TOPIC 6: Contribution of linguistic to foreign language teaching. The language learning process: similarities and differences when teaching and learning the mother tongue and the foreign language. •
Introduction.
•
Linguistics and language learning. •
•
•
Grammar and language. Psychological models in the study of native language.
Language learning. •
Main theories. •
Imitation.
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Innateness.
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Cognition.
•
•
•
•
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First language development in school.
Theories of foreign language acquisition. •
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Input.
Behaviourism. Cognitive theory.
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Monitor theory.
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Constructivism.
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Communicative Competence.
Differences and similarities between first first and foreign language acquisition. Conclusion.
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Bibliography.
1. This topic aims at studying the processes of learning and acquiring a language in both, first and foreign language, pointing out the importance of linguistics in these processes. It seems clear that we do not learn our mother tongue in the same way that a foreign language; these processes are totally different. All through this topic I will explain the differences differences and similarities similarities between the learning and acquisition of the mother tongue and a foreign language. In order to do it in a clear way, I will firstly deal with important concepts such as language, grammar and its components. Bearing in mind these general concepts, I will explain the main theories related to first language acquisition and, in the following section, I will do the same with the second language learning. The last part of this essay will be devoted to expose the main differences and similarities between these two processes. Finally, I will compile the main ideas in a brief conclusion and I will also enumerate the main bibliography used for the development of this topic. After this brief introduction introduction and, before dealing with the first language language acquisition acquisition process, it is required to deal with the concepts of L i n g u i s t i c s and and G r a m m a r since since they are the key to better understand how the native and the foreign languages are developed. 2. LINGUISTICS is the study of language as a system of human communication.
Moreover, communication is considered as a process in which a person (sender) transmits a message to another person (receiver) by using a code, which can be understood. The aim of linguistics is to study that message carefully, paying special attention to words and phrases in order to see how they are used. In doing so, linguistics see how the language works in order to establish Grammar. 2.a. As far as GRAMMAR is concerned, it is defined as the spea ker’s knowledge of
the language, a formal device with a finite set of rules that generates the sentences in the language. This knowledge is always in the native speakers’ head and, when we
learn a foreign language, it is required to acquire this knowledge in order to build up the grammar competence (included in the communicative competence). But a grammar must fulfil 2 criteria: On the one hand, it has to be adequate (it has to specify what is or is not possible in a language) and, on the other hand, it must explain how a sentence has to be related to other sentences with similar or opposite meaning. 2.b. It is also important to bear in mind the psychological needs of the theory of
learning since, in order to develop in an adequate way the teaching/learning process, it is required to represent the language user’s knowledge of the language as well as specifying the processes through which that knowledge is translated into performance. Therefore, a psychologically useful model of language must fulfil three main factors: •
Structural: it must be able to represent the entailments (vinculaciones) of a sentence identified by the speakers.
•
Functional: it must have a presentational format related to the previous knowledge.
•
Processing: it must take into account human’s l imits when processing information.
Once we have studied the relationship between linguistics and language learning, I will deal with the second part of the topic which will be devoted to the analysis of the different theories about first language acquisition. 3. Nevertheless, before presenting the main theories that explain first language
acquisition, I would like to explain briefly the main contributions of linguistic to foreign language teaching. As I have already mentione m entioned, d, linguistic linguistic has been applied to language language teaching for years. This fact has produced a great evolution in foreign language teaching. In the 20th century, we must underline FERDINAND de SAUSSURE and his “General Linguistic Course ”. One of his most important contributions was the
establishment of language as the main element to be studied. He also defined language as a system of signs. Saussure also distinguished between language (system of signs) and speech or parole (specific manifestation of that system in the communicative act). It is also important to underline that the language always precedes the parole, that is, if we do not internalize the linguistic system it is impossible to apply it in the speech act. Moreover, Saussure also distinguished between diachrony (study of language along time) and synchrony (study of language at a given moment). In 1957, Chomsky introduced an important change in the field of linguistics since it was
believed
that
learning
and
association,
produced
language
acquisition.
Nevertheless, Chomsky claimed the existence of an innate organ that allows people to learn and use the language in an instinctive way. All these aspects were reflected reflected on his “Generative “Generative Transformational Transformational Grammar” and he named the collection of innate rules that enable us to express ideas into word combinations. This way, the grammar is defined as a combinatory discrete system, which allows the building of an infinite number of sentences from a finite set of elements through some rules. 3.a. Bearing in mind these two linguists, I will introduce the most important theories
that explain the first language acquisition. All of them take as their main base the guidelines provided by Saussure and Chomsky. • Imitation: it claims that children learn their mother tongue by copying the utterances they hear. Correct utterances are reinforced and the wrong ones are corrected. This way, they gradually build up their linguistic competence. Imitation is important in the acquisition of semantic and phonological components but it is not enough to acquire the grammatical component. Nevertheless, this theory was criticized for two main reasons: •
Irregular forms in language tend to be “regularised”.
•
Children’s lack of ability to imita te grammatical structures.
