Cha pt e r1Wh Wha ti sOr ga ni z a t i ona lBe ha v i or ? Thei mpor t a nc eofi nt e r pe r s ona ls ki l l s Pos i t i v es oc i al r el at i ons hi psar eas soc i at edwi t hl owers t r es satwor kandl ower i nt ent i onst oqui t .Soc i al r el at i ons hi psamongc owor k er sands uper v i s or sar eal s o s t r ongl yr el at edt oj obs at i s f ac t i on.Empl oy eeswhor el at et ot hei rmanager swi t h s uppor t i v edi al ogueandpr oac t i v i t yfindt hatt hei ri deasar eendor s edmor eof t en, t her ebyi mpr ov i ngwor k pl ac es at i s f ac t i on.Al s o,i nc r eas i ngt heor gani z at i onal behav i or ( OB)el ementi nor gani z at i onscanf os t ers oc i al r es pons i bi l i t yawar enes s.Ther ei sa g r o wi n gne edf o ru nde r s t a nd i n gt h eme ansan dou t c omesofc o r p or a t es o c i a l r es pons i bi l i t y( CSR) . Manageme mentandor gani zat i onalbehavi or Themana geri sani nd i v i dual wh oac hi e v esgoa l st hr ougho t herp eop l e.I nno npr ofi t or gani z at i onsmanager sar eof t enc al l edadmi ni s t r at or s .The ydot hei rwor ki nan or gani z at i on,whi c hi sac ons c i ous l ycoor di nat eds oc i al uni t ,c ompos edoft woormor e peopl e,t hatf unc t i onsonar el at i v el ycont i nuousbas i st oac hi ev eac ommongoal ors et ofgoal s .Thewor kofma nager sc anbec ond ens edt of ourac t i v i t i es : 1.Pl anni ng–defi ni nganor gani z at i on’ sgoal s ,es t abl i s hi nganov er al l s t r at egyf or ac hi ev i ngt hos egoal s ,anddev el opi ngac ompr ehens i v es etofpl anst oi nt egr at e andc oor di nat eac t i v i t i es . 2.Or gani z i ng–whenma manager sengagei ndes i gni ngt hei rwor kuni t ’ ss t r uc t ur e.I t i nc l udesde t er mi ni ngwhatt as k sar et obedone,whoi st od ot hem,ho wt het as k s a r et ob eg r o up ed ,wh or e po r t st owh om,a ndwh er ed ec i s i o nsa r et ob ema de . 3.Leadi ng–di r ec t i ngandc oor di nat epeopl ewi t hi nt heor gani z at i on.Thi sf unc t i on i nc l udesmot i v at i ngempl oy ees ,di r ec t i ngot her s ,s el ec t i ngt hemos teff ec t i v e c ommuni c at i onc hanne l s ,a ndr es ol v i ngc onfl i c t s . 4.Cont r ol l i ng–Moni t or i ngac t i v i t i est oens ur et he yar ebei ngac c ompl i s hedas pl annedandc or r ec t i nganys i gni fi cantdev i at i ons . Mi nt z ber gc onc l udedt hatmanager sper f or m 10di ffer ent ,hi ghl yi nt er r el at edr ol es : 1.I nt er per s onal r ol es
1
i )
Fi g ur e he ad–s y mb ol i ch e ad ;r e qu i r e dt ope r f o r m anu mb mb ero fr o ut i n e
i i ) i i i )
dut i esofal egal ors oc i al nat ur e Le ad er–r es p ons i b l ef ort h emo t i v a t i o na ndd i r e c t i o no fe mp mp l o y ees Li a i s o n–ma i n t a i nsan et wor kofo ut s i dec o nt a ct swh opr o v i d ef a v or san d
i nf or mat i on 2.I nf or mat i onal r ol es i ) Mo ni t or–r e c ei v e sawi d ev a r i e t yo fi n f o r ma t i o n;s e r v e sasane r v ec en t e r i i )
ofi nt er nal andex t er nal i nf or mat i onoft heor gani z at i on Di s s emi nat or–t r ans mi mi t si nf or mat i onr ec ei v edf r om out s i der so rf r om o t her
i i i )
empl o y ee st omembe r soft h eo r g an i z a t i o n Spok e sper s on–t r ans mi mi t si nf or mat i ont oo ut s i der sonor gani z at i on ’ spl ans , pol i c i es ,ac t i ons ,andr es ul t s ;s er v esasanex per tonor gani z at i on’ s
i ndus t r y 3.Dec i s i onal r ol es i ) En t r e pr e ne ur–s e ar c h eso r g an i z a t i o na ndi t se n v i r o nme ntf o r i i )
oppor t uni t i esandi ni t i at espr oj ec t st obr i ngaboutc hange Di s t ur banc ehandl er–r es pons i bl ef orc or r ec t i v eac t i o nwhenor gani z at i on
i i i )
f ac esi mpor t ant ,une xpec t eddi s t ur banc es Res our c eal l oc at or–r es pons i bl ef orc or r ec t i v eac t i onwhenor gani z at i on
i v )
f ac esi mpor t ant ,une xpec t eddi s t ur banc es Negot i at or–r es pons i bl ef orr epr es ent i ngt heor ga ni z at i onatmaj or negot i at i ons
Manager sneedt hef ol l owi ngs ki l l st owor keffec t i v el y : 1.T ec hni c al s ki l l s–t heabi l i t yt oappl ys pec i al i z edk nowl edgeorex per t i s e. 2.Humans k i l l s–t heabi l i t yt owor kwi t h,under s t and,andmot i v at eot herpeopl e, bot hi ndi v i dual l yandi ngr oups . 3.Conc ept ual s k i l l s–t hement al abi l i t yt oanal y z eanddi agnos ec ompl e xs i t uat i ons . L ut ha nsa ndhi sc o l l e ag ue ss t u di ed45 0ma na ger swh ower eal l e ng ag edi nf o ur manager i al ac t i v i t i es : 1.T r ad i t i ona lmanag ement–d ec i s i onmak i ng,p l anni ng,andc ont r ol l i ng. 2 .Co .C mmu mm ni c a t i o n–e x c h an gi n gr o ut i n ei n f o r ma t i o na ndp r o c es s i n gp ap er wo r k .
2
i )
Fi g ur e he ad–s y mb ol i ch e ad ;r e qu i r e dt ope r f o r m anu mb mb ero fr o ut i n e
i i ) i i i )
dut i esofal egal ors oc i al nat ur e Le ad er–r es p ons i b l ef ort h emo t i v a t i o na ndd i r e c t i o no fe mp mp l o y ees Li a i s o n–ma i n t a i nsan et wor kofo ut s i dec o nt a ct swh opr o v i d ef a v or san d
i nf or mat i on 2.I nf or mat i onal r ol es i ) Mo ni t or–r e c ei v e sawi d ev a r i e t yo fi n f o r ma t i o n;s e r v e sasane r v ec en t e r i i )
ofi nt er nal andex t er nal i nf or mat i onoft heor gani z at i on Di s s emi nat or–t r ans mi mi t si nf or mat i onr ec ei v edf r om out s i der so rf r om o t her
i i i )
empl o y ee st omembe r soft h eo r g an i z a t i o n Spok e sper s on–t r ans mi mi t si nf or mat i ont oo ut s i der sonor gani z at i on ’ spl ans , pol i c i es ,ac t i ons ,andr es ul t s ;s er v esasanex per tonor gani z at i on’ s
i ndus t r y 3.Dec i s i onal r ol es i ) En t r e pr e ne ur–s e ar c h eso r g an i z a t i o na ndi t se n v i r o nme ntf o r i i )
oppor t uni t i esandi ni t i at espr oj ec t st obr i ngaboutc hange Di s t ur banc ehandl er–r es pons i bl ef orc or r ec t i v eac t i o nwhenor gani z at i on
i i i )
f ac esi mpor t ant ,une xpec t eddi s t ur banc es Res our c eal l oc at or–r es pons i bl ef orc or r ec t i v eac t i onwhenor gani z at i on
i v )
f ac esi mpor t ant ,une xpec t eddi s t ur banc es Negot i at or–r es pons i bl ef orr epr es ent i ngt heor ga ni z at i onatmaj or negot i at i ons
Manager sneedt hef ol l owi ngs ki l l st owor keffec t i v el y : 1.T ec hni c al s ki l l s–t heabi l i t yt oappl ys pec i al i z edk nowl edgeorex per t i s e. 2.Humans k i l l s–t heabi l i t yt owor kwi t h,under s t and,andmot i v at eot herpeopl e, bot hi ndi v i dual l yandi ngr oups . 3.Conc ept ual s k i l l s–t hement al abi l i t yt oanal y z eanddi agnos ec ompl e xs i t uat i ons . L ut ha nsa ndhi sc o l l e ag ue ss t u di ed45 0ma na ger swh ower eal l e ng ag edi nf o ur manager i al ac t i v i t i es : 1.T r ad i t i ona lmanag ement–d ec i s i onmak i ng,p l anni ng,andc ont r ol l i ng. 2 .Co .C mmu mm ni c a t i o n–e x c h an gi n gr o ut i n ei n f o r ma t i o na ndp r o c es s i n gp ap er wo r k .
2
3.Hu ma manr e s ou r c ema na geme nt–mo t i v a t i n g,d i s c i p l i n i ng ,ma na gi ngc on fl i c t , s t affing,andt r ai ni ng. 4.Net wor k i ng–s oc i al i z i ng,pol i t i c ki ng,andi nt er ac t i ngwi t hout s i der s . Amo ngma ma na ge r swh owe r es uc c e s s f u l( d efi n edi nt e r mso fs p ee do fp r o mo mo t i o nwi t h t hei ror gani z at i on) ,net wor k i ngmadet hel ar ges tr el at i v ec ont r i but i ont os uc ces s,and humanr es our c emanagementac t i v i t i esma madet hel eas tc ont r i but i on. Amongeff ec t i v emanager s( d efi nedi nt er msofqu al i t yandquant i t yoft hei rper f or manc e a ndt h es at i s f a c t i o na ndc o mmi mm t me nto fe mp mp l o y ee s ) ,c o mmu mm ni c at i o nma det hel a r g es t r el at i v ec ont r i but i onandnet wor k i ngt hel eas t . Or gani z at i onal behav i or( OB)i safi el dofs t udyt hati nv es t i gat est hei mpac ti ndi v i dual s , gr oups ,ands t r uc t ur ehav eonbehav i orwi t hi nor gani z at i ons ,f ort hepur pos eofappl y i ng s uc hk no wl edget owar di mpr o vi nganor gani z at i on’ seff ec t i v enes s .I ts t udi est hr ee det er mi nant sofbehav i ori nor gani z at i ons : 1.I ndi v i dual s 2.G .Gr ou ps 3 .St .S r u c t u r e I tex ami nesbehav i ori nt hec ont ex tofj obs at i s f ac t i on,abs ent eei s m, m,empl oy me ment t ur no v er ,pr od uc t i v i t y , h umanper f or manc e,andma management . Compl e me me nt i ngi nt ui t i onwi t hs y st e ma ma t i cst udy Under l y i ngt hes ys t emat i cappr oac ht o‘ r eadi ng’ orpr edi c t i ngt hebehav i orofot her si s t hebel i eft hatbehav i ori snotr andom.Wec ani dent i f yf undament al c ons i s t enc i es under l y i ngt hebehav i orofal l i ndi v i dual sandmodi f yt hem t or efl ec ti ndi v i dual di ffer enc es .As ys t emat i cs t udyme meansl ook i ngatr el at i ons hi ps ,at t empt i ngt oat t r i but e c aus esa ndeff ec t s ,anddr a wi n gc onc l us i onsbas edonsc i ent i fi cev i denc e. Ev i d en c eb as e dma na ge me me nt( EBM)i st hebas i n go fman ag er i a ld ec i s i o nso nt hebe s t av ai l abl es ci ent i fi cev i denc e. Ps y c hol ogyi st hes ci enc et hats eek st ome me as ur e,e x pl ai n,an ds ome t i mesc ha nget he b eha v i o ro fh uma nsa ndot h era ni ma l s : - So ci a lp sy c h ol o gy–a na r e ao fp s y c ho l o gyt ha tb l e ndsc o nc e pt sf r om p s y c ho l o gy andsoc i ol ogyt of oc usont hei nfl uenc eofpe opl eononeano t her , 3
- Soc i ol ogy–t hes t udyofpeopl ei nr el at i ont ot hei rs oc i al env i r onmentorc ul t ur e. - An t h r o pol o gy–t h es t ud yo fs o c i e t i e st ol e ar nab outh umanb ei n gsan dt h ei r ac t i v i t i es Or gani z at i onal behav i orc onc ept smu mus tr efl ec ts i t uat i onal ,orc ont i ngenc y ,c ondi t i ons . Wec ans ayt hatxl eadst oy ,butonl yunderc ondi t i onss pec i fi edi nz–t hec ont i ngenc y v ar i abl es .So,c ont i ngenc yv ar i abl esar es i t uat i onal f ac t or s :v ar i abl est hatmoder at et he r el at i ons hi pbet weent woormor ev ar i abl es . OBc anoff ers ol ut i onsf ort hemos tc r i t i c al i s s uesconf r ont i ngmanager s ,f ore x ampl e: ( i )
Economi cpr ess ur es–t hedi ffer encebet weengoodandbadma manageme ment c anbet hedi ff er enc ebet weenpr ofi tandl os s ,or ,ul t i mat el y , bet weenbus i nes s s ur v i v al andf ai l ur e.I ngoodt i mes ,under s t andi nghowt or ewar d,s at i s f y ,and r et ai nempl oy eesi satapr emi um.I nbadt i mes ,i s suesl i k es t r es s,dec i s i on
( i i )
mak i ng,a ndcopi ngcomet oaf or ef r ont . Cont i nui nggl obal i z at i on–eff ec t i v emanager swi l l ant i c i pat eandadaptt hei r appr oac hest ot hef ol l owi nggl obal i s sues :
-
I ncr easedf or ei gnassi gnme ment s–t hema managerneedst ounder st and ev er y t hi ngabouty ourne wl oc at i on’ sc ul t ur eandwor k f or c e–and demons t r at ey ourc ul t ur al s ens i t i v i t y -bef or ei nt r oduc i ngal t er nat e pr ac t i c es .
-
Wor ki ngwi t hpeopl ef r om di ffer entcul t ur es–youneedt ounder st andhow t h ei rc u l t u r ea ndb ac k g r o un dh av es ha pe dt h em a ndh owt oa da pt
y o ur
man ag eme nts t y l et ofi ta nyd i ff er en c es . -
Over seei ngmovementofj obst ocount r i eswi t hl owcost l abour– manager sf ac et het as kofbal anc i ngt hei nt er es t soft hei r
or gani z at i ons
wi t ht hei rr es pons i bi l i t i est ot hec ommuni t i esi nwhi c h
t heyoper at e. -
Ad ap t i n gt od i ff er i n gc u l t u r a la ndr e gu l a t o r yno r ms–t ob ee ffe c t i v e , ma na ger sne edt ok no wt h ec ul t u r a ln or msoft h ewo r k f or c ei nea c h c ount r ywher et he ydobus i nes s .Al s o,s oc i oec onomi cs hi f t sha v ea p r of o un de ffe c to nwo r k f o r c ed emo gr a ph i c s .
4
-
Wo r k f o r c ed i v e r s i t y–t h ec o n c e ptt h ato r g an i z a t i o nsa r ebe c o mi n gmo r e het er ogeneousi nt er msofgender ,age,r ac e,et hni c i t y ,s ex ual
or i ent at i on,
andot herc har ac t er i s t i c s.Pr obl emsr egar di ngt hi sar e
whet herwes houl d
r ec ogni z ei ndi v i dual andc ul t ur al di ff er enc es ,whatar e
t hel egal
r equi r ement si neac hc ount r y ,ands houl dwet r eatal l
empl o y eesal i k e? -
Cust omerser vi ce–OBca nhel pmanager si ncr easet hesuc c essof i n t e r a c t i o nsb et we enc us t o me ra ndemp l o y e esb ys h owi n gh ow
empl o y ee
at t i t udesandbeha vi ori nfl uenc ec us t omers at i s f ac t i on.
