ZJICMJC RC_IZI@M VDC SMI_CRZC EMF VDC CERVD ZVERZ, LEAETICZ LEAETICZ E leaexy leaexy is is e kessivc lreviteti`mea b`umf systck j`mteimiml sters. Vdcsc key bc spirea `r caaiptijea im sdepc emf j`mteim 277 biaai`m sters. Vdc Kiahy \ey leaexy is 2.23 kiaai`m aildt ycers or`k tdc ‑mcerby‛ Emfr`kcfe leaexy. Eb`ut 26 leaexics o`rk tdc A`jea Jaustcr, eaa k`viml er`umf spejc t`lctdcr.
USEZERZ Uuesers erc fistemt p`wcroua s`urjcs `o aildt emf refi` wevcs puttiml `ut tdc cmcrly `o 577 leaexics. Vdcy devc bccm Uuesers erc ifcmtioicf es fistemt leaexics witd em cm`rk`us jcmtrea kess.
ZVERZ Zters erc dulc spdcrcs `o dyfr`lcm (D) emf dcaiuk (Dc). Mujacer ousi`m `jjurs et 53 kiaai`m fclrccs es dyfr`lcm (D) Zters erc mujaci saek t`lctdcr t` o`rk tdc dcaiuk (Dc) mujaci. (It is t`` d`t o`r cacjtr`ms t` `rbit tdc mujacus emf o`rk et`ks) . J`mstcaaeti`ms erc lr`ups `o sters wdijd o`rk e pettcrm. Vdc sum des e kess `o hl emf is 5.6 kiaai`m hk im fiekctcr, emf jeaacf e ycaa`w fwero. Bauc liemts jem bc 57 s`aer kesscs, wdiac rcf fweros erc `may 7.5 s`aer kesscs. Im sizc e rcf fwero is acss tdem deao tdc su m’s sizc, wdiac tdc billcst sters erc supcrliemts `o :77 s`aer kesscs emf w`uaf cxtc mf `ut t` Nupitcr’s `rbit, io paejcf et tdc jcmtrc `o tdc s`aer systck. Zuroejc tckpcreturc fctcrkimcs e ster’s j`a`ur. Jaess
Zuroejc Vckpcreturc (H)
J`a`ur
@ B E O L H K
:7,777 57,777 t` :7,777 57,777 ?,777 t` 57,777 ?,777 6,377 :,777
Bauc Bauc/\ditc \ditc \ditc/Ycaa`w Ycaa`w @remlc Rcf
BASC LIEMVZ Vdcsc sters erc ousiml vcry oest, s` fcspitc bciml 57 s`aer kesscs (K s), tdcy `may aest :-57 kiaai`m ycers, emf tdcm cxpa`fc es supcrm`vec. Vdc j`rc bcj`kcs e baejh d`ac io it cxjccfs : K s, wdiac j`rcs bctwccm 5.6 K s emf : K s bcj`kc mcutr`m sters, emf bcjeusc tdcy spim repifay tdcy eppcer t` oaesd `r puasetc emf s` tcrkcf pua sers. Vdc lrevity is s` imtcmsc tdet et`ks erc jrusdcf t`lctdcr emf tdcrco`rc tdc ster is vcry fcmsc. Wr`t`ms emf cacjtr`ms j`kbimc t` o`rk mcutr`ms.
\DIVC F\EROZ Vdcsc sters devc e dild suroejc tckpcreturc (57,777 t` :7,777H), s` td cy sd`uaf bc brildt, but simjc tdcy erc `may Certd sizcf, tdcir suroejc erce is skeaa, s` es e rcsuat, tdcy a``h fik. Vdcsc sters erc tdc j``aiml j`rcs acot `vcr eotcr rcf liemts oeia, emf s` tdcrco`rc m` ousi`m `jjurs. Vdcsc sters erc eas` cxtrckcay fcmsc.
RCF LIEMVZ Rcf liemts o`rk wdcm sum sizcf sters (7.3 t` 6 K s) burm-up eaa `o tdc dyfr`lcm et jcmtrc. Es e rcsuat, tdc ster bclims t` a`sc its `utcr aeycrs8 tdcm tckpcreturc emf prcssurc imjrcescs, umtia dcaiuk ousi`m `jjurs. Vdcm tdc ster cxpemfs, tdc suroejc j``as emf rcffcms. Aukim`sity, d`wcvcr, imjrcescs fcspitc bciml j``acr, fuc t` aerlc sizc.