Both aspects lead us to think that the acquisition of a language is more a matter of maturation than of imitation. • Innateness: this theory emerged as a reaction to Behaviourism. In 1965, Chomsky concluded that children were born with a special language processing ability (“Language Acquisition Device”). With the help of some other authors such as Mc Neil or Brown, they defined the LAD as the “ ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds; the ability to organise language into a system of structures; the knowledge of what is and what is not possible in a linguistic system”. Moreover, Chomsky argued that children were
innately programmed to acquire language since they do it quickly and with a limited input. • Cognition: according to Piaget, the linguistic structures will only emerge if there is an already-established cognitive foundation. However, it is difficult to show precise correlations between general cognitive abilities and linguistic development. This issue becomes more and more complex as children develop. • Input: in the 70’s, Crystal stated that “motherese” (the way that mothers talk to their children) showed that parental input is adapted in such a way that it eases children’s language acquisition. The main characteristics of this type of language are: simplicity (shorter utterances), clarity, expressive (affective elements) and attention catching. 3.b. At this point, it is also required to consider the differences that children find
when they arrive at school for the first time from the point of their linguistic development. When children arrive at school, they find people whose linguistic norm may vary from their own and, at this moment, they have to use language in a different way. At home, children take advantage of the interpersonal function of the language (use the language langua ge to change someone’s behaviour or to get something). However, the language
at school is different: it is centred on the “ideational” function (expression of ideas) and correctness is emphasized. Therefore, children have to use the language to talk about the language and learn a special technical vocabulary (meta-language). These general considerations must be taken into account in the second language acquisition process since it shares some characteristics of first language development in school. Once we know the main theories that support first language acquisition I will move on to the next part of this essay which will be devoted to the study of the main theories that explain the second language acquisition process. 4. When dealing with second language acquisition process I will pay special
attention to the following theories: •
Behaviourism: it is based on animal’s behaviour (SKINNER studies). According
to the stimulus-response psychology, any behaviour is a reaction to a stimulus. Therefore, any behaviour takes place in associative chains and, consequently, all learning is also considered as associative or habit formation process. Foreign language teachers adapted this theory and the result was the AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD (1950 and 1960). This method consisted in an infinite set of drills
followed by positive or negative reinforcement and the language habit was formed by the repetition of correct utterances reinforced by the teacher. Mistakes were immediately criticised and errors were not considered part of the language learning process. •
Cognitive theory: it focuses on the cognitive processes involved in language
acquisition. It is in direct opposition to BEHAVIOURIST THEORY since, from a cognitive point of view, learning is believed to be the result of internal mental activity rather than from something imposed from outside the learner. CHOMSKY based this approach on the belief that language is a process that involves active mental processes and not only the formation of habits. Grammar is learnt through induction and deduction and students have an active role along the whole
process. Within this theory, linguists such as PIAGET and BRUNNER must also be considered. •
Monitor Theory: it is one of the most influential theories in the last years.
KRASHEN (1982) describes 5 main hypothesis: •
Acquisition-learning
h y p o t h e s i s : the development of the second
language takes place in two different ways: acquisition (subconscious process similar to the way children develop their ability in their first language) and learning (conscious knowledge of the rules of the grammar of the second language and their application in production). •
N a t u r a l o r d e r h y p o t h e s i s : the acquisition of grammatical structures
follows a predictable order if that acquisition is natural. •
it is related to the fact that acquisition of the second M o n i t o r h y p o t h e s is is : it language utterances is responsible for fluency while learning, is only the monitor of the output.
•
I n p u t h y p o t h e s i s : it states that we only acquire a language when we are
exposed to “comprehensible input”. Moreover, this hypothesis affirms that, at first, acquirers go for meaning and, as a result, acquire the structures as well. Another important aspect within this hypothesis is that speaking fluency cannot be taught directly since it emerges naturally over time. KRASHEN states that early speech is not grammatically accurate since accuracy will develop over time as the acquirer hears and understand s more input. •
A f f e c t i v e f i l t e r h y p o t h e s i s : it is related to the fact that we only
understand comprehensible input when the affective conditions are optimal (motivation, self-confidence, low level of anxiety, etc.). When learners
are
on
the
defensive,
comprehensible input cannot get in.
the
affective
filter
is
high
and
•
Constructivist theory: it was supported by AUSUBEL and VIGOTSKY. They
considered that when learning a second language, the input has to be relevant to learner’s needs; the learning must be meaningful and that the input received must be comprehensible. The emphasis is put on learning strategies and, nowadays, this theory is the base of foreign language learning in Primary Education Stage. After having explained the main theories that explain the acquisition acquisition and learning of the foreign language, it is also required to highlight that the main goal of the foreign language area is the development of an adequate communicative competence in, at least, one foreign language. Therefore, let us explain the meaning of such an important concept and the way it is reflected on the current curriculum. CHOMSKY (1957) defined language as a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. Furthermore, he stated that an able speaker has a subconscious knowledge of the grammar rules of his/her language that allows him/her to make sentences in that language. He called this ability COMPETENCE. Nevertheless, HYMES argued that CHOMSKY had missed out the rules of use. Therefore, HYMES defines the communicative competence as an intuitive mastery that the native speaker possesses to use and interpret language appropriately. When a native speaker speaks he knows grammatical correct forms and where and when to use these sentences. HYMES distinguished four aspects of this Communicative Competence: - Systematic potential: the native speaker possesses a system that has a potential
for creating a lot of language. - Appropriacy: the native speaker knows what language is appropriate in a given
situation depending on the purpose, setting, participants, channel and topic. - Occurrence: the native speaker knows how often something is said in the language
and act accordingly. - Feasibility: the native speaker knows whether something is possible or not in the
language.
