• • •
• • • •
•
Equipamientos: Espacios, Espacios, maquinaria, utensilios y normas de higiene. Técnicas T écnicas culinarias. Técnicas T écnicas culinarias de múltiples aplicaciones (fondos, salsas, ligazones) Técnicas T écnicas aplicadas a los vegetales vegetales y legumbres. Técnicas T écnicas aplicadas a las carnes. carnes. Técnicas T écnicas aplicadas a los pescados pescados y mariscos. Producto roductoss culinarios complementarios (canapés , sándwich, boquitas, etc.). Cocina Nicaragüense
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Créditos Esta es una publicación de la Escuela Nacional de Hotelería, Dentro del proyecto NIC/018,
nanciado conjuntamente por los gobiernos de la Republica de Nicaragua y el Gran Ducado de Luxemburgo.
Compilación y Adecuación de Conteni Contenido: do:
Victor Manuel Orozco
Revisión y Aprobación:
Miriam Espinoza
Se permite la reproducción total o parcial de la presente obra, haciendo referencia a la fuente.
Managua, Nicaragua Diciembre 2008.
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Unidad I: Tipos de cocinas cocinas y complementos. complementos. Con esta unidad el alumno desarrollará la capacidad de:
Clasicar los pos de cocina dependiendo del po po de oferta gastronòmica, conociendo la maquinaria y utensilios a ulizar y respetando las normas de higiene.
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Unidad I: Tipos de cocinas y complementos. Definición:
Llamamos cocina al conjunto de locales destinados a la preparación de alimentos. Su distribución y equipamiento estará en función del tipo de restauración al que esté dedicada. • Restauración clásica: Restaurantes, Restaurantes, pensiones, comedores de hotel, h otel, etc. Condiciones que debe reunir una cocina:
El diseño de una instalación es uno de los pilares básicos para una correcta implantación de unas normas de seguridad e higiene, por eso al diseñar unas instalaciones en las que se transforman los alimentos, deben tenerse en cuenta los siguientes puntos: • Los locales anexos (plonge, almacenes, etc.) deben estar bien delimitados y debidamente separados. • Los locales y dependencias deben estar en consonancia con el volumen de producción. Demasiado pequeños dicultan la organización del trabajo y demasiado grandes aumentan los circuitos de circulación con la consiguiente perdida de tiempo. • Anchura suciente en las zonas de circulación que permitan el paso de carros o de maquinaria transportable sin dañar las esquinas o mobiliario. m obiliario. • Delimitar correctamente las zonas de trabajo evita perdidas de tiempo y riesgo de contaminaciones. • Denir un circuito de circulación con el principio de “marcha adelante”, para evitar cruces. • Instalaciones con buena ventilación y temperatura de trabajo adecuada. • Buena iluminación, tanto natural, mientras sea posible, como articial. • Evitar desniveles entre las distintas dependencias, porque las diferentes alturas obligan a tener rampas, montacargas, escaleras, que dicultan la circulación. • Tomas de agua suciente, ya que muchos de los aparatos requieren tomas de agua y desagües. de sagües. • Equipamiento suciente y adecuado al volumen de producción. En resumen, tener en cuenta una buena buen a distribución para evitar perdidas de tiempo, mejorar las condiciones de trabajo (comodidad, seguridad e higiene), facilitar el mantenimiento y mejorar la productividad y gestión. “Marcha adelante”, este principio consiste en una sucesión lógica y racional de las diferentes operaciones de un servio de alimentación, desde la recepción de mercancías hasta su salida para ser consumida tras su procesado. Esta circulación debe estar concebida de tal manera que las operaciones de transformación vayan siempre hacia delante, sin ninguna posibilidad de retorno y cruces entre los productos limpios y sucios. Distribución de la cocina
Comunes: • •
Recepción y almacenaje de géneros Almacenaje de basuras
E
q A u p p r i o a v m i e s i i o n t n o a s : n m E o i s r e p m n a a t c s o i o d s y e , C h m i o a g n q i e t n r u n e o i a . l r d i e a , u A t e l i n m s e i i n l t o s o y s .
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y s o i l i s n e t u , a i r a . n e i u n e q i g a i h m , e s d o s i c a a m p r s E o : n s o t n e i m a p i u q E
• • • •
Clásica Cuarto frío Entremetier Salsero Pastelería
Comunes:
Recepción y almacenaje de géneros Es el lugar de la cocina donde se reciben los géneros, para vericar su calidad y el pesaje, después se almacenan ó se distribuyen al resto de los departamentos de la cochina debe de estar alejado de la zona caliente, pero de fácil acceso a ella. • Recepción de géneros Maquinaría: Básculas, carros para el transporte. • Almacenaje de géneros perecederos y no perecederos Géneros perecederos: Cámaras (Verduras y frutas, pescados, carnes, congelados). Géneros no perecederos: Economato (Pastas secas, arroces, latas, legumbres y todos aquellos géneros que necesiten un ambiente seco y sin humedad).
Almacenaje de basura Lugar de almacenamiento, a ser posible refrigerado, lejos de la zona caliente y provisto de cubos adecuados con tapadera y compactadora de basuras, cerca de la zona de preparación de géneros y con una buena salida al exterior, exterior, para que a la zona de elaboración solo llegue el género limpio.
Almacén de batería Lugar donde se almacena la batería de cocina provisto de estanterías y de todo lo necesario para que el material este en orden, es importante que la batería se coloque siempre en el mismo sitio para que sea fácil de localizar. localizar. El almacén debe estar ventilado y amplio.
Fregaderos de batería ó plonge Lugar donde se friega toda la batería utilizada durante el servicio, dispone de agua caliente y fría, pilas amplias que durante el servicio deben estar despejadas y limpias. La batería sucia debe fregarse en el momento o apilarse en un sitio adecuado y cercano a las pilas sin que estorbe. Aparte de las pilas puede existir una máquina para lavarla.
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Vestuarios Vestuari os y servicios
Lugar destinado para que el personal de cocina cocin a se cambie de ropa, serán lo más amplios y aireados posible, bien iluminados y provistos de taquillas, bancos, duchas, lavabos y w.c E
Recepción.
Embalajes.. Embalajes
CARNES, PESCADOS Y VERDURAS
Almacenamiento
Camaras
Cuarto Frio Salsero
Economato
Entremetier Residuos Pasteleria
Desbarasado
Distribución
Fregadero
Camion De Basuras
Cuarto Basuras
CARNES, PESCADOS Y VERDURAS
q A u p p r i o a v m i e s i i o n t n o a s : n m E o i s r e p m n a a t c s o i o d s y e , C h m i o a g n q i e t n r u n e o i a . l r d i e a , u A t e l i n m s e i i n l t o s o y s .
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Distribución
Cuarto frío y s o i l i s n e t u , a i r a . n e i u n e q i g a i m h , e s d o s i c a a m p r s E o : n s o t n e i m a p i u q E
Departamento destinado a la elaboración de platos p latos fríos (Ensaladas, salsas frías...). Y preelaboraciones de carnes y pescados, para su distribución al resto de los departamentos. • Maquinaría y Material mecánico: • Utensilios: En todos los departamentos deben existir pilas para lavar el género necesario así como el material pequeño y debe disponer de lavamanos de pie.
Entremetier Departamento destinado a la elaboración de los entrantes calientes (Pastas, arroces, legumbres, sopas...). • Maquinaría y material mecánico: • Utensilios: Salsero Departamento destinado a la elaboración de los segundos platos (Carnes, aves, pescados, caza...). • Material y Utensilios: Prácticamente el mismo que en entremetier
Equipamiento De Cocina El equipamiento de una cocina industrial ha de estar en función del tipo de restauración al que esté destinada y del número de comidas comid as a servir. servir. Una buena elección del material evitará compras de material innecesario.
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1. Fogones 2. Placas eléctricas 3. Planchas 4. Parrillas 5. Hornos 6. Cocedor a vapor 7. Salamandra 8. Estufas 9. Freidoras 10. Puede apoyarse con las presentaciones que tenemos 1.1 Fogones: Sirven para calentar cazuelas, marmitas, etc. Pueden ser de butano, propano, gas ciudad y carbón. Dentro de éste grupo podemos incluir las Vitrocerámicas de Gas. 1.2 Placas Eléctricas: Tienen la misma utilización que los fogones, pero con características diferentes, son más limpias y la intensidad del calor no se regula tan fácilmente, además es bastante más caro. En éste grupo estarían también las Vitrocerámicas y las Placas de Inducción. 1.3 Planchas: Utilizamos dos tipos de planchas de hierro y de cromo duro. Esta nos permite trabajar con más cantidad de grasa y con alimentos con capas de protección enharinados, empanados, etc. Haciendo una especie de frituras a la plancha). Pueden ser de gas ó eléctricas. Se utilizan para asados a la plancha y para cocinar lentamente en recipientes. (En las de cromo no podemos poner recipientes encima porque se estropea). Las planchas pueden ser lisas ó estriadas (para dar dibujo a los alimentos). 1.4 Parrillas: Fuente de calor que incide sobre una un a plancha de barras. Puede ser eléctricas, de gas, de carbón y de coock, se utiliza para asados a la parrilla.
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q A u p p r i o a v m i e s i i o n t n o a s : n m E o i s r e p m n a a t c s o i o d s e y , C h m i o a g n q i e t n r u n e o i a . l r d i e a , u A t e l i n m s e i i n l t o s o y s .
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Esto nos permite cocinar a varios niveles, con el consiguiente ahorro de espacio, tiempo y de energía. El calentamiento el horno es más rápido y suelen estar dotados de vaporizadores para compensar la perdida de humedad del alimento. Como inconveniente tiene que no dora suciente los alimentos y no puede gratinar gratinar.. Hornos mixtos: Son hornos de convección que pueden funcionar con calor seco o húmedo. Hornos de pastelería: se utilizan en la pastelería, son eléctricos y tienen como características generales: • Graduación exacta de la intensidad calórica tanto en techos, suelos y paredes. • Techos muy bajos. • Tienen un tiro que sirve para eliminar la humedad del horno o mantenerlo húmedo. • Tienen puertas batientes con cristales y luz interior in terior,, para poder ver la evolución de las elaboraciones sin necesidad de abrir el horno. • En la parte inferior suelen tener una estufa para favorecer las fermentaciones. Hornos de pizzas: son similares a los de d e pastelería pero su interior está cubierto de material refractario. Hornos de panadería: es un horno de convección cuya fuente de energía es el gas o de electricidad, es giratorio por lo que se facilita la cocción del pan, tiene un dispositivo para poder cocinar con la puerta abierta para que no se produzcan acumulaciones de gas, (bollería que lleva alcohol). Hornos microondas: son hornos que funcionan mediante ondas electromagnéticas que provocan el movimiento de las moléculas de agua, lo que hace que se calienten, por eso el calentamiento se produce en todo el alimento, y por eso no calienta los recipientes, además éstos no deben de ser metálicos. Hay hornos microondas mixtos que pueden funcionar como hornos normales ó como microondas.
• y s o i l i s n e t u , a i r a . n e i u n e q i g a i m h , e s d o s i c a a m p r s E o : n s o t n e i m a p i u q E
• • •
• • •
1.6 Cocedor a vapor: Es un recipiente cerrado herméticamente con unas entradas de vapor de agua a presión. Su principal característica es: que el alimento se cocina por medio de vapor de agua por lo que la disolución de nutrientes n utrientes en el medio de cocción es mínima. m ínima. Tiene un selector para escoger la presión y un reloj que controla los tiempos de cocción
Ventajas:
• Al ser los tiempos de cocción más pequeños conserva • Mejor las vitaminas. • Es rápido y cómodo. Inconvenientes: • Los alimentos deben de ser pequeños ya que sino el calor tarda mucho en llegar al centro del alimento.