ZSWCRLIEMVZ Zupcrliemts erc ek`ml tdc k`st kessivc sters. Zters aerlcr tdem tdc sum (jaesscs B, E emf O) wiaa cvcmtueaay cxpemf t` bc 377 tikcs aerlcr. Zupcrliemts typijeaay devc e kess im cxjcss `o 57-?7 K s emf erc up t` 23,777 tikcs k`rc aukim`us tdem tdc Zum. O`r e livcm aukim`sity, rcf supcrliemts erc aerlcr tdem bauc supcrliemts, bcjeusc tdcy refietc acss cmcrly pcr umit `o erce. Emtercs (tdc dcert `o tdc Zj`rpi`m) emf Bctcalcusc ( @ri`m’s rildt erkpit ) erc rcf supcrliemts, wdiac Rilca (tdc brildtcst im @ri`m) is e bauc supcrliemt.
RCF F\EROZ Rcf fweros erc skeaa emf rcaetivcay j``a sters (tdcy devc e kess `o bctwccm 7.7<3-7.3K s, emf e suroejc tckpcreturc `o er`umf 6777H), emf bcjeusc `o tdis tdcy ousc sa`way, s` aest up t` : triaai`m ycers. Vdcy eas` devc e j`mstemt aukim`sity8 emf dcaiuk wdijd buiafs up im tdc jcmtrc `o tdc ster is j`mstemtay kixcf tdr`uld`ut tdc rcst `o tdc ster. Vdcm tdcy nust sa`way oefc ewey, `mjc eaa tdcir dyfr`lcm (D) is ouscf imt` dcaiuk (Dc). Rcf fweros fuc t` tdcir a`w aukim`sity, jemm`t bc sccm or`k Certd witd tdc mehcf cyc.
BR@\M F\EROZ Br`wm fweros (`rilimeaay jeaacf baejh fweros) erc bctwccm tdc sizc `o Nupitcr emf e skeaa ster (er`umf 7.7<3 K s `m evcrelc). Br`wm fweros, fuc t` tdcir sizc, erc m`t ebac t` susteim tdc ousi`m `o dyf r`lcm imt` dcaiuk.
KEIM ZCUSCMJC Vdc keim scqucmjc remlcs or`k rcf fweros t` bauc liemts, ousiml sa`w emf oest rcspcjtivcay, emf tdus suroejc tckpcreturcs emf j`a`urs rcspcjtivcay t``.
@VDCR WERVZ @O VDC SMI_CRZC BIMERY ZVERZ Bimery sters erc e ster systck j`mteimiml tw` sters `rbitiml er`umf cejd `tdcr, emf jem eppcer es `mc ster or`k e lrcet fistemjc. D`wcvcr, estr`m`kcrs jem ifcmtioy bimery sters by tdc lreviteti`mea imoaucmjc tdcy devc `m cejd `tdcr, wdijd des em coocjt `m tdcir aukim`sity. Bimery sters erc vcry j`kk`m. Vw` cxekpacs `o bimery sters imjaufc imjaufc Zirius, emf Jylmus T-5 (`o wdijd `mc kckbcr is pr`bebay e baejh d`ac)
BAEJH D@AC Baejh d`acs erc cxtrckcay skeaa im sizc, but devc em cxtrckcay dild kess. Vdc lreviteti`mea ettrejti`m `o e baejh d`ac is s` lrcet tdet cvcm aildt f`cs m`t devc tdc csjepc vca`jity spccf t` csjepc it. Baejh d`acs erc a`jetcf im tdc jcmtrc `o cvcry aerlc leaexy emf erc bcaicvcf t` bc jrcetcf et tdc sekc tikc es tdc leaexy tdcy erc im. Ztcaaer baejh d`acs erc tdc rckeims `o e liemt cxpa`fcf ster, wdijd def e kess `o k`rc tdem : s`aer kesscs.
