

 After a period in which the load has been enhanced, it must be reduced all of a sudden. The law of contrast in load distribution. An athlete is not able to sustain continuously high and the highest loads.  After a few training sessions or microcycles of large load, the controlled reduction of training work volume and intensity follows.

17 - 19

Lesson 18:

Didactical principles of sports training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Talk about the goal orientation principle.  Talk about the sensitive phases’ specific attributes of certain dimensions constituting the fitness/preparedness of athletes.  Analyse and present graphically the association among sports preparation programmes in perennial and annual cycles.  Describe the principle of the cyclic nature of training and present graphically the distribution of sports preparation cycles.

18 - 1

 Didactical principles are based upon scientific research findings and inferences and upon corroborated professional experience and knowledge of high quality/expert coaches/trainers.  They facilitate a deeper understanding of expert-coach work in the area of a methodological design of training programmes and training work organization.

18.1. Target orientation of training  The focus orientation of the process of sports training is based upon the specific associations between the goals that are to be accomplished, and the training programmes that should provide the accomplishment of the required set goals.

18 - 2

Criteria for goal orientation of training: There are certain prerequisites for encouraging the training to the wanted goals, i.e. for setting the goals. First, one must know:  The equation of sports performance specification: i.e. the hierachical structure of performance factors in a particular sport event or discipline.  Goal orientation of training denotes a tendency for the development and perfection of athletes’ abilities, especially those significant and relevant to sports performance and achievements in a particular sport branch (equation of specification)

Diverse abilities (e.g. A – strength/power, B endurance, C - coordination) have various influences on performance in different sports

C B

B

A

A

C

A

C

B

SPORT 2 SPORT 3 SPORT 1 A, B, C = abilities relevant to sport achievements

18 - 3

b) Individual features of athletes:  Especially those abilities and skills when an athlete does not meet the model (required) values.  The training programme should address the “weak spots” in the chain of an athlete’s fitness/preparedness.

c) Age-related characteristics of individuals and groups and the possibilities of developing the components of athletes’ preparedness/fitness in particular age periods.

Table 1. Sensitive phases for the development of diverse physical condition, coordination and other dimensions. “Every dimension has its optimal development time.” (Martin, 1982)

18 - 4

Ability of an athlete

Age of an athlete (year)

Coordination abilities

9

10

11

12

Ability to differentiate movement parameters Reactibility to auditive and visual stimulans

. : : .

Motor rhythm

. . : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . : : . . : : . . . :

Motor educability/trainability

Ability of space orientation

Physical cond.abilities

8

. : : . . . . : : . . . . : :

Balance

Other dimensions

7

Endurance Strength/power Speed Motor learning Cognitive functions Emotional reactions

. . : . : : : :

. : : : : : : .

13

14

15

17

18

: : : : : . . . . .

: : : : . . .

: : : : . . :

: : . : . :

e) Sex differences f) Quality level of athletes g) Competition rank h) Work conditions and material foundation for sports preparation

18 - 5

16

: : : : : : . : . . . .

18.2. Interaction of sports preparation programmes a) There is a clearly defined correlation of global programmes of sports preparation:   

training programme competition programme recovery programme

Interaction of the systems of training, competition and supplemental factors in sports preparation (according to Matvejev, 1999)

System of competition Supplemental f a c t o r s

Training system

preparation

18 - 6

o f s p o r t s

There is also a clearly defined association among the b) fundamental programmes of sports

preparation:   

Physical conditioning (functional and motor preparation) Information preparation (technical, tactical and theoretical preparation) Psychological preparation (motivation, microsocial adaptation)

Relationship among fundamental sports preparation programmes Physical conditioning

Technical preparation

Psychological preparation

18 - 7

Tactical preparation

Integral preparation of athletes:  Coordination of all elements of physical conditioning, technical, tactical and psychological preparation is the most important component of the long-term sports improvement of athletes.  A synthetic mode of training unifies the individual factors into comprehensive and unique competition efficiency (performance).  Therefore the method of situational training is the best way of an integral perfection of athletes’ performance.

The principle defines also the association of c) targeted programmes of sports preparation that are defined as follows:    

Versatile or global preparation Basic or fundamental preparation Specific preparation Situational preparation

The relations of the programmes are determined by the characteristics of a perennial and annual training cycle planning and programming.

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Distribution of sports preparation programmes across the stages of a perennial training cycle (modified according to Platonov, 2004)

900-1400

2

600-900

25%

250-600

2 40%

100-250

2

2 1 15%

20%

1 15%

60%

1 20%

65%

3

3

40%

45%

3

35% 1 2

1400-1100

20% 40%

3

50% 1

1. Universal preparation programme 2. Basic preparation programme 3. Specific-situational preparation programme

10% 3

Stage of preliminary preparation

Stage of basic preparation

Stage of specializing preparation

Stage E ta p a mofa maximal s m a ln ih sports s achievements o rt k ih o s ig n

ć

E ta p a d r ž a v a n ja Stage of osports s p o r t s k ih achievements maintenance d o s tig n u ć a

Optimal relationship among particular sports preparation programmes in an annual cycle (C – physical conditioning, T – technical-tactical, B – basic, S – situational, D – supplemental, N – competition)

C

75% C 60%

S

T 40% T 25%

B

S

D N

B

D

T 60% C 40%

D C 80%

S

N

Stage 1 Stage 2 Preparation period

N

B Competiton period

18 - 9

S B

T 20%

D

Transition period

18.3. Cyclic nature of training 





The cyclic nature of training means that the process of training is executed thtrough defined units as regards time and contents, which follow and complement each other. Training programming within various cycles enables an efficacious systematization of training work tasks, assignments, means and methods.

The cyclic principle of training is manifested especially in training planning and programming, where the starting point should be the necessity of a systematic repetition of particular cycles.

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The division of sports preparation cycles (modified according to Grosser et al., 1986) A bigger cycle

contains

several shorter cycles

A sports career (1)

several Olympic cycles

Olympic cycle

4 annual cycles

An annual cycle macrocycle

3 mesocycles - periods (preparation, competition, and transition)

A mesocycle - period

2- 5 mesocycles - phases

A mesocycle - phase

3-8 microcycles

A microcycle

3-14 training days

A training day

1- 4 individual training sessions

An individual training session

4 parts (introductory, preparation, main and closing)

A part of an individual training session

training operators (18)

Cyclic organization and load curves across an annual cycle (Matvejev, 1999)

volume intensity

MONTHS

I

II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

STAGES PERIODS

PREPARATION

18 - 11

COMPETITION

TRANSITION

QUESTIONS 1. Basic fields of training theory 2. Training theory definition 3. Training theory tasks 4. Definition of sport 5. Sports features 6. Why a special social status belongs tosport? 7. Sport participation and health 8. Characteristics of sport in the European union 9. Top level sport in european countries 10. Most important factors affecting the status and development of sport 11. Science, theory and practice of sport and sports training 12. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level 13. Sports training – sports preparation 14. Sports training definitions 15. The essence of sports training 16. Sports training tasks 17. Cybernetic approach to sports training 18. Sport development in the world 19. A short overview of sport development in Croatia 20. Structural analysis of a sport activity 21. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities 22. Anatomical analysis 23. Functional (energy) analysis 24. The criteria for the classification of sports activities 25. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes 26. Diagnostics in sports 27. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes 28. Diagnostics in sports (10 stages of diagnostic procedure) 29. Selectionin sport (orientation to sports and choice of sports branch) 30. Sport and sports training of children and the young 31. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young 32. Performance factors of a sports career 33. Fitness of athletes 34. Sport shape / preparedness 35. Sport shape development phases 36. Dynamic attributes of sport shape 37. Sports training as a transformation process 38. Sports competitions 39. Classification of competitions 40. Plannin gand conducting a competition 41. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes 42. Classification of recovery methods and means 43. Illicit pharmacological means: doping 44. Adaptation in sports 45. Continuity of the process of training 46. Load progression of training and competition 47. Undulation of trainin gand competition loads 48. Target orientation of training 49. Interaction of sports preparation programmes 50. Cyclic nature oftraining

Lesson 19:

Methodology of Sports Training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the methodology of sports training  Define and describe the training (transformation) operator  Describe the methodology procedure and answer the questions: “what to train?”, “how much to train?” as well as “how, where, by means of what and when to train?”.  Discuss a training operator to improve a specific physical ability or acquire a certain motor skill

19 - 1

19.1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training  The methodology of sports training is an academic discipline that studies the patterns of the methodological structuring of training or modelling of training and means of recovery.  It deals with the selection, organization and implementation of training stimuli or training operators and the management of a training load.

 A training (transformation) operator is a stimulus that produces adequate quantitative and qualitative changes in an athlete’s status.  A methodological procedure in professional sport refers to the implementation of selected training operators that comply with the desired, operationally defined objectives.  It refers to a controlled process of physical exercise (physical conditioning) and/or a controlled process of learning-teaching (technical-tactical training).

19 - 2

 In such a methodological procedure training operators that have the highest transformational power in achieving the desired training outcomes are chosen from the virtual system of potentially useful training operators.  Methodological knowledge is the fundamental source of information for a successful programming of training.

 In everyday practice, after defining the objective of training (e.g. development of explosive power for jumping), the coach must answer the questions: WHAT? HOW MUCH? HOW? WHERE? BY MEANS OF WHAT? WHEN? to train, in order to achieve, in cooperation with the athlete, the desired outcomes in the safest possible way.

19 - 3

WHAT TO TRAIN? WHERE TO TRAIN?

HOW MUCH TO TRAIN?

METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS TRAINING: modelling of training operators

BY MEANS OF WHAT TO TRAIN?

HOW AND WHEN TO TRAIN?

MEANS OF TRAINING

TRAINING LOCATIONS

ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS

TRAINING LOADS

METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS TRAINING: modelling of training operators

TRAINING METHODS

19 - 4

TRAINING EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES

METHODOLOGICAL FORMS OF TRAINING

 Means of training:  motor (competition and training activities)  non-motor (additional means and activities)

 Training loads: - Components of the total training load:  ENERGY COMPONENT (intensity and volume)  INFORMATION COMPONENT (reception, retention and use of motor information) Training parameters for the development of maximum speed (Pyke, 2001) Intensity

95-105%

Distance

20-40m

Rest

Complete(3 min.+)

Type of Start

Flying start

Reps / Sets

4/2

Session Frequency/weekly

19 - 5

2

 Training locations:  facilities (halls, gyms, fitness centres, swimming pools, outdoor playing fields)

 Training equipment and devices:  Training equipment (weights, balance boards, ropes, medicine balls)  Apparatuses (gymnastics apparatuses, Swedish boxes and benches)  Exercise machines (classical and isokinetic)  Special training devices (electrical stimulator, vibration platforms)

19 - 6

 Organizational forms of training:  individual  group  frontal

 Training methods:  physical conditioning training methods (energy)  technical-tactical training methods (information)

19 - 7

 Methodological forms of training:  stations  circuits

 circulars  courses Intensity: High: Low:

start

running backward

running

running

running

running sideways

slalom

19 - 8

running

Lesson 20:

The means (contents) of sports preparation

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define training contents (means)  Classify and describe motor (training and competition) means  Classify and describe non-motor means  Define criteria for the selection of training exercises  List and describe exercises for the development of each of an athlete’s abilities  Discuss the effects of the implementation of a specific training exercise over a period of time

20 - 1

20.1. Classification and characteristics of training means  The means (contents) of training or sports preparation are systems of motor (competition and training) exercises and non-motor means implemented in training, competition and recovery in accordance with the desired outcomes of the sports preparation and characteristics of the expected training procedure.

MOTOR MEANS

Competitions are an indispensable means of sports preparation

BASIC PREPARATION EXERCISES

SPECIFIC EXERCISES SITUATIONAL EXERCISES

20 - 2

TACTICAL EXERCISES

GENERAL PREPARATION EXERCISES

TECHNICAL EXERCISES

TRAINING MEANS

PHYSICAL CONDITIONING EXERCISES

COMPETITION MEANS

NON-MOTOR MEANS Implemented in all stages of sports preparation, especially when the athlete is in the rest-recovery stage

LIFESTYLE NUTRITION PHYSICAL MEANS

GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATE MEANS TECHNICAL MEANS PHARMACOLOGICAL MEANS PSYCHOLOGICAL MEANS

 A training means or contents are activities or exercises implemented in the training and adjusted to match the training objectives.

Different activities and exercises significantly differ in transformational power (value) which they have on the development of a specific athlete’s ability, characteristic, or the acquisition of certain motor skill.

20 - 3

 It is of the utmost importance to know which functional and motor structures or body systems are stimulated by the exercise implemented as a part of a certain training operator.

Weight training exercises are used for the development of strength.

Quantitative and qualitative changes occur in the muscular system.

Exercises involving changes of direction and speed of movement are used for the development of agility and speed.

The efficiency of the central nervous system and motor programmes is increased. Cyclic exercises with extended duration are used for the development of endurance.

Functions of cardiovascular and respiratory systems (oxygen transport system) are improved.

20 - 4

The selection of training means aimed at the development of physical abilities or the stabilisation of technical-tactical skills depends on the equation of value for each exercise, since each exercise or set of training activities triggers precise motor reactions.

Equation of value for training or competition activity Aj in the n-dimensional space

n

Aj =

  F + ij=1 i

i

i(n+1)

Ej

i – coefficients of participation of the psychosomatic dimensions Fi in activity Ai, Ej – efficiency estimation error in activity Ai if dimension Fi is known

20 - 5

20.2. The effects of training exercise implementation  Coaches very often “throw in” new exercises in each training session  That is ineffective since the effects of the implementation of a selected set of exercises are proportional with the duration of its implementation  A selected set of exercises must be repeated frequently in order to generate the expected effects  The effects of implementation for each exercise or set of training exercises can be monitored in four dependent stages

Effects of implementation for each training exercise can be monitored in four dependent stages Effects of training exercise implementation

(modified according to Vazny, 1978)

Peak impact stage

A

Decreasing impact stage

Significant impact stage Non-significant impact stage

A – Point of significant impact on the development of one of the preparedness t0 components

Negative impact stage

t1

t2

t3

t4

t5

Training exercises implementation stages

20 - 6

 The first thing is to learn how to perform the exercise correctly. Useful effects can only be achieved if the exercise is mastered and performed correctly (1st stage).  The period of time during which the implementation of a mastered exercise (maximum number of repetitions) generates positive effects is limited (2nd stage).  After the period of the implementation of the same exercise or set of exercises only then is it possible to maintain the achieved effects (3rd stage).

 In the next stage a decreased impact of the selected exercises on the expected effects is noticeable (4th stage).  At one point of the implementation of an exercise or a set of exercises a negative tendency of the effects may be noticed. The exercise or the set has or have “been worn out” (5th stage).

20 - 7

20.3. Selection and order of training exercises application  Training methodology first defines the criteria for the selection and then the order of using each exercise or a set of exercises.

 After the training objectives of one set of exercises have been achieved, move on to the next one.

 The order of training exercises in the

training for jumping abilities may be determined in relation to the expected effects by age groups.

 Deciding on the training means, i.e. the selection of training exercises, relies on the fact that only certain exercises are effective in each stage of an athlete’s development and that certain motor and non-motor means have a maximum effect in a certain part of the annual cycle.

 This is crucial information for programming training sessions.

20 - 8

Sequence of training exercises in technology for the development of jumping abilities Development of jumping ability

Phases of long- term development

 On the basis of experience and published research, coaches have selected a large number of potential means, i.e. motor exercises that they use daily.  Each coach should compile his/her own “encyclopedia” of training exercises.  Depending on the set objectives, the means that completely matches the characteristics of a trained group or individual should be selected and used.

20 - 9

Exercises for the development of sprint abilities using various additional loads (vests, tyres, weights) on a flat surface, slope, steps…

Exercises for the development of jumping abilities using hurdles, boxes of various heights and/or without props on a flat surface, slope, steps…

20 - 10

Exercises for the development of explosive power for throwing

Free weight exercises for the strengthening of the upper and the lower body

20 - 11

Stretching exercises for leg muscles

Stretching exercises for leg muscles

20 - 12

Passive stretching in pairs

20 - 13

Lesson 21:

Training Load Management

After attending the class and mastering this lesson the students will be able to:  Understand the concept and the importance of the training load management  Define the total training load and its components  Classify training loads and describe each type  Explain the effects of a training load on an athlete’s body  Determine the training load in modelling training operators for the development of various abilities and motor skills  Discuss the endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) factors of training and competition load tolerance

21 - 1

21.1. Training and competition load  The management of a training load has a central role in the technology of sports preparation of top athletes.  In professional sports, only the athletes who successfully absorb progressive training and competition loads can achieve top results.  Stagnation in a training load leads to the incomplete preparedness of the athlete.

 Due to the adaptation of the body over a period of time the same amount of load (the same stimulus) will generate increasingly weaker functional reactions, since the athlete will respond as if the load has been reduced.  The total load, as well as its components intensity and volume, must be adapted according to:      

specificities of each sport, athlete’s age, athlete’s individual characteristics, level of athlete’s preparedness, stage in the multi-annual sports preparation cycle, period and stage in the annual sports preparation cycle.

21 - 2

Training load and recovery characteristics of athletes of various levels of preparedness (Platonov, 1997)

REACTION LOWER-LEVEL ATHLETE TOP ATHLETE

RECOVERY

LOAD

Reaction of athletes at various levels of preparedness to the same total training load (Platonov, 1997)

REACTION 2nd CATEGORY ATHLETE 1st CATEGORY ATHLETE TOP ATHLETE

RECOVERY

LOAD

21 - 3

Load leads to fatigue – exhaustion of athletes in the training process LOAD LEVEL

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF TRAINING LOAD

1

EXTERNAL FATIGUE SIGNS ATTENTION

PRESPIRAT ION

FACE

TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE

Loads absorbed effortlessly

Steady

No change

Normal

No change

2

Loads absorbed with effort, without complaining

Steady

Medium

Blushe d

No change

3

Loads absorbed with difficulties, fatigue in arms and legs

Weakened

Significant

Red

Movement rhythm slightly altered, minor mistakes

4

Loads absorbed with major difficulties, complaining of fatigue and body pain, especially in the legs

Weak

Increased

Very red

Diminished movement quality, mistakes in details, poor performance

5

Loads barely absorbed, tottering, refusing to continue with the training, general weakness

Intense ly red

Non-coordinated movements, diminished movement quality, very poor performance

Very weak

Heavy

21.2. Total load and its components TL = f (a1En+a2In+a3e) Total load (TL) is a function of the energy component – a1En (prevails in the physical conditioning training), information component – a2In (prevails in the technical-tactical training) and the estimation of error – a3e.

21 - 4

21.2.1. Energy component of a training load En = f (a1I+a2E+a3e) The energy component of a training load comprises two elements: intensity of training load – a1I (force, velocity, pace, weight of external load) and volume of training load – a2E (repetitions, duration, sets)

 Training load intensity consists of:  force, defined by the weight of the external load (e.g. 90% 1RM),  and velocity, defined by the speed of performance (e.g. 90% of the maximum speed).

 External load is crucial for the first element (weight training) and the maximum speed of performance for the second one (e.g. running down a slope).

21 - 5

 Training load volume also comprises two elements:  number of repetitions (e.g. 3 sets × 10 reps, 50% RM with a 1’ rest between sets),  and duration (e.g. running 5×60’’ , rest 1’ between reps; or in stations 5 x 30” with 30” rest after each set and 60” rest after each station).

 For the development of physical condition the total load and the ratio of its components need to be determined.

In determining the energy load component, all elements contribute proportionally : F = force, V = velocity, R = number of repetitions, D = duration En = f (a1F+a2V+a3R+a4D+a5e) Taking into account the interaction of all the components and elements of a training load, the total energy training load is defined as follows: En= f (a1F+a2V+a3R+a4D+a1Fa2V+a1Fa3R+a1Fa4D +a2Va3R+a2Va4D+a3Ra4D+a1Fa2Va3D…)

21 - 6

21.2.2. Information component of a training load ITL = f (a1BI+a2DI+a3TEI+a4e)

The information component of a training load comprises three elements :  number of emitted motor information units – NI (amount of data, messages)  amount of decoded motor information units – DI (amount of processed data)  duration of the emission of information– DEI (duration of time during which the motor information was sent and received)

21.3. Effects of a training load on an athlete’s body 21.3.1. Effects of a training load on the muscle fibre  Use of an adequate load for the development of strength and power over an extended period of time leads to an adaptation which affects the muscle fibre by causing its expansion (hypertrophy), proliferation (hyperplasia), or a combination of the two.

21 - 7

However, numerous studies have shown that muscle fibre reacts to the training and competition load with hypertrophy only. The occurrence of proliferation (hyperplasia) as a result of adaptation to training has not yet been proven.

21.3.2. Effects of a training load on the nervous system  Exertion of maximum voluntary force of contraction depends on the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the agonist muscles as well as the level of the ability of the nervous system to innervate those muscles. This refers to the number of active motor units.

21 - 8

A training load affects the functioning of the nervous system by causing specific adaptation changes. The nerve conduction velocity and its synchronization are improved. The specificity of adaptation changes relates to the characteristics and the mastery of the movements being trained.

21.3.3. Effects of a training load on the oxygen transport system 

A well-balanced training activity forces the body to a range of functional and regulation adjustments in order to ensure:  

Proportional amount of energy and energy for the elimination of the excess of metabolites and heat.

21 - 9

In order for the oxygen transport system to meet the increased energy demand during a vigorous sports activity, an immediate adjustment of a range of its functions proportional to the energy demand of the given activity - to a higher level of activity must occur.

21.4. Classification (characteristics) of training loads

SPECIALISATION

SPECIFIC LOAD

NON-SPECIFIC LOAD

ENERGY FOCUS

AEROBIC

MIXED

ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYTIC

COORDINATION COMPLEXITY

LEVEL

BODY INVOLVEMENT

HIGH

MAXIMUM 90-100

GLOBAL (multiple joints)

MEDIUM

SUBMAXIMUM 75-90

LOW

REGIONAL (two joints)

MEDIUM 60-75 LOCAL (one joint)

ANAEROBIC CREATIN PHOSPHATE

MINIMUM 30-60

ANABOLIC

21 - 10

Relation between intensity and volume in the total load LOAD INTENSITY % (force, velocity)

Maximum total load may be achieved by stressing the intensity, volume or both components of a training load

100 90

75

60

45 30

LOAD VOLUME (repetitions, duration)

20 10 <30% <30%

<45% <45%

<60% <60%

<75% <75%

<90% <100%

21.5. Training load management -dosage  The safest way to achieve preparedness is to use a training load which is welladjusted to the biological and psychological characteristics of the athlete.

 Training load levels in sports have reached extremely high values, which are very close to the maximum values of

the total load and its components.

21 - 11

 Mistakes in load management can lead to many undesired consequences:  injuries that may prevent the athlete from continuing with the training programme,  overtraining,  insufficient preparedness,  discontentment of the athlete.

Maximum testing is the basis for determining the training load (Jäger and Oelschlägel, 1982)

1. Maximum ability test (1RM)

2. Calculation – determining training loads (percentage of 1RM)

???

21 - 12

3. Training load

Parameters of training operators for the development of start speed, maximum speed and speed endurance (Pyke, 2001) Maximum speed

Start speed, acceleration

Speed endurance

Intensity

95-105%

95-100%

90-95%

Distance

10-20m

5-30m

20-30m / 120300m

Full (3min+)

Full (3min+)

30-90s / 5-8 min

Flying

Standing or slow walking start


Speed/ Speed strength

Explosive power

Speed/ Anaerobic capacity – phosphagen

2

2-3

2-3

Recovery between repetitions Start

Basic abilities

Frequency (training sessions per week)

Training load dosage for the development of muscular endurance No.