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1.9 Freidoras: Son recipientes de bastante fondo en los que se introduce unas cestas donde se colocan los alimentos que vamos a freír. Se calientan por medio de unas resistencias o quemadores. Tienen un termostato para regular la temperatura. En la actualidad existen unas freidoras que tienen tien en un sistema automático programable que regula la temperatura, el tiempo de fritura y de escurrido. Generadores de frío:
Es aquella maquinaria de cocina que utilizamos en el proceso de mantener mantener,, enfriar o congelar los alimentos por medio del frío. 2.1 Cámaras frigorícas 2.2 Cámaras de congelación 2.3 Antecámara 2.4 Maquina de hielos 2.5 Heladora ó sorbetera 2.1 Cámaras frigoríficas: Su función va a ser la de mantener los alimentos entre 1 y 4º para su conservación, es recomendable que cada alimento por sus características tenga su propia cámara frigoríca. Estas cámaras pertenecen al departamento de almacenaje. - Verduras y algunas algunas frutas: frutas: lo más cercana cercana a 4º, éstas cámaras deben de tener baldas enrejilladas para que los alimentos no estén en contacto con el suelo y además estén ventilados, los géneros deben de estar ordenados y cada uno en su caja. • Pescados: lo más cercana a 1º, las características igual que la de verduras. • Carnes: lo más cercana a 1º, las características igual que las de verduras más barras para poder colgar las piezas de carne.
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q A u p p r i o a v m i e s i i o n t n o a s : n m E o i s r e p m n a a t c s o i o d s e y , C h m i o a g n q i e t n r u n e o i a . l r d i e a , u A t e l i n m s e i i n l t o s o y s .
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_ Congelador: los alimentos estarán agrupados por sus características y además estarán debidamente protegidos y etiquetados para su fácil identicación. Se comercializan diferentes tipos de congeladores con características iguales: armarios congeladores (en los que se pueden distribuir los alimentos en cajones o baldas), y arcones. Estos últimos estarán situados en la cocina y serán comunes a todas las partidas. y s o i l i s n e t u , a i r a . n e i u n e q i g a i m h , e s d o s i c a a m p r s E o : n s o t n e i m a p i u q E
2.3 Antecámara: Su función va a ser la de mantener los alimentos entre 8 a 1Oº, normalmente está situada antes del acceso a las demás cámaras, en ella depositaremos los alimentos que vamos a utilizar en el día, también en algunos casos utilizaremos como recinto de descongelación. 2.4 Maquina de hielos: Su función va a ser la producción de hielos en cubitos para las diferentes aplicaciones, depende del molde de la máquina los cubitos serán de diferente forma y tamaño. 2.5 Heladora ó Sorbetera: Su función va a ser la de elaborar helados y sorbetes, se basa en un cilindro central alrededor del cual se produce frío y en cuyo interior existen unas aspas que baten las cremas durante proceso de helado. Consta de un reloj indicador del tiempo que queremos que esté cuajando el helado, de un inversor de marchas que acciona las aspas, y un avisador de tiempo que según lo accionemos ó no nos avisará de cuando está el helado.
Material mecánico: Es aquella maquinaría de cocina que utilizamos en el proceso de elaboración de alimentos, teniendo cada una de ellas una función y características diferentes. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Batidoras Amasadoras Laminadora de masas Triturador Cortadoras Peladoras
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Amasadoras: Son máquinas que se utilizar solo para amasar amasar,, cuando se trata de cantidades cantidades grandes grandes de harina ya que calentará menos la masa, su funcionamiento consiste en : la cubeta va girando y los brazos se van entre cruzando, además tiene una tapa de seguridad que impide manipular la masa mientras está funcionando . Se conecta directamente a la red. Laminadora de masas: Son máquinas cuya función es la de laminar masas, tiene dos rodillos que se pueden regular depen diendo del grosor deseado y una cinta que transporta la masa haciéndola pasar por los rodillos. Se conecta directamente a la red. Trituradora
Son máquinas que se emplean para triturar. triturar. Picadoras: Son máquinas que se utilizan para picar picar,, dependiendo de lo que queramos obtener las dividimos en: • Picadoras de carne: se utiliza para picar carne a diferentes grosores dependiendo de la rejilla que se utilice. • Cutters: Se utilizan para triturar y hacer masas nas • Robots: El más utilizado es el de verduras, tiene diferentes rejillas dependiendo de la forma deseada. Cortadoras:
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Mobiliario: Lo encontramos en todos los departamentos de la cocina y es: y s o i l i s n e t u , a i r a . n e i u n e q i g a i m h , e s d o i s c a a m p r s E o : n s o t n e i m a p i u q E
• • • •
Mesas de trabajo Estanterías Carros: de platos, de bandejas, de placas... Fregaderas. Bateria
La encontramos en todos los departamentos de la cocina y son: a) Marmita: • Aplicaciones: Se emplea para cocciones (fondos). • Dimensiones: Visualmente es más alta que ancha y las hay de muchas capacidades. • Material: Aluminio, acero inoxidable. b) Media marmita: • Aplicaciones: Se emplea para cocciones, cremas. • Dimensiones: Visualmente es igual de alta que de ancha, las hay de muchas capacidades. • Material: Aluminio, acero inoxidable. c) Cazuela ó Cacerola: • Aplicaciones: Se emplea para cocciones, cremas, estofado, braseado, ragouts. • Dimensiones: Visualmente es más más ancha que alta, las hay de muchas capacidades.
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h) Braseadora: • Aplicaciones: Braseados y géneros que tardan en hacerse. • Dimensiones: De diferentes capacidades. • Material: Aluminio o acero inoxidable. i) Rustidera: • Aplicaciones: Braseados, asados... • Dimensiones: Diferentes dimensiones. • Material: Aluminio o acero inoxidable. j) Placa gastronor: • Aplicaciones: Braseados, asados... • Dimensiones: Diferentes alturas. • Material: Acero inoxidable. k) Sartén: • Aplicaciones: Freír, saltear, pochar... • Dimensiones: Diferentes capacidades. • Material: hierro, antiadherente. l) Barreño: • Aplicaciones: Batir, montar... • Dimensiones: Diferentes capacidades, base plana. • Material: Acero inoxidable. m) Perol:
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y s o i l i s n e t u , a i r a . n e i u n e q i g a i m h , e s d o i s c a a m p r s E o : n s o t n e i m a p i u q E
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
para salsear y napar. Champiñón o seta: Para ayudar a pasar por el tamiz diferentes géneros y acercar la carne a la picadora. Cesta de alambre: Para la cocción de huevos, escaldar tomates e introducir géneros en la freidora Cestillo de patatas nido: Colador o Chino: Se utiliza para colar caldos, cremas... Colador de huevo hilado: Se utiliza para confeccionar huevo hilado. Colador de tela: Se utiliza para colar infusiones y caldos claricados. Escurridor: Para escurrir hortalizas, verduras... Espátula de goma o lengua: Para recoger géneros. Espátula de madera: (remo) Espátula de acero: Pueden ser triangulares que se usan para voltear géneros en la plancha, o de pastelería que se usan para alisar cremas, nata...: Espumadera: para recoger géneros y espumar caldos. Estameña: Tela Tela de rejilla que se utiliza uti liza para pasar caldos claricados. Juego de medidas: Juego de boquillas: De diferentes formas y tamaños. Manga: Se utiliza para el relleno de pasteles y géneros salados Mandolina: Para realizar diferentes cortes de patatas y hortalizas crudas. Mortero o almirez: Para montar salsas y majar elementos de condimentación. Rallador: Utensilio de aluminio que se utiliza para rallar alimentos. Rejilla: Para colocar géneros. Rodillo: Para Para rebajar y estirar masas duras. Tabla: para picar o cortar todo tipo de géneros. Tamiz: para tamizar harina, pan rallado... Triangulo: Para apoyar recipientes recipien tes calientes. Tridente: Se utiliza para dar vuelta a los asados o mover la pasta.
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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Biscuit glacé: Para la preparación de biscuit y helados he lados al corte. Bizcocho: para cocer bizcochos. Bombones: Para moldear bombones. Brioche: Para pasta de bollería. Carlota: para carlota, áspic grandes anes. Desmontables: para facilitar el desmoldado. Flan: para anes, áspic, espumas, etc. Galantina: para cocción y prensado de galantina. Magdalenas: Para cocer masas esponjadas. Pan: para pan inglés o de miga. Perfecto: para moldear perfectos. Pudding: Para pudding, plum-cake y bavaroise. Savarin: Para savarin, moldear arroz y timbales fríos. Tartaletas: Para cocer en blanco pastas. Terrina: para soufés, terrinas, espumas espu mas y áspic.
Moldes de silicona antiadherentes: Pueden tener cualquier forma, aplicándose en congelación, cocción, baño-María u horno, elaboración de semi-fríos, incluso bombonería. 4 Herramientas: • Cuchillo cebollero: Para cortar y picar, principalmente hortalizas y pequeñas piezas de carnes, pescados, etc. • Cuchillo de medio golpe: Para cortar grandes piezas, incluso con huesos tiernos. • Cuchillo de golpe: Para cortar carnes con huesos. • Cuchillo trinchero: Para trinchar ambres y grandes piezas de carne asada, para limpiar carnes y pescados, crudos y cocinados
E
q A u p p r i o a v m i e s i i o n t n o a s : n m E o i s r e p m n a a t c s o i o d s e y , C h m i o a g n q i e t n r u n e o i a . l r d i e a , u A t e l i n m s e i i n l t o s o y s .
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Estas preparaciones deben reunir dos requisitos:
y s o i l i s n e t u , a i r a . n e i u n e q i g a i m h , e s d o s i c a a m p r s E o
• Aprovechar al máximo las cualidades de los alimentos que estamos preparando para que sean del agrado del consumidor. • Cuidar de que las condiciones higiénico-sanitarias de esos alimentos sean las adecuadas para que no supongan riesgo para la salud del consumidor. consumidor.
Cualidades Que Debe Reunir Un Cocinero • La limpieza: Esto ya se ha mencionado, es indispensable para cualquier manipulación de alimentos. • El orden: Dada la diversidad de géneros y utensilios que se utilizan en la cocina, es necesario guardarlos y distribuirlos con orden para poder identicarlos con facilidad. • Exactitud: Respetar las cantidades de las elaboraciones, pues aunque en algunos casos son exibles exibles en la mayor parte de las elaboraciones garantizan un buen b uen resultado. • Puntualidad: Respetar los horarios, horarios, ya que de ello depende no solo nuestra organización sino también la de nuestros compañeros de trabajo. • Iniciativa: Tener Tener capacidad para tomar las decisiones en cada momento.
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La seguridad en la cocina: La cocina es un lugar de trabajo en el que por sus características se dan dan en ocasione accidentes de trabajo (en ocasiones de bastante gravedad). Muchos de los utensilios y maquinaria que se utilizan en la cocina son potencialmente peligrosos. Es pues necesario para reducir estos accidentes al mínimo, conocer cuales son las causas mas corrientes que los provocan la forma de evitarlas. Cortes: Es el accidente más común y del que en mayor o menor medida no libra nadie. Se produce con los cuchillos y el resto del material cortante (sierra, picadoras, etc.). • Para evitarlos en lo posible seguiremos las siguientes normas: • Picar conforme a la técnica aprendida (correcta colocación de los dedos de la mano que sujeta el genero, coger bien el cuchillo etc.). • Al deshuesar siempre el lo del cuchillo hacia afuera del cuerpo. • No desplazarse por la cocina con un cuchillo en punta, y evitar los movimientos bruscos con un cuchillo en la mano. • Evitar toda clase de bromas y juegos con los cuchillos.
E
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• Si un horno se apaga, esperar un tiempo prudencial antes de volver volver a encenderlo, dejándolo abierto unos instantes para que se ventile. Incendios: y s o i l i s n e t u , a i r a . n e i u n e q i g a i m h , e s d o s i c a a m p r s E o
-
Se producen producen a veces en hornos que tienen restos de grasa, grasa, no utilizar utilizar agua sino extintores.
- En las frituras y sartenes basculantes, si se dejan encendidas pueden llegar a coger fuego, no apagarlas nunca con agua.
Envenenamientos: - No colocar productos de limpieza en recipientes que se utilicen para contener alimentos ni en botellas de uso habitual que puedan inducir a confusión.
