CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1
Introduction
Insurgency has become a threat to global peace and security in the 21st century due to the fact that it constitutes the highest contributor to humanitarian crises in the form of rise in human casualties, internally displaced persons, refugee debacles, food insecurity and the spread of various diseases (Imaseun, 2015). The o!o "aram insurgency has lately introduced a terrorist dimension into the crime space in #igeria. The trademar!s of the o!o "aram are $anton destruction of lives and property $ith rec!less abandon, through bombings, abduction and %laughtering of human beings li!e rams, especially in #orthern #igeria (&nthony, 201'). Thus, this chapter $ill preliminary investigate the various literature revie$ theoretical and conceptual frame$or! that have sho$n the impact of terrorism on children. 2.2
Conceptual Frameor!
2.2.1
Concept o" Te Terrori#m rrori#m
i!e so many concepts, the $ord terrorism has a simple dictionary meaning *the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political ob+ective (-en!ins, n.d.). Terrorism Terrorism is uite multi/faceted multi/faceted and laden $ith ideology and interests. interests. &t its core there there is one central idea, that the end +ustifies +ustifies the means. very terrorist believes believes that the sacrifices made (of self and others) are +ustified +ustified by the goals and epected out comes, $hether they be secular or religious in nature (social policy report, 2015). 2015). "o$ever "o$ever,, terroris terrorism m is not senseless violence, because from the perspective of the terrorist it al$ays ma!es sense. It ma!es sense in a $ay that has never been captured $ell than by the 1th century 3ussian novelist 4yodor ostoyevs!y $hen he put these $ords in the mouth of a character in his boo! (%ocial policy report, 2015).
1
The Brothers Karamazov 6 Imagine that you are creating a fabric of human destiny with the object of making men happy in the end, giving them peace and rest at last, but that it was essential and inevitable to torture to death only one tiny creature-that baby beating his breast with its fist, for instance-and to found that edifice on its unavenged tears, would you consent to be the architect on those conditions (ostoyevs!y, 152 p. 127 / 128).
Terrorism is the use of violence as a strategy to gain political ob+ectives, and it may be used by individuals or groups $ho usually have relatively little po$er other$ise. 9hen used in this $ay, terrorism terrorism has been called a *$eapon of the $ea! (%cott, 1:5) and *diplomacy from belo$ (;umamoto, 11). The po$er of terrorism is its ability to incite tremendous fear and sense of vulnerability in people through acts of unpredictable, random violence, or by levelling violence against society
ol. ;urt= says nothing about the impact of this
2
The Brothers Karamazov 6 Imagine that you are creating a fabric of human destiny with the object of making men happy in the end, giving them peace and rest at last, but that it was essential and inevitable to torture to death only one tiny creature-that baby beating his breast with its fist, for instance-and to found that edifice on its unavenged tears, would you consent to be the architect on those conditions (ostoyevs!y, 152 p. 127 / 128).
Terrorism is the use of violence as a strategy to gain political ob+ectives, and it may be used by individuals or groups $ho usually have relatively little po$er other$ise. 9hen used in this $ay, terrorism terrorism has been called a *$eapon of the $ea! (%cott, 1:5) and *diplomacy from belo$ (;umamoto, 11). The po$er of terrorism is its ability to incite tremendous fear and sense of vulnerability in people through acts of unpredictable, random violence, or by levelling violence against societyol. ;urt= says nothing about the impact of this
2
assault on the children themselves. ?n the other hand, there are the provisions of the @nited #ations >onvention on the 3ights of the >hild (ratified by all countries ecept the @nited %tates and %outh %udan/%omalia having rectified its status as the other last holdout in -anuary 2015), $hich spea! directly to the special obligations obligations adults have to children in times of $ar (%ocial report policy, policy, 2015). &rticle &rticle A: sets out the follo$ing standards for giving priority to childr children en in times times and place placess of $ar $ar and politi political cal violen violence6 ce6 *In accor accordan dance ce $ith $ith their their obligations under international humanitarian la$ to protect the civilian population in armed conflicts conflicts B shall ta!e all feasible measures to ensure the protection and care of children $ho are affected by an armed conflict (@nited (@nited #ations, 1:). There is no need for an additional additional ban on terrorism aimed at children, +ust a commitment to abide by $hat is already theoretically in place. 9hile many theologians and ethicists have embraced the concept of a +ust $ar, this is not the case for terrorism. The term terrorist terror ist has such high negative emotional valence that it is almost by definition un+ust, certainly from the perspective of the victims. Thus, as a label it becomes a tool in the hands of those $ith a self/interested political agenda. & study on political terrorism eamining eamining over 100 definitions of terrorism found 22 separate definitional elements/violence, force, fear, threat, and victim/target differentiation, among others (%chmid and -ongman, 1::). ?ne classic eploration ("offman, 1:) concluded that the follo$ing elements are essential6 C
>learly political in aims and motives,
C
Diolent or containing the threat of violence,
C
esigned to have far/reaching far/reaching psychological psychological repercussions repercussions beyond beyond the immediate immediate victim victim or target.