TRAINING PARAMETRES

SYMBOL

TRAINING CHARACTERISTICS

1

External load – weight

EL

40-80% 1 RM

2

Repetitions

NR

12 - 4 repetitions

3

Number of sets

NS

2 - 4 sets with each weight 10 - 20 sets total

4

Rest interval

RI

1 - 2 minutes between sets 2 - 3 minutes between weights 3 - 4 minutes between exercises

5

Rest activity

RA

Stretching and relaxation exercises

6

Performance pace

PP

Medium

7

Means (exercises)

ME

Weight training exercises

8

Exercises per training period

NE

2 - 6 exercises

9

Training frequency (per week)

TF

2 - 3 × week

10

Overcompensation period

OP

48 hours

21 - 13

Endogenous factors of training of load tolerance: Body type

Sex Age

Pharmachological means

Nutrition Structure and distribution of training load

“Warm-up” “Cool-down”

Injuries of the locomotor system Recovery process Speed of adaptation processes

Exogenous factors of training of load tolerance: Training and competition distribution Movement technique

Sports gear (footwear)

Orthopedic supports and braces Training location (surface) Exercise machines Altitude Temperature

Humidity Time difference

21 - 14

 A further increase in the training and competition loads may be expected in the future.  Athletes will be able to tolerate those loads due to: - modern diagnostics procedures, - improved recovery methods, - supplementary stimulation of athletes, - improved preparation conditions.  A highly coordinated and professional team approach is required to prevent overtraining.

A training load should be programmed very carefully. It should be neither too high nor too low. Well-balanced loads applied at the right time can lead to the success and satisfaction of both the coach and the athlete.

21 - 15

Lesson 22:

Sports Training Methods

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define and describe the concept of training methods  Classify and describe basic training methods  Define and describe physical conditioning methods with respect to load type, training mode, muscle contraction type and load level  Define and describe the use of pyramid training with external loads  Define and describe methods for teaching motor skills  Describe the criteria for the selection of training methods

22 - 1

22.1. Classification and description of training methods  Training methods are specific forms of work in sport.  Training methods fall into two basic groups:  Exercise methods used in developing and maintaining various anthropological dimensions (primarily physical abilities) and  Teaching methods used in acquiring and improving technical-tactical skills.

 The selection of methods depends on: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

specificities of the given sport or sports discipline, developmental characteristics of each age group, level of preparedness and peak performance, setting sports preparation goals and objectives and conditions for the implementation of the training process.

22 - 2

Standard loads

Variable loads

Combined method

Combined method

22 - 3 With respect to muscle contraction type

Combined method

Maximum training method

COMBINED

Intensive training method

COURSES- CORSE TRAINING

CIRCULARS- CIRCULAR TRAINING

CIRCUITS- CIRCUIT TRAINING

STATIONS- STATION TRAINING

TEACHING METHODS

Extensive training method

With respect to training mode

Eccentric muscle contraction method

VARIATIONS

With respect to motor task mastering mode

With respect to motor Information transfer mode

With respect to load level

With respect to muscle contraction type

EXERCISE METHODS

Isometric muscle contraction method

Concentric muscle contraction method

With respect to load type

Static method

VARIATIONS With respect to training mode


Frontal

Group

ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS

Dynamic method

Interval method

Continuous method

Individual

(modified according to Željaskov, 1998)

TRAINING METHODS

METHODOLOGICAL FORMS OF TRAINING

VARIATIONS

22.2. Exercise methods


Combined method

22.2.1. Exercise method with respect to load type  Continuous method – activity continues without interruption  continuous standard method – the training load level remains unchanged from the beginning to the end of the training activity  continuous variable method – the load intensity changes during the training activity

Interval method

Continuous method


 Interval method – exchange of work and rest intervals

Standard loads

 standard interval method – all load variables should be maintained on the same level.  variable interval method – load variables change. Variable load is achieved as soon as one of the variables is changed.

Variable loads

Combined method

Training intensity % 120

R

R

R

R

R Competition results (intensity)

100

Load intensity in continuous training mode

80 60 40

P’

P’

P’

P’

P’

Load intensity in interval training mode

20

Duration

0

Interval training logic: 400m=48s; 100m in 12 s 4×100m (P’=3min)=4×11s=44s 100m in 11 s 5000m=15min; 1000m in 3 min 5×1000m (P’=4min)=5000m=5×2:45=13.45; 1000m in 2:45.

22 - 4

Continuous and interval methods may be implemented with standard and variable loads: Standard load

Variable load

Continuous training mode

Interval training mode

Continuous standard

Continuous variable

training mode

training mode

Interval standard training mode DRITA (distance, reps/sets, rest interval, time (duration), rest activities) – all parameters remain the same

Interval variable training mode DRITA - load parameters change

Examples of training operators for each method Standard load

Variable load

Continuous training mode Running 4km at the same pace (80% of the maximum pace)

Interval training mode

Running 2x3x400m, 90% 1RM, 4 min rests between reps and 6 min between sets

22 - 5

Running 4km at a variable pace (200m – 60%, 200m 90% of the maximum pace)

Running 400m, 300m, 200m, 100m, 200m, 300m, 400m at a variable pace (70-90%) rests between reps (5-2 min)

 Interval variable loads lead to variable effort. Distance, duration, number of repetitions, number of sets, rest intervals and rest activities change (D R I T A).  In interval weight training, “D” stands for the mass of the weight .

Training methods for the development of explosive power with high and low training loads (Pyke, 2001)

High training loads

Low training loads

Sets

3-4

3-4

Repetitions

5-2

8-5

5-2RM

60% of 1RM

Full recovery

Full recovery

Pace

Explosive concentric

Explosive concentric

Selection of exercises

Explosive exercises

Explosive exercises

2-3

2-3

Improvement of muscle activation via improved neural control

Improvement of explosive power

Load Rest between sets

Frequency (training sessions per week) Physiological objective

22 - 6

22.2.2. Exercise methods with respect to the training mode Dynamic method

Static method

Dynamic method

With respect to training mode

Static method

Combined method

22.2.3. Exercise methods with respect to the muscle contraction type

Eccentric contraction method

Isometric contraction method

Concentric contraction method

With respect to muscle contraction type

Concentric contraction method

muscle force > external force

Eccentric contraction method

muscle force < external force

Combined method

Isometric contraction method

muscle force = external force

22 - 7

22.2.4. Exercise methods with respect to load level Interval training methods Extensive interval method

Maximum training method

Intensive training method

Extensive training method


Intensive interval method

Maximum interval method

Combined method

Distance (volume)

Rest interval duration

Pace (intensity)

12×200m

2min

75%

8×200m

4min

85%

4×200m

6min

95%

22.2.5. Pyramid training Involves the inversely proportional relation between volume (number of repetitions) and intensity (external load level) VOLUME

INTENSITY

1x n1

X5=100%

5*

X4=95%

4*

X3=90%

3*

X2=85%

2*

X1=80%

1*

P4

2x n2 P3

3x n3 P2

4x n4 P1

5x n5

22 - 8

Three typical pyramids are used in sports practice; They are defined by the number of repetitions (12-1) and the level of external load (40-100% of 1RM) 100 90 80

1

MA

2-3

SMA/MA

4

SMA

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 25

MAXIMUM PYRAMID 80

SMA

4

70

MED/SMA

6

60

8

MED

INTENSIVE PYRAMID 60

MED

8

50

SMED

10

40

12

MIN

EXTENSIVE PYRAMID

100% 1 RM 95 90 85 80 The number of 75 repetitions of 70 various 65 external loads 60 is strictly 55 50 individualized. 45 It can vary 40 dramatically. 35 30

22.3. Teaching and learning methods in sport

Ideomotor

Situational

Synthetic

Combined method

Analytic

With respect to motor task performance mode

Problem-based

Motor (demonstration)

Visual

Verbal

With respect to motor information transfer mode

Combined method

22 - 9

22.3.1. Teaching methods with respect to the mode of motor information transfer and motor task assignment There are four fundamental teaching methods: a) verbal method (orally describing a motor task), b) visual method (using images: kinematic models, photographs, videos), c) motor method (showing how a motor task is performed),and d) problem-based method (requesting the performance of a motor task).

22.3.2. Teaching methods with respect to motor task perfomance mode 1) Analytic teaching method refers to the procedure whereby the global movement structure is divided into several phases, i.e. elements, each of which is taught and mastered separately. After each phase/element has been mastered, they are integrated, i.e. linked together into one whole.

22 - 10

 Analytic method is recommended in teaching very complex and demanding activities or activities consisting of many elements (structural units), where the performance of the whole activity causes discomfort and contains the risk of injury.

2) Synthetic teaching method refers to learning and mastering a methodical task as a whole. The athlete performs the task as a whole, placing maximum focus on the most important phase of the global motor activity.

22 - 11

3) Situational method refers to learning and perfecting techniques and tactics in the conditions that match those at competitions. Basic information may be taught using the synthetic method, but the final stabilization of the acquired knowledge must take place on the situational level.

4) Ideomotor method refers to the cognitive processing of a motor task. Cognitive activities become prominent in the improvement of the performance of a motor task, because they enable us to make connections between the perceived and the performed movements. It means that the athlete repeats in his/her head what he/she has learned at the training session after the training has finished.

22 - 12

5) Combined teaching method 

Teaching methods may be combined in several ways: - synthetic-analytic (the analytic approach is used for correcting mistakes), - situational- synthetic-analytic and - ideomotor-analytic (the ideomotor method may be combined with any other method).

22 - 13

Lesson 23:

Organisational forms and Methodological Forms of Training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson the students will be able to:  Define and explain organisational training forms  Discuss the conditions in which individual, group and frontal forms of training are used  Define and explain methodological forms of training  Describe the specificities of station, circuit, circular and course methodological training forms  Design customized programmes for specific age groups and abilities that need to be improved using each of the methodological forms  Describe the role of locations, training equipment and training gear in training.

23 - 1

23.1. Organisational training forms

Frontal

Group

Individual

Organisational forms

VARIATIONS

23.1.1. Individual training  in this organisational form only one athlete trains throughout the training session or one of its parts under the supervision of a coach. This form is closely tied with the principle of individualization.  it is well known that the equal treatment of nonequals in training is the biggest inequality and a big mistake.  An individualised approach in sport is based on the tested abilities and skills of each athlete.

23 - 2

23.1.2. Group training  Aimed at groups of athletes that have a similar level of abilities and skills. This form is closely tied with the principle of homogenisation.  By forming homogenised groups training is rationalised.  Homogenised groups are formed on the basis of test results analyzed using the appropriate statistical procedures.

23.1.3. Frontal training  In this organisational form the whole team is involved in performing the set task at the same time. It is best used for improving good team reactions in the area of physical conditioning and especially in the area of technical-tactical skills.

23 - 3

23.2. Methodological forms of training

Courses – course training

Circulars – circular training

Circuits – circuit training

Stations – station training

Methodological forms of training

VARIATIONS

 Modern training technology clearly defines the concept of methodological forms.  The rule is that the athlete should perform several training exercises with the appropriate load.  Each exercise should target a different body region or a different muscle group.  The duration of work and rest periods between sets, tasks and rounds is defined for each task.

23 - 4

A training exercise system that can be used in methodological training forms (circuit training according to Schölich, 1979) LEG MUSCLES

ARM AND SHOULDER MUSCLES

BACK MUSCLES

ABDOMINAL MUSCLES

23.2.1. Station methodological form (station training)  The basic rule is that several sets with a defined number of repetitions are performed at each station and that there is only one round.  There are rest periods between the sets and tasks.  This methodological form is best used for the analytical development of each motor ability and for teaching technical-tactical skills.

23 - 5

23.2.2. Circuit methodological form (circuit training)  Only one set of each task is performed, but there are several rounds, so the training comprises several circuits.  There are periods of rest planned after each task and longer periods of rest planned after each round of all set tasks or one circuit after which a new circuit starts.  Circuit training comprises several circuits with one set of each task.

23.2.3. Circular training form (circular training)  Implies continuous work, meaning no rest periods in one or several rounds.  Circular training can be performed using a continuous load till exhaustion when the athlete reaches complete fatigue, doing as many rounds as possible without rest.  This methodological form is best used for the development of all the factors of endurance or each of the motor abilities combined with endurance.

23 - 6

23.2.4. Course training form (course form)  The specific feature of this method is that the athlete is working on all tasks without stopping, utilizing a greater or lower speed while performing various activities like running, lateral movements, crawling, vaulting, creeping, dribbling, carrying, etc.

 This methodological form is best used for the development of various motor abilities that are in most cases integrated as a general or specific physical ability depending on the type of exercises used.

 Combined methodological training forms are frequently used in practice:  circuit and station training (several sets of each task and several circuits),  circular and circuit (after several rounds without rest, a period of rest can be planned after certain rounds),  it is possible to combine all methodological training forms.

23 - 7

Training exercises that can be used in various methodological forms

MF 1:

MF 2:

Station training

Circuit training

work 3×30s

work 30s

work 30s

rest(s) 30s

Rest(t) 30s

rest(t)

3 circuits

Rest(c)

rest(c) 60s

till exhaustion

rest(t) 60s

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MF 3: Circular training  

23.3. Methodological aspects of the location, training equipment and training gear use  Locations, equipment and training gear ensure a high-quality implementation of the methodological procedures in physical conditioning training and technical-tactical training.

 The last decade has seen very dynamic progress in the development of training conditions.  Countries striving to make progress in the area of sport invest substantial funds to meet the high standards of training technology as well as that of competitions and recovery means.

23.3.1. Training facilities  Training locations are various venues and facilities for the implementation of various training types.  Training objectives and effects may be achieved in various locations.

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 Aerobic training can be performed on a track and field stadium, in a sports hall, on a levee/river embankment, in the woods, in a swimming pool or by riding a bicycle on the road.  High-quality locations that meets the economical training criteria should be used.

23.3.2. Training equipment and gear  Training equipment comprises apparatuses, devices and exercise machines used in training.  Weights, medicine balls, ropes, sticks, dumbbells, Swedish boxes, Swedish benches and different gymnastics apparatuses are frequently used.  Exercise machines with a special construction are very frequently used.

23 - 10

Lesson 24:

Basics of Physical Conditioning Methodology

After attending the class and mastering this lesson the students will be able to:  Define physical conditioning  Analyze the structure and characteristics of physical conditioning  Explain the effects of physical conditioning on an athlete’s body  Explain the types of physical preparation  Define and describe the general or multilateral physical preparation  Define and describe the fundamental or basic physical preparation  Define and describe the specific physical preparation  Define and describe the situational physical preparation

24 - 1

24.1. Definition, structure and characteristics of physical conditioning  Physical conditioning is a set of programmes and procedures for the development and maintenance of functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics that correspond to the level of preparedness of an athlete, the characteristics of a sport and the conditions in which it is implemented.

 The physical preparedness of an athlete includes his or her functional abilities (which can be improved by the activation of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems), motor abilities (which can be improved by the activation of the neural and muscular systems), and morphological characteristics (which can be changed by the activation of the oxygen transport system and the muscular system).

24 - 2

Physical conditioning structure (Fox, 1979)

PHYSICAL CONDITIONING (physical preparation) NEUROMUSCULAR TRAINING Development of motor (quantitative) abilities

CARDIORESPIRATORY TRAINING Development of functional abilities Aerobic training A

Anaerobic training G+P

Mixed aerobic and anaerobic training M

Endurance training

Strength training

Speed training

Muscle endurance training

Explosive power training

Speed endurance training

Speed power training

Flexibility training

24.2. The effects of physical conditioning on an athlete’s body 

To understand completely the effects of physical conditioning on various abilities, one must:  Be familiar with the effects of conditioning training. Different physical conditioning programmes activate individual organs and organ systems (oxygen transport and vegetative or neuromuscular system) in different ways.

24 - 3

Have the information on the recovery or compensation period after training targeting a specific physical ability, Have the information on the total load that the implementation of a specific physical conditioning programme generates. The development of certain abilities results in an increased total exhaustion because body reserves that enabled previous training are activated over an extended period of time.





Organ systems load level, recovery period, and total load in physical conditioning Oxygen tarnsport and vegetative

Neuromuscular

Period of recovery compensation (hours)

Moderate

High

12-24

Medium 60-75%

Medium

Maximum

24-36

High 75-90%

MAXIMUM POWER

High

Maximum

36-48

Maximum 90-100%

SPEED ENDURANCE

Maximum

High

48-72

Maximum 90-100%

High

Medium

48

High 75-90%

Maximum

Moderate

48-60

High 75-90%

ELASTICITY – FLEXIBILITY

Low

Moderate

6

Moderate 45-60%

DEXTERITY – AGILITY

Moderate

High

12

Medium 60-75%

COORDINATION

Moderate

Maximum

6-12

Medium 60-75%

PRECISION

Moderate

High

9

High 75-90%

Organ system load level Training focus (motor ability)

SPEED SPEED POWER EXPLOSIVE POWER

STRENGTH ENDURANCE GENERAL ENDURANCE

24 - 4

Total load

24.3. Physical preparation types  General or versatile physical preparation,  Fundamental or basic physical preparation,  Specific physical preparation,  Situational physical preparation.

24.3.1. General or versatile physical preparation  General or versatile physical preparation refers to the process of a harmonious multilateral development of the functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics.  It leads to an improvement of the functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics, which can not be directly applied in a given sport, but which contribute to the development of the basic and specific abilities of an athlete.

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 We should make sure to prevent any excessive increase of e.g. maximum muscle strength which does not contribute to the function of adaptability to specific loads, since it will result in the deterioration of technical skills and the reduction of the effects achieved by other physical preparation programmes.

 It is directed towards:  improvement of physical preparedness of all body regions,  improvement of the efficiency of all organs and organ systems, and  improvement of all functional and motor abilities, taking into consideration sensible developmental phases  Strengthening the “weak links” of the athlete’s locomotor system.

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 According to Gabrijelić (1984), general physical preparation utilizes diverse exercises for:  harmonised conditioning of all the segments of the locomotor system,  development of basic strength,  development of elasticity or flexibility,  development of coordination abilities,  development of speed abilities and  development of aerobic endurance.

Selected exercises for general physical preparation – in pairs exercises

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Selected exercises for general physical preparation – stretching exercises (a)

Selected exercises for general physical preparation – stretching exercises (b)

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Selected exercises for general physical preparation – injury prevention exercises

Selected exercises for general physical preparation – stick exercises

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 This type of physical preparation must ensure an adequate strength of all body regions in the sense of the formation of a “natural corset”, which prevents injuries to joints, muscles, ligaments and tendons.

Cervical and

thoracic spine  In 1981 Jonath (Milanović, 1997) defined the critical zones of the locomotor system of Upper leg adductors football Achilles players, which absorb tendon most of the load and are thus most prone to injury.

Lumbar spine groin Lower leg extensors (quads)

Lower leg flexors (hams)

knee ankle Extensors (quads) Flexors (hams)

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 Different sports and sport disciplines are characterized by the different role of specific extensors and flexors muscle groups.

Extensor muscles and muscle groups

Flexor muscles and muscle groups

 General physical preparation should not be used only in training children. It should also be systematically implemented in the later stages of an athlete’s career.  Adult athletes should not neglect the importance of general physical preparedness.

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24.3.2. Fundamental or basic physical preparation  It utilizes exercises, loads and methods (operators) targeting physical abilities that are essential in achieving good results in the given sports discipline.  Also, it utilizes operators for the development of those abilities and characteristics that are insufficiently developed, i.e. in which the athlete significantly falls behind the expected values. Exercises from other sports are used if they stimulate the development of the dominant abilities (weight training, hurdle jumps…)

Selected exercises for basic physical preparation – weight training for the development of different types of strength

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Selected exercises for basic physical preparation – weight training for the development of different types of strength

 Coaches must be familiar with a large number of basic physical conditioning exercises, which can be classified according to the expected effects and other criteria.  Fundamental (basic) physical preparation presents a functional basis for the successful development of specific physical abilities.

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24.3.3. Specific physical preparation  It ensures the adaptation of energy and neuromuscular systems to the specific requirements of a sport utilizing a set of exercises similar to movement structures, i.e. sports discipline technique.  It integrates physical and technical training leading to a specific physical preparedness.

 The higher the level of preparedness the more utilized specific physical preparation exercises become.  General and basic preparation prevails in training children, and specific physical preparation programmes become dominant in training young athletes.

24 - 14

 Sports disciplines differ in terms of specific movement structures. Accordingly, sets of specific exercises within specific physical preparation are different in different sports.  Each specific physical preparation exercise reflects specific characteristics of movement and load involved in performing elements of a sports discipline technique.

Selected exercises for specific physical preparation of football players

24 - 15

Selected exercises for specific physical preparation of basketball players

24.3.4. Situational physical preparation  It brings together physical and tactical training. It is most similar to physical preparation in polistructural and complex sports.  It is implemented in the constantly changing conditions of a game or a fight, which depend on the cooperation and confrontation of athletes on the field or in the ring, that involve increased dynamics, duration of the activity, or an increased external load.  Situational physical preparation exercises involve a load level that is the same or higher than that at the competition.

24 - 16

 Motor and energy stimuli are more demanding than those at competitions (overloading).  It is conducted by the head coach and his/her assistants with the help of a physical conditioning coach who determines the energy parameters.  It is difficult to simulate actual competition situations, which are characterized by specific psychological states.

Specific and situational physical preparation of handball players (Červar et al., 2004) C

B

E

D

B

B

A

a A) Pressuring of two players (backcourt-backcourt or backcourt-pivot) B) Pressuring of the attacker and covering of the defender with a tackle (1:1, 2:2, 2:1) C) Passing with special tasks (jump, feint etc.) with constant change of position D) Triangle passing – after passing the ball the player runs to the position of the player who received the ball and returns to the starting position. E) One-on-one game with a constant exchange of roles

24 - 17

Situational physical preparation of handball players (Červar et al. 2004)

H

I

H) Shooting sets according to a determined schedule (as fast as possible) I) Shooting sets with passing (simulation of counter attack and re-counter attack from backcourt or pivot positions)

24 - 18

Lesson 25:

Training Methodology of Functional Abilities

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Describe various types of functional ability training  Define and describe anaerobic training  Design operational programmes for the development of phosphagen and glycolytic anaerobic endurance  Define and explain aerobic training  Design operational programmes (continuous and interval) for the development of aerobic endurance

25 - 1

25.1. Methodology of development and maintenance of functional abilities  Physical conditioning of functional abilities is focused on the improvement of the functioning of the oxygen transport system (cardio-respiratory) and an increase of the anaerobic capacities.  In 1979 Fox published a list of basic activities, methods, and approximate loads for the development of typical energy systems or functional abilities.

Training methods for the development of energy systems that constitute various functional abilities (phosphagen-P, glycolytic-G, aerobic-O) (Fox, 1979)

TRAINING METHODS

METHOD DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION

DEVELOPMENT OF ENERGY SYSTEMS IN % P

G

O

1. Sprints with acceleration

Gradual acceleration, from jogging to sprinting, at 60-120 m distance

90

5

5

2. Sprint training (A)

Repetitive maximum sprints, with full recovery between repetitions

90

6

4

3. Sprint training (B)

Two sprints separated by periods of jogging and walking

85

10

5

4. Interval sprints

Alternating 50 m sprints and 60 m jogging at 3 km distance

30

40

30

5. Interval training (A) – intensive

Repetitive exercise periods with relatively short rest periods

20

40

40

6. Interval training (B) – extensive

Interval training with extended exercise and rest periods

15

35

50

7. Fartlek

Alternating fast and slow running on natural terrain

10

30

60

8. Continuous fast running

Long-distance fast-pace running

5

10

85

2

5

93

9. Continuous running Long-distance moderate-pace running at a moderate speed

25 - 2

Selection of methods depends on: 1. specificity of the sport or sport discipline, 2. developmental characteristics of the age group, 3. preparedness level and peak performance, 4. set goals and objectives of sports preparation, 5. Training conditions.