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• • • •
No fumar durante el trabajo ni en los recintos destinados a la elaboración de comidas. No probar la comida con los dedos. Mantener el uniforme de trabajo limpio y cambiarlo cada vez que sea necesario. Llevar siempre el uniforme completo. Higiene en las mercancías:
• Utilizar siempre géneros lo más frescos posibles y desechar los que sean sospechosos de no estar en buenas condiciones. • Respetar las temperaturas de conservación de los alimentos frescos, y procurar que los géneros estén siempre en cámara hasta el momento de su utilización. • Utilizar los géneros mas viejos antes que los nuevos. • Limpiar todas las latas antes de abrirlas. • Lavar todas las verduras en agua abundante. Aquellas que se consuman en crudo higienizarlas con cloro. c loro. • Procurar que los géneros que no están debidamente envasados no estén en contacto directo con el suelo. Higiene en los espacios, maquinaria y utensilios
E
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Conservación De Los Alimentos y s o i l i s n e t u , a i r a . n e i u n e q i g a i m h , e s d o s i c a a m p r s E o
Destrucción De Las Esporas
+120
Destrucción De Las Formas Vegetativas Y De Las Enzimas
+100
Temperaturas (º C).
Tiempo Minimo Que Debe Hervir Para La Destruccion De Las Esporas Es De 6 Minutos
Temperatura De Coccion
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Unidad I:I: Aplicar las técnicas de primer y segundo orden. Mètodos de cocción. Técnicas culinarias de primer orden
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Método de cocinado por Concentración Asar:
Cocinar un género en horno, parrilla o plancha con grasa solamente (sin elementos húmedos) de forma que quede dorado en el exterior y jugoso en el interior interior..
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b) No tapar el alimento durante el proceso de fritura. c) Utilizar géneros pequeños. d) Suelen enharinarse los géneros para que tomen un color uniforme. Utilizamos la palabra DORAR cuando las piezas son grandes y no las podemos saltear
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-
Permite que los géneros se conserve más tiempo, y se pueden tener cocinados de antemano.
- Otra ventaja importante es que productos que se oxidan como las manzanas y las alcachofas, conservan bien el color al estar envasadas. Método de cocinado por EXPANSIÓN.
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Para todo producto que vayamos a congelar, congelar, no debemos utilizar materiales aislantes durante el período de congelación, pero debe ser protegido durante su conservación en este estado con materiales que eviten las quemaduras por frío. Al empaquetar el producto no se dejarán bolsas de aire, ya que favorecen la deshidratación de éste durante la congelación. Descongelación. En general es un proceso más lento que la congelación. La descongelación de bería ser lo más rápida posible para evitar que al aumentar la temperatura se agranden los cristales y rompan el tejido. Por esto, lo ideal sería cocinar sin descongelar, descongelar, pero esto solo se puede hacer con productos de poco grosor. grosor. Para los productos que necesitamos descongelar, los dejaremos en una cámara de refrigeración, ya que aunque beneciamos el agrandamiento de los cristales, al menos impedimos el ataque de microorganismos, ya que los jugos que exudan los productos al descongelarse son muy ricos en nutrientes, teniendo en cuenta también a las bacterias psicrólas. En cualquier caso, si necesitamos descongelar rápidamente un producto, se puede hacer por otros métodos, como es sumergir o poner bajo agua circulante, a poder ser envasados para evitar la pérdida excesiva de nutrientes. Para estos casos, también puede utilizarse el horno microondas. Un producto descongelado no se puede volver a congelar, ya que pierde la mayoría de sus propiedades, aunque se puede cocinar y volver a congelar, congelar, pero no es muy conveniente. Las ventajas más importantes de este método son la conservación muy prolongada y que el alimento conserva prácticamente todos sus nutrientes. Los inconvenientes son que puede resultar caro en su mantenimiento, así como las dicultades para mantener las cadenas de frío. Conservación Por Calor Calor..
Introducción. Se basan en que la acción del calor destruye o inhibe las enzimas, así como los microorganismos y sus toxinas, cuya presencia y proliferación pueden alterar el producto, o hacerlo impropio para la alimentación humana. Según la intensidad y el tiempo al que sometamos los productos a la acción del calor, calor, ésta será más o menos ecaz aunque puede haber otros factores que inuyan, como es la acidez, que hace que los microorganismos sean menos termorresistentes. Pero este tratamiento térmico no serviría para nada si dejásemos el alimento expuesto de nuevo a las acciones microbianas. Por esto, es imprescindible mantenerlo en un recipiente herméticamente cerrado durante el proceso de aplicación del calor y su conservación posterior. posterior.
T é c n i c a s a p l l c e i g a u d m a b s a r e l s o . s v e g e t a l e s y
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Fue Pasteur con los experimentos ya citados quien dio una explicación cientíca a este método. Básicamente vamos a distinguir dos tratamientos t ratamientos por calor: Esterilización. Es el sometimiento de un producto resguardado del contacto con el aire, al calor durante un tiempo suciente como para poder asegurar que no quede bacteria alguna activa, o lo que es lo mismo, decir que es estéril. Pasteurización. Es un tratamiento térmico menos severo que la esterilización, que solo conduce a una destrucción selectiva de la ora microbiana presente. Generalmente se practica a temperaturas que no sobrepasan los 100 grados y suele ir asociada a otras medidas como la refrigeración, adición de ácidos, de azúcar o de sales. La pasteurización se aplica en lugar de la esterilización en los siguientes casos: 1. En productos en los que un calentamiento más enérgico produce un deterioro excesivo del alimento desde un punto de vista organoléptico, como puede ser el caso del foie-gras y del jamón enlatado. 2. Cuando se busca únicamente la destrucción de algunas especies patógenas como por ejemplo el bacilo tuberculoso en la leche y la salmonella en los huevos líquidos y la leche. 3. Cuando resulta adecuado para destruir microorganismos que se desarrollan en competencia con una fermentación deseada como por ejemplo la leche para yogur, yogur, algunos quesos o el vino. 4. Cuando los caracteres físico-químicos del producto,especialmente un PH bajo permiten eliminar fácilmente numerosas categorías de microorganismos e impiden la proliferación de especies más termorresistentes, por ejemplo, los zumos de frutas. La legislación alimentaria distingue entre conservas y semi-conservas. Generalmente las primeras se corresponden con la esterilización y las segundas segund as con la pasteurización. y s e l a t e g e v s . o s l e r a b s a m d u a g c e i l l p a s a c i n c é T
Conservas. Son los productos obtenidos a partir de productos perecederos de origen animal o vegetal, con o sin adición de otras sustancias autorizadas, contenidos en envases apropiados, herméticamente cerrados, tratados exclusivamente por el vapor de forma que qu e asegure su conservación. Semi-conservas. Son productos estabilizados para un tiempo limitado por un tratamiento apropiado y mantenidos en recipientes impermeables al agua a presión normal. Su duración se prolonga manteniéndolos refrigerados. Se puede decir que la mayoría de los alimentos se prestan a su conservación por el método de Appert, tanto solos, mezclados o precocinados. Por otro lado, el físico John Tindall inventó un método para acabar con la resistencia de las bacterias con menos deterioro por el calor calor.. Este método, conocido como tindalización, se basa en calentamientos sucesivos
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conservas caseras son las que producen la mayor parte de los problemas alimentarios con conservas, puesto que ni la tecnología que se utiliza, ni los métodos garantizan una correcta esterilización de estas. También es actualmente actualmen te muy utilizado en la conservación de la leche el método m étodo conocido como U.H.T. U.H.T. que consiste básicamente en someter a esta a un calentamiento muy rápido, llevándola a temperaturas entre 120 y 130 grados durante un tiempo que oscila entre 2 y 3 segundos, para enfriarla rápidamente. rápidamente. Las ventajas que tiene este método es que la leche pierde pocas cualidades y que se limita mucho el pardeamiento. Envases. Un buen envase debe ser ser estéril, impermeable a la contaminación por microorganismos y a la humedad, debe proteger, en algunos casos, contra los golpes al producto, también es interesante en muchos casos que proteja contra la luz y en todos que sea inviolable pero fácil de abrir. abrir. Los tipos de envases que se utilizan en este momento para la conservación con calor son los siguientes: • Botes, que pueden ser de hojalata, con un recubrimiento de estaño o de planchas de acero tratadas químicamente y protegidas con barniz o laca. • Envases de vidrio. • Recipientes semi-rígidos y exibles, entre los que se encuentran las botellas de plástico, bolsas de cartón o plástico con interior de aluminio alumin io (tetra brick). En algunos casos para las semi-conservas se utilizan bolsas de plástico. Operaciones básicas en la elaboración de una conserva. Sea cual sea el alimento a conservar, conservar, debe de seguir las siguientes fases en su elaboración. 1. Preparación del alimento. La mayoría de los alimentos requieren un tratamiento para separar las partes comestibles de las que no lo son. En las fábricas estos trabajos se hacen de forma mecanizada, muy rápido y teniendo en cuenta que muchos de estos productos son de temporada y por lo tanto el trabajo se acumula en momentos, muchas veces estas fábricas disponen de refrigeradores e incluso congeladores, para mantener el producto antes del d el tratamiento térmico. Algunas verduras hay que escaldarlas (de forma corta pero intensa) para evitar alteraciones enzimáticas. También También en el caso de los productos vegetales se limpian con agua a presión, para eliminar productos extraños y para quitarles al menos parte de su carga bacteriana. Dentro de este punto podemos incluir el cocinado de los alimentos que lo necesiten, o que vayan a ir como productos cocinados en su presentación. 2. Llenado de botes. Los productos sólidos siempre deben ir recubiertos de líquido con el n de disminuir la gravedad, limitar el aire y garantizar una mejor repartición del calor. Si este líquido no es el propio del producto, van a ser salmueras, aceite, vinagre, almíbar, almíbar, salsa de tomate u otros. El proceso de llenado en la industria esta completamente mecanizado, siendo importante asegurar un llenado por igual de todos los botes, pues un bote excesivamente lleno o vacío puede causar problemas que pongan en pe ligro la vida de la conserva. 3. Evacuación. Consiste en la expulsión de parte del aire de las latas, dejando así el producto en condiciones de semi-vacío. Puede hacerse calentando el bote lleno, con agua caliente o vapor, para que salga el aire interior (método casero), o utilizando bombas de vacío (forma industrial). Este vacío relativo se hace p ara disminuir las fugas por extensión de gases durante el calentamiento, para eliminar parte del oxígeno con lo que se baja el riesgo de que se corroa el bote y de que se oxide el alimento y para ayudar a que se
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5.
6. 7. 8.
marcados datos sobre el contenido, lote, fecha de envasado, etc. Tratamiento térmico. Que en las conservas lleva a la esterilización este rilización y en las semi-conservas a la pasteurización. Se hace en auto claves y se toma como referencia la eliminación del clostridium botulinum, que es la bacteria mas resistentes, por lo que si sabemos que hemos destruido esta, podemos tener la seguridad de haber destruido todas las demás. La mayoría de las latas se tratan entre 110 y 130 grados, teniendo en cuenta que una pequeña subida, permite un descenso del tiempo bastante grande. El tiempo varia dependiendo del tamaño de las latas (este esta limitado por ley), la densidad del producto, su naturaleza, y la existencia o no de movimiento interior (si se mueve el calor se reparte mas rápidamente). Refrigeración. Se hace lo mas rápido posible, generalmente llenando el auto clave de agua fría, para evitar un exceso de calor al producto. Sin embargo no se baja a temperaturas inferiores a 35,5 grados, pues se aprovecha el calor de la lata para que esta se seque. Limpieza de botes y etiquetado. Alteraciones de las latas.
