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String Harmonics in Ravel’s Orchestral Works
by
Leonardo Lebas
Written in partial fulfillment of his Master’s degree at Penn State. Available exclusively to members of the Conductors Guild with permission by the author.
© 2006
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String Harmonics in Ravel’s Orchestral Works Preface Ravel used string harmonics extensively in his original orchestral works as well as in his orchestrations of his piano pieces. In some cases, it is a difficult task to realize the actual sounds for Ravel’s string harmonic notation. The most difficult cases occur when Ravel asks for third, fourth, fifth, and sixth natural string harmonics. He indicated them writing a diamond-shaped headed note in the position of the nodal point to be touched, but he very seldom specified on which string he wanted the harmonic to be played. This paper is a practical guide to finding solutions for all of Ravel’s orchestral string harmonics. The text is divided into four parts:
1) Introduction In this preliminary section, I briefly address the essentials of natural and artificial harmonics, stating musical parameters to understand the third part of this text, I describe Ravel’s string harmonic notation, and I describe the classification used to examine Ravel’s string harmonics cases
2) Use of Harmonics in Orchestral Bowed String Instruments – Overview In the second part of this paper, I offer a comprehensive view of the use and appreciation of strings harmonics from the 18th to the 20th centuries. I mention composers who used string harmonics in their works, as well as theorists who described this device in their orchestration treatises.
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3) String Harmonics in Ravel’s Orchestral Works In this section, I present the actual sounds, commentary, for all the string harmonics in the following orchestral works by Ravel: Rapsodie espagnole (1907-8), Pavane pour une infante défunte (1910), Ma mère l'oye (1911-12), Valses nobles et sentimentales (1912), Daphnis et Chloé (Suite no. 2, 1913), Alborada del gracioso (1918), Le tombeau de Couperin (1919), La valse (1919-20), Tzigane, rapsodie de concert (1924), Concerto pour le main gauche (1929–30), and Concerto pour piano et orchestre (1929-31).
4) Conclusion I present possible reasons that led Ravel to use string harmonics in specific orchestral excerpts, as well as I state final ideas about Ravel’s orchestral use of string harmonics in bowed string instruments.
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Introduction
String Natural Harmonics1 Every orchestral bowed string instrument can produce natural harmonics by lightly touching at the different nodes of any open string. Reference Table of Natural Strings Harmonics for the Orchestra
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For a full explanation of natural and artificial string harmonics, I recommend the reading of Walter Piston’s Orchestration, Stringed Instruments (p. 29 – 31), and Samuel Adler’s Study of Orchestration, Bowed String Instruments (p. 42 – 48).
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Artificial Harmonics On the violin and the viola, the securest way to produce artificial harmonics is by stopping a pitch with the first finger and sligthly pressing a node a fourth above the stoped note. On the cello, artificial harmonics are produced by stopping the fundamental with the thumb and touching lightly one fourth above it with the third or fourth finger. The actual sound is two octaves above the stopped pitch. The "touch fifth" artificial harmonics are possible and their actual sounds are one octave above the note that is slightly pressed. Double bass orchestral artificial harmonics are not recommended. The orchestral higher limits for violin, viola, and cello artificial harmonics are:
In this paper, I have used the following octave-designation system:
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In string divisi situations, the higher voice is named by the instrument name plus divisi 1, even though its notation as a harmonic is below the following lower voice. The following lower voice is named by the instrument name plus divisi 2, and so on as needed. All the instruments are written in C, I wrote actual sounds for all the transposing instruments including double-basses and piccolo. In cases where an instrument alternates harmonic and natural sounds, I wrote the sign “o” above the harmonic sounds to differentiate them from the natural sounds. In this paper, the abscence of the “o” sign above string bowed instrument pitches throughout an example means that the instrument plays only harmonics. However, the sign “o” above a harp’s note always indicates a harmonic sound and it sounds one octave higher than written. For Ravel’s orchestral works examples, I have followed Editions Durand & Cie, Paris.
Ravel’s String Harmonics Notation After doing an in - depth study of all string harmonics in Ravel’s orchestral works, I arrived at conclusions regarding his notational decisions for string harmonics. Even though Ravel’s manner of indicating orchestral string harmonics has been critiziced as imprecise, I find that he followed the practice of his times. Moreover, in spite of some inconsistencies, I believe that Ravel’s string harmonics notation is clear, logical, and predictable.
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1) Second natural string harmonics: In his orchestral works, Ravel used the sign "o" to indicate the second natural string harmonic. The only three exceptions to this rule are in m. 37 of Prélude à la Nuit from Rapsodie Espagnole, first violins divisi 1, where the sign "o" indicates the fourth natural harmonic of A string, in Alborada del Gracioso, m. 130, where Ravel used a diamond-shaped note to indicate the second natural harmonic in cellos divisi 1, and in the same work, where the composer used the sign “o” to indicate a third natural harmonic (see Example A; 1 h, p. 32; 6 g, p. 63).
Example A Valses Nobles-VII, m. 34
2) Third, fourth, fifht, and sixth natural harmonics: Ravel indicated all the other natural harmonics in three different ways; (a) He wrote as a regular note the open string where the harmonic has to be played. Above it, he wrote a diamond -shaped note indicating the pitch where the node producing the desired note is found on the string. At the top, he wrote the actual sound in bracket (see Example B).
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Example B Rapsodie Espagnole, Prélude à la nuit, m. 41
(b) Ravel wrote a diamond-shaped note and the actual note above it (see Example C). Example C Ma Mère L´Oye, Les entretiennes…m.m. 21-23
(c) Ravel wrote only a diamond-shaped note indicating the pitch where the node producing the desired harmonic is found on the string. These are the cases that cause more confusion because, most of the times, Ravel did not indicate in what string to play the harmonic, as Koechlin stated in his orchestration treatise (p 188, v.1). In theory, there may be more that one interpretation for this string harmonic notation but in fact, the actual sounds are clarified by the harmony or by the orchestral context (see Example D).
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Example D Ma Mère L´Oye, Laideronette…m.m. 44-45
In only a few occasions, Ravel used notation (c) indicating the string where he expected the harmonic to be played (Alborada del Gracioso: m.m. 14 - 15, m. 133, 136, 140, m.m. 164 - 169; Tombeau de Couperin, Forlane, m.m.76 - 78, Minuet; Tableaux, Cum Mortuis, m. 13, and Cabane, from rehearsal number 106 to 108).
1) Artificial Harmonics: Ravel indicated string artificial harmonics by writing a diamond-shaped note above a fundamental note stopped as a normal note. Mostly, the lower note has a regular rhythmic value (see Example E).
Example E Valses…VIII, m.m. 21-24
However, we find a slurred quarter note in 2/4 meter indicating the fundamental for an artificial harmonic in Ballet Des Pousins Dans Leurs Coques from Tableaux d’une Exposition, from m.m. 39 - 45. In other occasions, we see a quarter note as the
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10 fundamental, even though the duration of the harmonic within the bar is longer than one beat. An example of this instance can be seen in m. 90, 92, and 94 of Feria from Rapsodie Espagnole: second violins divisi 2 are playing a third artificial harmonic, and the fundamental note is a quarter note instead of a half note, which is the duration of the harmonic. In few instances, Ravel added the actual sound in brackets (cellos divisi 2 in the last two measures of Prelude a la nuit from Rapsodie Espagnole) or without brackets (Concerto pour piano et orchestre, first violins, last measure of the second movement).
In order to analyze the string harmonics in Ravel’s orchestral works, I divided the different cases in three categories: a) String Harmonics in string ensembles: I include in this class the string harmonic occurrences that involve two or more different string sections playing harmonics simultaneously. Some of them are complex and deserve explanatory comments that clarify the harmonic and/or the orchestral context. b) String harmonics in string sections: I consider in this group the string harmonics that occur in only one string section. Usually, they are self-explanatory and I offer only the actual sound. c) String harmonics in solo instruments: I include in this category instances of string harmonics played by a soloist or a group of soloists of bowed string instrument.
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Use of Harmonics in Bowed String Instruments - Overview Jean-Joseph Cassanéa Mondonville (1711-1772) was the first composer to use violin natural harmonics in an instrumental work. He had an immensely successful career as virtuoso violin player and composer, and he was "considered the equal of Leclair and Guignon as violinist, or Lalande as a producer of grands motets, or Rameau as a composer."2 He was the director of the Concert Spirituel, the biggest, most important public concert series in the 18th century. He composed operas, oratorios, Grands Motets, and instrumental music. His set of violin and continuo sonatas Les Sons Harmoniques (1738) are remarkable because "the work is the earliest known in France to use harmonics in the violin, and the introductory instructions (with a chart) for the performance of harmonics on that instrument was the first anywhere."3 In this work, Mondonville asked mostly for natural harmonics nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, even though in his preface he described how to obtain harmonics nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. Regarding to notation, he created a symbol ( ˜ ) for harmonics, which is curiously introduced in his preface at the end of a list of embellishments. In these sonatas, we will see octaves or bigger intervals, written as if they were double stops, with the symbol ( ˜ ) above the lower note and under the higher note. The upper note is the sound he expects to hear, and the lower note indicates the node where the finger must slightly press. However, he is not consistent: there are many instances where his symbol shows only the actual sound without its respective node, and on the contrary, there are cases where the symbol indicates the node that the performer has to slightly press but the composer does not write 2
Gabriel Banat, Sonatas for the Violin / Jean-Joseph Cassanéa de Mondonville, vol. 5, Masters of the Violin (New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982), 1. 3 Ibid. , 3.
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12 the actual sound. Besides the inconsistency in his notation, characteristic of the string harmonics notation until the second half of the 20th century, Mondonville is a relevant author not only for having introduced string harmonics in bowed strings literature, but also for having "…produced works that remain unique in the history of music and which are still exciting to play and to hear."4
According to François - Auguste Gevaert (1828-1908), the first composer to write orchestral string harmonics was François - Andre Danican Philidor. At the end of the Supplement for the first chapter of his General Treatise On Orchestration (1863), he mentions the air from the opera comique Tom Jones (1765, revised in 1766) as the older usage of orchestral string harmonics, even though he thinks Philidor’s use of string harmonics is not the best one. Gevaert affirms that after Philidor, as far as he knows, no one used this effect extensively.5 Gevaert mentions again the string harmonics Philidor’s Tom Jones in his New Treatise On Orchestration (1885), reproducing this time the pertinent excerpt and criticizing its orchestration problems more accurately: “…(string harmonics) are lost, so to speak, in a noisy flourish of the Horns and Oboes, and cannot have produced a very striking effect. In fact, the French musician’s innovation seems to have attracted no notice whatever.”6 We will have to wait until the mid-19th century to see another French
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Gabriel Banat, Sonatas for the Violin / Jean-Joseph Cassanéa de Mondonville, vol. 5, Masters of the Violin (New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982) , 1. 5 François Auguste Gevaert, Traité Général D’Instrumentation (Gand: Gevaert, 1863) , 213. 6
François Auguste Gevaert, A New Treatise On Instrumentation (Paris: Henry Lemoine & Co. 1900) , 41 – 42.
