Chapter I
Why Was the Englne Needed? The needsfor human happiness and water for Versailles result in tite need for an invention.
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Water Keeper Christiaan Huygens' Idea Accordi ng 10 th e historical rccords(l·I), me first long-distance automobile trip, Ihat ¡s, Ihe grand touriog, was mude by Madum Berthu Beoz, wife of Gcrman enginccr and inventor Kurl Benz, and her two ehildren. The secooo long-distanee driving trip was mude by Armand Peugcot, who foundcd Ihe Pcugeot MOlor Company. Peugeot traveled me Paris-Bresl-Paris route. If a travele r were ridin g on an express lrain from Bres! to París. he would see on the left side of Ihe lrack, appro1t imalely 20 minules 10 Ihe Montparnasse train station in pans. Ihe famou s Palaee of Versailles. The Palace of Versailles was con verted by King Louis XN from a royal hunting lodgc 10 the premier palaee of Ihe Westem world_The palaee and lIS auxiliary build¡ngs 100k 21 ycars to complele, from 166710 1688. The 425-meter-loog muio building was lurge enough 10 entertain 10,000 guesls and was DOled for lIs lavish fumiture aOO innovativc architccture (sec Photo 1-1). The palacc grounds wcre exlensive. A mlle-long canal was dug al !he fronl of the building. permitting boaters 10 leisuTely sip a glass of aperitifbefore a glorious dinner. The formal gardeos of Versailles were Ihe pride of Louis XIV aod eomplemenled Ihe splendor of Ihe palace wilh a beau!y Ihat was admired by all me royalty of Europe. Broad aveoues were lined with sy mmetrical plantings of trees. Hedges were planted in elabornle e mbroldercd pallems, and founlains spewed jels of water into pools (see Photo 1-2). Flowers and bushes were arranged in pallems of vibrant eolors_
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2
Th~
HOm(Jnu 01 EngintS
I'hOIO , -, Vusai/les P% u (166710 1688}: From ¡he unru af /he mDi" buildi"g /O Ihtl sOlllh ..,ing.
PlwlO /-1 Vtrsaiflu Polou: Vitwing mi/t-/DlIB conallor hotIDrro gutsufrom LnIOfltl Founrai" (¡ht garden olont luu mortl 1M" ItI" 1u.rllriousfounloinsJ.
Allhou gh lhe gardens were designe
Chapler /
,
rcsponsibilily of Chrisliaan Huygens, wh o was a me mber of King Lo ui s XIV 's eou n, serJing as 11 water keeper atlhis lime. Waler 10 keep!he gardens luxurianl was drawn from Ihe nearby Seine Rive r. More Ih an 3000 e ub ie mclers of waler wcrc needed lo provide Ihe palaee and ils g rounds wi lh ils daily s upply oí water. Both Ihe efTort, man or animaJ power, and lime necessary lo lranspon Ihe water from Ihe river lo Ihe paJace werc enonnous. Huy_ gens. who was in eharge of the paJace wnterwo rks. was constanll y thinking of how lo simplify obtaining the water nece ssary for the gardens and!he palaee. Finally, in 1673, he dev ised a prololype of an inlernal -co mbus tion engine.(1-2) The concept of thi s primitive e ngi ne is iIIustrated in Fig. 1-1. The linc A-B represent s the cylinder. Gunpowder is placed:1I poinl e and the n igniled. Th e explosive gases force piston D 10 Ihe top of!he eylinde r, and one-way lealhe r release valve s (E-F) allow Ihe was te gases to ex hau st 10 the ~tmos phere . A near vacuum then exists in Ihe eylinder. Almospheric pressure rorces Ihe piston bae k lowaro Ihe bouom of Ihe cyli nder, fai sing substance G, which could be water.
,
Fig. /-/ Conuplual Jra ...ing ofillumal-combus/icm t llSillt origirmleJ by Huygens ( /671).
Huygens documented Ihis firsl inlernal-eombuslio n eogine in 3 lette r to his brother. Several versio ns of Ihe e ngine were buill a nd tried.(t.]) Obviousl)'. Ihe m3n who originated thi s innovative concept was nOI an ord inary court ier.