25.2. Aerobic training methodology A) Goals:  Improving the functioning of the oxygen transport system  Increasing the utilization of oxygen in extended training or competition  Improving a fast recovery after a high-intensity motor activity

25 - 3

B) The most important physiological effects of aerobic training:  The blood volume and the heart size and strength are increased, resulting in an improved ability of the heart to pump blood  Oxygen transport is thus improved, leading to an increase in the generation of aerobic energy  Oxygen utilization and fat oxidation in the muscles are enhanced. Consequently, less carbohydrate (glycogene) is used to sustain the given load

C) Aerobic training benefits include:

 An increased percentage of aerobic energy generation allows a higher intensity and longer duration of training and competition  General and specific endurance is improved, which contributes to a high intensity of performance throughout the competition

25 - 4

 The recovery period after a high-intensity interval is reduced. Consequently, the periods between the application of maximum load during and between competitions and trainings are shortened  Most importantly, a high level of aerobic preparedness reduces the number of technical or technical-tactical mistakes that occur by the end of a competition as a result of exhaustion

D) Types of aerobic training: 1) Low-intensity aerobic training: goal – ensuring a fast recovery after a strenuous training session or a competition. Load estimated via heart rate is 40 – 60% of max HR (cca. 120-130 b/min). 2) Medium-intensity aerobic training: goal – achieving a general endurance in the early stages of the preparatory period. The fundamental endurance is ensured as measured by the distance run during a match. The load used in training is 60-75% of the maximum pace. The load estimated via heart rate is 60-80% of max HR (cca. 150 b/min).

25 - 5

3) High-intensity aerobic training: it ensures adaptation

to energy requirements in activities of high intensity and extended duration and it increases the ability of fast recovery after a high-intensity activity. The load is 75-90% of the maximum pace. The load measured via heart rate is 80 – 90% of max HR (cca 170 b/min).

4) A continuous aerobic training method: the development of general endurance. A training activity continues without interruption at the intensity of 60-70%. The heart rate is 150-160 beats per minute, which is determined by the aerobic-anaerobic threshold. This information is obtained using spiroergometric testing.

25 - 6

5) The interval aerobic training method: the repetition of a high-intensity training load of various duration. It creates conditions for the improvement of systolic heart efficiency, which is closely connected to aerobic productivity. Adequate training activities: running various distances, running with changes of pace and specific and situational exercises of appropriate intensity.

 Intensity of 60-90% with heart rate 150-180 beats/minute.  Rest interval is relatively short, 1-2 minutes between repetitions and 2-3 minutes between sets.  Number of repetitions and sets is determined on the basis of the athlete’s abilities (e.g. 4 repetitions in 5 sets).

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Various training types for the development of aerobic endurance (modified according to Pyke, 2001) Training type

Heart rate Duration Lactates Perception (b/min) (mmol/L) of load

Typical exercise Running

Maximum aerobic

190-200

2-5min

6-10

difficult stressful

3x1200m, max. speed in the final 600m, rest period between repetitions 5-7 min

Anaerobic threshold

170-180

15-30min

3-5

unpleasant difficult

3x10min max. speed, rest period between repetitions 1min

Aerobic of low and medium intensity

120-150

5min-1h

1-3

Strenuous

Slow or medium pace for 10km

Examples of interval training for the development of aerobic endurance

a) Standard

b) Variable

D

400m

D 1000m

R

4 reps × 4 sets

R

I

1 min (reps) 3 min (sets)

I 2-3-4 min

T

70% of 1RM

T 70-65-60 % of 1RM

A

Active rest

A Active rest

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1

2000m 1

3000m 1

…

…

25.3. Anaerobic training methodology A) Goals  Improvement of functional abilities of phosphagen energy capacity  Improvement of glycolytic energy mechanism for the performance of high-intensity motor activities with extended duration  Improvement of efficiency of the neuromuscular activity in the specific conditions of oxygen debt and increased concentration of lactates

B) Most important functional effects of anaerobic training:

 Increase of phosphagen anaerobic reserves  Increase of glycolytic anaerobic reserves  Increase of muscle enzymes that catalyze anaerobic energy processes  Improved synchronization of the nervous, muscular and energy systems

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 Increased tolerance and removal of lactates – lactic acid  High-intensity activities during competitions can be performed with increased frequency  Most importantly, high-quality anaerobic training will ensure a high-quality supply of anaerobic energy sources over an extended period of high-intensity training and competition motor activities

C) Types of anaerobic training: 1) Phosphagen anaerobic training The alactate - phosphagen component of

anaerobic endurance is determined by the duration of the creatine phosphate reaction.

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Types of training for the development of phosphagen endurance (modified according to Pyke, 2001)

Training type

Heart rate (b/min)

Duration

Lactates (mmol/L)

Perception of load

Typical exercise

Maximum anaerobic phosphagen (alactate)

160-180

5-20s

3-5

Fast, forced, unpleasant

12x100m or 6x200m max. speed, 60-120s rest, jogging between repetitions

Running

Examples of interval training for the development of phosphagen anaerobic endurance

a) Standard

b) Variable

D 150m

D

R 4 (3) or 4 reps. × 3 sets.

R

I 2 (4) or 2 min between reps, 4 min between sets.

I

100m 4 reps.

150m

200m

3 reps.

2 reps.

2-3 minutes between repetitions, 4-5 min between distances

T  90% of 1RM

T

 90%-85% of 1RM

A AKT

A

AKT

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2) Glycolytic anaerobic training The lactate– glycolytic component of anaerobic endurance: causing strong glycolytic reaction and the use of energy from anaerobic glycolytic compounds (glycogen break-down). 



Interval method of training with a duration of 2 minutes and 80-90% of maximum intensity causes the strongest physiological reactions (heart rate is above 200 beats per minute). Several sets with 2-4 repetitions and an extended passive rest (up to 10 minutes) are used in order to develop tolerance to an increased concentration of lactate, i.e. lactic acid in the blood and muscles after a repeated application of the load.

Various types of training for the development of lactate-glycolytic endurance (modified according to Pyke, 2001)

Training type

Heart rate (b/min)

Duration

Lactates (mmol/L)

Perception of load

Typical exercise

Maximum anaerobic lactate

180-190

20-75s

15-20

Very difficult

6x400m or 10x200m max. speed, rests between reps 45min Circuit training

Tolerance to the lactate level A

190-200

75-120s

8-12

Painful, stressful

6x600m or 8x400m, max. speed, rests between reps 46min

Tolerance to the lactate level B

190-200

40-60s

6-8

Painful, stressful

4x300m or 6x200m, max. speed, rests between reps 3060s Circuit training

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Running Circuit training

Examples of interval training for the development of glycolytic anaerobic endurance a) Standard

b) Variable

D

400m

D

R

3 reps (2 sets)

R

I

4 min between reps (6min between sets) 85% of 1RM

I

T A

combination of passive* and active rest

T A

200m 4 reps

400m 3 reps

2 reps

3 min between reps, 5-7 min between distances 90%-85%-80% of 1RM combination of passive* and active rest

* in the case of lactate tolerance development

25 - 13

600m

Lesson 26:

Training Methodology of Quantitative Motor Ability

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define and describe strength/power training methodology  Define and describe speed training methodology  Define and describe repetitive training methodology  Define and describe flexibility training methodology  Talk about the general training programmes for the development of each quantitative motor ability  Draft and explain the executive programmes for the development of each quantitative motor ability.

26 - 1

 Quantitative motor ability training methodology must ensure an optimal development and maintenance of the basic and specific abilities that are essential for achieving success in a certain sport.  To understand fully the training methodology for each of the motor abilities it is necessary to learn its definition, classification, importance for the specific sport and all of the potential means, loads, methods and procedures for its measurement.

 To understand fully the training methodology for each of the motor abilities in sport it is necessary to learn its definition, neuromuscular regulation basics and protocol for its measurement.  In their study programme and in the training theory basics students have already acquired a majority of this information.

26 - 2

26.1. Strength training methodology  Maximum effort method (intensity is 80-100%, number of repetitions is 4-1)  Pyramid method (number of repetitions constantly decreases, while the mass of weight constantly increases) 100

EXTERNAL LOAD % OF 1RM

90

80 70

60 50

40

1 2-3

MAXIMUM PYRAMID

4 6

8 10

12

INTENSIVE PYRAMID EXTENSIVE PYRAMID

NUMBER OF REPETITIONS

 Dynamic effort method – fast repetitions with 50-60-70% of external load  Isometric effort method  Yielding effort method – muscles perform an eccentric contraction with the muscle force lower than the external force  Plyometric (eccentric – concentric) effort method

26 - 3

26.1.1. Characteristics, application areas and strength training methods (Ehlenz et al. 1983)

TRAINING FORM

MUSCLE VOLUME BUILDING TRAINING

COMBINED TRAINING

INTRAMUSCULAR COORDINATION TRAINING

Training effects characterist ics

Increase of muscular fibre volume (hypertrophy)

Hypertrophy and Synchronized activation of synchronized motor units activity of motor units

Application area

General and basic strength training for all sports

Primarily in professional sport for adult athletes

Professional sport for adult athletes

Training and load methods

Methods with an increased number of repetitions (1015) and moderate intensity (40-75%)

Pyramid method with varied load (40-100%)

1. High and maximum intensity methods (75-100%) with a low number of repetitions (1-5) 2. Reactive plyometric effort methods (100% +)

Activation of various muscle groups in lower leg extension exercises

1. 2. 3. 4.

m. quadriceps femoris (vastus intermedius) m. quadriceps femoris (vastus lateralis) m. quadriceps femoris (rectus) m. quadriceps femoris (vastus medialis)

26 - 4

Activation of various muscle groups in forearm flexion exercises (barbell curl) Hypertrophy training methodology utilizes local (1 muscle) and regional (several muscle groups) exercises.

1. 2. 3.

m. brachioradialis m. biceps brachii m. brachialis

C A

B

In achieving the effect of hypertrophy, first the number of active muscle fibres is increased (B) and then their volume (C).

26 - 5

26.1.2. Strength training methods (Watson, 1984) TRAINING MODE

CHARACTERISTICS

SECOND NAME FOR THE METHOD

1. DYNAMIC EFFORT METHOD

- use of low, medium and high external load - throwing - body weight as a load in dynamic conditions

Isotonic training

2. WEIGHT TRAINING EXERCISES

- concentric muscle contraction dominates, mass of the weights varies

Pyramid training - constant external load during the whole range of motion

3. TRAINING WITH ELASTIC BANDS SPRINGS

- load is achieved and increased by stretching the elastic band

4. ISOMETRIC EFFORT METHOD

- no movement - attempted movement - static object load

Static training

TRAINING MODE

CHARACTERISTICS

SECOND NAME FOR THE METHOD

5. ECCENTRIC EFFORT WEIGHT TRAINING METHOD

- external load is greater than the muscle force, the muscle is forced to stretch and elongate – distension

Yielding effort method

6. ECCENTRICCONCENTRIC EFFORT METHOD

- elastic strength exercises - after absorption, the concentric phase is performed

Plyometric training

7. VARIOUS RESISTANCE TRAINING METHOD

- resistance of the “shell” varies throughout the range of motion

“Nautilus training”

8. ADJUSTED RESISTANCE TRAINING METHOD

- angle speed is given (30, 60, 90, 180°/s). The athlete produces a maximum force throughout the range of motion

Isokineic training

26 - 6

Repetitive effort method

Some advantages of training on exercise machines:  safety – there is a lower risk of falling, tripping and injury,  movement diversity – exercise machines provide resistance that cannot be achieved using free weights (e.g. leg adduction and abduction),  simple use – it does not require special coordination skills or techniques.

Selected strength exercises on exercise machines

26 - 7

Some advantages of free weights training:  total body effect (in a standing position the load affects the majority of muscles, the athlete controls the movement and maintains his/her balance using muscles or muscle groups without the aid of any device)  exercise specificity (the majority of sports and training activities involve lifting and acceleration of an object. Free weights lifting involves natural coordination of several muscle groups)

Selected free weights strength exercises

26 - 8

Only a correctly performed weight training exercise can generate the full effect and prevent an injury of the sensitive bone-joint structures and muscles. discus

vertebra

stretch

CORRECT WAY TO LIFT WEIGHTS

vertebra

pressure

discus

INCORRECT WAY TO LIFT WEIGHTS

General training operator programme for the development of repetitive strength 1. Training objective:

Development of repetitive strength

2. Sports group:

Junior athletes

3. Training methods: Extensive interval training method 3.1. Load intensity:

50-80% of individual maximum (1RM); 40% warm-up weight

3.2. Load volume:

Number of repetitions (NR): 12-4 Number of sets (NS): 3-6 in each weight Number of sets (NS): 9-18 per exercise

3.3. Rest period:

1-2 minutes (between sets), 2-3 minutes (between weights)

3.4. Pace

Moderate or varied

3.5. Rest activities


4. Training means

General, basic and specific exercises for repetitive strength and strength endurance with weights or on exercise machines

26 - 9

Executive training operator programme for the development of repetitive strength Weight mass (% 1RM)

Number of repetitions

Number of sets

Lifting pace

Rest (sets)

Rest (weight)

Rest activities

40%

12

2

Moderate

1

2

50%

10

2

Moderate

1

2

Active rest:

60%

8

3

Accelerated

2

3

70%

6

2

Moderate

1

2

stretching and relaxation exercises

80%

4

2

Moderate

1

2

26.2. Speed training methodology  Repetition method (maximum intensity, short running distances, 4-6 repetitions, 2-3 sets with an extended period of active rest 3-5 minutes)  Interval training method (maximum intensity, slightly longer running distances, 3-4 repetitions, 2-3 sets with rest period 4-6 minutes – full recovery)

26 - 10

 Running with the acceleration method (running speed is constantly increased at 60 – 100 m distance)  Running with the flying start method (acceleration phase is performed prior to running 40-60 m with maximum speed)  Slope running method (3-5˚ with a flat ending)  Fast reaction method - responding to auditive and visual signals (latent reaction time as short as possible)

 Fastest separate movement performance method  Fast frequency of movement performance method  Relay forms of speed training method  Handicap-running method (a certain advantage is given to the lower quality runner at the start)  Speed of movement, the rest interval (pause), as well as the techniques of the start, lane running and finish need to be constantly controlled in methodological procedures for the development of basic and specific speed.

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General training operator programme for the development of speed and speed strength 1.Training objective:

Development of speed-speed strength-sprint speed

2. Sports group:

Junior athletes

3. Training methods:

Repetition method, maximum interval training method

4. Load 4.1. Intensity – speed of movement:

Maximum (95-100%)

4.2. Load volume:

Duration: short (3-10 seconds) Number of repetitions (NR): 2-6 Number of sets (NS): 4-2

4.3. Rest period:

Between repetitions: 3-4 minutes Between sets: 4-6 minutes

4.4. Rest activities


5. Training means

Sprint exercises, flying sprints, slope running, one-leg jumping sets, agility exercises (direction of movement changes).

26.3. Endurance training methodology  Information on competitive load structure and pace in a given sport is crucial in the modelling of endurance training  The methodological pathway for endurance:  Improvement of the effectiveness of the oxygen transport system and anaerobic capacities  Improvement of the effectiveness of the neuromuscular system (number and duration of muscle contractions when the metabolic products are accumulating and fatigue starts to manifest itself)

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26.3.1. Endurance training methods  Continuous training method (standard or varied load)  Continuous training till exhaustion method  Interval training method (standard or varied load)  Situational method

Endurance training for young athletes table Training methodology

Load Training method

Training objective: Development of endurance

LONG-TERM ENDURANCE

MEDIUM-TERM ENDURANCE

SHORT-TERM ENDURANCE

Volume

Intensity

Predominantly continuous method

High, extended continuous running for 5-8 km

Medium, 3-4 m/s

Interval method

Extended “pace” running of distances longer than 800 m

High, 75-90% of the best result

Continuous method

High, continuous running for 2-3 km

Medium, 3,5-5 m/s

Interval method

“Pace” running of 200-600 m distances


Predominantly interval method

“Pace” running of 100-200 m distances


Interval method

Short sprint running 20-60-120 m

Maximum, 90-100% of the best result

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26.4. Flexibility training methodology  Static stretching method (forms of passive stretching)  Dynamic stretching method (forms of active stretching)  Maximum stretching method – stretching (this exercises should be performed to the pain threshold with certain mental concentration; maximum range of motion is sustained for a maximum of 20 seconds)

Factors for flexibility development in sports (Grosser, 1982)

FACTORS

FAVORABLE - POSITIVE

NON-FAVORABLE - NEGATIVE

Children athletes (up to 14 years of age)

Adult athletes

Good elasticity and intermuscular coordination of agonists and antagonists

Poor elasticity and intermuscular coordination of agonists and antagonists

Relaxed muscles

Increased muscle tension

Slight

Strong and persisting

ANATOMIC AND BIOMECHANICAL FACTORS

Optimal activation of leverages and degrees of freedom

Insufficient utilization of natural relationships of leverages and joint surfaces

THE TIME OF DAY

11-12 till 16 o’clock

Morning hours

Above 18°

Below 18°

AGE ELASTICITY OF MUSCLES, MUSCLE FASCIAS AND LIGAMENTS MUSCLE TENSION EMOTIONAL, MENTAL TENSION

OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE ‘WARM-UP’ FATIGUE – EXHAUSTION TRAINING DURATION

Full and extended

Partial and short

Restfulness of locomotor system

Intense fatigue of locomotor system

Up to 1 hour of training

More than 1 hour of training or strong “hard” training

26 - 14

Selected exercises for the development of flexibility (Anderson, 2001)

Selected stretching exercises in pairs

26 - 15

Selected exercises for the development of flexibility (PNF stretching) 1a

3a

1b

3b

2a

4a

26 - 16

2b

4b

Lesson 27:

Training Methodology of Qualitative Motor Ability

After attending the class and mastering this lesson the students will be able to:  Define and describe the coordination training methodology  Define and describe agility training methodology  Define and describe accuracy training methodology  Define and describe balance training methodology  Explain general training programmes for the development of specific qualitative motor abilities  Draft and explain executive programmes of training operators for the development of specific qualitative motor abilities.

27 - 1

 Qualitative motor ability training methodology must ensure an optimum development and maintenance of basic and specific abilities that are essential in achieving good results in a given sport.  To understand fully the training methodology for a specific motor ability one must know its definition, classification, role in sports, all the potential loads and measurement methods and procedures.

 To understand the training methodology for a qualitative motor ability one must know its definition, neuromuscular regulation basis and measurement protocols.

 Students have already acquired this information in their study programme and in the training theory basics.

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27.1. Coordination training methodology  Coordination training should be implemented in the early stages of a sports career (sensitive stages) when the best responses of children to coordination exercises can be achieved.  An athlete’s coordination is inextricably connected with sports technique.

Sensitive phases for the development of coordination abilities (Hahn, 1982) “It is never too early to start developing coordination abilities” N COORDINATION ABILITIES O

SCHOOL YEAR 1

2

SPACE-TIME DIFFERENTIATION ABILITY

3

REACTION TIME TO AN AUDITIVE AND VISUAL SIGNAL

4

MOTOR RHYTHM

5

SPATIAL ORIENTATION ABILITY

6

BALANCE

1

SPEED COORDINATION

2

SPACE-TIME DIFFERENTIATION ABILITY

3

REACTION TIME TO AN AUDITIVE AND VISUAL SIGNAL

4

MOTOR RHYTHM

5

SPATIAL ORIENTATION ABILITY

6

BALANCE

4

5

S

T A

7

8

9

10

V

T

S A

27 - 3

6

V

GIRLS

SPEED COORDINATION

3

BOYS

1

2

 Complete synchronisation of the higher regulation centres of the nervous systems with the peripheral parts of the locomotor system is essential for the successful performance of a coordination task.

 Coordination can be developed in two ways:  By acquiring new and diverse movement structures,  By performing the acquired movements in changed conditions.

 For the development of coordination the repetition method is used, with rest intervals necessary for the renewal of mental energy, which affects concentration, attention and performance control.

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Selected exercises for the development of coordination

Selected exercises for the development of the coordination of arms

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27.2. Agility training methodology  Agility can be developed in the early stages of a sports career (sensitive stages). At that stage we can expect the best response of the child-athlete to agility exercises. The child should not be overloaded by an excessive number of repetitions causing an inadequate anaerobic load.Agility training is successfully combined with technique and tactics training.

 Agility can be improved using exercises of rapid change of direction of movement.  Nowadays, the integrated training of speed, agility and quickness (SAQ) is most commonly used since it has proven to be very effective in a large number of sports disciplines  The success of agility training depends on the ability of acceleration, deceleration (quickness), the mobility of the joint systems, dynamic balance, and the correct performance of a movement.  According to the classification of agility factors (Jukić et al., 2003), the training of this ability may be implemented in different variations (frontal, lateral and horizontal– vertical or with circular and angular shifts in the direction of the movement).

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Selected exercises for the development of agility

27.3. Methodology of accuracy training  In the methodology of accuracy training it is necessary first to achieve a certain level of performance technique as well as tactics, taking into account the biomechanical parameters.  The best method is situational training.  Accuracy training is first implemented in simple and standard, and later in increasingly complex and changing movements and situations.

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Selected exercises for the development of accuracy

27.4. Balance training methodology  Various means, loads and methods are used for the development of balance. Balance training requires a maximum level of neuromuscular system restfulness.  In determining the training pace we must take into consideration the load intensity and ensure sufficient rest for a complete recovery.

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 However, the possibility for the development of balance without ensuring complete recovery is not excluded in individual training.  A frequently used technology in the development of balance is that of proprioceptive training on balance boards, airbags, balls, uneven surfaces, narrow walking surfaces and specially designed devices.

 Key stimuli in the development of balance are: - dynamic posturing where balance is sustained with or without the presence of an external force that disrupts the balance - and quickly assuming and sustaining a balanced posture.

27 - 9

Selected exercises for the development of balance

27 - 10

Lesson 28:

Technical and tactical preparedness of athletes

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define sports technique and technical preparedness  Analyse the phases of a motor task performance  Define sports tactics and tactical preparedness  Describe the basic categories of tactics employment  Define and describe the phase structure of tactics employment in sport

28 - 1

28.1. Sports technique  A biomechanically correct and efficient performance of sportspecific movement structures.  Rational technique enables the full utilization of the biological and psychological potentials of an athlete.

Technical preparedness  Occurs as a result of long-term learning and practice.  A result of these processes is technical preparedness that refers to a high level of an athlete's ability to control the motion or movements of body parts and the body as a whole while performing the technical elements of a certain sport.

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Kinematic data for correct the jump-shot technique in basketball (Menzel, 1992)

H0 – height of the ball release; v0 – initial acceleration of the ball; 0 – ball elevation angle; e – basket entrance angle of the ball; d – horizontal distance of a shot position, Δh – difference between the height of the rim and the height of the ball release; g – gravitational force

 Movement stereotype refers to the ability of a controlled repetition of a movement structure in standard or variable conditions.  It is not an absolute category - it changes. The changes occur within permitted limits.

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 An absolutely "fixed" stereotype becomes a barrier for improvement of performance.  A fixation of movement stereotype or its stabilization in one phase of development of an athlete is as important as its modification-adaptation to the new psychophysical qualities of the athlete in the next stage of development.  Teaching in sport is a very dynamic process that tends constantly to deepen and expand the technical and tactical skills which become increasingly efficient.

28.2. Sports tactics  A set of all forms and modes of action by one or more athletes in a situational training session or competition.  A selection of certain technical-tactical elements and the mode of their implementation with the goal of the realization of a plan and the achievement of the desired effects or victory over the opponent.  Sports differ greatly in terms of the number and complexity of tactical elements that are employed in situational conditions. Polystructural and complex sports are therefore characterized by the richness of tactical actions.

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Tactical preparedness  Tactics in team sports refers to the joint and efficient actions of individuals, lines of players or groups of players in order to solve situational problems in the defensive, transitional or offensive phase of the game.  Individuals or a group of players seek to dominate the opponents by using their tactical decision-making skills and actions.

Definitions of basic categories of tactics employment in team sports (Gabrijelić, 1984)

Game system (situational memory)

Basic formation of the players and their basic actions

Tactical variations

Forms of actions of two or more players within a certain game system

Game concept (conceptual memory)

Depending on the quality of "our" players, tactical variations adjusted to their abilities are chosen

Tactical plan

Relates to a specific opponent - the match and capacities of the opponent players

(situational memory)

Tactical abilities of Ensures a direct execution of tactical actions in situational conditions on the the players (situational reaction)

field. It refers to the adjustment of a tactical plan to the situational conditions.

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Game system (situational memory)

Basic formation of the players and their basic actions

 Team sports utilize various game systems in the defensive and offensive phase. - E.g. in handball, offence with one or two pivot attackers; in basketball, 2-1-2 zone defence; in football, formation 3-5-2 or 4-5-1.