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13 composer, Hector Berlioz (1803 - 1869), using string harmonics in orchestral works as well as praising their artistic expressiveness.
During the second half of 19th century, theorists and composers highly regarded the section about string harmonics in Berlioz’s Treatise On Instrumentation (1843). According to Gevaert, Berlioz was the first composer that showed to what uses harmonics can be turned in orchestral music7(A New Treatise On Orchestration, p. 42), and in his Instrumentation (1876), Ebenezer Prout (1835-1909) asks students to look for full information on harmonics in Berlioz’s Treatise On Instrumentation8 In his treatise, Berlioz explains in detail how to obtain natural as well as artificial harmonics in the violin, and recommends those that work best in score writing. Moreover, he states his aesthetic impression about the use of string harmonics in orchestral works: he describes the flute-like character of the violin fourth string harmonic and recommends its usage for a cantabile execution of a slow melody. Berlioz considers higher string harmonics' crystalline sound "…especially appropriate for those chords which may be called fairy-like: harmonic effects which will fill our imagination with radiant dreams and conjure the most delicate images of a poetic, supernatural world." P. 29. He quotes his Romeo and Julieta’s Queen Mab Scherzo as a clear example of the latter statement. We will see later that Berlioz’s usage of high string harmonics to describe fairy-like text instances will exert an enormous influence on his colleagues and on future composers including Ravel.
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Ibid. , 42. Ebezner Prout, Instrumentation, (London: Novello, Ewer and Co., 1877) , 18.
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14 Regarding notation for natural and artificial harmonics, Berlioz considers it absolutely necessary to indicate by notes of different size and shape, placed one above the other: the note for the finger touching the string and that of the actual harmonic (on open strings); and, the note for the pressing finger, the touching finger and the actual harmonic (in the other cases). Even though this may result in writing three notes for a single tone, this precaution avoids confusion, according to Berlioz. However, in the enlarged and revised edition of Berlioz’s Treatise On Instrumentation, Strauss adds a small paragraph indicating that in his days the sign "o" above the note (the actual pitch) is sufficient to indicate the execution in harmonics. Strauss says that the older notation makes the score too complicated.9
We observe in History of Instrumentation from XVI Century to Our Days (1878), by Henri Lavoix (1846-1897), the impact that Berlioz’s aesthetic ideas about orchestral string harmonics had in other musicians. Lavoix divided the history of orchestration into two eras: from 16th century to Haydn (1500 - 1750), and from Haydn to "our days" (1750 - 1878). In “Chapter XIV.The Symphony in France: Berlioz , Felicien David, Onslow, Reber”, he praises Berlioz’s orchestral genius to depict dramatic or programmatic situations. Among many other instrumental achievements, Lavoix mentions twice the use of first-violin harmonics in Queen of Mab Scherzo associated with the creation of a fairy-tale effect: "… violins harmonics answer harmonic voices from woodwinds and at the end of the scene the
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Hector Berlioz, Treatise On Instrumentation, trans. Theodore Front (New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, 1948) , 32.
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15 auditor finds the fanciful goddess who has led this ball."10 , and "…for the Scherzo from Queen of Mab, Berlioz achieved charming effects with string harmonics. He is the first composer who used harp harmonics, joining them to those of first violins… The effect of this association is really enchanting."11 Moreover, other composers’ use of orchestral string harmonics gains Lavoix’s attention: In the “Conclusion. - Contemporary instrumentation in Italy, France and Germany (Richard Wagner). – The French School…” Lavoix mentions the violins divisi of the Lohengrin Prelude as a "very curious" case: they are divided in eight parts, four of them playing harmonics and the rest playing natural sounds.12 Later, the author of History of Instrumentation specifies that the first orchestral use of violas playing harmonics occurs in Siegfried, when the hero, after drinking Fafner’s blood by accident, is able to have a conversation with birds (p. 462).13 Once again, we see the use of string harmonics associated with a magic instance of a text. The link is very suggestive in this particular case: as we will see, Ravel wrote violins harmonics to depict birds singing in a mythological context (Daphnis et Chloé second suite - See Example 2 b, p. 36) and in the frame of a fairy-tale (Petit Poucet from Ma Mére L’Oye - See Example 3 b, p. 39).
We can appreciate the increasing interest among musicians in the use of orchestral string harmonics by observing the different treatment that this topic deserved in two of
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Henri Lavoix, Histoire de l’instrumentation depuis le seizième siècle jusqu’à nos jours ( Paris: Firmin-Didot et Cie, 1972) , 436. 11 Henri Lavoix, Histoire de l’instrumentation depuis le seizième siècle jusqu’à nos jours ( Paris: Firmin-Didot et Cie, 1972) , 436. 12 Ibid. , 460. 13 Ibid. , 462.
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16 Gevaert’s works separated by a twenty-two-year gap: General Treatise of Instrumentation (1863) and New Treatise On Instrumentation (1885). In his General Treatise of Orchestration, Gevaert dedicates to orchestral string harmonics one small paragraph in the first chapter. He describes their sound as very sweet and, in some cases, extremely high. Moreover, Gevaert states, "The effects that have been tried to the present in the orchestra have had few results.”14 He considers the string harmonics’ technical issues very complicated, devoting one page of the Supplement for the first chapter to explaining them. The space devoted to orchestral string harmonics increases dramatically in Gevaert’s New Treatise on Orchestration. Instead of relegating instructions for obtaining string harmonics to a Supplement at the end of the book, he explains in a general way this technical issue in the first chapter of his Classification of the Instruments15 (page 7, section 11, IV). In the “Third Chapter, Bowed Instruments: the Violin, the Viola, the Violoncello, the Double-Bass, the Viola d’Amore”, Gevaert shows accurate fingerings to obtain natural and artificial harmonics from each instrument of the strings section, though he clarifies that such tones are little employed in the orchestra. He quotes the second bar of Wagner’s Prelude to Lohengrin as an example of violin harmonics. Gevaert criticizes Wagner’s notation of harmonics in this passage because the German composer only writes the actual pitches he wants to sound as harmonics, leaving the choice of the fingering to the performer. Gevaert affirms: “This presupposes on part of violin-players
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François Auguste Gevaert, Traité Général D’Instrumentation (Gand: Gevaert, 1863) , 28. François Auguste Gevaert, A New Treatise On Instrumentation (Paris: Henry Lemoine & Co.
1900) , 7.
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17 more knowledge than they usually possess; even in the best orchestras only a few have the requisite acquaintance with acoustics.”16 Gevaert illustrates the orchestral use of double-bass harmonics with the first measure of Verdi’s Aida Act III, the scene on the banks of the Nile. According to Gevaert, the harmonics of the cellos and double-basses forming a pedal in three different octaves are part of a texture “…wishing to reproduce the mysterious whir of nature at night in a tropical climate.” 17
During the last decade of 19th century, string harmonics were still considered an uncommon orchestral issue. Frederick Corder (1852- 1932), in The Orchestra And How to Write for It (1895), places string harmonics in the “Appendix” to “Chapter I”, along with other effects such as Sul ponticello, Col legno, and Unusual Tunings. He briefly indicates how to obtain string natural harmonics, which he names "harmonics" and describes as sounding "…in a curious flutely tone".18 He also explains how to obtain artificial string harmonics, which he calls "false harmonics". Corder mentions the diversity in the methods of indicating string harmonics notes and the rarity of their employment in the orchestra. Finally, he recommends trusting in "good violinists, who will not need instructions in the matter."19 Corder cites Wagner’s Prelude to Lohengrin as a well-known and striking example of string harmonics use. Furthermore, he quotes what he considers two equally remarkable passages of string harmonics: Wagner’s Siegfried, II
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Ibid. , 41. François Auguste Gevaert, A New Treatise On Instrumentation (Paris: Henry Lemoine & Co. 1900) , 72. 18 Frederick Corder, The Orchestra and How to Write for it: a Practical Guide ( London: R. 17
Cocks & co., 1894) , 13. 19
Ibid. , 14.
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18 Act, and Verdi’s Aida, Act III. As we have seen, the first two examples are the same than Lavoix had mentioned in his History of Instrumentation. Furthermore, Gevaert in his New Treatise of Instrumentation had considered noticeable the originality of Verdi’s excerpt. In general, orchestration treatises from the end of 19th century do not present new examples of string harmonics. However, Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908) is the exception to this rule. His orchestral works reveal considerable originality in the use of string harmonics, as we can see in the excerpts of his compositions that he included in his orchestration treatise. Rimsky-Korsakov’s first drafts for a full treatise on orchestration date from 1873 and 1874. He went back and forth to this project, interrupted by compositional projects, until his last day. He finished the first chapter of the treatise on the afternoon of July 20th, 1908; the same night the composer was seized with a fourth attack, which proved fatal. Except the first chapter, what today is known as Principles on Orchestration (1912) was prepared for publication by Russian composer Maximilian Steinberg (1883-1946) based on the rather large amount of notes left by Rimsky. In the first chapter, Rimsky-Korsakov addresses briefly the usage of string harmonics in the orchestra. The composer affirms that they were frequently used in his day; however, he judges them not to form a fundamental part of orchestral writing, considering them as an ornament. Rimsky describes them as "cold and transparent in soft passages, cold and brilliant in loud ones, and offering but little chances for expression…"19 His advice is to employ harmonics on sustained notes, tremolando, or here and there for brilliant effects. He considers strings harmonics to be a link between 19
Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, Principles of Orchestration, trans. Edward Agate (New York: Dover Publications, 1964) , 10.