C
>ommand or conspiratorial cell structure (members $ear no uniform or identifying insignia).
!
Eerpetrated by a subnational group or non/state entity italics added).
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This This latter latter criteri criterion on (and thus by etensi etension on the previous previous one) has been the sub+ect of substantial critiue for limiting the term terrorism to non/state groups. This criticism is because one of the most important aspects of any discussion of the meaning of terrorism is the etent to $hich this term $ith such highly negative emotional valence is applie applied d solely solely to non non/st /stat atee actors actors.. Th Thee alter alternat native ive vie$ vie$ also also inclu includes des the the acti actions ons of governments/$hat is usually termed state terrorism. Fartin (2007) described state terrorism as terrorism *committed *committed by governments governments and uasi/governmental uasi/governmental agencies and personnel against perceived threats $hich can be directed again against st both both dom domest estic ic and and foreig foreign n targe targets. ts. >hom >homs!y s!y and "erm "erman an (18) (18) defin defined ed state state terrorism as terrorism practiced by states (or governments) and their agents and allies. &ll these analysts concluded that state terrorism accounts for most of the terrorist actions in the $orld, $orld, and mos mostt of the deaths. Terror Terrorism ism includes includes all actions actions ($hethe ($hetherr by nations, nations, states, states, insurgents or rebels) that use violence or the threat of violence against non/combatants (or even combatants off the battlefield) to create fear and use that fear to manipulate people in the service of political goals. This is $hat $e mean by gro$ing up in a $orld of terror. &s $e shall see, this decision to adopt the broader definition (i.e., including state terrorism) is particularly important. ecause much of the research available concerning the impact of terrorism on children and youth comes from situations in $hich state terrorism plays a signifi significant cant role role historic historically ally (e.g., (e.g., the @nited @nited %tates, %tates, %outh %outh &frica, frica, Israel, Israel, Ealest Ealestine, ine, and #orthern Ireland). Terrorism is freuently a $eapon of the $ea!, it can also be used by government to coerce their o$n resistant population population to acuiesce to their $ill and to eliminate eliminate challenges to state po$er. 4or eample, the military in &rgentina &rgentina and >hile in the 180s used !idnapping, murder, and torture to purge these countries of leftist critics, thousands of $hom remain among the *disappeared. *disappeared. 4ormer president of Gugoslavia Gugoslavia %lobodan Filosevic $as charged charged
4
in an international tribunal $ith sanctioning rape, murder, and !idnapping (among other charges) as terrorist tactics in 1 in an attempt to *ethnically cleanse ;osovo of &lbanians by scaring them into leaving ;osovo or by !illing them (;enneth - and avita %, 2005). Terrorism li!e $ar is not an unusual, although the incidence of terrorist acts has certainly been on the rise around the $orld. 4or eample, terrorist bombings occurred in Hreat ritain, #orthern Ireland, the Fiddle ast, and else$here fairly regularly throughout the 1:0s and 10s. In the @nited %tates, such bombings sho$ed a steady increase from early 1:0s through the 10s (eit=en and =inn, 18). 9hat actions should be defined as terrorism as is not al$ays agreed on by everyone. %ome even vie$ *terrorism as indistinct from *patriotism. The International Terrorism and %ecurity 3esearch (IT%3) allude to the fact that terrorism is not ne$, and that even though the $ord has been used since the beginning of recorded history it can be relatively hard to define. Terrorism according to the IT%3 has been described variously as both a tactic and strategy a crime and a holy duty a +ustified reaction to oppression and an inecusable abomination (;enneth - and avita %, 2005). The @nited %tates epartment of efence (@%) defines terrorism as *the calculated use of unla$ful violence or threat of unla$ful violence to inculcate fear intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological. 9ithin this definition, there are three !ey elements violence, fear, and intimidation and each element produce terror in its victims. The 4I defines terrorism as *the unla$ful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social ob+ectives. The @.%. epartment of %tate (@%%) defines terrorism as premeditated politically motivated violence perpetrated against non/combatant targets by sub/national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to
5
influence an audience. ?utside the @nited %tates Hovernment, there are greater variations in $hat features of terrorism are emphasi=ed in definitions. The @nited #ations (12) defines terrorism as *&n aniety/inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by semi/clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, $hereby in contrast to assassination the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The most commonly accepted academic definition of terrorism starts $ith the @.#. definition uoted above. "o$ever, the ritish "ome ?ffice (18') defines terrorism as *the use of violence for political ends, and includes any use of violence for the purpose of putting the public, or any section of the public, in fear. Terrorism is a political and criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim, and that the strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that dra$s the attention of the local populace, the government, and the $orld to their cause. The effectiveness of the terrorist act therefore lies not in the act itself, but in the publicongress to $ithdra$ the Farines from eirut. 2.2.2
O$er$ie o" Terrori#m
Terrorism, $ar, and disaster mental health overlap, terrorism presents unparalleled challenges in regards to national preparedness and response capacity. There are many definitions of terrorism. These definitions vary in their emphasis on terrorism
6
