A Term Term Paper on Motivation Motivat ion Theory
Submitted by Ganesh Shiwakoti Ganga Ghimire Durga Neupane Dipesh Khulal Dhirendra Ayer M.S.Ag. Agribusiness Management Seond Semester! "#$AST
Submitted to% Mr. Singa &ama Assoiate Pro'essor "imalayan $ollege o' Agriultural Sienes and Tehnology Kathmandu! Nepal
(anuary! )*+,
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Aknowledgement It’s ours great pleasure to express unsounded sense of gratitude and veneration to our subjec subjectt teache teacherr Mr. Mr. Singa Singa Lama, Lama, Himala Himalayan yan olleg ollegee of !gricu !gricultu ltural ral Science Sciencess and "echnolo echnology gy #HI!S #HI!S"$ "$ for his continu continuous ous guidel guideline iness and valuabl valuablee sugges suggestio tions ns for completing ours term paper. %urs sincere than&s go to Mrs. 'amuna (oudel, Librarian, HI!S" for providing the refere reference nce boo&s to comple complete te this report. report. Inspit Inspitee of ours best effort effort and care, care, some some mista&es might have crept in. )e ta&e the entire responsibility of any mista&e in this paper and beg a pardon for that. *ut advices and suggestions are heartedly +elcome for further improvement of the paper.
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Contents
. I-"%/0"I%- ...................................................................................................................... 5 . *ac&ground ...........................................................................................................................5 .. -ature of Motivation .........................................................................................................5 1. (%2SS %3 M%"I4!"I%- ...................................................................................................6 1. 3actors affecting individual performance ..............................................................................6 1.. Motivation ......................................................................................................................... 6 1..1 Sense of ompetence .........................................................................................................7 1..5 !bility6 ............................................................................................................................... 7 1..7 %rgani8ational esource6 ................................................................................................... 7 5. "H2%I2S %3 M%"I4!"I%- ..................................................................................................7 5. Hierarchy of -eeds "heory #!braham Maslo+$ ...................................................................8 5.. (hysiological needs ............................................................................................................8 5..1 Safety needs....................................................................................................................... 8 5..5 Social needs .......................................................................................................................8 5..7. 2steem needs ....................................................................................................................8 5..9. Self:actuali8ation needs .................................................................................................... 9 5..; Implication of Hierarchy of -eeds "heory ........................................................................9 5.1 Motivation:Hygiene "heory #3. Her8berg$ ...........................................................................9 5.1. Hygiene 3actors #/issatisfies$ ........................................................................................... 9 5.1.1 Motivation 3actors #Satisfiers ..........................................................................................10 5.1.5 Implication of Her8berg’s "heory ....................................................................................10 5.1.5. omparison of Maslo+’s and Her8berg’s "heories .......................................................10 5.5 2< "heory #layton !lderfer$ ..............................................................................................12 3
5.5. =ey points of 2< "heory ..............................................................................................13 5.7 Mclleland’s "heory of needs #/avid Mclleland$ ...........................................................14 5.7. -eeds for achievement .....................................................................................................14 5.7.1 -eeds for affiliation......................................................................................................... 14 5.7.5 -eeds for po+er ...............................................................................................................14 5.9. !dams> 2?uity "heory ......................................................................................................... 14 5.9.. Ho+ to !pply the !dams> 2?uity "heory ......................................................................15 5.; 2xpectancy "heory #4ictor 4room$ ........................................................................................ 15 5.;. 2ffort (erformance relationship #2:($ .............................................................................15 5.;.1 (erformance:e+ard elationship #(:%$ ........................................................................15 5.;.5 e+ard:(ersonal
9. 2322-2S ......................................................................................................................... 19
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+. #NT/0D1$T#0N +.+ 2akground
Motivation is a psychological process. It is important in understanding individual behavior. It gives purpose and direction to behavior. Cob performance is a function of employee ability plus motivation. 2mployees may possess s&ills and abilities. *ut they may lac& +illingness to use those s&ills and abilities. Motivation induces employees to use their s&ills and abilities to perform effectively. It is an inner force that energi8es people into action. Motivation is the act of energi8ing people to put more efforts. It is +illingness to exert high levels of efforts. It is an inner state +ithin the individual that energi8es, directs and sustains behavior to+ards goal achievement. Motivation starts +ith need. -eed is physiological or psychological deficiency. -eeds activate drives. "he drive is aimed at goals. "he interacting relationships among needs, drives and goals are the foundation of motivation process. Aording to Dubin, DMotivation is the complex force starting and &eeping a person at at +or& in an organi8ation. Motivation is something that moves the person to action, and continues him in the course of action already initiatedE Aording to M3arland DMotivation refers to the +ay in +hich urges, drives, aspirations, strivings, or needs direct, control, or explain the behavior of human being.