,
Th~
Romance o[ Engines
In ract. Christiaan Hu ygens was one of ¡he roremosl natural phitosophers of
his era (Fig. 1-2). In 1673, ¡he year ¡he engine was built, Huygens was Ihe first foreign member 10 be accepted ¡mo!he Paris Acadcmy. He was a Dulch physicisl who o riginated Ihe principIe of Iight known as Huyge ns' Principie. He di scovered Ihal Satum was surrounded by ¡¡ Oauened ringo He patcn ted
lhe fina pendulum clock, which keeps accurnlc time. In 1685, 12 years afte r lis design , ¡he water pump was built by using 14 waler whee ls, each with a 12-metc: r diamele r, lo transport 3000 c ubi c me ters
of water daily from Ihe Scine River 10 ¡he ga rdens of Versailles, baTely cnough 10 meet jls need s.(1-4) The enormous qunntity of water rcqui red daily by ¡he palace can be realized ir the reader knows Iha! (he enlire Hino plnnl of Hino Motors. Lid. uses only 4000 clIbic melcrs ofwnlcr da ily in ils
tolal manllfncluring process.
Englne Salum
Automobile?
_
Tl1e inner grounds 01
lile Palace 01 Versailles.
( Red wine
7í.,. _ Fig. 1·2 Wau r J:.uper and hiu:leganl ide" (162910 /695). (}·5)
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,
Chuplu 1
If Garly inlernal-cornbustion engines are to be reviewed, Ihen one more genius mu st be mentioned herc. This genius was the ltalilln Leonardo da Vinci, who skelched a gunpowde r engine in 1509. The sketch i5 very similar to Huygens' concept. However, the da Vi nci engine was never buH!. The gunpowdcr enginc was one of da Vi nci's many inventions and ideas Ihal werc noted only in drawings. Since Huygens had never see n da Vinci 's sketch , Huygens' idea was his own.{l·3)
Beginnlng of the Steam Engine Denis Papin was a French inventor, medical student, and industrial anist. He served as an assistant in developing Ihe Huygens engine, and he devel oped ideas concerning a sleam engine instead of a gunpowder engine arou nd 1670. However, il is believed that he neve! fu ll y deveJoped his ideas into practical machines. This devclopmcnt was left for fuwrc generalions. Eng lishrnan Thomas Savery dcvised the firsl practica! apparalus for harncssing steam power. His machine and Papin's idea also!ed 10 the inve nl ion by Thomas Ncwcomen in 1712 oflhe firsl successful stcam engine. James Watl modified and improved Ihe Newcomen steam engine, wh ich rcsu lled in Watl's new steam engine being rccognized a.~ a practical engine powerplant. Joseph Cugnots was Ihe finl inventor 10 use Ihe sleam engine in a ve hicle for Iran sporlalion, around 1763-1771. Later, in 1890, C lernenl Ade r auempled lo insla lllhe sleam engine into an airp lane. 80lh Ihe vehicle (Photo 1-3) aOO Ihe airplane (Pholo 1-4) are on display al the Co nservaloir Nalional de Arts el Malien in pans. However, nei!her vehicle WIIS practical ror transportation. The invenlion of Ihe really useful engine for transportation was left for rmure generalions of dreamers. The inlemal-co mbuslion engine suitable for vehiele use was nol avai lable unlillhe invention of:1O engine by Nicolaus Augusl OUo. As noted in this chapter, the reason for dcveloping nn engi ne ;5 10 meel Ihe needs of Ihe people and 10 have Ihese machines relie ve Ihem of Ihe lremendous burdens prcviously borne by the human back. This need lo improve lhe condilion of humanity, of course, is lhe primary reason for all inventions and progress. Even Ihough an idea may be conceived by the single pen;on responsible, for example, for providing wate r to trees, planls, and fountains, Ihe dedicalion of many skilled and imaginative people are required to nurture and gmw Ihat idea. New technol· ogy is Ihe realization of crilical thinking and originality Ihrough Ihe applica· lion of skilland I:.nowledge. This principie is iHuSlmtcd on Ihe li n;t pages of lhe hislory of the engine.
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6
PholO /-3 CugnolS ' sl~om t "sine CUT (¡no) (Co/Utrw:uoir Nalional de Am i!:I Matius
¡TI Paris).