WSAZER E puaser is e mcutr`m ster ckittiml oaesdcs `o cmcrly es it spims, ckittiml refieti`m. It eppcers t` jdemlc its aukim`sity.
MCBSAE Mcbuaec (simluaer mcbuae) erc j`aukms `o dyfr`lcm, dcaiuk emf `tdcr i`mizcf les, wdcrc tdc birtd `o mcw sters `jjurs. Cxekpacs imjaufc tdc @ri`m Mcbuae emf tdc Celac Mcbuae.
Z@AER ZYZVCK @BNCJVZ KCVC@RZ EMF J@KCVZ J`kcts erc ijy beaas `o r`jh emf ijc. Vd`sc tdet erc visibac or`k Certd, `rilimetc or`k tdc @`rt Ja`uf ` r Huipcr Bcat (wdijd is a`jetcf bcy`mf tdc `rbits `o Mcptumc emf Waut`). J`kcts typijeaay `rbit tdc Zum, emf erc lrefueaay puaacf epert by tdc lreviteti`mea cxcrti`m `o tdc Zum. J`kcts devc scvcrea fistimjt perts>
Mujacus> Vdc mujacus is tdc rcaetivcay stebac, k`stay ijc emf les j`rc `o tdc j`kct. Veia (j`ke)> Z`aer refieti`m emf s`aer wimf or`k tdc Zum jeuscs tdc j`kct t` o`rk e treia `o fust emf lescs. Vdis treia `o fust emf les is visibac fuc t` tdc Zum’s refieti`m, wdijd is rcoacjtcf, `r lescs la`wiml fuc t` i`mizeti`m.
Vdc fioocrcmjc bctwccm e kctc`r emf e j`kct is tdet e kctc`r is e ‑sd``timl ster‛ ‚ em `bncjt tdet des cmtcrcf tdc etk`spdcrc, p`ssibay e j`kct tdet des cmtcrcf tdc etk`spdcrc, wdiac e j`kct is em ijy beaa `o r`jh witd 2 teias, 57 hk ejr`ss emf `rbitiml tdc sum.
EZVCR@IFZ Estcr`ifs erc r`jh `bncjts tdet jem bc up t` 237 hk ejr`ss. Kers’ tw` k``ms Fc ik`s emf Wd`b`s wcrc pr`bebay pr` bebay estcr`ifs, wdiac Nupitcr des kemy setcaaitcs tdet wcrc pr`bebay estcr`ifs. Estcr`ifs erc a`jetcf prcf`kimemtay bctwccm Kers emf Nupitcr, witd s`kc a`jetcf im tdc Huipcr Bcat, emf s`kc a`jetcf im ja`sc pr`xikity t` Certd.
WAEMCVZ Waemcts erc spdcrijea `bncjts, m`t aerlc cm`uld o`r ousi`m, but aerlc cm`uld t` bc r`umfcf by its ` wm `bncjts.
@RILIMZ @O VDC SMI_CRZC VDC ZVCEFY ZVEVC VDC@RY Vdc stcefy stetc tdc`ry, wdijd wes pr`p`scf im 5964, stetcs tdet tdcrc wes m` bclimmiml t` tdc umivcrsc. It def eaweys cxistcf. Vdc tdc`ry stetcs tdet leaexics erc j`mtimueaay k`viml ewey or`k cejd `tdcr. Im tdc cxtre spejc, mcw sters emf leaexics erc jrcetcf. Vd`sc mcw sters emf leaexics rcpaejc td`sc wd` k`vc ewey, s` tdet tdc umivcrsc eppcers tdc sekc.
@RILIMZ @O VDC BIL BEML VDC@RY Vdc Bil Beml tdc`ry wes tdc`ry wes e mekc uscf by `mc `o tdc fcvca`pcrs `o tdc stcefy ste tc tdc`ry, Orcf D`yac, t` rifijuac tdc kehcrs `o tdc tdc`ry. Vdc bil beml tdc`ry wes oirst pr`p`scf im 592< by Lc`rlcs Ackeitrc, e Jetd`aij Wricst or`k Bcaliuk.
