The background and formation of the Four Schools of Islamic Law

The  background  and  formation  of  the  Four  Schools  of  Islamic  Law     By  Eirini  Kakoulidou    

Islam’s  Early  Period  &  Pre  -­‐  Islamic  Background   In   Islamic   faith,   law   and   religion   have   developed   a   unique   and   very   elementary   association   between   them.   In  the  Western  world,  law  and  religious  studies  are  known  to  research  the  role  of  religion  in  relation  to  the   State   and   its   legal   system.   There   is   a   vast   contrast   between   the   above   and   the   focus   of   said   studies   in   Islam,   where   law   and   religion   are   very   closely   affiliated,   and   as   a   result   one   cannot   follow   or   study   one   domain  in  separation  from  the  other1.     There   are   two   main   concepts   that   express   the   notion   of   divine   law   in   Islam:   those   are   fiqh   and   Shari’ah.   In   its  original  sense,  fiqh  signifies  a  broad  sense  of  understanding.  It  is  also  used  in  a  more  specific  manner,  in   order  to  express  understanding  towards  the  law.  This  meaning  came  up  around  the  same  time  with  the   first  Islamic  law  texts,  during  the  late  8th  and  early  9th  centuries  AD.  Fiqh  can  be  expressed  through  all  of   the  following  examples:  explaining  the  law  in  details;  creating  and  institutionalising  social  norms;  justifying   social   norms   in   relation   to   holy   texts;   producing   written   texts,   essays   and   books   on   the   law.   In   contrast   to   the   above,   Shari’ah   is   referred   to   the   law   of   God   and   its   divine   quality.   It   indicates   the   practical   application   of  God’s  or  the  Prophet’s  will  in  relation  to  law,  or  the  application  of  law  that  can  be  justified  by  holy  texts.   Therefore,   one   of   the   main   concepts   to   grasp   is   that   practitioners   of   fiqh   seek   to   find   ways   to   express   and   apply  the  principles  the  holy  of  law  of  Shari’ah2.     It   is   thought   that   the   first   three   generations   after   Prophet   Muhammad’s   death   (632   AD)   are   the   most   important   in   relation   to   Islam’s   cultural   and   religious   development.   This   epoch   is   referred   to   as   the   First   Century  of  Islam,  but  it  is  also  a  time  shrouded  in  obscurity  due  to  the  lack  of  historical  evidence.  During   that   period,   many   important   and   distinguishing   characteristics   of   Islamic   law   were   founded,   while   the   newfound  Islamic  society  established  its  own  legal  institutions.  During  most  of  the  first  century  of  Islam,   Islamic  law  did  not  exist  by  definition.  As  it  were  in  the  times  of  Prophet  Muhammad,  legislation  and  law  

1

Schacht J. & Bosworth C.E The Legacy of Islam Oxford University Press 1979 p.392-393

2

The Oxford Encyclpaedia of the Modern Islamic World: Legal though and Jurisprudence (p.450).

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were   not   inside   the   focus   of   religion,   and   therefore   jurisprudence   did   not   draw   specific   attention   in   the   Muslim  world,  as  long  as  law  technicalities  and  practices  did  not  impose  any  religious  or  moral  deviations3.     Islamic  Jurisprudence  did  not  start  out  with  scientific  intentions,  i.e.  to  study  the  practice  of  courts  within   the  power  of  the  established  order.  On  the  contrary,  it  served  as  an  institution  to  protect  the  functioning   legal   system’s   practices   from   being   attacked   and   analysed.   The   first   Islamic   law   scholars   were   first   and   foremost  Muslim  devotees  and  did  not  regard  themselves  as  men  of  law.  Their  main  -­‐   and  perhaps  only  -­‐   interest   was   to   explain   and   document   the   system   of   ritual   law   practice.   Their   interest   in   legislature   and   its   various  relationships  was  a  development  that  came  later,  taking  most  of  its  inspiration  from  the  Abbasids   and   their   political   agenda,   as   well   as   their   approach   to   law   in   general.   Therefore,   one   could   argue   that   those  first  scholars’  interest  was  mostly  focused  on  religious  ideals.         Two   main   tendencies   were   formed   during   the   creation   of   jurisprudential   processes   in   the   late   Umayyad   and   early   Abbasid   period4.   Firstly,   in   order   to   keep   the   Islamic   doctrine   consistent   and   coherent,   lawful   procedures  became  more  methodical;  moreover,  personal  or  arbitrary  opinions  (known  as  ra’y5)  subsided   in  order  for  a  more  analogical  deduction  (known  as  qiyas6)  to  arise.  The  second  tendency  was  an  increasing   importance  of  the  practice  of  Sunnah  or  established  doctrine7.    

3

Schacht, J. An Introduction to Islamic Law. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982)

4

Coulson, N, A History of Islamic Law. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994) p. 36

5

Αl-ra’y -“Personal opinion”. Used by certain jurists opposed to the Traditionalists when interpreting religious law (fiqh). Among the schools of law the Hanafites predominantly used it. (A Glossary of Islam, Dominique Sourdel & Janine Sourdel-Thomine, Edinburg University Press, 2007). 6

Qivas - “Reasoning by analogy”. Used by jurists to resolve problems of religious law (fiqh) not clarified in the texts. It was first developed by Al Shafi’i on the basis of his study of the effective cause (illa) of a decision that might lead to other unforeseen decisions and used subsequently in the Shafi’i school of law. Later Al Ghazali (died 1111) sought to justify the logical nature of such reasoning. (A Glossary of Islam by Dominique Sourdel & Janine Sourdel-Thomine, Edinburg University Press, 2007). 7

Sunna or Sunnah- Established custom normative preceded, conduct and cumulative tradition, typically based on Muhammad’s example. The actions and sayings of Muhammad are believed to complement the divinely revealed message of Qur’an. J.P. Esposito, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, 2003.