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19 string and woodwind instruments. The example 246 (from Rimsky’s Servilia) of Principles…illustrates this transition from a complex to a simple timbre: we see a chord in oboes, first clarinet, and bassoons closing a phrase eight measure after rehearsal number 228. In the same measure, first and second violins, violas, cellos, and double basses play natural harmonics holding the chord left by wood-winds. First violins prolong the higher note with a tremolo. Even though excerpts 14, 15, 67, 77, 80, 81, 90, 106, 126, 130, 195, 222, 229, 233, 260, and 267 from Principles…are not illustrating the use of string harmonics in Rimsky’s works, their orchestral texture include this technical device in a very original and coloristic way. However, there are other examples that show explicitly remarkable cases of orchestral string harmonics: first, example 227, a fragment from Mlada’s Second Act, shows a special instance of a double-bass solo accompanying the character Lumir by playing natural harmonics on its first string tuned one half-step down. This particular color is reminiscent of the double-bass solo line from the beginning and from page 124 of Ravel’s L’Enfant et les Sortileges. Second, example 230 reproduces an excerpt from Rimsky’s Russian Easter Overture illustrating two solo violins doubling with artificial harmonics a long melody in the first and second violins. Finally, the most interesting case appears in example 276, a passage from Rimsky’s The Christmas Night (rehearsal number 180, 13th bar). In this instance, Rimsky wrote a natural harmonics glissando for cellos, clearly foreshadowing Ravel’s use of this device in Feria from Rapsodie Espagnole (see Example 1 d, p. 26) and in his Concerto pour la Main Gauche (see Examples 10 a and 10 b, p. 77 – 78), as well as Stravinsky’s Firebird and The Rite of the Spring. As we advance in the 20th century, we observe in orchestration treatises an
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20 increasing acceptance of the use of string harmonics in orchestral works. Cecil Forsyth (1870-1941) in his Orchestration (1914), in its time the most comprehensive treatment of the subject, describes extensively string natural and artificial harmonics. The English writer and composer supports strongly to indicate natural harmonics placing a little round "o" above each note that is to be taken as a harmonic. For artificial harmonics he considers already conventional the use of a diamond-shaped note a perfect fourth above the stopped note: "Conductors and players who do not know the meaning and effect of these little diamond-shaped notes are now extinct."20 Regarding to harmonics notation for double-basses, Forsyth recommends marking clearly the notes as harmonics and as "actual sounds", using either treble- or tenor-clef for higher notes. On the other hand, Forsyth introduces interesting cases of orchestral string harmonics. He mentions instances of violin harmonics in the transition between the Sanctus and the Benedictus from Stanford’s Requiem, and in the beginning of the …movement of Dvorak’s New World Symphony. He cites two cases of viola harmonics: mm. n to n from Strauss’ Sinfonia Domestica, and the gradual quintuple divisi from Stauss’ Also Sprach Zarathustra in rehearsal number 18. He cites Humperdinck’s Forest Scene (Act II) of Hänsel und Gretel, where two solo cellos play a chord in artificial harmonics. The well-known passage in Act III of Verdi’s Aïda reappears in this treatise but this time to illustrate the inconvenience of the old-fashioned notation for doublebasses harmonics (the bottom note indicates the string; the middle note the fingering; and the top note the actual sound).
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Cecil Forsyth, Orchestration (London: Macmillan and Co. , 1935) , 333.
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21 Forsyth’s insistence in notational issues is symptomatic of discrepancies among beginning of 20th century musicians regarding to the correct interpretation and annotation of string harmonics.
The next three authors of orchestration treatises, Charles Koechlin (1862-1950), Walter Piston (1894-1976), and Samuel Adler (1928), consider the use of string harmonics a common feature of orchestration, though Piston and Adler associate them with effects of color. Composer, theorist, and teacher Charles Koechlin enriched the information about string harmonics in his Treatise On Orchestration (1955). This treatise is divided into four volumes: Volume I - (a) Study of the instruments, (b) Balance of sonorities; Volume II – Scoring for diverse groups (Strings-Voice-Woods-Combination of groups); Volume III – Orchestration (Study of the Sonority-Scoring with Thorough Bass-Orchestration of Melodies, Accompaniments, Basses); Volume IV – Suite of the Precedent. Diverse Formations of Orchestras-Orchestral Color. These volumes include musical examples, most of them from works written by Koechlin’s contemporaries (Schoenberg, Debussy, Ravel Strawinsky, Casella) and others from his own works. Koechlin addresses extensively the orchestral use of string natural and artificial harmonics in Volume I (pages 186 – 200) and II (pages 14, 68 – 73). The Orchestration Treatise’s author offers natural harmonics tables for all the string instruments. He describes two different notations for natural harmonics: 1) By writing a little circle above the note, which sounds one octave higher, leaving to the performer the fingering choice; 2) By writing a small diamond indicating the place where the finger has to press slightly
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22 on the string. Koechlin illustrates the ambiguity of the latter kind of notation showing excerpts from Ravel’s Rapsodie Espagnole, and the solo violin part of Tzigane, and L’Enfant et les Sortileges. In the second volume of his Treatise on Orchestration, Koechlin mentions the use of harmonics in two instances: First, he shows cases of string harmonics in string quartets (end of Ravel’s string quartet, and the Scherzo of Koechlin’s string quartet). Second, in the section “General Advice”, he explains different ways to use string harmonics effectively in the orchestra. In doing so, he quotes excerpts from Berlioz’s Queen Mab’s Scherzo, Rimsky’s Concerto for violin, Debussy’s Pelleas et Melisande, Stravinsky’s Poemes de la Lyrique Japanaise, L’Oiseau de Feu, and Histoire du Soldat, Ravel’s Concerto pour la main gauche and Chansons Madecasses, L’Enfant et les Sortileges, and Soupir (3 Poemes de Mallarmé) Halffter’s Sinfonietta, where harmonics are written for one, two, three, four or five sections of the strings. On page 70, there is a typing mistake: Koechlin quoted the end of Ravel’s Pavane de la Belle au Bois dormant from Ma Mère LÒye, where double basses play on the E string the fifth natural harmonic. The solution for Ravel’s notation (see Example 3 a and 3 b) is B3, instead of the G3 indicated in Koechlin’s treatise.
Walter Piston published his Orchestration in 1955. This treatise, along with his Principles of Harmonic Analysis (1933), Harmony (1941), and Counterpoint (1947), were translated into many languages and were among the most esteemed and widely used
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23 books of this kind. 21 Piston addresses string harmonics in the Effects of Color section that closes the Stringed Instruments chapter. According to Piston, natural and artificial harmonics are indicated by (a) placing a small circle above the note intended to sound as a harmonic, or (b) writing a diamondshaped note. In the second case, if we are writing a natural harmonic, the diamond shaped note will indicate the pitch where the node producing the desired note is found on the string; if we are writing an artificial harmonic, the diamond-shaped note will be one fourth above a fundamental note stopped by the first finger as a normal note. The latter may add the actual note intended above, with the sign "o" without brackets. In each of the chapters devoted to violin, viola, cellos, and double basses, Piston illustrates the orchestral use of string harmonics by citing excerpts of Copland’s Symphony no. 3 (p. 151, ed. Boosey and Hawkes), Milhaud’s Symphony no. 2 (p. 21, ed. Heugel), Stravinsky’s L’Oiseau de Feu (p. 12, ed. Broude Bros.), Le Sacre du Printemps (p.10, ed. Russe), and Concerto en Ré (p. 17, ed. Boosey and Hawkes) Ravel’s L’Heure Espagnole (p. 121, ed. Durand), Piano Concerto (p. 29, ed.Durand), Rapsodie Espagnole (p. 11, ed. Durand), and Le Tombeau de Couperin (p. 38, ed. Durand), Schoenberg’s Serenade (p. 40, ed. Hansen), Stravinsky’s, Mahler’s Symphony no. 1 (p.3, ed.Universal), Casella’s Pupazzetti (p. 19, ed. Philharmonia),
In his The Study of Orchestration (1984), Samuel Adler (1928) addressed general issues of string harmonics in the second chapter, Bowed String Instruments, under “Coloristic Effects”. He explains what natural and artificial string harmonics are and how 21
Howard Pollack: ‘Piston, Walter', The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell (London: Macmillan, 2001) , xix, 791 – 793.
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24 to obtain them. Adler’s suggestions for notation of natural and artificial harmonics are the same as those given by Piston in his Orchestration. Furthermore, Adler adds a quick reference table of natural string harmonics practical for orchestral scoring. In the third chapter, “Individual Bowed String Instruments”, he treats string harmonics separately for each bowed string instrument. He quotes two extended passages with harmonics: SaintSaens, Violin Concerto, (second movement, last 13 measures), and Borodin, String Quartet No. 1 (third movement, Trio, m.m. 1 - 20), plus three examples of violin harmonics from Copland’s Symphony No. 3 (fourth movement, 3 - 8 measures after rehearsal number 128), Webern’s Six Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6, No. 5 (m.m. 20 - 26), and Stravinsky’s Le Sacre du Printemps (rehearsal number 101)
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String Harmonics in Ravel’s Ochestral Works
Rapsodie Espagnole (1907-08)
A) String Harmonics in Ensemble I.-Prélude à la nuit 1) The first string harmonics ensemble occurs in cellos, violas, and first violins divisi, m. 37 and m. 38. Cellos and violas divisi 1 play on the A string second natural harmonics A4 and A5 respectively. First violins divisi 2 play on the E string second natural harmonic E5, and first violins divisi 1 play on the A string fourth natural harmonic A6. Considering m.m. 37 - 42, I see a three-octave descending gesture beginning in A6 (first violins divisi 1, m. 37 and m. 38) going to A5 (flute 1, m. 39 and 40), and descending from A5 to A4 (double bass divisi 1, m. 41 and m. 42). See Example 1 a.
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Rapsodie Espagnole, Prélude à la nuit Example 1 a
2) The second instance of string harmonics in an ensemble occurs in double bass and violoncello divisi at the last two measures of this movement. Double basses divisi 4 and 3 play on the A string second natural harmonic A2 and third natural harmonic E3 respectively. Double basses divisi 2 and 1 play on the A string fourth natural harmonic A3 and fifth natural harmonic C#4 each in the order given. Cellos divisi 4 play on the C string fifth natural harmonic E4, cellos divisi 3 play on the D string third natural harmonic A4, cellos divisi 2 play a fourth artificial harmonic* C#5, and cello divisi 1 play on the A string third natural harmonic E5. Cellos divisi 2 should play without vibrato to blend with the rest of the ensemble, wich plays
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27 natural harmonics. The final result is a closed A-major chord that ranges from A2 to E5, which is a point of arrival for the four notes ostinato beginning in violas and violins in measure 56. See Example 1 b . Piston mentions this example in his Orchestration , “Cello”, p. 87.