C_IFCMJC O@R VDC BIL BEML K`st leaexics sd`w tdc ‑rcf -sdiot‛ `o tdcir aildt bcjeusc tdcy erc k` viml ewey. Vdis is e l``f cvifcmjc o`r em cxpemfiml umivcrsc simjc its bclimmiml 5:.< biaai`m ycers el` im e Bil Beml. Vdc`rctijea pdysijists prcfijtcf jcrteim j`mfiti`ms io tdcrc wes e Bil Beml retdcr tdem tdc Ztcefy Ztetc tdc`ry bciml truc. (Im tdus, tdc aetcr tdc`ry, tdc umivcrsc eaweys cxistcf emf kettcr sp`mtemc`usay p`ppcf imt` cxistcmjc. Vdc Bil Beml d`wcvcr ikpaics e bclimmiml). J`mfiti`ms> 5. Dyfr`lcm + Dcaiuk im 47>27 reti` 2. JKB ; j`skij kijr`wevc bejhlr`umf refieti`m sd`uaf cxist es e rckmemt `o tdc Bil Beml. :. Cxpemsi`m ‚ pr`vcf by tdc `bscrveti`m `o rcf sdiot `o aildt or`k leaexics. 6. It sd`uaf a``h acss cv`avcf io wc `bscrvc it (usiml Dubbac `r Hcjh) ourtdcr bejh im tikc. c.l. Im Nemuery 2755, Dubbac des vicwcf leaexics o`rkcf `may :77,777 ycers eotcr Bil Beml. Vdcrc erc stiaa pr`backs. Vdc ifce `o imoaeti`m mccfcf t` bc effcf `m i m 5947 t` cxpaeim wdy tdc umivcrsc is earcefy s` bil.
RCF ZDIOV @O LEAETICZ Vdc k`vckcmt `o tdc sters t`werfs `r ewey witd rcaeti`m t` tdc Certd jem bc kcesurcf usiml tdc F`ppacr Coocjt. F`ppacr m`tcf tdc coocjt `m s`umf wevcs emf rcaeti`msdip bctwccm pitjd emf fistemjc. Vdis is m`tebay prcscmt im `ur feiay aivcs, witd dild-spccf treims emf ecr`paemcs.
\dcm `bscrviml aildt or`k e fistemt ster, s`kc ferh aimcs erc `bscrvcf. Vdcsc ferh aimcs j`rrcsp`mf t` tdc j`a`urs `o aildt, wdijd devc bccm ebs`rbcf by tdc substemjcs witdim tdc ster. Fioocrcmt substemjcs ebs`rb fioocrcmt wevcacmltds, emf tdcrco`rc fioocrcmt j`a`urs. By ifcmtioyiml, tdc kissiml wevcacmltds (j`a`urs), estr`m`kcrs jem oilurc wdet cackcmts j`kp`sc tdc ster. Im kemy jescs, tdcsc kissiml wevcacmltds (j`a`urs) erc sdiotcf or`k tdcir cxpcjtcf p`siti`ms. Vdcsc jdemlcs, rcocrrcf t` es F`ppacr sdiots erc>
Rcf sdiot ‚ wdcm tdc kissiml wevcacmltds sdiot t` a`mlcr wevcacmltds, wdijd devc a`wcr orcqucmjics `r k`rc ‑rcffcr‛ orcqucmjics tdem cxpcjtcf is jeaacf e rcf sdiot emf rcsuats or`k e ster k`viml ewey witdim rcaeti`m t ` tdc Certd. Mcerby `bncjts sujd es Zirius (tdc F`l Zter), erc k`viml ewey or`k us emf fispaey tdis rcf sdiot. Bauc sdiot ‚ wdcm tdc kissiml wevcacmltds sdiot t` sd`rtcr wevcacmltds, wdijd devc dildcr orcqucmjics `r k`rc ‑baucr‛ orcqucmjics tdem cxpcjtcf is jeaacf e bauc sdiot emf rcsuats or`k e ster k`viml ja`scr witdim rcaeti`m t` tdc Certd.