2

More   specifically,   during   the   early   Abbasid   period,   those   ancient   schools   of   law   were   established   mainly   because  of  their  geographic  position  and  importance.  Those  schools  later  transformed  into  a  new  type  of   institution,  which  pledged  allegiance  to  an  individual  person,  a  master  in  the  form  of  a  learned  scholar.     The  geographically  based  schools  of  law  were  situated  in  various  central  positions  of  the  Islamic  world  and   each   had   its   own   religious   scholar,   who   had   formed   a   certain   minimum   agreement   on   their   doctrines.   Towards   the   half   of   the   2nd   hijra   century,   many   people   had   taken   to   following   the   teachings   of   a   recognised  spiritual  leader  and  the  main  principles  of  his  doctrine,  while  maintaining  the  right  to  diverge   from  any  specific  point  they  did  not  agree  with.  This  is  what  essentially  led  to  the  formation  of  groups  of   people  within  the  ancient  schools  of  law.  In  the  Kufa  school  of  Iraq,  there  were  followers  of  Abu  Hanifa,   and  in  the  Medina8  school  there  were  followers  of  Malik9.     Around  the  middle  of  the  third  hijra  century,  the  conversion  of  ancient  law  schools  into  “personal”  schools   (schools   based   on   certain   scholars)   took   greater   effect.   These   law   schools   did   not   continue   the   long   standing   tradition   of   geographically-­‐based   schools,   but   rather   focused   on   the   doctrine   of   a   certain   religious  figure  along  with  his  followers.  This  transformation  was  a  subsequent  outcome  that  was  long  ago   cradled   in   the   ancient   Islamic   schools   of   law,   but   was   surely   accelerated   by   the   influence   of   the   Shafi’i   school10.     The   aforementioned   development,   which   was   for   the   most   part   carried   out   by   al   Shafi’i,   influenced   and   shaped   Islamic   law’s   future   as   a   whole.   But   as   law   focused   on   the   teachings   of   religious   dogma,   the   application   of   law   became   more   rigid   and   based   on   doctrine.   Independent   research   and   analysis   was   increasingly   prohibited,   while   law   with   its   various   facets   was   dependent   on   traditions   and   the   strict   adherence  to  God’s  command.    

  8

Of the many schools of law, which flourished in the different provinces of Islam at the early times, those of Medina and Kufa were the most important. The Oxford Encyclpaedia of the Modern Islamic World: Legal though and Jurisprudence (p.450). 9

Abu Hanifa and Malik were the founders of two out of four law schools of orthodox Sunni Islam.

10

Schacht, J. An Introduction to Islamic Law. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982) p.58

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  The  Evolution  Period   According   to   professor   Joseph   Schacht   in   his   work   An   Introduction   to   Islamic   Law,   there   are   two   main   schools  of  Islamic  law,  which  prevailed  during  the  8th  and  early  9th  century:  Ashab  al-­‐ra’y,  considered  as  the   rationalistic  jurisprudents,  and  Ashab  al-­‐hadith,  which  was  an  adversary  school  known  as  the  Traditionists11.   Al   Shafi’i,   Joseph   Schacht   says,   tried   to   steer   a   middle   course   between   them,   accepting   the   Traditionists’  stress  on  hadith  but  rejecting  the  crudeness  of  their  legal  thought  12.     Schacht13  indicates  that  ultimately  Shafi’i  did  not  succeed  in  replacing  the  established  schools  of  law  with   his   new   type   of   doctrine,   which   was   based   on   concepts   held   by   the   “Traditionists”.   However,   Shafi’i   succeeded   in   creating   a   new   thesis   on   Islamic   law,   which   was   indeed   the   outcome   of   his   efforts   in   searching   to   find   a   logical   and   indisputable   expression   of   Shari’ah,   as   well   as   its   function   in   legal   theory.   Well-­‐known   jurisprudents   like   the   Hanafis   and   the   Malikis   continued   the   aforementioned   ancient   law   schools   of   Kufa   and   Medina,   without   changing   their   established   legal   doctrine   according   to   Shafi’i   ideologies.  However,  they  did  in  the  end  adopt  a  type  of  legal  theory  that  was  extensively  based  on  the   Traditionist  inspiration,  much  like  the  Shafi’i  did.     As  J.  Schacht  indicates:   This  'classical'  theory  of  Islamic  law,  or  doctrine  of  the  usul  al-­‐fiqh,  which  was  established  during   the   third   century   of   the   hijra   (ninth   century   A.D.),   was   in   many   respects   more   elaborate   than   Shafi’i   s   own   theory,   and   differed   from   it   in   one   essential   aspect.   Shafi’i,   in   order   to   be   able   to   follow   the   traditions   from   the   Prophet   without   reservation,   rejected   the   principle   of   the   consensus   of   the   scholars,   which   embodied   the   living   tradition   of   the   ancient   schools,   and   restricted  his  own  idea  of  consensus  to  the  unanimous  doctrine  of  the  community  at  large.  The   11

The Traditionst jurisprudents of the earlier ninth century, proposed that Islamic law be inferred from hadith, reports of that the Prophet, his leading Companions, and the Follower had said or done, without significant resort to reason. Contradictions among hadith reports they either resolved by means of isnad comparison or simply let stand, refusing to define the law by their won preferences. Their adversaries the rationalistic jurisprudents (ashab al-ra’y) also used hadith, but far less extensively and without significant use of the isnad comparison to sort out the sound from the unsound. In the later ninth century, rationalistic jurisprudents, took up many of the forms formely peculiar to the traditionist jurisprudents, especially formal dependence on hadith and isnad comparison to sort the sound from the unsound. Traditionist jurisprudents in turn accepted the need for separate expertise in legal reasoning besides hadith criticism. Christopher Melchert, Islamic Law and Society Vol. 8, No. 3, Hadith and Fiqh (2001), p. 383-406, BRILL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3399450. 12

Schacht Joseph, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950 p.56-57.