PhOIO 1-4 Cltrntnt Adu's Jltam airpÚlnt (1890) (Conurvaloir Na/iolUll de Arrs ti MDliuJ in Paris).
Chapter 2
A Great Work ofthe EarIy Perlod: Newcomen's Steam Englne Success comes Jrom the careJuf compilation ofinformalion. The key lo success is one young man 's lenacity.
Fundamental Reformation of the Heat Engine Wh en a visitor wa lks into Ihe Seience Museum in London, one of Ihe fi rsl exhibils Ihat he sees is the Newcomen e ngine (Photo 2-1). The engine appenrs 10 ri se fm m the fl oo r like a di ving board sland at poolside. The signifi cance of this e ngine is thal it was th e fi rst practical use of the pistoncylinder assembl y in a work-p roducing confi guration. Thomas Newcomen, a blacksmith and invcn tor, was bom in Dartmou th, England.(2-l) His work was based on Ihe ea rlie r d iseoveries of Christiaan Hllygens a nd De ni s Papio, both discu ssed in Chaptcr 1. He com bined their conceplS by using th e spray jet developed by Dr. Desagllliers, and he. with he[ p fro m glass and lead pipe worker John Calley, modified an d redes igned ¡he engine buil! e¡¡ r]ier by Thomas Savery in 1698.(2-2) Fig. 2-1 il1uslra!es Ihe Newcome n cngine. A piston (Photo 2-2) and n cylindeT are placed aboye an o ld distillali on boiler. rhe stea m from Ihe boile r expands. is dirccled imo lhe cylinde r, and pushes Ihe pislon 10 Ihe 10p af Ihe cy linde r. When Ihe piston rcaches ils peak, the interior jet sproy spra ys wa ler into the cyli nder, condensi ng Ihe steam inlO waler. Concurrently with Ihe water spray, the valve separati ng the cylinder fm m th e boiler is closed. Al thi s point, a near-vac uum is created in the cylinder. rhe atm ospheric press ure pushes Ihe piston down , cllusi ng Ihe drawing pllmp 10 operale Ihrough Ihe beam. This engine. in effect. demonstnnes the concepllhal had
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The Rontilllct o[ E"sints
Photo 2·1 HUBe Ntwcomen ""B"nI!': frhibil t d erlgine wa,r mo.nufOCl"rt d in J79f by Francis Thompson. /454-mm bofe, 2U)()·mm strokt, 25 PS, 18 l/rotes/mi'lul" (l.cn.don Sci"nce Mu.u:um. 8oTe, SITOkt!, o"d PS i" dico/e c)'linder d;(Jmt leT, pisto/l s/rote, Wld horstpo ....t r, resptctÍ>'dy).
beco poslul ated by Huygens with his earlier engine. In this version, however, gunpowder had bcen replaced by sleam as the powerin g force.
Young Man Potta's Tenacious Spirit In Newcomen's engine, aClua¡ing Ihe val ve, shuuin g off Ihe Sleam, and spraying Ihe water had 10 be done fo r each pumping stroke. Since Ihese pans of Ihe cycle had lO be perfarmed manually, an aucndant was hired 10 carry out this functi on. Dne of (he first men hired 10 monitor ¡he condensation cycle was Humphrey Potla. This young man is credited with having aut omated so rne of mese laborious procedures lO simplify operation of the engi ne. After extensive trial and error. he had the waler flowing inlo Ihe cylinder on Ihe 10p of me piston. This water fl ow also cooled the lealher seal on Ihe piston. Potta also atlached a dasp and a strap to a lever, which opcned and c\osed the val ve. The Newco men engine was the fi rst steam engine that co uld successfu lly pump me ground wate r from flooded mine shafts. 1ñe removal of Ihis obstaele allowed the sinking of deepe r shafts 10 mine coal seams Ihat prcviously would have becn unworkable. The Newcomen engine spread rapidly among
9
ChaplU 2
Boam
Pislan
Water pipe
l Ilon boiler usad lor making "':'''"'
Tha laboring MI. Pana Fig. 2-1 NelllCQnretl t tlgine ( 1712); The t tlgine lilas complelt d lhanb 10 Ihe Polla pro{'(lsal.
the British mining di stricts, greatly expanding the production of coa!. This engine removed one of!he great bottlenecks restraining me economic growth
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10
Tht Romance 01 Engints
Phoro 2-2 Pis/orl Qua ol/he Ntwcomtn tngint (Mun ich. German muuum).
of England. As a result, the industrial revolution exploded in England. Thus.