Z`kc sters sd`w eatcrmetc jdemlcs bctwccm rcf sdiots emf bauc sdiots sullcstiml tdet tdc ster is umfcr tdc lreviteti`mea imoaucmjc `o em `rbitiml ster. Vdc brildtmcss `o tdc jirjaiml ster rcfujcs j`rrcsp`mfs t` tdc eppr`prietc sdiot `o tdc keim ster k`viml im rcsp`msc t` tdc lreviteti`mea imoaucmjcs `o tdc `tdcr ster. @m e kujd aerlcr sjeac, tdc stufy `o F`ppacr sdiots jem fctcrkimc tdc k`vckcmt `o leaexics, emf pr`vifcs em ekeziml pijturc `o tdc umivcrsc. E rcaetivcay skeaa ek`umt `o leaexics, imjaufiml tdc Emfr`kcfe Leaexy is k`viml t`werfs us, but tdc ken`rity `o leaexics fispaey rcf sdiot, emf erc k`viml ewey or`k tdc Certd witd j`msifcrebac spccf. Estr`m`kcr, Cfwim Dubbac (`o wdijd tdc Dubbac Zpejc Vcacsj`pc is mekcf im d`m`ur `o) oirst imvcstiletcf tdc rcaeti`msdip bctwccm tdc sizc `o tdc rcf sdiot emf tdc fistemjc witd rcaeti`m t` Certd. Vdis is jeaacf Dubbac’s Aew. Vdis aew stetcs tdc ourtdcr ewey e leaexy io, tdc lrcetcr its rcf sdiot is, emf tdcrco`rc tdc oestcr it is k`viml ewey or`k us. Vdis rcf sdiot is prcscmt or`k emy p`imt witdim tdc umivcrsc, m`t nust tdc paemct Certd, es tdis is j`msistcmt witd Dubbac’s aew.
VDC EOVCRLA@\ Es spejc cxpemfcf, tdc tckpcreturc j``acf. W`siti`ms (p`sitivcay jderlcf cacjtr`ms) emf cacjtr`ms o`rkcf, emf tdcm tdcsc j`aaifcf t` o`rk pr`t`ms emf mcutr`ms, wdijd cvcmtueaay o`rkcf tdc mujaci `o tdc oirst : cackcmts. \dcm tdc tckpcreturc j``acf cm`uld, tdc mujaci jepturcf tdc cacjtr`ms, o`rkiml tdc et`k. Lc`rlc Lek`w emf Reapd Eapdcr pr`p`scf tdcir vcrsi`m `o tdc bil beml tdc`ry im 5964. Vdcy jeajuaetcf tdet tdc umivcrsc w`uaf devc e tckpcreturc `o 2.< ·J `r (2.< ·H) eb`vc ebs`autc zcr`. Vdet is -2<7·J `r 2.< ·H. Emytdiml witd e tckpcreturc eb`vc ebs`autc zcr` (7·H `r er`umf -2<:.<·J) ckits refieti`m. Vdc meturc `o tdc refieti`m fcpcmfs `m tdc tckpcreturc.
Lek`w prcfijtcf tdet bcjeusc it’s tckpcreturc, tdc umivcrsc w`uaf bc c kittiml em ‑eotcrla`w‛ `o refieti`m. Vdis eotcrla`w bcjekc hm`wm es j`skij kijr`wevc bejhlr`umf refieti`m emf wes fisj`vcrcf im 59?3. Its fisj`vcry put em cmf t` tdc stcefy stetc tdc`ry.
VDC CMF @O IV EAA Vdcrc erc tdrcc tdc`rics o`r d`w tdc umivcrsc kildt cmf>
Vdc bil jrumjd tdc`ry> Vdc bil jrumjd is wdcrc tdc umivcrsc wiaa smep bejh `mt` itscao im e —bil jrumjd’. Io tdis deppcms, tdc cmf rcsuat wiaa bc e simlac p`imt, tdc simluaerity. Z`kc j`sk`a`lists bcaicvc tdet tdis wiaa bc o`aa`wcf by em`tdcr bil beml. Vdc bil orcczc tdc`ry> Vdc bil orcczc is wdcrc tdc cxpemsi`m `o tdc umivcrsc j`mtimucs emf sters usc up eaa tdcir ouca emf burm `ut, jeusiml paemcts t` orcczc. Vdc umivcrsc w`uaf tdcm j`msist `o sjettcrcf pertijacs tdet w`uaf mcvcr kcct eleim. Vdc bil rip tdc`ry> Vdc bil rip is wdcrc tdc umivcrsc rips itscao epert vi`acmtay es e rcsuat `o cxpemfiml et em imjrcesiml spccf. Ejj`rfiml t` tdis tdc`ry, tdc cmf `o tdc umivcrsc wiaa eas` bc tdc cmf `o tikc itscao.
t;7s M` spejc `r tikc
Eaa cmcrly j`mjcmtretcf im simlac p`imt.
t ; + 57 -6: s Vikc emf spejc def bclum. Zpejc wes cxpemfiml quijhay.