-
Peopl es k i l l s
-
Net wor k edor ga ni z at i ons
-
So c i al medi a
-
Empl oy eewel l be i ngat wor k
-
Po si t i v ewor ke nv i r o nme nt–po si t i v eor g an i z at i o na ls c ho l a r s h i pi sa na r e a o fOBr e se ar c ht h atc o nc e r n sho wo r g an i z a t i o nsd ev e l o ph uman s t r engt hs ,f os t erv i t al i t yandr es i l i enc e,andunl oc kpot ent i al .
Res ear c her s
hav es t udi edac onc eptc al l ed‘ r efl ec t edbes t s el f ’ ,whi c hi s
as k i ng
empl o y eest ot hi nka boutwh ent he ywer eatt hei r
per s onal bes ti nor dert o
under s t andhowt oex pl oi tt hei rs t r engt hs .Thei deai s
t hatweal l ha v e
t hi ngsatwhi c hwear eunus ual l ygood,y etwet oo
of t enf oc uson
addr es si ngourl i mi t at i onsandt oor ar el yt hi nk
abouthowt oex pl oi t
our
s t r engt hs .But ,i tdoesnotdenyt he
v al ueoft henegat i v e( s uc hasc r i t i c al -
f eedbac k) .
Et h i c a lb eh av i o r–ma na ge r sf a c ee t h i c a ld i l e mma san de t h i c a lc h oi c e s ,i n whi c ht heyar er equi r edt oi dent i f yr i ghtandwr ongc onduc t .
Dev el opi nganOBmodel Amodel i sanabs t r ac t i onofr eal i t y ,as i mpl i fi edr epr es ent at i onofs omer eal wor l d phenomenon.I tpr opos est hr eet y pesofv a r i abl es ; 1.I nput s–t hev ar i abl esl i k eper s onal i t y ,gr oups t r uc t ur e,andor gani z at i onal c ul t ur e t hatl eadt opr oc es ses .Thes ev ar i abl essett hes t agef orwhatwi l l oc curi nan or gani z at i onl at er .
5
2.Pr oc es s es–ac t i onst hati ndi v i dual s ,gr oups ,andor gani z at i onsengagei nasa r es ul tofi nput sandt hatl eadt oc er t ai nout c omes .Atani ndi v i dual l ev el , pr oc es s esi nc l ud ee mot i o nsa ndmoods ,mot i v a t i on,per c ept i on,anddec i s i on mak i ng.Atgr oupl ev el ,t he yi nc l udec ommuni c at i on,l eader s hi p,powerand pol i t i c s,andc onfl i c tandnegot i at i on.Ator gani z at i onal l ev el ,pr oc es s esi nc l ude humanr esour cemanagementandchangepr act i ces. 3.Out c omes–t hek eyv ar i abl est haty ouwantt oe xpl ai norpr edi c t ,t hatar eaff ec t ed bys omeot herv ar i abl es .Sc hol ar sha v eemphas i z edi ndi v i dual l ev el out c omes , s uc hasat t i t udesands t r es s,t as kper f or manc e,c i t i z ens hi pbehav i or ,and wi t hdr awal behav i or .Att hegr oupl ev el ,c ohes i onandf unc t i oni ngar et he dependentv ar i abl es .Ator gani z at i onal l ev el ,wel ookatov er al l pr oduc t i v i t yand s ur v i v al . St r es si sanunpl eas antps y c hol ogi c al pr oc es st hatoc c ur si nr es pons et oenv i r onment al p r o c e s s e s . T as kper f or manc ei st hec ombi nat i onofeff ec t i v e nes sandeffic i enc yatdo i ngc or ej ob t as ks . Or gani z at i onal c i t i z ens hi pbehav i or( OCB)i st hedi s cr et i onar ybehav i ort hatc ont r i but es t ot heps y chol ogi c al ands oc i al env i r onmentoft hewor k pl ac e.Suc ces sf ul or gani z at i ons h av ee mp l o y ee st ha tp r o v i d ep er f or ma nc eb ey o nde x pec t a t i on s .OBi sc on c er n edwi t h c i t i z ens hi pbeha vi orasanout c omev ar i abl e. Wi t hdr awal beha vi orr ef er st ot hes etofac t i onsempl o y eest ak et os epar at et hems el v es f r om t heor g ani z at i on.Ther ear eman yf or msofwi t hdr a wal ,r angi n gf r om s ho wi ngu p l at eorf ai l i ngt oat t endmeet i ngst oabs ent eei s m andt ur nov er .T ur nov eri nc l udes v ol unt ar yt er mi nat i onbyt heempl oy ee,i nv ol unt ar yt er mi nat i onsbyt heempl oy erwi t hout c aus e( l ay offsanddi s char ges ) ,andot hers epar at i onsi nc l udi ngi nv ol unt ar yt er mi nat i ons wi t hc aus e( fi r i ng) . Gr o upc o he s i oni st h ee x t e ntt owh i c hme mb er sofagr ou ps u pp or ta ndv a l i da t eon a no t h erwh i l ea two r k .Coh es i v egr o up sar emo r eeff ec t i v east h eys e ekc o mmo ng oa l s , wor kt oget hert oac hi ev et hes eet c . 6
Gr oupf unc t i oni ngi st hequant i t yandqual i t yofagr oup’ swor kout put . Pr oduc t i v i t yi st hec ombi nat i onofeffec t i v enes sandeffic i enc yofanor gani z at i on. Effec t i v enes si st hedegr eet owhi c hanor gani z at i onmeet st heneedsofi t sc l i ent el eor c us t omer s .Effic i enc yi st hede gr eet owh i c hanor g ani z at i onc anac hi e v ei t sendsata l owc os t .Popul armeas ur esofeffic i enc yi nc l uder et ur noni nv es t ment ,pr ofi tperdol l arof s al es ,andout putperhourofl abor . Or gani z at i onal s ur v i v al i st hedegr eet owhi c hanor gani z at i oni sabl et oex i s tandgr ow ov ert hel ongt er m.Thesur v i v al ofanor gani z at i ondependsonhowpr oduc t i v et he or gani z at i oni s ,andonhowwel l i tfi t si t senv i r onment .Thati nc l udespr oduc t i v el y mak i ngg oodsands er v i c es ,per c ei v i ngt hemar k e ts uc c es s f ul l y ,mak i ngg ooddec i s i ons a bo utho wa ndwh ent op ur s u eo pp or t u ni t i e s ,a nds u cc e s s f u l l yma na gi n gc h an get o adap tt one w bus i nes sc ondi t i ons .
7
Cha pt e r2Di v er si t yi nOr ga ni z a t i ons Ther ear es ev er al l ev el sofdi v er s i t yi nanor gani z at i on: 1.Sur f ac el ev el di v er s i t y–di ffer enc esi neas i l yper c ei v edc har ac t er i s t i c s,s uc has r ac e,gender ,et hni c i t y ,age,ordi s abi l i t y ,t hatdonotnec es sar i l yr efl ec tt heway s peopl et hi nkorf eel butt hatmayac t i v at ec er t ai ns t er eot y pes . 2.Deepl ev el di v er s i t y–di ffer enc esi nv al ues ,per s onal i t y ,andwor kpr ef er enc es t hatbec omepr ogr es si v el ymor ei mpor t antf ordet er mi ni ngs i mi l ar i t yaspeopl e gett oknowoneanot herbet t er . Di v er s i t yi sani mpor t antc onc epti nOBs i nc ei ndi v i dual di ff er enc esshapepr ef er enc es f orr ewar ds ,c ommuni c at i ons t y l es ,r eac t i onst ol eader s ,negot i at i ons t y l es ,andmany ot heras pec t sofbeha vi ori nor gani z at i ons .Di v er s i t ymanagementi nc l udeswor k i ngt o el i mi nat eunf ai rdi s cr i mi nat i on.Di s cr i mi nat i oni st henot i ngofadi ffer enc ebet ween t hi ngs ;of t enwer ef ert ounf ai rdi s c r i mi nat i on,whi c hmeansmak i ngj udgement sabout i ndi v i dual sbas edons t er eot y pesr egar di ngt hei rdemogr aphi cgr oup.St er eot y pi ngi s j udgi ngs omeoneont hebas i sofourper c ept i onoft hegr oupt owhi c ht hatper s on bel ongs .St er eot y pet hr eati ft hedegr eet owhi c hwei nt er nal l yagr eewi t ht hegener al l y negat i v es t er eot y pedper c ept i onsofourgr oups .Whenpeopl ef eel as t er eot y pet hr eat , t heyma yunc ons c i ous l yex agger at et hes t er eot y pe,f ore xampl eanol derj obappl i c ant whot al k saboutagi ng,r ambl esdur i ngt hec onv er s at i on,anddi s c l os est oomuc h. Sec ond,t heymayov er i dent i f ywi t ht hes t er eot y pe,andt hi r d,peopl emayov er c ompens at ef ort hes t er eo t y pet he yf eel .Empl o y eeswhof ee las t er eo t y pet hr eatma y hav el owerper f or manc e,l owers at i s f ac t i on,negat i v ej obat t i t udes ,dec r eas ed engagement ,dec r eas edmot i v a t i on,hi gherabs ent eei s m,mor eheal t hi s s ues ,and hi ghert ur nov eri nt ent i ons . Thef ol l owi ngor gani z at i onal c hangesc anbesuc ces sf ul i nr educ i ngs t er eot y pet hr eat : -
I ncr easi ngawar enessofhowst er eot ypesmaybeper pet uat ed 8
-
Re du ci n gd i ff er e nt i a la ndpr ef e r e nt i a lt r e at me ntt hr ou gho bj ec t i v ea s s es s me nt s
-
Banni ngs t er eot y pedpr ac t i c esandmes s ages
-
Co nf r o nt i n gmi c r o a gg r e s s i o nsa g ai n s tmi n or i t yg r o up s
-
Ad op t i n gt r an s pa r e ntp r a c t i c est h ats i g na lt h ev a l ueofa l l empl o y ee s For msofdi s cr i mi nat i on
T y peofdi s c r i mi nat i on
De fi ni t i on
Ex ampl esf r om or gani z at i ons
Di s cr i mi nat or ypol i c i esor
Ac t i onst ak e nb y
Ol d erwo r k e r sma yb e
pr ac t i c es
r epr es ent at i v esoft he
t ar get edf orl ay offs
or gani z at i ont hatdeny
bec aus et he yar ehi g hl y
equal oppor t uni t yt o
pai dandha v el uc r at i v e
p er f o r m orun equ al
b en efi t s .
r e war dsf orper f or manc e. Sex ual har as s ment
Unwant eds ex ual
Sa l e s pe op l eato ne
a dv a nc e sa ndo t h erv e r b al c ompanywentc ompany orphy s i c al c onduc tofa
pai dv i s i t st os t r i pc l ubs ,
s ex ual nat ur et hatc r eat ea br oughts t r i pper si nt ot he hos t i l eoroffens i v ewor k
offic et oc el ebr at e
e nv i r o nmen t .
pr omot i ons ,andf os t er ed per v as i v es ex ual r umor s .
I nt i mi dat i on
Ov er tt hr eat sorbul l y i ng
Af r i c anAmer i c an
di r ec t edatmember so f
empl oy eesatsome
s pec i fi cgr oupsof
c o mp an i e sh a v ef o un d
empl oyees.
noos esha ngi ngo v ert hei r wor ks t at i ons .
Moc k er yan di ns ul t s
J ok esorne gat i v e
Ar a bAme r i c a n sh av eb e en
s t er eo t y pes ;s ome t i mes
a s k e da two r kwh et h er
t her es ul tofj ok est ak en
t he ywer ec ar r y i ngbobsor
t oof ar .
wer emember soft er r or i s t or gani z at i ons .
Ex c l us i on
Ex c l us i onofc er t ai npeopl e Manywomeni nfi nanc e f r om j oboppor t uni t i es ,
c l ai mt he yar eas s i gnedt o
9
s oc i al ev ent s ,di s cus si ons , mar gi nal j obr ol esorar e ori nf or mal ment or i ng;c an gi v enl i ghtwor k l oadst hat I nc i v i l i t y
oc curuni nt ent i onal l y .
don’ tl oadt opr omot i on.
Di s r es pec t f ul t r eat ment ,
Fema l el a wy e r sno t et hat
i nc l udi ngbeha vi ngi nan
mal eat t or ney sf r equent l y
a ggr e s s i v ema nn er ,
c utt h em o ffo rd ono t
i nt er r upt i ngt heper s on,or adequat el yaddr es st hei r i gnor i nghi sorher
c omment s .
opi ni ons . Bi ogr aphi c al c har ac t er i s t i c sar eper s onal c har ac t er i s t i c ss uc hasage,gender ,r ac e,and l engt hoft enur et hatar eobj ec t i v eandeas i l yobt ai nedf r om per s onnel r ec or ds .Thes e c har ac t er i s t i c sar er epr es ent at i v eofs ur f ac el ev el di v er s i t y . Sur f ac el ev el di v er s i t yoc c ur si nt hef ol l owi ngas pec t s : ( i )
Age
I nt er msoft ur nov er ,t heol dery ouar e,t hel es sl i k el yy ouar et oqui ty ourj ob.Aswor k er s getol der ,t heyhav ef eweral t er nat ej oboppor t uni t i esbec aus et hei rs ki l l shav ebec ome mor es pec i al i z ed.Wi t hi nor gani z at i ons ,ol derwor k er s ’ l ongert enur et endst opr ov i de t hem wi t hhi gherwages ,l ongerpai dv ac at i ons ,andbenefi t st hatma ybi ndt hem t ot hei r e mp l o y ee s.Ol d erwor k e r sha v el o we rr a t e sofa v oi d ab l ea bs en c ev e r s u sy o un ge r empl o y ees .Al s o,o l derempl o y eesd ono tha v emor eps y c hol ogi c al pr obl emso rd ay t oda yph ys i c al heal t hpr obl emst hany oungerwor k er s .Res ear c hs hows‘ v i r t ual l yno r el at i ons hi pbe t weena geandj obper f or manc e’ . ( i i )
Se x
Fe w,i fa ny ,d i ff er e nc e sbe t we enme na ndwo me na ffe c tj o bp er f o r ma nc e ,a l t h ou ghme n hav es l i ght l yhi ghermat habi l i t yandwomens l i ght l yhi gherv er bal abi l i t y .Amet aanal y s i sofl eader s hi ps t udi esi ndi c at edt hatwomenandmenar er at edequal l yeff ec t i v e a sl ea de r s .Ho we v er ,ma na ge r sar eo f t eni n fl ue nc e db yge nd erb i a swh ens e l e ct i n g c andi dat esf orc er t ai npos i t i ons .Onc eont hej ob,womenar el es sl i k el yt obeas si gned c hal l en gi ngpos i t i onsbymen,as s i gnment st hatc oul dhel pt hem ac hi e v ehi gher or gani z at i onal pos i t i ons .