Tactical variations Forms of actions of two or more players within a certain game system

 In each game system the movements of the players in their respective positions are strictly defined.  In zone press 1-2-2, defensive players (1 and 3) try to block or double a team player (1) who will start the dribbling after he/she receives the ball from the player (2)

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Game concept (conceptual memory)

Depending on the quality of "our" players tactical variations adjusted to fit their abilities are chosen

 The quality of "our" players enables the selection and efficient implementation of the zone press 1-2-2 game system in the defence.  In this system "our" players 1 and 3 successfully block attacker 1 while the other players are ready for an efficient team reaction at any moment

Tactical plan (situational memory)

Relates to a specific opponent - match and the capacities of the opponent players

 The quality of "our" players enables an efficient implementation of the game system in the defence 5-1  This game system enables a full utilization of all the capacities of "our" players in relation to the "power" of the opponents

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Tactical abilities of Ensures a direct execution of tactical actions in situational conditions on the the players (situational reaction)

field. It refers to the adjustment of a tactical plan to the situational conditions.

 The tactical plan for this situation provides that "our" player should shoot at the goal but in a fraction of a second he/she sees the pivot attacker in an ideal position to receive the ball and score, so he/she does not shoot but rather passes the ball.

 Sports tactics occur as a result of long-term tactical preparation.  An athlete acquires a given amount of information related to the rules, the course of the game and the effects of a competition.

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Phase structure of tactic activities in sport (Mahlo, 1965, modified according to Jonath & Krempel, 1991)

2. MOTOR MEMORY Programmes of motor activities

1. PERCEPTION AND ANALYSIS of motor activity

6. ANALYSIS OF COMPETITION EFFICIENCY - results (reafference) Confirmation or correction of the programme

3. CONCEPTUAL SOLUTION Selected programme of motor actions

5. RESULT of motor activity (+, - , =) 4. MOTOR SOLUTION Execution of motor activity

 The execution of a motor activity is performed through several phases:  It is necessary to perceive and analyse ("scan") the structure of a situation.  By searching his/her motor memory the athlete "sees" whether the programme of the same or a similar motor activity as a response to a situational problem is stored there.

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 Motor programmes are sets of data defining the execution of a certain motor activity in standard or variable conditions.  In the next phase the athlete activates the peripheral part of the locomotor system using the efferent impulses and executes the motor activity.  At an advanced level of motor command, when

the motor programmes are stable, corrections on the basis of perceived deviations from the expected performance are possible.

 Subsequently, an athlete analyses the effect or a result of tactics employment on the basis of collected information from the internal and external circle of the motor command.  Feedback allows for either the confirmation of the adequacy of the chosen and executed motor programme or a correction of the programme.

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28.3. Levels of efficiency of the programme for technical-tactical command  Sports technique and tactics comprise an abundance of the motor programmes containing the sets of sorted and hierarchically organised motor information.  Efficiency of performance depends on the number and the level of quality of the stored motor information and the ability to use it in a timely manner.

 Motor programmes can have different levels of efficiency: First level: initial information is acquired, the

information is fragmented, a rough performance, a low level of movement parameters control, the need for constant interventions of the coach, the programme often needs to be reconstructed, concious control of all movement phases, high activity of CNS cortex, a good foundation for further learning

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Second level: the motor programme is not fully formed, there is a constant need for additional information, the coach strictly controls the performance, the programme needs to be constantly upgraded, "fine" coordination needs to be achieved, the mental participation of an athlete needs to be greater

Third level: a stable performance is resistant to

adverse external factors, there is self-control of movement parameters with a kinesthetic feeling, and excellent results. Specificities in style as a result of the individual characteristics of the athletes are tolerated. There is a subcortical regulation of movement

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Fourth level: reflex command of movement

performance and reflex command in situational conditions, automated movements, for the activation of the motor programme only an impulse (external or from the other parts of CNS) is sufficient, minimal possibility for any disturbance of a high-quality performance, unconscious control of the performance (athlete does not think about the action but rather "feels it")

28 - 13

Technical-Tactical Preparation Methodology Lesson 29: After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Talk about the efficiency levels of technical   

tactical programmes implementation in sport Describe the role of motor task demonstration in the process of motor learning Explain motor learning phases Describe teaching methods Talk about the coach and athlete in the learning process

29 - 1

29.1. Teaching and learning the basics of technical-tactical skills  Technical-tactical preparation is an integral

part of the training process.  The teaching process establishes the relationship between the coach and the athlete. In this process the athlete learns.  The technique and tactics learning process refers to the emission, reception, processing and use of basic and additional information.

 This information helps

create an idea of the desired performance of the technical-tactical elements.  Rational learning in sport refers to the identification and correction of motor mistakes.  In the same way, the athlete can acquire an incorrect motor task command.

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 The coach must be able to

describe and

demonstrate the motor task which is the

learning goal.  The coach should not show an abstract technique and tactics but the one that can be perceived, performed, and acquired by the athlete.  The coach may have once been an excellent athlete but he or she can be a poor coach, particularly for the young athletes, if he or she can not adjust the demonstration to the athlete's abilities.

Role of motor task demonstration in the process of motor learning (Grosser and Neumeier, 1982)

DEMONSTRATION OF MOVEMENT

1

MOVEMENT MODEL DESIGN

(EXTERNAL INFORMATION)

6

2

ANALYSIS OF EXECUTED MOVEMENT (INTERNAL INFORMATION)

7

5

29 - 3

MOVEMENT EXECUTION

4 3a

3b COACH OR OTHER INFORMATION SOURCES

 The number of correct

repetitions is a

prerequisite for efficient learning.  Learning can be successful if the following indispensable prerequisites are met:  a efficient define and describe of motor task  good demonstration,  identification of mistakes,  identification of the causes and the consequences of mistakes  correction of mistakes and  constant control of the mental participation of the athlete who is learning the technique and the tactics of the sport.

Teaching rational technique and tactics to children and young people follows several patterns:  children must acquire and master the rational

technique and tactics of the sports discipline,  this does not refer to a "child(ish)" technique but rather to the technique that fits their abilities and skills.  A transposition of the acquired technique and tactics for “children” to the technique and tactics for "adults" is not possible. Otherwise, the positive impact of the long-term preparation would be lost.

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 Multilateral technical-

tactical training (multiple player positions in team sports or a large number of techniques in combat sports) is a good foundation for a later specialization (a specific player position in team sports or several "favourite techniques" in combat sports) and an increasingly efficient performance of technicaltactical activities in competition conditions

 The coach must create the proper

atmosphere and encourage athletes to acquire TE-TA skills with the appropriate level of emotional engagement.

 If the athlete is emotionally engaged, the

process of acquiring TE-TA skills is faster and more efficient.

 If there is no emotional stimulus, acquiring

technique and tactics becomes boring and unchallenging.

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29.2. Motor learning phases  The teaching or learning process in

sport is conducted in four

interrelated phases:

ACQUISITION PHASE -

initial teaching  The basic idea of the movement is formed  It refers to the "rough" coordination of a movement  The movement is performed with full concious control

 The coach constantly provides additional 

   

information regarding the performance. The athlete, assisted by the coach, identifies, comprehends and corrects his/her motor mistakes. Movement is performed in favourable, simplified conditions At the beginning the results are poor The athlete does not distinguish between a good and a poor performance Absurd movements occur

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MASTERING PHASE - advanced teaching  The skill expands and reaches a higher level of       

quality A “fine" coordination of the movement is very important Success is related to the number of repetitions Concious control of the performance still exists The need for a verbal and cognitive reproduction of the motor task occurs Detailed learning (the difference between a good and poor performance is often in details) There are 7-8 good performances out of 10 Kinesthetic control is fully engaged

STABILIZATION PHASE - situation-level mastering  Learning (practising) of technical-tactical skills in      



variable conditions An individual approach is permitted Specificities in the style of performance occur Strict control of motor engagement rhythm is important Subcortical regulation becomes more prominent A good performance is expected The athlete feels and corrects the motor mistakes by himself/herself (autoregulation during the performance) The high quality of technical-tactical skills provides for the full utilization of biological potentials

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AUTOMATION PHASE - competition-level mastering  This phase refers to the highest level of motor command in

 

    

sport and therefore constitutes the final goal of the information training Gradual automation of the performance occurs The motor skill becomes a stereotype (automatism) Movement programme can be activated and employed automatically (reflexive action) Concious control of the performance is minimal Subcortical regulation Maximum efficiency of the movement A competition situation determines everything: decisionmaking and modes of engagement

What is automatic engagement – reflexive action in sport? “When I do not think about the course of the action and a solution, when I become emerged in the game, I am capable of amazing moves and scores. And when I decided to make a certain move, it did not work. I cannot tell myself to assist or to start dribbling to the right. The game dictates it all: my reactions and my feeling for space, time and scoring."

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T. K., 1991

 Characteristics of the teaching phases are:  constant adjustment of the relation between

the muscle force, the medium resistance and the inertia moments,  detailed coordination of movement with the elimination of all excessive degrees of freedom of the locomotor system  acquisition, mastering and stabilisation of performance, from the basic skill level via motor skill to technical-tactical stereotype.

Conditions for the implementation of technicaltactical training (Grosser and Neumeier, 1982)

4

LOAD INTENSITY INCREASE

3

TRAINING UNDER STRESS AND IN EXTREME CONDITIONS

INTEGRATION WITH PHYSICAL CONDITIONING TRAINING

2 STRICT PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING PROCESS

5

INTEGRATIVE TE-TA TRAINING FOR TOP SPORTS RESULTS IS IMPLEMENTED WITH:

6 INTEGRATION WITH MENTAL PREPARATION

1 COMPREHENSION OF SET TE-TA TASKS AND THE POSSIBILITY FOR THEIR PERFORMANCE

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29.3. Teaching methods

Ideomotor

Situational

Analytic

Synthetic

With respect to motor task mastering mode

Problem-based - setting of a motor task

Motor (demonstration)

Visual - using images

Verbal - oral presentation

With respect to motor information transfer mode

Combined method

Combined method

Analytic teaching method  Analytic learning is justified:  if the activity is very complex and demanding,  if the activity comprises many elements or structural units,  when synthetic learning causes fear or a risk of injuries, and  when the movement is performed very fast creating inertia forces that are difficult to control by a beginner.

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 Disadvantages of the analytic method:  The athlete cannot "perceive" the movement as a  

 

whole and the logic of the motor task performance Phases or structural units of complex motor activity cannot be easily determined The athlete can become demotivated because he or she does not feel the connection between the separate parts of the movement Separately mastered parts of the complex movement structure are difficult to integrate While learning the separate parts of the movement the rhythm is not taken into account. This can cause problems for the athlete in the final stage of learning in mastering this very important feature of correct performance.

Synthetic teaching method  Advantages of the synthetic method:  It is easier for the athlete to create a correct

idea of the movement as a whole and to understand the basic movement structures as well as the links between the separate parts of the movement.  Movements are logically linked. That facilitates the understanding of the logic of the movement as a whole and motivates the learner.  Movements are performed in a logical sequence.

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 It is easier to utilize the

effects of gravitational and inertia force. That is crucial for the correct performance.  Creation of a reliable kinesthetic idea and kinesthetic feeling as well as the feedback information is ensured, which is important for the mastering of a new movement.  The proper rhythm, which is crucial for the final result, is acquired from the very beginning.

 Disadvantages of the synthetic

teaching method: 







it is often hard to acquire a very complex motor task as a whole since the amount of information that the athlete needs to absorb is too large, in mastering a complex motor task with powerful inertia forces synthetic learning can be dangerous, mastering of certain phases and structural units can be insufficiently accurate if the movement or the situation structure is complex, there are difficulties preventing the athlete from performing the complex movement structure with an adequate control of space-time parameters.

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Situational teaching method  Refers to learning and mastering techniques

and tactics in the conditions that match those at competitions.  Basic information may be taught using the synthetic method, but the final stabilization of the acquired knowledge must take place on the situational level.  This method is best used in the final stages of motor skills or technical-tactical elements "acquisition".

Ideomotor method 



Refers to the cognitive processing of a motor task by the athlete. Cognitive activities become prominent in the improvement of the performance of a motor task, because they enable us to make connections between the perceived and the performed movements. It means that the athlete for a period of time repeats in his or her "head" what has been the subject of the motor learning at the training session.

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29.4. The coach and athlete in the process of technical-tactical teaching-learning The coach should:  observe the athlete in action and identify the efficiency of the first attempts,  point out the main mistakes by comparing the performance to the demonstration of the coach, a video, a photograph...,  simply, precisely, clearly, and convincingly explain the principles of the performance while explaining the crucial actions,

 analyse the repetition of

movement sequences, demonstrate and monitor reactions - all of this should be done slowly, carefully and patiently,  have a positive, encouraging and motivating attitude  be very patient and positively oriented towards the athlete, give deserved praise

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The learning process from the athlete’s point of view demands:  comprehension of the basic principles of the subject of learning,  perception and comprehension of the movement,  an ability to visualize his or her own performance of the movement structure,  effort to perform the action (movement stereotype) at an optimum speed and with a moderate load,

 results analysis and a

remodelling of teaching operators in cooperation with the coach with the goal of performance improvement.

 an increase in force and

speed of performance after a sufficient number of correct repetitions.

 an athlete must be aware from

the beginning that the greatest responsibility for success rests with him/her.

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Lesson 30:

Programming of teaching technical and tactical skills

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define and explain the principles of programming the process of teaching  Describe the cybernetic model of programmed teaching in sport  Describe the reasons for the occurrence of motor mistakes and ways to correct them  Programme the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles

30 - 1

30.1. Programme of teaching technical-tactical skills The teaching process in sport is conducted in several consecutive phases: 1) Presenting the technical or tactical task that is to be taught. 2) Discussing the importance and specificities of its elements. 3) Explaining the structural, biomechanical, physiological and other characteristics of the motor task.

4) The coach’s demonstration of the task. The task is first demonstrated in its entirety and then section by section. Critical phases need to be given more attention in the demonstration. The pace and the speed of performance must be adjusted to the athlete’s abilities. 5) The athlete performs the technical-tactical elements at a slower speed, using less strength, or with a semi-active opponent.

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6) Performance of the task and identification of typical mistakes. The coach must first identify any major mistakes. He or she must determine the causes of the mistakes and find adequate methods for their correction. 7) Implementation of motor exercises aimed at correcting any motor mistakes. 8) Performance of the task at a quick pace and with a maximally active opponent in situational conditions.

30.2. Principles of programmed teaching - learning 1) The hierarchy principle  Respecting the sequence of the teaching of movement structures. Levels of performance follow one another and each level is conditioned by the mastering of the previous one. This means that none of the levels can be omitted if an adequate command of motor knowledge, skills and stereotypes is to be achieved.

30 - 3

2) Cyclic integration principle  It refers to the method of acquisition of motor knowledge, skills and stereotypes involving the organisation of the training process in such a way that a motor task is repeated on new functional and motor levels. 3) Individualisation principle  It requires respecting the individual characteristics of athletes in the selection and employment of special training means – teaching operators – in the process of acquiring and mastering TE-TA skills.

4) Intensification principle  It refers to an increase in the speed of performance (slow, fast, maximum speed of the performance of a motor task), and an increase in the opponent’s involvement (a passive, semi-active, very active and maximally active opponent).

30 - 4

30.3. Cybernetic model of programmed teaching – learning in sport  The process of learning involves the mastering certain number (n) of motor tasks.  The number depends on the complexity of the given sport.  The mastering of a new task follows only after the athlete has learnt to perform successfully and correctly the previous task.  Performance evaluation is a common element of motor learning.

Cybernetic model of learning in sport (Stančev, 1981)

1

2

3

Learning tasks (information training)

Correct performance of motor task

Control and selfcontrol of the level of command of a motor task

Incorrect performance of motor task (Reasons A, B or C)

…n

Additional training Additional information

Learning outcome

30 - 5

Additional repetitions Additional development of skills

Reasons for an incorrect performance of a motor task: 1) Insufficient information on the task. 2) Insufficient number of repetitions. 3) Insufficient level of motor abilities.

Motor mistakes  It refers to the performance of a motor task which significantly deviates from the ideal performance expected from the athlete based on his or her psychological and physical abilities.

 Coaches must be aware of the possible reasons for an incorrect performance of a motor task and develop additional training means with a view towards eliminating the identified mistakes.

30 - 6

Classification of motor mistakes with respect to the probability for their occurrence (modified after Korenberg, 1979) MOTOR MISTAKES

ATHLETE’S CONDITION

INADEQUATE PREPARATION

SPECIAL CONDITIONS SPECIFICITY OF PARTNER OR OPPONENT

PHYSICAL PREPAREDNESS

PHYSICAL CONDITION

TECHNICAL PREPAREDNESS

MENTAL CONDITION

TACTICAL AND MENTAL PREPAREDNESS

MOTIVATION

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS COMPETITION RULES

SPONTANEOUS

SITUATIONAL

SPECIFIC COMBINATION OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FACTORS

Classification of motor mistakes with respect to the cause for their occurrence (modified after Korenberg, 1979)

MOTOR MISTAKES

MOTOR INSUFFICIENCY INFERIOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS COORDINATION INSUFFICIENCY

INADEQUATE TEACHING

INADEQUATE TEACHING OF TECHNIQUE METHODOLOGICAL MISTAKES

MENTAL

UNUSUAL CONDITIONS

INSUFFICIENT SELF-CONTROL

SPECIFICITIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

NEGATIVE IMPACT OF EXTERNAL FACTORS

SPECIFICITIES OF PARTNER OR OPPONENT

SPECIFICITIES OF THE BODY TYPE

INTERFERENCE AND NEGATIVE TRANSFER

INSECURITY, ANXIETY, FEAR

SMALL RANGE OF MOTOR PROGRAMMES

INADEQUATE CONTROL OF MOTOR REACTIONS

EMOTIONAL TENSION AND MENTAL FATIGUE

30 - 7

SPECIFICITIES OF COMPETITION RULES

INCIDENTAL

SPONTANEOUS CAUSED BY EXTERNAL INCIDENTAL FACTORS CAUSED BY A COMBINATION OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FACTORS

INABILITY TO NON-STANDARD, PREPARE FOR THE PERFORMANCE MISCELLANEOUS

30.4. Programming of the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles  From an early age children learn how to employ correctly the basic technique and tactics in order to gain a proper idea of the purpose of a sports activity and the types of motor actions  The first goal is the acquisition of the elementary technique and tactics of the chosen sport

 Multilateral technical-tactical training (multiple player positions in team sports or a large number of techniques in combat sports) is a good foundation for a later specialisation (a specific player position in team sports or several “favourite” techniques in combat sports) and an increasingly efficient performance of technicaltactical activities in competition conditions.

30 - 8

New model of long-term sports preparation (Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, 1991)

Programme of specific and situational preparation Programme of multilateral and basic preparation

High demands on the systems for receiving, processing, retaining and using motor information as a result of technical-tactical training and development of coordination.

30 - 9

High demands on the energy processes and development of functional and motor abilities as a result of physical conditioning.

QUESTIONS 1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training 2. Classification and characteristics of training means 3. Examples of training means 4. The effects of training exercise implementation 5. Selection and order of training exercises application 6. Training and competition load 7. Total load and its components 8. Effects of a training load on an athlete’s body 9. Classification (characteristics) of training loads 10. Training load management–dosage 11. Classification and description of training methods 12. Exercise methods 13. Teaching and learning methods in sport 14. Organisational training forms 15. Methodological forms of training 16. Definition, structure and characteristics of physical conditioning 17. The effects of physical conditioning on an athlete’s body 18. Physical preparation types 19. Methodology of development and maintenance of functional abilities 20. Aerobic training methodology 21. Anaerobic training methodology 22. Strength training methodology 23. Speed training methodology 24. Endurance training methodology 25. Flexibility training methodology 26. Coordination training methodology 27. Agility training methodology 28. Methodology of accuracy training 29. Balance training methodology 30. Sports technique 31. Sports tactics 32. Levels of efficiency of the programme for technical-tactical command 33. Teaching and learning the basics of technical-tactical skills 34. Motor learning phases 35. Teaching methods 36. The coach and athlete in the process of technical-tactical teaching-learning 37. Programme of teaching technical-tactical skills 38. Principles of programmed teaching – learning 39. Cybernetic model of programmed teaching – learning in sport 40. Programming of the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles

Lesson 31:

I

II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

Planning and Programming Training Courses

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the planning and programming of training courses  Talk about sports preparation periodisation  Describe the determinants of successful planning and programming of training courses  Define and explain the planning and programming types with respect to the duration of a period  Describe the differences among the various planning and programming of training methods (serial, parallel, stochastic, mathematical)  Define and explain the planning and programming phases of training in sports preparation cycles

31 - 1

31.1. Planning of training  The planning of training is a complex control action that determines the goals and the objectives of the training process, the time cycles for their achievement (periodisation) and the necessary technical, material and personnel prerequisites.

 Each training plan should be based on the quantitative (measurable) variables that provide an objective determination of its parameters and an evaluation of its effects  Diagnostics at the beginning of the training process, the competition calendar and the expected peak performance levels are the basic sets of data for successful sports preparation planning

31 - 2

31.2. Periodisation  Periodisation is becoming a widely recognized and scientifically based element of planning the training of contemporary sports  Periodisation is a procedure to determine the typical sports preparation cycles  Periodisation simply means the distribution/division of a longer cycle into shorter cycles

 It is defined as the time planning of training and it encompasses the objective changes in the means and structure of training for each cycle.  The coach and the athlete use training periodisation for:  achievement of top results at the "right" moment  achievement of optimum effects in each sports preparation cycle

31 - 3

Periodisation variations for a sports training annual cycle (Platonov, 1997) 1. Monocycle periodisation Cycles Periods Months

1 macrocycle Preparatory period (PP) XI - III

Competitive period (CP) IV - IX

Transition period (TP)

X

2. Bi-cycle periodisation Cycles Periods Months

1. macrocycle PP X – II

CP III – IV

2. macrocycle TP V

PP V - VII

CP VIII - IX

TP IX - X

3. Tri-cycle periodisation Cycles Periods Months

1. macrocycle PP X,XI,XII

CP I,II

2. macrocycle PP III,IV

CP V

3. macrocycle PP VI,VII

CP VIII

TP IX

31.3. Programming of training  Programming of training is a complex control action that determines the procedures containing the information on the means, loads and methods of training, and on the recovery and competition.

31 - 4

 It refers to the selection, load management and distribution of training operators. They are used in all cycles of sports preparation. They match an athlete's readiness levels and the conditions for sports preparation implementation.



For an efficient planning and programming of training several prerequisites need to be met. 1. the amount of scientific and professional knowledge 2. the number of coaches and other professional personnel involved in the training process and their professional qualifications 3. a permanent professional development of coaches through conferences, seminars and other forms of lifelong learning

31 - 5

Determinants of successful planning and programming of sports training COMPETITIONS (CALENDAR AND CONDITIONS)

5 4 3

TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL SKILLS OF THE ATHLETES

CHARACTERISTICS AND ABILITIES OF THE ATHLETES (PROFILE)

SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACTS

REALISTICALY DEFINED TRAINING GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

2

AVAILABE TRAINING METHODS

TRAINING EQUIPMENT AND GEAR

15

ATHLETES' DEMANDS AND NEEDS

OPERATIVE AND PERIODIC CONTROL

14

8

TRAINING AND COMPETITION CONDITIONS

SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION

16

7

COMPETENCES OF THE COACHES

FINANCIAL OPTIONS

1

6

MOTIVATION

VALUES SYSTEM

TIME FACTOR

9 10

11

12

13

Basic characteristics of a well-designed sports training plan and programme: 1) Goal/aim orientation - precisely defined goals/aims 2) Internal congruence - the training plan and programme must contain all of the important elements and they must be harmonised 3) Good structural layout - clear and distinct elements 4) Flexibility - the possibility for adjustments during the implementation of the plan 5) Economy – an optimum duration of the process with the engagement of minimum personnel, finances and other resources

31 - 6

If the selection of top athletes has been adequately managed, the efficiency of the training process will depend on: 1) a precise determination of the initial state of the abilities, characteristics and skills of the athlete or the sports team

2) a precise definition of the desired final state in accordance with the demands of the given sports activity, and a realistic possibility to achieve the optimum effects in the given time using the available resources

3) the continuous modelling and correction of the programme based on the feedback regarding the achieved transitive states. The coach and the athlete must be aware at any given moment "where they are" and which path they must follow to achieve the final goal.