Vckpcreturc `o 57:: Jcasius
t ; + 57 -:6 s Smivcrsc is sizc `o pce. Kettcr cxistcf es p`sitr`ms emf cacjtr`ms.
Wertijacs j`aaifcf witd cejd `tdcr, rcacesiml dulc ek`umts `o cmcrly im tdc o`rk `o aildt. aildt.
t ; +57-6 s Wr`t`ms emf mcutr`ms o`rkcf fuc t` j`aaisi`ms bctwccm skeaa pertijacs.
Smivcrsc wes vcry brildt, fuc t` aildt bciml j`mstemtay rcoacjtcf by pertijacs.
t ; +57 -2 s Smivcrsc wes stiaa cxpemfiml, emf j``aiml repifay.
Vdc umivcrsc wes m`w, tdc sekc sizc es s`aer systck
t ; +5 s J``acf t` tckpcreturc `o eb`ut 57 biaai`m fclrccs Jcasius.
Vdc umivcrsc wes eb`ut 57 26 hk ejr`ss.
t ; + 3 kim Mujaci `o dyfr`lcm, dcaiuk emf aitdiuk def o`rkcf.
Et`ks def m`t yct cxistcf.
t ; + :77, 777 ycers Smivcrsc eb`ut 57 -: `o jurrcmt sizc. Vckpcreturc def j``acf t` :,777 fclrccs J casius.
Cacjtr`ms def sa`wcf f`wm t` bc jepturcf by tdc mujaci, o`rkiml tdc et`ks `o tdc oirst : cackcmts.
t ; + 277,777,777 ycers Oirst sters eppcercf j`msistiml `o et`ks `o dyfr`lcm, dcaiuk emf aitdiuk puaacf t`lctdcr.
Mujacer rcejti`ms stertcf o`rkiml dcevicr mujaci. Zwiraiml ja`ufs `o kettcr j``acf emf o`rkcf paemcts.
t ; 5,777,777,777 ycers Vdc umivcrsc wes bclimmiml t` bcj`kc e aittac 'aukpy'
O`rjc `o lrevity puaacf kettcr t`werfs tdc 'aukpicr' rcli`ms o`rkiml leaexics.
@RILIMZ @O VDC Z@AER ZYZVCK
Vdc umivcrsc is td`uldt t` bc 53-27 biaai`m ycers `af. Z`kc sters im `ur leaexy erc td`uldt t` bc ≕ 5: biaai`m ycers `af. @ur Zum is eb`ut 6.? biaai`m ycers `af. Im eb`ut 3 biaai`m ycers or`k m`w, `ur sum wiaa bcj`kc e rcf liemt tdcm wditc fwero emf fic. Vdis ikpaics `ur Zum is e y`uml ster. Vdc k`st ejjcptcf tdc`ry o`r tdc o`rketi`m `o tdc s`aer systck is tdc ‑Mcbuae Dyp`tdcsis‛. Ejj`rfiml t` tdis tdc`ry em imtcrstcaaer ja`uf `o dyfr`lcm les `r mcbuae is cncjtcf or`k em cxpa`fiml `afcr ster. Et s`kc p`imt imsifc tdc mcbuae, sd`jhwevcs j`uaf devc jeuscf tdc lescs t` spim (im wdet is rcocrrcf t` es em emluaer k`ti`m) emf j`aacjts k`rc kettcr (im tdc o`rk `o dyfr`lcm les) fuc t` tdc o`rjc `o its `wm lrevity, cvcmtueaay o`rkiml `ur Zum. (Vdc Zum tehcs up eb`ut 94.2% `o tdc t`tea kess `o tdc Z`aer Zystck) Vdc lrevity p`tcmtiea cmcrly jeuscf by tdc lr`wiml ster (im tdis jesc, `ur Zum) is j`mvcrtcf t` dcet cmcrly. \dcm tdc suroejc tckpcreturc rcejdcs 55 kiaai`m ·J, mujacer ousi`m bclims. Cackcmts o`rkcf up t` ir`m (cackcmt m` 2?) witdim e ster, `tdcr cackcmts rcquirc t`` kujd k`rc cmcrly emf erc o`rkcf furiml supcr m`vec (siml. supcrm`ve). Cackcmts erc m`t o`rkcf witdim e paemct sujd es Certd, es tdc tckpcreturc is m`t d`t cm`uld t` jeusc mujacer ousi`m, yct mcw j`kp`umfs erc o`rkcf witdim tdc jcmtrc `o tdc paemct. Es tdc rcst `o ketcriea wdiracf er`umf tdc fisj `o tdc Zum it o`rkcf ‑jaukps‛. Vdcsc jaukps cvcmtueaay erc td`uldt t` devc o`rkcf tdc paemcts emf k``ms.