meaning and its psychological, social, and economics intent. #evertheless, there are three salient features of terrorism. Terrorist act6 (1) Induce a societal atmosphere of etreme danger and insecurity. (2) Inflict horrific personal harm and destruction, and (A) @ndermine the implicit social contract bet$een citi=ens and state
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#evertheless, an act of terrorism creates an atmosphere of danger that involves several layers of threat. The actuali=ed threat has immediate medical, psychological, environmental, and functional conseuences for subgroups that are differently affected. It signals to the $ider population that it can really happen, and the serious nature of the conseuences overrules calculations about li!e hood. Terrorist attac!s are often follo$ed by realistic threats of additional attac!s. In this atmosphere of danger and ongoing threats, there can be repeated false alarms. 4or eample after %eptember 11, 2001, a high school in lo$er Fanhattan had to evacuate repeatedly o$ing to bomb threats to a police station nearby. The effects of natural disasters and isolated incidents of human made violence, studies of the 1A $orld trade centre bombing, the 15 ?!lahoma city bombing, the 1: &merican embassy bombing in #airobi, ;enya, and the %eptember 11, 2001 attac!s provide evidence that children are not spared the emotional conseuence of terrorism. <hough it is premature to dra$ ma+or conclusion distinguishing the effects of terrorism from those of other forms of trauma and disaster, studies have identified a number of factors associated $ith mass violence that $arrant attention. Fass violence can generate an envelope of fear that has an etensive geographical reach. &mong children, there can be temporary or more persistent separation anieties, even among older children and adolescent. The perception of ongoing and ne$ dangers can precipitate a host of incident specific ne$ fears and avoidant behaviours. There may be a concentrated impact of traumatic death among families $ithin local community or region, $hile, at the same time, the losses may directly affects families $idely dispersed across the nation and the $orld (Efefferbaum, %con=o, 4lynn, ;earns, oughty, Hur$itch, 200A). 9orld trade centre bombing, on 4ebruary 27 1A, international terrorists bombed the $orld trade centre in #e$ Gor! >ity, !illing si people and in+uring and trapping thousand inside the building.
8
"arold %. ;ople$ie= et al (2002), compared the reactions of 22 children present in the building at the time of the eplosion to 28 children in a community convenience sample $hose eposure $as limited to interpersonal relationships $ith those directly affected and media coverage of the event. The directly eposed children $ere highly symptomatic6 three $ere considered li!ely to meet diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (ET%). In contrast, children in the comparison group had only mild symptoms. Earent of both group of children at follo$/ up month later, but the children themselves reported no significant decrease in either. ?n august 8, 1:, a terrorist bombing destroyed the &merican embassy in #airobi, ;enya !illing more than 200 individuals and in+uring thousand. %tudies by Efefferbaum et al (1), assessed more than 500 indirectly eposed children in a convenience sample of #airobi school children : to 1' months after the incident. This investigation eplored issues not eamined in the ?!lahoma >ity studies, including eposure to other traumatic events. iving in a community in $hich trauma is common, most of the children in the sample had eperienced other crimes or violence and the death, illness, or in+ury of relatives, members of their household, or friends. & higher number of other traumatic events, stronger posttraumatic stress reactions to other events, and stronger acute reactions predicted bombing/related posttraumatic stress. Fany children denied impaired functioning, and, for many others. Fore than 100,000 children have been abducted, tortured and seually abused before being recruited to fight in &fricaJs long/running civil $ars in the past three years, a report revealed. Teenage boys and girls forced to +oin militias are being sub+ected to psychological torture so that they can be indoctrinated. The emocratic 3epublic of >ongo has more than A0,000 child soldiers fighting in militias and acting as bodyguards for government army commanders. Hirls are also !idnapped and gang/raped by soldiers using them as
9
entertainment and re$ards for bravery (Feera .%, 200'). %ome cases of children serving in $ar and effects on their psyche have been given belo$6 C Filitias and government troops in %udan have also used children to fight their internal conflicts. The coalition said children as young as 1' had been recruited into the government militias of the ocal efence 4orces, in 3$anda, even though the 3$andan government denies using children as soldiers (Feera .%, 200'). C In Fo=ambiue, 4irinice, a 7 year old boy, $as accosted by the bandidos at a river near his home. "e $as forced to lead them to his home $here he $as made to set fire to his family hut. "is parents $ho $ere fleeing $ere !illed and decapitated in front of him. &ll his older siblings $ere !illed. 4or many $ee!s he $as virtually mute, unresponsive and emotionally fro=en, complying $ith $hatever $as epected from him (Feera .%, 200'). Terrorism are man perpetrated acts of violence, that vary along a number of dimensions such as the diversity of the $ar/related traumatic stressors, the =one of impact (single site or multiple sites), freuency and duration of eposure (single or multiple events) and their effects on family, social and community infrastructure as $ell as life sustaining variables such as access to food, $ater, shelter, and protection from disease. The impact of $ar/related stressors may occur as the direct result of physical and visual impact, media eposure, or through the various forms of interpersonal eperiences the $ounding and !illing of loved ones, the brutal rape and torturing of innocent victims, malnutrition, starvation, disease and emotional contagion, and social disruption and the loss of peer related eperiences, routini=ed family, school and community life. In some instances children may be !idnapped and forced to participate as child $arriors in violent acts under the threat of losing their o$n lives (&yesha, 201').