+.+.+ Nature o' Motivation 4i5 2ased on motives% Motivation is based on individual’s motives +hich are internal to the individual. "hese motives are in the form of feelings that the individual lac&s something. In order to overcome this feeling, he tries to behave in a manner +hich helps in overcoming this feeling. 4ii5 A''eted by Motivation% Motivation is affected by +ay the individual is motivated. It can also activate the latent needs in the individual, that is, the needs that are the less strong and some+hat dormant, and harness them in a manner that +ould be functional for the organi8ation. 4iii5 Goal direted behavior 6 Motivation leads to goal:directed behavior. ! goal:directed behavior is one +hich satisfies the cause for +hich behavior ta&es place. 4iv5 /elated to satis'ation% satisfaction refers to the contentment experiences of an individual +hich he derives out of need fulfillment. "hus satisfaction is a conse?uence of re+ards and punishments associated +ith past experiences. 5
4v5 $omple6 proess% Motivation is a complex processF complexity emerges because of the nature of needs and the type of behavior that is attempted to satisfy those needs. 4vi5 Person motivated in totality% ! person is motivated in totality and not in part. 2ach individual in the organi8ation is a self:contained unit and his needs are interrelated. "hese affect his behavior in different +ays.
). P/0$7SS 03 M0T#8AT#0N Motivation causes goal:directed behavior. 3eeling of a need by an individual generates a feeling that he lac&s something. "his lac& of something creates tension in the mind of individual. "o overcome this state he engages himself in a behavior to satisfy his needs. "his is goal:directed behavior.
"ension (hysical
0nsatisfied -eeds
(sycholo gical tension
Acton o Satsfy Needs
Goal-Fulll!en" Needs Satsfacton
Sociologi cal
Fa#o$a%le &n#'$o!en
3igure +% Proess o' Motivation
).+ 3ators a''eting individual per'ormane ).+.+ Motivation% Level of motivation derives an individual for +or&. Motivation is based on motive +hich is a feeling that an individual lac&s something. "his feeling creates some sort of tension in his mind. In order to overcome this tension, he engages in goal:directed behavior. "hus motivation becomes a prime mover for efforts and better +or& performance.
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).+.) Sense o' $ompetene% Sense of competence denotes the extent to +hich an individual consistently regards himself as capable of doing a job. Sense of competence of an individual depends to a very great extent on his locus of control. Locus of control means +hether people believe that they are in control of events or events control them. ).+.9 Ability% !bility is expressed in the form of the follo+ing e?uation6 Ability:Knowledge 6 Skill
=no+ledge refers to the possession of information and ideas in a particular field +hich may be helpful in developing relationships among different variables related to that field. S&ill refers to expertness, practical ability or facility in action or doing something. ).+.; 0rgani
9. T"70/#7S 03 M0T#8AT#0N "here are several theories of motivation. "he theory of motivation can be classified as follo+s 4i5
Need=based Theories
Hierarchy of needs theory #!braham Maslo+$
Motivation:Hygiene "heory # 3rederic& Her8berg$
2< theory #layton !ldefer$
Mclleland’s theory of needs #/avid Mclleland$
4ii5
Proess=based Theories
2?uity theory #C. Stacy !dams$
2xpectancy theory #4ictor 4room$
einforcement theory #*.3. S&inner$
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9.+ "ierarhy o' Needs Theory 4Abraham Maslow5
3igure )% Maslow>s "ierarhy o' Needs 9.+.+ Physiologial needs : these are biological re?uirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drin&, shelter, clothing, +armth, sex, sleep.
If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslo+ considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met. 9.+.) Sa'ety needs : protection from elements, security, order, la+, stability, freedom from fear. 9.+.9 Soial needs : after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. "he need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior
2xamples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. !ffiliating, being part of a group #family, friends, +or&$. 9.+.;. 7steem needs : +hich Maslo+ classified into t+o categories6
#i$ 2steem for oneself #dignity, achievement, mastery, independence$ and #ii$ "he desire for reputation or respect from others #e.g., status, prestige$. Maslo+ indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self:esteem or dignity. 9.+.?. Sel'=atuali
Lo+er:level needs6 (hysiological and safely needs are lo+er:order needs. "hey are mist pressing needs. Higher:level needs6 Social, esteem and self:actuali8ation needs are higher order needs. "hey are least pressing needs. 9.+.@ #mpliation o' "ierarhy o' Needs Theory
#i$ -eeds motivate individual. ! person progresses step:by:step in the need hierarchy. Lo+er order needs are most pressing. (eople satisfy most pressing needs first. %nly one need is operational at a time. #ii$ Satisfied needs do not motivate. %nly unsatisfied needs motivate. "he degree of satisfaction is not rigid. It differs from person to person. #iii$ 3or motivational purposes, managers should create +or& situations that permit employees to satisfy their unsatisfied need. "he hierarchy of needs theory is simple and practical. It has received +ide recognition. It is useful guide for understanding behavior. Ho+ever, there is little support for hierarchical arrangement of needs. Multiplicity of needs may motivate people.