Se nota fundamentalmente porque el bote en lugar de presentar las las tapas planas o un poco hundidas, las tiene abultadas. Distinguimos tres fases: 1. Lanzado, denominaremos así al bote de aspecto normal que al presionarlo se abomba, volviendo a su forma inicial al dejarlo. 2. Saltón, será el bote que aunque tiene las tapas abombadas, vuelve a su forma original al presionarlas. 3. Hinchado, es el que tiene las tapas, y en general todo el bote, abombado sin que retorne a su forma primitiva. Para llegar a uno de estos puntos el bote pasa antes por los anteriores. Por supuesto que la causa de estos abombamientos es la formación de gas en el interior del bote, pero veamos por que puede producirse este gas: y s e l a t e g e v s . o s l e r a b s a m d u a g c e i l l p a s a c i n c é T
• Causas microbianas. Los microbios producen gas al alimentarse. Pueden encontrarse en la lata por un fallo o rotura de esta o por un tratamiento térmico insuciente. Es la causa mas peligrosa, sobre todo por que el microbio causante, puede ser el clostridium. • Causas químicas. Cuando un exceso de oxígeno ha corroído el bote formando hidrógeno. El peligro es que esto a podido producir roturas que permitan la contaminación por microorganismos. • Causas físicas. Son muy variadas y entre ellas se incluyen las bajadas muy rápidas de presión en el autoclave (produce tensiones que abomban los botes), una evacuación incompleta o un llenado excesivo, o un excesivo vacío, el ataque de la herrumbre, las lesiones que pueda sufrir el bote. En si ellas no serían peligrosas pero siempre existe el riesgo de que se hayan producido perforaciones que permitan que el producto se contamine. En cualquiera de los casos toda lata que resulte sospechosa (ante la imposibilidad de determinar las causas exactas que producen su deformación), debe ser devuelta al fabricante (tiene que recogerla), puesto que su utilización representa un peligro muy grande hacia la salud de las personas. Las ventajas que presentan los métodos mé todos de conservación térmica son un período larguísimo de conservación
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Sus inconvenientes son una perdida de nutrientes bastante importante, im portante, en comparación con otros métodos, que varían las cualidades organolépticas del producto y que este nunca n unca llega crudo al consumidor. consumidor.
Conservación Por Aislamiento Del Aire. Introducción. Se basa en que al aislar los tejidos de los alimentos del aire, se evita la oxidación y la contaminación microbiana, reduciéndose además los intercambios gaseosos, con lo cual se aletarga la actividad de los microorganismos y se reduce la evaporación, lo que qu e ayuda a conservar las cualidades del alimento. Se distinguen básicamente dos medios de conservación por este método: Recubrimiento. Se trata de recubrir el alimento con un material que impida el contacto del aire con éste, que en lo posible no deje olor, olor, ni sabor y que no tenga tendencia a absorber la humedad. Los alimentos que se someten a este método deben estar en un perfecto estado, ya que de poner un alimento levemente dañado, se estropearía él y además estropearía el resto. Los materiales de recubrimiento actualmente más usados son: • El papel de seda, se utiliza fundamentalmente para envolver frutas y huevos. Cada producto debe quedar separado y de la forma mas hermética posible. • Se ha utilizado en el almacenaje de estos productos para evitar el envejecimiento. Cada vez es menos usado. • El papel aluminio y el plástico transparente, se utilizan para todo tipo de productos, sobre todo para refrigerar y para proteger los productos en el congelado. El papel aluminio aguanta mejor el calor y por su naturaleza es mejor para la conservación, aunque más caro. El plástico transparente deja menos huecos para el aire. • Grasas alimentarías, se utilizan grasas animales que son las más saturadas y por tanto las más resistentes al enranciamiento. Se usan fundamentalmente para carnes, combinadas con la esterilización, sobre todo productos de cerdo, siempre siem pre cocinadas o tratadas con especias o aditivos. También También se utilizan u tilizan para terrinas, patés, etc. Los aceites vegetales, sobre todo el de oliva, también se utilizan para alargar la conservación de productos como el queso y las anchoas en salazón. Estos a pesar de ser grasas insaturadas, por los conservantes que llevan, permiten una u na conservación más o menos prolongada. En ningún caso utilizaremos mantequillas o margarinas, pues se enrancian fácilmente y además, por ser emulsiones, las atacan los microorganismos. El mayor problema del recubrimiento es que salvo que se combine con otros métodos es de duración muy corta. Envasado al vacío.
T é c n i c a s a p l l c e i g a u d m a b s a r e l s o . s v e g e t a l e s y
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vacío en el envase o llenarlo con un gas o combinación de éstos a nuestra elección. La máquina que nos permite realizar este procedimiento es la denominada máquina de vacío, que consta fundamentalmente de una campana de d e vacío y de un sistema para soldar los envases. Además tiene un regulador que nos permite controlar si queremos un vacío prácticamente total, o bien la intensidad que deseamos. Otro dispositivo nos permite inyectar al interior del envase la cantidad que deseemos de un gas o mezcla de gases a nuestra elección. Algunas máquinas tienen otros dispositivos especiales para el trabajo concreto que se les dé. Los envases que se utilizan son muy variados, aunque la industria usa envases con forma muy determinada para los productos que quiere envasar, envasar, lo más habitual son las bolsas de plástico, que en algunos casos suelen combinarse con barquetas de plástico y otros materiales. Los materiales de los que se componen todos estos envases, son muy variados y los elegiremos en función de lo que queramos que ramos hacer según su resistencia al calor, calor, las ondas, los golpes, etc. La industria también utiliza bolsas de papel aluminio para algunos productos (café molido). Es importante que los productos que vayamos a envasar estén en unas condiciones higiénicas óptimas para evitar que proliferen en su interior bacterias anaerobias. Por ello en la industria se suelen someter los productos, envases y manipuladores a la acción de rayos ultravioletas y/o ozono. Nos encontramos con dos tipos de envasado al vacío: Envasado a vacío total. Para productos resistentes a la presión que esto supone, que no sufran deterioros de aspecto por falta de oxígeno y que no rompan la bolsa. Así se usa para embutidos, ahumados, salados, quesos, legumbres, frutas, pescados, platos precocinados y algunos deshidratados como la mojama.
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Además se puede utilizar para las carnes siempre que no sea para exponerlas de cara al público, puesto que la ausencia total de oxígeno hace que la carne tome colores azulados. Si es para nuestro consumo no tiene importancia, ya que una vez sacada del envase recupera su color primitivo en pocos minutos. Es muy útil para dejar madurar piezas enteras de carne. También se puede utilizar para envasar líquidos, teniendo en cuenta que a condiciones de presión muy bajas como se dan en el vacío, los líquidos hierven a temperatura ambiente, con lo que se da un proceso de
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la bolsa varían dependiendo del n que queramos obtener y de las necesidades económicas. Deben ser limpios, no tóxicos e incoloros. Los mas conocidos son: el nitrógeno, el dióxido de carbono y también para casos como las carnes o pescados muy pigmentados, que pierdan color se pude utilizar el oxígeno en distintas proporciones. Las mayores ventajas de este método son la presencia y las posibilidades de combinación con otros métodos ya que por si solo es de duración muy m uy limitada. Además respeta todas las cualidades del alimento y no necesita ningún tipo de regeneración. Todavía Todavía resulta bastante caro.
Conservación Por Eliminación De Agua. Introducción. Se basa en la eliminación del agua de los alimentos, lo que hace que los microorganismos no proliferen y además queden detenidas las reacciones químicas y enzimáticos. El Código Alimentario distingue tres métodos de conservación por eliminación de agua: 1. Desecación, que es la extracción de la humedad de los alimentos, utilizando las condiciones ambientales naturales. 2. Deshidratación, que es la extracción de la humedad contenida en los alimentos por acción de calor obtenido articialmente. 3. Liolización, que es la extracción de la humedad de los alimentos, mediante la congelación y la sublimación. Por supuesto, la deshidratación de los alimentos no depende solo del calor que se les aplique, teniendo que ser este limitado ya que su exceso produciría una serie de alteraciones no deseadas. Otros aspectos que también inuirán en la deshidratación son: 1. La supercie del alimento expuesta. A mas supercie, mas facilidad en la perdida de agua. 2. La humedad ambiente en la que se desarrolla la deshidratación. 3. La presión a la que se desarrolle el proceso, ya que grados mínimos de presión (vacío), hacen que la evaporación del agua se produzca a menos temperatura. 4. La circulación de gases durante el proceso favorecerá la eliminación del agua y que la repartición del calor sea homogénea.
T é c n i c a s a p l l c e i g a d
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Cuando la desecación es rápida, conseguimos formar una costra desecada en el exterior del producto, que hasta cierto punto ja el volumen de este, haciendo que los huecos dejados por el agua perdida se llenen de gas, lo que después favorece la rehidratación y por supuesto el mantenimiento de la estructura. Al mismo tiempo al haber estado sometido menos tiempo al calor hay menos perdidas de nutrientes y de su aspecto inicial. Sus problemas son que al conseguir un producto menos denso ocupa mas espacio y que qu e si el gas que rellena los huecos es aire, es mas probable la oxidación, y además es mas fácil que se humedezcan pues tienen mas tendencia a rehidratarse. A pesar de todo da mejores resultados la deshidratación rápida pero es mas cara. Desecación. Consiste en un secado al sol. Se sigue empleando en muchas regiones para preparar pasas de uva, ciruelas, dátiles, higos y otras frutas, así como leguminosas legumi nosas y cereales y excepcionalmente carnes y pescados. Sus inconvenientes son que dependen de las condiciones ambientales, que se necesita mucho espacio, siendo además durante la exposición al sol fácilmente, contaminable, por muchos agentes. Además es una desecación muy lenta que no suele bajar el contenido en humedad de los productos mas de un 15%, lo que solo resulta suciente en productos que tienen una gran cantidad de azúcar, como las frutas, habiendo que combinar con otros métodos como el ahumado ahum ado o la salazón el resto de productos. Deshidratación. Evita la mayoría de los problemas de la desecación. Hay veces que dentro de la deshidratación, no queremos llegar a una eliminación muy drástica del agua y entonces hablamos de la concentración o evaporación, que consistirá en quitar parte del agua de los productos (sobre un 50%) y añadir azúcar en el caso de la leche o sal en los extractos de carnes. Industrialmente se utilizan tres métodos para la deshidratación: y s e l a t e g e v
1. Secador por convección de aire. Tiene un principio de funcionamiento igual al de los hornos de convección. Dentro de estos los mas importantes son los secadores por pulverización que sirven para líquidos y se basan en la atomización del producto, sometiéndolo al calor con lo que se produce una deshidratación casi inmediata.
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El proceso para liolizar un alimento es básicamente el siguiente: se comienza congelando el alimento, para introducirlo en una cámara de vacío, donde se calienta rápidamente y se elimina el agua sobrante. Los alimentos así tratados son muy fáciles de reconstruir y mantienen muy bien b ien sus caracteres organolépticos, ya que al permanecer el alimento rígido durante la sublimación, las moléculas de agua que escapan dejan huecos, dando lugar a productos esponjosos y secos. Al tener gran capacidad de rehidratación hay que mantenerlos en envases que los protejan de la humedad atmosférica y por otro lado al tener gran capacidad de tener gases en su interior, conviene ponerlos en atmósferas de nitrógeno al secarlos al vacío, ya que si se someten a una atmósfera normal, aumentaría considerablemente el riesgo de oxidación. Es el mejor método de deshidratación, con el que se consiguen unos resultados realmente positivos, pero por su precio su utilización está limitada a productos caros, siendo el ejemplo mas típico el café. Utilización de los métodos de conservación por eliminación de agua. • Carnes y pescados, generalmente combinados con algún otro método. Ejemplo, cecina y mojama. • Frutas y verduras. • Leche. Este producto tiene problemas de rehidratación, por lo que hay que añadir emulsionantes, o si no, tras haberlo secado se humedece un poco y se vuelve a secar, así la lactosa forma cristales y es mas soluble. • Huevos. Se realizará con métodos que no exijan excesivo calor. Se puede hacer separando la yema de la clara o enteros. Necesitan emulsionantes para que qu e después recuperen las características originales. • Platos precocinados, sobre todo sopas. En estos productos la deshidratación se hace casi siempre en cada elemento, ya que es muy difícil deshidratar productos heterogéneos. • Otros como legumbres, cereales, café y cacao.
Conservación Por Irradiación. Introducción. Se dene como radiación a la emisión o propagación de energía a través de un medio. Permite destruir en ciertos casos algunos o casi todos los microorganismos presentes en el alimento; también se utiliza para retardar procesos siológicos como la germinación de productos vegetales.