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2.2.%
O$er$ie o" Internal &i#placement.
Hlobally, studies found that as of the end of 201', A: million people around the $orld had been forced to flee their homes by armed conflict and generalised violence, and $ere living in displacement $ithin the borders of their o$n country. This represents a 15 per cent increase on 201A, and includes 11 million people $ho $ere ne$ly displaced during the year, the euivalent of A0,000 people a day. The ma+ority of the increase since last year is the result of the protracted crises in Ira, %outh %udan, %yria, emocratic 3epublic of >ongo (3>) and #igeria. The five countries accounted for 70 per cent of ne$ displacement $orld$ide, and in all ecept #igeria more than a million people fled their homes during the year (IF>, 2015). In sub/%aharan &frica, there $ere 11.' million IEs across 22 countries, $ith %udan accounting for at least A.1 million, 3> 2.: million, %outh %udan 1.5 million, %omalia 1.1 million and #igeria at least a million. >entral &frica $as again the region $orst/affected by ne$ displacement, accounting for 80 per cent of the sub/%aharan total of 11.' million. In 201', there $ere people living in displacement for ten years or more in nearly 0 per cent of the 70 countries and territories $e monitored. This phenomenon of protracted displacement is largely responsible for the high and ever/gro$ing cumulative figures $e publish each year (IF>, 2015). "o$ever, in 201', there $ere people living in internal displacement caused by conflict and generalised violence in all regions monitored by IF> (2015). &s in previous years, displacement around the $orld in 201' varied in terms of its scale, causes, patterns, protection issues, prospects for durable solutions and responses, reflecting the fact that people flee their homes in diverse political and conflict contets, and in countries $ith varying capacity and $ill to assist their IEs. This section describes some of these salient features by region (IF>, 2015).
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Hender/based violence (HD), forced recruitment, political violence and religious intolerance are $idespread in the region and continue to cause displacement. @naccompanied girls aged bet$een 12 and 18 have fled to the @% from the #orthern Triangle and Feico as a result of rape, physical violence and the threat of human traffic!ing.20 Diolence, insecurity and endemic poverty had driven 21,500 young people from the #orthern Triangle and 1:,:00 from Feico as of the end of 201A, of $hom around 2A per cent $ere girls $ith international protection needs (IF>, 2015). isplacement in >olombia is still driven by the armed conflict, $hich continues despite the ongoing peace process. There have been fe$er hostilities bet$een government forces and 4&3>, and peace negotiators reached a partial agreement on drug traffic!ing in 201', but violence and insecurity are still rife. 9idespread abuses, including the recruitment of minors, seual violence, the deployment of anti/personnel mines, etortion and the targeting of human rights defenders and land restitution advocates have forced many people to the flee their homes. 4orty/eight per cent of IEs are aged bet$een si and 27, and many continue to live in areas still affected by the conflict (IF>, 2015). 3esponses to displacement vary significantly across the region from >olombia, $here the government and international agencies have been running programmes for many years, to the #orthern Triangle $here responses are barely under$ay. >olombia made significant progress at the +udicial, legal and institutional level in 201', implementing transitional +ustice mechanisms, and policies on durable solutions and demobilisation, disarmament and reintegration. &ssistance programmes for IEs also continued but had little impact, particularly in terms of access to employment.'7 >olombia is a pilot country for the Transitional %olutions Initiative, a +oint @#">3, @#E and 9orld an! pro+ect running in 18 communities, but it is too soon to assess results (IF>, 2015).