Rapsodie Espagnole, Prélude à la nuit Example 1 b
III.-Habanera The only case of string harmonics in ensemble occurs in muted first violins divided in three parts and muted seconds violins divided in two parts, m. 1, 3, and 5. Second violins divisi 1 play on the D string a fourth natural harmonic D6, first violins divisi 3 play on the D string a third natural harmonic A5 in the up-beat of the second beat and fifht natural harmonic F#6 on the first sixteenth note of the second beat, first violins divisi 2 play a fourth artificial harmonic* D7, and first violins divisi 1 play on the A string fourth natural harmonic A6. As we see in Example 1 c, violins first and second divisi play a D7 chord octave leap from the last sixteenth note of first beat to the first sixteenth note of the second beat. Two harps, two oboes, and two flutes double the
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28 strings in this melodic-harmonic design. Clarinets one and two play a dominant pedal with the characteristic rhythm of the Habanera. This sonority of VI going to a IIb7 under a dissonant dominant pedal resolves to a dominant chord in m. 7 and it is typical of Ravel’s harmonic language. See Example 1 c and 1 c’.
Rapsodie Espagnole, Habanera Example 1 c
Rapsodie Espagnole, Habanera Example 1 c’
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IV.-Feria 1) In m. 6, violins divisi 2 play on the G string fourth natural harmonic G7, and violin divisi 1 play fourth artificial harmonic* G6. Violas and cellos play a natural harmonic glissando on C string in the first and second beat respectively. Ravel asked this to be played sliding the finger over the string near the bridge. These instruments add color and movement to the harp ascending and descending glissando. See Example 1 d. This original effect in violas and cellos foreshadows Stravinsky´s scoring for violas in The Rite of the Spring´s Introduction, m.m. 62 - 66.
Rapsodie Espagnole, Feria Example 1 d
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2) From m.m.137 - 140, strings, second harp, celeste, and horn are the harmonic accompaniment for first clarinet and first bassoon melody. In m. 136 and 137, cellos divisi 2 play on the C and the G string fifth natural harmonic E4 and B4, cellos divisi 1 play on the C and the G strings fourth natural harmonic C4 and G4; viola divisi 2 play on the C string fifth natural harmonic E5 in the second beat, viola divisi 1 play on the C string third and fourth natural harmonics G4 and C5; first violins play on the G string fourth natural harmonic G5. From m.m.139 – 140 cellos divisi 2 play on the C string fourth natural harmonic C4 and G4, cellos divisi 1 play on the G string third natural harmonic D4 and G4; violas divisi 2 play on the C string natural harmonic third G5 and fourth C5; violins divisi 2 and 1 play on the G string fourth natural harmonic G5 and fifth natural harmonic D5 respectively. See Example 1 e and 1 e’.
Rapsodie Espagnole, Feria Example 1 e
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Rapsodie Espagnole, Feria Example 1 e’
3) Feria´s last case of string harmonics ensemble occurs in m. 162 and 163. Double basses divisi 1 play on G string second natural harmonic G3. Cellos divisi 2 play third artificial harmonic* B4 (m.m. 162 - 163) and, in m.163, fifth natural harmonic A4 and E4 on D and A string respectively. Cellos divisi 1 are doubling one octave below in natural sounds cellos divisi 2’s line. First flute and first clarinet double at unison cellos divisi 2 and 1 respectively. See Example 1 f.
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Rapsodie Espagnole, Feria Example 1 f
B) String Harmonics in Solo Instruments I.-Prélude à la nuit In rehearsal number 8, first violin solo 1 plays a natural harmonics arpeggio ad libitum over a cadenza ad libitum by bassoons. Cellos and double basses divisi hold a harmony of Bb7 with diminished ninth. Along with the first violin solo playing the arpeggio, three more solo first violins play a major second thrill on the third, fifth and seventh of the chord hold by the low strings. First violin solo 1 plays on the G string fifth
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33 natural harmonic B5, on the D string fourth natural harmonic D6, on the A string third natural harmonic E6, and on the E string third natural harmonic B6. See Example 1 g. Rapsodie Espagnole, Prélude à la nuit Example 1 g
IV.-Feria In m. 78, 80, and 82, two solo cellos play a glissando from natural sounds D#4-A#4 to D4-A4 fingered as second natural harmonics of the D and the A strings. In m. 84 and 86, two soloist violas echo the solo cellos by playing a glissando from natural sounds C#4-G#4 to C4-G4 fingered as second natural harmonics on the C and the G strings. See Example 1 h.
Rapsodie Espagnole, Feria Example 1 h
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C) String Harmonics in String Sections Habanera Db , m.m. 27 - 30, 59 - 61: natural harmonics (octave C#4-C#5) Feria Vl1, m.m. 1 - 6: fourth natural harmonics (octave G5-G6) Vl2, m. m. 44 - 47: fourth natural harmonic (G5) Vl1, m. m. 170 - 171: second natural harmonic on the E string (E6) /m.m. 172 174, fourth natural harmonic on the E string (E7)
Daphnis et Chloé, 2me Série
A) String Harmonics in Ensemble 1) The first case of string harmonics ensemble happens in m. 2, 4, and 6 in cellos and violas divisi in three and four parts respectively. Cellos divisi 1 and 2 play on the C string third natural harmonic G3 and C3 respectively; violas divisi 4, 3, 2, and 1 play on the C string third natural harmonic C4, second natural harmonic G4, fifth natural harmonic C5, and fourth natural harmonic E4 respectively. This case may be confusing because cellos divisi 1 is notated below cellos divisi 2, and violas divisi 1 and 3 are notated below violas divisi 2 and 4 but they actually sound above them. There is a typograghic mistake in Durand’s edition. The higher violas should say divisi in four parts instead of divisi in three parts. Cellos and viola divisi are playing the minor ninth, seventh, and diminished fifht of F# chord. See Example 2 a.
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Daphnis et Chloé, 2me Série Example 2 a
2)From m.m. 9 - 13, three solo first violins imitate birds singing. Solo 3 plays on the G string a third artificial harmonic* A5 as an embelishment for the fifth artificial harmonic* C#6. Even though the fingering is a descending half step from D4 to C#4, it sounds an ascending major third leap from artificial harmonics A5 to C#6. Solo 2 plays on the G string fifht natural harmonic B5. Solo 1 plays on the D string fourth natural harmonic D6 as an appogiatura for the fourth artificial harmonic* E6. These soloists must be in the forefront of the orchestral texture according to Ravel’s dynamic indications. See Example 2 b.
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36 Daphnis et Chloé, 2me Série Example 2 b
B) String Harmonics in String Sections Db divisi 1, from rehearsal number 175-176: fifth natural harmonic on the A string (C#4) Vc divisi 1, 4 after rehearsal number 175: fourth artificial harmonic (C#5) Db, 1 before rehearsal number 192: fifth natural harmonic on the D string (F#4) Vc, va, Vl 1, 2 before rehearsal number 211 and 212: natural sounds glissandi peaking in a fourth natural harmonic
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37 Ma Mère L´Oye A) String Harmonics in ensemble I – Pavane de la Belle au bois dormant Double basses divisi 2 play on the E string sixth natural harmonic B3 from m.m. 5 - 8 and from m.m.17 - 20. On the second beat of m. 5 and m. 20, double basses divisi 2 play on the A string fourth natural harmonic A3. From m.m. 17 - 19, violas play on the G string third natural harmonic D5. See Example 3 a and 3 a’.
Ma Mère L´Oye, I – Pavane… Example 3 a
Ma Mère L´Oye, I – Pavane… Example 3 a’
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Ravel changed the orchestration of the last eight measures, which are the variated recapitulation of the first eight measures. From m.m. 5 - 8, the first flute plays the main melody whilst the second flute plays a chromatic motive that will recur in movements II (from m.m. 67 - 74) and III (from m.m. 46 - 55 and from m.m. 179 - 188). The first oboe holds D4, the seventh of an E minor chord. Harp plays the same pitch than oboe alternating in half notes a natural pitch D4 with a harmonic sound. In the last four bars of the recapitulation, the main melody and the chromatic motive are in first and second violins respectively. Ravel balanced the new orchestration scoring the D4 for violas natural harmonic instead of assigning the line again to first oboe.
II – Petit Poucet From m.m. 51 - 56, Ravel depicted the moment when Tom Thumb realizes that birds have eaten the crumbs he had left on the ground to find his path back. Double basses divisi 1 play on the D string second natural harmonic D3 during the whole passage. In m. 52 and 54, first violins and cellos play an ascending and descending glissando that peaks in fourth natural harmonic D5 and D4 respectively. In m. 51 and 52, first violin solo 1 plays a fourth artificial harmonics* glissando from F#7 to A7 mimicking a bird singing, which is answered by piccolo, second flute, and first violin solo 2 and 3 in m. 52 and 53. See example 3 b.
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Ma Mère L´Oye, II – Petit Poucet Example 3 b
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40 B) String Harmonics in Solo Instruments Petit Poucet In the last measure, four solo violas play a C major chord. Solo violas 3 and 4 play on the C string fourth natural harmonic C5 and fifth natural harmonic E5 respectively. Solo violas 1 and 2 play the fourth artificial harmonic* C6 and G6 in the order named. See Example 3 c.
Ma Mère L´Oye, II – Petit Poucet Example 3 c
Les entretiennes de la Belle et de la Bête From m.m. 148 -172, Ravel depicted The Beast’s transformation in "a prince more handsome than Amor, who was thanking her (The Beauty) for having lifted his spell."22 Ravel assigned The Beast’s melody (orchestrated for contrabassoon before the transfiguration) to a violin solo playing third artificial harmonics during the first four measures of its long line. See Example 3 d. The use of harmonics associated with a
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Maurice Ravel, Rapsodie Espagnole, Mother Goose, and Pavane for a Dead Princess in Full Score, (New York : Dover Publications, Inc. , 2001) , 123.
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41 transfiguration links this orchestral decision to Berlioz’s use of harmonics to describe fairy-like instances of a story. See Introduction, page 20.