VDC CACJVR@KELMCVIJ ZWCJVRSK Cacjtr`kelmctij (`r CK) wevcs eaa trevca et tdc sekc spccf im e vejuuk. Vdis spccf is k/s `r er`umf k/s `r :77,777 hk/s. Im laess tdc spccf fr`ps t` k/s. Vdc wevcs eaa devc fioocrcmt orcqucmjics (o) emf wevc acmltd ( θ )
\E_CZ Vdc o`aa`wiml sykb`as erc uscf t` rcprcscmt pr`pcrtics `o wevcs> V ‚ pcri`f `o tikc im scj`mfs (tikc o`r wevcacmltd t` pess e livcm p`imt)
E ‚ ekpaitufc im kctrcs, tdet is fistemjc or`k 7 t` jrcst `r tr`uld (dcildt `o jrcst)
o ‚ orcqucmjy im dcrtz (Dz) (m` `o wevcs pcr scj`mf)
θ (aekbfe) ‚ wevcacmltd im kctrcs v ‚ vca`jity ‚ spccf im kctrcs pcr scj`mf 2e ‚ tdc wevc dcildt, is cquea t` twijc tdc ekpaitufc emf is im kctrcs Vremsvcrsc wevcs erc wevcs wdcrc tdc pertijacs `sjiaaetc bejh emf o`rtd pcrpcmfijuaer t` tdc fircjti`m tdet tdc wevc is k`viml. A`mlitufimea wevcs erc wevcs wdcrc tdc pertijacs `sjiaaetc bejh emf o`rtd ea`ml tdc fircjti`m tdet tdc wevc is k`viml.
WR@WCRVICZ @O AILDV Aildt is kefc by aukim`us b`fics sujd es sters, imjemfcsjcmt aildt-buabs, oau`rcsjcmt tubcs, la`w w`rks emf oircoaics (bi`aukimcsjcmjc) emf la`w-stijhs (jdckiaukimcsjcmjc). E aildtd`usc vibretcs im eaa fircjti`ms8 its aildt is seif t` bc ump`aeriscf. E p`aeriscf oiatcr wiaa cmebac `may tdc fircjti`m t` pess, tdus p`aerisiml tdc aildt.
\E_CACMLVDZ @O _IZIBAC AILDV A@MLCR \E_CACMLVDZ
Imore-rcf (IR) is <77 mem`kctrcs t` eb`ut 2-: kk
Kijr`wevcs erc saildtay a`mlcr et er`umf 57 jcmtikctrcs im `vcms, but 5 `r 2 jcmtikctrcs io l`iml up t` setcaaitcs
Refi` wevcs jem bc 5-2 kctrcs a`ml emf cvcm up 3 hia`kctrcs im acmltd.
ZD@RVCR \E_CACMLVDZ
S_ reys erc or`k 677 t` 577 mem`kctrcs
T reys erc cvcm skeaacr or`k 577 mem`kctrcs f`wm t` 7.5 mem`kctr cs
κ reys (lekke (lekke reys) erc 7.5 7.5 mem`kctrcs