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>hildren and adolescents $ho are forcibly displaced represent almost half the $orldhild refugees report harassment, seual abuse, and physical violence from local people and authorities >amps can be etremely unsafe places rape is not uncommon, being reported by both boys and girls in arfur and >had. >hildren $ho are not accompanied by an adult carer are especially vulnerable. %ome end up living on the streets, $hereas others are eploited and abused, having to resort to prostitution or other forms of labour to survive. >hildren $ho are forcibly displaced have the challenge of ad+usting to adverse events in the past $hile forging important emotional, social, and intellectual developmental tra+ectories in a ne$ setting. isenbruch described ho$ refugee children go through the double disruption to developmental and cultural continuity, and undergo dual processes of personal and cultural bereavement. 2.%
Empirical 'tudie#
2.%.1
Terrori#m and C(ildren
Terrorism is the eertion of force threatening annihilation to pro+ect a sense of po$erlessness on the target population. Its use seems to be increasing, and it is defended as a legitimate means to achieve a desired political ob+ective. In many instances adolescent have assumed the role of combatant and have thereby become the agents of intimidation and destruction (4ield, 18). The pathogenic element, apart from any physical in+ury, is the eperience of psychic trauma that results in helplessness in the face of intolerable danger, aniety and arousal. The susceptibility of any child to psychic trauma is a function of several factors, including genetic. >onstitutional and personality ma!eup past life eperience age and state of mind, and the content and intensity of the event. In those situation in $hich children have been held hostage or eposed to a murderous assault, most $ill suffer the posttraumatic stress disorder. The symptoms of this syndrome for children involve deleterious effects on cognition,
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emotions, interpersonal relations, behaviour and vegetative function. In addition, the developmental phase of the child contributes to the specific constellation of findings. & preschool child is li!ely to sho$ regression, school/age children often present $ith somatic complaints and traumati=ed adolescent commonly display acting/out behaviour (arroyo $. eths, 1:5) The nature history of the posttraumatic stress disorder in children has not been fully elucidated, but evidence is accumulating that the long term effects of terrorism can be substantial. >hildren continue to sho$ posttraumatic play and re/enactments, seen as repetitive, unsatisfying activities organi=ed around traumatic themes. ?ther persistent symptoms including nightmare and night terrors, residual traumatic aniety and memory disturbance such as retained misperceptions of the event and omen formation. In contrast to adults, children are apparently not sub+ected to amnesia or significant denial of the eternal reality of a violent event. The prognosis for child victim of terrorism $ill, in a large measure, depend on the family and community coping resources and the availability of psychiatric treatment (Terr .c, 1:A). There are fe$ studies of the long/term psychological effects of children being eposed to traumatic situations. %tudies (Thabet and Dostanis, 1) revealed that the '0K of children in the Ha=a strip $ho had been initially diagnosed $ith ET% decreased to 10K one year later $ith the onset of the peace process. <hough a child
14
compromised social infrastructure represented an ongoing stressor manifested by dangerous and unhealthy conditions such as overcro$ded conditions, unsafe playgrounds $ithout access to sports fields. The great ma+ority of children felt unsafe in the streets, eperienced school problems, and $ere freuently ill. #evertheless, the children $ere seen as using healthy strategies in coping $ith the stressful events in their lives. Fac!soud and &ber (17) reported 'AK of ebanese children continued to manifest posttraumatic stress symptoms 10 years after eposure to $ar/related traumas. The biological impact of $ar/related traumas is directly related to the intensity, duration, and the impact of the stressors on bodily integrity, the stress response system andMor its interference $ith life sustaining support systems. It is !no$n that eposure to intense acute and chronic stressors during the developmental years has enduring neurobiological effects vis/a/vis the stress response and neurotransmitter systems $ith subseuent increased ris! of aniety and mood disorders, aggressive dyscontrol problems, hypo immune dysfunction, medical morbidity, structural changes in the >#%, and early death (eellis, aum, et al., 1 eellis, ;eshavan, et al., 1 "eim, Feinschmidt, N #emeroff, 200A and Fc$en, 1:). @#I>4 (17) noted that many more children die from starvation, sic!ness, and stress of flight than from the immediate effects of violence. In &frica it is reported that children die 20 times more freuently from lac! of medical services and starvation than physical in+uries from $ar. 2.%.2
Reaction# o" C(ildren on Terrori#m
It is impossible for children to go through upheavals of this !ind $ithout sho$ing their effect in difficult behaviour and in variations from normality. Infantile nature has certain means at its disposal to deal $ith shoc!s, deprivations and upsets in life (-on, 200A). ?utlet in speech is often delayed and after months had elapsed since the occurrence of some gruesome devastating incident that has been $itnessed by the child. %uch incidents
15
include death of parents as $ell. The children $ho lost their fathers in air raids never mentioned anything of their eperience for many months. Their mothers $ere convinced that they had forgotten all about it. Then after a year, t$o of them at least told the complete story $ith no details left out. The child begins to tal! about the incident $hen the feelings $hich $ere aroused by it have been dealt $ith in some other manner children often imitate $hatever they see in their play, $ith toy houses being bombed by marbles. There $as a lot of ecitement among the children $hile involved in such games. In case of a boy $ho for long refused to accept his father
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"usain, 2002 Holdstein,9ampler, N9ise, 18 "adi N labre, 1: Thabet N Dostanis, 1). &lso in some cases, a child eposed to a lot of death and destruction at an early age can have a heart that can be scarred no further. They become indifferent to the sufferings of others. 4or eample, 4ernando, 15 years of age, had participated in a number of attac!s !illing several people, after he $as captured by the guerrillas. &fter he $as captured, he ehibited little remorse or regret for !illing people and epressed his $ish to be a soldier. Eosttraumatic stress and other reactions are common in children directly eposed to terrorist incidents. ;ople$ic= et al (2002) found that children $ho $ere trapped in the 9orld Trade >entre at the time of the 1A bombing of the facility had significantly higher levels of posttraumatic stress and disaster/related fear than children in a community comparison sample. >hildren $ho reported the strongest symptoms initially $ere most li!ely to have strong persisting symptoms. ?f note, parents failed to recogni=e the level of distress in their children, reporting a decrease in child posttraumatic stress and incident/related fear bet$een three and nine months $hile the children themselves reported no decrease. Fore than one third of parents of preschool/aged children attending early childhood centres, primarily near or $ithin vie$ of the 9orld Trade >entre at the time of the %eptember 11 attac!s, reported that their children had personally $itnessed at least part of the event (eDoe et al. 2007). ?ver one half reported ne$ fears in their children, almost one fourth reported increased aggression, and over '0K reported that their children eperienced difficulty going to sleep after the event (eDoe et al. 2007). & study of children, aged 7 to 1' years, held hostage for three days in a school/based terrorist incident in eslan, 3ussia, in 200', revealed very high levels of posttraumatic stress symptoms three months after the attac! (%crimin et al. 2007). &pproimately three fourths of the children met the study
17
criteria for ET%, and many eperienced neuropsychological impairment in $or!ing memory and sustained attention (%crimin et al. 2007). 2.%.%
Emotional and )e(a$ioural Hit o" Terrori#m on C(ildren.