Ma Mère L´Oye, Les entretiennes… Example 3 d
C) String Harmonics in String Sections Petit Poucet Vc, m. 31: second natural harmonic on the G string (G3)/ m. 32: fourth natural harmonic on the G string (G4) Db, m. 60: second and fourth natural harmonic on the G string (G3, G4) Vl 1 divisi 2, m. 67:, second natural harmonic on the G string (G4) Vc divisi, m.m. 71 - 75: fourth and fifth artificialharmonics* (Eb4-G4). Laideronette, Impératrice des Pagodes. Db, m.m. 1- 20: fifth natural harmonic on the A string (C#4) Db, m. 19: second natural harmonic on the G string (G3)/ m.m. 21- 23, fifth natural harmonic on the E string (G#3) Db, m.m. 40 - 42, m.m.177 - 178: fifth natural harmonic on the D string (F#4)
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42 Les entretiennes de la Belle et de la Bête Vc divisi, m. 47, 48: fifth natural harmonic on the C string and fourth natural harmonic on the G string (E4, G4; unison with harp harmonics) Db, m.m. 102 - 104: fourth natural harmonic on the G string (G4) Vc, m. 107: second natural harmonic on the A string (A4). Vc, m.m. 114 - 17: third natural harmonic on the C string (G3) / m. 118, fifth harmonic on the C string (E4)
Pavane pour une Infante Défunte A) String Harmonics in Ensemble Vl 1 non divisi, m. 72: fourth natural harmonics on the G and the D strings (G5D6); Vla non divisi, third natural harmonics on the C and the G strings (G4-D5). (See Example 4)
Pavane pour une Infante Défunte, Example 4
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B) String Harmonics in String Sections Vc, m. 42, 52: second natural harmonics on the G and the D string (non divisi) (G3-D4)
Valses Nobles et Sentimentales A) String Harmonics in Ensemble I In m. 38, cellos play on the G string third natural harmonic D5, first violins divisi 2 play on the G string third natural harmonic D5 and fifth natural harmonic B5, first violins 1 play on the G string fourth natural harmonic D6. See Example 5 a.
Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - I Example 5 a
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II In the last measure, cellos divisi 2 and 1 play on the G string fourth natural harmonic G4 and fifth natural harmonic B4 respectively; first violins divisi 2 and 1 play on the G string third natural harmonic D5 and fourth natural harmonic G5. Cellos divisi 2 and 1 play at unison with first flute G4 and harp’s left hand harmonic B4 respectively, first violins divisi 1 play at unison with harp's right hand harmonic G5. See Example 5 b.
Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - II Example 5 b
III In this movement, Ravel used string harmonics on one hand as part of an accompaniment pattern, and on the other hand as timbre replacement for winds in a pedal texture. From m.m. 17 - 24, double basses and cellos share an accompaniment texture that alternates the same design in two octaves every two measures. Double basses and cellos play on the second beats, on the D string, third natural harmonic A3 and A4 respectively. Horns and bassoons support low strings accompaniment variation of the
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45 register alternating a pedal on A that changes its octave along with cellos and basses. (See Example 5 c).
Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - III Example 5 c
From m.m. 25 - 32, first violins and violas take cellos and basses’ accompaniment pattern. Second violins-cellos and cellos-double basses share the changing octaves pedal that horns and bassoons played before. Second violins play on the D string third natural harmonic A6, double basses play on the D string third natural harmonic A3, and cellos play on the D string third natural harmonic A4 throughout this passage. In this way, Ravel scored for these strings a jumping octave pedal without writing any individual leap for them. In m. 29, double basses play on the D string fourth natural harmonic D4 at unison with viola pizzicato. In m. 33, double basses play on the D string fifth natural harmonic F#4 at unison with first bassoon. See Example 5 d.
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Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - III Example 5 d
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From m.m. 33 - 36, double basses and cellos have the same accompaniment pattern than from m.m. 17 - 24, but playing on the D string fifth natural harmonic F#4 and 5 respectively. From m.m. 37 - 40, cellos and violas have this design, playing on the D string fifth natural harmonics F#5 and 6 respectively. Cellos and second violins play this accompaniment pattern from m.m. 41 - 47, playing on G string fifth natural harmonics B4 and B5 respectively. From m.m. 33 - 36, first and second clarinet and first bassoon play pedal notes F#3, 5 and 4 respectively. Cellos hold their last accompanimental harmonic to take F#5 from first clarinet. Second clarinet has an octave leap from F#3 to F#4 on the third beat of m. 36. Double basses take the latter pitch and, along with cellos, continue the woodwinds pedal in m. 37 and 38, which first bassoon and clarinets resume in m. 39 and 40. From the third beat of m. 40 to the last beat of m. 44, first flute, fourth, second, and first horns, play a B3, B4, B5, and B6 pedal. From pick-up of m. 45 to the first beat of m. 46, first violins replaces second horn playing B3, cellos replace first horn playing B4, and violas supplant first flute playing B5. In the second beat of m. 46, first and second horn play B4 and B3, replacing cellos and first bassoon respectively, therefore, descending one octave the pedal. Finally, from m. 48 to first beat of 49, cellos and violas play the pedal one octave above, playing on the G string fifth natural harmonics B4 and B5 respectively. See Example 5 e.
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Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - III Example 5 e
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49
(Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - III Example 5 e – continued)
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VI In m. 12, violas divisi 2 play on the D string second natural harmonic D5, second violins divisi 2 play on the D string fourth natural harmonic D6, and second violin divisi 1 play on E string second natural harmonic E6. See Example 5 f.
Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - VI Example 5 f
VIII-Epilogue 1) From m.m. 29 - 32, violas divisi 1 play on the C string natural harmonic E5, violin divisi 1 play on the A string third natural harmonic E6. Harp harmonics play the attack to these instruments. See Example 5 g.
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Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - VIII Example 5 g
2) In m. 51 and 52, double basses divisi 1 play on the E string fourth natural harmonic E3, cellos and violas divisi 2 play on the C string fifth natural harmonic E4 and E5 respectively, second violins divisi 2 play on the A string third natural harmonic E6, and second violins divisi 2 play on E string fourth natural harmonic E7. See Example 5 h.
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Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - VIII Example 5 h
3) In the second beat of m. 72, violas divisi 2 and 1 play third artificial harmonics* A4 and B4 respectively; second violins divisi 2 play on the G string fifth natural harmonic B5 and second violins divisi play on the D string third natural harmonic A5; first violins divisi 2 play on the A string fourth natural harmonic A6 and first violins divisi 1 play on the E string third natural harmonic B6. Even though notation shows a minor seventh in second violins divisi and a major sixth in first violins divisi, they are playing major seconds A5-B5 and A6-B6 respectively. See Example 5 i.
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53 Valses Nobles et Sentimentales - VIII Example 5 i
B) String Harmonics in String Sections I Vc, m.m. 32 - 41: fifth natural harmonic in the G string (B4) II Vl 1, m. 13 and 15, third beat; m. 14 and 16, second beat: third natural harmonic on the G string (D5) / m. 14 and 16, third beat: fourth natural harmonic on the D string (D6) Va, m.m. 21 - 22, m.m. 54 - 55: fifth natural harmonic on the C string (E5) First violins divisi 2, m. 26, 28: third natural harmonic on the G string (D5) Vl 2, m. 41, 43, 45, 47: third natural harmonics on the D string (D5) / m. 42, 44, 46: third natural harmonic on theA string (A5)
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54 III Vc, m.m. 5 - 7: fifth natural harmonic on the C string (E4) Db, m.m. 13 - 15: fourth natural harmonic on the E string (E3) Db divisi 2, m. 63, 65, 67: fourth natural harmonic on the D string (D4) /m. 71: Db, second natural harmonic on the G string (G3). Vc, m.m. 71 - 72: third natural harmonic on the C and the G strings (G3-D4) IV Vc, m.m. 21 - 22: fifth natural harmonic on the C string (E 4). From m.m. 19 - 21, bassoon 1 plays E4. This pitch is played by cellos in m. 21 and 22, and violas are continuing cellos’ pitch from m.m. 23 - 24. V Db, m. 4 and 5: third natural harmonic (E3) and second natural harmonic (A2) on the A string respectively. Even though the notation goes P4 up, the passage will sound a descending P5 Db, m. 8, m.m. 23 - 24, 28: fifth natural harmonic on the E string (G#3) Db, m.m. 19 - 20: third natural harmonic on the A string (C#4) Vc, m. 28: fifth natural harmonic on the G string (B4) VI Va divisi 1, m. 9: second natural harmonic on the D string (D5) Db divisi 1, m. 14: third natural harmonic on the D string (A3), at unison with Db divisi 2 pizzicato and harp
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55 VII Vc, m. 20, 23, 26, 29, 112, 115, 118, 121: fifth natural harmonic on the C string (E4) Vl 1, m. 34: second natural harmonic on the A string (A5) Vc, m. 43, 45: third natural harmonic on the A string (E4) / m. 44, 46: fifth natural harmonic on the C string (E4) Vl 1, m. 70, 74: second, third, and fourth natural harmonics on the E string (E6, B6, E7) Db, m. 78: third and sixth natural harmonics on the D string (A3-A4) / m. 80: fifth natural harmonic on the D string (F#4) Db, m. 90, 98: third natural harmonic on the G string (D4) Vc, m. 112, 115, 118, 121: fifth natural harmonic on C string (E4) Vc, m.135, 137: third natural harmonic on the A string (E4) / m. 136, 138: fifth natural harmonic on the C string (E4) VIII Epilogue Vc divisi 1, m.m. 21 - 24: third artificial harmonic* (B6) Db, m. 40: fourth natural harmonic on the A string (A3) and third natural harmonic on the E string (B2) Vl 2 divisi 1 and 2, m.m. 43 - 49: fifth natural harmonic on the G string (B5)
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Alborada del Gracioso A) String Harmonics in Ensemble 1) Strings divisi natural and artificial harmonics are, so to speak, the acoustic resonance for violas and violins divisi pizzicato from m.m. 76 - 103. From m.m. 76 - 80, cellos divisi 3 play on the G string third natural harmonic D4, cellos divisi 2 play on the D string natural harmonic A4, and cellos divisi 1 play on the D string fifth natural harmonic F#5; violas divisi 3 play on the C string fourth natural harmonic C5; second violins divisi 6 play on the G string third natural harmonic D5, second violins divisi 5 play on the G string fourth artificial harmonic* C#5, and second violins divisi 4 play on the D string third natural harmonic A5; first violins divisi 6 and 5 play on the D string fourth natural harmonic D6 and fifth natural harmonic F#6 , and first violins divisi 4 play on the A string fourth natural harmonic A6. See Example 6 a.