We must also consider the concept of communicative competence developed by CANALE AND SWAIN (1980). For these authors, Communicative Competence has four sub-competences (for any foreign speaker): •
Grammar competence: the mastery of the language code.
•
Discourse competence: the ability to produce written and spoken texts,
which show coherence and cohesion. •
Sociolinguistic competence: the knowledge of the socio-cultural rules of
use. •
Strategic
competence: the
ability
to
use
verbal
and
non-verbal
communication strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication and improve the effectiveness of communication. Moreover, all these sub-competences have been adapted for teaching purposes in the Curriculum of foreign language of Primary Education as the Organic Law of Education (LOMCE 8/2013) establishes. More specifically, it is the Royal Decree 126/2014, which divides the contents of Communicative Competence into 4 different blocks: •
Comprehension of oral texts.
•
Production of oral texts: Expression and interaction.
•
Comprehension of written texts.
•
Production of written texts: Expression and interaction.
In the first block, the following contents are included: • Comprehension
strategies,
sociocultural
and
sociolinguistic
aspects,
communicative functions, syntactic structures, vocabulary and sound skills (stress, rhythm and intonation). In the second block: •
Production strategies, planning and expression, linguistics and paralinguistic elements, sociocultural and sociolinguistic aspects, communicative functions, syntactic-discursive structures, lexis and sound skills.
In the third block:
• Comprehension
strategies,
sociocultural
and
sociolinguistics
aspects,
communicative functions, syntactic-discursive strategies, lexis and graphic skills and orthography. In the fourth block: •
Production sociolinguistic
strategies
and
aspects,
planning,
communicative
expression, functions,
sociocultural
and
syntactic-discursive
structures, lexis and graphic skills and orthography.
All through through this topic topic I have explained explained the most most important theories that explain explain the first and second language acquisition and learning process. Therefore, I will deal now with the next step in my discourse where I will compare both processes in order to expose their differences and similarities. 5. GASS (1994) pointed out that the differences between first and second
language acquisition are the following ones: • Age factor: most linguists agree on the fact that the age at which we start the acquisition of a language plays an important role. Nowadays, children start this process at the age of three and, consequently, the possibilities to internalise the phonological, semantic, syntactic and pragmatic components of the foreign language are increased although the time of exposition to the foreign language is limited. •
Fossilisation: the point at which no further learning appears possible. It can
occur: - When students feel their communicative needs have already been met. - When students don’t value accuracy. - When students are resistant to the target culture. - When students don’t receive the corrective feedback. •
Transference: negative influence that first language has on the production of
the second language (keep the same word order, syntactic structures and phonological patterns used in their mother tongue). GASS (1994) also claimed the most important similarities between first and second language acquisition: •
Interlingua development: in both languages, speakers go through before they
are able to speak fluently. At first, learners are unable to say anything (silent
period) and they only produce sounds, words or expressions. It is required to be exposed to the language for a period of time in order to get the presyntactic stage where learners are already able to produce the first utterances. •
Sub-conscious mental process: our brain organises and stores the input we
receive in order to make the speech mechanisms available. If language has been acquired, learners can produce the language without reflecting on the process. •
Personality and contextual factors: not all language learners acquire the
language in the same context. The different contexts will determine how the language is acquired. Another important aspect is the psychological component in terms of the lea rner’s personality.
6. As a conclusion, I would like to underline that, all through this topic I have tried
to show that there is not a unique method to explain how a language is acquired. Nevertheless, we have to bear in mind that this process will never take place in the same way as we acquire our mother tongue. Both processes are different due to factors such as the context or the age and, what is more important, they take place even in different parts of our brain. I have presented the most relevant methods proposed along the years but we, as teachers, should be eclectic and choose the best parts or strategies in every method and apply them to our own teaching practice.
The main bibliography used for the development of this topic is: •
BREWSTER, J; ELLIS, G and GIRARD, D: “The “The Primary English Teacher’s Guide”. Penguin. London (2002).
•
CARROLL, D.W: “Psychology of language”. Brooks/Cole. Belmont (1986).
•
CRYSTAL, D: “The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language”. CUP. Cambridge (1987).
•
GASS, S.M: “Second Language Acquisition: An introductory course”. London: Lawrence Erlbaum (1994).
•
STEINBERG, D.D: “Psycholinguistics”. Longman. London (1982).