T é c n i c a s a p l l c e i g a d
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Como estos procesos los hace sin elevar la temperatura suele recibir el nombre de esterilización fría. De forma similar a lo que ocurre en los tratamientos térmicos, la efectividad de estos es proporcional a la intensidad a que se someta al producto, pudiendo distinguir entre radurización, que equivale a la pasteurización térmica y radapertización, equivalente a la esterilización. e sterilización. La radurización se utiliza para destruir microorganismos patógenos como la salmonella y para mejorar, en general, la calidad higiénica del producto. Con este método se consigue aumentar la duración del producto sometiéndolo a radiaciones sucientemente bajas como para no alterarlo. Este método se utiliza para productos frescos como carnes, pescados, mariscos, frutas, vegetales y también para algunos productos deshidratados. Uno de los problemas que presenta este método de cara al consumidor es que al no notarse la irradiación en el alimento, y al no haber normas sobre el etiquetado de estos productos, no pueden distinguirse de los no tratados, con lo que se pueden producir situaciones fraudulentas, como ya está ocurriendo con algunas hierbas aromáticas como el orégano y el azafrán. La radapertización, consiste en el empleo de dosis muy elevadas de radiación, para conseguir una esterilización completa del producto. La mayor diferencia con la esterilización es que salvo en dosis altísimas de radiación, no se asegura la inactivación de las enzimas, lo que hace necesario ne cesario un previo blanqueo. Este método prácticamente no se emplea, pues, entre otras razones, produce cambios organolépticos muy importantes. Los problemas que presenta la radiación ionizante, es que se producen reacciones secundarias, se pierden vitaminas como la B y la C, y sobre todo aún no se conoce muy bien los efectos que pueda tener el consumo de estos alimentos en el ser humano, pues se teme que la irradiación pueda inducir a la formación de sustancias tóxicas o incluso cancerígenas en los productos. Por ello hay países que permiten la comercialización de estos productos y otros no. Radiaciones de luz ultravioleta.
y s e l a t e g e v
La luz ultravioleta es un poderoso agente bactericida. Sin embargo en la conservación de alimentos no tiene mucho interés ya que su capacidad de penetración es muy escasa, pudiendo incluso catalizar cambios oxidativas en algunos casos. En la industria alimentaría se usan para el tratamiento de utensilios, maquinaria y locales utilizados en manipulación, envasado y almacenamiento de alimentos. También se utiliza para el tratamiento supercial de productos de bollería y pastelería antes de envasarlos, así como en el envasado de bacón, embutidos, etc.
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Conservación Por Sal. Introducción. Se basa en que la sal deshidrata los tejidos te jidos del alimento por osmosis, dejando a los agentes de las alteraciones sin agua para sus actividades. Sin embargo se sospecha que la sal debe de tener algún otro efecto conservante, ya que se ha comprobado que a la misma presión osmótica de sal y de azúcar, el crecimiento bacteriano es mas lento en el caso de la sal. En concentraciones de sal de un 4% los mohos ya no se desarrollan, pero hay bacterias llamadas halólas que tienen actividad hasta en concentraciones de un 19%. Esto hace que la salazón tenga que estar siempre combinada con otros métodos como son la desecación y el ahumado, la refrigeración o la adición de aditivos (sobre todo la ácidos). Muchas veces suele ser conveniente esterilizar previamente la sal para la salazón, pues es fácil que venga contaminada por bacterias halólas, cuyo medio natural de vida son las salinas. Básicamente hay dos formas de salar un alimento: Salazón en seco. Se ponen capas del producto y de sal alternativas haciendo bajar así por acción osmótica y por presión la cantidad de agua en el alimento hasta h asta el 50%. A veces se humedece ligeramente la sal para mejorar la adhesión de esta al alimento. Suele acabarse secando o ahumando. Salazón húmeda.
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los que destacan los arenques, las anchoas, el bacalao, las anguilas, el salmón, etc. El pescado salado de mas importancia gastronómica es el bacalao, siendo también importante la salazón de las anchoas y de las huevas de pescado (incluyendo el caviar). Bacalao. Su proceso de salado comienza decapitando y eviscerando, para abrirlo en forma de hoja. Estas hojas se apilan alternando capas de pescado y de sal. Se deja de esta forma unos t reinta días, transcurridos los cuales se seca al aire hasta que su humedad no sobrepase el 40% de la inicial y la cantidad de sal sea un 30% de la total. Se le pueden añadir aditivos, para que conserve el color blanco, que pu ede perder por pardeamientos. Se conserva mas de un año a 0 grados y hasta 6 meses m eses a 15 grados. Anchoas. Se limpian, se evisceran y se abren. Se apilan alternando capas de sal y se pone un peso sobre ellas para aumentar la presión. Se les suele añadir periódicamente salmueras muy concentradas para asegurar la concentración de sal. Una vez salada, se limpian y se mantiene cubiertas de aceite en lugar fresco hasta su consumo. Carnes. Se ha utilizado muy frecuentemente frecue ntemente combinado con el ahumado, desecado, frío y también solo. Actualmente se utiliza para el bacón, los jamones, ambres, embutidos y foie-gras, principalmente. En todos estos casos además de sal común se utilizan nitratos (se le llama sal nitro a la mezcla de sal común con una décima parte de nitratos), ya que además de resultar muy útil para combatir las bacterias anaerobias, dan a las carnes una coloración roja que resulta mas agradable para el consumidor consumidor.. A este proceso de combinación de sal y nitratos es al que comúnmente se le llama curado.
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repartición de sal sea homogénea. Así se tendrán los jamones entre 40 y 60 días que es lo que tarda la sal en llegar a todos los tejidos. Se lavan y se frotan para desalar, en casos se les somete a un ahumado ligero y se almacenan en locales frescos y secos para que reciban una maduración lenta. Estos jamones así tratados pueden llegar a durar un año, ampliándose este tiempo si se envasan al vacío. Jamón cocido. Se introducen los jamones en una salmuera con una u na concentración del 18% de sal nitro y entre el 2 y el 3% de azúcar (potencia la creación de ácido láctico por algún tipo de bacteria, con lo que se baja el PH del medio). Se mantiene en esta salmuera de 30 a 40 días con una temperatura entre 3 y 5 grados. Se lava, se frota y se estufan un día a unos 30 grados, en ambiente húmedo y a veces se ahuma ligeramente. Se deshuesan y se moldean con gelatina en polvo en moldes de aluminio u hojalata, cociéndose en agua a unos 80 grados, calculándose 30 minutos por kilogramo de peso. Esto constituye una pasteurización lo que junto con las sales asegura asegura la conservación del producto, que debe mantenerse a menos me nos de 10 grados y mejor envasado al vacío (salvo que ya se comercialice enlatado). en latado).
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De todas formas, la utilización de una concentración de acético sucientemente grande como para asegurar por si solo la muerte de todos los microorganismos (hay que tener en cuenta que hay alguna bacteria y sobre todo hongos que son muy resistentes al ácido), haría al alimento prácticamente incomestible por su sabor. De ahí que este método siempre esté combinado con otros como son la sal (prácticamente siempre), el frío, el calor, la adición de aditivos (casi siempre otros ácidos) y en casos el envasado al vacío. Lo cierto, es que la mayoría de las veces tiene un efecto más importante como saborizante que como conservante, ya que su presencia y el hecho de que desnaturalice ligeramente algunas proteínas, hace que el producto adquiera un sabor agradable y también una textura rme pero al mismo tiempo blanda a la masticación (sobre todo carne y pescado), lo que es apreciado en algunos alimentos. En principio todos los vinagres son válidos para la conservación. Siempre que hagamos una conserva de vinagre hemos de tener en cuenta que los alimentos deben quedar totalmente cubiertos y que es mejor que en el recipiente quede poco aire y que éste sea de material inalterable a la acción del vinagre. Se distinguen dos tipos de conservas por vinagre según su utilización: Escabeches. Se dene como la utilización de vinagre y sal en la conservación de carnes y pescados, proporcionándoles unas cualidades organolépticas características que suelen ser más buscadas que la conserva en sí. Existen dos tipos de escabechado básicos: Escabeche frío.
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Los mas utilizados son los pepinillos, cebolletas, remolachas, aceitunas, aceitun as, guindillas y diversas combinaciones de verduras. El proceso industrial de elaboración de encurtidos consiste básicamente en: Seleccionar los frutos, mantener en salmuera de 10 a 15 días a temperaturas frescas, desalar, y meter en una disolución del 5% a veces con azúcar y aromatizantes. Esto no suele ser suciente para su conservación, por lo que a parte de conservarse refrigerados y en muchos casos pasterizarse o esterilizarse, también suelen añadir aditivos, sobre todo otros ácidos para p ara alargar su conservación
Conservación Por Ahumado El efecto conservador del ahumado se basa en tres efectos: 1. Produce una deshidratación parcial del alimento que según la temperatura y la duración del proceso puede ser de un 10 a un 40%. 2. Según el método de ahumado utilizado el alimento es sometido a mas o menos calor, lo que en algunos casos reduce sensiblemente la población bacteriana, sobre todo en la supercie del producto. 3. El humo tiene una acción bactericida, producida por varios productos químicos originados durante la combustión de la madera. Por otro lado estos productos tienen una importante acción antioxidante que retarda el enranciamiento de la grasa. El problema es que estas acciones conservantes prácticamente solo funcionan en la supercie del producto. Por ello cuando se somete al alimento a nuevas supercies de corte pierde su acción conservadora.
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Pescados. Principalmente salmón, trucha, arenque, anchoas, pez espada, etc. Se suelen presentar los mas pequeños sin cabeza ni espina y los grandes enteros o ya cortados y casi siempre envasados al vacío. Actualmente el consumo de pescados ahumado está en aumento. Carnes. El producto cárnico mas conocido ahumado es el bacón, pero se utiliza también para jamones curados y cocidos y para embutidos. Productos lácteos. Se utiliza en algunos quesos, no con el n de conservarlo sino con el de darle su sabor y color característico. Clasicación de los ahumados según la temperatura.
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Funcionamiento. Sacar la chimenea. Abrir el dispensador de viruta y la resistencia. Colocar el soporte de la resistencia y el aislador de viruta en forma correcta. c orrecta. Introducir la resistencia. Llenar de viruta el dispensador dispensador.. Abrir el tiro. Enchufar la resistencia y colocar el pescado con la piel hacia abajo.
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Reposo. Pondremos Pondremos en el frigorico unas 8 horas con la piel hacia abajo. Limpieza. Antes de su utilización repasaremos las espinas que puedan quedar, y cortaremos las esquinas y las ijadas. Almacenamiento. En refrigeración y sin envasar puede durar cubierto de una semana a 14 días. El envasado es una gran ayuda contra la deshidratación, el enranciamiento y la contaminación pero si se mantiene en refrigeración (si no es completamente contraproducente). Así puede durar de 4 a 6 semanas aunque a partir de los 18 días se nota descenso en la calidad del sabor. sabor. También puede congelarse, bien al vacío o recién ahumados pues de esta forma el sabor a humo es mas intenso, y las grasas de debajo de la piel conservan su untuosidad. Puede durar congelado unos 4 meses aunque no es conveniente tenerlo mas de 3.
Conservación Por Especias
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Carnes. Fundamentalmente marinadas, escabeches, adobos y embutidos, a los que además ayuda a la retención de agua. Pescados. Fundamentalmente en forma de escabeches. Verduras. Fundamentalmente para los encurtidos.
Conservación En Azúcar. Azúcar. Su acción conservadora se fundamenta en que en un medio del 70% de concentración de azúcar, azúcar, no es apto para el desarrollo microbiano y en que este azúcar retiene una gran cantidad de agua, no dejándola disponible para otras funciones. Se utiliza solo para frutas, ya que no es compatible con el sabor de otros alimentos.
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Unidad I:I: Las carnes. Fichas, diferentes diferentes platos de las carnes y derivados. Las
Carnes
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Denominación De Las Reses De Vacuno
Buey s
Mayor
Toro
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sacricado y despojado de las vísceras y otras partes se denomina CANAL. Composición Despojos: Son todos los órganos que componen las vísceras y las partes menores de los animales destinados al consumo de carne. (Corazón, riñones, patas, callos, morros, hígado...). Los establecimientos dedicados a la venta de despojos se llaman casquerìas.
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Alimentación: el sabor de la carne viene marcado por la alimentación de la res. Género de vida: en general la carne es de mayor calidad la de aquellas reses que no han tenido un desgaste físico. (Trabajo, (Trabajo, reproducción, producción de leche...).