31 - 7

31.4. Types of planning and programming of training LONG-TERM TRAINING PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (PROSPECTIVE) MID-TERM TRAINING PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING

SHORT-TERM TRAINING PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING

CURRENT TRAINING PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING

SPORTS CAREER BI-OLYMPIC CYCLE OLYMPIC CYCLE BI-ANNUAL CYCLE ANNUAL MACROCYCLE SEMI-ANNUAL MACROCYCLE MESOCYCLE-PERIOD MESOCYCLE-PHASE MICROCYCLE

OPERATIVE TRAINING PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING

TRAINING DAY TRAINING UNIT

 There are several types of plans and programmes of training for periods of various duration.  Sports careers and biolympic cycles are managed by long-term or prospective planning and programming while Olympic and bi-annual cycles are managed by mid-term planning and programming.

31 - 8

 Short-term plans and programmes are used for annual and semi-annual macrocycles  For long and short mesocycles (periods and phases) current planning and programming is used while operative planning and programming is used for microstructural training (microcycle, a day of training and a training unit)

31.5. Methods of planning and programming of training  A serial or successive planning and programming method

 A parallel or simultaneous planning and programming method  A grid modelling method  A mathematical modelling method (linear, deterministic, stochastic...)

31 - 9

 Various methods are used for planning and programming with the goal of ensuring the complete development of athletes in different sports preparation cycles with various durations. An accidental approach does not ensure certainty in the implementation of training and the achievement of the desired goals.

A serial or successive planning and programming method of training

1. TRAINING PLAN AND PROGRAMME

2. TRAINING PLAN AND PROGRAMME EXECUTION (REALISATION)

3. ANALYSIS OF THE TOTAL TRAINING ACTIONS EMPLOYED

4.A NEW TRAINING PLAN AND PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT

31 - 10

 A serial planning and programming method is based on the analysis of the total training actions employed in the previous cycle. Subsequently, the plan and the programme for the next cycle is developed.

A parallel or simultaneous planning and programming method of training 1. TRAINING PLAN AND PROGRAMME

2.1. TRAINING PLAN AND PROGRAMME EXECUTION (REALISATION)

2.2. ELABORATION OF A NEW TRAINING PLAN AND PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT

31 - 11

3. ANALYSIS OF THE TOTAL TRAINING ACTIONS EMPLOYED

4.A NEW TRAINING PLAN AND PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT

 A parallel planning and programming method of training is based on two sets of data:  an analysis of the total training actions employed in the previous cycle,  elaborated elements of a new plan and programme during its realisation.  This information is used in making the necessary corrections in the next microcycle, mesocycle or annual training cycle. This minimizes any contingencies.

 The stochastic method of training modelling  The training process is mostly stochastic because it is conducted in time sequences where control actions transform the established state of the athlete into one of the states from the set of potentially possible states.  For this reason, the training process demands a continuous optimisation of the athlete's state and programmed training activities as well as the equalization of the achieved and the desired effects.  This implies the use of objective and reliable metric systems and mathematical methods of a linear, non-linear and dynamic modelling of the transformation processes.

31 - 12

31.6. A plan and programme modelling of training is conducted on five levels 1. level: 2. level: 3. level: 4. level: 5. level:

annual cycle modelling modelling of periods and phases microcycle modelling modelling of days of training modelling of units of training

The sum parameters (budget) of a longer cycle are distributed to shorter training cycles

Modelling of the plan and programme for an annual training cycle (first level) SUMP

Months

12

Periods

3

Phases

6

(SUMP=sum of annual cycle activity data) XI

XII

I

II

III

IV

V

Preparatory period (PP) Multilateral preparation

Basic preparation

VI

VII

VIII

IX

Competitive period (CP)

Specificsituational

1. comp. phase

r.p. phas e

X Tr.p.

2. comp. phase

52

4

5

5

4

4

4

5

4

5

4

4

4

Number of training sessions

524

40

50

50

48

48

48

50

40

50

40

40

20

TRAINING DURATION

998

60

100

110

110

100

96

80

70

100

70

72

30

Multilateral and basic physical preparation programmes

224

20

34

36

30

24

18

10

10

20

8

6

8

Specific and situational physical preparation programmes

258

15

20

25

30

36

36

20

16

30

12

12

6

Technical-tactical preparation programmes

396

20

40

42

47

32

32

35

28

44

34

36

6

Theoretical preparation

40

5

6

3

3

4

2

3

0

2

0

2

10

Number of competitions

20

0

0

1

0

2

2

3

4

1

4

3

0

Number of performances

40

0

0

2

0

2

4

6

8

2

8

8

0

Effects control (excluded from the schedule)

10x

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1.9

1.5

2.0

2.2

2.3

2.1

2.0

1.6

1.7

2.0

1.7

1.8

1.5

10.01

10

10

10

12

12

12

10

10

10

10

10

5

Number of weeks

Training unit duration Number of training sessions per week

31 - 13

Modelling of a training plan and programme in a mesocycle (second level) (SUMP=sum of monthly cycle activity data; weeks I, II, III and IV) Weeks Number of training sessions

SUMP

I

II

III

IV

48

12

12

12

12

100

26

24

26

24


24

8

4

6

6

Action and body regions strength factors

TRAINING DURATION

10

4

2

2

2

Action speed factors

6

-

2

2

2

General endurance

8

4

-

2

2


36

6

12

10

8

Explosive and speed power

20

4

6

6

4

6

-

2

2

2

Specific endurance

10

2

4

2

2


32

8

8

8

8


4

2

-

-

2


2

1

-

1

-

Number of performances (x2 hours)

2

1

-

1

-


1

-

-

1

-

Specific speed and agility

Modelling of a training plan and programme in a microcycle (third level) (SUMP=sum of weekly cycle activity data) SUMP

MO

TU

WE

TH

FR

SA

SU


12

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

TRAINING DURATION

26

4

4

4

4

4

4

2

General and basic physical preparation programmes

6

1˝

˝

2

˝

-

-

1˝


2

1

-

1

-

-

-

-


2

-

-

1

-

˝

-

˝

General endurance

2

˝

˝

˝

-

˝

-

-

10

2

2

1

1˝

2

1

˝


6

2

1

1

-

1

1

-


2

-

-

-

˝

1

-

˝

Specific endurance

2

-

1

-

1

-

-

-

Specific coordination and technique programmes

8

˝

1˝

1

2

2

1

-


0

-

-

-

-

-

-

-


1

-

-

-

-

-

1

-


1

-

-

-

-

-

1(2)

-


1

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

Weeks


31 - 14

Modelling of a training plan and programme for a day of training (fourth level) Day

Tuesday

Time

Location

Goals

Means

Load(V)

Load(I)

Morning 9-11

Hall Gym

Motor abilities development (EP, SE)

Weight training exercises Jumping exercises Circuit training

120

4

Evening 17-19

Hall Outdoor field

Technique improvement (TE) Development of functional abilities (GE)

Imitation exercises Situational technique training Continuous aerobic training

120

4-5

EP - explosive power, SE - specific endurance, TE - technique, GE - general endurance

A plan and programme for a unit of training for basic strength in basketball (fifth level) MICROCYCLE No. 3

TRAINING No. 3

Date: 05/02/1993 Time: 9.30 – 11.05

MAIN TRAINING GOAL: Basic body strength development Duration: 95

Organisational forms: frontal

Load intensity: 80

Training modes: interval

Number of players: 14

Training equipment: mats, stopwatch

Number of coaches: 2

Location: Sports hall

Note: Training parts:

Training programme

5 min.

Dribbling running - random, no shooting

10 min.

Stretching

5 min.

Track and field (running - race walk)

5 min.

Basic toning - 10 push-ups, 10 squats, 10 sit-ups, 10 back extensions GLOBAL ACTIVATION OF THE LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM TRAINING OPERATORS:

60 min.

Set A 15 close push-ups (elbow inside) -20 simultaneous leg and trunk lifts (while lying on the back) - no rest -20 sit-ups -15 one-leg jumps (right and left)

31 - 15

Rest 60" Set B - 15 wide push-ups - 20 alternating leg lifts (right and left) and trunk lifts while lying on the back -20 alternating lifts of the right arm and the left leg and the left arm and the right leg while lying on the belly - no rest Rest 90" Set C -20 wide push-up holds -30" of high frequency sit-ups, opposite elbow touches the opposite knee -30" holds while lying on the belly with lifted trunk and legs -20 squats -Rest 120" This sequence is repeated 4 x with 3' rests 10 min.


31 - 16

2.07 2.03

2.03 2.01 1.96

EP (do 23 god.)

1.95 1.93

SP (juniori)

1.95

SP

SP (dv.) SP (dv.)

2.06 OI

SP (dv.)

2.08 2.05 SP

SKup

2.03 SP (dv.)

SP

SK

SP (juniori)

1.80

Lesson 32: 1.67

Long-Term Planning and Programming: multi-annual cycle of training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Talk about long-term sports preparation periodisation  Define a multi-annual cycle of training and its stages  Model a long-term sports preparation process and design a prospective plan of training  Describe the distribution of sports preparation programmes at all stages of a sports career  List and explain the load sum parameters for different age groups  Define and explain the physical, technical-tactical and theoretical preparation proportions for different age groups

32 - 1

32.1. Long-term sports preparation periodisation  It refers to the total duration of a sports

career and the bi-Olympic cycle  Sports careers of some athletes last up to 30 years, e.g. from the age of 8 until the age of 38.

Long-term sports preparation periodisation (Bompa, 2001) Training periodisation

Multilateral development age 6 – 14

Specialised development age 15 and older

Initiation

Athletic formation

Specialisation

High performance

age 6 – 10

age 11 – 14

age 15 – 18

age 19 and older

Pre-puberty

Post-puberty and adolescence

Puberty

32 - 2

Maturity

Long-term sports preparation periodisation (modified after Matvejev, 1999)

Sports discipline selection Universal Athletic sports school development monitoring

Completion of the basic technicaltactical preparation

Final technicaltactical specialisation and automation

Technicaltactical and physical conditioning maintenance training

Final Forced development of physical physical conditioning preparedness training

I. STAGE

II. STAGE

III. STAGE

Basic preparation

Maximum development of an athlete's individual capacities

Extended sports career

Preliminary preparation

Narrowed Record Beginning sports achievements; of sports specialisation Life time peak specialisation and actualisation performance

Maintenance of the level of sports results

Maintenance of sports readiness

The long-term cycle, after Matvejev (1999), comprises three basic stages with sub-stages: Sports discipline selection Universal Athletic sports school development monitoring

I. STAGE Basic preparation

Preliminary preparation

Beginning of sports specialisation

1. The basic preparation stage  preliminary preparation  beginning of sports

specialisation

32 - 3

2. The stage of the maximum development of an athlete's individual capacities  narrowed sports

specialisation, actualisation preparation

Completion Technicalof the basic tactical technicalsubspecialisat tactical ion and preparation automation Forced Development physical of physical conditioning preparedness training

II. STAGE

 realisation of the best

individual achievements (personal records)

3. Extended sports career stage  maintenance of the sports achievement level  maintenance of sports readiness

Maximum development of the athlete's individual capacities Narrowed Record sports achievements. Specialisation Lifetime peak and actualisation performance

Technicaltactical and physical conditioning maintenance training

III. STAGE Extended sports career Maintenance of the level Maintenance of sports of sports readiness results

32 - 4

 The stages of the long-term plan do not have

strictly fixed boundaries  They depend on the athlete's talent, the characteristics of his or her physical and motor development, readiness, the years of training and the specificities of the sports specialisation

32.2. Long-term sports preparation modelling

(modified after Havliček, 1981 and Viru, 1995)

A) It is based on the information or data on:  historical development of sports results to date  sports results structure (hierarchical structure of success)  age dynamics and capacities for the development of the dimensions and sports achievements  technological procedures - training methodology in the past, present and future

32 - 5

B) A multi-annual sports career

planning procedure includes:  prognosis of sports results

development in the chosen sports discipline in the future  prognosis of the top athlete model target situations (dimensions and model characteristics)  Prognosis of the resulting state matrix of "our" athlete - the final state prognosis  prognosis of the developmental states of "our" athlete in each stage of sports preparation

Top results of Blanka Vlašić (born 08/11/1983) from 1997 until 2011

2.072.062.08 2.05

1.93

2.03 SP 2.03 2.01 SP (dv.) SP EP 1.95 (dv.) 1.96 (do 23 god.) 1.95

SP (juniori)

1.61

SP (juniori)

OI

SP (dv.)

SP

SKup

2.03

SP (dv.)

SP

SK

1.80

1.67 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

32 - 6

 the morphological characteristics and motor

preparedness match the model level of the top high jump female athletes  biomechanical analyses demonstrate a tendency towards the optimum performance technique  it is realistic to expect that

this athlete will see further progress in her high jump results.

Prognosis of the development of sports results



Various methods for an objective analysis of the achieved results and prognosis of the results that are expected in the future are used



Predicted results values are used in the selection and monitoring of potential Olympic candidates

32 - 7

The long jump results prognosis

(Milanović, 2003, after Vazny model, 1978) result (cm) 840 820

800 780

22 21 20 19

760

18

740

17

720 700

16 athlete's age

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

year

rezultat (cm) 840 820

800 780 760 740 720 700

22 21 20 19 18 17 16 dob sportaša

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

godine

 Athletes of various ages and various initial

results in the long jump have almost the equal chances of reaching the predicted level of olympic results in the Olympic cycle. This will qualify them for the upcoming Olympics.

32 - 8

 In the years included in prospective planning four important problems are to be solved:  Which changes or improvements of abilities, characteristics and skills should be made?  What is the best moment or period to make any changes or improvements?  What is the total time needed to initiate and make those changes?  How can one model training programmes for the development and maintenance of the changes made in the components of the athlete's readiness?

Long-term training plan for tennis players Preparedness level

(modified after Müller, 1999)

2 10%

1. Tournaments

9 25%

2. Psycho-regulatory techniques 4 15%

3. General and specific physical preparation 4. Specific technique and tactics 3 25% 5 25% 1 7 10% 30% 5 30% 8 30%

6

7

8

9

1 30%

3 25%

11

12

13

4 2 25% 10%

14 15

16 17

1 50%

2 10%

1 40%

5. Specific technique 6. Basic tactical skills 7. Simple tennis games 8. Coordination abilities 9. Training and recovery

6 3 15% 20%

10

1 65%

18

32 - 9

19

20

21

22

23 24 25 26

years

Distribution of technical and physical preparation factors in a multi-annual training cycle for decathlon athletes (Kunz et al., 1990) TECHNICAL AND PHYSICAL PREPARATION FACTORS

TECHNICAL AND PHYSICAL PREPARATION FACTORS PROPORTIONS IN A MULTI-ANNUAL TRAINING CYCLE

Track and field disciplines technique

Coordination abilities Aerobic endurance Explosive power

Speed Maximum strength Anaerobic endurance

Flexibility Age of the athlete

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

32.3. Long-term sports preparation planning and programming  A determination of the functional sequence of the

goals and objectives for each stage of a sports career. Global and partial training goals for each age group need to be determined.

 A determination of sports preparation

programmes proportions and approximate load curves in the training of children, young athletes and adults.

 It is necessary to take into account the sensitive

phases of sports-motor development.

32 - 10

 An example of a training

plan for young athletes in team sports (Sozanski, 1984), shows a continuous progression of the number of training days, training units, hours of training and competitions as well as the continuous changes in the programmes' proportions through the stages of longterm sports preparation.

Sum of load data in the process of sports preparation of each age group (Milanović, 1997, modified after Sozanski, 1984)

Training focus and parameters

Age groups A

B

C

D

E

10-12 years

12-14 years

14-16 years

16-18 years

18-20 years

150-200

250

280

300

320

165

115

85

65

45

1

Training days

2

Rest days

3

Training units

150-200

250-300

350-400

450-500

550-600

4

Training hours

300-400

500-600

700-800

900-1000

1100-1200

5


30

40

50

60

70

150 (100+50)

200 (100+100)

200 (100+100)

250 (100+150)

250 (100+150)

50 (50+0)

100 (75+25)

150 (75+75)

250 (100+150)

350 (150+200)

200 (150+50)

300 (150+150)

450 (200+250)

500 (200+300)

600 (250+350)

6

Multilateral and basic preparation (hours)

7

Specific and situational preparation (hours)

8

Technical and tactical preparation (hours)

9

Theoretical preparation (excluded from the schedule)

10

20

30

40

50

10.

Diagnostics (tests)

2x

4x

6x

8x

10x

32 - 11

 Numerical training load data for children aged

10 to 12 (150-200 training units, 300-400 training hours and 30 competitions) significantly differ from the training model for the young athletes aged 16 to 18 (300 training units, 450600 training hours and 60 competitions).

 In relation to the total amount of training,

multilateral and basic sports preparation programmes decrease while specific and situational preparation programmes, especially the technical-tactical training programme, constantly increase.

32.3.1. Universal sports school (Martin, 1982)

First global goal of the sports trainin

Multilateral (complete) psychosomatic development 1) Development of all coordination abilities

Partial goals:

-6

-7

2) Development of some coordination abilities (sensitive phases) 3) Motor learning - games, elementary forms -8 of movement 4) Accumulation of movement experience from various sports activities 5) Adaptation to rough forms of the basic technique and motor tasks of the future sports specialisation

32 - 12

-9

-10

“Sensitive phases for the development of physical abilities. (Martin, 1982 after Grosser et al., 1986) ”Each dimension can be best developed at a certain period" Ability

Age and sensitive phases 6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Motor learning Speed reaction to an audiovisual signal Space orientation Rhythm Balance Endurance Strength Speed Flexibility

32.3.2. Elementary sports school (Martin, 1982) Second global goal of the sports training

Initiation of specialised sports-motor development and sports specialisation

-10

1) Basic sports specialisation technique and tactics learning - multilateral TE-TA training 2) Further detailed motor learning in the chosen sports discipline

Partial goals:

3) Multi-discipline training (gymnastics, track and field), technical-tactical training for several player positions (team sports)

-11

-12

4) Further development of functional and motor abilities 5) Mastering of exercises for specific training, development of specific abilities and dynamic basics of technique and tactics

-13

6) Initial demands for the competition results -14 at regular sports events

32 - 13

32.3.3. Specialised sports school (Martin, 1982)

Third global goal of the sports training

Narrowed specific training and sports specialisation

-15

Partial goals:

1) Stabilisation of the sports technique and tactics at the highest level

-16

2) Consequential development of primary and specific motor abilities

-17

3) Forced increase of training load 4) Forced increase in the number of regular competitions and demands for high competition results

-18 -19

32.3.4. Final sports specialisation (transfer from the junior to the adult age group) (Martin, 1982)

Fourth global goal of the sports training

Final sports specialisation and tendency towards the highest sports results Integrative effects of sports preparation

Partial goals:

Formation of stereotypes in technical-tactical command

-20

-21

-22

Improvement through competitions Accomplishment of high-quality, record achievements

32 - 14

-23 and more

Lesson 33:

Mid-Term Planning and Programming (Olympic cycle)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Describe the Olympic Games as the largest   



multi-sport competition Discuss the Olympic Games results of the competing countries Define the Olympic cycle and basic training characteristics for each year Explain the organisational aspects of the Olympic cycle planning Describe the differential load characteristics of the Olympic cycle

33 - 1

33.1. The significance of the Olympic Games  To compete at the Olympics is the long-term

goal of all top athletes and often the crown of their careers  Medals won at the big world and European competitions are indicators of athletes' success but a medal won at the Olympics is valued as the most significant sports achievement.  Despite the large number of international competitions, in the long-term periodisation the Olympics have a special place

Rankings of the countries by medals won at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta Rank

Country

Gold

Silver

Bronze

Total

1

USA

44

32

25

101

2

Russia

26

21

16

63

3

Germany

20

18

27

65

4

China

16

22

12

50

5

France

15

7

15

37

6

Italy

13

10

12

35

7

Australia

9

9

23

41

8

Cuba

9

8

8

25

9

Ukraine

9

2

12

23

10

South Korea

7

15

5

27

33 - 2

Rank Country

Gold

Silver

Bronze

Total

11

Hungary

7

4

10

21

12

Poland

7

5

5

17

13

Spain

5

6

6

17

14

Romania

4

7

9

20

15

Netherlands

4

5

10

19

16

Czech Republic

4

3

4

11

17

Greece

4

4

0

8

18

Switzerland

4

3

0

7

19

Denmark

4

1

1

6

20

Turkey

4

1

1

6

45

Croatia

1

1

0

2

At the last four summer Olympics Croatia won a total of 17 medals (Barcelona 1S+2B, Atlanta 1G+1S, Sydney 1G+1B, Athens 1G+2S+2B and Beijing 2S+3B)

33.2. Organisational and methodical aspects of the Olympic cycle planning For the Olympic Games, the Mediterranean Games and world championships, for individual athletes and sports teams

Main objectives of each training year Mass selection of candidates for the national team

Development of a comparative model for top athletes

Final selection of the listed candidates

33 - 3

Preparations for the main competition

 Characteristics of the mid-term training plan and

programme in the Olympic cycle are:  In the first year the extended multilateral and basic preparation programme is conducted. The training goal is to improve basic athletes' functional and motor preparedness and automation of the new, more rational technical and tactical skills.

33 - 4

 In the second year the shock integrative

training programme is conducted. The training goal is to integrate physical and technical-tactical preparedness until the level of maximum efficiency is achieved. This year high goals are often set for competing at e.g. the world championship.  In the third year the training structure and the competition system predicted for the Olympic year dominates. In this part of the Olympic cycle the training and competition’s model for the Olympic year are tested.  In the fourth year the tested model that ensures the highest level of sports results at the Olympic competition, with any possible corrections, is realised.

 In the Olympic cycle we can see an

undulating curve of sports results’

development and maintenance in accordance with the periodisation and the phase dynamics of the development of readiness and peak performance in each annual cycle.

33 - 5

Sports results dynamics in each year of the Olympic cycle (as the Olympic year approaches there is less room for the oscillation of results) Results (peak performance)

1

2

3

4 Olympic cycle years

Sports results and test results for a top kayaker during the Olympic cycle (Željaskov, 2004) Basic competitions

Ranks for medals I

1 2 3 4 5

II

III

1986 – WORLD CHAMPIONSHIP 1987 – WORLD CHAMPIONSHIP 1988 – OLYMPIC GAMES 1989 – WORLD CHAMPIONSHIP 1990 – WORLD CHAMPIONSHIP

S1 500

Testing results - WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS AND OLYMPICS Kg WMax VO2max 84.7

380

61.39

86.5

410

54.91

S1 1000

90.8

430

63.33

S4 500

88.7

390

58.06

S1 500

86.4

390

63.08

86.0

400

61.05

89.3

370

69.43

90.4

370

58.63

93.5

380

60.96

I-III ranks in 12 years 5 4 6 Testing results - WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS AND OLYMPICS

C’ / S 89.2 / 3.19

C’ / S 390 / 18.10

C’ / S 62.04 / 3.9

Results of all tests in 12 years (64)

89.7 / 2.70

395 / 33.41

59.95 / 4.4

S4 500 S4 1000 6

1991 – WORLD CHAMPIONSHIP

S1 500 S1 1000 S4 1000

7 8 9

1992 – OLYMPIC GAMES 1993 – WORLD CHAMPIONSHIP 1994 – WORLD CHAMPIONSHIP

S1 500 S2 1000 S1 500 S1 200

S1 1000

S1 500

33 - 6

 In the multi-annual cycle there is a

continuous progression of the relative total load.  Each next macrocycle has a higher load than the previous macrocycle - in the preparatory, competitive and transition periods.

 Each year starts with a higher load.  The highest load level increases in each

subsequent year This is particularly important for young athletes’ preparation programmes.