PaUa 's tenacious spirit served as Ihe trigger for the industrial change in England and subsequently Ihe world.
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Chapter 3
The Watt Stearn Englne Grew from a Model Steam Englne A new engine is created as a result o//ailure analysis.
An Indispensable Problem-Solving Technique In 1763, a model of the Newcomen sleam engine thal had been used as a leaehing 1001 al Ihe Univer.lily of Glasgow slopped working. Sinee James Wan was the inslrumenl maker al me UniversilY, he was askcd 10 repair tbe engine. Wau's work wim this engine is me reason mal his engi ne appears 10 be so similar 10 Ihe Newcomen engine. \Vall, ralher than Newcomen, is rcc· og nized a s the inventor of Ihe modem Sleam engine bccause his steam engine was the forerunner of Ihe engines Ihal utilize the pressure of steam ilself, unlike an atmospheric cnginc, as detailed later. \Van began a syslemalic e¡¡a minalion lo determine why the Newcomen engine model failed to operatc satisfactorily, cven though it was made 00 almosl the same scale as thal of a full-size engine. In modem lerminology, his approaeh lo lacale the problem can be called a failure analysis. In erreet, fai!ure analysis mea ns that if ¡he maehine has broken down or has been damaged, ¡hen the investigator muSI systematieal1y determine the cause of lhe problem. Then he musI study Ihe proble m in a logical manner lo providc a solulion. Eve n Ihough these problem-solvi ng techniques may nOI have been called failure analysis over ¡he years, it has becn ane of the most importanl aspt!Cts of improving and developing me engi nc .
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Chaptt r 3
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Watl's Idea for Bis New Engine Carne from the Newcomen Engine When WaU began repairing Ihe Newcomen model engine al the University of Glasgow, he feh Ihat Ihe engine produced an insufficient volume of steam in view of lhe amount of heal put into the engine. Today, we know Ihat the cylinder wall of the Newcomen engine model may have been 100 Ihick, requiring excessive steam to raise the lemperature of the cylinder and then an excessive amount of water 10 cool the cylinder. Watt heated and cooled the engine for several cycles, finally detennining Ihe exUCI volume of steam required 10 operate Ihe machine. During lhis process, Watt uncovered a contradictory point in the Newcomen engine in thal a large amount of water was requíred to coollhe healed cylinder, and in !he neXI cycle, Ihe cylinder had 10 be healed agaín by a large amount of steam. To reduee his need for so much water and Sleam, WaU added to the eogine a separale chamber for condensing steam, thal is, a condenser. Further, he Ihoughl that even beuer results mighl be oblained by supplementing almospheric pressure with the prcssure of the steam ilself afler!he steam was relumed to Ihe condenser. As a result, he applied the sleam's pressure to the cylinder. However, Ihe pressure was reponedJy only one atmosphere above ambient pressure. In Ihis manner, WaU instalJed Ihe condenser and eompleled a steam engine in which the pistan i5 being driven direell y by sleam pressure.(2-l) The sleam engine was said 10 have beeo completed in 1776, 13 years afler WaU's failure analysis began. Photo 3-3 shows Watt's early sleam engine. NOle Ihal almosl a1l the leeth in me gear used 10 tnmsfer!he power from the engine were broken. The gear teeth used in today's engines are based on a curved line called the involute, and their strenglh has been sufficiently calculated. However. in WaU's era around Ihe 1770s,!he industrial gear was still in ils formative slages. Since the jnvolute curve-bascd gear had nol appeared yel, gea~ wcre based on Ihe curved line known as an cpicydoid. The fil"lil pernon who calculaled lhe slrenglh of gear leeth was Walt. His assistanl, Mauhew Bou1l0n, wrole Watt a lelter aclvising mal gear profiles must be machined more prccisely 10 protecl gear leelh from damage p·l) Machining processes and their accuracy are inseparable problems thal are nol limiled to cngines, but are Ihe basis of all mechanical producIs (see Chapter 38). Machining or manufacluring process and Ihe aceurncy for Ihe desired product are !he mast basic and imponanl pans of all mechanical products. This conccpl originaled wilh Wau's engine.