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Sacricio y tratamiento: la carne acusa las condiciones en que fue sacricada la res. Normas a tener en cuenta:
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aunque se puede cocinar y volver a congelar, congelar, pero no es muy conveniente. Las ventajas más importantes de este método son la conservación muy prolongada y que el alimento conserva prácticamente todos sus nutrientes. Los inconvenientes son que puede resultar caro en su mantenimiento, así como las dicultades para mantener las cadenas de frío. Conservación Por Calor. Introducción. Se basan en que la acción del calor destruye o inhibe las enzimas, así como los microorganismos y sus toxinas, cuya presencia y proliferación pueden alterar el producto, o hacerlo impropio para la alimentación humana. Según la intensidad y el tiempo al que sometamos los productos a la acción del calor, calor, ésta será más o menos ecaz aunque puede haber otros factores que inuyan, como es la acidez, que hace que los microorganismos sean menos termorresistentes. Pero este tratamiento térmico no serviría para nada si dejásemos el alimento expuesto de nuevo a las acciones microbianas. Por esto, es imprescindible mantenerlo en un recipiente herméticamente cerrado durante el proceso de aplicación del calor y su conservación posterior. posterior. Este método fue descubierto en la primera década del siglo XIX por Nicolás Appert. Por esto, este método es conocido como apertización. Fue Pasteur con los experimentos ya citados quien dio una explicación cientíca a este método. Básicamente vamos a distinguir dos tratamientos por calor: Esterilización. Es el sometimiento de un producto resguardado del contacto con el aire, al calor durante un tiempo suciente como para poder asegurar que no quede bacteria alguna activa, o lo que es lo mismo, decir que es estéril. Pasteurización. Es un tratamiento térmico menos severo que la esterilización, que solo conduce a una destrucción selectiva de la ora microbiana presente. Generalmente se practica a temperaturas que no sobrepasan los 100 grados y suele ir asociada a otras medidas como la refrigeración, adición de ácidos, de azúcar o de sales.
T é c n i c a s a p l c m i a a d r a i s s c a o s l . o s p e s c a d o s y
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un punto de vista organoléptico, como puede ser el caso del foie-gras y del jamón enlatado. 2. Cuando se busca únicamente la destrucción de algunas especies patógenas como por ejemplo el bacilo tuberculoso en la leche y la salmonella en los huevos líquidos y la leche. 3. Cuando resulta adecuado para destruir microorganismos que se desarrollan en competencia con una fermentación deseada como por ejemplo la leche para yogur, yogur, algunos quesos o el vino. 4. Cuando los caracteres físico-químicos del producto,especialmente un PH bajo permiten eliminar fácilmente numerosas categorías de microorganismos e impiden la proliferación de especies más termorresistentes, por ejemplo, los zumos de frutas. La legislación alimentaria distingue entre conservas y semi-conservas. Generalmente las primeras se corresponden con la esterilización y las segundas segund as con la pasteurización. Conservas. Son los productos obtenidos a partir de productos perecederos de origen animal o vegetal, con o sin adición de otras sustancias autorizadas, contenidos en envases apropiados, herméticamente cerrados, tratados exclusivamente por el vapor de forma que qu e asegure su conservación. Semi-conservas. Son productos estabilizados para un tiempo limitado por un tratamiento apropiado y mantenidos en recipientes impermeables al agua a presión normal. Su duración se prolonga manteniéndolos refrigerados. Se puede decir que la mayoría de los alimentos se prestan a su conservación por el método de Appert, tanto solos, mezclados o precocinados. Por otro lado, el físico John Tindall inventó un método para acabar con la resistencia de las bacterias con menos deterioro por el calor calor.. Este método, conocido como tindalización, se basa en calentamientos sucesivos del alimento alternándolos con períodos de enfriamiento, con lo que se pretende que las esporas que resistan el primer calentamiento, generen microbios en el período de enfriamiento mas fáciles de eliminar en los calentamientos siguientes. Este método es aún muy utilizado en la elaboración casera de conservas. Estas conservas caseras son las que producen la mayor parte de los problemas alimentarios con conservas, puesto que ni la tecnología que se utiliza, ni los métodos garantizan una correcta esterilización de estas. y s o d a c s e p s . o s l a o c s i s a r d a a c m i l p a s a c i n c é T
También es actualmente muy utilizado en la conservación de la leche el método conocido como U.H.T U.H.T.. que consiste básicamente en someter a esta a un calentamiento muy rápido, llevándola a temperaturas entre 120 y 130 grados durante un tiempo que oscila entre 2 y 3 segundos, para enfriarla rápidamente. rápidamente. Las ventajas que tiene este método es que la leche pierde pocas cualidades y que se limita mucho el pardeamiento. Envases. Un buen envase debe ser estéril, impermeable a la contaminación por microorganismos y a la humedad, debe proteger, en algunos casos, contra los golpes al producto, también es interesante en muchos casos que proteja contra la luz y en todos que sea inviolable pero fácil de abrir. abrir. Los tipos de envases que se utilizan en este momento para la conservación con calor son los siguientes: • Botes, que pueden ser de hojalata, con un recubrimiento de estaño o de planchas de acero tratadas químicamente y protegidas con barniz o laca. Envases de vidrio.
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de plástico. Operaciones básicas en la elaboración de una un a conserva. Sea cual sea el alimento a conservar, conservar, debe de seguir las siguientes fases en su elaboración. 1. Preparación del alimento. La mayoría de los alimentos requieren un tratamiento para separar las partes comestibles de las que no lo son. En las fábricas estos trabajos se hacen de forma mecanizada, muy rápido y teniendo en cuenta que muchos de estos productos son de temporada y por lo tanto el trabajo se acumula en momentos, muchas veces estas fábricas disponen de refrigeradores e incluso congeladores, para mantener el producto antes del d el tratamiento térmico. Algunas verduras hay que escaldarlas (de forma corta pero intensa) para evitar alteraciones enzimáticas. También También en el caso de los productos vegetales se limpian con agua a presión, para eliminar productos extraños y para quitarles al menos parte de su carga bacteriana. Dentro de este punto podemos incluir el cocinado de los alimentos que lo necesiten, o que vayan a ir como productos cocinados en su presentación. 2. Llenado de botes. Los productos sólidos siempre deben ir recubiertos de líquido con el n de disminuir la gravedad, limitar el aire y garantizar una mejor repartición del calor. Si este líquido no es el propio del producto, van a ser salmueras, aceite, vinagre, almíbar, almíbar, salsa de tomate u otros. El proceso de llenado en la industria esta completamente mecanizado, siendo importante asegurar un llenado por igual de todos los botes, pues un bote excesivamente lleno o vacío puede causar problemas que pongan en pe ligro la vida de la conserva. 3. Evacuación. Consiste en la expulsión de parte del aire de las latas, dejando así el producto en condiciones de semi-vacío. Puede hacerse calentando el bote lleno, con agua caliente o vapor, para que salga el aire interior (método casero), o utilizando bombas de vacío (forma industrial). Este vacío relativo se hace p ara disminuir las fugas por extensión de gases durante el calentamiento, para eliminar parte del oxígeno con lo que se baja el riesgo de que se corroa el bote y de que se oxide el alimento y para ayudar a que se mantenga la vitamina C. 4. Cierre o sutura. Consiste en colocar y unir la tapa del bote o ponerle el cierre adecuado según el envase que se utilice. En la industria ind ustria lo suelen hacer las mismas maquinas que producen el vacío. En las tapas van marcados datos sobre el contenido, lote, fecha de envasado, etc. 5. Tratamiento térmico. Que en las conservas lleva a la esterilización y en las semi-conservas a la pasteurización. Se hace en auto claves y se toma como referencia la eliminación del clostridium botulinum, que es la bacteria mas resistentes, por lo que si sabemos que hemos destruido esta, podemos tener la seguridad de haber destruido todas las demás. La mayoría de las latas se tratan entre 110 y 130 grados, teniendo en cuenta que una pequeña subida, permite un descenso del tiempo bastante grande. El tiempo varia dependiendo del tamaño de las latas (este esta e sta limitado por ley), la densidad del producto, su naturaleza, y la existencia o no de movimiento interior (si se mueve el calor se reparte mas rápidamente). 6. Refrigeración. Se hace lo mas rápido posible, generalmente llenando el auto clave de agua fría, para evitar un exceso de calor al producto. Sin embargo no se baja a temperaturas inferiores a 35,5 grados, pues se aprovecha el calor de la lata para que esta se seque. 7. Lmpieza de botes y etiquetado. Alteraciones de las latas. Se nota fundamentalmente porque el bote en lugar de presentar las tapas planas o un poco hundidas, las
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Distinguimos tres fases: 1. Lanzado, denominaremos así al bote de aspecto normal que al presionarlo se abomba, volviendo a su forma inicial al dejarlo. 2. Saltón, será el bote que aunque tiene las tapas abombadas, vuelve a su forma original al presionarlas. 3. Hinchado, es el que tiene las tapas, y en general todo el bote, abombado sin que retorne a su forma primitiva. Para llegar a uno de estos puntos el bote pasa antes por los anteriores. Por supuesto que la causa de estos abombamientos es la formación de gas en el interior del bote, pero veamos por que puede producirse este gas: • Causas microbianas. Los microbios producen gas al alimentarse. Pueden encontrarse en la lata por un fallo o rotura de esta o por un tratamiento térmico insuciente. Es la causa mas peligrosa, sobre todo por que el microbio causante, puede ser el clostridium. • Causas químicas. Cuando un exceso de oxígeno ha corroído el bote formando hidrógeno. El peligro es que esto a podido producir roturas que permitan la contaminación por microorganismos. • Causas físicas. Son muy variadas y entre ellas se incluyen las bajadas muy rápidas de presión en el autoclave (produce tensiones que abomban los botes), una evacuación incompleta o un llenado excesivo, o un excesivo vacío, el ataque de la herrumbre, las lesiones que pueda sufrir el bote. En si ellas no serían peligrosas pero siempre existe el riesgo de que se hayan producido perforaciones que permitan que el producto se contamine. En cualquiera de los casos toda lata que resulte sospechosa (ante la imposibilidad de determinar las causas exactas que producen su deformación), debe ser devuelta al fabricante (tiene que recogerla), puesto que su utilización representa un peligro muy grande hacia la salud de las personas. Las ventajas que presentan los métodos mé todos de conservación térmica son un período larguísimo de conservación (para las conservas) sin necesidad de un mantenimiento caro o especico, que garantiza las condiciones higiénicas del producto y a veces también que las cualidades organolépticas del producto son modicadas gustando mas al consumidor (el ejemplo mas claro de esto son los espárragos). y s o d a c s e p s . o s l a o c s i s a r d a a c m i l p a s a c i n c é T
Sus inconvenientes son una perdida de nutrientes bastante b astante importante, en comparación con otros métodos, que varían las cualidades organolépticas del producto y que este nunca nun ca llega crudo al consumidor. consumidor.
Conservación Por Aislamiento Del Aire. Introducción. Se basa en que al aislar los tejidos de los alimentos del aire, se evita la oxidación y la contaminación microbiana, reduciéndose además los intercambios gaseosos, con lo cual se aletarga la actividad de los microorganismos y se reduce la evaporación, lo que ayuda a conservar las cualidades del alimento. Se distinguen básicamente dos medios de conservación por este método: Recubrimiento.