33 - 7

Lesson 34:

Short-Term Planning and Programming (annual and semi-annual cycles)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define an annual and the semi-annual macrocycle  Define and explain the monocycle and bi-cycle periodisation of an annual training cycle.  Describe a model of an annual cycle plan and programme of training (the first level)  Discuss the short-term planning and programming steps (algorithm)  Describe an example of an annual cycle plan and programme of training with all its elements  Describe a preparatory, competitive and transition period  Explain the importance of additional individual training in an annual cycle

34 - 1

34.1. Annual and semi-annual macrocycle  An annual training cycle is planned and programmed in one or more training macrocycles.  Each macrocycle contains three basic periods:  preparatory,  competitive and  transition.

Modelling of an annual training cycle plan and programme (the first level) SUMP

Months

12

Periods

3

Phases

6

(SUMP=sum of annual cycle activity data) XI

XII

I

II

III

IV

V

Preparatory period (PP) Multilateral preparation

Basic preparation

VI

VII

VIII

IX


Specificsituational

1. comp. phase

r.p. phas e

X Tr.p.

2. comp. phase

52

4

5

5

4

4

4

5

4

5

4

4

4

524

40

50

50

48

48

48

50

40

50

40

40

20

998

60

100

110

110

100

96

80

70

100

70

72

30


224

20

34

36

30

24

18

10

10

20

8

6

8


258

15

20

25

30

36

36

20

16

30

12

12

6


396

20

40

42

47

32

32

35

28

44

34

36

6


40

5

6

3

3

4

2

3

0

2

0

2

10


20

0

0

1

0

2

2

3

4

1

4

3

0

40 (80)

0

0

2

0

2

4

6

8

2

8

8

0

10x

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1.9

1.5

2.0

2.2

2.3

2.1

2.0

1.6

1.7

2.0

1.7

1.8

1.5

10.01

10

10

10

12

12

12

10

10

10

10

10

5

Number of weeks Number of training sessions TRAINING DURATION

Number of performances (x2 hours) Effects control (excluded from the schedule) Training unit duration Number of training sessions per week

34 - 2







The internal structure of an annual cycle is determined by the number of competition seasons. One competitive period (A) requires a monocycle periodisation. If the competitions extend throughout the year (wintersummer-autumn), the annual cycle should be structured in three macrocycles, the so-called tri-cycle periodisation (C).

Development and maintenance curves of annual cycle peak performance with two peaks (monocycle periodisation) 100%

70%

VII

PP

VIII

IX

X

XI

XII

I

II

III


Recovery - preparatory mesocycle

34 - 3

IV

V

VI

TP



Rational planning and programming of the annual and semi-annual macrocycle is possible if the objective peak performance dynamics patterns are acknowledged.



The peak performance entrance phase corresponds to the preparatory period, stabilisation and the highest level phase correspond to the competitive period and the temporary loss phase to the transitional period.

Peak performance dynamics in the monocycle periodisation of an annual cycle with an extended competitive period (1 – preparatory period, 2 – competitive period, 3- transitional period)

34 - 4

34.2. Algorithm of short-term planning and programming in an annual training cycle 1. Define the global and the partial goals (ideal states - achievements) of an annual training cycle: competition results and desired rankings; Acknowledge the previous competition results and achievements. 2. Conduct the diagnostics of an athlete's initial state (measurements, tests, subjective assessment: characteristics of the individual or the team). Diagnostics requires a selection of the dimensions that need to be measured and tests or measuring instruments for their assessment.

Example: test results of top female handball players (initial state assessment) Side steps

Sargent1

Sargent2

Standing long jump

30 m, standing start

Bench press

Sit-ups

„Suicide„ shuttle run

"Beep" test (10 levels)

V.C.

843

42

45

210

4.88

45

31

43.48

86.52

R.D.

882

50

50

235

4.58

55

30

42.56

86.19

A.F.

818

53

59

232

4.85

55

29

43.13

84.66

A.H.

855

42

51

220

4.81

45

32

44.84

88.73

B.J.

861

48

50

219

5.37

45

30

47.79

103.13

N.K.

862

45

54

220

4.71

62.5

31

46.32

88.46

I.M.

857

43

44

225

5.18

40

30

47.94

94.68

V.M.

844

50

56

215

4.59

45

30

45.22

92.71

B.P.

798

46

51

220

4.88

55

28

43.28

80.52

S.P.

873

49

56

225

4.98

55

31

44.62

90.33

J.P.

922

37

39

202

5.16

40

30

47.5

100.43

M.R.

885

39

47

210

5.10

45

27

46.33

92.04

T.Š.

882

45

49

225

5.09

50

29

44.52

92.03

M.T.

836

46

47

4.98

45

32

43.65

85.40

LJ.V.

849

46

58

4.87

45

31

46.84

94.35

213

34 - 5

3. Determine the realistic goals for an annual training cycle based on the diagnostics of the initial state (define the dynamics for the achievement of the expected transitive states of preparedness and readiness and dynamics for the sports results achievement)  After the collected data have been processed, a global assessment of the individual or the team preparedness is carried out and followed by a definition of the partial goals and objectives in accordance with the observed deficits and shortcomings of the readiness components.

4. Define the annual training cycle periodisation (competition calendar, peak performance dynamics, typical sports preparation cycles)

Annual cycle periodisation for a top Croatian football team (bi-cycle periodisation) First macrocycle Preparatory period

Competitive period

Transition period

20/06/2001 28.07.2001.

29/07/2001 – 10.12.2001.

11/12/2001 09.01.2002.

34 - 6

Second macrocycle Preparatory period

Competitive period

Transition period

10/01/2002 – 23.02.2002.

24/02/2002 – 03.05.2002.

14/05/2002 – 15.06.2002.

 In Croatian football, bi-cyclic periodisation of an annual cycle is used (two preparatory periods for two competition seasons)  This is due to the geographical and climatic conditions and a relatively low standard of facilities, which are inadequate for the winter competition season

Cyclic structure and parameters of an annual training cycle (Milanović, 1993) Preparation period

(XI - ½ IV) 22 weeks Competition period ( ½ IV - IX) 24 wks Transition period (IX-X) 6 weeks

Mesocycle: 3 periods

XI

XII

½I

Stage of versatilebasic preparation 10weeks×26h=260hours ½ IV

V

Precompetition stage (introductary preparation comp.) 6weeks×22h=132hours END IX

X

Closing stage 4weeks×10h=40hours

Mesocycle: 6 stages

34 - 7

½I

II

III

½ IV

Stage of specialsituational preparation 12weeks×24h=288hours VI

VII

VIII

IX

Competition stage (official competitions) 18weeks×18h=324hours

548 training & competition hours

456 training & competition hours

END X

Active rest 2weeks×4h=8hours

Microcycle: 52 weeks

48 training hours

1052 hours of training & competition

5. Define the available resources sports preparation prerequisites (staff, facilities, equipment, financial means, annual training cycle costs) 6. Make a Model of some sports preparation programmes a. Define the sets of practicable activities or sports preparation means b. Define the practicable load parameters (number of training days, number of training sessions, number of training and competition hours) c. Define the practicable training methods d. Select locations and choose the training equipment

7. Define the proportions – the relations of the sports preparation programme means and methods (for the achievement of the desired goals), it is necessary to develop physical abilities (%), technique (%) and tactics (%) by means of multilateral (%), basic (%), specific (%), and situational (%) preparation.

34 - 8

Proportions of the sports preparation programmes in each month of an annual training cycle 100% 90% 80%

Physical conditioning

70% 60%

Technical training

50% 40%

Tactical training

30% 20%

Individual training

10% 0%

Proportions in the bi-cycle periodisation of an annual training cycle for top basketball players (Željaskov, 2004)

100% 90

10 30

30

80 30

40

50

70

60

70

60 40

50

40

40 30

40 30

60

30 20

20

30

10 0

20

GP

SPP

Preparatory period

Competitions Competitive period

30

20

GP

SPP

Preparatory period

First cycle Specific-situational preparation

10

10

1st comp. phase

Main competitions

Competitive period

Second cycle Basic preparation

34 - 9

General preparation

Proportions of different types of physical conditioning programmes in an annual cycle (modified after Jukić, 2002) Periods


Preparatory period (PP) Multilateral preparation phase

Basic preparation phase

Specific preparation phase

Situational preparation phase

Preventive physical conditioning programmes

40 %

25 %

20 %

10 %

20 %

Developmental physical conditioning programmes

50 %

60 %

50 %

45%

25 %

Maintenance physical conditioning programmes

5%

10 %

20 %

35 %

40 %

Recovery physical conditioning programmes

5%

5%

10 %

10 %

15 %

Phases

8. Define the distribution - training and the competition load distribution in different stages of an annual sports preparation cycle Determine the approximate curve of the total load and its components.

34 - 10

Range and distribution of specific and nonspecific training loads in the annual cycle for female athletes competing in discus throw (Rachmanlijev and Harnes, 1990) Training means

Months

Total (annual cycle)

XI

I

II

V

VI

VIII

Throwing exercise (no.)

2310

1750

1830

1180

890

1100

18 700

Weight training exercises (t)

169

325

284

94

78

102

1918

Jumping exercises (no.)

2960

1350

1290

980

920

720

16 510

Running exercises (km)

8,2

8,0

6,8

3,6

4,6

3,5

76,5

Complementary sports (hours)

39

13,15

14

11,3

8

9

203

Approximate load curves in an annual cycle MAIN COMPETITION

TOTAL LOAD LOAD VOLUME LOAD INTENSITY LOAD COORDINATION COMPLEXITY MENTAL TENSION

1

INTRODUCTORY PREPARATION PHASE

2

MULTILATERAL PREPARATION PHASE

3

BASIC PREPARATION PHASE

4

SPECIFIC PREPARATION PHASE

5

INTRODUCTORY COMPETITIONS PHASE

6

BASIC COMPETITIONS PHASE

XI XII I 1

2

II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 3

4

5

6

PREPARATORY PERIOD (PP) COMPETITIVE PERIOD (CP)

34 - 11

TRANSITION PERIOD

9.

Define the general programme for the training and competitions as well as the recovery means in a preparatory period 10. Define the general programme for the training and competitions as well as the recovery means in a competitive period 11. Define the general programme for the training and competitions as well as the recovery means in a transition period 12. Define the schedule for the control of the sports preparation effects (dimensions, tests, state assessment criteria)

The plan and the elements of an annual training cycle programme (Željaskov, 1998)

 Total training activity data for an annual training cycle is provided: the number of training days, competition days and rest days, the number of training units and training hours  Periodisation is always the starting point for the development of an annual training cycle plan and programme  The competition calendar defines the duration and the structure of the competitive period  Periodisation refers to the distribution/division of each period to several stages or phases.

34 - 12

 The duration of the preparatory period in an annual cycle is 6 months and it comprises four phases:  multilateral,  basic,  specific and  situational or pre-competitive preparation

 The duration of each phase is one and a half months

 The duration of the competitive period is five and a half months and it comprises three phases: first competitive phase (two months), recovery preparatory phase (one month) and second competitive phase (two and a half months)  The duration of the transition period at the end of an annual cycle is two weeks

34 - 13

 Load curve is defined by the volume component of the training (the number of training hours)  Coefficients between 2.0 and 3.5 in the seventh row represent an average training day load duration in each training mesocycle (month)  We can see that there were 46 training units in the second mesocycle and 38 training units in the third mesocycle with a total number of hours 114 and 94, respectively.

 This annual training cycle plan is adequate for several sports, including rowing and track and field (especially technical disciplines)  In one year, there were 270 training days, 15 competition days and 80 rest days.  The total number of training units (421) and the total number of training hours (941) meet the high training amount criteria in an annual cycle

34 - 14

 The second part shows the distribution of sports preparation types in an annual training programme.  The basic motor preparation dominates in the first part of the preparatory period, while the specific motor preparation reaches its maximum later on.

 The information (technical-tactical) preparation has the largest proportion by the end of the preparatory period and in the competitive period.  In the recovery-preparatory phase the proportion of the basic and specific preparation rises  In the transition period, basic exercises are more dominant than specific physical and technical preparation exercises.  The fact that 634 hours out of the total number of training hours (941) were spent on various types of physical conditioning indicates the forced functional and motor preparation in this cycle.

34 - 15

Lesson 35:

Current Planning and Programming:

(mesocycles: periods and phases)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the periods and phases of the preparatory period  Discuss training process modelling in the preparatory period  Define load dynamics in the preparatory period  Define and explain the sum of training data for the preparatory period  Discuss training process modelling in a competitive period  Explain the training rules in the immediate preparation phase for a main competition  Discuss the training process modelling in a transition period  Define and explain all the phases in each period of an annual cycle

35 - 1

35.1. Periods and phases characteristics  Periods and phases planning and programming is a crucial part of the training process because it ensures an efficient control of the cumulative training effects  Periods are integral parts of a macrocycle and they comprise several phases

 The specificities of the training means and loads in different periods and phases need to be taken into account when constructing mesocycles  Determining the dynamics of the total load and its components is very important

35 - 2

Modelling of a training plan and programme in a mesocycle (second level) (SUMP=sum of monthly cycle activity data; weeks I, II, III i IV)

Weeks Number of training sessions TRAINING DURATION

SUMP

I

II

III

IV

48

12

12

12

12

100

26

24

26

24


24

8

4

6

6


10

4

2

2

2


6

-

2

2

2

General endurance

8

4

-

2

2


36

6

12

10

8


20

4

6

6

4

6

-

2

2

2

Specific endurance

10

2

4

2

2


32

8

8

8

8


4

2

-

-

2


2

1

-

1

-


2

1

-

1

-


1

-

-

1

-


35.2. Preparatory period (PP)  Build-up preparation programmes that will ensure the achievement of a peak performance are utilised in the preparatory period.  Preparatory periods have a different duration in different sports. In some sports the duration is 6-8 weeks (football, tennis), while in others it can last up to 6 months (rowing, track and field)

35 - 3

Delayed transformation effects (Vjerhošanski, 1979)

 Training effects can occur simultaneously with the load dynamics in the second phase of the same period or they can be delayed.

% 30 20 10 1

2

3

4

5

months

Beginning of the competitive period

% 140 120 100

1

2

3

4

5

months

80

This discrepancy (delayed transformation effects) can ensure a high and stable level of sports results in the competitive period.

Peak performance development curves during the preparatory period (Bondarčuk, after Tschiene, 1985) (Diagrams B and C show the delayed transformation phenomenon)

Peak performance

Peak performance

B

A 2

4

8 weeks

6

2

4

Peak performance

C

2

4

6

35 - 4

8

weeks

6

8

weeks

Load volume dynamics in the preparatory period ( Platonov, 1984)

training hours 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5

ACTIVE REST

MAIN COMPETITIVE SEASON

PREPARATORY PERIOD

1.0 0.5

A

B

C

D

A: Verstile preparation phase B: Basic preparation phase C: Specific preparation phase D: Pre-competitive phase

duration

 Load volume in the preparatory period continuously and gradually decreases. This controlled volume reduction does not go below the level that ensures an adequate amount of training.  As the competitive season approaches, training sessions become shorter, more intense and more specific.

35 - 5

 The training duration and the structure in each phase depend on the duration of the preparatory period, the observed states of an athlete and the preparation implementation conditions.  The preparatory period can comprise two to five phases. They are defined by the dominant type of the sports preparation.

35.2.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in the preparatory period phases 1. PHASE - foundation building (general preparation phase) - 2 weeks a. General description: Improvement of all physical and mental factors. Fewer situational elements of the sports discipline b. High volume - lower intensity (60-80%):a high number of repetitions in all tasks, of longer duration and a higher frequency of the stimuli during training c. Long-distance running for cardio-respiratory efficiency. General physical preparation. Fitness programmes. d. If necessary (initial state), the proportion of technicaltactical preparation can be increased. Correction of mistakes and stabilisation of motor skills

35 - 6

2. PHASE - build-up (basic preparation phase) - 3 weeks a. Improvement of all factors relevant to the actual sports activity. Moderate participation in the actual sports activity (competition and situational training). Training models for all athletes. Build-up programmes take into account the individual characteristics of the athletes. b. High total load: intensity is between 80% and 100% of the maximum with medium number of repetitions. Prevent overtraining. c. Special focus on the development of the dominant physical abilities. Focus on the weak spots. d. Basic physical preparation. Short-distance running. Speed power and agility, reaction speed. 12-minutes running and interval sprints. Training on strength exercise machines. Injury prevention.

3. PHASE - stabilisation (situational preparation phase) 3 weeks a. Training specifically targeting the factors that affect sports results. High frequency of participation in the actual sports activity and at competitions / a lot of time reserved for the sports specialisation. Situational training b. Less volume - high intensity, a fewer number of repetitions; abandoning additional exercises. Training sessions frequency in the microcycle can be reduced. c. The total load is 75-90% of the maximum. Technical-tactical training utilises maximum intensity. d. A regular distribution of training and rest. Injury prevention.

35 - 7

A plan and one part of a programme for the preparatory period (Milanović, 1985) PREPARATORY PERIOD

TOTAL

MESOCYCLE

1

2

3

4

5

Mesocycle type

Introductory

Multilateral

Basic

Specific

Precompetitive

Mesocycle duration

25/07-02/08

03/08-13/08

14/08-26/08

27/08-06/09

07/09-18/09

Energy and information training ratio

50 / 50

60 / 40

70 / 30

40 / 60

30 / 70

Number of days in the mesocycle

9

11

13

11

12

56

Number of training and competition days

8

9

12

9

10

48


12

18

26

16

10

82

Number of matches

2

1

2

3

7

15

Number of training and competition hours

18

36

56

30

32

172

Number of rest days

1

2

1

2

2

8

Number of energy and information training hours

9+9

22+14

40+16

12+18

10+22

93+79

Training day load volume

2.25

4.00

4.66

3.33

3.20

3.48

Training day load intensity

70

75

80

85

90

80

Test date

03/08

25/07-18/09

05/09

 The training process sum of data in this preparatory period shows that out of 56 days, there were 48 training and competition days. Also, there were 82 training units and 15 control-preparatory matches with a total duration of 172 hours.

 The training effects were controlled twice.

35 - 8

35.3. Competitive period  Peak performance and the highest sports results occur in the competitive period at official competitions.  Depending on the sport, the duration of the competitive period varies from several months to several weeks.  One annual cycle can comprise several competition seasons (multi-cycle periodisation)

Competitive period periodisation with training programmes distribution dynamics

COMPETITIVE PERIOD (CP) MULTILATERAL-BASIC PREPARATION DYNAMICS SPECIFIC-SITUATIONAL PREPARATION DYNAMICS COMPETITIONS

35 - 9

POST-COMPETITIVE PHASE

MAIN COMPETITIONS

IMMEDIATE PREPARATION

SECOND COMPETITIVE PHASE

RECOVERYPREPARATORY PHASE

FIRST COMPETITIVE PHASE


(Matvejev, 1999)

POST-COMPETITIVE PHASE

IMMEDIATE PREPARATION

MAIN COMPETITIONS

SECOND COMPETITIVE PHASE

RECOVERYPREPARATORY PHASE

FIRST COMPETITIVE PHASE


Construction of a competitive period requires three actions:

COMPETITIVE PERIOD (CP)

SPECIFIC-SITUATIONAL PREPARATION DYNAMICS MULTILATERAL-BASIC PREPARATION DYNAMICS COMPETITIONS

 A rational distribution of multilateral-basic and specific-situational preparation programmes in accordance with the dynamics of important competitions  Planning of a short recovery-preparatory phase in the middle of the competitive period, and  Programming a rational training and load structure in the phase of immediate preparation for the main competition of the season

35.3.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in competitive period phases Seasonal maintenance of a peak performance - the competition season a.

The training is specific and situational. It refers to exercise selection and load management.

b.

Less total load. Intensity 80%(90%)-100% of the maximum load. A high number of repetitions for all TE-TA exercises. Control the duration of rest periods between work intervals.

c.

Peaking using exercises for agility, explosiveness and speed, and technical-tactical training. The intensity and the proportion of situational training increase.

d. Goal: maintain good physical preparedness achieved in the earlier phases. Preparedness - maintaining physical conditioning training. Injury prevention.

35 - 10

"Pendulum" principle in the phase of the immediate preparation for a main competition (Arosjev after Tschiene, 1985)

PENDULUM AMPLITUDE

As a main competition approaches, the total and non-specific load decreases, while the proportion of the specific and situational training increases 100 90

LOAD (%)

80

PCC I, II, III –

PCC I

PCC II

PCC III

pre-competitive microcycles

Specific load

CC - competitive microcycle

General load (non-specific)

CC

WEEKS

Active rest

35.4. Transition period  In the transition period peak performance is temporarily lost. The number of days of training and training units significantly decrease, as well as the load level  The transition period has a longer duration in some sports, but its duration never exceeds several weeks.  There are two phases in the transition period: the final phase and the active rest phase.

35 - 11

35.4.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in the transition period phases A temporary loss of a peak performance and the recovery of the working potentials for the following cycle a. At the end of the season the training activity decreases. There is active rest for a few weeks. b. Classic training tasks are performed in the first phase, while complementary sports and recreational activities are utilised in the second phase. c. After that, new objectives are set and a new cycle begins. d. This period should enable the employment of a load level that is higher than the level that was utilised at the beginning of the previous preparatory period.

35 - 12

Lesson 36:

Operative Planning and Programming (microcycle)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Describe planning and programming of training in a microcycle  Classify microcycles  Describe modelling of training in microcycles  Describe an example of training or competition microcycle

36 - 1

36.1. Planning and programming training in a microcycle  Microcycles are basic cycle structures of a

sports preparation process.

 Each microcycle is a relatively closed unit

that is repeated with major or minor corrections, which depend on the periodisation and the achieved effects.

 They provide a successful control of delayed

training effects.

Modelling of a plan and programme of training in a microcycle (third level) (SUMP=sum of weekly cycle activity data) SUMP

MO

TU

WE

TH

FR

SA

SU


12

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

TRAINING DURATION

26

4

4

4

4

4

4

2

General and basic physical preparation programmes

6

1˝

˝

2

˝

-

-

1˝


2

1

-

1

-

-

-

-


2

-

-

1

-

˝

-

˝

General endurance

2

˝

˝

˝

-

˝

-

-

10

2

2

1

1˝

2

1

˝


6

2

1

1

-

1

1

-


2

-

-

-

˝

1

-

˝

Specific endurance

2

-

1

-

1

-

-

-

Specific coordination and technique programmes

8

˝

1˝

1

2

2

1

-


0

-

-

-

-

-

-

-


1

-

-

-

-

-

1

-


1

-

-

-

-

-

1(2)

-


1

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

Weeks


36 - 2

 Different sports disciplines utilize microcycles

of various structures and durations.  It is necessary to define precisely: the number of days of training, training units and training hours as well as the means of training, the loads and methods in each day and at each training session.

 The character of a microcycle depends on the

age of an athlete.

 The load dynamics and the means distribution in

the microcycle of training for young athletes significantly differ from the microcycle of training programmes for adult top athletes.

36 - 3

36.2. Microcycle classification  Microcycles of training comprise only

days of training, while competitive microcycles comprise one or more competitions.



If the main goal of the microcycle is the training of a technique, it can be called a "technique microcycle". If the main goal is strength development, this microcycle is called a "strength microcycle".

36 - 4

 When considering training and competition

load levels and distribution, the following types of microcycles can be distinguished: - ordinary - normal - shock - relaxation

Ordinary - normal microcycle  It is characterised by the classic distribution of

training sessions with a higher or lower load. Training sessions with medium and submaximum loads prevail. Its focus is readiness maintenance.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

36 - 5

2

3

4

5

6

7

Shock microcycle  It is characterised by a large number of

days of training and training units with high and maximum loads. The proportion of these training sessions is more than 50%.

1

2

3

4

5 6

7

1

Recovery microcycle

2

3

4

5

6

3

4

5 6

7

Recreational microcycle

It comprises a large number of training days and training units with low or moderate loads.

1

2

It comprises fewer training days and training units with complementary sports.

7

1

36 - 6

2

3

4

5

6

7

Microcycle modelling of training  The sequence of training loads and unloading

periods (rest) is defined in microcycles.  There are various types of training distribution (1:1,2:1,3:1,1:2,2:2 etc.).  Intervals of higher or lower training loads correspond to the stimulation or relaxation stages of a microcycle.