13

Schacht Joseph, An Introduction to Islamic Law Oxford University Press, 1982 p. 59.

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classical   theory   returned   to   the   concept   of   the   consensus   of   the   scholars,   which   it   considered   infallible  in  the  same  way  as  the  general  consensus  of  the  Muslims.  But  it  had  to  take  into  account   the  status,  which  Shafi’i  had  meanwhile  won  for  the  traditions  from  the  Prophet,  and  it  extended   the   sanction   of   the   consensus   of   the   scholars   to   Shafi’i’s   identification   of   the   Sunna   with   the   contents  of  traditions  from  the  Prophet  14.     In   his   book   A   History   of   Islamic   Legal   Theories,   professor   Wael   B.   Hallaq   notes   that   Al   Shafi’i   was   one   of   the   first  few  individuals  to  bring  a  new  kind  of  analogical  reasoning  in  order  to  approach  the  Qur’an  and  hadith.   This   new   understanding   was   different   compared   to   the   consensus   (ijma)   that   fiqh   scholars   had   established;   a   consensus   which   had   been   the   main   way   of   interpreting   the   holy   texts   up   until   Shafi’i’s   work.  This  kind  of  legal  reasoning  became  a  core  factor  in  the  development  of  usul-­‐as-­‐fiqh  and  has  been   widely  referred  to  as  “analogy”  or  qiyas.  The  latter  provided  the  basis  for  laws  to  be  established  through   the  process  of  analogical  deduction,  when  the  matters  that  needed  legal  consideration  were  not  discussed   neither   in   the   Qur’an   or   Prophet   Muhammad’s   Sunnah.   Apart   from   the   aforementioned   quiyas,   other   processes   of   legal   decision   making   (or   ijtihad)   can   be   found   in   Islamic   law,   such   as:   istihsan,   or   juristic   “preference”  and  istislah,  which  is  a  method  of  reasoning  based  on  public  welfare  when  a  problem  is  not   addressed  in  the  sacred  texts15.     Towards   the   end   of   the   9th   century,   the   ideological   clashes   that   Al   Shafi’i’s   presence   brought   in   Islamic   legislature   had   subsided   for   the   most   part.   The   tradition   of   Sunnah,   in   other   words   the   practice   of   the   Prophet  Muhammad’s  teachings  in  Islamic  jurisprudence,  had  been  introduced  and  solidified16.     As  a  result  of  the  above,  the  classical  theory  has  come  to  instruct  that  Islamic  law  as  a  whole  is  based  on   four   basic   principles   (“roots”),   which   are   the   following:   The   Qur’an,   the   Sunnah   of   Prophet   Muhammad   which  is  inherited  by  the  applicable  traditions  in  law-­‐making  decision,  the  consensus  (or  ijma)  made  up  by  

14

Ibid p. 60.

15

Hallaq Wael B., A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul al-fiqh , Cambridge University Press, 1997 16

Goulson N.J, The History of Islamic Law, Edinburg University Press, 2003 p.72 (chapter “Jurisprudence in Embryo, the Early Schools of Law”)

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scholars  belonging  in  the  orthodox  Islamic  community,  and  the  method  of  analogical  reasoning  known  as   quiyas17.  

  The  Four  Sunni  Schools  of  Law:  Madhabs   The  foundations  of  Islamic  law  schools  go  way  back  to  the  end  of  the  Umayyad  period,  or  the  beginning  of   the  second  Islamic  century.  At  that  point  in  history,  Islamic  law  had  started  to  venture  outside  the  borders   of   institutional   and   popular   law   practice,   the   latter   being   shaped   by   religious   concepts   taken   from   the   sacred   texts   of   the   Qur’an   and   the   hadith.   The   change   in   the   political   scenery   that   came   with   the   Umayyads’  fall  from  power  and  the  emergence  of  the  ‘Abbasids  in  132  of  the  hijra  (750  AD)  also  influenced   Islamic  law  as  a  whole.  By  that  time,  Islamic  law  had  already  developed  its  basic  characteristics,  while  the   call  of  the  Arab  Muslim  society  for  a  suiting  legal  system  had  been  met.  At  that  stage,  the  early  ‘Abbasids   did  not  only  continue  but  also  emphasised  on  the  “Islamicising”  trend  in  law,  which  had  prevailed  towards   the  end  of  the  later  Umayyad  period18.      