10
Se xdi s c r i mi nat i onhasaper v a si v eneg at i v ei mpac t ,aswomens t i l l e ar nl es smone y t hanmenf ort hes amepos i t i ons .Mor eo v er ,menar emor el i k e l yt obec hos enf or l eader s hi pr ol es . Wor k i ngmot her sal s of ac e‘ mat er nal wal l bi as ’ meani ngt he yof t enar enotc ons i der ed f orne wp os i t i o nsa f t ert he yha v ec hi l dr en,a ndbo t hmenandwomenex per i e nc e di s c r i mi nat i onf ort hei rf ami l yc ar egi v i ngr ol es . ( i i i )
Ra c ean dEt h ni c i t y
Rac ei st heher i t agepeopl eus et oi dent i f yt hems el v es ;et hni c i t yi st headdi t i onal s etof c ul t ur al c har ac t er i s t i c st hatof t enov er l apswi t hr ac e. I ndi v i dual smaysl i ght l yf av orc ol l eaguesoft hei rownr ac ei nper f or manc eev al uat i ons , pr omot i ondec i s i ons ,andpa yr ai s es . Member sofr ac i al andet hni cmi nor i t i esr epor thi gherl ev el sofdi s cr i mi nat i oni nt he wor k pl ac e. Ani ndi v i dual ormi nor i t yi smuc hl es sl i k el yt ol eav et heor gani z at i oni ft her ei saf eel i ng ofi nc l us i v enes sandac cept anc eofdi v er s i t y ,k nownaspos i t i v edi v er s i t yc l i mat e. ( i v ) Di s abi l i t i es Ap er s oni sdi s abl edwhenheors hehasan yph y si c al orment al i mpai r mentt hat s ubs t ant i al l yl i mi t soneormor emaj orl i f eac t i v i t i es .Ex ampl esofr ec ogni z eddi s abi l i t i es i nc l udedo wns y ndr ome,s ei z ur edi s or der ,mi s s i ngl i mbs ,deaf nes s ,s c hi z ophr eni a, al c ohol i s m,di abet es ,depr es s i on,andc hr oni cbac kpai n.Thes ec ondi t i onss har eal mos t noc ommonf eat ur es ,s ot her e ’ snos pec i fi cdefi ni t i onaboutho w eac hc ond i t i oni s r e l a t e dt oemp l o y me nt .Th eADAr e qui r ese mp l o y er st oma k er e as on ab l e ac commodat i onsf orpeopl ewi t hps yc hi at r i cdi s abi l i t i es ,buti tdoesnots pec i f yf orev er y c ondi t i on. I ndi v i dual swi t hdi s abi l i t i est endt oenc ount erl owerper f or manc eex pec t at i onsandar e l es sl i k el yt obehi r ed.Ment al di s abi l i t i esmayi mpai rper f or manc emor et hanphy s i c al di s abi l i t i es . ( v )
Hi d de nd i s a b i l i t i e s
Hi dden,ori nv i s i bl e,di s abi l i t i esgener al l yf al l undert hec at egor i esofs ens or ydi s abi l i t i es ( e. g.i mpai r edhear i ng) ,aut oi mmunedi s or der s( l i k er heumat oi dar t hr i t i s ) ,c hr oni ci l l nes s orpai n( l i k ec ar pal t unnel s yndr ome) ,c ogni t i v eorl ear ni ngi mpai r ment s( l i k eADHD) , s l eepdi s or der s( l i k ei ns omni a) ,andps y chol ogi c al c hal l enges( l i k ePTSD) .
11
Or g an i z at i o nsar ee x pec t e dt oa c c ommo da t ef o rabr o adr an geo fi mp ai r me nt s , howev er ,empl o y eesmus tdi s c l os et hei rc ondi t i onst ot hei rempl o y er si nor dert obe el i gi bl ef orwor k pl ac eac c ommodat i onsa ndempl o y mentpr o t ec t i on.Butman y empl oy eesdonotwantt odi s cl os et hei ri nv i s i bl edi s abi l i t i es ,t heyar epr ev ent edf r om get t i ngt hewor k pl ac eac commodat i onst heyneedi nor dert ot hr i v ei nt hei rj obs .Thi si s bec aus eof t eni ndi v i dual swi t hhi ddendi s abi l i t i esar eaf r ai dofbei ngs t i gmat i z edor os t r ac i z edi ft heydi s cl os et hei rabi l i t i est oot her si nt hewor k pl ac e,andt heybel i ev et hei r manager swi l l t hi nkt he yar el es sc apabl eofs t r ongj obper f or manc e. Thef ol l owi ngc har ac t er i s t i c sr epr es entdeepl ev el di ffer enc est hatpr ov i deoppor t uni t i es f orwor k pl ac edi v er s i t y : ( i )
T enur e
T enur ei st het i mes penti naj ob,or gani z at i on,orfi el d.Ev i denc edemons t r at esa pos i t i v er el at i ons hi pbet weens eni or i t y( t i meonapar t i c ul arj ob)andj obpr oduc t i v i t y . T enur eappear st obeagoodpr edi c t orofempl o y eepr oduc t i v i t y , butmor es of or r el at i v el ynewori ne xper i enc edwor k er st hanf orol der ,e xper i enc edempl o y ees . ( i i )
Rel i gi on
Fai t hc anbeanempl o ymenti s s uewher ev err el i gi ousbel i ef spr ohi bi torenc our age c er t ai nbeha vi or s .Thebeha vi or al ex pec t at i onsc anbei nf or mal ,s uc hasempl o y ees l e av i ngwor ke ar l yo nChr i s t masEv e .Ort h eyma ybes y s t e mi c ,s uc hast h eMo nd ayt o Fr i da ywor k week ,whi c hac c ommo dat esaChr i s t i ant r adi t i onofno twor k i ngonSun da y s andaJ ewi s ht r adi t i onofnotwor k i ngonSat ur day s .Rel i gi ousi ndi v i dual smayal s o bel i ev et heyhav eanobl i gat i ont oex pr es st hei rbel i ef si nt hewor k pl ac e,andt hos ewho donots har et hos ebel i ef sma yobj ec t . ( i i i )
Se x ual Or i ent at i onandGe nderI dent i t y
Wh i l emu c hh asc ha ng ed ,t h ef u l l a c c ep t a nc ean da c c ommo da t i ono fl e s bi a n,g ay , bi s e xual ,andt r ans ge nder( L GBT)empl o y eesr emai nsawor ki npr ogr es s .Asar es ul tof per c ei v eddi s c r i mi nat i on,man yLGBTempl oy eesdonotdi s c l os et hei rs t at us .TheU. S. f eder al l a w doesnotpr ohi bi tagai ns tdi s c r i mi nat i onagai ns templ o y eesbas edons ex ual or i ent at i on,buts omes t at esandmuni c i pal i t i esdo.Howev er ,ast hedi s t i nc t i onsi nt hes e l a wsma yn o tb eb r o aden ou gh ,r e s e ar c h e r sh a v eac k n o wl e dg edan e wa c r o n y m,
12
QUI L TBAG,t odes c r i bei ndi v i dual swhoar equeer / ques t i oni ng,undec i ded,i nt er s ex , l es bi an,t r ans gender ,bi s ex ual ,as ex ual ,orgay . ( i v ) Cu l t ur al I dent i t y Manypeopl ec ar r yas t r ongc ul t ur al i dent i t y ,al i nkwi t ht hec ul t ur eoff ami l yanc es t r yor y out ht hatl as t sal i f et i me,nomat t erwher et hei ndi v i dual mayl i v ei nt hewor l d.Cul t ur al nor msi nfl uenc et hewor k pl ac e,s omet i mesr es ul t i ngi ncl as hes ,t her ef or e,or gani z at i ons mus tadapt .Anor gani z at i ons eek i ngt obes ens i t i v et ot hec ul t ur al i dent i t i esofi t s e mp l o y ee ss h ou l dl o okbe y onda cc o mmo da t i n gi t sma j o r i t ygr o up sa ndi n s t e adc r e at e asmuc hofa ni ndi v i d ual i z edappr oac ht opr ac t i c esandnor msaspos s i bl e. Abi l i t yi sani ndi v i dual ’ sc ur r entc apac i t yt oper f or mt hev ar i oust as ksi naj ob.Ov er al l abi l i t i esar ees sent i al l ymadeupoft wos et soff ac t or s : ( 1 )I nt el l ec t ual abi l i t i es I nt el l ec t ual abi l i t i esar eneededt oper f or m ment al ac t i v i t i es ;t hi nk i ng,r eas oni ng,and pr obl em s ol v i ng.I Qt es t sar edes i gnedt oas cer t ai naper s on’ sgener al i nt el l ec t ual abi l i t i es ,butt heor i gi ns ,i nfl uenc ef ac t or s ,andt es t i ngofi nt el l i genc equot i ent( I Q)ar e c ont r ov er s i al . Thesev enmos tf r equent l yc i t eddi mens i onsmak i ngupi nt el l ec t ual abi l i t i esar enumber apt i t ude,v er bal c ompr ehens i on,per c ept ual s peed,i nduc t i v er eas oni ng,deduc t i v e r eas oni ng,s pat i al v i s ual i z at i on,andmemor y . Thes es ev e ndi mens i onha v ehi gh c or r el at i ons ,s oi fy ouper f or m wel l ononedi mens i on,y ou’ r emor el i k el yt os cor ewel l on ano t herd i mens i on. Res ear c her sr ec ogni z eagener al f ac t orofi nt el l i genc e,gener al ment al abi l i t y( GMA) . Ev i denc es uppor t st hei deat hatt hes t r uc t ur esandmeas ur esofi nt el l ec t ual abi l i t i es gener al i z eac r os sc ul t ur es . ( 2)Phy s i c al abi l i t i es Phy si c al abi l i t i esr ef ert ot hec apac i t yt odot as k st hatdemands t ami na,dex t er i t y( s ki l l i n gr ac ei nphy s i c al mov ement ) ,s t r engt h,ands i mi l arc har ac t er i s t i c s.Res ear c hhas i dent i fi edni nebas i cabi l i t i esneededi nt heper f or manc eofphy s i c al t as ks : 1.St r engt hf ac t or s ,i nc l udi ngdy nami cs t r engt h,t r unks t r engt h,s t at i cs t r engt h, ex pl os i v es t r engt h. 2.Fl ex i bi l i t yf ac t or s ,i nc l udi ngex t entfl ex i bi l i t y ,anddy nami cfl ex i bi l i t y . 3.Ot herf ac t or s ,i nc l udi ngbodycoor di nat i on,bal anc e,ands t ami na. 13
Di v e r s i t yma n ag eme nti st h ep r o c e s san dp r o gr a msb ywh i c hma na ge r sma k eev e r y o n e mor eawar eofandsens i t i v et ot heneedsan ddi ff er enc esofo t her s .Ame t hodof enhanc i ngwor k f or c edi v er s i t yi st ot ar getr ec r ui t mentmes s agest os pec i fi cdemogr aphi c g r o upst h ata r eun de r r e pr e s en t edi nt h ewo r k f or c e .Re s ea r c hh ass ho wnt h atwo me n andmi nor i t i eshav egr eat eri nt er es ti nempl oy er st hatmak es pec i al effor t st ohi ghl i ghta c ommi t mentt odi v er s i t yi nt hei rr ec r ui t i ngmat er i al s .Di v er s i t yadv er t i s ement st hatf ai l t o s howwomenandmi nor i t i esi npos i t i onsofor gani z at i onal l eader s hi ps endanegat i v e mes s ageaboutt hedi v er s i t ycl i mat eatanor gani z at i on. Dur i nggr oupwor kwi t hadi v er s egr oup,t hemos ti mpor t antf ac t ori st oemphas i z e s i mi l a r i t i e samo ngme mb er s .Ma na ge r swh oemph as i z ehi g he r o r d erg oa l sa ndv al u es i nt hei rl eader s hi ps t y l ear eoreffec t i v ei nmanagi ngdi v er s et eams . Eff ec t i v e,c ompr ehens i v ewor k f or c epr ogr amsenc our agi ngdi v er s i t yha v et hr eedi s t i nc t component s: 1 .Th eyt e ac hma na ge r sa bo utt h el e ga lf r a me wo r kf o re qu al e mp l o y me nt oppor t uni t yandenc our agef ai rt r eat mentofal l peopl er egar dl es soft hei r demogr aphi cc har ac t er i s t i c s. 2.Th eyt ea c hma na ge r sho w ad i v e r s ewor k f o r c ewi l l b eb et t e ra bl et os e r v ea di v er s emar k etofc us t omer sandc l i ent s . 3.Theyf os t erper s onal dev el opmentpr ac t i c est hatbr i ngoutt hes ki l l sandabi l i t i es ofal l wor k er s ,ac k nowl edgi nghowdi ff er enc esi nper s pec t i v ec anbeav al uabl e wa yt oi mp r o v ep er f or ma nc ef o re v er y o ne .
14
Cha pt e r3At t i t ude sa ndJ obSa t i s f a ct i on At t i t udesar ec ompl exev al uat i v es t at ement sorj udgement s ei t herf av or abl eor unf a vor abl eaboutobj ec t s ,peopl e,orev ent s .The yr efl ec thowwef eel abouts omet hi ng. T y pi c al l y , r es ear c her sas s umeat t i t udesha v et hr eecomponent s : 1.Cogni t i v ec omponent–ades cr i pt i onoforbel i efi nt hewayt hi ngsar e.I ts et st he s t agef ort hemor ec r i t i c al par tofanat t i t ude: 2.Aff ec t i v ec omponent-t heemo t i onal orf eel i ngsegmentofa nat t i t ude. 3 .Be ha v i o r a lc o mp on en t–ani n t e nt i o nt obe ha v eac e r t a i nwa yt o wa r ds ome on eo r s o me t h i n g. At t i t ude sandBe ha v i or Doat t i t udesdet er mi nehowpeopl ebehav e,ordoat t i t udesf ol l o w beha vi or ? Cas esofat t i t udef ol l owi ngbehav i ori l l us t r at et heeffec tofc ogni t i v edi s sonanc e, c ont r adi c t i onsi ndi v i dual smi ghtper c ei v ebet weent hei rat t i t udesandt hei rbehav i or . Peopl es eekc ons i s t enc yamongt hei rat t i t udes ,andbet weent hei rat t i t udesandt hei r behav i or .Anyf or m ofi nc ons i s t enc yi sunc omf or t abl e,andi ndi v i dual swi l l t her ef or e at t emptt or educ ei t .Peopl es eekas t abl es t at e,whi c hi sami ni mum ofdi s s onanc e. Whendi s sonanc edoesoc cur ,peopl ewi l l al t erei t hert heat t i t udesort hebehav i or ,or t heywi l l dev el opar at i onal i z at i onf ort hedi s cr epanc y .E. g. ,r es ear c hhasf oundt hatt he at t i t udesofempl o y eeswhohademot i onal l yc hal l engi ngwor kev ent si mpr o v edaf t er t heyt al k edaboutt hei re xper i enc eswi t hc owor k er s .Soc i al s har i nghel pedt hes ewor k er s adj us tt hei rat t i t udest obehav i or al ex pec t at i on.