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Alborada del Gracioso Example 6 a
From m.m. 83 - 86, cellos divisi 3 play on the C string fifth natural harmonic E4, cellos divisi 2 play on the G string fourth natural harmonic G4, and first cellos divisi play on the D string third natural harmonic A4; violas divisi 5, 4, and 3 play on the C string second natural harmonic C4, fourth natural harmonic C5, and fifth natural harmonic E5 respectively; second violins divisi 6 play on the G string fourth natural harmonic G5, second violins divis 5 play on the D string third natural harmonic A5, and second violins divisi 4 play on the G string fourth artificial harmonic C6; first violins divisi 6 and 4 play on the A string third and fourth natural harmonics E6 and A6 respectively, and first violins divisi 5 play on the D string fourth artificial harmonic* G6. See Example 6 b.
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Alborada del Gracioso Example 6 b
From m.m. 90 - 93, cellos divisi 4 play on the G string third natural harmonic D4, cellos divisi 3 play on the G and the D string fourth and third natural harmonics G4 and A4 respectively, and cellos divisi 2 play on the G string fifth natural harmonic B4; violas divisi play fourth artificial harmonic* A5; second violins divisi 6 play on the G and the D string fourth and third natural harmonics G5 and A5 respectively, second violins divisi 5 play on the G string fifht natural harmonic B5, and second violins divisi 4 play on the D string third natural harmonic D6; violins divisi 6 play on the A string natural harmonic E6, violins divisi 5 play fourth artificial harmonic* G6, and first violins divisi 4 play on the A string fourth artificial harmonic A6. See Example 6 c.
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Alborada del Gracioso Example 6 c
From m.m. 98 - 101, cellos divisi 4 play artificial harmonic* C#4, cellos divisi 3 play same than m.m. 90 to 92, and cellos divisi 2 play on the C string fifth natural harmonic E4; violas divisi play on the C string fifth natural harmonic E4; second violins divisi 6 play same than m.m. 90 to 92, second violins 5 play artificial harmonic* A#5, and second violins divisi 4 play artificial harmonic* C#6; first violins divisi 6, 5, and 4 play same natural and artificial harmonics* than from m.m. 90 - 92. In m. 102, double basses divisi 3 play on the A string second natural harmonic A2. See Example 6 d.
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Alborada del Gracioso Example 6 d.
3) In m. 130, cellos divisi 1 play on the D string second natural harmonic D4. Ravel’s notation for this harmonic (a diamond indicating the real sound) is an exception to his usual notation for second natural harmonics. Double basses play on the D string fifth natural harmonic F#4. See Example 6 e.
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Alborada del Gracioso Example 6 e
4) From m.m. 164 - 169, Ravel reinforced octave leaps in the first and second harps with string natural and harmonic sounds plus contrabassoon, bassoons and horns. In m. 164 and 165, double basses divisi 1 play on the D string third natural harmonic A3; from m.m. 167 - 169, double basses divisi 2 and 1 play on the A string second and fourth harmonic A2 and 3 respectively. In m. 164, cellos divisi 1 play on the D string third natural harmonic A4; in m. 166 cellos divisi 2 play on the D string third natural harmonic A4, and in m. 167 they play on the A string fourth natural harmonic A5 at unison with higher first harp's harmonic. Second violins and violas divisi 2 play on the D string third natural harmonic A5 in m. 165 and 167 respectively. See Example 6 f.
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Alborada del Gracioso Example 6 f
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(Alborada del Gracioso Example 6 f - continued)
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4) In m. 211, double-basses divisi 1, 2 play second natural harmonics on the G and the A strings respectively. One solo cello ends a line playing the third natural harmonic on the A string (E5). See Example 6 g. Alborada del Gracioso Example 6 g
B) String Harmonics in String Sections Db divisi, m.m. 14 - 15: Db divisi 2, second natural harmonic on the G string (G3); db divisi 1, third natural harmonic on the G string (D4) Db divisi 3, m.m. 102 - 103: second natural harmonic on the A string (A2) Db divisi 1, m. 133, m.m. 136 - 139, fifth natural harmonic on the D string (F#4); m. 140: fourth natural harmonic on the G string (G4) Db divisi 2 and 1, m. 151: second natural harmonic on the G string (G3) and fifth natural harmonic on the A string (C#4); m. 153, second beat: third natural harmonic on the D string (A3) and fifth natural harmonic on the D string (F#4)
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Le Tombeau de Couperin A) String Harmonics in Ensemble I-Forlane 1) In second beat of m. 32 and 49, cellos play on the G string fourth natural harmonic G4, at unison with bassoon 1 and lower pitch of second violin pizzicato non divisi; violas play on the C and the G string fifth and third natural harmonics E5 and D5 respectively. Violas’ E5 is at unison with higher pitch of second violins pizzicato non divisi and second clarinet. Violas’D5 is not doubling any other instrument, they hold for one eight the seventh of an E minor chord. See Example 7a.
Le Tombeau…I-Forlane Example 7 a
2) In m.m. 64 - 65 and m.m. 66 - 67, double basses and violas natural harmonics on the D and the A strings are doubling harp harmonics. In m. 64 and 65, double basses play on the D string fifth natural harmonic F#4; in m. 65, violas play on the D string fifth natural harmonic F#6. In m. 66 and 67, double basses play on the A string
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66 sixth natural harmonic E4; in m. 67, violas play on the A string third natural harmonic E6. See Example 7 b.
Le Tombeau…I-Forlane Example 7 b
3) Cellos divisi and violas play fourth artificial harmonics from m.m. 158 - 159. Cellos divisi 2 play fourth artificial harmonic* D#4, that sounds in between first horn and trumpet; cellos divisi 1 play fourth artificial harmonic* G#4, an augmented second above the trumpet. Violas divisi play fourth artificial harmonic* D#5, at unison with first flute. See Example 7 c.
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Le Tombeau…I-Forlane Example 7 c
III – Menuet The only instance of natural harmonics in ensemble occurs from m.m. 43 50 in double basses and cellos divisi. From m.m. 35 - 42, doubles basses 1 and 2 play, over a G2-D3 pedal hold by cellos, a descending and ascending two bars design, which is a secondary line that accompanies the melody on first flute, clarinets and first bassoon. In m. 35, double basses 1 and 2 play on the G string sixth natural harmonic D5, and on the D string they play fourth natural harmonic D4 and second natural harmonic D3. In m. 36, double basses play G open string and on the D string they play again second natural harmonic D3 and fourth natural harmonic D4. This two bars formula is repeated three times from m.m. 37 42, and four more times from m.m. 43 - 50, but doubled one octave above by harp’s harmonics in this ocassion. 67
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From m.m. 43 - 50, doubles basses divisi 3, 4, 5, and 6 hold the G2-D3 pedal that cellos played from m.m. 35 to 42. Doubles basses 3, 4, 5, and 6 play double stops G2-D3 by playing G2 on the G open string, and D3 as second natural harmonic on the D string. See Example 7 d.
Le Tombeau…I-Forlane Example 7 d
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69 (Le Tombeau…I-Forlane Example 7 d – continued)
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70 (Le Tombeau…I-Forlane Example 7 d – continued)
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71 In first beats of m. 41, 43, 45, and 47, Ravel imitated with his orchestration the piano attack and its sustain pedal effect. In doing so, he asked first violins to play ppp pizzicato the octave D5-D6. They recreate the piano attack for the first beat pitches played every two bars by harp and double basses divisi 1, 2 (D5-D6). From m.m. 41 48, cellos divisi 2 hold fourth natural harmonic D5. In m. 41, cellos divisi 1 play fourth artificial harmonic* D6, and in m. 4 they descend to open D3. Cellos divisi 1 repeat this two bars idea three more times. On the one hand, they expand the doubles basses 3, 4, 5, and 6 G2-D3 pedal played before by cellos divisi 1 (m.m. 35 - 42). On the other hand, from m.m. 41 - 50, cellos divisi 1 and 2 are imitating the piano sustain pedal effect by prolonging D5-D6 played in the first beat of m. 41, 43, 45, and 47 by double basses divisi 1, harp, and first violins pizzicato. Moreover, Ravel's orchestration changes for the secondary line and pedal from m.m. 41 - 47 supporting the main melody timbre variation. From m.m. 33 - 40, first flute, clarinets, and first bassoon play the first phrase, whereas clarinets, first horn, and bassoon play the second one from m.m. 41 - 47. There is a typing mistake in the double bass line, in the first beat of m. 69, 71, 73, 75, 77, and 79 from Editions Durand & Cie. Double bass should have written Bb3 as a diamond – shaped note instead of Eb4.
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B) String Harmonics in String Sections I.-Prélude Doube basses, m.m. 28 - 29: third natural harmonic on the A string (E3) Cellos, m.m. 30 - 33: double stop playing G2 as an open string and D4 as the second natural harmonic on the D string Cellos, m. 37 and 39: third natural harmonic on the G string (D4) Double basses, m.m. 82 - 83: sixth natural harmonic on the D string (A4) II.-Forlane Violas, m. 31, 35, 48, and 51: double stops on the C and the G strings, playing fifth and third natural harmonics E5 and D5 respectively. From m.m. 76 - 78, violas’ harmonics are doubling trumpet and harp’s harmonics. From m.m. 84 - 88, first violins play descending double octave leaps (F#6-F#4) fingering a descending perfect fourth. The first eight note of each grupo is a fifth natural harmonic onthe D string. See Example n. III.-Menuet In m. 18 and 20, double basses 2 play on the G string the fifth natural harmonic B5. In m. 24, they play on the D string the fifth natural harmonic A4. In m. 25, cellos play on the A string the fourth natural harmonic A4. In m. 32, double basses play on the D string second natural harmonic D3 and fourth natural harmonic D4. Double basses, m. 83 and 99: fifth natural harmomnic on the D string (F#) Cellos, m. 120: third natural harmonic on the D string (A4)
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73 Violas divisi 2, m.m. 122 - 123: double stop on the G and the D strings playing third and fourth natural harmonics respectively (D5-D6). First violins, m. 123: third natural harmonic on the E string (B6
La Valse String Harmonics in Ensemble 1) From m.m. 321 - 326, double basses divisi 2 play on the A string the fourth natural harmonic A3, and double basses divisi 1 play on the D string the fifth natural harmonic A4. In m. 322, violas play on the A string the fourth natural harmonic A6, and they play on the D string the third natural harmonic A5. In m. 326, cellos play on the D string the third natural harmonic A4. See Example 8 a.