9.) Motivation="ygiene Theory 43. "er
3ators A''eting (ob Attitudes "ygiene 3ators
Motivation 3ators
ompany policy
Supervision
!chievement
Interpersonal elationship
ecognition
)or& conditions
)or& itself
Salary
esponsibility
Cob security
!dvancement
(ersonal life
elationship +(eers 3igure ;% Motivation="ygiene 3ators
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9.).+ "ygiene 3ators 4Dissatis'ies5
"hese factors are dissatisfies. "he absence of these factors causes job dissatisfaction. "hey are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction. "hey are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction. "hese factors relate to hob context. Hygiene factors are6 #i$
ompany policy and administration6 "hey guide decision.
#ii$
Supervision6 It is guiding of subordinates
#iii$
Interpersonal relations +ith superiors, peers and subordinates.
#iv$
Salary6 3inancial re+ard fir +or& done.
#v$
Cob Security6 "enure of employment
#vi$
(ersonal life6 (ersonal life at +or& place
#vii$
)or& condition6 2nvironment at +or& place
#viii$
Status6 an& at +or& place
9.).) Motivation 3ators 4Satis'iers5
"hese factors cause high levels of job satisfaction. Ho+ever, absence of these factors does not lead to hob dissatisfaction. "hese factors relate to job:content. Motivators consist of6 #i$
!chievement6 "he drive to excel
#ii$
ecognition6 of high performance
#iii$
!dvancement6 (romotion to higher level post
#iv$
"he +or& itself6 Interesting and challenging job
#v$
(ersonal gro+th6 %pportunities for gro+th
#vi$
esponsibility6 obligation to perform assigned jobs
Motivation can be increased by maximi8ation motivation factors. 9.).9 #mpliation o' "ers Theory
Her8berg pointed out the importance of job content for +or& motivation. He advocated job enrichment as an important motivational techni?ue. Ho+ever, motivation and hygiene factors are not +holly unidirectional. 3or example, factory +or&ers can be motivated by salary and security. 9.).9.+ $omparison o' Maslow>s and "ers Theories
*oth theories are based on needs. Maslo+ describes the needs. Her8berg describes factors that ma&e a person satisfied of dissatisfied +ith his job. Her8berg’s factors fit +ith Maslo+’s needs. 10
/ifferences bet+een Maslo+ and Her8berg "heory of MotivationF
hy are Maslow and "er
Maslow>s Model
%rder of needs
Hierarchical needs.
2mphasis
/escriptive.
"he essence theory
Motivator
"ers Model
arrangement
of -o such arrangement.
hierarchical
(rescriptive
0nsatisfied needs energi8e of
needs
cause
!ny need can be a motivator if it %nly higher order needs serve as 11
hy are Maslow and "er
is relatively unsatisfied.
motivators.
!pplicability
"a&es a general vie+ of the "a&es a micro:vie+ and deals motivational problems of all +ith +or&:oriented motivational +or&ers. problems of professional +or&ers
3actors
"he existence of some factors creates a positive attitude and "he positive and negative factors their non:existence creates a are completely different. negative attitude.
9.9 7/G Theory 4$layton Alder'er5
"his theory advocates hierarchy of three needs. "hey are as follo+s 5.5.
-eed for 2xistence
(roviding basic material existence re?uirements for physiological and safety needs. 5.5.. -eed for relatedness /esire for maintaining interpersonal relationships for social needs. 5.5..1
-eed for
/esire for personal gro+th for esteem and self:actuali8ation need.