15
Thedes i r et or educ edi s s onanc edependsont hr eef ac t or s : 1.Th ei mp or t an c eo ft h ee l e me nt sc r e at i n gd i s s on an ce 2.Th ed eg r e eofi n flu enc ewebe l i e v et h atweha v eov e re l e me nt sc r e at i n g d i s s o nan c e 3 .Th er e wa r d sofd i s s o na nc e ;h i g hr e wa r d sa c c omp an y i n gh i g hd i s s o na nc et e ndt o r educ et ens i oni nher enti nt hedi s s onanc e Themos ti mpor t antmoder at or soft heat t i t udesr el at i ons hi par e: 1.Thei mpor t anc eoft heat t i t ude.I mpor t antat t i t udesr efl ec tourf undament al v al ues ,s el f i nt er es t ,ori dent i fi cat i onwi t hi ndi v i dual sorgr oupswev al ue;t hes e t endt os howas t r ongr el at i ons hi pt oourbehav i or . 2.I t sc o r r e s po nd en c et obeh av i o r 3.I t sac ces si bi l i t y 4.Th ep r e s en c eo fs o c i a lpr e s s ur e s 5.Whe t heraper s onhasdi r ec te x per i enc ewi t ht heat t i t ude. Di s c r epa nc i esbe t weenat t i t udesandbeha v i or st endt ooc c urwhens oc i a lpr es s ur est o beha v ei nac er t ai nwa yshol dex c ept i onal power ,asi nmos tor gani z at i ons .We ’ r emor e l i k el yt or ememberat t i t udeswef r equent l ye xpr es s ,andat t i t udest hatourmemor i escan eas i l yac ces sar emor el i k el yt opr edi c tourbehav i or . J obAt t i t udes Muc hofr es ear c hr egar di ngj obat t i t udeshasl ook edatt hr eeat t i t udes : 1.J obs at i s f ac t i on–apos i t i v ef eel i ngaboutone’ sj obr es ul t i ngf r om anev al uat i on ofi t schar ac t er i s t i c s . 2.J obi nv ol v ement–t hedegr eet owhi c haper s oni dent i fi eswi t haj ob,ac t i v el y par t i c i pat esi ni t ,andc ons i der sper f or manc ei mpor t antt os el f wor t h.Ac l os el y r el at edc onc epti sps y c hol ogi c al empo wer ment–t hedegr eet owhi c ht he y i nfl uenc et hei rwor kenv i r onment ,t hei rc ompet enc i es ,t hemeani ngf ul nes soft hei r j ob,andt hei rper c ei v edaut onomy .Res ear c hs ugges t st hatempower ment i ni t i at i v esneedt obet ai l or edt odes i r edbehav i or al out c omesandt hatgood l eader sempowert hei rempl oy eesbyf os t er i ngt hei rs el f per c ept i onof c ompet enc et hr oughi n vol v i ngt hem i ndec i s i ons ,mak i ngt hem f eel t hei rwor ki s i mpor t ant ,andgi v i ngt hem di s cr et i ont o‘ dot hei rownt hi ng’ .
16
3.Or g an i z at i o na lc ommi t me nt–t h ed eg r e et owh i c hanemp l o y eei d en t i fi e swi t ha par t i c ul aror gani z at i onandi t sgoal sandwi s hest omai nt ai nmember s hi pi nt he or gani z at i on.Empl o y eeswhoar ec ommi t t edar el es sl i k e l yt oeng agei nwor k wi t houtwi t hdr awal ev eni ft he yar edi s s at i s fi edbec aus et heyha v eas ens epf or gani z at i onal l oy al t yorat t ac hment . Per c ei v e dor g ani z at i onal s uppor t( POS)i st hedegr eet owhi c hempl o y eesbel i e v et he or gani z at i onv al uest hei rc ont r i but i onsandc ar esaboutt hei rwel l bei ng.Peopl eper c ei v e a no r g an i z a t i o nass u ppo r t i v ewh enr e wa r dsa r ede emedf a i r ,whe nempl o y ee sha v ea v oi c ei ndec i s i ons ,andwhent he ys eet hei rs uper v i s or sass uppor t i v e.POSi si mpor t ant i nc ount r i eswher et hepowerdi s t anc ei sl ower .Thepowerdi s t anc ei st hedegr eet o whi c hpeopl ei nac ount r yac ceptt hatpoweri ni ns t i t ut i onsandor gani z at i onsi s di s t r i but edunequal l y . Empl oy eeengagementi sani ndi v i dual ’ si nv ol v ementwi t h,s at i s f ac t i onwi t h,and e nt h us i a s mf o rt h ewor kheors hedo es .As t u dyonn ea r l y800 0b us i n es suni t sf o un d t hatuni t swhos eempl o y eesr epor t edhi gha v er agel e v el so fe ngagementac hi e v ed hi gherl ev el sofc us t omers at i s f ac t i on,wer emor epr oduc t i v e,br oughti nhi gherpr ofi t s , ande xper i enc edl owerl ev el soft ur no v erandac c i dent st hanatot herbus i nes suni t s . Th ec on c ep to fempl o y eee ng ag eme ntg ene r a t e sac t i v ed eba t ea bo uti t sus e f u l n es s , par t l ybec aus eoft hedi ffic ul t yofi dent i f y i ngwhatc r eat esj obengagement .Thet opt wo r eas onsf orj obengagementt hatpar t i c i pant si nones t udygav er ec ent l ywer e: 1 .Ha v i n gago odma na ge r ,t h eye nj o ywo r k i n gf o r 2.Feel i ngappr ec i at edbyt hei rs uper v i s or . Gener al l y ,i nt er es t i ngj obst hatpr ov i det r ai ni ng,v ar i et y ,i ndependenc e,andc ont r ol s at i s f ymos templ oy ees .I nt er dependenc e,f eedbac k,s oc i al s uppor t ,andi nt er ac t i onwi t h c owor k er sout s i det hewor k pl ac ear eal s os t r ongl yr el at edt oj obs at i s f ac t i on,ev enaf t er ac count i ngf orc har ac t er i s t i c soft hewor ki t s el f .Thus ,j obc ondi t i ons es pec i al l yt he i nt r i ns i cnat ur eoft hewor ki t s el f ,s oc i al i nt er ac t i ons ,ands uper v i s i on-ar ei mpor t ant pr edi c t or sofj obs at i s f ac t i on.
17
Chapt er4Emot i onsandMoods I nt heanal y s i sofemot i onsandmoodsweneedt hr eet er mst hatar ec l os el yi nt er t wi ned: ( 1)Aff ec t–br oadr angeoff eel i ngst hatpeopl ee xper i enc e,i nc l udi ngbot hemot i ons andmoods .
18
( 2)Emot i ons–i nt ens ef eel i ngsdi r ec t edats omeoneors omet hi ng.Mor el i k el yt obe c aus edb yas pec i fi cev e ntan dar emor ebr i efi ndur at i ont hanmoods .Us ual l y ac compani edbydi s t i nc tf ac i al ex pr es si ons ;ac t i onor i ent edi nnat ur e ( 3)Moods–l es si nt ens ef eel i ngst hanemot i onsandof t enar i s ewi t houtaspec i fi c ev entac t i ng.Gener al l ynoti ndi c at edbydi s t i nc tex pr es si ons ;c ogni t i v ei nnat ur e. I ti smor egener al ;t her ear et wodi mens i ons -pos i t i v eaff ec tandnegat i v eaff ec t 0 t hatar ec ompos edofmul t i pl es pec i fi cemo t i ons .Caus ei sof t engener al and unc l ear . Cu l t ur e sha v eno r mst h atg ov e r nemo t i on al e x pr es s i o n,s ot h ewa ywee x pe r i en c ea n emot i oni s n’ tal wa yst hes ameast hewa ywes howi t .Thi s ,andt hef ac tt hate. g. v oc al i z at i onofemot i onsi snotuni v er s al ,mak esi tdi ffic ul tt odi s t i ngui s ht hebas i c emot i ons .Howev er ,r es ear c her sha v eagr eedons i xuni v er s al emot i ons :anger ,f ear , s adnes s,happi nes s,di s gus t ,ands ur pr i s e. Oure xper i enc esofemot i onsar ec l os el yt i edt oouri nt er pr et at i onsofev ent s .Mor al emot i onsar eemot i onst hatha v emor al i mpl i c at i ons .Thi si st hec as ebec aus eofour i ns t antj udgmentoft hes i t uat i ont hatev ok est hem.Ane xampl ei ss ympat h yf ort he s uffer i ngofot her s .Mor al di s gus ti st hedi s gus twef eel aboutt hev i ol at i onsofmor al nor ms .Res ear c hi ndi c at est hatourr es pons est omor al emo t i onsdi ff erf r om our r es pons est oot heremot i ons .Fore x ampl e,i nas i t uat i onwher emor al angeri sev ok ed, wemi ghtbemor el i k el yt oc onf r ontt hes i t uat i ont hatc aus esi tt hanwhenwej us tf eel angr y .Mor al emot i onsar el ear ned,us ual l yi nc hi l dhood,s ot heyar enotuni v er s al l i k e i nnat eemot i ons .Al s o,mor al i t yi sac ons t r uc tt hatdi ffer sbet weenc ul t ur es ,s omor al emo t i onsdoaswel l . Emot i onsc anbecl as s i fi edi nt ot woc at egor i es : ( i )
Po s i t i v ee mo t i o ns>p os i t i v ea ffe c ti samo odd i me ns i o nt ha tc o ns i s t sof s pec i fi cpos i t i v eemot i onss uc hase x ci t ement ,ent hus i as m,andel at i onatt he
( i i )
h i g he nd . Ne ga t i v eemo t i o ns>n eg at i v eaff ec ti samo oddi me ns i o nt h atc o ns i s to f emo t i onss uc hasner v ous nes s ,s t r es s ,an danx i e t yatt hehi ghend.
19
Be c au s ewegr o upt he mi n t opo s i t i v ean dn eg at i v ec at e go r i e s ,t h eyb ec omemo od s t at es( wel ookatt hem mor egener al l y ) . Ev er y o nee x per i enc esmoodsandemot i onsdi ff er ent l y . Res ear c hfi ndsapos i t i v i t y offs et ,meani ngt hatatz er oi nput( whennot hi ngi npar t i c ul ari sgoi ngon) ,mos t i ndi v i dual sex per i enc eami l dl ypos i t i v emood.Ani ndi v i dual ’ sex per i enc eofemot i ons appear st obec ul t ur al l ys haped.Somec ul t ur esv ar yc er t ai nemot i onsmor et hanot her s , wh i c hl eadst oac hangei nper s pec t i v eonex per i e nc i ngt hes eemo t i ons .J apanand Rus s i aembr ac enegat i v eemo t i ons ,whi l eMe x i c oandBr az i l emphas i z epos i t i v e emo t i onsande x pr es s i ons .Ther ema yal s obeadi ff er enc ei nt hev a l u eofneg at i v e emot i onsbet weenc ol l ec t i v i s tandi ndi v i dual i s tc ount r i es . Emot i onsc anenhanc eper f or manc ei nt woc r i t i c al ar eas : ( i )
Ra t i o na l i t y–Ou re mo t i o nspr o v i d ei mp or t a nti n f o r ma t i o na bo uth owwe
( i i )
under s t andt hewor l dar oundusan dt he yh el pg ui deourb eha v i or s . Et hi c al i t y–St udi ess ugges tt hatmor al j udgment sar el ar gel yb as edon f eel i ngsr at hert hanc ogni t i on,ev ent houghwet endt os eeourmor al boundar i esasl ogi c al andr eas onabl e.T os omedegr ee,ourbel i ef sar e ac t ual l ys hapedbyourgr oups ,whi c hi nfl uenc eourper c ept i onsofot her s , r es ul t i ngi nunc ons c i ousr es pons esandaf eel i ngt hatours har edemot i ons ar e‘ r i ght ’ .Unf or t unat el y ,t hi sf eel i ngal l owsust oj us t i f ypur el yemot i onal r eac t i onsasr at i onal l y‘ et hi c al ’ .
So ur c e so fe mo t i o nsa ndmo od si n c l u de : ( i )
Per s onal i t y–Peopl ee x per i enc eemo t i onswi t hdi ff er enti nt ens i t i es ,ha v et he t e nd en c yt oe x pe r i e nc ec e r t a i ne mo t i o nsandmo odsmo r et h ano t h er s .Aff ec t i nt ens i t yr ef er st ot hei ndi v i dual di ffer enc esi nt hes t r engt hwi t hwhi c h
( i i )
i ndi v i dual sex per i enc et hei remot i ons . Ti meo fDa y–L ev e l sofp os i t i v eaff ec tt e ndt op eaki nt h el a t emo r n i ngan d
( i i i )
r emai nt hatwayunt i l l at eev eni ng. Dayoft heWeek
20
( i v ) We at h er-Re s ea r c hs ho wswe at h erh asl i t t l eeff ec to nmo od ,f o rmo s tp eo pl e . Butt heoppos i t ei sbel i ev edbec aus eofi l l us or ycor r el at i on,t het endenc yof peopl et oas soc i at et woev ent swheni nr eal i t yt her ei snoconnec t i on. ( v ) St r es s ( v i ) Soc i al ac t i v i t i es–Ac t i v i t i est hatar ephy si c al ,i nf or mal orepi c ur ean( eat i ng wi t hot her s )ar emor es t r ongl yas soc i at edwi t hi nc r eas esi npos i t i v emood t hanev ent st hatar ef or mal . ( v i i ) Sl e ep–Poororr educ eds l ee pmak e si tdi ffic ul tt oc ont r ol emo t i ons .I nc r eas ed r egul ars l eepenhanc escr eat i v i t y , per f or manc e,andc ar eers uc c es s . ( v i i i ) Ex e r c i s e ( i x ) Ag e ( x) Sex–Womenexper i enceemot i onsmor ei nt ensel y ,t endt ohol dont o emo t i onsl on gert hanmenanddi s pl a ymor ef r equente x pr es s i onsofbo t h n eg at i v ea ndp os i t i v ee mo t i o ns ,e x c ep ta ng er .Wo me nr e por t e dmor e p owe r l e sse mo t i o ns ,s uc hass a dn es sa ndf ea r ,whi l eme anha v eh i g he r l ev el sofpower f ul emot i onsl i k eanger .As t udyshowedt hatpar t i c i pant s i nt er pr et edwomen’ semot i onal ex pr es si onsasbei ngdi s pos i t i onal ( r el at edt o per s onal i t y ) ,wher east hemen’ sex pr es si onswer ei nt er pr et edassi t uat i onal . Emot i onal l abori sas i t uat i oni nwhi c hanempl oy eeex pr es sesor gani z at i onal l ydes i r ed emot i onsdur i ngi nt er per s onal t r ans ac t i onsatwor k .Thi si sr equi r edf r om empl oy ees ,on t opofment al andph ys i c al l abor .Emot i onal l abori sak eycomponentofeff ec t i v ej ob per f or manc e.T oanal y z eemot i onal l aborwedi v i det hem i nt ot woc at egor i es : ( 1)Fel temot i ons–o urac t ual emo t i ons ( 2)Di s pl a y edemo t i o ns–emo t i onst heor g ani z at i onr equi r est os ho w andar e c ons i der edappr opr i at ei nagi v enj ob. Di s pl a yi ngf ak eemot i onsr equi r esust os uppr es sr eal ones : ( i )
Sur f ac eac t i ng–t hehi di ngofi n nerf eel i n gsa ndemo t i ona le x pr es s i onsi n r es pons et odi s pl a yr ul es .As s oc i at edwi t hi nc r eas eds t r es sanddec r eas ed
j obs at i s f ac t i on. ( i i ) De epac t i ng–t r y i ngt omodi f yourt r uei n nerf eel i ngsbas edondi s pl a yr ul es .