The  Hanafi  School  of  Law19   Abu   Hanifah   (699-­‐767)   is   the   alias   of   Nu’man   ibn   Thabit,   a   scholar   of   Persian   descent   and   a   Kufa   native.   Hanifah  studied  scholastics  while  later  he  focused  on  deeply  studying  the  jurisprudence  of  the  Kufa  School   of  law.  He  earned  his  living  by  operating  a  business  as  a  textile  merchant.  Hanifah  is  said  to  have  always   used   common   sense   and   logic   in   the   process   of   practical   problem   solving   and   philosophical   ethics.   He   also   broadened   his   reasoning   with   the   use   of   analogy   (the   aforementioned   qiyas)   and   preference   (known   as   istihsan).  Hanifah  widely  used  the  instrument  of  opinion  in  the  process  of  legal  thought  analysis,  together   with  analogy  and  preference.  This  led  to  the  characterisation  of  his  school  as  “the  people  of  opinion”  (or   rationalists,   ra’y),   thus   distinguishing   his   school   from   “the   people   of   traditions”,   the   aforementioned   Traditionists.   However,   that   does   not   imply   that   the   Hanafi   School   was   less   meticulous   concerning   Islamic   traditions.  Hanifah  is  also  credited  with  the  following  words:  “This  knowledge  of  ours  is  opinion;  it  is  the   best   we   have   been   able   to   achieve.   He   who   is   able   to   arrive   at   different   conclusions   is   entitled   to   his   17

Although the later schools of law shared the essentials of this classical theory, traces of the different doctrines of the ancient schools have survived in some of them. (Joseph Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law, p.60) 18

The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World, Chapter “Legal Thought and Jurisprudence”, p.450

19

Ibid p.457

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opinions   as   we   are   entitled   to   our   own.”   Although   Abu   Hanifa   does   not   have   a   book   on   fiqh,   scholars   mention  a  musnad  of  hadiths  and  traditions  ascribed  to  him20     Abu  Hanifah’s  lifework  as  expressed  in  his  legal  thought  displayed  a  deep  belief  in  liberality  and  showed   reverence   for   personal   freedom.   This   is   something   that   cannot   easily   be   found   among   other   Islamic   jurists   of  his  time.  He  was  the  first  to  establish  laws  in  order  to  secure  contracts,  the  latter  being  evidence  of  his   belief   in   the   principle   of   protecting   freedom,   a   fact   demonstrated   in   contracts   of   salam   and   murabahah.   Salam,   the   first   contract,   secures   the   immediate   payment   of   the   goods   which   are   to   be   delivered   in   the   future,  even  though  sales  contracts  usually  dictate  the  immediate  payment  of  money  in  exchange  for  the   goods.  Murabahah,  the  second  type  of  contract,  allows  a  trader  to  sell  goods  for  their  original  agreed  price   plus  an  extra  predetermined  profit  as  long  as  usury  is  not  involved  in  the  exchange  process.  As  for  laws  on   personal  freedom,  Hanafi  allowed  unmarried  women  who  had  reached  their  adulthood  to  be  able  to  marry   without  the  intervention  of  a  marriage  guardian.  Nevertheless,  later  Hanafi  doctrine  restricted  that  right  to   a   woman   who   had   previously   been   married.   Despite   the   beliefs   of   the   Kufa   School   (at   which   he   belonged)   and  the  general  legal  ethos  of  his  time,  Hanafi  did  not  sentence  compulsive  shoppers  and  spendthrifts,  and   justified  his  action  by  stating  that  a  person  who  has  reached  adulthood  is  free  to  spend  their  possessions   and/or  property  in  any  way  that  they  wish21.     Abu  Ηanafi’s  doctrine  was  carried  on  by  his  students,  four  of  which  went  on  to  become  quite  famous:  Abu   Yusuf,  Zufar  ibn  al  Hudhayl,  Muhammad  ibn  al  Hasan  al  Shaybani  and  al  Hasan  ibn  Ziyad.     Hanafi   became   the   most   prevailing   Islamic   school   of   law   during   the   Abbasid   Caliphate   period,   largely   to   due   to   Abu   Yusuf’s   and   other   early   Hanafis’   efforts,   which   gave   Kufa   an   advantage   compared   to   other   schools   of   law   of   the   time.   Hanafi   was   also   the   official   law   school   of   the   Ottoman   Empire.   To   this   day,   Hanafi   is   the   official   school   for   the   issuing   of   fatwas22   as   well   as   for   the   application   of   “personal   status”   matters   of   Sunni   Muslims   in   countries   that   ensued   the   demise   of   the   Ottoman   Empire,   i.e.   Egypt,   Syria,   Lebanon,  Iraq,  Jordan,  Israel  and  Palestine.  In  Turkey,  which  is  an  officially  secular  state,  it  is  the  Hanafi  law  

20

Abu Zahra Muhammad, The four Imams- Their Lives, Works and Schools of Jurisprudence, Dar Al Takwa 2010 p.229

21

The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World p.457.

22

Fatwa: Authoritative legal opinion given by a mufti (legal scholar) in response to a question posed by an individual of a court of law. J.P. Esposito, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, 2003.

7

which   determines   religious   holidays.   Furthermore,   it   is   still   the   most   established   school   in   regard   to   the   application   of   personal   status   matters   and   the   religious   holidays   of   Muslims   living   in   the   Balkan   area,   as   well  as  Caucasus,  Afghanistan,  Pakistan,  India,  the  Republics  of  Central  Asia  and  China.  It  is  reported  that   its  followers  make  up  more  than  an  impressive  1/3  of  the  world’s  Muslim  population23.      