Each microcycle comprises: 1) A stimulation phase (the training load is used to obtain a certain level of fatigue or exhaustion) 2) A relaxation phase (a decrease in the training load results in the recovery or regeneration of energy and other potentials, on which an athlete's readiness for the next training session depends)

36 - 7

Structure of one microcycle in the second phase of a preparatory period (Grosser et al., 1986)

Load level

IV total load

III

load intensity load volume

II I MO 1T SpP SpS

TU 2T SSP SPE

WE 1T AeE acR

FR SA SU TH 2T 2T 1T 1T SCC SpP SCC acR Te SpS SP SpS SPE SE

SpP – specific power, SpS – specific speed, SP – speed power, SPE – specific endurance, AeE – aerobic endurance, acR – active rest, SCC – speed coordination, S - speed, Te – technique, SE – speed endurance

Each training session induces certain fatigue reactions, which are neutralised in the recovery phase when compensation and supercompensation begin to occur When developing a microcycle plan, it is necessary to determine its duration, the number of days of training and rest days, and the number of training and competition hours. This enables the calculation of the training work stress in one microcycle.

36 - 8

Structure of a microcycle in a competitive period (Grosser et al., 1986)

Load level

IV total load load intensity

III

load volume

T C

II

I

Training Competition

MO TU WE TH FR SA SU 1T 2T 2T 2T 1T C 1T

Load

Example of a competition microcycle

PC (S)

TT CC

PC (B) AR

IT

TT

COMP

TT

AR

T

MON

TUE

WED

THU

FRI

SAT

SUN

1

2

2

1

2

1

1+1

AR – active rest, FMP (B) functional motor preparation (basic), FMP (S) functional motor preparation (specific), TT– technical-tactical training, CC – control competition, TO – toning load, COMP - competition

36 - 9

Operative training programme in the microcycle of a top football team (Milanović, 1997)

T

22/01

MO RN IN G

Strength, Fitness, Technique

Fitness centre, outdoors

Exercise machines (8-10 exercises, 3 sets x 8-10 repetitions) - functional gymnastics, elementary and advanced techniques

90 min.

4 high

Aft ern oon

Complex training

Outdoors

-jogging -- basic ball exercises

60 min.

3 Medium

23/01

MO RN IN G

Aerobic, General strength Technique

Outdoors

- Continuous running 20-30 min. -exercises for global activation of the locomotor system - pair exercises - elementary technique

90 min.

3 Medium

TUE

Aft ern oon

Technique, Tactics

Outdoors

- offense organisation and tactics training

120 min.

4 Submaxim um

24/01 WED

MO RN IN G

Strength, Fitness Technique


Exercise machines (8-10 exercises, 3 sets x 8-10 repetitions) - functional gymnastics, elementary and advanced technique

90 min.

4 Medium

Aft ern oon

Technique, Tactics

Outdoors

- offense organisation and tactics training

120 (135) min.

4 Submaxim um

MON

DAY

T

TRAINING GOALS

LOCATION

DAY

TRAINING GOALS

TRAINING MEANS

LOCATION

TRAINING MEANS

25/01

MO RNI NG

THU

Afte rno on

Speed, Agility, Explosiveness, Strength, TETA

26/01

MO RNI NG

Aerobic, General strength Technique

Afte rno on

Technique, Tactics

Outdoors

- technical tactical training - football game phases mastering

MO RNI NG

Technique, Tactics

Outdoors

Afte rno on

Strength, Fitness Flexibility, Technique


FRI

27/01 SAT

28/01 SUN

LOAD VOL/INT

REST

MO RNI NG Afte rno on

LOAD VOL/INT

Outdoors

75-90 min.

4 Submaximum

90 min.

3 Medium

120 (150) min.

4 Submaximum

Offense and defense segments detailed learning

120 min.

4 Submaximum

Exercise machines (8-10 exercises, 3 sets x 8-10 repetitions) - functional gymnastics, complex technique exercises

90 min.

4 Submaximum

60 min.

2 low

- general speed exercises - direction changes - jumping ability - clean and jerk exercises - TE-TA preparation exercises - continuous running, 30-40 min., variable pace - general strength exercises - specific technique preparation exercises

REST

Aerobic, Swimming Relaxation

- active rest - jogging, 45 min. - pool stretching, relaxation exercises

36 - 10

Lesson 38:

Modelling of Physical Preparation

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:        

Define training, physical conditioning, diagnostics and programming Explain specificities of the competition activity in team sports Describe factorial structure of readiness Make an example of model characteristics of top athletes Explain diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics Compare individual and model preparedness characteristics Describe methodology of physical preparation Explain physical preparation plan and programme modelling in an annual training cycle

38 - 1

Introduction 



Physical conditioning should be understood as a long-term physical exercise process in which loads and rest, and stress and adaptation to load constantly alternate. This will lead to a high-quality physical preparedness and, what is very important, high and stable sports results. Physical conditioning programmes are a result of long-standing experience of coaches and their assistants in many sports as well as the applied research in sports training.

A training programme which is well-planned and programmed for physical conditioning demonstrates the following values: 

   



it produces optimal sports preparedness and the desired sports results it ensures an improvement in psycho-physical abilities it decreases the number and the severity of athletes' injuries it ensures delayed fatigue reactions it accelerates the recovery process after training and competition the time and the effort invested in physical preparation provide multiple benefits for the athletes - during a competition they are able to utilise all of their biological, mental and technical-tactical potentials.

38 - 2

Definitions: Training is a regulated system of all transformation operators that are defined by the:  applicable motor activities  total load measures, and  modes of implementation, which are systematically used with the goal/aim of achieving explicitly defined goals in the sports preparation cycles.



Programming of training is a set of control actions that are used for  selection,  load management, and  distribution of training operators during training, and a means of recovery during a rest period.



Training operators are the stimuli that produce the transformation effects or quantitative and qualitative changes in the sports preparation cycles.

38 - 3



Readiness diagnostics

is an objective procedure for determining the level of abilities, characteristics and motor skills of an athlete and for detecting his/her "strengths" and the "weaknesses" of preparedness. 

Model characteristics

the results of top athletes when tested for abilities, characteristics and motor skills, and in the situational efficiency variables.



Physical preparation is a complex and comprehensive process of the application of several programmes for the development and maintenance of the functional and motor abilities, as well as the morphological characteristics. The main objective of all programmes is to improve readiness and sports results by increasing the general, basic and specific abilities, and characteristics that are necessary for a successful participation in training and competition activities.

38 - 4

Modelling - physical preparation planning and programming 

Many authors (Gabrijelić, 1980, Bangsbo, 1994, Platonov, 1997, Milanović, 1997, Műller, 1999, Željaskov, 1998, Issurin, 2008 and others) define the PHYSICAL preparation process using a systematic approach and closed-loop modelling

Closed-loop modelling of the physical preparation process 1. Specificities of the competition activity in a chosen sport

10. Training effects control

2. Factorial structure of success in a sports discipline

9. Training employment

3. Model characteristics of top athletes

8. Training programming: selections of means, loads and methods

4. Diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics

7. Training planning: goals, objectives, periodisation and conditions

5. Comparison of individual and model characteristics

6. Physical and technical-tactical preparation methodology

38 - 5

38.1. Specificities of the

competition activity in team sports

Heart rate during a football match (a) and the correlation between the HR and the VO2 while running on the treadmill for one player (b). With HR mean between 171 and 164 b/min in the first and the second half VO2 is between 51.1 ml/mol/kg (78% VO2max) and 46.2 ml/mol/kg (72% VO2max)(Bangsbo, 1994)

VO2max = 65.3 ml/min/kg

38 - 6







Distance covered by top football players during a match is between 8 and 12 km Of the total time spent on the football field players:  stand 12% of the time  walk 32% of the time  run slowly 38% of the time  run fast 16% of the time  sprint 2% of the time (around 120 s) Amount of active time (ball in the game) - 60 minutes

Distance run by the players in a handball match (Bon et al., 2002) prvo poluvrijeme First half

2560

drugo Second half poluvrijeme

2230

cijela utakmica Match

4790

0

2000

4000

This data refers to the new handball rules which include the fast centre.

38 - 7

6000

The various movement pace of players in the active part of a handball match (Bon et al., 2002)

7% walk (to 1.5m/s)

37%

25%

jog (1.5-3.0m/s) 31%

fast run (3.5-5.2m/s) sprint (faster than 5.2m/s)

Proportion of energy processes in different sports (modified after Željaskov, 1998) Energy process

SPORT

AEROBIC ml//kg/min VO2

ANAEROBIC-ALACTATE ml/kg/min VO2 debt

ANAEROBIC-LACTATE % of lactates concentration toleration

79 78 76 72 71 70 69 66

38 35 40 51 49 48 34 48

140 160 150 195 205 290 180 205

65 64 63 62

54 50 48 55

240 230 210 215

FIGURE SKATING

61 60 59 55

59 56 48 52

220 200 185 215

VOLLEYBALL

54

49

180

ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS

45

38

150

CROSS-COUNTRY SKIING CYCLING LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING SPEED SKATING SWIMMING MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING RACEWALKING ROWING

ICE HOCKEY WATER POLO FOOTBALL BASKETBALL SHORT-DISTANCE RUNNING WRESTLING SKIING

38 - 8

38.2. Factorial structure of readiness

Mean data for the maximum oxygen uptake in various sports (Bangsbo, 1994) mlO2/min/kg

football handball

80

middle-distance running untrained individuals

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 women

men

38 - 9

General hypothetical model of success in team sports (%)

40

PHYSICAL PREPARED NESS

30

PERSONALITY

20 BODY TYPE

10

40Speed -

explosive power

40Controlled aggression

anaerobic capacities

30

Motivation

40 Body

30

40

30Input

dimensions index

COGNITION

Aerobic and 30

Parallel processor efficiency

Voluminosity

processor efficiency

20

Accuracy

10 Coordinationagility

Micro-social Cognitive 20 10dimensions adaptability interaction

Transversal 20

Longitudinal 10 dimension

Serial 20processor

Cognitive 10 dimensions

dimension

efficiency

interaction

Influence of motor abilities on performance in football Coordination 15%

Strength 20%

Flexibility 10%

Endurance 30%

Speed 25%

ESF = f (a1E + a2S + a3P + a4CC + a5F) ESF = (30%E + 25%S + 20%P + 15%CC + 10%F)

38 - 10

38.3. Model characteristics of top athletes

Preparedness model characteristics of top football players ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

MODEL DATA

1. Body height

178.0

2. Body weight

74.0

3. 30 m run with flying start

3.30

4. 10x30 m run, rest 15''

40.0

5. Standing vertical jump

65.0

6. Vertical jump with an approach run

75.0

7. Pull-ups

10.0

8. Deep squat

111.0 kg (150% of body mass)

9. Zigzag run without the ball

8.60

10. Zigzag run with the ball

10.10

11. Oxygen uptake - VO2 ml/kg/min

68.00


6.00


70% (+)

38 - 11

Preparedness model characteristics of top handball players (Croatian national team) ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

MODEL DATA

1. Body height

192.0

2. Body weight

90.0

3. Biacromial span

44.30

4. Arm span

195.0

5. Hand span

25.2

6. Ball throwing, 800 g

32.59

7. Standing long jump

262.42 (280)

8. Standing double leg vertical jump

59.42

9. Standing single leg vertical jump

65.71 (70)

10. Lateral movement

7.57

11. Double triangle movement

6.6

12. Sit-ups

29.17 (35)

13. Bench-press

88.13 (95)

14. Multi-stage shuttle run test

30.78

15. 30 m run with standing start

4.82 (4.50)

Test data for basic and specific physical preparedness of cadet (C), junior (J), and senior (S) basketball players A.M.C

S.D.C

A.M.J

S.D.J

A.M.S

S.D.S

SAR cm

70.02

7.57

74.08

6.55

77.01

6.77

TRO cm

754.60

40.80

764.42

53.44

814.70

59.10

BLG cm

1513.30

135.10

1560.70

119.52

1720.80

466.60

CAT rep.

27.87

2.53

32.06

2.27

32.15

2.79

VS20 s

3.23

1.83

3.06

0.18

3.00

0.16

DO30 rep.

22.73

0.15

24.42

2.53

25.62

1.85

S4×5 s

5.26

0.50

5.34

0.51

4.79

0.41

OSMS s

9.09

0.44

8.93

0.63

8.80

0.51

KUS s

7.69

0.35

6.82

0.32

6.63

0.92

SMB s

29.46

1.52

27.56

1.54

26.69

1.28

TRB rep.

29.60

2.44

31.23

3.91

36.77

4.21

A.M. - arithmetic mean, S.D. - standard deviation

38 - 12

38.4. Diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics

Test data of an athlete X in anthropological variables of football players ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

TEST DATA OF AN ATHLETE X

1. Body height

176.3

2. Body weight

72.0

3. 30 m run with a flying start

3.48

4. 10x30 m run, rest 15''

43.2


56.7

6. Vertical jump with an approach run

62.6

7. Pull-ups

7.0

8. Deep squat



8.80


10.71

11. Oxygen uptake - VO2 ml/kg/min

62.78


4.40


45% (+)

38 - 13

Test data of handball players X and Y in the physical preparedness variables ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

BACKCOURT PLAYER X DATA

PIVOT PLAYER Y DATA

1. Body height

192.8

184.5

2. Body weight

89.0

83.6

3. Biacromial span

43.0

44.5

200.0

183.5

4. Arm span 5. Hand span

25.4

24


38.07

32.53


259.67

269.33


62.33

68.33


62.33

73

10. Lateral movement

7.22

6.35


6.17

5.82

26.33

36.33

12. Sit-ups 13. Bench-press 14. Multi-stage shuttle run test 15. 30 m run with a standing start

85

85

30.45

29.05

4.85

4.51

38.5. Comparison of individual and model preparedness characteristics

38 - 14

Model characteristics and test data of an athlete X in anthropological variables of football players ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

MODEL DATA

TEST DATA OF AN ATHLETE X

1. Body height

178.0

176.3

2. Body weight

74.0

72.0

3. 30 m run with flying start

3.30

3.48

4. 10x30 m run, rest 15''

40.0

43.2


65.0

56.7

50

6. Vertical jump with the approach run

75.0

62.6

40

7. Pull-ups

10.0

7.0

30



20


8.60

8.80


10.10

10.71

11. Oxygen uptake VO2 ml/kg/min

68.00

62.78

Points 70

8. Deep squat

60


6.00

4.40


70% (+)

45% (+)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Test data of handball players X and Y in physical preparedness tests ANTHROPOLOGI CAL VARIABLES

MODEL DATA

BACKCO URT PLAYER X DATA

PIVOT PLAYER Y DATA

1. Body height

192.0

192.8

184.5

2. Body weight

90.0

89.0

83.6

3. Biacromial span

44.30

43.0

44.5

4. Arm span

195.0

200.0

183.5

5. Hand span

25.2

25.4

24


32.59

38.07

32.53


262.42

259.67

269.33


59.42

62.33

68.33


65.71

62.33

73

7.57

7.22

6.35

9. Lateral movement

2

1

-1

6.6

6.17

5.82

10. Sit-ups

29.17

26.33

36.33

11. Bench-press

88.13

85

85

12. Multi-stage shuttle run test

30.78

30.45

29.05

4.82

4.85

4.51

13. 30 m run with standing start

3

0


13

Characteristics and abilities

-2

-3 IGRAČ X

38 - 15

IGRAČ Y

Results of top Croatian basketball players in tests for the assessment of basic and specific motor abilities Shooting guards Measuring instruments - tests

Desired result

P.1.

P.2.

1. Vertical jump (jumping type of explosive power)

82 cm

82 cm

64 cm

2. Standing triple jump (jumping type of explosive power)

8.50 m

8.60 m

7.80 m

3. Forward - backward run (speed endurance)

25.5 s

25.3 s

27.04 s

4. Chest ball throw (throwing type of explosive power)

18 m

18.5 m

16.30 m

5. 20 m sprint with standing start (speed power)

2.85 s

2.86 s

3.03 s

65 ml/kg

70 ml/kg

74 ml/kg

40

42

36

6. Relative oxygen uptake (aerobic capacity)

7. Sit-ups (abdominal muscles strength)

Physical preparedness profile of a top basketball player (T.1.) 0 = average results of the group of top basketball players (0 to 1 = model data) Z-values

3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3


38 - 16

Tests

38.6. Methodology of physical preparation

Verstile (multilateral) physical preparation 



Verstile or multilateral physical preparation refers to the process of a harmonious multilateral development of functional and motor abilities It leads to the improvement of functional and motor abilities, which can not be directly applied, but which contribute to the later development of basic and specific abilities

38 - 17

Selected general physical preparation exercises


38 - 18


Fundamental or basic physical preparation 



It utilises exercise, loads and methods (operators) targeting physical abilities that are essential in achieving good results in a given sports discipline. After Gabrijelić (1987), it refers to the further improvement of functional abilities of various organs and organ systems, the improvement of neuromuscular coordination, dimensions of strength, speed, endurance and flexibility, and the improvement of recovery efficiency

38 - 19

Selected basic physical preparation exercises

Specific physical preparation 



It ensures the energy adaptation to specific requirements of a sport utilizing a set of exercises similar to movement structures, i.e. sports discipline technique. In a certain way, it integrates physical and technicaltactical training

38 - 20

Selected exercises for specific physical preparation of football players

Training variables for the development of start speed, maximum speed and speed endurance (Pyke, 2001)

Maximum speed

Start speed, acceleration

Speed endurance

Intensity

95-105%

100%

85-95%

Distance

10-20m

5-30m

20-30m / 120300m

Full (3min+)

Full (3min+)

30-90s / 5-8 min

Flying


/

Speed/ Speed strength

Explosive power

Speed/ Anaerobic capacity phosphagen

2

2-3

2-3

Recovery between repetitions Start

Basic abilities

Frequency (training sessions per week)

38 - 21

Training load management for the development of muscular endurance No.

TRAINING PARAMETRES

SYMBOL

TRAINING CHARACTERISTICS

1


EL

40-60% 1 RM

2


NR

20 - 10 repetitions

3

Number of sets

NS

3 - 4 sets with each weight 10 - 20 sets total

4

Rest interval

RI

1 - 2 minutes between sets 2 - 3 minutes between weights 3 - 4 minutes between exercises

5

Rest activities

AR


6

Performance pace

PP

Medium

7

Means (exercises)

ME


8

Exercises per training session

NE

2 - 6 exercises

9


TF

2 - 3 × week

10

Super-compensation period

SP

48 hours

Training programme for the development of maximum strength No.

Training load parameters

Symbol

Training characteristics

1


EL

80-100% 1 RM

2


NR

5-1 repetitions

3

Number of sets

NS

6-12 sets

4

Rest interval

RI

4-6 minutes between sets

5

Rest activities

AR


6

Performance pace

PP

Fast

7

Means (exercises)

ME


8

Exercises per training

NE

2-4 exercises

9


TF

1-2 per week

10


SP

60-72 hours

38 - 22

Training programme for the development of the strength for child athletes No.

Training load parameters

Symbol

Training characteristics

1


EL

30-40% 1 RM

2


NR

20 -30 repetitions

3

Number of sets

NS

4-6 sets

4

Rest interval

RI

30-60 seconds between sets

5

Rest activities

AR


6

Performance pace

PP

Moderately fast

7

Means (exercises)

ME

General physical preparation exercises

8

Exercises per training

NE

8-12 exercises

9


TF

3 per week

10


SP

48 hours

Load management in different types of training programmes for strength using different training methods Training load parameters

Intensity (%)

Number of rep.

Rest

Maximum interval training method (A)

85-100

5-1

2-3 min

3-5 5-8 *

Maximum interval training method (B)

70-85

6-4

2-4 min

Intensive interval training method (A)

60-70

8-6

Intensive interval training method (B)

50-60

Extensive interval training method (A)

40-50

Methods

Extensive interval training method (B)

*

30-40

Pace

Main training effects

Powerful and explosive

Dynamic, maximum and explosive strength

3-5

Explosive

Maximum strength - muscle hypertrophy

3-5 min

4-6

Fast and explosive

Speed power

10-8

60-90 s

3-5**

Very fast standard or variable

Maximum and speedstrength endurance

15-10

30-60 s

4-6

Fast - standard or variable

Repetitive power

6-10

Moderate standard or variable

Muscle endurance

20-15

%

R

S

R×S

85

5

3

15

90 95 100

3 2

3 3

Number of sets

30-60 s

**

9

%

R

S

R×S

30

20

4

80

40

15

4

60

50

10

4

40

60

8

4

32

70

6

4

24

20

236

6

1

3

3

11

12

33

38 - 23

Energy mechanisms operative zones in sports activities (Winckler & Gambetta, 1987) ATP – adenosine triphosphate, CP – creatine phosphate: phosphagen anaerobic process, G – glycolytic anaerobic process, CH – carbohydrates, FA – fatty acids

SPORTS ACTIVITIY DURATION

LOAD INTENSITY

SPORTS ACTIVITY ENERGY SOURCES

1

1-15 s

maximum (95-100%)

2

15-60 s

3

ZONE

DOMINANT ENERGY PROCESSES % ANAEROBIC

AEROBIC

ATP CP

95-100

05-00

Sub-maximum (85-95%)

ATP CP +G

80-90

20-10

1-6 min

high (75-85%)

G+ aerobic CH

70-40

30-60

4

6-30 min

medium (60-75%)

aerobic CH+FA

40-10

60-90

5

> 30 min

low (30-60%)

aerobic CH+FA

05

95

Load management in a training task: the 100 m run

Time/ intensity %

100 95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

11.0

11.2

12.2

12.9

13.7

14.7

15.7

16.9

18.3

11.5

12.1

12.8

13.5

14.4

15.3

16.4

17.7

19.2

12.0

12.6

13.3

14.1

15.0

16.0

17.1

18.5

20.0

12.5

13.1

13.9

14.7

15.6

16.7

17.8

19.2

20.8

13.0

13.7

14.4

15.3

16.2

17.3

18.6

20.0

21.7

13.5

14.2

15.0

15.9

16.9

18.0

19.3

20.8

22.5

14.0

14.7

15.5

16.5

17.5

18.7

20.0

21.5

23.3

14.5

15.3

16.1

17.0

18.1

19.3

20.7

22.3

24.2

15.0

15.8

16.7

17.6

18.7

20.0

21.4

23.1

25.0

38 - 24

Load management in the training of a jumping type of explosive power • • • •

Exercise: drop jumps Location: a sports hall Training equipment: Swedish box (5), mat Training methods: – – – –

Interval training Eccentric-concentric muscle contraction Individual training Station method

• Load management: – – – – – – – – – –

Swedish box height can be set at 70 cm (result for the jumping ability in the Sargent test) Distance between Swedish boxes: 100 cm Number of repetitions: 1 X 5 Number of sets: 10 Rest between sets: 2-3 min Pace (performance speed): fast Rest activity: stretching and relaxation exercises Super-compensation period: 72 hours Frequency per week: 2x

Biological factors and risks in the motor abilities training at a young age (Keul, 1982 according to Milanović, 1997)

Ability

Duration

Limiting system

Risk of injury

Sport example

Possibility for development or "sensitivity"

STRENGTH

< 5 min

Muscle contraction mechanism

Bone-cartilage tissue

Weight lifting, throwing disciplines

0

Muscles

Tennis, 60-100 m run

+

Catabolic (catecholamine) and vegetative system

300 m running and combat sports

0

600 m run and 400 m swim

+

< 15 s

Phosphagen (alactate) energy process

SPEED ENDURANCE

< 1 min

Phosphagen (alactate) + glycolytic (lactate) energy process > 90%

SHORT-TERM ENDURANCE

1-5 min

50-70% aerobic; 50-30% anaerobic energy process

MEDIUM-TERM ENDURANCE

5-30 min

80-90% aerobic; 20-10% anaerobic energy process

Tendon system

1500 m run, 800 m i 1500 m swim

++

LONG-TERM ENDURANCE

> 30 min

95% aerobic; 0.5% anaerobic energy process

-

Cross country skiing and long-distance running

++

COORDINATION

-

Neuromuscular synchronisation

Joints and tendon system

Team sports, gymnastics, track and field

++

BALANCE

-

Balance centre

-

Figure skating and gymnastics

++

-

Oculomotor coordination

-

Team sports, shooting

++

-

Ligaments and tendons elasticity

Joints and muscles

Volleyball, rhythmic gymnastics and karate

++

SPEED

ACCURACY FLEXIBILITY

38 - 25

FACTORS FOR FLEXIBILITY DEVELOPMENT IN SPORTS (Grosser, 1983) FACTORS

FAVORABLE - POSITIVE

NON-FAVORABLE - NEGATIVE

Age

Child athletes (up to 14 years of age)

Adult athletes

Elasticity of muscles, muscle fascias and ligaments

Good elasticity and intermuscular coordination of agonists and antagonists

Poor elasticity and intermuscular coordination of agonists and antagonists

Muscle tension

Relaxed muscles

Increased muscle tension

Emotional, mental tension

Slight

Strong and persisting

Anatomicbiomechanical factors

Optimal activation of leverages and degrees of freedom

Insufficient utilization of natural relationships of leverages and joint surfaces

Time in the training day

11 a.m. - 12 p.m. until 4 p.m.