21
Emot i onal di s s onanc ei si nc ons i s t enc ebe t weent hee mot i o nspeopl ef eel andt he emot i onst heypr oj ec t .Longt er m emot i onal di s s onanc ei spr edi c t orf orj obbur nout .T o c ount er ac tt heneg at i v eeff ec t sofemo t i onal l aboranddi s s ona nc e,empl o y eesc an engagei npr ac t i c i ngmi ndf ul nes s.Mi ndf ul nes si sobj ec t i v el yanddel i ber at el yev al uat i ng t heemot i onal s i t uat i oni nt hemoment . Aff ec t i v eev e nt st heor y( AET)–Amodel t hats ugges t st hatwor k pl ac eev ent sc aus e emot i onal r eac t i onsont hepar tofempl o y eeswhi c ht heni nfl uenc ewor k pl ac eat t i t udes andbeha v i or s . Emot i onal i nt el l i genc e( EI )i saper s on’ sabi l i t yt o: ( 1)Per c ei v eemot i onsi nt hes el fandot her s( c ons c i ent i ous nes s ) ( 2)Under s t andt heme ani n gsoft hes eemo t i ons( c ogn i t i v e ) ,and ( 3)Regul at ehi sorherownemot i onsac cor di ngl y( emot i onal s t abi l i t y ) Sev er al s t udi essugges tt hatemot i onal i nt el l i genc epl ay sani mpor t antr ol ei nj ob p er f o r ma nc e .As t ud yon ee x e c ut i v eMBAs t u de nt ss h owe dt h att h os ewh oi nc o r p or a t e emot i onal c ent er soft hebr ai ni nt ot hei rc hoi c epr oc es s,per f or medbet t er . Thec ent r al i deabehi ndemot i onr egul at i oni st oi dent i f yandmodi f yt heemot i onsy ou f eel .Thewor k pl ac een vi r onmenthasaneff ec tonani ndi v i dual ’ st en denc yt oempl o y emot i onr egul at i on.Forex ampl e,di v er s i t yi nc r eas est hel i k el i hoodofemot i onr egul at i on, wher easr ac i al di v er s i t yal way si nc r eas esemot i onr egul at i on. Sur f ac eac t i ngi smor ement al l yex haus t i ngt handeepac t i ng,aswi t ht hi st ec hni que y ou’ r eac t ual l yt r y i ngt oex per i enc eadi ffer entemot i on.I tc anal s ohav eapos i t i v e out comeonwor kout comes. T ec hni quesofemot i onr egul at i oni nc l ude: ( 1)Emot i onal s uppr es si on–f ac i l i t at espr ac t i c al t hi nk i ngi nt hes hor tt er m.I tonl y appear st obehel pf ul whenas t r ongl ynegat i v eev entwoul di l l i c i tadi s t r es sed emot i onal r eac t i oni nac r i s i ssi t uat i on.
22
( 2)Cogni t i v er eappr ai s al –r ef r ami ngy ourout l ookonanemot i onal s i t uat i on.Mos t hel pf ul t oi ndi v i dual si ns i t uat i onswher et heyc annotc ont r ol t hes our c esofs t r es s. ( 3)Soc i al s har i ng–t heopene xpr es s i onofemot i onsc anhel pr egul at et hem,i ns t ead of‘ bot t l i ngt hem up’ . Emo t i o na la ndu nde r s t an di n go fmoo dsc ana ffec tma nyas p ec t sofor g ani z at i on al beha vi or : ( i ) ( i i )
Sel ec t i on Dec i s i onmak i ng–apos i t i v emoodl eadst obet t erpr obl ems ol v i ngs k i l l s ;i t
( i i i )
s e emst ohe l ppe op l ema k es ou ndde c i s i o ns . Cr eat i v i t y–agoal ofl eader s hi pi st omax i mi z eempl o y eepr oduc t i v i t yt hr ough c r eat i v i t y . Cr eat i v i t yi si nfl uenc edbymoodsandemot i ons ,butt her ear et wo i deasont her el at i ons hi pbet weent het wo.Somer es ear c her st hi nkt hata pos i t i v emoodl eadst omor ec r eat i v i t y ,wher easot herr es ear c her st hi nk pos i t i v emoodsma yc aus ey out ol ac kc r i t i c al t hi nk i ngbec aus eofbei ngt oo
r el ax ed. ( i v) Mot i vat i on ( v ) L ea de r s h i p–Le ade r swh of oc u soni ns p i r a t i on al g oa l sg en er a t egr e at e r opt i mi s m,c ooper at i onandent hus i as mi nempl oy ees ,l eadi ngt omor epos i t i v e s oc i al i nt er ac t i onwi t hc owor k er sandc us t omer s .The yar eal s oper c ei v edas mor eeff ec t i v ewh ent he ys har epos i t i v eemot i o nsa ndf ol l ower sar emor e c r eat i v ei nt hi senv i r onment . ( v i ) Ne go t i at i on–t hebes tnego t i at or ss h oul dr emai nemo t i onal l yd et ac hed. ( v i i ) Cu s t omers e r v i c e–emo t i on al c o nt a gi oni st h ep r o c es sbywh i c hp eo pl e s ’ emo t i onsar ec aus edb yt heemo t i onsofo t her s . ( v i i i ) J obat t i t udes–t her el at i ons hi pbet weenmoodsandj obat t i t udesi sr ec i pr oc al .
23
Cha pt e r5Pe r s ona l i t yandVa l ue s Per s onal i t y–t hes um oft ot al way si nwhi c hani ndi v i dual r eac t st oandi nt er ac t swi t h o t her s .Themos tc ommo nmeansofmeas ur i ngper s onal i t yi ss el f r epor t .
24
Ourc ul t ur ei nfl uenc est hewayi nwhi c hwer at eour s el v es .Peopl ei ni ndi v i dual i s t i c c ount r i est r endt owar ds el f enhanc ement ,whi l epeopl ei nc ol l ec t i v i s tc ount r i est r end t owar dd i mi ni s hment . Per s onal i t yi st her es ul t sofher edi t yandenv i r onment .Her edi t yr ef er st of ac t or s det er mi nedatc onc ept i on:one’ sbi ol ogi c al ,phy si ol ogi c al ,andi nher entps yc hol ogi c al mak eup. Someone’ sendur i ngc har ac t er i s t i c st hatdes cr i beani ndi v i dual ’ sbehav i orar ec al l ed per s onal i t yt r ai t s . Meansofmeas ur i ngper s onal i t yi nc l ude: ( i )
TheMy e r s Br i ggsT ypeI ndi c at or-aper s onal i t yt es tt hatt apsf our
( i i )
c har ac t er i s t i c sandc l as si fi espeopl ei nt ooneof16per s onal i t yt y pes . Th eBi gFi v ePe r s on al i t yMo del –ap er s o na l i t ya s s es s me ntmo del t ha tt a psi n fi v ebas i cdi mens i ons .I tpr opos est hatfi v ebas i cdi mens i onsunder l i eal l ot her sandenc ompas smos toft hes i gni fi c antv ar i at i oni nhumanper s onal i t y .
TheBi gFi v ef ac t or sar e: ( 1 )Co ns c i e nt i o us ne s s–ap er s on al i t ydi me ns i o nt h atd es c r i b ess ome on ewh oi s r es pons i bl e,dependabl e,per s i s t ent ,andor gani z ed;ameas ur eofr el i abi l i t y . ( 2)Emot i onal s t abi l i t y–per s onal i t ydi mens i ont hatc har ac t er i z ess omeoneas c al m,s el f c onfi dent ,ands ec ur e( pos i t i v e)v er s usner v ous ,depr es s ed,and i ns ec ur e( negat i v e) ;t apsaper s on’ sabi l i t yt owi t hs t ands t r es s. ( 3)Ex t r a v er s i on–per s onal i t ydi mens i ondes c r i bi ngsomeonewhoi ss oc i abl e, gr egar i ous ,andas ser t i v e;c apt ur esourc omf or tl ev el wi t hr el at i ons hi ps . ( 4)Opennes st oex per i enc e–per s onal i t yd i mens i ont hatc har ac t er i z ess omeone i nt er msofi magi nat i on,s ens i t i v i t y ,andc ur i os i t y ;addr es sest her angeof i nt er es t sandf as c i nat i onwi t hnov el t y . ( 5 )Agr ee ab l e nes s–per s o na l i t yd i men s i o nt ha td es c r i b ess o meo newh oi sg oo d nat ur ed,c ooper at i v e,andt r us t i ng;r ef er st oani ndi v i dual ’ spr opens i t yt odef er t oot her s .
25
TheFi veBi gTr ai t sandBehavi oratWor k ( 1)Cons c i ent i ous nes s–hi ghers c or emeansmor el i k el yt oat t ai nhi gherl ev el sofj ob k nowl edge,whi c hi nt ur nc or r es pondswi t hhi gherl ev el sofj obper f or manc e. Mor ei mpor t antt os uc ces st hanot hert r ai t s .Pi t f al l sofahi ghs cor ear ewor k f ami l yc onfl i c t ,notgoodi nadapt i ngt ochangi ngcont e xt s ,andcanbec omet oo f oc us edont hei rownwor kt ohel pot her si nt heor gani z at i on. ( 2)Emot i onal s t abi l i t y–mos ts t r ongl yr el at edt ol i f es at i s f ac t i on,j obs at i s f ac t i on,and l ows t r es sl ev el s .Hi ghemot i onal s t abi l i t ymeansonec aneas i l yadaptt o u ne x pe c t e do rc h an gi n gd eman dsi nt h ewor k p l ac e .Ont h eo t h ere nd ,n eur o t i c i ndi v i dual sar el i k el yt oex per i enc ebur nout ,bei ngunabl et oc opewi t h af or ement i oneddemands .Wor k f ami l yconfl i c ti sano t herr i s kofbei ngneur ot i c . ( 3)Ex t r av er s i on–ex t r av er t sper f or m bet t eri nj obswi t hs i gni fi canti nt er per s onal i nt er ac t i on,ar es oc i al l ydomi nant ,andar emor el i k el yt obec omel eader s . Negat i v esi nc l udei mpul s i v enes s,abs ent eei s m,andl y i ngdur i ngj obi nt er v i ews . ( 4)Opennes s–openi n di v i dual sar emor el i k e l yt obeeff ec t i v el eader s ,ar emor e adapt abl eandc opebet t erwi t hor gani z at i onal c hange.I ndi v i dual shi gheri n opennes sar el es ss us c ept i bl et oadec l i nei nper f or manc eo v eral ongper i odand ex per i enc el es swor k f ami l yc onfl i c t . ( 5)Agr eeabl enes s–agr eeabl ear ebet t erl i k ed,t endt odobet t eri ni nt er per s onal l y or i ent edj obs ,ar emor ec ompl i antandr ul eabi di ng,ar el es sl i k el yt ogeti nt o ac ci dent s ,andar emor es at i s fiedi nt hei rj obs .Theyar eal s omor ei nc l i nedt o engagei nor gani z at i onal c i t i z ens hi pbehav i or( OCB) ,andhav el owerl ev el sof c ar e ers u c c es s . TheDa r kT r i a d TheBi gFi v et r ai t sar es oc i al l ydes i r abl e,butr es ear c her shav ec omeupwi t ht hr ee s oc i al l yundes i r abl et r ai t s : ( 1)Mac hi av el l i ani s m –i ndi v i dual swhos c or ehi ghonMac hi av el l i ani s m ar e pr agmat i c ,mai nt ai nemot i onal di s t anc e,andbel i ev esendscanj us t i f ymeans .“ i f i twor k s,us ei t ”i sc ons i s t entwi t hahi ghmacper s pec t i v e. ( 2)Nar c i s s i s m –des c r i besaper s onwh oh asagr andi os esens eofs el f i mpor t anc e, r equi r esex c es si v eadmi r at i on,andi sar r ogant .Hav ef ant as i esofgr ands uc ces s,
26
at endenc yt oex pl oi ts i t uat i onsandpeopl e,as ens eofent i t l ement ,andal ac kof empat h y .Nar c i s s i s t sc anbehy per s ens i t i v eandf r agi l epeopl eandmay e xper i enc emor eanger .I ti soneoft hel ar ges tpr edi c t or sofi nc r eas edCWBi nan i ndi v i dual i s t i cs oc i et y .Theymaybemor ec har i s mat i c ,ar emor el i k el yt obe c hos enf orl eader s hi ppos i t i ons ,andmedi um r at i ngswi t hnar c i s s i s m ar e pos i t i v el yc or r el at edwi t hl eader s hi peffec t i v enes s. ( 3)Ps y c hopat h y–t het endenc yf oral ac kofc onc er nf oro t her sandal ac kofgui l tor r emor s ewhenac t i onsc aus ehar m.I nor gani z at i onal beha vi or ,i tdoesnot c onnot ec l i ni c al ment al i l l nes s.Li t er at ur ei snotc ons i s t entaboutt her el ev anc eof ps y c hopat hywi t hr egar dt owor kbeha vi or . Ot herat t r i but est hatar epower f ul pr edi c t or sofbehav i ori nor gani z at i onsi nc l ude: ( i )
Co r eSel f Ev a l ua t i o ns( CSEs )–b ot t o ml i nec on c l us i o nsi n di v i du al sha v e aboutt hei rc apabi l i t i es ,c ompet enc e,andwor t hasaper s on.Pos i t i v eCSEs i ndi c at et hatt hei ndi v i dual s eeshi m orher s el faseffec t i v eandi nc ont r ol of t hei ren vi r onment .The yper f or m be t t ert hano t her sbec aus et he ys etmor e ambi t i ousgoal s ,ar emor ec ommi t t edt ot hei rgoal s ,andper s i s tl ongeri n
( i i )
at t empt i ngt or eac ht hem. Sel f moni t or i ng–aper s onal i t yt r ai tt hatmeas ur esani ndi v i dual ’ sabi l i t yt o adj us thi sorherbehav i ort oex t er nal ,s i t uat i onal f ac t or s .Hi ghs el f moni t or s ar ehi ghl ysens i t i v et oex t er nal c uesandc anbehav edi ff er ent l yi nv ar y i ng s i t uat i ons ,s omet i mespr es ent i ngs t r i k i ngc ont r adi c t i onsbet weent hei rpubl i c per s onaeandt hei rpr i v at esel v es .The yar emor ecapabl eofc onf or mi ng, s howl es scommi t mentt ot hei ror g ani z at i ons ,butr ec ei v ebet t erper f or manc e
( i i i )
r at i ngsandar emor el i k el yt oemer geasl eader s . Pr oac t i v eper s onal i t y–peopl ewhoi dent i f yoppor t uni t i es ,s howi ni t i at i v e,t ak e ac t i on,andper s ev er eunt i l meani ngf ul c hangeoc c ur s .The yha v ehi gher l e v el sofj obper f or manc eanddono tnee dmuc ho v er s i ght .Al s o,t he yar e mor el i k el yt oex c hangei nf or mat i onwi t hot her si nat eam,bui l di ngt eam t r us t . An dt h eyar er ec e pt i v et oc h an ge si nj o bd ema nd sa ndt h r i v ewh ent he yc an i nf or mal l yt ai l ort hei rj obst ot hei rs t r engt hs .