The  Maliki  School  of  Law24  

The  Maliki  School  arose  in  the  Arabian  Peninsula,  the  original  home  of  all  Islamic  thought.  It  was  initially   named  the  School  of  Hejaz25  or  alternately  the  School  of  Medina.  The  doctrines  developed  by  the  Maliki   School   are   historically   related   to   prime   Muslim   thinkers   like   Umar   ibn   al   Khattab,   Abbas   (Prophet   Muhammad’s   uncle)   and   A’ishah   (Prophet   Muhammed’s   wife).   Later   on   in   the   school’s   history,   some   of   the  most  learned  jurists  were  the  teachers  of  Malik,  whose  name  became  the  eponym  of  the  school.     Malik   ibn   Anas   al   Asbahi   was   a   Yemen   descendant,   born   in   Medina   in   713   AD.   He   lived   there   until   his   death   in   795,   the   only   times   he   left   the   city   being   those   that   he   went   to   Mecca   as   a   pilgrim.   Therefore,   Malik   epitomised  the  learning  of  the  people  of  Medina.  The  Al  Muwatta  is  a  book  written  by  Malik  on  Muslim  law,   which  contains  a  compilation  of  traditions  handed  down  from  Prophet  Muhammed,  his  companions  and   followers   arranged   according   to   the   subjects   of   jurisprudence.   In   this   book,   Malik   mentions   the   general   foundations  of  fiqh,  which  are  the  Qur’an,  its  texts,  its  outward  meanings  and  understood  meanings,  the   Sunnah,  the  consensus  and  then  analogy26.     Malik   ibn   Anas   was   a   man   profoundly   committed   to   tradition   throughout   the   development   of   his   legal   doctrine.   He   often   stressed   the   fact   that   he   would   not   stray   from   the   path   that   his   teachers   and   the   consensus  of  the  great  thinkers  of  Medina  had  handed  down  to  him.   Nevertheless,   Malik   studied   and   put   to   use   a   form   of   deductive   thought   process   which   was   similar   to   analogy.   In   his   own   words,   “as   for   those   matters   that   I   did   not   receive   from   (my   predecessors)   I   exercised   23

The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World p. 450 Law: Legal Thought and Jurispudence / Juristic Schools and Hermeneutical Traditions, p. 456: Sunni Schools of Law. 24

The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p..459.

25

Western coastal province of Saudi Arabia, home to the pilgrimage cities of Mekka and Medina. It was the first region to become part of the Islamic world under Muhammad’s leadership. J.P. Esposito, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. 26

Abu Zahra Muhammad, The four Imams- Their Lives, Works and Schools of Jurisprudence, Dar Al Takwa 2010 p.89

8

my   reasoning   and   reflection   according   to   the   course   of   those   I   have   met…   so   that   I   would   not   deviate   from  the  course  of  the  people  of  Medina  and  their  opinions.  If  I  did  not  hear  anything  specifically  about  a   matter  I  attributed  the  opinion  (ra’y)  to  me.”27   Compared  to  the  Hanafi  School,  the  Maliki  School  is  considered  to  be  somewhat  more  conservative  in  its   approach   to   law,   and   especially   in   relation   to   issues   concerning   the   female   gender.   This   is   perhaps   something   linked   with   the   fact   that   at   the   time,   Medina’s   scholars   had   traditionally   followed   more   conservative   views.   According   to   Malik’s   doctrine,   women   can   only   get   married   with   the   approval   and   involvement   of   a   marriage   guardian.   Moreover,   Maliki   law   grants   fathers   and   parental   grandfathers   the   right   to   approve   a   marriage   of   their   daughters   and   granddaughters   without   their   consent,   and   in   some   cases,  even  against  their  will.  Hanafi  law,  on  the  other  hand,  limits  this  coercion  (known  as  jabr)  in  relation   to  marriage  to  the  age  of  puberty.     Among  Malik  ibn  Anas’s  students  was  Muhammad  ibn  Idris  al-­‐Shafi’i.,  who  was  the  founder  of  the  school   going  under  his  name.      

The  Shafi’i  School  of  Law28   As   discussed   above,   the   Shafi’i   school   was   not   exactly   a   school   based   on   the   geographic   tradition   of   a   certain  area  or  city;  it  was  an  outcome  of  a  single  jurist’s  efforts,  who  was  very  much  knowledgeable  in  the   doctrines  of  the  other  two  schools  and  was  able  to  synthesise  new  doctrine  out  of  both.       Muhammad  ibn  Idris  ibn  al-­‐Abas  ibn  Uthman  ibn  Shafi’i  was  born  in  Gaza,  Palestine  in  767  AD  and  died  in   Egypt  in  820  AD.  He  utilised  the  opportunity  to  merge  the  knowledge  of  the  Iraqi  as  well  as  the  Hejaz  fiqh,   which,   along   with   his   extensive   traveling   in   the   Islamic   world,   gave   him   a   profound   and   deep   understanding  of  Islamic  law.  As  a  result  of  the  above,  Shafi’i  gained  the  opportunity  to  formulate  a  new   theoretical   basis   for   law,   which   is   expressed   in   his   famous   work,   Al-­‐risalah.   This   book   was   written   in   Bagdad   during   Shafi’i’s   second   stay   and   was   revised   when   the   scholar   moved   to   Egypt   during   the   years   814-­‐815.  