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no deje olor, olor, ni sabor y que no tenga tendencia a absorber la humedad. Los alimentos que se someten a este método deben estar en un perfecto estado, ya que de poner un alimento levemente dañado, se estropearía él y además estropearía el resto. Los materiales de recubrimiento actualmente más usados son: • El papel de seda, se utiliza fundamentalmente para envolver frutas y huevos. Cada producto debe quedar separado y de la forma mas hermética posible. • Se ha utilizado en el almacenaje de estos productos para evitar el envejecimiento. Cada vez es menos usado. • El papel aluminio y el plástico transparente, se utilizan para todo tipo de productos, sobre todo para refrigerar y para proteger los productos en el congelado. El papel aluminio aguanta mejor el calor y por su naturaleza es mejor para la conservación, aunque más caro. El plástico transparente deja menos huecos para el aire. • Grasas alimentarías, se utilizan grasas animales que son las más saturadas y por tanto las más resistentes al enranciamiento. Se usan fundamentalmente para carnes, combinadas con la esterilización, sobre todo productos de cerdo, siempre siem pre cocinadas o tratadas con especias o aditivos. También También se utilizan u tilizan para terrinas, patés, etc. Los aceites vegetales, sobre todo el de oliva, también se utilizan para alargar la conservación de productos como el queso y las anchoas en salazón. Estos a pesar de ser grasas insaturadas, por los conservantes que llevan, permiten una u na conservación más o menos prolongada. En ningún caso utilizaremos mantequillas o margarinas, pues se enrancian fácilmente y además, por ser emulsiones, las atacan los microorganismos. El mayor problema del recubrimiento es que salvo que se combine con otros métodos es de duración muy corta. Envasado al vacío. Los fundamentos serían los mismos que los del recubrimiento, solo que la tecnología nos permite hacer un aislamiento más perfecto, haciendo que el aire se separe totalmente del producto, permitiendo bien hacer el vacío en el envase o llenarlo con un gas o combinación de éstos a nuestra elección. La máquina que nos permite realizar este procedimiento es la denominada máquina de vacío, que consta fundamentalmente de una campana c ampana de vacío y de un sistema para soldar los envases. Además Además tiene un regulador que nos permite controlar si queremos un vacío prácticamente total, o bien la intensidad que deseamos. Otro dispositivo nos permite inyectar al interior del envase la cantidad que deseemos de un gas o mezcla de gases a nuestra elección. Algunas máquinas tienen otros dispositivos especiales para el trabajo concreto que se les dé. Los envases que se utilizan son muy variados, aunque la industria usa envases con forma muy determinada para los productos que quiere envasar, envasar, lo más habitual son las bolsas de plástico, que en algunos casos suelen combinarse con barquetas de plástico y otros materiales. Los materiales de los que se componen todos estos envases, son muy variados y los elegiremos en función de lo que queramos hacer según su resistencia al calor, calor, las ondas, los golpes, etc. La industria también utiliza bolsas de papel aluminio para algunos productos (café molido).
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productos, envases y manipuladores a la acción de rayos ultravioletas y/o ozono. Nos encontramos con dos tipos de envasado al vacío: Envasado a vacío total. Para productos resistentes a la presión que esto supone, que no sufran deterioros de aspecto por falta de oxígeno y que no rompan la bolsa. Así se usa para embutidos, ahumados, salados, quesos, legumbres, frutas, pescados, platos precocinados y algunos deshidratados como la mojama. Además se puede utilizar para las carnes siempre que no sea para exponerlas de cara al público, puesto que la ausencia total de oxígeno hace que la carne tome colores azulados. Si es para nuestro consumo no tiene importancia, ya que una vez sacada del envase recupera su color primitivo en pocos minutos. Es muy útil para dejar madurar piezas enteras de carne. También se puede utilizar para envasar líquidos, teniendo en cuenta que a condiciones de presión muy bajas como se dan en el vacío, los líquidos hierven a temperatura ambiente, con lo que se da un proceso de evaporación que haría que la máquina siguiera intentando hacer el vacío hasta la evaporación del producto (aunque esto sería difícil que qu e llegase a ocurrir, ocurrir, ya que los borbotones que se forman hacen que el líquido salga fuera del envase). Podemos conseguir este vacío sabiendo que cuando el líquido empieza a hacer burbujas, el vacío ya esta conseguido y debemos debem os parar el proceso. Envasado al vacío con atmósferas controladas. Cosiste básicamente en cambiar el aire por gases, eligiendo el que nosotros deseemos de acuerdo con nuestra necesidades.
y s o d a c s e p s
Se utiliza para productos que se deterioran con el vacío total, bien por que su estructura no resiste la presión, o bien porque la falta de oxígeno, les hace perder cualidades. Los gases que se utilizan para rellenar la bolsa varían dependiendo del n que queramos obtener y de las necesidades económicas. Deben ser limpios, no tóxicos e incoloros. Los mas conocidos son: el nitrógeno, nit rógeno, el dióxido de carbono y también para casos como las carnes o pescados
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además queden detenidas las reacciones químicas y enzimáticos. El Código Alimentario distingue tres métodos de conservación por eliminación de agua: 1- Desecación, que es la extracción de la humedad hu medad de los alimentos, utilizando las condiciones ambientales ambient ales naturales. 2- Deshidratación, que es la extracción de la humedad contenida en los alimentos por acción de calor obtenido articialmente. 3- Liolización, que es la extracción de la humedad de los alimentos, mediante la congelación y la sublimación. Por supuesto, la deshidratación de los alimentos no depende solo del calor que se les aplique, teniendo que ser este limitado ya que su exceso produciría una serie de alteraciones no deseadas. Otros aspectos que también inuirán en la deshidratación son: 1. La supercie del alimento expuesta. A mas supercie, mas facilidad en la perdida de agua. 2. La humedad ambiente en la que se desarrolla la deshidratación. 3. La presión a la que se desarrolle el proceso, ya que grados mínimos de presión (vacío), hacen que la evaporación del agua se produzca a menos temperatura. 4. La circulación de gases durante el proceso favorecerá la eliminación del agua y que la repartición del calor sea homogénea. 5. La estructura del alimento. Cuando se produce una desecación lenta, el producto se ve sometido a una gran contracción, aglutinando las células, lo que provoca por un lado que después cueste mucho rehidratarlo, y por otro que pierdan gran parte de su textura, no recuperando su aspecto inicial. Además una deshidratación lenta implica que el producto ha estado mucho tiempo sometido a la acción del calor,, con lo que se han podido producir perdidas importantes de aspecto y nutrientes. calor La ventaja de estos métodos lentos es que conseguimos un producto relativamente denso, lo que facilita su transporte y almacenamiento. Cuando la desecación es rápida, conseguimos formar una costra desecada en el exterior del producto, que hasta cierto punto ja el volumen de este, haciendo que los huecos dejados por el agua perdida se llenen
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Desecación. Consiste en un secado al sol. Se sigue empleando en muchas regiones para preparar pasas de uva, ciruelas, dátiles, higos y otras frutas, así como leguminosas legumi nosas y cereales y excepcionalmente carnes y pescados. Sus inconvenientes son que dependen de las condiciones ambientales, que se necesita mucho espacio, siendo además durante la exposición al sol fácilmente, contaminable, por muchos agentes. Además es una desecación muy lenta que no suele bajar el contenido en humedad de los productos mas de un 15%, lo que solo resulta suciente en productos que tienen una gran cantidad de azúcar, como las frutas, habiendo que combinar con otros métodos como el ahumado ahum ado o la salazón el resto de productos. Deshidratación. Evita la mayoría de los problemas de la desecación. Hay veces que dentro de la deshidratación, no queremos llegar a una eliminación muy drástica del agua y entonces hablamos de la concentración o evaporación, que consistirá en quitar parte del agua de los productos (sobre un 50%) y añadir azúcar en el caso de la leche o sal en los extractos de carnes. Industrialmente se utilizan tres métodos para la deshidratación: 1. Secador por convección de aire. Tiene un principio de funcionamiento igual al de los hornos de convección. Dentro de estos los mas importantes son los secadores por pulverización que sirven para líquidos y se basan en la atomización del producto, sometiéndolo al calor con lo que se produce una deshidratación casi inmediata. 2. Secadores a tambor o rodillo. Consisten en una serie de rodillos que giran en direcciones opuestas con supercies calientes por donde pasa el alimento entre ellos, en una capa muy na. El inconveniente es que producen muchas reacciones de pardeamiento, por lo que no puede aplicarse a alimentos muy sensibles al calor como la leche. La ventaja es que son baratos. 3. Secadores al vacío. Se basan en que a menor presión la evaporación se produce a temperaturas mas bajas, con lo que se produce menos daño en los productos. El funcionamiento es similar a los secadores de pulverización. Con ellos se consigue la deshidratación de mayor calidad y también la mas cara. y s o d a c s e p s
Liofilización. Es un método especial espe cial para deshidratar, deshidratar, que se basa en que en condiciones de vacío se puede conseguir que el agua pase de estado sólido a gaseoso sin pasar en ningún momento por p or el estado líquido, llamándose a este proceso sublimación.
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Es el mejor método de deshidratación, con el que se consiguen unos resultados realmente positivos, pero por su precio su utilización está limitada a productos caros, siendo el ejemplo mas típico el café. Utilización de los métodos de conservación por eliminación de agua. • Carnes y pescados, generalmente combinados con algún otro método. Ejemplo, cecina y mojama. • Frutas y verduras. • Leche. Este producto tiene problemas de rehidratación, por lo que hay que añadir emulsionantes, o si no, tras haberlo secado se humedece un poco y se vuelve a secar, así la lactosa forma cristales y es mas soluble. • Huevos. Se realizará con métodos que no exijan excesivo calor. Se puede hacer separando la yema de la clara o enteros. Necesitan emulsionantes para que qu e después recuperen las características originales. • Platos precocinados, sobre todo sopas. En estos productos la deshidratación se hace casi siempre en cada elemento, ya que es muy difícil deshidratar productos heterogéneos. • Otros como legumbres, cereales, café y cacao.
Conservación Por Irradiación. Introducción. Se dene como radiación a la emisión o propagación de energía a través de un medio. Permite destruir en ciertos casos algunos o casi todos los microorganismos presentes en el alimento; también se utiliza para retardar procesos siológicos como la germinación de productos vegetales. Se emplean fundamentalmente tres tipos de radiación: las radiaciones ionizantes, las radiaciones de luz ultravioletas y las radiaciones microondas. Radiaciones ionizantes. Generalmente cuando se habla de conservación por irradiación nos referimos al empleo de esta radiación. Hay varios tipos de radiaciones ionizantes, destacando entre ent re ellos los rayos X, beta y gamma. Este tipo de radiaciones se utilizan tanto para destruir microorganismos, como para inhibir la germinación de ciertos productos vegetales.
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en el alimento, y al no haber normas sobre el etiquetado de estos productos, no pueden distinguirse de los no tratados, con lo que se pueden producir situaciones fraudulentas, como ya está ocurriendo con algunas hierbas aromáticas como el orégano y el azafrán. La radapertización, consiste en el empleo de dosis muy elevadas de radiación, para conseguir una esterilización completa del producto. La mayor diferencia con la esterilización es que salvo en dosis altísimas de radiación, no se asegura la inactivación de las enzimas, lo que hace necesario ne cesario un previo blanqueo. Este método prácticamente no se emplea, pues, entre otras razones, produce cambios organolépticos muy importantes. Los problemas que presenta la radiación ionizante, es que se producen reacciones secundarias, se pierden vitaminas como la B y la C, y sobre todo aún no se conoce muy bien los efectos que pueda tener el consumo de estos alimentos en el ser humano, pues se teme que la irradiación pueda inducir a la formación de sustancias tóxicas o incluso cancerígenas en los productos. Por ello hay países que permiten la comercialización de estos productos y otros no. Radiaciones de luz ultravioleta. La luz ultravioleta es un poderoso agente bactericida. Sin embargo en la conservación de alimentos no tiene mucho interés ya que su capacidad de penetración es muy escasa, pudiendo incluso catalizar cambios oxidativas en algunos casos. En la industria alimentaría se usan para el tratamiento de utensilios, maquinaria y locales utilizados en manipulación, envasado y almacenamiento de alimentos. También se utiliza para el tratamiento supercial de productos de bollería y pastelería antes de envasarlos, así como en el envasado de bacón, embutidos, etc. En todas estas funciones compite con la utilización de ozono, que es fuertemente bactericida, por su gran capacidad oxidante. Tiene la ventaja sobre los ultravioletas que no produce problemas, con zonas de sombras y la desventaja de su instalación es mas costosa. y s o d a c s e p s
Radiaciones microondas. Se utilizan en procesos como la destrucción de hongos en la elaboración del pan, en la pasteurización de la cerveza o en la esterilización del vino. Sin embargo su uso esta limitado a su efecto térmico y a su costo, pues resulta muy caro.