27
Theeffec tofpar t i c ul art r ai t sonor gani z at i onal behav i ordependsont hes i t uat i on.T wo t heor et i c al f r amewor k shel pe xpl ai nhowt hi swor k s : 1.Si t uat i ons t r engt ht heor y I ndi c at est hatt hewayper s onal i t yt r ans l at esi nt obehav i ordependsont hes t r engt hof t hes i t uat i on.Bysi t uat i ons t r engt h,wemeant hedegr eet owhi c hnor ms ,c ues ,or s t andar dsdi c t at eappr opr i at ebeha vi or .Weaksi t uat i onsgi v eusmor ef r eedom t o ex pr es sourper s onal i t yi nbehav i or ,wher eass t r ongs i t uat i onss howuswhatt her i ght behav i ori s ,pr es sur eust oex hi bi ti t ,anddi s cour aget hewr ongbehav i or .Si t uat i on s t r engt hi nor gani z at i onscanbeanal y z edi nt er msoff ourel ement s : ( 1)Cl ar i t y–t hedegr eet owhi c hc uesaboutwor kdut i esand r es pons i bi l i t i esar eav ai l abl eandc l ear .J obshi ghi nc l ar i t ypr oduc e s t r ongs i t uat i onsasi ndi v i dual sc anr eadi l ydet er mi newhatt odo. ( 2)Cons i s t enc y–t hee xt entt owhi c hc uesr egar di ngwor kdut i esand r es pons i bi l i t i esar ec ompat i bl ewi t heac hot her .J obswi t hhi gh c ons i s t enc ypr oduc es t r ongs i t uat i onsasal l c uespoi ntt owar dt he s amed es i r edbe ha v i or . ( 3)Cons t r ai nt s–t heex t entt owhi c hi ndi v i dual s ’f r eedom t odec i deorac t i sl i mi t edbyf or c esout s i det hei rc ont r ol .J obswi t hmanyc ons t r ai nt s r epr es ents t r ongs i t uat i onsbec aus eani ndi v i dual hasl i mi t edi ndi v i dual di s c r et i on. ( 4 )Co ns e qu en ce s–t h ede gr eet owhi c hde c i s i on sorac t i o nsh av e i mpor t anti mpl i c at i onsf ort heor gani z at i onori t smember s ,c l i ent s , s upp l i es ,ands oon.J obswi t hi mpor t antc ons equenc esr epr es ent s t r ongsi t uat i onsbec aus et heenv i r onmenti spr obabl yheav i l y s t r uc t ur edt oguar dagai ns tmi s t ak es . Somer es ear c her sfi ndt hator gani z at i onsar ebydefi ni t i ons t r ongs i t uat i onsbec aus e t heyi mpos er ul es ,nor ms ,ands t andar dst hatgov er nbeha vi or .Howev er ,i ti snotal way s des i r abl ef oror gani z at i onst oc r eat es t r ongs i t uat i onsf ort hei rempl oy eesf oranumber ofr eas ons : ( i )
Theel ement sofs i t uat i ons t r engt har eof t ende t er mi nedb yor gani z at i onr u l es andgui del i nes ,whi c haddss omeobj ec t i v i t yt ot hem.Theper c ept i onoft hes e r ul esi nfl uenc eshowt heper s onwi l l r es pondt ot hes i t uat i on’ sst r engt h.
28
( i i )
J obswi t hmy r i adr ul esandt i ght l yc ont r ol l e dpr oc es s esc anbed ul l or demot i v at i ng.Somepeopl emaypr ef err out i ne,f ori ns t anc e,butman ypr ef er
( i i i )
h av i n gs o mev a r i e t yan df r e ed om. St r ongs i t uat i onsmi ghts uppr es st hec r eat i v i t y ,i ni t i at i v e,anddi s cr et i onpr i z ed bys omeor gani z at i onal c ul t ur es .Fori ns t anc e,oner ec ents t udyf oundt hati n weaksi t uat i ons ,empl o y eeswer emor el i k el yt obehav epr oac t i v el yi n
ac c or danc ewi t ht hei rv al ues . 2.T r ai tAc t i v at i onTheor y( T AT) Theor yt hatpr edi c t st hats omes i t uat i ons ,ev ent s ,ori nt er v ent i ons‘ ac t i v at e’ at r ai tmor e t hanot her s .Us i ngt hi s ,wec anf or es eewhi c hj obssui tc er t ai nper s onal i t i es . Val uesar ebas i cconv i c t i onst hatas pec i fi cmodeofc onduc torends t at eofe xi s t enc ei s per s onal l yors oc i al l ypr ef er abl et oanoppos i t eorc onv er s emodeofc onduc torends t at eofe x i s t enc e.The yc ont ai naj udgment al el ementb ec aus et he yc ar r yan i ndi v i dual ’ si deasaboutwhati sr i ght ,good,ordes i r abl e.Theybot hhav ec ont entand i nt ens i t yat t r i but es :t hec ont entat t r i but es ay samodeofc onduc torends t at eof ex i s t enc ei si mpor t ant ,t hei nt ens i t yat t r i but es pec i fi eshowi mpor t anti ti s .Aper s on’ s v al ues y st em i sahi er ar c hybas edonar ank i ngofv al uesi nt er msofi nt ens i t y .Val ues t endt ober el at i v el yst abl eandendur i ng.Manyv al uesar ees t abl i s hedi nourear l y y ear s ,butt her ei ss omeev i denc el i nk i ngper s onal i t yt ov al ues ,i mpl y i ngourv al uesmay bepar t l ydet er mi nedbygenet i c al l yt r ans mi t t edt r ai t s .Val uescanaugmentdec i s i on mak i ng,butatt i mest heycanal s oc l oudobj ec t i v i t yandr at i onal i t y . Res e ar c he rRok e ac ha r g uedt h atwec a ns e pa r a t ev a l u esi nt ot woc at eg or i e s : ( 1)T er mi nal v al ues–des i r abl eends t at esofe xi s t enc e;t hegoal saper s onwoul d l i k et oac hi ev edur i nghi sorherl i f et i me.Ex ampl esi nc l udepr os per i t y ,ec onomi c s uc c es s ,f r eedom,heal t h,wor l dpeac e,meani ngi nl i f eandwel l bei ng. ( 2)I ns t r ume nt al v a l ues–pr ef er abl emodesofbeha v i ororme ansofac hi e vi ngone ’ s t er mi nal v al ues .I nc l udeaut onomy ,s el f r el i anc e,per s onal di s ci pl i ne,k i ndnes s andgoal or i ent at i on.
29
Theper s onal i t y j obfi tt heor yi dent i fi essi xper s onal i t yt y pesandpr opos est hatt hefi t bet weenper s onal i t yt y peandoc c upat i onal env i r onmentdet er mi ness at i s f ac t i onand t ur nov er . Theper s onor gani z at i onfi tt heor yt hats t at est hatpeopl ear eat t r ac t edt oands el ec t ed byor gani z at i onst hatmat c ht hei rv al ues ,andl eav ewhent her ei snoc ompat i bi l i t y . Af or ement i onedt wot heor i esar ec ons i der edt hemos ts al i entdi mens i onsf orwor k pl ac e out c omes ,ot herav enuesoffi tar e:per s ongr oupfi tandper s ons uper v i s orfi t .Per s ongr oupfi ti si mpor t anti nt eam s et t i ngs ,wher et hedy nami c soft eam i nt er ac t i ons s i g ni fi c ant l yaff ec twor kout c omes .Per s ons uper v i s orfi thasbec omeani mpor t antar ea ofr es ear c hs i nc epoorfi ti nt hi sdi mens i onc anl eadt ol owerj obs at i s f ac t i onand r e du c edp er f o r ma nc e . Hof st ede’ sFr amewor k Thi si soneoft hemos tr ef er enc edappr oac hesf oranal y z i ngv ar i at i onsamongc ul t ur es . Hef o un dt h atma na ge r sa ndemp l o y ee sv ar i e do nfi v ev al u ed i me ns i o nso fn at i o nal c ul t ur e: ( i )
Po we rd i s t a nc e–t h ed eg r e et owh i c hp eo pl ei nac ou nt r ya c c e ptt h atp owe r
( i i )
i ni ns t i t ut i onsandor gani z at i onsi sdi s t r i but edunequal l y . I ndi v i dual i s mv er s usc ol l ec t i v i s m –i ndi v i dual i s mi st hedegr eet owhi c hpeopl e pr ef ert oac tasani ndi v i dual r at hert hanasmemberofagr oupandbel i ev ei n ani ndi v i dual ’ sr i ght sabov eal l el s e.Col l ec t i v i s m emphas i z esat i ghts oc i al f r ame wor ki nwhi c hpe opl ee x pec to t her si ngr oupsofwhi c ht he yar eapar tt o
( i i i )
l ookaf t ert hem andpr ot ec tt hem. Mas cul i ni t yv er s usf emi ni ni t y–mas cul i ni t yi st hedegr eet owhi c ht hec ul t ur e f av or st r adi t i onal mas cul i ner ol essuc hasac hi ev ement ,power ,andc ont r ol ,as o pp os edt ov i e wi n gme na ndwo menase qu al s .Ah i g hf e mi n i n i t yr a t i n g meanst hec ul t ur es eesl i t t l edi ffer ent i at i onbet weenmal eandf emal er ol es
andt r eat swomenast heequal sofmeni nal l r es pec t s . ( i v ) Un ce r t a i n t yav o i d anc e–t h ede gr e et owh i c hp eo pl ei nac ou nt r ypr e f e r ( v )
s t r uc t ur edov eruns t r uc t ur edsi t uat i onsdefi nest hei runc er t ai nt yav oi danc e. L on gt er mv e r s u ss h or t t e r mo r i en t at i o n–me as u r e sas oc i e t y ’ sde v ot i o nt o t r adi t i onal v al ues .Peopl ei nac ount r ywi t hl ongt er m or i ent at i onl ookt ot he
30
f ut ur eandv al uet hr i f t ,per s i s t enc e,andt r adi t i on.I ns hor t t er m or i ent at i on, p eo pl ev a l u et h eh er ea ndn ow;t h eyal s oa c ce ptc h an gemor er ea di l yan d d on ’ ts e ec o mmi t me nt sa si mp ed i me nt st oc ha ng e. TheGLOBEFr amewor k Th ema i nd i ff er e nc eb et we ent hi sf r a me wor kandt h ato fHof s t ed e,ar et h ea dde d di mens i ons ,s uc hashumaneor i ent at i on( t hedegr eet owhi c has oc i e t yr e war ds i ndi v i dual sf orbei ngal t r ui s t i c ,gener ous ,andk i ndt oot her s ) ,andper f or manc e or i ent at i on( t hedegr eet owhi c has oc i e t ye nc our agesandr ewar dsgr o upmember sf or p er f o r ma nc ei mp r o v eme nt sa nde x c el l e nc e ) .
31
Cha pt e r6Pe r c ept i ona ndI ndi v i dua lDe ci s i onMa ki ng Per c ept i oni sapr oc es sbywhi c hweor gani z eandi nt er pr ets ens or yi mpr es s i onsi n or dert ogi v emea ni ngt oouren v i r onment .Per c ep t i oni si mpor t anti nOBbec aus e peopl e’ sbehav i ori sbas edont hei rper c ept i onofwhatr eal i t yi s ,notonr eal i t yi t s el f .The wor l dasi ti sper c ei v edi st hewor l dt hati sbehav i or al l yi mpor t ant .Ther ear eanumberof f ac t or st hatc ans hapeanddi s t or tper c ept i on.Thes ef ac t or sc anr es i dei nt heper c ei v er , t heobj ec tort ar getbei ngper c ei v ed,ort hes i t uat i oni nwhi c ht heper c ept i oni smade. ( i )
Pe r c e i v e r–y o uri nt er p r e t a t i onofwh aty o us e ei si nfl u en c edb yy ou rp er s o nal c har ac t er i s t i c s :at t i t udes ,per s onal i t y ,mot i v es ,i nt er es t s ,pas tex per i enc es ,
( i i )
ande xpec t at i ons . T ar get–t hechar ac t er i s t i c soft het ar getaff ec twhatweper c ei v e.Bec aus ewe donotl ookatt ar get si ni s ol at i on,t her el at i ons hi pofat ar gett oi t sbac k gr ound i nfl uenc esper c ept i on,asdoesourt endenc yt ogr oupc l os et hi ngsands i mi l ar t hi ngst oge t her .Wec anper c ei v ewomen,men,whi t es ,Af r i c anAmer i c ans ,or member sofanyot hergr oupt hathascl ear l ydi s t i ngui s habl ec har ac t er i s t i c sas
( i i i )
al i k ei not her ,unr el at edway saswel l .Of t en,t hes eas sumpt i onsar ehar mf ul . Co nt e x t–t het i meatwh i c hwes eeanob j e c to re v en tc a ni n fl ue nc eour at t ent i on,asc anl oc at i on,l i ght ,heat ,ors i t uat i onal f ac t or s .Peopl ear eus ual l y notawar eoft hef ac t or st hati nfl uenc et hei rv i ewsofr eal i t y .
Theper c ept i onc onc ept smos tr el e v antt oOBi nc l udeper s onper c ept i ons ,ort he per c ep t i onspeop l ef or m abouteac ho t her .Res ear c hi ndi c at eswef or m ours t r onges t i mpr es s i onsbas edonwhatweper c ei v eaboutanot her ’ smor al c har ac t er ,butouri ni t i al i n f o r ma t i onc anb es k e t c h ya ndun f o un de d. At t r i but i ont heor y–anat t emptt odet er mi newhet herani ndi v i dual ’ sbehav i ori si nt er nal l y orex t er nal l yc aus ed.I nt er nal l yc aus edbehav i orar et hos eanobs er v erbel i ev est obe undert heper s onal behav i or al c ont r ol ofanot heri ndi v i dual .Ex t er nal l yc aus edbehav i or i swhatwei magi net hes i t uat i onf or c edt hei ndi v i dual t odo.Thi sdet er mi nat i ondepends l ar gel yont hr eef ac t or s :
32
( 1)Di s t i nc t i v enes s–r ef er st owhet herani ndi v i dual di s pl ay sdi ffer entbehav i or si n di ffer ents i t uat i ons .I fbehav i ori sunus ual ,wear el i k el yt ogi v ei tanex t er nal at t r i but i on. ( 2)Cons ens us–i fe v er y onewhof ac esas i mi l ars i t uat i o nr es pon dsi nt hes amewa y , wec a ns a yt hebe ha v i o rs h owsc on s en s us .I fc o ns e ns u si sh i g h,y o uwou l d pr obabl ygi v eanex t er nal at t r i but i ont oanempl oy ee’ st ar di nes s. ( 3 )Co ns i s t e nc y–d oe st h ep er s o nr e s po ndi nt h es a mewa yo v e rt i me ?Th emor e c ons i s t entt hebehav i or ,t hemor ewear ei nc l i nedt oat t r i but ei tt oi nt er nal c aus es . Er r or sorbi as esdi s t or tat t r i but i ons .Whenwemak ej udgement saboutot herpeopl e,we t endt ounder es t i mat et hei nfl uenc eofe xt er nal f ac t or s ,andov er es t i mat et hei nfl uenc eof i nt er nal orper s onal f ac t or s .Thi si scal l edt hef undament al at t r i but i oner r or .I ndi v i dual s andor gani z at i onst endt oat t r i but et hei rowns uc ces sest oi nt er nal f ac t or ss uc hasabi l i t y oreffor t ,whi l ebl ami ngf ai l ur eonex t er nal f ac t or ss uc hasbadl uc kordi ffic ul tc owor k er . Peopl et endt oat t r i but eambi guousi nf or mat i onasr el at i v el yfl at t er i ng,ac ceptpos i t i v e f eedbac k,andr ej ec tnegat i v ef eedbac k.Thi si scal l edt hes el f s er v i ngbi as . Sel ec t i v eper c ept i oni st het endenc yt os el ec t i v el yi nt er pr etwhatones eesont hebas i s ofone’ si nt er es t s ,bac k gr oundex per i enc e,andat t i t udes . Thehal oeff ec ti st het endenc yt odr a w agener al i mpr es s i onaboutani ndi v i dual ont he bas i sofas i ngl ec har ac t er i s t i c . Thec ont r as teffec ti sanev al uat i onofaper s on’ schar ac t er i s t i c st hati saffec t edby c ompar i s onswi t ho t herpeop l er ec ent l yenc ount er edwhor ankhi g herorl oweront he s amec har ac t er i s t i c s. St er eot y pi ngi sj udgi ngs omeoneont hebas i sofone ’ sper c ept i onoft hegr oupt owhi c h t hatper s onbel ongs . Weus ement al s hor t c ut sc al l edheur i s t i c st omak edec i s i onsqui c kl y ,butt hec hal l enge oc c ur swhenwegen er al i z ei nac c ur at el yort oomuc h.