27

Professor Amin al-Khuli, a reformist scholar, explains that the word ra’y at that time did not bear its later technical meaning of opinion vis-à-vis analogy, but meant rather “understanding” and “good judgment”. The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World, p. 459 28

Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World. p. 460

9

  Shafi’i   regarded   himself   as   a   representative   of   the   law   school   of   Medina,   even   though   he   had   openly   accepted  the  Traditionists’  central  views.  (The  Traditionist  approach  propagated  that  that  Islamic  tradition   was   more   important   for   the   formulation   of   law   compared   to   the   doctrines   developed   by   the   various   schools,   which   emerged   across   the   Islamic   world).   Shafi’i   first   developed   his   doctrine   in   Iraq,   but   when   he   moved   to   Egypt   he   retreated   back   to   some   of   his   early   views   on   law.   Thus,   this   resulting   doctrine   came   to   be  known  as  the  Egyptian  doctrine,  or  new  version  of  Shafi’i’s  school.  Shafi’i  dictated  Al-­‐umm  to  al-­‐Rabi  ibn   Sulayman,  a  close  student  of  his.  It  is  a  highly  influential  piece  of  work  that  did  not  only  define  Shafi’i’s  own   doctrine,  but  also  many  of  the  elements  and  differences  among  other  Islamic  schools  of  law.  This  seven-­‐ volume   book   deals   with   many   law   topics,   some   of   them   being:   transactions,   religious   holidays,   penal/criminal   matters   and   personal   status   manners.   The   book   also   makes   references   to   the   differences   in   Islamic   thought   on   law,   such   as   those   between   Ali   and   Ibn   Masud,   and   those   between   Shafi’i   and   Malik.   In   Al-­‐umm,   Shafi’i   delves   into   his   most   loved   topic,   which   is   attacking   those   who   do   not   regard   the   traditions   of   Islam   as   necessary   in   the   formulation   of   jurisprudence.   He   also   nullifies   the   importance   of   juristic   preference  (known  as  istihsan29)  as  a  valid  form  of  law.     Among  Shafi’i’s  students  was  Ahmad  ibn  Hanbal,  whose  name  was  given  to  the  school  he  founded.   Since  Egypt  was  home  of  Shafi’i’s  doctrine,  the  Shafi’i  School  has  deep  roots  in  this  particular  country.  It   was   the   official   school   in   the   times   of   the   Ayyubid   dynasty   (1169-­‐1252   AD)   and   maintained   a   prestigious   rank   during   the   Mamluks,   who   succeeded   the   Ayyubids.   The   Shafi’i   School   was   replaced   by   the   Hanafi   School  much  later,  when  the  Ottoman  Empire  conquered  Egypt  in  1517  AD.  Nowadays,  the  Hanafi  School   constitutes   the   official   law   practiced   in   courts   as   far   as   personal   status   matters   go.   However,   many   Egyptians   (especially   of   the   rural   areas   of   the   country)   follow   the   doctrine   of   the   Shafi’i   school   for   their   religious  observances.  The  same  happens  in  many  other  areas  of  the  Muslim  world,  i.e.  in  the  greater  parts   of  Palestine  and  Jordan,  and  has  many  followers  in  Syria,  Iraq,  the  Hejaz,  India,  Pakistan,  Indonesia,  and  the   Sunni  parts  of  Iran  and  Yemen30.       29

Istihsan –“Search for the best solution.” - Refers particularly to the methods used by scholars of school of law of Hanafi to resolve practical problems posed by the application of the law (Shari’ah). A Glossary of Islam by Dominique Sourdel & Janine Sourdel-Thomine, Edinburg University Press, 2007). 30

The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World. p. 460

10

The  Hanbali  School  of  Law31   Hanbali   is   another   school   based   on   the   heritage   of   a   scholar,   since   it   embodied   the   doctrine,   opinions   and   fatwas   of   another   important   Islamic   lawmaker:   Ahmad   ibn   Hanbal.   Hanbal   was   born   in   Baghdad   in   780   AD   and  died  in  the  same  city  in  855.  He  traveled  extensively  the  Islamic  world,  in  countries  like  Syria,  Yemen   and   the   Hejaz,   as   well   as   Kufa   and   Basra   cities   in   Iraq.   He   did   so   in   order   to   gather   as   many   Islamic   traditions   concerning   all   aspects   of   law   and   produce   his   seminal   work,   Musnad   al-­‐Imam   Ahmad.   It   is   a   colossal   piece   of   work,   which   extends   over   six   volumes   and   contains   more   than   forty   thousand   items.   The   Musnad   al-­‐Imam   Ahmad,   together   with   the   fact   that   Hanbali   did   not   write   any   books   on   fiqh   like   many   other   of   the   scholars   of   his   time,   leads   many   Muslim   historians   to   think   that   he   should   be   regarded   a   traditionalist   rather   than   a   jurist.   Nevertheless,   his   students   assembled   his   opinions   on   legal   matters   as   well   as   fatwas   (juristic   rulings)   he   produced,   which   led   to   a   set   of   principles   and   laws   important   enough   to   create  a  school  out  of  this  great  thinker’s  work  on  law.     The  dedication  of  the  Hanbali  School  to  the  traditions  of  Islam  can  also  be  found  in  its  separation  from  the   views  of  other  schools  regarding  the  sources  of  law.  According  to  Ibn  Qayyim  al-­‐Jawziyah  (d.  1350),  a  late   Hanbali   legist,   there   are   five   main   sources   of   law32:     the   holy   texts   of   the   Qur’an   and   Sunnah,   the   fatwas   of   scholars   as   long   as   they   do   not   contradict   the   scriptures,   the   sayings   and   opinions   of   jurists   that   fall   in   line   with   the   holy   texts,   traditions   without   a   specific   lineage   of   transmission   and   ownership,   and   finally   the   reasoning  which  is  based  on  analogy  if  there  are  no  other  means  available.     Ibn   Hanbal   is   famous   throughout   the   annals   of   Islamic   history   for   being   a   steadfast   believer   in   all  things   Muslim  in  his  personal  life.  He  maintained  a  solid  stance,  which  passionately  defended  the  idea  of  an     uncreated  and  eternal  Qur’an.  His  denial  towards  the  doctrine  of  the  “createdness”  of  the  Qur’an  led  to  his   imprisonment   during   the   Inquisition   in   Baghdad,   involving   hard   conditions   and   beatings.   Hanbal’s   strict   adherence  to  doctrine  is  mirrored  in  the  voices  of  two  followers  who  brought  his  school  back  to  life:  one  is   Ibn   Qayyim   (another   great   Sunni   Islamic   jurist)   and   the   great   Hanbali   school   teacher,   Tawi   al-­‐Din   ibn   Taymiyah  (d.  1327).  Echoes  of  Hanbali’s  personal  views  can  also  be  found  in  the  career  of  Muhammad  ibn   Abd  al-­‐Wahhab  (d.  1792),  who  was  a  famous  Hanbali  reformer  of  Nejd.  