The vie$s is that fe$ children $ill be directly eposed to terrorism, but a larger proportion of the child population $ill be indirectly eposed the impacts of terrorism on children. 3egarding predictor of chronic posttraumatic symptoms in children. @ndermining of civil society may be more of a threat to childrenT), and children have cognitive abilities. It is clear, ho$ever, that some form of cognitive capacity is necessary for developing post/traumatic psychopathology. Infants, for eample, are protected from full psychological Peposure< to terrorism by their cognitive immaturity most adolescents, on the other hand, are capable of apprehending the full horror of such events. Get, infants $ill be highly vulnerable to degradation of caregiver function as they are totally dependent on adult care. &fter children form attachments to caregivers, they are highly sensitive to separation and loss, particularly if frightened. >hildren gauge threats based on caregiver responses. %ince terrified parents are terrifying to children, parents can moderate or mediate the propagation of terror as a vector for the spread of fear to children. >alm and functional parents, teachers, and other adults can reassure children. In addition, it is not clear $hether
18
the same pharmacologic agents used for post/trauma syndromes in adults should be used in children. & ma+or gap in our !no$ledge is that there is virtually no research that has eamined the effectiveness of any intervention for children follo$ing large/scale disasters or terrorism this should be a high priority (3 Gehuda and %. "yman, 2005). 2.%.*
)o!o Haram Terrori#m On Education '+#tem In ,i-eria.
The effect of o!o "aram terrorism on education cannot be overloo!ed o$ing to the fact that it has caused destruction on educational facilities most especially in the #orth ast. ?latoye, (2010), the effect of o!o "aram on education can be summarised thus •
Poor Fundin- o" Education The ripple effects of o!o "aram insurgency has led to a
situation in $hich ependiture on education has increasingly d$indled over the years. This is occasioned by the pressing need to allocate more funds to security, to the
•
detriment of other sectors of the economy, education inclusive. Lo## o" Trained Per#onnel ¬her fall/out from the ceaseless attac!s on the government institutions, including education, is the loss of trained teachers $ho are either maimed, !illed or prefer to give schools a $ide berth as a result of the indiscriminate attac!s on them by o!o "aram operatives, $ho attac! schools at random. Fany #igerians have had to cross into >ameroon and >had republic to escape the $rath of the
•
sect and en+oy relative peace (?!oli N Iortyer, 201'). Poor academic Per"ormance &cademic activities are disrupted intermittently as a result of sporadic attac!s on educational facilities. Hovernment has had to shut do$n schools in order to forestall sudden attac!s on them by o!o "aram insurgents. The o!o "aram attac!s also culminate in poor student
19
threat of insecurity $ill constitute negative reinforcement due to the obvious fact that teaching and learning cannot occur successfully in an environment characteri=ed by threat
•
(>ampbell, 200:). &e#truction o" 'c(ool Facilitie# ombing and shooting by o!o "aram insurgents destroy school facilities $hich are grossly inadeuate in the first instance due to poor funding by government. This portends grave conseuences for effective teaching and learning $hich becomes hampered by inadeuacy of educational facilities. #orthern #igeria has suffered lo$ enrolment rate especially at the primary education sector. 3uuyyatu (201A) #orthern #igeria has suffered lo$ enrolment rate especially at the primary education sector. 3uuyyatu (201A) blamed this on the effect of long standing effect of Islamic education as most parents are yet to embrace $estern education. To such parents, $estern education is tied to the bible and it is an indirect $ay of changing their religion. %econdly, the security situation in the #orthern #igeria also comes to play. The constant threat posed by o!o "aram $hich started in 200 and other etremists religious sect li!e the -ama
2.%./
Role# o" 0o$ernment toard# C(ildren
Hovernment is considered the primary duty bearer $ith the responsibility for protection of internally displaced persons. %uch protection $ill be responsive, i.e. aiming to prevent imminent or stop on/going violations, remedial, i.e. aiming to provide redress (e.g. access to +ustice, reparation or rehabilitation) for past violations, or environment building, i.e. aiming at creating the necessary legal and institutional frame$or!, capacity and a$areness that is necessary to promote respect for human rights of internally displaced persons and prevent future violations (federal republic of #igeria, 2012). International human rights la$ 20