33
Sel f f ul fi l l i ngpr ophec y–as i t uat i oni nwhi c haper s oni nac c ur at el yper c ei v esas ec ond per s on,a ndt her es ul t i nge xpec t at i onsc aus et hes ec ondper s ont obe ha v ei nwa y s c ons i s t entwi t ht heor i gi nal per c ept i on.Thi st er m andt hePy gmal i oneff ec tdes cr i behow ani ndi v i dual ’ sbehav i ori sdet er mi nedbyot her s ’ex pec t at i ons . De c i s i on sar ec ho i c e sma def r o ma mo ngt woormo r ea l t e r n at i v e s .Apr ob l e md en ot e sa di s c r epanc ybet weent hec ur r ents t at eofaff ai r sands omedes i r eds t at e.Rat i onal c hoi c esar ec har ac t er i z edbymak i ngc ons i s t ent ,v al uemax i mi z i ngc hoi c eswi t hi n s pec i fi edc ons t r ai nt s .Rat i onal dec i s i onsf ol l owas i x s t epr at i onal dec i s i onmak i ng model ,whi c hi sadec i s i o nmak i ngmodel t hatdes c r i b esho wi ndi v i dua l ss houl dbeha v e i no r d ert oma x i mi z es o meo ut c o me .Th es t e psar ea sf o l l o ws : ( 1 )De fi net h ep r o bl em ( 2)I dent i f yt hedec i s i onc r i t er i a ( 3)Al l oc at ewei ght st ot hec r i t er i a ( 4)Dev el opt heal t er nat i v es ( 5)Ev al uat et heal t er nat i v es ( 6)Sel ec tt hebes tal t er nat i v e Boundedr at i onal i t yi sapr oc es sofmak i ngdec i s i onsbyc ons t r uc t i ngs i mpl i fi edmodel s t hatex t r ac tt hees sent i al f eat ur esf r om pr obl emswi t houtc apt ur i ngal l t hei rc ompl ex i t y . Ourl i mi t edi nf or mat i onpr oc es si ngc apabi l i t ymak esi ti mpos si bl et oas si mi l at eal l t he i nf or mat i onnec es sar yt oopt i mi z e,ev eni ft hei nf or mat i oni sr eadi l yobt ai nabl e.Many pr obl emsdonothav eanopt i mal s ol ut i on,s opeopl es at i s fi ce;t he ys eeks ol ut i onst hat ar es at i s f ac t or yandsuffic i ent .Wet endt or educ ec ompl e xpr ob l emst oal e v el wec an r eadi l yunder s t and. Thel eas tr at i onal wayofmak i ngdec i s i onsi si nt ui t i v edec i s i onmak i ng,whi c hi san unc ons c i ouspr oc es sc r eat edoutofdi s t i l l edex per i enc e.I tr el i esonhol i s t i c as soc i at i ons ,orl i nk sbet weendi s par at epi ec esofi nf or mat i on;i sf as tandaffec t i v el y c h ar g ed( e ng ag esemo t i o ns ) . Anc hor i ngbi asi st het endenc yt ofi xat eoni ni t i al i nf or mat i on,f r om whi c honet henf ai l s t oadequat el yadj us tf ors ubs equenti nf or mat i on.
34
Co nfi r mat i onbi asi st het ende nc yt os eekouti nf or mat i ont hatr eaffir mspas tc hoi c esand t odi s counti nf or mat i ont hatc ont r adi c t spas tj udgement s . Av ai l abi l i t ybi asi st het endenc yf orpeopl et obas et hei rj udgement soni nf or mat i ont hat i sr eadi l yav ai l abl et ot hem. Es c al at i onofc ommi t menti sani nc r eas edcommi t mentt oapr ev i ousdec i s i oni ns pi t eof negat i v ei nf or mat i on. Randomnes ser r ori st het endenc yofi ndi v i dual st obel i ev et hatt heycanpr edi c tt he o ut c o meofr a nd om e v e n t s . Ri s kav er s i oni st het endenc yt opr ef eras ur egai nofamoder at eamountov erar i s k i er out c ome,e v eni ft her i s k i erout c omemi ghtha v eahi ghere xp ec t edpa y off . Hi nds i ghtbi asi st het endenc yt obel i ev ef al s el y ,af t eranout c omeofanev enti sac t ual l y k no wn,t hatonewoul dha v eac c ur at el ypr edi c t edt hatout c ome. Et hi c al c ons i der at i onss houl dbei mpor t antt oal l or gani z at i onal dec i s i onmak i ng.Ther e ar et hr eeet hi c al dec i s i onc r i t er i a: ( 1)Ut i l i t ar i ani s m –s y s t em i nwhi c hdec i s i onsar emadet opr o vi det hegr eat es tgood f ort hegr eat es tnumber .Thi sv i e w domi nat esbus i nes sdec i s i o nmak i nga ndi s c ons i s t entwi t hgoal ssuc haseffic i enc y ,pr oduc t i v i t y , andhi ghpr ofi t s . ( 2)Fundament al l i ber t i esandpr i v i l eges–anemphas i sonr i ght si ndec i s i onmak i ng meansr es pec t i ngandpr ot ec t i ngt hebas i cr i ght sofi ndi v i dual s ,s uc hast her i ght t opr i v ac y ,f r ees peec h,andduepr oc es s.Thi scr i t er i onpr ot ec t swhi s t l ebl ower s whent he yr ev eal anor gani z at i on’ sunet hi c al pr ac t i c est ot hepr es sorgo v er nment agenc i es ,us i ngt hei rr i ghtt of r ees peec h.Whi s t l ebl ower sar ei ndi v i dual swho r epor tunet hi c al pr ac t i c esbyt hei rempl oy ert oout s i der s . ( 3)T oi mpos eandenf or c er ul esf ai r l yandi mpar t i al l yt oens ur ej us t i c eoran equi t abl edi s t r i but i onofbenefi t sandc os t s .
35
Beha vi or al e t hi c si sanar eaofs t udyt hatanal y z esho w peopl eb eha v ewhenc onf r ont ed wi t het hi c al di l emmas .Howc anwei nc r eas eet hi c al dec i s i onmak i ngi nor gani z at i ons ? Wi l s onpr o pos edt hebr ok e nwi ndo wst heor y ;t hei de at hatdec a y eda nddi s or der l y ur banenv i r onment smayf ac i l i t at ec r i mi nal behav i orbec aus et heysi gnal ant i s oc i al nor ms .Al t houghc ont r ov er s i al ,t het heor ydoesfitwi t hbehav i or al et hi c sr es ear c h s howi ngt hats eemi ngl ysuper fi c i al as pec t soft heenv i r onment–s uc hasl i ght i ng, out war ddi s pl ay sofweal t hands t at us ,andc l eanl i nes s-c aneffec tet hi c al behav i ori n or gani z at i ons . Wes h ou l db ea war eo fo urmor al b l i n ds p ot s ;t h et e nd en c yt os e eo ur s e l v e sasmor e mor al t hanwear eandot her sasl es smor al t hant he yar e. Cr eat i v i t yi st heabi l i t yt opr oduc enov el andus ef ul i deas .Thet hr ees t agemodel of c r eat i v i t yi st hepr opos i t i ont hatc r eat i v i t yi nv ol v est hr ees t ages :c aus es( c r eat i v e pot ent i al andc r eat i v eenv i r onment ) ,c r eat i v ebehav i or ,andc r eat i v eout c omes ( i nnov at i on) .Cr eat i v ebehav i oroc cur si nf ours t eps : ( 1)Pr obl em f or mul at i on–t hes t aget hati nv ol v esi dent i f y i ngapr obl em oroppor t uni t y r equi r i ngas ol ut i ont hati sasyetunk nown. ( 2)I nf or mat i ongat her i ng–t hes t agewhenpos s i bl es ol ut i onst oapr obl em f r om r el ev anti nf or mat i onandknowl edge. ( 3)I deaev al uat i on–t hepr oc es si nv ol v i ngt heev al uat i onofpot ent i al s ol ut i onst o pr obl emst oi dent i f yt hebes tone. Thec aus esofc r eat i v i t yi nc l ude: ( i )
Cr eat i v epot ent i al –t wof ac et sofpot ent i al ar e:i nt el l i genc eandc r eat i v i t y ,and per s onal i t yandc r eat i v i t y .Smar tpeopl ear ebet t erats ol v i ngc ompl ex pr obl emsandt her ef or emor ec r eat i v e,andp os s i bl yal s obec aus et he yha v e gr eat er‘ wor k i ngmemor y ’ .Fur t her mor e,per s onal i t y wi s e,opennes st o ex per i enc ec or r el at eswi t hc r eat i v i t y ,andpr oac t i v eper s onal i t y ,s el f c onfi denc e,r i s kt ak i ng,t ol er anc ef orambi gui t y ,andper s ev er anc e.T woot her f ac et sar eex per t i s eandc r eat i v i t y ,andet hi c sandc r eat i v i t y .Ex per t i s ei st he f oundat i onf oral l c r eat i v ewor kandt hust hes i ngl emos ti mpor t antpr edi c t orof c r eat i v epot ent i al .Cr eat i v i t yi snotc or r el at edwi t het hi c al i t y . 36
( i i )
Cr e at i v ee nv i r o nmen t–b es i d esc r e at i v epo t e nt i a l ,wen ee da ne nv i r o nme nt wher ec r eat i v epot ent i al c anber eal i z ed.Themos ti mpor t antenv i r onment al c har ac t er i s t i cf orc r eat i v ebehav i ori smot i v at i on;i nt r i ns i cmot i v at i onc or r el at es f ai r l yst r ongl ywi t hc r eat i v eout c omes .
Radi c al c r eat i v i t yar ec r eat i v ei deast hatbr eakt hes t at usquo.
Chapt er7Mot i vat i onandConcept s
37
Mot i v at i onr ef er st ot hepr oc es s est hatac countf ora ni ndi v i dual ’ si nt ens i t y ,di r ec t i on, andper s i s t enc eofeff or tt owar dat t ai ni ngagoal .I nt ens i t ydes c r i beshowhar daper s on t r i es .Hi ghi nt ens i t yonl yl eadst oaf av or abl ej obper f or manc eout c omeunl es st heeffor t i sc hannel edi nadi r ec t i ont hatbenefi t st heor gani z at i on.Theper s i s t enc edi mens i onof mo t i v a t i o nme as ur e sh owl o ngap er s onc a nma i n t a i ne ffo r t . Ther ear et hr eeear l yt heor i esofempl o y eemot i v at i on: 1.Hi er ar c h yofNe edsTh eor y–Ma s l o w’ sh i e r a r c h yoffi v ene eds ,i nwh i c h,a seac h needi ss ubs t ant i al l ys at i s fi ed,t hene xtneedbec omesdomi nant .Rec ent l y , a s i x t hneedhasbeenpr opos edf orahi ghes tl ev el :i nt r i ns i cval ues .Theor i gi nal fi v en ee dsa r e : ( i ) Phy s i ol ogi c al –hunger ,t hi r s t ,s hel t er ,s ex ,andot herbodi l yneeds ( i i ) Saf et y s ec ur i t y–sec ur i t yandpr ot ec t i onf r om phy s i c al andemot i onal har m ( i i i ) Soc i al be l ong i ngnes s–aff ec t i on,bel ongi ngnes s ,ac c ep t anc e,and f r i ends hi p ( i v ) Es t eem –i nt er nal f ac t or ss uc hass el f r es pec t ,aut onomy , and ac hi ev ement ,andex t er nal f ac t or ssuc hass t at us ,r ec ogni t i on,and ( v )
at t ent i on Se l f a c t u al i z a t i o n–dr i v et obe c omewh atwear ec ap ab l eofb ec o mi n g
i nc l udesgr owt h,ac hi ev i ngourpot ent i al ,ands el f f ul fi l l ment . 2.TwoFac t orTheor y–r el at esi nt r i ns i cf ac t or st oj obs at i s f ac t i onandas soc i at es ex t r i ns i cf ac t or swi t hdi s s at i s f ac t i on.Al s oc al l edt hemot i v at i onhy gi enet heor y . Hy gi enef ac t or sar ef ac t or s–s uc hasc ompan ypol i c yandadmi ni s t r at i on, s uper v i s i on,ands al ar y -t hat ,whenadequat ei naj ob,pl ac at ewor k er s .When t hes ef ac t or sar eadequat e,peopl ewi l l notbedi s sat i s fied.I fwewantt omot i v at e peopl eont hei rj obs ,wes houl demphas i z ef ac t or sas soc i at edwi t ht hewor ki t s el f orwi t hout c omesdi r ec t l yder i v edf r om i t ,s uc haspr omot i onal oppor t uni t i es , per s onal gr owt hoppor t uni t i es ,r ec ogni t i on,r es pons i bi l i t y ,andac hi ev ement ; c har ac t er i s t i c st hatpeopl efi ndi nt r i ns i c al l yr ewar di ng. 3.Mc Cl el l and’ sTh eor yo fNeeds–s t at est hatac hi e v ement ,po wer ,a ndaffil i at i on ar et hr eei mpor t antneedst hathel pex pl ai nmot i v at i on: ( i ) Ne edf ora c hi e v eme nt( nAc h)–t h ed r i v et oex c e l ,t oac hi e v ei n r el at i ons hi pt oas etofs t andar ds .Whenj obsha v eahi ghdegr eeof
38
per s onal r es pons i bi l i t y ,f eedbac kandani nt er medi at edegr eeofr i s k,hi gh ( i i )
ac hi ev er sar est r ongl ymot i v at ed. Needf orpower( nPow)–t heneedt omakeot her sbehavei nawayt hey woul dno tha v eo t her wi s e.Needsf orpo wera ndaffil i at i ont endt obe
( i i i )
c l os el yr el at edt omanager i al s uc ces s. Needf oraffil i at i on( nAff)–t hedes i r ef orf r i endl yandc l os ei nt er per s onal r el at i ons hi ps .