31

Ibid. p. 461

32

Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Ibn Taymiyya, and Islamic Theology, J. E. Lowry and D. Stewart. p.201-222

11

  Hanbal’s   school   includes   many   followers,   an   important   one   being   Muwaffaq   al-­‐Din   ibn   Qudamah   (d.   1223),   the   author   of   the   twelve-­‐volume   masterpiece   Al-­‐Mughni,   as   well   as   author   of   the   Al-­‐umdah.   The   revived   Hanbali   School,   which   lacked   popularity   among   Muslim   followers   before   the   abovementioned   Ibn   Tayamiyah,   gained   even   more   strength   during   the   18th   century   AD.   Ibn   Abd   al-­‐Wahhab   was   head   of   a   reformist  movement  in  Arabia,  which  sought  to  drive  Islam  back  to  its  original,  pristine  foundations.  Those   foundations  were  impeccably  loyal  to  the  Qur’an  and  the  Sunnah,  instead  of  the  thought  of  later  Islamic   law  scholars.   The   success   of   the   Wahhabis33   and   the   return   of   the   famous   Saudi   Arabian   family   in   the   early   20th   century   established   the   Hanbali   School   as   the   official   law   school   of   Saudi   Arabia.   Hanbali   is   also   the   official   law   school  of  Qatar,  and  has  many  followers  in  Syria,  Iraq,  Palestine  and  other  places  of  the  Muslim  world.      

The  two  approaches  of  studying  usul  al  fiqh   Ensuing   the   establishment   of   the   madhabs   (schools   of   Muslim   law),   the   ulema   (the   educated   class   of   Muslim   legal   scholars)   of   various   schools   assumed   two   separate   stances   to   the   study   of   usul   al-­‐fiqh.   One   is   theoretical,   while   the   other   one   is   based   on   deductive   methods.   The   main   differences   of   the   two   approaches  have  to  do  for  the  most  part  with  their  basic  orientation:  the  first  one  is  ultimately  based  on   the  strict  adherence  to  theoretical  doctrines  and  traditions,  while  the  second  is  more  pragmatic  because  it   sees  theory  as  something  formulated  according  to  the  legal  issues  at  hand  and  the  way  they  need  to  be   tackled.   The   gap   between   those   two   approaches   is   more   akin   to   their   whole   design   and   approach   and   has   less   to   do   with   legal   thought   in   its   entirety.   The   first   approach   remains   loyal   to   the   principles   and   their   application  in  law,  while  the  second  approach  aims  to  combine  traditions  and  principles  in  order  to  meet  a   specific  case’s  needs.  The  theoretical  approach  to  studying  usul  al  fiqh  is  followed  by  the  Shafi’i  School.  On   the  other  hand,  the  deductive  approach  is  connected  with  the  Hanafi  School.  The  theoretical  approach  is  

33

Wahhabis - Eighteenth century reformist/revivalist movement for socio-moral reconstruction of society. Founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, a Hanbali scholar in Arabia. Proclaimed tawhid (uniqueness and unity of God) as its primary doctrine. Wahhabism began in response to the perceived moral decline and political weakness of the Muslim community in Arabia. It proposed a return to an idealized Islamic pas through reassertion or monotheism and reliance on Qur’an and hadith, rejection medieval interpretations of Islam and jurisprudence. Emphasized education and knowledge as weapons in dealing with nonbelievers. Known for its sometimes violent opposition to the popular cult of saints, idolatry, and shrine and tromp visitation, as well as the sacking of Shii shrines in Najaf and Karbala in 1802. Formed an alliance with Muhammad ibn Saud in 1747, which served at the basis for the consolidation of the present-day kingdom of Saudi Arabia. (Esposito John, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam).

12

known   as   usul   al-­‐Shafi'iyyah   or   tariqah   al-­‐Mutakallimin;   the   deductive   approach   is   known   as   usul   al-­‐ Hanafiyyah,  or  tariqah  al-­‐fuqaha'34.      