imposes on government three ma+or obligations $ith regards to ensuring the realisation of the rights of internally displaced persons6 a) The obligation to respect the human rights of internally displaced persons, i.e. to refrain from actively violating them b) The obligation to protect such rights, i.e. to intervene and ta!e protective action on behalf of the victims of internal displacement against threats by others or stemming from their displaced situation c) The obligation to fulfil these rights, i.e. to provide goods and services necessary to allo$ internally displaced persons to fully en+oy their rights and to discharge these obligations $ithout discrimination. Conceptual "rameor! e""ect o" )o!o Haram Terrori#m in ,i-eria
'ource 'am#on E 21%3. Ret(in!in- counterin#ur-enc+ A ca#e #tud+ o" )o!o Haram
2.%.4
Ri-(t o" Internal &i#placed C(ildren
21
&ccording to @nicef, article 2 states that6 &ll children have these rights, no matter $ho they are, $here they live, $hat their parents do, $hat language they spea!, $hat their religion is, $hether they are a boy or girl, $hat their culture is, $hether they have a disability, or $hether they are rich or poor. #o child should be treated unfairly on any basis. Eersons affected by displacement situations eperience a $ide variety of needs in the short, medium and long term. These include food, $ater, shelter and other essential items, security, physical and psychological $ell/being, and assistance in restoring family lin!s, health care, and education, economic and social rehabilitation. Eeople are especially vulnerable $hen they are displaced, $hatever the cause of the displacement. They are deprived, often brutally, of their ordinary environment, and this directly threatens their ability to meet their most basic needs, especially $hen families are torn apart or $hen relatives are !illed or go missing (4H#, 2012). Internally displaced children shall be entitled to the full en+oyment of their rights under the #igerian >onstitution, statutes, and domesticated sub regional, regional and international human rights and humanitarian instruments. Internally displaced children shall, in particular, en+oy their rights under the >hild 3ights &ct and similar la$s enacted at the %tate and local government levels. It has been observed that some children lose the only living parent or both parents during communal conflicts and disasters. in this #ational Eolicy, the government hereby asserts as follo$s6 a. That every child has the right to a name and heMshe also has a right to be identified $ith the community of hisMher birth, $here possible. b. To ensure hisMher proper upbringing, an internally displaced child that is orphaned could be adopted by a family either from hisMher ethnic group or other$ise, $hich means hisMher status could be decided by hisMher ne$ family. This shall be in compliance $ith all state and federal legislation on adoption. In such a case6
22
i.
The ne$ parents must ensure that heMshe attains full educational development as their
ii.
biological children, that the child shall not be sub+ected to child abuse. That the child shall be fully integrated into the family and treated eually li!e other
iii.
biological children That the child shall be entitled to honours such as traditional titles $here heMshe so merits it, and shall not be discriminated against +ust because of hisMher being an
iv.
internally displaced child @nder no circumstance shall the child be reminded that heMshe is adopted from an
v.
internal displacement camp That the adoption of the child is perpetual, not reversible and not renounceable, as an alternative to adoption, a child could also be fostered and have access to all rights such as education, inheritance, and traditional titles as are enshrined in %haria or
vi.
>ustomary a$. It is the policy of the government not to discourage internally displaced children from
vii.
communicating in their native language or any other language of their choice. @nder no circumstance shall an internally displaced child be used for street ha$!ing,
viii.
forced labour or any other forms of child eploitation. Internally displaced children shall be entitled to good medical care and immuni=ation against diseases that may cause death, retard their gro$th or affect their general $ell/
i.
being. ecause of the peculiar status of internally displaced children, it is the policy of government to ensure their full integration into the society. Internally displaced children shall not be ascribed as belonging to any caste system, such as *?su,
.
*&bi!u, *?gban+e. This #ational Eolicy shall ensure that internally displaced children (persons belo$ the age of 1:) are protected against torture, seual eploitation, drug abuse, as $ell as early and forced marriage.
This #ational Eolicy shall ensure the protection of children in eceptionally difficult circumstances. This means that a special regime shall be established for the protection of children in such difficult circumstances $hich shall include but not limited to orphans, 23
children $ith health challenges and children $ith disabilities (federal republic of #igeria, 2012). 2.* T(eoretical Frameor!