La Valse Example 8 a
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String Harmonics in Solo Instruments 1) In m. 378 and 380, 1 cello solo and a first violin solo play in octaves on the A string the second natural harmonic. In m. 382, 1 cellos solo and first and second violins play in octaves on the D string the second natural harmonic. See Example 8 b.
La Valse Example 8 b
String Harmonics in String Sections Double basses divisi 1, m. 73 and 77: glissando on the A string ending in its second natural harmonic (A2), at unison with the lower pitch of cellos divisi 1 pizzicato. Double basses, m.m. 106 - 107: glissando on the A string ending in its fourth natural harmonic (A3). Violas, m. 156: third natural harmonic on the D string (A5), at unison with first oboe. Violas, m. 164 and 172: second natural harmonic on the A string (A5). 74
75 First violins, m. 166 and 174: second natural harmonic on the E string (E6). First violins, m.m. 284 - 286: third and fourth natural harmonics on the G (D5) and the D (D6) strings respectively. Notation shows an ascending fourth leap and the result is an ascending octave leap. Cellos, m.m. 309 - 311, m.m. 313 - 314, and m.m. 316 - 318: second natural harmonic on the A string (A4). Violas, m.m. 348 - 355: second natural harmonic on the C string (C4) at unison with horn 1. Double basses, m.m. 388 - 389: second natural harmonic on the A string (A2). First violins, m.m. 405 - 411, m.m. 415 - 421: fourth and third natural harmonics on the E (E6) and the A (E5) string. This excerpt is fingered as a descending perfect fourth leap and the sounding pitches result is a descending octave leap. Double basses, m. 573, 575, and 577: fourth natural harmonic on the E string (E3).
Tzigane, Rapsodie de Concert pour Violon et Orchestre 1) From five measures after the rehearsal number 5 to rehearsal number 7, double basses play on the D string the fifth natural harmonic A4, and cellos play on the D string the third natural harmonic A4 and they play on the A string the fourth natural harmonic A5. See example 9 a.
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Tzigane Example 9 a
2) Four measures before the rehearsal number 8 cellos divisi 3 play the fourth artificial harmonic* C#5, cellos divisi 2 play on the D string the third natural harmonic A4, and cellos divisi 1 play on the A string the third natural harmonic E5. See Example 9 b.
Tzigane Example 9 b
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77 3) From rehearsal number 8 to 9, cellos and double basses alternate an A4 pedal every two beats. Second violins pizzicato mark the beginning of cellos D string third natural harmonic A4 and the end of double basses D string fifth natural harmonic A4; violas pizzicato initiate double basses D string fifth natural harmonic A4 and stop cellos D string third natural harmonic A4. This texture is related to the woodwinds pedal: In first beat of rehearsal number 8, harp octave A5-A6 starts first flute and piccolo harmonics A5-A6. One measure after rehearsal number 8, harp harmonic A5 mark the beginning of clarinet A5. This pedal alternating flutes A5-A6 with clarinet A5 is echoed by pedal A4, which changes color between cellos and double basses harmonics. See Example 9 c.
Tzigane Example 9 c
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4) From rehearsal number 11 to two measures before rehearsal number 12, cellos, violas, and second violins divisi hold a chord (D4, A4, E5, A5, E6, A6) that includes the pitches played by clarinets and flutes. First oboe play at the octave some of violin solo pitches, which create a cantabile line that adds G, F, and C to the set. Cellos divisi 2 and 1 play third natural harmonics D4 and A4 on the G and the D string respectively. Violas divisi 2 play on the C string fifth natural harmonic E5, violas divisi 1 play on the D string third natural harmonic A5. Second violins divisi 2 and 1 play on the A string third natural harmonic E6 and fourth natural harmonic A6 in the order named. See Example 9 d.
Tzigane Example 9 d
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Concerto pour la main gauche A) String Harmonics in Ensemble Ravel orchestrated two similar passages creating a subtle texture that features different kinds of strings harmonic simultaneously. From m.m. 289 - 320, double basses, second and first violins divisi hold a C 7 chord with 9th and #11th , while cellos divisi 1 and violas divisi 1 play on the C string natural harmonics glissando. Strings plus first and second bassoon play a subtle background for piano solo’s line. Double basses divisi 3 and 2 play on the G string second natural harmonic G3 and fourth natural harmonic G4 respectively, double basses divisi 1 play on the D string seventh harmonic C4. Cellos divisi 1 and viola divisi 1 play natural harmonics glissando on the C string encompassing second to sharpened eleventh natural harmonics. It seems to be a typographic mistake for cello divisi 1 in Editions Durand & Cie. in m. 290: instead of saying sul Sol (on the G string) it should say sul C (on the C string) as it says for violas divisi 1 in m. 289; otherwise, it is not possible to perform the notated natural harmonics glissando pitches from m.m. 290 - 299 for cello divisi 1. Second violins divisi 2 play on the A string fifth natural harmonic E5, second violins divisi 1 play on the G string fourth natural harmonic G5. First violins divisi 3 and 1 play fourth artificial harmonics* Bb5 and F#6 in the order named, whereas first violins divisi 2 play on the G string the third natural harmonic D6. See Example 10 a.
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Concerto pour la main gauche Example 10 a
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Ravel composed a parallel passage to m.m. 289 - 299 from m. m. 310 - 320: double basses, cellos, violas, second, and first violins divisi hold an A 7 chord with 9th and #11th while second clarinet and first flute have cellos and violas divisi 1 former passage texture; first flute plays in real sounds a harmonic series from second to sharpened eleventh partial, second clarinet begins a canon one measure later imitating first flute one octave below. Double basses divisi 1 play on the A string natural harmonic A3; cellos divisi 2 play on the C string fifth natural harmonic E4, cellos divisi 1 play on the D string third natural harmonic A4; violas divisi 1 play fourth artificial harmonic* C#5; second violins divisi 3 play third artificial harmonic* E5, second violins divisi 2 play on the D string third natural harmonic A5, and second violins divisi 1 play fourth artificial harmonic* C#6; first violins divisi 3 and 2 play on the G string fourth and fifth natural harmonics G5 and B5 respectively, first violins divisi 1 play fourth artificial harmonic* D#6. See Example 10 b.
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Concerto pour la main gauche Example 10 b
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B) String Harmonics in Strings Sections First violins, m. 105: ascending glissando on the A string ending in the fourth natural harmonic A6.
Concerto pour piano et orchestre A) String Harmonics in Esemble The only instance of string harmonics in ensemble occurs in the first movement, three measures after rehearsal number 23. Ravel notated precise fingerings and resulting sounds for two solo double basses, three solo cellos, one viola, and three solo first violins playing natural harmonics. (See Example 11).
Concerto pour piano et orchestre Example 11
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B) String Harmonics for String Sections I Cellos, from m.m. 1 - 3 measures before rehearsal number 1: tremolo of fourth natural harmonic on D string (D5). II First violins, last measure: fourth artificial harmonic B5.
Tableaux d’une exposition A) String Harmonics in Ensemble Promenade 4 In third beat of measure 9, double basses play on the D string third natural harmonic A3, and cellos play on the A string second natural harmonic A4. In the last measure, double basses and cellos play on the D string third natural harmonic A3 and 4 respectively. See Example 12 a.
Tableaux d’une exposition Example 12 a.
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CUM MORTUIS IN LINGUA MORTUA In the last ten measures of this number, Ravel orchestrated right hand’s tremolo alternating every bar first violins divisi tremolo plus flutes with double basses and cellos divisi 1 playing tremolo fifth natural harmonics F#4 and F#5 on D string. In the last measure, second violins divisi and violas and play tremolo a B Major chord over double basses and cellos tremolo. Violas play on the D string fifth natural harmonic F#6. Second violins divisi 2 and 1 play fourth artificial harmonics* B5 and D#6 respectively. See Example 12 b
Tableaux…Cum Mortis in Lingua Mortua Example 12 b.
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86 (Tableaux…Cum Mortis in Lingua Mortua Example 12 b. – Continued)
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LA CABANE SUR DES PATTES DE POULE From m.m. 106 - 108, Ravel lightened the orchestration in a subtle and effective way. In m. 106 and 107, cellos and second plus first violins play on the D and the A strings third natural harmonics A4-A5/E5-E6. In m. 108, cellos and violas play these intervals decreasing naturally volume and loudness. In m. 106, double basses play piano A2-E2. Bass clarinet plays same pitches in 107, balancing double basses by playing mf. In m. 108, double basses repeat the same line but this time their timbre becomes lighter by playing second natural harmonics on the A and the E strings instead of natural sounds. See Example 12 c.
Tableaux…La Cabane sur des Pattes de Poule Example 12 c.
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B) String Harmonics in String Sections 1-Gnomus From m.m. 29 - 36, violas, cellos, second and first violins play ascending and descending glissandos that peak in a second natural harmonic. 5. Ballet de poussins dans leurs coques Violas m.m. 39 - 46: fourth artificial harmonic F5.
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Conclusion
I did not find in the complete collection of Ravel’s letters, writings, and dialogues any technical comment about the use of string harmonics in orchestral works.23 Ravel’s fondness for refined and unusual orchestral sonorities is the fundamental reason for him to use string harmonics, among others orchestral devices. However, I can infer from Ravel’s orchestral works other motives that justify the choice of string harmonics instead of employing natural string notes. I divided these causes in different categories, even though in many cases several reasons are acting together.
1) Instrumental Technique: In some passages, when a string instrument has to play big leaps, Ravel uses string harmonics allowing performers to obtain a double or a perfect octave leap while fingering a perfect fourth or a perfect fifth. As Bruce Arthur Thomas stated: "The difficulty of extreme skips from the low to the high register is avoided by the use of natural harmonics that do not require change of position or crossing of the strings."24 I see examples of these cases in Feria from m.m. 44 - 47, or in Forlane from m.m. 84 - 88.
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Arbie Orenstein, Lettres, Écrits, Entretiennes, (Paris: Flammarion, 1989) 24. Arthur Bruce Thomas, “Ravel’s Orchestration.” (Master’s Paper, The University of Texas, 1954) , 35. 24
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90 From m.m. 102 - 104 of Entretiennes de la Belle et la Bête, Ravel used doublebasses fourth natural harmonic on G string to add volume and intensity to cellos’ line. He could have used natural sounds instead of harmonics, but the excerpt would have lost the power of the double-bass’s open string as well as its harmonics’ brilliance.