Relationship  between  the  Four  Schools  of  Law   The   traditional   schools   of   law   discussed   throughout   this   essay   have   generally   shared   relationships   of   mutual  toleration  and  respect,  despite  acts  of  religious  fanaticism  of  the  past.  These  acts  mainly  took  place   in   the   high   Middle   Ages   and   were   carried   out   by   rulers   and   members   of   the   public   alike.   However,   the   attitude  of  mutual  tolerance  dates  back  to  the  time  of  the  ancient  schools  of  law  reviewed  above.  These   schools   had   managed   to   accept   their   geographical   differences   of   doctrine   as   natural.   As   early   as   the   second   century   of   the   hijra,   there   was   a   saying   that   scholarly   religious   disagreement   between   Muslim   communities  (known  as  ikhtilaf)  was  a  sign  of  spiritual  expression.  However,  this  saying  came  to  be  known   as  a  saying  of  Prophet  Muhammad  much  later.  This  mutual  tolerance  between  the  Islamic  schools  of  law   did   by   no   means   come   easy,   and   went   through   many   trials   and   tribulations,   as   each   school   aimed   to   maintain   its   own   doctrine   unchanged   and   loyal   to   its   geographical   tradition.   Shafi’i’s   innovative   input   is   what   enabled   the   opportunity   for   debate   on   matters   of   principle   between   the   schools   of   law   and   as   a   result,  the  various  schools  managed  to  reach  some  common  ground.  Moreover,  the  consensus,  which  is   generally  considered  as  the  unifying  principle  of  Islam,  has  proved  to  be  very  successful  in  smoothing  out   the  differences  of  doctrine  and  opinion  that  different  law  schools  have  had,  without  needing  to  eliminate   those  said  differences.     The   four   schools   discussed   throughout   this   essay   have   proved   to   be   equally   respectful   to   ijma   (the   consensus  of  the  Muslim  community).  All  of  the  schools  have  the  objective  to  apply  and  instill  the  will  of   Allah  in  all  of  their  legal  work,  by  staying  close  to  the  holy  texts  of  the  Qur’an  and  Prophet  Muhammad’s   Sunnah.  Their  individual  interpretations  of  the  holy  texts  and  principles  can  all  be  considered  equally  valid   and   important,   and   their   methods   of   reasoning   can   be   seen   in   the   same   light.   Ultimately,   all   of   those   schools   belong   in   the   orthodox   Islamic   thought.   Any   follower   of   Islam   has   the   right   to   choose   and   join   the   school   of   their   choice,   and   also   change   their   adherence   to   a   specific   school   according   to   their   wish   and   without   hindrances.   With   a   simple   transaction   and   for   any   reason   be   it   personal   convenience   or   any   other   motive,   Muslim   followers   have   the   right   to   depart   from   the   one   they   follow   normally,   i.e.   because   of   their   34

M. H. Kamali, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence International Islamic University, Malaysia, March, 1991 p. 17-19 (Chapter: Two approaches to the study of Usul al-fiqh)

13

geographical  status  and  place  of  residence.  This  procedure  is  known  as  taklid.  Nevertheless,  is  an  individual   wishes   to   carry   out   the   above   procedure;   they   are   to   follow   the   principle   of   their   school   of   choice   in   every   way  until  the  procedure  is  complete.  Muslim  individuals  are  not  supposed  to  combine  different  doctrines   from   various   schools,   because   this   would   be   considered   as   talfik,   the   act   of   religious   unlawfulness.   Finally,   it  should  be  noted  that  Modernists  within  Islamic  culture  have  disregarded  this  last  rule.           GEOGRAPHICAL  UNITS    

          REFERENCES  &  BIBLIOGRAPHY      The  Oxford  Encyclopaedia  of  the  Modern  Islamic  World.  (Oxford:  Oxford  University  Press,  2001).      Coulson,  N.  A  History  of  Islamic  Law.  (Edinburgh:  Edinburgh  University  Press,  1994)     14

 

 Schacht,  J.  An  Introduction  to  Islamic  Law.  (Oxford:  Oxford  University  Press,  1982)      Schacht,  J.  The  Origins  of  Muhammadan  Jurisprudence.  (Oxford:  Clarendon  Press,  1950)  published  in   paperback  in  1979.      Wael  B.  Hallaq,  An  Introduction  to  Islamic  Law,  Cambridge  University  Press  2009.      Wael  B.  Hallaq,  The  Origins  and  Evolution  of  Islamic  Law.  Cambridge  University  Press,  third  printing,   2007.      Wael  B.  Hallaq,  A  History  of  Islamic  Legal  Theories:  An  Introduction  to  Sunni  Usul  al-­‐fiqh  ,  Cambridge   University  Press,  1997.      Mawil  Izzi  Dien,  Islamic  Law:  From  Historical  Foundations  to  Contemporary  Practice.  The  New   Edinburgh  Islamic  Surveys,  Edinburgh  University  Press  2004.      M.  H.  Kamali,  Principles  of  Islamic  Jurisprudence  (International  Islamic  University,  Malaysia,  1991)    Muhammad  Abu  Zahra,  The  four  Imams-­‐  Their  Lives,  Works  and  Schools  of  Jurisprudence,  (Dar  Al   Takwa  2010)      Hossein  Esmaeili,  The  Nature  and  development  of  Law  in  Islam  and  the  rule  of  Law  challenge  in  the   Middle  East  and  the  Muslim  World  (Connecticut  Journal  of  International  Law  Vol.  26:329)      Joseph  Schacht  and  C.E  Boswsorth,  The  Legacy  of  Islam,  Oxford  University  Press  1979  (second   edition).      Dominique  Sourdel  &  Janine  Sourdel-­‐Thomine,  A  Glossary  of  Islam,  (Edinburg  University  Press,  2007)      John  Esposito,  The  Oxford  Dictionary  of  Islam  (Oxford  University  Press,  2003      Seyyed  Hossein  Nasr  Islam:  Religion,  History  and  Civilization,  Harper  Collins  e-­‐books,  2003      Malise  Ruthven  with  Azim  Nanji,  Historical  Atlas  of  the  Islamic  World,  Oxford  University  Press  2004.      John  L.  Esposito,  What  everyone  needs  to  know  about  Islam,  Oxford  University  Press  2002.  

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