In eamining the various perspectives that have attempted to capture the causes of the o!o "aram insurgency on children since the outset of the problem $e loo!ed at general theoretical frame$or!s that have been employed universally to eplain similar terrorism. In this regard, $e made reference to foreign and local (#igerian) sources. &t the same time, $e paid critical attention to the diverse vie$s provided by the broad spectrum of the #igerian society. In doing this, adeuate consideration $as given to all the shades of opinions representative of the various divides of the #igerian society. Henerally, the historical/ descriptive method of inuiry $as adopted in the study. 2.*.1
Human ,eed#5'ocio6Economic Per#pecti$e
The socio/economic perspective of the o!o "aram challenge in #igeria, essentially attempts to de/emphasise the interpretation of this being a particularly Fuslim or northern crisis (;u!ah, 2012). The perspective $hich blames social conditions for the violence is anchored on the human needs theory of social conflicts. Its central thesis is that all humans have basic needs $hich they see! to fulfil and failure caused by other individuals or groups to meet these needs could lead to conflict (3osati et al, 10 cited in 4aleti, p. 51). The theory is similar to the frustration/aggression theory of violence, $hich posits that aggression is al$ays a conseuence of frustration (ougherty and Efalt=grate -r, 106 277). &ccording to the theory, relative deprivation is a perceived disparity bet$een value epectation and value capabilities and that the lac! of a need satisfaction L defined as a gap bet$een aspirations and achievement generally L relies on the psychological state of frustration and aggressive attitudes emanating from it. @nli!e the relationalMvengeance theory, the perspective goes beyond the trigger to focus on the underlying factor(s) that could have bred such groups. It
24
has its largest proponents from the intelligentsia, and is particularly vie$ed by some foreign governments such those of the @nited %tates and ritain as eplanations for the problem. #igeria
root cause of violence and anger in both the north and south of #igeria is endemic poverty and hopelessness, the government must address socio/economic deprivation, $hich is most severe in the north ("ers!ovits, 2012). Indeed the very high incident of poverty in #igeria is generally seen as a northern phenomenon. & study by Erofessor >harles %oludo, sho$s the three northern regions having an average poverty incidence of 80.1K compared to A'.K of the south
25
frustration and foster violence. &s ougherty and Efalt=grate -r. have rightly noted, hostilities in such instances, are directed *to$ard someone or something not responsible for the original frustration (ibid). & more profound eplanation of the north# governor amido %anusi, a scion of #orthern establishment, clearly raises the resource
26
distribution issue, $hich ®besola (op.cit) has identified as fostering the endemic poverty of the north. It also agrees $ith the submission that competition for scarce resources may be of greater importance in eplaining political violence in the developing regions (?berschal 17 #elson 17). >hairman of #orthern Hovernors< 4orum, (#H4) &liyu abangida has also decried an *unfavourable federation allocation structure in $hich the #orthern states are at great disadvantage amidst rising illiteracy, poverty, ignorance and general bac!$ardness in the region, (aily trust, online, 4ebruary 2', 2012). This perspective has encountered severe criticisms recently, even from the north. %enate Eresident avid Far! argues that poverty and unemployment no longer offer a cogent eplanation for the insurgency as these adverse socio/economic conditions are not eclusive to the north, (Eeoples aily, online, -une 27, 2012). 9hile socio/economic deprivation could be most severe in the north, ecept for the north/east $here it originated, no such violent group as o!o "aram is !no$n to have sprung up in states in the north/$est and north/central. "ordes of beggars $ho line ;atsina streets reflect the poverty in that north/$estern state, yet it has neither bred nor harboured such a violent group. vidence pertaining to atin &merica and %ub/%aharan &frican urban settings similarly challenges the relevance of the theory of the *revolution of rising epectation. 2.*.2
'ocio Con#tructi$i#t T(eor+
This study adopted the theory of ev Dygots!y (18:) social constructivism theory. Dygots!y theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in cognitive development of a child. Dygots!y believed that the role of the teacher in education is crucial. In developing children abilities, teachers can guide them to$ards performing tas!s $hich are +ust beyond their current capacity. 9ith such guidance, children can perform beyond their o$n ability $ithin certain limits. Dygots!y defined these limits as the =one of proimal development. ased on the fact that learning and development in orno %tate, should be collaborative activities bet$een the society and school. Dygots!y believed that, community plays a central role in the
27
process of ma!ing meaning to children cognitive development. The perceptual attention and memory capacity of children are transformed by vital cognitive tools provided by culture, such as history, traditions, language, religion and social contet. 4or learning to occur, the child must first ma!e contact $ith the social environment on an interpersonal level and then internali=es this eperience. This means that, $hat the child is able to do in collaboration today, the child $ill be able to do independently tomorro$. Dygots!y (18:) posited that, the culture gives the child the cognitive tool needed for development. This ma!es the study to lend its credence on Dygots!y social constructivism theory because of the significance to culture and social contet. If Dygots!y is correct that children develop in socio/cultural settings. 4or teaching and learning to go on smoothly in orno %tate, basic school teachers need to adopt constructivist teacherertainly, this theory $ill be useful to basic school teachers because they can use it as a guide to a child
28
through the use of mediator, and enables the teacher to help the students attain that level by themselves.
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