Morning hours

Outdoor temperature

Above 18° C

Below 18° C

‘warm-up’

Full and extended

Partial and short

Fatigue – exhaustion

Restfulness of locomotor system

Intense fatigue of locomotor system

Training duration

Up to 1 hour of training

More than 1 hour of training or strong “hard” training

100% 90% 80%

Physical conditioning

70% 60%

Technical training

50% 40%

Tactical training

30% 20%

Indivudual additional training

10% 0% I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII VIII

IX

X

XI

XII

38.7. Physical preparation plan

and programme modelling in an annual training cycle

38 - 26

Training programmes proportions in the preparatory and competitive period according to 59 German football coaches Preparatory period training programmes (%) 21,1

Competitive period training programmes (%) 21,3

28,4

19,6

16,2 21,3

21 15,2

15,3

20,1

Physical conditioning without ball Technical training Tactical training Complex training Match

Training focus in the phases of the preparatory period of an annual cycle for sprinters (G. Winkler, 1991) General preparation phase

Special preparation phase

Pre-competitive phase

Very important

Very important

Very important

• General endurance • Extensive running endurance • Aerobic capacity • Aerobic power • General strength • Flexibility • Coordination • Endurance at a slow speed

• Specific endurance • Anaerobic capacity • Speed • Glycolytic endurance • Specific and general strength • Lactates tolerance • Technique • Tactics • Situational physical preparation.

• Technique • Speed • Specific endurance • Speed endurance • Tactics • Team synchronisation • Situational physical preparation • Peak performance stabilisation

Less important

Less important

Less important

• Technique • Speed • Anaerobic capacity • Tactics

• General endurance • Aerobic power • Aerobic capacity • Flexibility

• General and specific strength • Flexibility • Aerobic power

38 - 27

100

90

80

First round

70

Peak performance Volume Intensity

60

1 VI

2 VII

3 VIII

4 IX

5

6

X XI

7 XII

8 I

Performance

Performance build-up

1. Peak performance

Peak perform ance decline

Periods

Preparatory period (PP)

1. Competitive period

Interperiod

9 II III

10 IV

11 V

2. Peak performance 2. Competitive period

Mesocycles Months

Peak perform ance loss Transiti on period

Training programmes distribution in an annual cycle for basketball players Periods of an annual cycle Months

1

Multilateral-basic motor preparation

2

Special-situational motor preparation

3

Technical preparation

4

Shooting practice (shooting at the basket)

5

Tactical preparation

6

Preparatory period VIII

IX

X

XI

XII

Preparatory matches, control matches, championship and cup matches

7


8

Control of the training effects

9

Active rest

Preparatory Transition period period

Competitive period

38 - 28

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

Annual cycle periodisation for a Croatian top football team (bi-cycle periodisation) 1. Preparatory period

Competitive period

Transition period

20/06/2001 – 28/07/2001

29/07/2001 – 10/12/2001

11/12/2001 - 09/01/2002.

Preparatory period

Competitive period

Transition period

10/01/2002 – 23/02/2002

24/02/2002 – 03/05/2002

14/05/2002 – 15/06/2002

2.

First cycle 1.1.

1.2

Preparatory period (PP) 2nd preparatory period phase

3rd preparatory period phase

20/06 – 30/06 2001

01/07 -14/07 2001

15/07 – 28/07 2001

multilateral-basic preparation

build-up / basicspecific preparation

maintenance / specificsituational preparation

Competitive period: 29/07 – 10/12/2001 

1.3

1st preparatory period phase

In the competitive period (autumn season) there were:  18 championship matches  3 cup matches  (17 wins/3 draws/1 loss)

Transition period: 11/12/2001 – 09/01/2002

38 - 29

Training plan and programme for a top basketball team in the preparatory period Training plan elements Preparatory period (PP) Comp. Total period

1

2

3

4

5

6

Mesocycle type

Introductory

Multilateral-basic

Basic

Specialsituational

Precompetitive

Competitive

Mesocycle duration

25/7-2/8

3/8/-13/8

14/8-26/8

27/8-6/9

7/9-18/9

19/912/10

25/712/10

50 / 50

60 / 40

70 / 30

40 / 60

30 / 70

20 / 80

45 / 55

Number of days in the mesocycle

9

11

13

11

12

24

80

Number of training and match days

8

9

12

9

10

19

67


10

14

18

12

6

20

80

Number of matches

2

1

2

3

7

7

15+7*

Number of training and match hours

16

25

36

25

20

38

160

Number of rest days

1

2

1

2

2

5

13

10+15

6+14

8+30

72+88

Mesocycle

Energy and information training ratio

6

Number of physical conditioning and information training hours

8+8

15+10

25+11

Training day load volume

2.0

2.78

3.0

2.78

2.0

2.0

2.43

Training day load intensity

60

80

90

80

90

95

825

Second cycle 2.1

2.2

Preparatory period (PP) 2nd preparatory period phase

3rd preparatory period phase

10/01 – 20/01 2002

21/01 -12/02 2002

13/02 – 23/02 2002

multilateral-basic preparation

build-up / basicspecific preparation

maintenance / specificsituational preparation

Competitive period : 24/02 – 03/05/2002 

2.3

1st preparatory period phase

In the competitive period (spring season) there were:  12 championship matches  2 cup matches  (7 wins/4 draws/3 losses)

Transition period : 14/05 – 15/06/2002

38 - 30

Proportions of different physical preparation types and programmes in long-term sports training 7-10 YEARS

11-14 YEARS 14-18 YEARS

MULTILATERAL PREPARATION

50

40

20

BASIC PREPARATION

30

30

30

SPECIFIC PREPARATION

20

20

30

SITUATIONAL PREPARATION

0

10

20

BUILD-UP PROGRAMMES

50

50

30

MAINTENANCE PROGRAMMES

10

20

30

RECOVERY PROGRAMMES

10

10

20

PREVENTIVE PROGRAMMES

30

20

20

Analysis of the annual training cycle implementation for 16-year old cadets • AN annual cycle comprises two macrocycles due to two competitive seasons • There were 552 training hours and 142 competition hours out of a total of 694 hours • This amount of training and competitions was realised in 272 working days • The transition period was too long - 58 days without any training cannot be tolerated when working with this age group.

38 - 31

Load level

T C

MO 1T

TU 2T

WE 2T

TH 2T

FR 1T


SA SU C 1T

38.8. Physical preparation

programme modelling in a competitive microcycle

Load level

Structure of a microcycle in the competitive period (Grosser et al., 1986)

Total load Intensity Volume

T C

MO 1T

TU 2T

WE 2T

TH 2T

FR 1T

SA C

38 - 32

SU 1T


Example of a competitive period microcycle in handball 

Competitive microcycle with one match  number of training days - 5  number of training units - 8  number of training and competition hours – 12 h 05 min  number of rest days - 1  match - Saturday (1)

MON

TUE

WED

THU

TRAINING SESSION

_________

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION



FRI

________

TRAINING SESSION

SAT

SUN

________

_________

CHAMPIONSHIP MATCH

_________

Competitive microcycle with two matches  number of training days - 7  number of training units - 7  number of rest days - 0  match - Wednesday and Saturday (2) MON

TUE

WED

----------

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

----------

MATCH

TRAINING SESSION

THU

TRAINING SESSION

----------

38 - 33

FRI

SAT

SUN

----------

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

TRAINING SESSION

MATCH

----------

Competitive microcycle operative training programme 

  

  

Monday: medium intensity training (TE-TA + motor abilities + global exercises for the trunk), training duration: 75 -90 min Tuesday: medium intensity training (TE-TA + prevention), training duration: 60-75 min Wednesday: toning + MATCH Thursday: medium intensity training (aerobic-recovery +TE-TA + global exercises for the trunk), training duration: 75-90 min Friday: medium intensity training (TE-TA + prevention), training duration: 60-75 min Saturday: toning + MATCH Sunday: recovery training (+pool and the massage)

38.9. Conclusion 



Physical preparation planning and programming in sport is an important part of the coach’s and the expert team’s activities. It minimises contingencies and ensures a safe and efficient accomplishment of optimal sports results that are in accordance with an individual athlete's characteristics and conditions for the implementation of the training process.

38 - 34



To make the most of a large physical preparation system we must make sure that the system meets or fulfils five basic conditions:

1. Frequency - how often to train? 2. Duration - how long to train? 3. Intensity - what is the amount of intensive training? 4. Diversity of means - which exercises to do? 5. Specificity - what is the level of direct applicability in football?

• The training process presents a coach and an expert team with many challenges, pitfalls and dangers.

• Overtraining, as a result of the application of an excessive load can be extremely dangerous for an athlete.

• It is the result of a disbalance between the time ratio of the training and the competition load and the recovery. It can have an acute (overreaching) and a chronic (overtraining) form.

38 - 35

• The well-coordinated

approach of an expert team is necessary to improve successfully the readiness components, to manage peak performance and to prevent excessive training and overtraining.







Nowadays, the individual and team physical preparation is conducted mostly by the physical conditioning coaches. Favourable conditions for successful work and achievement of top results are created if physical conditioning coaches have the specific education and experience in the given sport. Individual additional training in a competitive period can be useful from the training and the competition point of view, but the frequency and proportions of each additional training type should be carefully planned for each phase of this period.

38 - 36



Coaches and athletes should find the answer to the most important question: which PHYSICAL PREPARATION system will provide the individual and team preparedness that will ensure the highest sports results.

38 - 37

Lesson 39:

Introduction to Research Methodology in Sport

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Understand the importance of academic research in sport  Classify the areas of applied research in the sports kinesiology  Define the structure of sports activity research, athletes' dimensions and competition efficiency factors  Discuss research in the area of the effects of drill and teaching methods and the programmed process of sports preparation  Explain the possibilities for applying research results in the sports practice

39 - 1

39.1. Research in the field of sport and the sports training  Contemporary research in the field of sport is carried out using various approaches, which are usually interdisciplinary on various levels, depending on the general characteristics of the given sport and the specificities of the sports discipline.  Therefore, the sports science includes various levels of general and specific approach.

 The sports science determines general patterns of the sports preparation, training, and competition, basic guidelines for the training employment, as well as the specificities of various sports groups and sports disciplines and individual characteristics of athletes  Thus, the sports kinesiology defines its own field and methodology of research, with possible inclusion of other sports research disciplines using interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary approaches.

39 - 2

There are six basic groups of academic research in the field of sport and sports theory: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Research into sports and sports results Research into the characteristics of sports activities Research into athletes' dimensions (abilities, characteristics and skills) Research into the effects of drill and teaching methods Research into the effects of the programmed training process in different training cycles Research into the competition efficiency factors

39.2. Structure of the scientific research in the field of sport and sports training Scientific research and knowledge must help coaches and "their" athletes improve the training quality and sports results.

39 - 3

39.2.1. Research into sports and sports results  History of the development of a sport  Analysis of the sports results development trends  Analysis of the systems for the collection and the evaluation of sports results data

Academic knowledge contributes to:  Comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of monostructural, ploystructural, complex and conventional sports activities  Development of the criteria for the classification of sports

39 - 4

39.2.2. Research into characteristics of sports activities  Structural analysis of sports activities  Biomechanical analysis of sports activities  Functional analysis of sports activities

Research findings are used in:  Evaluation of the athlete's readiness (sports diagnostics)  Determination of model characteristics for top athletes of various ages and of both genders  Determination of relations between the basic and specific anthropological characteristics and the sports efficiency  Analysis of the effect of standard competition efficiency data on the final result at the competition

39 - 5

39.2.3. Research into the athletes' dimensions  Analysis of athletes' basic anthropological characteristics  Analysis of athletes' specific abilities and skills  Collection and the analysis of the competition efficiency data

39.2.4. Research into the competition efficiency factors  Effects of basic anthropological characteristics

 Effects of specific abilities and skills  Effects of competition efficiency parameters

39 - 6

39.2.5. Research into the effects of drill and teaching methods  Analysis of the effects of various physical conditioning methods  Analysis of the effects of technical-tactical training methodological procedures  Analysis of the effects of integrative preparation

39.2.6. Research into the effects of the programmed sports preparation process  Modelling and evaluation of the sports preparation process in multi-annual cycles  Modelling and evaluation of the sports preparation process in annual cycles  Modelling and evaluation of the sports preparation in mesocycles and microcycles

39 - 7

39.3. Applicability of scientific research results in sport  Sports kinesiology or sports science and related sciences can significantly affect the development of sport and the sports training theory and practice

Results of applied research can improve the sports practice by affecting:  Identifying sports talents (the sports selection)

 Training planning and programming in  Testing and evaluating different sports athletes' abilities and preparation cycles (the characteristics or detecting periodisation and the strengths and weaknesses training process in preparedness based on programming) the comparison of the results with the top athletes' model results

39 - 8

 It is necessary to ensure the transfer of academic research findings and results through various forms of professional education and training of coaches and other members of expert teams  Only educated sports professionals can successfully apply the increasing body of knowledge in improving sports preparation systems

39 - 9

QUESTIONS 1. Planning of training 2. Periodisation 3. Programming of training 4. Types of planning and programming of training 5. Methods of planning and programming of training 6. Long-term sports preparation periodisation 7. Long-term sports preparation modeling 8. Long-term sports preparation planning and programming 9. Organisational and methodical aspects of the Olympic cycle planning 10. Annual and semi-annual macrocycle 11. Periods and phases characteristics 12. Preparatory period 13. Competitive period 14. Guidelines for the programming of training in competitive period phases 15. Transition period 16. Guidelines for the programming of training in the transition period phases 17. Planning and programming training in a microcycle 18. Microcycle classification 19. Operative planning and programming of a day of training 20. Planning and programming a training unit 21. Specificities of the competition activity in team sports 22. Factorial structure of readiness 23. Model characteristics of top athletes 24. Diagnostics of individual athletes’ characteristics 25. Comparison of individual and model preparedness characteristics 26. Methodology of physical preparation 27. Physical preparation plan and programme modelling in an annual training cycle 28. Physical preparation programme modelling in a competitive microcycle 29. Structure of the scientific research in the field of sport and sports training 30. Applicability of scientific research results in sport

THESAURUS Adaptation in sports - process of transformation, the changing of an athlete’s characteristics and abilities relevant to his/her best, or at least, acceptable functioning in either standard or variable conditions of athletic work. Aerobic training - is physical exercise of relatively low intensity that depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process. Anaerobic training - is physical exercise of short duration, characterized by high intensity activities, which last from mere seconds up to about 2 minutes. Energy is gained through two types of anaerobic energy systems: 1) the high energy phosphates, ATP adenosine triphosphate and CP creatine phosphate; and 2) anaerobic glycolysis. Analytic teaching method - refers to the procedure whereby the global movement structure is divided into several phases, i.e. elements, each of which is taught and mastered separately. After each phase/element has been mastered, they are integrated, i.e. linked together into one whole. Annual training cycle - is planned and programmed in one or more training macrocycles. Each macrocycle contains three basic periods: preparatory, competitive and transition. Cognitive abilities of athletes - Enable reception, processing, retention and utilization of motor information resulting in quick and correct decision making during training and competition activities. Competition - process of comparing sports condition between individuals and teams according to the defined rules and norms. Competitive period - period in annual cycle in which competitions are dominant, and peak performance and the highest sports results occur. Complex sports activities - Characterized by simple and complex movements in terms of cooperation between members of sports teams during the game. Conative characteristics of athletes – are responsible for athletes' behaviour and their engagement level and drive during training and competition. Continuous method – training method in which activity continues without interruption. It can be standard (the training load level remains unchanged from the beginning to the end of the training activity) and variable (the load intensity changes during the training activity). Conventional sports activities - Contain aesthetically designed and choreographed sets of movement structures which are performed under standard conditions. There are obligatory and free competition programmes, with a subjectively assessed value of technical and artistic interest. Cybernetics - a science of management and regulation of interdependent processes occurring in complex systems. Cyclic nature of training - means that the process of training is executed through defined units as regards time and contents, which follow and complement each other.

Diagnostics in sport – represents assesing of fitness/preparedness through the measurements in laboratories and in the field. Doping - is the use of the forbidden chemical and other substances during sports preparation with the sole intention of artificially increasing sports or work performance and improving sports results. Fitness of athletes – denotes the optimal condition and functioning of an athlete in the process of training and competition. Frontal training – organisational form in which the whole team is involved in performing the set task at the same time. Functional abilities of athletes - Related with the efficiency of the oxygen transport system (aerobic ability) and anaerobic energy supply capacities (phosphogenic and glycolitic metabolic processes). Fundamental or basic physical preparation – preparation that utilizes exercises, loads and methods(operators) targeting physical abilities that are essential in achieving good results in the given sport discipline. Also, it utilizes operators for the development of those abilities and characteristics that are insufficiently developed. General or versatile physical preparation – refers to the process of a harmonious multilateral development of the functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics. Group training – organizational form for training of groups of athletes that have a similar level of abilities and skills. Ideomotor method - refers to the cognitive processing of a motor task. It means that the athlete repeats in his/her head what he/she has learned at the training session after the training has finished. Individual training - organisational form in which only one athlete trains throughout the training session or one of its parts under the supervision of a coach. Interval method – training method in which exchange of work and rest intervals is present. It can be standard (load variables are maintained on the same level) and variable (the load variables change). Long-term sports preparation - It refers to the total duration of a sports career and the biOlympic cycle. Methodology of sport training – is an academic discipline that studies the patterns of the methodological structuring of training or modelling of training and means of recovery. Model characteristics - are test results scores results, achieved by elite athletes in the primary and secondary anthropological variables and indicators of situational efficacy/performance Monostructural sport activities - Activities in which there are one or more movement structures of a cyclic or acyclic character, which are successively repeated. Standard forms of motion with the lowest variability of biomechanical parameters.

Morphological characteristics – implicate body composition indicators, somatotype characteristics of athletes. Motor abilities of athletes - are the aspects of intensity and extensity (volume) of any motor activity that can be described with the same parameter system and measured with the identical group of measuring instruments; onset of analoguous physiological, biochemical, morphological and biomechanical mechanisms is typical for each of them. Motor mistakes - performance of a motor task which significantly deviates from the ideal performance expected from the athlete based on his or her psychological and physical abilities. Motor programmes - are sets of data defining the execution of a certain motor activity in standard or variable conditions. Ordinary (normal) microcycle –is characterised by the classic distribution of training sessions with a higher or lower load. Training sessions with medium and submaximum loads prevail. Its focus is readiness maintenance. Parameters of situation efficiency of athletes – represent information from each competition/game about types, amount and quality of activities performed by individual players and teams (i.e. in basketball: the number of assists or rebounds). Periodisation - is a procedure to determine the typical sports preparation cycles. It simply means division of a longer cycle into shorter cycles. Physical conditioning - is a set of programmes and procedures for the development and maintenance of functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics that correspond to the level of preparedness of an athlete, the characteristics of a sport and the conditions in which it is implemented. Planning of training - is a complex control action that determines the goals and theobjectives of the training process, the time cycles for their achievement periodisation) and the necessary technical, material and personnel prerequisites. Polystructural sport activities - Semi-open and open movement structures that are performed in variable conditions. They are dominated by the complex structure of an acyclic movement character in which there is a direct, - wrestling opponents (wrestling, judo), or indirect - kicking, countering the opponent (boxing, karate, taekwondo, fencing). Preparatory period – period in annual cycle in which build-up preparation programmes that will ensure the achievement of a peak performance are utilised. Programming of training - is a complex control action that determines the procedures containing the information on the means, loads and methods of training, and on the recovery and competition. Prolonged transformation effects – in sports practice training effects that occur later, i.e. some time after the period in which the training with high and overlaping loads has been applied. Recovery - implies the application of diverse procedures that can enable the quick regeneration of athletes and the re-establishment of homeostatis which the previous exertion

has disturbed. Recovery microcycle - It comprises a large number of training days and training units with low or moderate loads. Shock microcycle - it is characterised by a large number of days of training and training units with high and maximum loads. The proportion of these training sessions is more than 50%. Situational physical preparation - preparation that brings together physical and tactical training. Situational physical preparation exercises involve a load level that is the same or higher than that at the competition. Situational teaching method - refers to learning and perfecting techniques and tactics in the conditions that match those at competitions. Specific abilities of athletes – are manifested within specific movement patterns and game situation patterns of a particular sport. They represent integration of physical fitness and technical (specific) preparedness as well as of physical fitness and tactical preparedness (situational). Specific physical preparation - preparation that utilizes a set of exercises similar to movement structures, i.e. sports discipline technique. It integrates physical and technical training leading to a specific physical preparedness. Sport - An activity that enables children, needs for movement and play, develop qualities, skills and motor knowledge, sports and creative expression, preservation and promotion of health and sports chievements at all levels of competition. Sport shape - is the heighest level of sportspecific fitness; it enables the athlete to perform at his/her best, to accomplish the best results at the most important main competitions. Sport tactics – A set of all forms and modes of action by one or more athletes in a situational training session or competition. Sport technique - a biomechanically correct and rational movement structure performance. Sports training - a longterm process of athletic preparation for the greatest and highest sports achievements. Specifically, it is physical, technical, tactical, intellectual, psychical and other forms of athletic preparation, it is achieved by practice and activity of the highest possible physicial load on organs and organic systems. Supercompensation - is a basic acute, immediate functional response of the organism on which effects accumulation and the development of sports shape are based. Synthetic teaching method - refers to learning and mastering a methodical task as a whole. The athlete performs the task as a whole, placing maximum focus on the most important phase of the global motor activity. The means (contents) of training - are systems of motor (competition and training) exercises and non-motor means implemented in training, competition and recovery in accordance with the desired outcomes of the sports preparation and characteristics of the expected training procedure.

Training effects - fitness level changes induced by the application of certain training operators. Training methods - are specific forms of work in sport. Training methods fall into two basic groups: a) exercise methods used in developing and maintaining various anthropological dimensions (primarily physical abilities) and b) teaching methods used in acquiring and improving technical-tactical skills. Training operator changes in athletes.

the stimuli that produce quantitative and qualitative fitness level

Transition period - period in annual cycle in which peak performance is temporarily lost. The number of days of training and training units significantly decrease, as well as the load level. Training theory - kinesiological, anthropological, Scientific-educational discipline in which the organization and function of a sport system is studied, as well as methodological and methodical principles of planning, programming and control of the process of training, competition and recovery in different cycles of sport preparation. Undulation of training loads – implies permanent wavy dynamics of loading and unloading in training process. There are periods of enhanced and periods of decreased total load.

THE FOLLOWING LITERATURE TITLES ARE RECOMMENDED:

1. Bompa, T.O. (1999). Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training, 4th edn. Chamapaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 2. Dick, F.W. (2007). Sports Training Principles. A&C Black Publishers, Ltd. 3. Enoka, R.M. (2002). Neuromechanics of Human Movement, 3rd Ed. Chamapaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 4. Malina, R.M., Bouchard, C. (1991). Growth, maturation and physical activity. Chamapaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 5. Reilly, T., Williams, A.M. (Eds.) (2003). Science and Soccer (2nd ed.). London: Routledge – Taylor & Francis Group. 6. Verkhoshansky, Y. , Siff, M. (2009). Supertraining. 6th expanded edition. 7. Wilmore, J.H. (2008). Physiology of sport and exercise. Chamapaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Training Theory Book[1]

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