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3igure6 2< "heory of Motivation 9.9.+ Key points o' 7/G Theory
#i$ "his theory substitutes three needs for Maslo+’s five needs. It argues that there is no rigid hierarchy of needs. More than one need can be operational at the same time. #ii$ "his theory also contains a frustration:regression dimension. Inability to satisfy higher level need can lead to increased satisfaction of lo+er level needs. 3or example, inability to satisfy social interaction need may increase the desire to ma&e more money. 3rustration can lead to regression to a lo+er level. #iii$ "his theory also contains a frustration:regression dimension. Inability to satisfy higher level need can lead to increased satisfaction of lo+er level needs. 3or example, inability to satisfy social interaction need may increase the desire to ma&e more money. 3rustration can lead to regression to a lo+er level. #iv$"his theory also contains a frustration:regression dimension. Inability to satisfy higher level need can lead to increased satisfaction of lo+er level needs. 3or example, inability to satisfy social interaction need may increase the desire to ma&e more money. 3rustration can lead to regression to a lo+er level. #v$ "his theory considers individual differences in people. *ut it does not offer clear:cut guidelines to predict behavior.
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9.; M$lleland>s Theory o' needs 4David M$lleland5 9.;.+ Needs 'or ahievement
"hey prefer +or&ing on tas&s of moderate difficulty, prefer +or& in +hich the results are based on their effort rather than on anything else, and prefer to receive feedbac& on their +or&. !chievement based individuals tend to avoid both high:ris& and lo+:ris& situations. Lo+:ris& situations are seen as too easy to be valid and the high:ris& situations are seen as based more on the luc& of the situation rather than the achievements that individual made.J5K "his personality type is motivated by accomplishment in the +or&place and an employment hierarchy +ith promotional positions. 9.;.) Needs 'or a''iliation
(eople +ho have a need for affiliation prefer to spend time creating and maintaining social relationships, enjoy being a part of groups, and have a desire to feel loved and accepted. (eople in this group tend to adhere to the norms of the culture in that +or&place and typically do not change the norms of the +or&place for fear of rejection. "his person favors collaboration over competition and does not li&e situations +ith high ris& or high uncertainty. (eople +ho have a need for affiliation +or& +ell in areas based on social interactions li&e customer service or client interaction positions. 9.;.9 Needs 'or power
(eople in this category enjoy +or& and place a high value on discipline. "he do+nside to this motivational type is that group goals can become 8ero:sum in nature, that is, for one person to +in, another must lose. Ho+ever, this can be positively applied to help accomplish group goals and to help others in the group feel competent about their +or&. ! person motivated by this need enjoys status recognition, +inning arguments, competition, and influencing others. )ith this motivational type come a need for personal prestige, and a constant need for a better personal status.
9.? Proess=based theory 9.?.+ AdamsC 7uity Theory
"he !dams’ 2?uity "heory is named for Cohn Stacey !dams, a +or&place and behavioural psychologist, +ho developed this job motivation theory in ;5. Much li&e many of the more prevalent theories of motivation #theories by Maslo+>s Hierarchy of -eeds, Her8berg>s "heory, etc.$, the !dams’ 2?uity "heory ac&no+ledges that subtle and variable factors affect an employee’s assessment and perception of their relationship +ith their +or& and their employer.
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"he theory is built:on the belief that employees become de:motivated, both in relation to their job and their employer, if they feel as though their inputs are greater than the outputs. 2mployees can be expected to respond to this is different +ays, including de: motivation #generally to the extent the employee perceives the disparity bet+een the inputs and the outputs exist$, reduced effort, becoming disgruntled, or, in more extreme cases, perhaps even disruptive. 9.?.+.+ "ow to Apply the AdamsC 7uity Theory
It is important to also consider the !dams’ 2?uity "heory factors +hen striving to improve an employee>s job satisfaction, motivation level, etc., and +hat can be done to promote higher levels of each. "o do this, consider the balance or imbalance that currently exists bet+een your employee>s inputs and outputs, as follo+s6
9.@ 76petany Theory 48itor 8room5 "his theory explains motivation in terms of expectations. "his theory explains motivation in terms of three relationships. 9.@.+ 7''ort Per'ormane relationship 47=P5
2xpectation that efforts generate better performance. "his is &no+n as DexpectancyE 9.@.) Per'ormane=/eward /elationship 4P=05
2xpectation that better performance leads to variety of outcomes. "his is &no+n as DinstrumentalityE [email protected] /eward=Personal Goals /elationship 485
2xpectation that each outcome has an anticipated value. "his is called DvalenceE. e+ard should satisfy personal goals of an individual. "his theory emphasi8es lin&s bet+een effort, performance and valence for motivation. !ccording to this theory Motivation 2xpectancy x Instrumentality x 4alence
9.E /ein'orement theory 42.3. Skinner5 "he /ein'orement Theory o' Motivation +as proposed by *.3. S&inner and his associates. "his theory posits that behavior is the function of its conse?uences, +hich means an individual develops a behavior after performing certain actions. 15
"he reinforcement theory of motivation is based on the F&aw o' 7''et concept, i.e. an individual is li&ely to repeat those actions having the positive conse?uences, and +ill avoid those behaviors that result in negative o r unpleasant outcomes. "he behaviors that elicit conse?uences is called as operant behavior and reinforcement theory +or& on the relationship bet+een the operant behavior and the associated conse?uences and, therefore, is often called as 0perant $onditioning. %perant conditioning means, the change in the behavior caused due to the reinforcement #(ositive re+ard or punishment$ given after the response. "he reinforcement theory lay emphasis on the environmental factors that shape the behaviors and thus, S&inner believed that environment external to the organi8ation must be designed effectively so as to increase the motivation among the employees. "hus, the reinforcement theory of motivation mainly focuses on +hat happens +hen an individual ta&es some action. It is observed, that people tend to repeat those activities +hich gives them pleasure and avoid the activities +ith negative conse?uences.