16
The Romance 01 Engints
PholO J.J TIre use OfWllt/'S Sfeam enginr: spuad lilu: wildfire rhroughoUl modem European na/ions. This engine is ¡he one IrUJde by Wall in 1788 wilh 476-mm bore.
/200-mm s/rake. and 13.75 PS. Thefocllhallhe powtr-lrarumitting gear lu th are 011 broken corwinus me Ihul Walr wa.s rhefirsl puson /O ptrform rhi! slr<:nglh calcula/ion olgear IUlh (Lendon Sciencr Museum).
Allhough Watt did add one atmospheric pressure e f sleam into (he c)'linder,
il served on ly to transport Ihe steam to ¡he cylinder. Therefore, Watt's engine can still be classified as an atmos pheric engine. He never uttempted 10 convert his atmosphc:ric pressure rnachine into some thing more efficient through ¡he use ef a higher pressure. When Watt scpa rated Ihe condense r from Ihe cylinder, ¡he efficiency a f his engine was ¡ncreased four times, that is, coal consu mption was reduced to one rourth. Wau conti nued to feel that high pressures in the engine would be dangerous und avoided its use: Still, the basic struclure of his engine poinled 10 Ihe need for higher pressures and scrved lo transilion from Ihe almospheric pressure machine. 1I was obvious
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CJwprer 3
17
Ihal a highcr slcam pressurc would be required 10 achicvc a highcr cfficiency. In spile of Wau's opposition, Rich ard Trevithick completed his high-pressure slearn engine in 1804.
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Chapter 4
How Was an Intemal-Combustlon Englne Establlshed? The discovery ofrhe cenlury WQS lhe resu{' 01 a fa ulty idea. The earliest theory was buried dile lo on IInpaid lax bill.
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Barrier Against the Birtb of the Internal-Combustion Engine Progress in uny technology. particularly in natural science, is mude when a hypothesis is established lha! has been bascd on experiments th¡¡t reprn::luce
a phenomenon and confirm ¡he consislc nc y of sorne rule (design sta ndard).(4-1) In this case, the hypothesis can be a mere conjecture and does nOI have 10 be a valid theory from ils very beginning. Because a hypolhesis serves as merely a single step on Ihe road IOwaro salving a problem, il can be revised freel)' ir a contrad ictio n arises, jusI as a hiker can change dircelio ns ir a rallen tree blocks his palh. The German experi me nler Nicolaus Aug usI 0110 in vented me fi rsl successfuI rour-strokc intcmal- co mbu sti o n enginc. This firsl cnginc was the rorerunn er for Ihe muhipurpose e ngines used loday. He was work.ing on the engine with the goal of improving Ihe low efficiency of me new lenoir IWOslroke. no ncompression engine. Howeve r, the conjcclure thal was Ihe bas is for hi s inq ui ry, Ih al is, his basis for improving Ih e low efficiency of th e lenoir engine , was far re moved from the faclors Ihat evc nlually produced the high effieieney of lbe Quo engine. After Watt had commercialized Ihe sleam engine, allempls lO design a hi ghperfonnance inlemal-combuslion engine were never ronde because no one
20
The Romance oi Erlgines
had thought 10 compress lile air/gasoline mixture prior 10 ils ¡gnilico. Jean Joseph Etienne !..enoir, a French inventor, is generally crediled with designing ¡he world's firs! intemaJ-combustion cogine in 1860, 155 yean; after ¡he Newcomcn slea m engi ne had beco assemb led. His engine WIlS still nOI a compression machine because il ignited ils fuel al acmospheric pressure. In ¡hose cases with minimal hea! Iransfer, when ¡he aiT/fuel mixture is compressed in me cylinder befare ¡gnilico. Iheo the temperalure in the cylinder wiJ\ rise in proponian lo the power orlhe volume Talio (compression ratio). As a result, ¡he thennal efficiency ¡ocreases Tapidly with the ¡ocrease in ¡he compression mtio (Appendix A4). This ¡ocrease in thennal efficiency is Ihe rcason engine manufacturers attempt to maximiz.e the compression ratio of gasoline and diese1 engines e\'en today.