Ot hermor ec ont empor ar yt heor i esofmot i v at i oni nc l ude: 1.Sel f Det er mi nat i onTheor y–i sconc er nedwi t ht hebenefi c i al eff ec t sofi nt r i ns i c mot i v at i onandt hehar mf ul effec t sofex t r i ns i cmot i v at i on.I tpr opos est hatpeopl e pr ef ert of eel t heyhav ec ont r ol ov ert hei rac t i ons ,s oany t hi ngt hatmak esa pr ev i ous l yenj oy edt as kf eel mor el i k eanobl i gat i ont hanaf r eel ychos enac t i v i t y wi l l under mi nemot i v at i on.Muc hr es ear c hons el f det er mi nat i ont heor yi nOBhas f oc us edonc ogni t i v eev al uat i ont heor y ;ac ompl ement ar yt heor yhy pot hes i z i ng t hatex t r i ns i cr ewar dswi l l r educ ei nt r i ns i ci nt er es ti nat as k.Whenpeopl ear epai d f orwor k ,i tf eel sl es sl i k es omet hi ngt heywantt odoandmor el i k es omet hi ngt hey hav et odo.Thes el f det er mi nat i ont heor ypr opos esi naddi t i ont obei ngdr i v enby ane edf o ra ut o no my ,p eo pl es ee kwa y st oac h i e v ec o mp e t e nc ean dma k e pos i t i v ec onnec t i onswi t hot her s .Amor er ec entout gr owt hofs el f det er mi nat i on t heor yi ss el f c onc or danc e,whi c hc ons i der shows t r ongl ypeopl e’ sr eas onsf or pur s ui nggoal sar ec ons i s t entwi t ht hei ri nt er es t sandc or ev al ues .Peopl ewho pur s uewor kgoal sf ori nt r i ns i cr eas onsar emor es at i s fiedwi t ht hei rj obs ,f eel t hey fi ti nt ot heor gani z at i onbet t er ,andmayper f or m bet t er . 2.Goal Set t i ngTheor y–s ay st hats pec i fi canddi ffic ul tgoal s ,wi t hf eedbac k ,l eadt o hi gherper f or manc e.Spec i fi ci t yseemst oac tasani nt er nal s t i mul us .Sec ond,i f f ac t or ss uc hasac c ept anc eofgoal sar ehel dc ons t ant ,t hemor edi ffic ul tt hegoal , t hehi ghert hel ev el ofper f or manc e.Thi r d,peopl edobet t erwhent heyget f eedbac konhowwel l t he yar epr ogr es s i ngt owar dt hei rgoal sbec aus ei thel ps i dent i f yd i s c r epanc i esbe t weenwhatt he yha v edoneandwhatt he ywantt odo nex t .Sel f gener at edf eedbac k–wi t hwhi c hempl o y eesar eabl et omoni t ort hei r ownpr ogr es sorr ec ei v ef eedbac kf r om t het as kpr oc es si t s el f -i tmor epower f ul
39
t hane xt er nal l ygener at edf eedbac k .Thr eeper s onal f ac t or si nfl uenc et hegoal s per f or manc er el at i ons hi p: ( i ) Go al c o mmi t me nt–a s s u me st h ata ni n di v i d ua li sc o mmi t t e dt ot h eg oa l anddet er mi nednott ol owerorabandoni t .Thei ndi v i dual bel i ev esheor s hecanac hi e v et hegoal andwant st oac hi e v ei t .Go al c ommi t menti s mos tl i k el yt ooc c urwhent hegoal sar emadepubl i c ,whent hei ndi v i dual hasani nt er nal l oc usofc ont r ol ,whent hegoal sar es el f s etr at hert han ( i i )
as si gned,andwhent heyar ebas edatl eas tpar t i al l yoni ndi v i dual abi l i t y . T a s kc ha r a c t e r i s t i c s–g oa l st h ems e l v e ss e em t oaff ec tp er f o r ma nc emo r e s t r ongl ywhent as k sar es i mpl er at hert hanc ompl e x,wel l l ear nedr at her t hanno v el ,i ndependentr at hert hani nt er dependent ,andont hehi ghend
( i i i )
ofac hi ev abl e. Nat i onal c ul t ur e–i nc ol l ec t i v i s t i candhi ghpower di s t anc ec ul t ur es , ac hi e v abl emoder at egoal sc anbemor emo t i v at i ngt handi ffic ul ton es . Al s o,as s i g nedgo al sapp eart ogener at egr eat ergoal c ommi t menti nh i gh
t hani nl owpower di s t anc ec ul t ur es . 3.Sel f Effic ac yTheor y–al s ok nownass oc i al c ogni t i v et heor y , i sani ndi v i dual ’ s bel i eft hatheors hei sc apabl eofper f or mi ngat as k.Thehi ghery ours el f effic ac y , t hemor econfi denc ey o uha v ei ny ourabi l i t yt os uc c eed.Bandur apr op os esf our wa y ss el f e ffic a c yc anbei nc r e as e d: 1.Enac t i v emas t er y–gai ni ngr el ev antex per i enc ewi t ht het as korj ob. 2 .Vi c a r i o usmo de l i n g–be c o mi n gmo r ec o nfi d e ntb ec a u s ey o us e es ome on e el s edoi ngt het as k .Mos teff ec t i v ewheny ous eey our s el fass i mi l art ot heper s on y o ua r eob s er v i n g. 3.Ver balper suasi on–webecomemor econfidentwhensomeoneconvi ncesus weha v et hes k i l l snec es s ar yt obes uc c es s f ul . 4.Ar ous al –i nc r eas ess el f effic ac y .Leadst oanener gi z eds t at e,f eel upt ot he t as k,andper f or m bet t er . 4.Rei nf or c eme ntTheor y–s a y st hatb eha v i ori saf unc t i onofi t sc ons equenc es ; r ei nf or c ementc ondi t i onsbehav i or . Res ear c hhasf oundt hatpeopl edi ff eri nt hewa yt he yr egul at et hei rt hought sand behav i or sdur i nggoal pur s ui t :
40
( 1)Pr omot i onf oc us–as el f r egul at i ons t r at egyt hati nv ol v esst r i v i ngf orgoal s t h r o u ghad v a n c eme nta ndac c o mp l i s h me nt . ( 2)Pr ev ent i onf oc us–as el f r egul at i ons t r at egyt hati nv ol v esst r i v i ngf orgoal sby f ul fi l l i ngdut i esandobl i gat i ons . Ma na ge me ntb yo bj e c t i v e s( MBO)–ap r o gr a mt h ate nc o mp as s e ss p e c i fi cg o al s par t i c i pat i v el yset ,f oranex pl i c i tt i meper i od,wi t hf eedbac kongoal pr ogr es s. Oper antc ondi t i oni ngt heor yar guest hatpeopl el ear nt obeha v et ogets omet hi ngt he y wantort oa v oi ds omet hi n gt he yd on ’ twant . Soc i a l Le ar ni ngThe or y Thev i e wt hatwec anl ear nt hr oughbot hobs er v a t i onandd i r ec te x per i enc e.Four pr oc es s esdet er mi net hei ri nfl uenc eonani ndi v i dual : 1.At t en t i o na lpr oc e s s es–p eo pl el e ar nf r o m amo de lo nl ywh ent h eyr ec o gn i z ea nd payat t ent i ont oi t scr i t i c al f eat ur es .Wet endt obemos ti nfl uenc edbymodel st hat ar eat t r ac t i v e,r epeat edl yav ai l abl e,i mpor t antt ous ,ors i mi l art ous . 2.Re t en t i o np r o c es s e s–mo de l ’ si n fl ue nc ede pen dso nho w we l l t hemo de l ’ sa c t i o n i sr emember ed. 3.Mo t o rr e pr od uc t i o np r oc e s se s–wa t c hi n gh ast ob ec o nv e r t e dt od oi ng , demons t r at i ngt hatt hei ndi v i dual c anper f or mt hemodel edac t i v i t y . 4.Rei nf or c eme ntpr oc es s es–i ndi v i dual sar emo t i v a t edt oe x hi bi tt hemodel ed behav i ori fpos i t i v ei nc ent i v esorr ewar dsar epr ov i ded. Equi t yTheor y Equi t yt heor ys t at est hati ndi v i dual sc ompar et hei rj obi nput sandout c omeswi t ht hos e ofot her sandt henr es pondt oel i mi nat eanyi nequi t i es .Ac cor di ngt ot hi smodel , empl o y eeswhop er c ei v ei nequi t ywi l l mak eoneoft hes i xc ho i c es : 1.Changei nput s–e x er tl es seff or ti funder pai d,mor ei fo v er pai d 2 .Ch an geo ut c o me s–o np i e c e r a t eb as i s 3.Di s t or tper c ept i onsofs el f 4.Di s t or tper c ept i onsofot her s 5.Ch oo sead i ff er e ntr e f er e nt 6.Leavet hefiel d 41
Thi st heor yi sani mpor t antpr ec ur s ort ot hes t udyofor gani z at i onal j us t i c e,whi c hi san ov er al l per c ept i onofwhati sf ai ri nt hewor k pl ac e,c ompos edofdi s t r i but i v e,pr oc edur al , i nf or mat i onal ,andi nt er per s onal j us t i c e: ( i )
Di s t r i but i v ej us t i c e–per c ei v edf ai r nes soft heamountandal l oc at i onof
( i i )
r e war dsamongi ndi v i du al s Pr oc edur al j us t i c e–per c ei v e df ai r n es soft hepr oc es sus edt ode t er mi net he
( i i i )
di s t r i but i onofr ewar ds I nt er nat i onal j us t i c e–t hedegr eet owhi c hempl oy eesar epr ov i dedt r ut hf ul
ex pl anat i onsf ordec i s i ons ( i v ) I nt er per s onal j us t i c e–degr eet owh i c hempl o y eesar et r eat edwi t hd i gni t yand r e s p e c t Expect ancyTheor y Oneoft hemos twi del yac cept edex pl anat i onsofmot i v at i ons .I ts t at est hatt hes t r engt h ofat endenc yt oac ti nac er t ai nwa ydependsont hes t r engt hofane xpec t at i ont hatt he ac twi l l bef ol l owedbyagi v enout c omeandont heat t r ac t i v enes soft hatout c omet ot he i ndi v i dual .Thet heor yf oc us esont hef ol l owi ngr el at i ons hi ps : 1.Effor t per f or manc er el at i ons hi p–pr obabi l i t yper c ei v edbyt hei ndi v i dual t hat e x er t i ngagi v enamountofeffor twi l l l eadt oper f or manc e. 2.Per f or manc er ewar dr el at i ons hi p–degr eet owhi c ht hei ndi v i dual bel i e v es per f or mi ngatapar t i c ul arl ev el wi l l l eadt ot heat t ai nmentofades i r edout c ome. 3.Re war ds p er s onal goal sr el at i ons hi p–de gr eet owhi c hor g ani z at i onal r e war ds s at i s f yani ndi v i dual ’ sper s onal goal sorneedsandt heat t r ac t i v enes soft hos e pot ent i al r ewar dsf ort hei ndi v i dual . J obengagementi st hei nv es t mentofanempl o y ee’ sph ys i c al ,c ogni t i v e,andemot i onal ener gi esi nt oj obper f or manc e.
42
Cha pt e r8Mot i v a t i on:F r om Conc ept st oAppl i c at i on J o bd es i g ns u gg es t st h att h ewa ye l eme nt si naj o bar eo r g an i z e dc a ni n fl ue nc e empl o y eeeff or t .Thej obc har ac t er i s t i c smodel ( J CM)des c r i besj obsi nt er msoffi v e c or ej obdi mens i ons : 1.Sk i l l v ar i et y–t hedegr eet owhi c haj obr equi r esav ar i et yofdi ffer entac t i v i t i es 2.T as ki dent i t y–t hedegr eet owhi c haj obr equi r esc ompl et i onofawh ol eand i dent i fi abl epi ec eofwor k
43
3.T as ks i gni fi c anc e–t hedegr eet owhi c haj obhasas ubs t ant i al i mpac tont he l i v esorwor kofot herpeopl e. 4.Aut on omy–t h ed egr e et owh i c haj o bp r o v i d ess u bs t a nt i a lf r e ed om a nd di s cr et i ont ot hei ndi v i dual i ns chedul i ngt hewor kandi ndet er mi ni ngt he pr oc edur est obeus edi nc ar r y i ngi tout . 5.Feedbac k–t hedegr eet owhi c hc ar r y i ngoutt hewor kac t i v i t i esr equi r edbyaj ob r es ul t si nt hei ndi v i dual obt ai ni ngdi r ec tandc l eari nf or mat i onaboutt he effec t i v enes sofhi sorherper f or manc e. Themot i v at i ngpot ent i al s cor e( MPS)i sapr edi c t i v ei ndext hats ugges t st hemot i v at i ng pot ent i al i naj ob:MPS=( ( s ki l l v ar i et y+t as ki dent i t y+t as ks i gni fi canc e) / 3)*a ut onomy *f eedbac k.T obehi ghonmot i v at i ngpot ent i al ,j obsmus tbehi ghonatl eas toneoft he t hr eef ac t or st hatl eadt oe x per i enc edmeani ngf ul nes sandhi ghonbo t haut onomyand f eedbac k . J obr ot at i oni st heper i odi cs hi f t i ngofanempl oy eef r om onet as kt oanot her ;t hi sc an pr ev ents uffer i ngf r om ov er r out i ni z at i onofwor k . Rel at i onal j obdes i gni sc ons t r uc t i ngj obss oempl oy eess eet hepos i t i v edi ffer enc et hey c anmak ei nt hel i v esofot her sdi r ec t l yt hr ought hei rwor k ;al s omot i v at esi ndi v i dual s t o war di nc r eas edj obper f or manc e. Fl e xt i mear efl e x i bl ewor khour s .Cl ai medbenefi t si nc l uder educ edabs ent eei s m, i nc r eas edpr oduc t i v i t y , r educ edov er t i mee xpens es ,r educ edhos t i l i t yt owar d management ,r educ edt r afficc onges t i on,el i mi nat i onoft ar di nes s ,andi nc r eas ed aut onomyandr es pons i bi l i t yf orempl o y ees . J obs har i ngi sanar r angementt hatal l owst woormor ei ndi v i dual st os pl i tat r adi t i onal 40h our aweekj ob.Thi sopensupt heoppor t uni t yt oac qui r es k i l l edwor k e r swhoma y notbeav ai l abl ef ul l t i me. T el e c ommu t i n gi swo r k i n gf r o mh omeatl ea s t2da y sawe eko nac ompu t e rt ha ti s l i nk edt ot heempl o y er ’ soffic e.Wor k i ngf r om av i r t ual offic edes c r i beswor k i ngout s i de 44
t hewor k pl ac eonar el at i v el yper manentbas i s .Benefi t si nc l udeal ar gerl aborpool f r om whi c ht os el ec t ,hi gherpr oduc t i v i t y , i mpr ov edmor al e,andr educ edoffic es pac ec os t s . Thedowns i desoft el ec ommut i ngar el es sdi r ec ts uper v i s i on,i nc r eas edf eel i ngsof i s ol at i onandar educ t i oni nj obs at i s f ac t i on. Empl oy eei nv ol v ementandpar t i c i pat i on( EI P)i sapar t i c i pat i v epr oc es st hatus est he i nputofempl o y eest oi nc r eas eempl o y eecommi t mentt oor gani z at i onal s uc c es s .I f wor k er sar eengagedi ndec i s i onst hati nc r eas et hei raut onomyandc ont r ol ov ert hei r wor kl i v es ,t he ywi l l bec omemor emo t i v at ed,mor ecommi t t edt ot heor gani z at i on,mor e pr oduc t i v e ,andmor es at i s fi edwi t ht hei rj obs .T womaj orf or msofempl o y eei n v ol v e ment a r e : ( i )
Pa r t i c i p at i v ema na ge me nt–pr o c es si nwh i c hs ub or d i n at e ss ha r eas i g ni fi c a nt degr eeofdec i s i onmak i ngpo werwi t ht hei ri mme di at es uper i or s .Ca no cc ur ei t herf or mal l yt hr oughbr i efi ngsors ur v ey s,ori nf or mal l yt hr oughdai l y
( i i )
c ons ul t at i ons ,asawa yt oi nc r eas emot i v at i ont hr ought r us tandc ommi t ment . Re pr e s en t a t i v ema na ge me nt–as y s t e mi nwh i c hwo r k e r sp ar t i c i p at ei n or gani z at i onal dec i s i onmak i ngt hr oughas mal l gr oupofr epr es ent at i v e empl oyees.
Es t a bl i s hi ngaPa ySt r uc t ur e Thepr oc es sofi ni t i al l ys et t i ngpayl ev el sent ai l sbal anc i ngi nt er nal equi t y( t hewor t hof t hej obt ot heor gani z at i on) ,andex t er nal equi t y( t hec ompet i t i v enes sofan or gani z at i on’ spayr el at i v et opayi ni t si ndus t r y ) . Thebes tpaysy st em i st her ef or eone t hatr efl ec t st hej ob’ swor t h,whi l eal s os t ay i ngc ompet i t i v er el at i v et ot hel abormar k et . ( i )
Av a r i a bl e p a yp r o gr a mi sap l a nt h atb as e sap or t i o no fa ne mp l o y e e ’ sp ayo n s omei ndi v i dual and/ oror gani z at i onal meas ur eorper f or manc e.Thi si sal s o k nownaspa yf or per f or manc e.Ther es ul t soft hes ek i ndofpl ansi smi x ed;
( i i )
t hec ont ex tandr ec ept i v i t ypl ayal ar ger ol e. Ap i e ce r a t epa ypl a ni sapl a ni nwh i c hwo r k e r sa r epa i dafi x e ds u mf o re ac h uni tofpr oduc t i onc ompl et ed.Apur epi ec er at epl anpr o vi desnobas es al ar y a ndp ay st h ee mp l o y e eo nl yf o rwh ath eo rs h ep r o du c es .Th eyar ek n ownt o pr oduc ehi gherpr oduc t i v i t yandwages .
45