2) Transition between woodwinds and strings: As we have seen in this paper’s Overview…, In the first chapter of his Principles…Rimsky-Korsakov considers string harmonics to be a link between woodwinds and strings. As Francisc Poulenc recalled, Ravel was very familiar with Rimsky’s orchestration treatise: “Another time he said to Auric: I'd like your help. I want to write an orchestration treatise like RimskyKorsakov’s, with short extracts from my music, but to show what should not be done…the things I got wrong!”25 Hélène Jourdan-Morhange, violinist and one of Ravel’s closest friends in the last years of his life, recalls his esteem for Rimsky’s orchestral works. " On the question of orchestration, Ravel always said how much he had learnt from reading the scores of Rimsky-Korsakov and Strauss." 26 In the last measure of Ravel’s Pavane pour une Infante Défunte, natural harmonics in the first violins and violas substitute for flutes’ pitches. We find a similar idea in the last measure of Cum Mortuis in Lingua Mortua, from Tableaux d’une Exposition. In this case, artificial harmonics in the second violins, and natural harmonics in the violas and cellos replace pitches from flutes harmonics and piccolo, doubled by
25 26
Nicholas Roger, Ravel Remembered, ( New York: Norton, 1988) , 118 Ibid. , 104.
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91 harp harmonics. In these two instances, the timbre change from winds to strings permits also a more effective diminuendo. See Example 12 b, p. 85. We see a more elaborated timbral transformation from winds to strings in Petit Poucet, from Ma Mere L’Oye. In m. 67, horns replace bassoons by playing their major third Eb4-G4, minor seventh and ninth of an F minor chord. In m. 71, string harmonics of cellos divisi take these notes from horns and hold them until m. 75. In this measure, the first and second violins play cellos’ pitches to begin the initial design that depicts Tom Thumb wondering in the forest.
3) Recreation of the piano resonance in the orchestra: In his orchestral pieces, Ravel used string harmonics to rebuild either the effect of the piano sustain pedal, or just the acoustic resonance of the instrument. If he would not have done this, the sonority of certain passages he orchestrated would have sounded dry or empty. Besides techical issues, Ravel’s composition student and longlife friend Manuel Rosenthal recalls his Maestro poetic of orchestration: "Instrumentation, he said, is when you take the music you or someone else has writen and you find the right kind of instruments…But orchestration is when you give a feeling of the two pedals at the piano: that means that you are building an atmosphere of sound around the music, around the written notes – that’s orchestration."27 In the piano score of the Epilogue from Valses Nobles et Sentimentales, from m.m. 29 - 32, the bass for the right hand melody is a low E1 pedal. In the orchestral score, double-basses and cellos hold the pedal E1-E2, whereas violas and second violins
27
Nicholas Roger, Ravel Remembered, ( New York: Norton, 1988) , 67 – 68.
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92 harmonics are part of the strings texture recreating the piano resonance playing the pedal E3-E4-E5-E6. See Example 5 g, p. 50. In the Alborada del Gracioso orchestral score, from m.m. 76 - 103, chords hold mostly by string harmonics recreate the 2 pedals indication of the original piano score, whereas strings pizzicatto and harp evocate the piano attack. See Examples 6 a – d, p. 56 - 59. Ravel’s orchestration from m.m. 1 - 21 of Laideronette, Imperatrice des Pagodes, from Ma Mére L’Oye, suggests us a composer’s possible use of the piano sustain pedal in this excerpt, which is not indicated in the piano score. The long pedal of the fifth harmonic on A string (C#4) in muted double-basses is a very important feature of the strings’ texture evoking the piano sustain pedal resonance. I have discussed on page 66 Ravel’s attempt to recreate the piano resonance in the Mussette of the Minuet from Le Tombeau de Couperin. See Example 7 d, p.68.
4) Musical depiction of a fairy-tale instance of the text: We have seen in the Overview… Berlioz’s aesthetic impression about the use of string harmonics in orchestral works. This composer inaugurated the orchestral use of string harmonics to depict a supernatural world implicit in a text associated with the music. We have seen also, how Wagner in the Prelude to Lohengrim as well as in Siegfried, Verdi in Aida, and Strauss in Also Sprach Zarathustra enriched the associations of orchestral string harmonics with fantastic or unusual instances of a text. Ravel clearly followed this tradition in the suite Ma Mére L’Oye, where the use of string harmonics is often related to the creation of a fairy-like effect.
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93 From this perspective, the double-basses divisi 2 playing the fifth natural harmonic on E string at the beginning of Pavane de la Belle au bois dormant, and the addition of violas playing the third harmonic on G string in the parallel phrase at the end of this movement set the tone, in a very subtle way, for the fairy-like mood that frames the whole work. In the most emblematic passage of the second movement, Petit Poucet, the excerpt "which depicts the chirping of the birds as they fly down to eat up the crumbs"28: Orchestration of the cinq pieces enfantines-1911: a view from the podium, p. 7), Ravel depicted one of the birds with a glissando of artificial harmonics (m. 51 and 53). Moreover, double basses divisi 1 play a second natural harmonic on D string from m.m. 51 - 54, and second violins from m.m. 51 - 52, as well as cellos from m.m. 54 - 55, play on the D string an ascending and descending glissando that peaks in a second natural harmonic. In the last measure of this movement, violas divisi playing natural and artificial harmonics hold a C major chord along with the oboe. I described on page 38 the depiction of a transfiguration in Les Entretiennes de la Belle et la Bête, the last case of harmonics of Ma Mére L’oye.
5) Creation of objectivity: Charles Koechlin mentioned in his Treatise On Orchestration: "We could not do better than choosing from works by Ravel (who was fond of using them) the followig natural string harmonics examples". Ravel’s affection for natural string harmonics is clearly demonstrated after checking the cases I analyzed in this paper. I examined 124 instances of string harmonics in Ravel’s orchestral works, 28. James Lee Forward, Maurice Ravel: Ma Mére L’oye: Orchestration of the cinq pieces enfantines-1911: A View from the Podium, (Master’s Paper, University of California, 1989) , 7.
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94 and I found only 23 instances where the composer asked for artificial harmonics. In this paper, I marked with an * each appearance of artificial harmonics to facilitate their location to the reader. Remarkably, only in one case of them (Les Entretiennes de la Belle et la Bête, first violin solo, m.m. 148 - 151 ) the soloist is alone in the foreground and able to play artificial harmonics with vibrato. The other 22 artificial harmonics cases are either in the background or in the middleground, sorrounded by other natural string harmonics or natural string sounds, doubled by other instruments, or accompanied by other soloists. Ravel’s choice of natural harmonics as well as the careful use of artificial harmonics are deliberate. Natural harmonics are played on open strings and obviously do not allow to add vibrato to the actual sound. Because during the first quarter of the 20th century the continuous use of vibrato and its association with musical expressivness gradually became the norm, we tend to perceive natural harmonics less subjective than natural sounds or artificial harmonics played with vibrato. Ravel used extensively natural string harmonics to create objectivity; as if they were, so to speak, a filter for individual feelings in his orchestral sonorities. When artificial harmonics occur in Ravel’s orchestral works, their potential "expressiveness" is neutralized (but the violin solo in Entretiennes…) by diverse means: hiding the artificial harmonic among other string natural harmonics, or asking them to play short notes imitating birds twittering, or placing them in the middleground or in the background, or doubling them with other instruments.
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95 Ravel’s search for objectivity through the extensive use of natural string harmonics is stronger in orchestral works that, though evoking the 19th century, avoided the risk of turning emotional or subjective. In Valses Nobles et Sentimentales, there are 32 instances of natural harmonics and only 2 cases of artificial harmonics, both of them in the Epilogue. In the first one, from m. 21 to 24, cellos divisi 1 play the third artificial harmonic as a middle voice among natural sounds of the other strings. In the second one, from m.m. 72 to 74, violas divisi 1 and 2 play third artificial harmonics among other natural harmonics and real sounds of the other strings. In La Valse, there are 12 cases of natural string harmonics and there is no use of artificial harmonics.
Finaly, I noticed that in orchestral works that Ravel composed from 1907 to 1920, the amount of string harmonics that he used varies from one work to the other. I found twelve cases in Rapsodie Espagnole, none in Daphnis et Chloé Suite no. 1, six in Daphnis et Chloé Suite no. 2, two in Pavane Pour une Infante Défunte, thirty-four in Valses Nobles et Sentimentales, eight in Alborada del Gracioso, nineteen in Le Tombeau de Couperin, and twelve in La Valse. In orchestral works that Ravel composed from 1924 to 1931, I observe a stable low use of string harmonics. I found three instances of string harmonics in Tzigane, Concerto Pour le Main Gauche, and Concerto Pour le Piano, and five cases of string harmonics in Tableaux D’une Exposition.
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In conclusion, after analyzing the Ravel’s orchestral works considered in this paper, I draw the following conclusions:
1) Ravel’s string harmonic notation is logical, clear, and predictable. Some of his notational inconsistencies are due to discrepancies about this topic in Ravel’s times. However, these disagreements seem to have permeated the string harmonic notation History from its beginnings, as we have seen in Mondonville’s Les Sons Harmoniques. A detailed description of the Ravel’s notational system for string harmonics is given in this paper’s Introduction.
2) There are aesthetic and practical reasons that led Ravel to use string harmonics in his orchestral works that go beyond his fondess for their sonority. The causes I mentioned in this paper are: string-instrument technical issues; the creation of transitions between winds and strings, following Rimsky-Korsakov’s orchestral tradition; Ravel’s aim of building the piano resonance in the orchestral medium; and Ravel’s creation of objectivity in his orchestral sonority. This list is not all-inclusive and I hope to expand it through further analysis and comparison of orchestral works by Ravel and by his contemporaries.
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3) After having done an overview of the main composers who employed orchestral string harmonics from the –mid- 18th Century to Ravel’s times, and after having summarized comments that some theorists made during the same span of time about the use of string harmonics in orchestral works, I consider Ravel’s use of orchestral string harmonics as a progressive one. In many aspects, Ravel’s use of string harmonics in orchestral works forshadows his contemporaries’ more progressive use of this device in their creations. Ravel expanded the expressive and technical possibilities of orchestral string harmonics, enriching the legacy he received from tradition as well as adjusting it to his own aesthetic interests.
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