The idea of compressing the air/fuel mixture before ignition had beeo presented by sorne people shortly afler the inventíon of the lenoír engine. OltO'S idea was very differcnl in thal he relt the poor thermal efficiency was allributable lo an abrupl ellplosion. Otto relt Ihat if the combustion process eould be slowed, Ihen Ihe effieiency would rise, His idea lo slow down Ihe rale of combusti on was to stralify ¡he air!fuel area (a region of several differenl mill!Ure ralios) and 10 initiate the combustion more slowly at ¡gnition. Nelll, he promoled eombustion in a rieh mÍlllure (a mixture with a higher proportion of fuel) and then followOO with a lean mÍlllure (a millture wilh a lower proportion of fuel). AI!hough nOI dírectly related to!he four-stroke cyele engíne, it is intcresling lo nole that Duo separated !he intake stroke (in an attempl al stratifiealion) Ihrough his invention of Ihe slide valve system for intake and ellhauSI and also of his ímprovemenl ofthe flamed ¡gnilion. whieh he had inherited from !he lenoir engine. This improvemenl eventually led 10 !he four-stroke eycle eompression engine. Historieal reeords indieate Iha! his design had a eom· pression ralio of about 2.5. For eomparison, today's gasoline engine has a compression ralio of approx imalely 8 while a diesel engine has 11 ratio of approllimately 18.
Who Concelved the Principie or tbe Four-Stroke Cycle Engine? If Duo mere1y improved Ihe Iwo-slroke eye!e lenoír engine, then who origi nall y coneeived !he idea of the four-slroke eycle engine? In my opinion. thal would be a Freneh citizen named Alphonse Beau de Rochas. In 1862, righl afte r lenoir completed his two·stroke eycle engine. Rochas developed his idea sufficienlly to build his four- stroke eycle engine 14
Chllpler4
21
years before the Ono engine. Thus, because of Ihis chronological record, the credit for Ihe four-slroke engine should go lo Rachas. If Ihis is Ihe case, Ihen why is Rachas generally nOI acknowledged for his engine? Afler Ono had buill his engine in 1876 and allempled 10 palent his idea, a palenl altorney named C. Wigand researched possibJe palenl infringemenl for 0110. Wigand carne across unpublished docume nls and :Rapers Ihal showed Rachas had invented the four-slroke cycle engine.(4. ) However, Rachas' French palen! had been invalidaled because he had railed lo pay talles on Ihe palenl. During Ihis lime in French hislory, Ihe penally for delinqu enl laxes was 10 invalidale Ihe palenl Ihal had been granted lo Ihe inventor. 1 am deeply impressed Ihal Rachas did nol prolesl when OUo was awarded a gold prize for his engine al Ihe Paris Exposilion Ihe year aner Otto's invention. However, Rachas was officially commendcd as Ihe inventor of Ihe four-stroke cycJe engine Iwo ycars before his dealh and was awarded a nODO prize. This attitude of Ihe Frenc h governmenl also made a deep . . lmpreSSlon on me. Because sorne French people were hurnilialed by Ihis luro of hislOry. a French lextbook laler wrole Ihat Ihe OUo e ngine had a Beau de Rachas cycJe inslead of a four-slroke cycJe. However, Ihis SUlemenl slill seems a li!tle odd 10 me.
Appendlx A4 Compresslon Ratio and Therrnal Efficlency An 0110 cycJe is a process in which air is compressed adiabatically (withoul Ihe Ir30sfer of heat lo or from Ihe air) by the piston in Ihe cylinder, heal is added lO the nir during the constanl-volume heating process (in a real engine heat is obtained by buming ruel), and the air is subjecled 10 adiabatic ellpansion from the maximum pressure poim. This OUo cycJe is currently regarded as the ideal cycle for the spark-ignition engine. When pressure, lemperalure, and voJume are repre se med with P1 ... P 4, T 1••• T3' and VI '" V4, Ihe following equations can be cSlablished becausc of ¡he relationship belween the heat added, Q/r and the heal rejected, QL (see Fig. M-l).
Q¡. = mCv(T3 -Ji) = mc.,7jE x -1(1; - 1) QL = mClr.~
-7j) = mc.,7j(I-:;)
where
m = Weight of gas Cy = Specific hcat al constant volumc M",