9.H MGregor>s Theory - and Theory
/ouglas Mc"he Human Side %f 2nterprise>. "heory x and theory y are still referred to commonly in the field of management and motivation, and +hilst more recent studies have ?uestioned the rigidity of the model, Mcs B:' "heory remains a valid basic principle from +hich to develop positive management style and techni?ues. Mcs B' "heory remains central to organi8ational development, and to improving organi8ational culture. Mcs B:' theory is a salutary and simple reminder of the natural rules for managing people, +hich under the pressure of day:to:day business are all too easily forgotten. Mc
2ffort in +or& is as natural as +or& and play. (eople +ill apply self:control and self:direction in the pursuit of organi8ational objectives, +ithout external control or the threat of p unishment.
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ommitment to objectives is a function of re+ards associated +ith their achievement. (eople usually accept and often see& responsibility. "he capacity to use a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving organi8ational problems is +idely, not narro+ly, distributed in the population.
In industry the intellectual potential of the average person is only partly utili8ed.
)or& can be as natural as play if the conditions are favourable.
(eople +ill be self:directed and creative to meet their +or& and organi8ational objectives if they are committed to them.
(eople +ill be committed to their ?uality and productivity objectives if re+ards are in place that address higher needs such as self:fulfilment
"he capacity for creativity spreads throughout organi8ations. Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population.
0nder these conditions, people +ill see& responsibility. $omments on Theory - and Theory Assumptions
Mcs job to exercise authority, and there are cases in +hich this is the only method of achieving the desired results because subordinates do not agree that the ends are desirable. Ho+ever, in situations +here it is possible to obtain commitment to objectives, it is better to explain the matter fully so that employees grasp the purpose of an action. "hey +ill then exert self:direction and control to do better +or& : ?uite possibly by
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better methods : than if they had simply been carrying out an order +hich the y did not fully understand. "he situation in +hich employees can be consulted is one +here the individuals are emotionally mature, and positively motivated to+ards their +or&F +here the +or& is sufficiently responsible to allo+ for flexibility and +here the employee can see her or his o+n position in the management hierarchy. If these conditions are present, managers +ill find that the participative approach to problem solving leads to much improved results compared +ith the alternative approach of handing out authoritarian orders. %nce management becomes persuaded that it is under estimating the potential of its human resources, and accepts the &no+ledge given by social science researchers and displayed in "heory ' assumptions, then it can invest time, money and effort in developing improved applications of the theory. Mc
Staff +ill contribute more to the organi8ation if they are treated as responsible and valued employees.
;. M0T#8AT#0N #N N7PA& 18
#i$ Motivation has not received ade?uate attention in -epalese organi8ations. It use as a tool for achieving goals and increasing productivity has remained neglected. "he organi8ation climate is not conducive for motivation. -epalese managers generally complain about gross underutili8ation of employees in organi8ations. *ut the attitudes of indifference, inaction and apathy dominate their thin&ing regarding motivation. "hey assume that employees +or& for money. #ii$ -eeds and Motivation of )or&ers -epalese +or&ers are very much engaged in see&ing the satisfaction of their physiological and security needs. "he lo+ levels of +ages in -epal further increase the importance of these needs to +or&ers. #iii$ -eeds and Motivation mangers Social and esteem needs tend to be dominant for -epalese managers in public sector. %pportunities are fe+ for fulfilling self:actuali8ation needs. 3irst employment generally becomes the life:long employment for -epalese managers. #iv$ %rgani8ational limate and Motivation %rgani8ation climate is not conducive for motivation in -epal.
?. /737/7N$7S . %rgani8ational *ehavior 19
#obbins, Cudge, Sanghi$ 1. %rgani8ational *ehavior in -epal #/r.
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