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En concentraciones de sal de un 4% los mohos ya no se desarrollan, pero hay bacterias llamadas halólas que tienen actividad hasta en concentraciones de un 19%. Esto hace que la salazón tenga que estar siempre combinada con otros métodos como son la desecación y el ahumado, la refrigeración o la adición de aditivos (sobre todo la ácidos). Muchas veces suele ser conveniente esterilizar previamente la sal para la salazón, pues es fácil que venga contaminada por bacterias halólas, cuyo medio natural de vida son las salinas. Básicamente hay dos formas de salar un alimento: Salazón en seco. Se ponen capas del producto y de sal alternativas haciendo bajar así por acción osmótica y por presión la cantidad de agua en el alimento hasta h asta el 50%. A veces se humedece ligeramente la sal para mejorar la adhesión de esta al alimento. Suele acabarse secando o ahumando. Salazón húmeda. Consiste en introducir el alimento en una salmuera de concentración variable según el alimento y el resultado que queramos obtener. obtener. La concentración máxima que puede obtenerse obten erse es del 25% ya que 250 gramos de sal saturan un litro de agua. Vamos a ver ahora para que tipo de alimentos se utiliza la conservación por sal: Grasas. En principio para las grasas puras no tiene sentido la utilización de la sal puesto que no son atacadas por ningún microorganismo, pero si tiene sentido hacerlo en las emulsiones como la mantequilla o la margarina.
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consumo. Carnes. Se ha utilizado muy frecuentemente frecue ntemente combinado con el ahumado, desecado, frío y también solo. Actualmente se utiliza para el bacón, los jamones, ambres, embutidos y foie-gras, principalmente. En todos estos casos además de sal común se utilizan nitratos (se le llama sal nitro a la mezcla de sal común con una décima parte de nitratos), ya que además de resultar muy útil para combatir las bacterias anaerobias, dan a las carnes una coloración roja que resulta mas agradable para el consumidor consumidor.. A este proceso de combinación de sal y nitratos es al que comúnmente se le llama curado. A pesar de las ventajas que presenta el uso de nitratos, su problema es que puede producir sustancias que se piensa puedan ser cancerígenas. Estos procesos de curado suelen unirse a los de desecación o ahumado y al de maduración (a la unión de todo ello también se le llama curado), que es un mantenimiento en sitio seco y aireado con el n de que la sal se reparta mas uniformemente y que el producto adquiera el punto óptimo de consumo. El producto más típico que se trata con este método es el jamón, bien sea como jamón curado o como jamón cocido. Jamón curado. Se enfría el jamón a una temperatura entre 3 o 4 grados. Debemos mantener durante todo el proceso el jamón a esta temperatura, ya que un aumento de esta favorecería la acción de microorganismos, y una
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Se mantiene en esta salmuera de 30 a 40 días con una temperatura entre 3 y 5 grados. Se lava, se frota y se estufan un día a unos 30 grados, en ambiente húmedo y a veces se ahuma ligeramente. Se deshuesan y se moldean con gelatina en polvo en moldes de aluminio u hojalata, cociéndose en agua a unos 80 grados, calculándose 30 minutos por kilogramo de peso. Esto constituye una pasteurización lo que junto con las sales asegura asegura la conservación del producto, que debe mantenerse a menos me nos de 10 grados y mejor envasado al vacío (salvo que ya se comercialice enlatado). en latado).
Conservación Por Vinagre. Su fundamento es que los microorganismos, sobre todo las bacterias, no pueden vivir en un medio ácido. En este tema solo nos ocuparemos del ácido del vinagre, que es considerado como un conservador natural, dejando para el tema de los aditivos el resto de los ácidos usados en conservación. El acético se encuentra en el vinagre en una proporción que varia de un 5% a un 10%. Si la concentración de acético en la conserva es sucientemente grande, además de inhibir la acción microbiana inactiva muchas enzimas culpables de alteraciones alimenticias. alimentic ias. A concentraciones de acético más bajas, b ajas, las bacterias no mueren, pero se hacen mucho más vulnerables a la acción del calor, lo que hace que se utilice en ciertas conservas, puesto que de este modo tratamientos térmicos más suaves garantizan la estabilidad del producto. El control del grado de acidez presenta el problema de que al entrar éste por osmosis en las células, es difícil asegurar una concentración adecuada en el medio. Por otro lado, el agua sobrante del alimento también ayuda a rebajar la concentración del ácido. Para paliar este efecto, usaremos un vinagre fuerte, de al menos
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Escabeches. Se dene como la utilización de vinagre y sal en la conservación de carnes y pescados, proporcionándoles unas cualidades organolépticas características que suelen ser más buscadas que la conserva en sí. Existen dos tipos de escabechado básicos: Escabeche frío. Consiste en cubrir un producto, generalmente pescado, con una concentración de 2% a 12% de sal y de 6% a 12% de vinagre. Se deja así el producto hasta que el vinagre penetra bien en los tejidos del alimento. Este tiempo puede ir desde unas horas hasta unos 10 días, pasados los cuales se saca, se limpia y se mete en un líquido para su conservación posterior en refrigeración. Tiene un tiempo de duración muy limitado y puede ampliarse mediante envasado al vacío y en casos como los moluscos, con enlatado y tratamiento térmico. Aquí es muy típico tratar con este método las anchoas, pero con concentraciones de vinagre mucho mayores. Escabeche caliente. Consiste básicamente en un tratamiento como el anterior pero para productos cocinados. El producto suele someterse a la acción de la sal para después cocinarse (en el caso de los pescados se asan o fríen fundamentalmente, a veces enharinados) para después mantenerlos en concentraciones de vinagre similares a las anteriores, durante el tiempo necesario. El caso mas típico del escabechado del pescado son los túnidos y de las carnes las aves de caza, como codornices, perdices o palomas, que es prácticamente la única carne que se escabecha actualmente. Para su comercialización se enlata y se somete a tratamiento térmico.
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1. Produce una deshidratación parcial del alimento que según la temperatura y la duración del proceso puede ser de un 10 a un 40%. 2. Según el método de ahumado utilizado el alimento es sometido a mas o menos calor, lo que en algunos casos reduce sensiblemente la población bacteriana, sobre todo en la supercie del producto. 3. El humo tiene una acción bactericida, producida por varios productos químicos originados durante la combustión de la madera. Por otro lado estos productos tienen una importante acción antioxidante que retarda el enranciamiento de la grasa. El problema es que estas acciones conservantes prácticamente solo funcionan en la supercie del producto. Por ello cuando se somete al alimento a nuevas supercies de corte pierde su acción conservadora. En cualquier caso nos encontramos con uno de los métodos con menor capacidad de conservación, por lo que siempre se combina con otros como el refrigerado o la utilización de sal que siempre es previa a el proceso de ahumado. Actualmente por la mejora de las tecnologías de la conservación este método, como otros muchos, ha perdido importancia como conservador y se emplea para dotar a ciertos productos de un color y un sabor apreciados. los colores que proporcionan van desde el e l colorado hasta el marrón o el negro brillantes. El humo para este proceso, se obtiene por la semi-combustión de maderas duras, principalmente virutas de hayas, alisos, robles, castaños, chopos, fresno, sarmientos de la poda de viñedos,etc., a las que se les puede añadir hierbas aromáticas para dotar de aromas determinados al producto (en algunos casos como en el de la madera de enebro, si la utilizamos junto con sus bayas nos dotaran de por si de aromas característicos. No se pueden usar maderas muy resinosas como las coníferas, ni maderas que hayan sido usadas para otras funciones, pues pueden tener tratamientos químicos que las hagan poseer sustancias que den mal sabor u olor o que incluso pueden ser tóxicas.
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Clasicación de los ahumados según la temperatura. • Ahumado en frío. Se hace con el humo por debajo de los 29 grados. Como consecuencia el producto no se cocinara durante el proceso de ahumado. Este ahumado se aplica entre otros a el salmón, bonito, anchoas, bacalao, abadejo, gamba, langostino, huevas de pescados, etc. • Solemos utilizar un tiempo como referencia de hasta 4 horas. • Ahumado caliente. Con el humo de 50 a 60 grados y con un tiempo que va de media a tres horas. • Ahumado muy caliente. Con humo de 60 a 100 grados y con la misma duración que el anterior. Se emplea generalmente para embutidos. En general cuanto menor es el tiempo de exposición y hay mas calor, tendremos una menor perdida de nutrientes pero también una menor penetración. El ahumado puede presentar el riesgo de que trabajando a temperaturas muy elevadas a partir de la lignina de la madera se produzcan sustancias que a la larga puedan ser cancerígenas. Para evitar este riesgo lo mejor es utilizar temperaturas bajas de ahumado y ltros eléctricos que separen estas sustancias. Vamos a ver ahora como es el método m étodo de ahumado que se utiliza en el taller de practicas (esto es solo una
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Preelaboraciones al ahumado. Eviscerar y limpiar. limpiar. En el caso de pescados grandes como el salmón se sacan los dos lomos. No es necesario desescamar. Salar. Se puede hacer por salado seco o por salmuera (este es el método mas utilizado). Salar. u tilizado). Se coloca una cama de sal, el pescado y se cubre con mas sal. Según el tamaño del salmón puede ser de 12 a 24 horas, tiempos que se pueden reducir a la mitad si se pone peso encima. Adobo, aderezo o condimentación. Es optativo. A veces se preparan mezclas como azúcar azúcar,, café, miel y ron o condimentos como pimentón, curry, comino, hinojo, alcaparras, nuez moscada, salvia, zumos de frutas, o sazonamientos ya preparados (se encuentran así en el mercado). Todos Todos estos se utilizan durante du rante el proceso de salado. Lavado y secado. Los letes una vez sacados deben de lavarse con agua y hielo para sacar la sal sobrante de la supercie o excesos de sal. Lo secamos con un paño y lo ponemos sobre una tabla o rejilla tapado con un paño y en una pequeña inclinación, dejando escurrir por lo menos 8 horas.
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Su efecto conservador se basa en la acción antimicrobiana de sus aceites esenciales. El efecto de estas sustancias sobre ciertos microorganismos, puede ser en algunos casos mayor que la de otros aditivos químicos. Sin embargo, las concentraciones que se necesitan para conservar solo por la acción de las especias a medio plazo harían que el sabor del alimento así tratado fuera insoportable. Esto, junto con el hecho de que cada especia tiene un campo antimicrobiano muy limitado, hace que nunca se empleen solas. Se utilizan frecuentemente para apoyar el efecto conservador de la sal, vinagre, desecación y ahumado. Las más usadas en orden de mayor a menor ecacia son: Canela, clavo, pimienta, calicantro, mostaza, pimentón, ajo, cebolla, nuez moscada, tomillo, laurel, jengibre, orégano. Estas últimas con poder muy limitado. Sin embargo, dentro de cada especia hay otras circunstancias que van a variar su poder antimicrobiano, como son: • El origen, son más potentes las orientales que las americanas. • La fase de crecimiento en que se recolecta.
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Frutas en almíbar, que siempre van esterilizadas. Mermeladas, conturas, gelatinas, frutas contadas y escarchadas, que por si solas tienen una duración limitada que se amplía con pasteurización, esterilización, envasado al vacío y/o refrigeración. También También se tratan algunas frutas con azúcar para posibilitar o mejorar su congelación.
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Unidad I:I: Preparaciones especiales para servicios requeridos. Decoración y servicio de productos culinarios culinarios especiales. Por la vista distinguimos formas y colores, disposición de los alimentos y apreciamos todo el entorno que rodea la comida. Recordar la expresión “comer con la vista” cuando vemos un buffet o el escaparate de una pastelería.
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Elaboración de diferentes productos culinarios para presentación. Se entiende por aperitivos sencillos aquellas elaboraciones de fácil preparación y que son destinadas a presentar en la barra o pase de bandejas en cócteles, y que se pueden tomar fácilmente con la mano. s . o
Podemos distinguir entre canapés, tartaletas, pintxos y tapas.
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Tapas o boquitas:
Van desde encurtidos, quesos, escabeches, salazones, frutos secos, mariscos cocidos, conservas o aceitunas, a las mas diversas elaboraciones de cocina servidas en pequeñas raciones. Se sirven desde en pequeños platos, cazuelitas, paelleras pequeñas.
Bocadillos y sándwiches:
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En la actualidad las ensaladas forman parte muy importante de nuestra dieta y en ellas forman parte también frutas, arroz, legumbres y pastas. Aplicaciones: se sirven como acompañamiento de platos de carne o pescados, servidas generalmente a parte , como primer plato o servidas también en buffet. s . o
Le repertoire de la cousine (1923) clasica las ensaladas en: simples , compuestas y americanas.
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