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Six Major Environmental Problems in Asia
Urban Excess areas, and the ways in which society Urbanization is a population shift from rural to urban areas, adapts to the change. change.[1] It predominantly results in the physical growth of urban areas, be it
horizontal or vertical. The United Nations projected that half of the world's populationwould populationwould liv urban areas at the end of 2008. 2008.[2] It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized urbanized..[3] Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines,
including geography geography,, sociology sociology,, economics economics,, urban planning, planning , and public health. health. The phenome has been closely linked to modernization modernization,, industrialization industrialization,, and the sociologic sociological al process of rationalization of rationalization.. Urbanization can be seen as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the
proportion of total population or area in cities or towns) or as an increase in that condition ove
time. So urbanization can be quantified either in terms of, say, the level of urban developmen developmen
relative to the overall population, or as the rate at which the urban proportion of the populatio increasing. Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly
replaced by predominantly urban culture. culture. The first major change in settlement patterns was t accumulation of hunter-gatherers of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousand years ago. Village culture is
characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal behavior wherea urban culture is characterized by distant bloodlines, unfamiliar relations, relations, and competitive behavior. This unprecedented unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify in
next fewsemester decades, mushrooming to sizes unthinkable only a century ago. Today, in Asi Master your withcities Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title the urban agglomerations & The New York Times Useful Not useful of Dhaka of Dhaka,, Karachi Karachi,,Jakarta Jakarta,, Mumbai Mumbai,, Delhi Delhi,, Manila Manila,, Seoul and Beijing are each already home Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.
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over 20 million people, while the Pearl River Delta, Delta, Shanghai Shanghai--Suzhou and Tokyo are forecas
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diversity, and marketplace competition. However, the advantages of urbanization are weighe against alienation issues, stress, increased daily life costs, and negative social aspects that
result from mass marginalization. Suburbanization , which is happenin happening g in the cities of the larg
developing countries, countries, was sold and seen as an attempt to balance these negative aspects of urban life while still allowing access to the large extent of shared resources.
Cities are known to be places where money, services, wealth and opportunities opportunities are centralize Many rural inhabitants come to the city for f or reasons of seeking fortunes and social mobility.
Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital are more concentrated in urban areas. Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems that foreign money flows into a country, commonly located in cities.
Economic opportunities opportunities are just one reason people move into cities, though they do not go to fully explain why urbanization rates have exploded only recently in places like China and India. Rural flight is a contributing factor to urbanization. urbanization. In rural areas, often on small family farms or collective farms in villages, it has traditionally been difficult to access manufactured
goods, though overall quality of lifei lifeis very subjective, and may certainly surpass that of the c
Farm living has always been susceptible to unpredictable environmental conditions, conditions, and in tim of drought of drought,, flood or pestilence, pestilence, survival may become extremely problematic.
In INDIA
Urbanisation in India was mainly caused after independence, due to adoption of mixed sys
of economy by the country which gave rise to the developm development ent of private sector. Urbanisatio
taking place at a faster rate in India. Population residing in urban areas in India, according to 1901 census, was 11.4%. 11.4%.[1] This count increased to 28.53% according to 2001 census, and
crossing 30% as per 2011 census, standing at 31.16%. 31.16% .[2][3] According to a survey by UN State
Master your semester with Scribd the World Population report in 2007, by 2030, 40.76% of country's population is expected to Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title reside York in urbanTimes areas . As per World areas. per World Bank, Bank, India, along withUseful China,,Indonesia Indonesia, , Nigeriaand & The New China Not useful [4]
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United States States, , will lead the world's urban population surge by 2050 2050..[2] Special offer forthe students: Only $4.99/month.
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The main causes of urbanisation of urbanisation in India are:
Expansion in government government services, as a result of the Second World War
][13][14] Migration of people during the partition of India[9[9][13][14]
The Industrial Revolution[15]
Eleventh five year plan that aimed at urbanisation for the economic development of India of India
Economic opportunities opportunities are just one reason people move into cities
Infrastructure facilities in the urban area areas s[17]
Growth of private of private sector after sector after 1990 .[18]
CONSEQUENCES OF URBANISATION
Rapid rise in urban population, in India, is leading l eading to many problems like increasing slums, decrease in standard of living in urban areas, areas, also causing environmental damage. damage .[19]
The Industrial Revolution in the 18th century caused countries like United States and Englan
become superpower nations nations but the present condition is worsening. India's urban growth rate 2.07% which seems to be significant compared to Rwanda with 7.6%. India has around 300
million people living in metropolitan areas areas..[20] This has greatly caused slum problems, with so many people over crowding cities and forcing people to live in unsafe conditions which also includes illegal buildings. buildings . Water lines,roads and electricity are lacking which is causing fall living standards. It is also adding to the problem of all types of pollution of pollution..[21]
Urbanisation also results in a disparity in the market, owing to the large demands of the grow population and the primary sector struggling to cope with them .[22]
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DEFORESTATION
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the l
is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. use.[1] Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use.
The term deforestation can be misused when applied to describe a tree harvesting method in which all trees in an area are removed (clear cutting) cutting). However in temperate climates, climates, this method is in conformance with sustainable forestry practices, and correctly described
as regeneration harvest .[2] In temperate mesic climates, climates, natural regeneration of forest stands often will not occur in the absence of disturbance, whether natural or
anthropogenic..[3] Furtherm anthropogenic Furthermore, ore, biodiversity after regeneration harvest often mimics that found after natural disturbance, including biodiversity loss after naturally occurring rainforest destruction.[4][5] destruction.
Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees are cut down to be used or sold as fuel (somet
in the form of charcoal of charcoal)) or timber, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantati of commodities and settlements. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat habitat,, biodiversity loss and aridity aridity.. It has adverse impacts
onbiosequestration on biosequestration of atmospher atmospheric ic carbon dioxide. dioxide. Deforestation has also been used in war
deprive the enemy of cover for its forces and also vital resources. Modern examples examples of this w
the use of Agent Agent Orange Orange by the British military in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency and United States military in Vietnam during the Vietnam War . Among countries with a per
capita GDP of at least US$4,600, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase. Deforeste
regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland Disregard or ignorance of intrinsic value, lack of ascribed value, lax forest management and
Master your semester with Scribd is an scale. In many m any countries, deforestation, both naturally occurring and human induced, Read Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote on title ongoing issue. Times Deforestation causes extinction extinction,, changes to climatic & The New York Useful conditions, Not usefuldesertificatio
deficient environmental environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a la
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Special offer forand students: Only $4.99/month. displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through th
fossil record [4] More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical
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Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use
direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing countries countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding Funding has been an issue, but at the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 200 an accord was reached with a collective commitment commitment by developed countries for new and
additional resources, including including forestry and investments through international international institutions, tha
approach USD 30 billion for the period 2010 –2012 2012..[139] Significant work is underway on tools f use in monitoring developing developing country adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools,
which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, includ theCenter the Center for Global Development's FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative [140] and
the Group on Earth Observations' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal Portal..[141] Methodological guidanc
forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15. COP-15.[142] The environmental organization Avoid organization Avoid
Deforestation Partners leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from th U.S. government government..[143] In 2014, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations partners launched Open Foris - a set of open-source software tools that assist countries in
gathering, producing and disseminating disseminating information on the state of forest resources. resources.[144] The t
support the inventory lifecycle, from needs assessment, design, planning, field data collection
and management, estimation analysis, and dissemination. Remote sensing image processing tools are included, as well as tools for international reporting for Reducing for Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradatio degradation n (REDD) and MRV[clarification needed ] and FAO's Global Forest Resource Assessments. Assessments. In evaluating implications of overall emissions reductions, countries of greatest concern are those categorized as High Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (HFHD) and Low
Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (LFHD). Afghanistan, Benin, Botswana, Burm
Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala, Guinea, Hait
Honduras, Indonesia, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mongolia, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua
Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan, To Master your semester with Scribd Read Free For 30this Days Sign to vote on title Cover with Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zimbabwe are listed asup having Low Forest & The New York Times Useful Not useful High Rates of Deforestation (LFHD). Brazil, Cambodia, Democratic Peoples Republic of Kore Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.
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Equatorial Guinea, Malaysia, Solomon Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Venezuela, Zambia are listed
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Bolivia and Rare Conservation, with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network.. Network
Farming New methods are being developed to farm more intensively, such as high-
yield hybrid crops, greenhouse greenhouse,, autonomous building gardens, and hydroponics hydroponics.. These meth are often dependent on chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In cyclic agriculture agriculture,, are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. Cyclic agriculture actually increas fertility of the soil. Intensive farming can also decrease soil nutrients by consuming at an accelerated rate the trace minerals needed for crop growth. growth.[citation needed ]The most promising
approach, however, is the concept of food of food forests in permaculture permaculture,, which consists of agrofore systems carefully designed to mimic natural forests, with an emphasis on plant and animal species of interest for food, timber and other uses. These systems have low dependence on fossil fuels and agro-chemicals agro-chemicals,, are highly self-maintaining, self-maintaining, highly productive, and with positive impact on soil and water quality, and biodiversity biodiversity..
Monitoring deforestation There are multiple methods that are appropriate and reliable for reducing and monitoring
deforestation. One method method is the ―visual interpretation of aerial photos or satellite imagery th
labor-intensive labor-inten sive but does not require high-level training in computer image processing or extensive computational resources‖ resources‖..[76] Another method method includes includes hot-spot analysis analysis (that is,
locations of rapid change) using expert opinion or coarse resolution satellite data to identify locations for detailed digital analysis with high resolution satellite images. images.[76] Deforestation is
typically assessed by quantifying the amount of area deforested, measured at the present tim
From an environmental point of view, quantifying the damage and its possible consequences
more important task, while conservation efforts are more focused on forested land protection
developmentt of land-use alternatives to avoid continued deforestation developmen deforestation.[76] Deforestation rate a total areasemester deforested, have been widely used for monitoring deforestation in many regions, Master your with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to title including the Brazilian Amazon deforestation monitoring by INPE. INPE . vote & The New York Times Useful Not useful Forest management [45]
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Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has
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grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures.
In the areas where "slash-and-burn slash-and-burn"" is practiced, switching to "slash-and-char " would preven
rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation degradation of soils. The biochar biochar thus thus created, given bac the soil, is not only a durable carbon sequestration method, but it also is i s an extremely
beneficial amendment to the soil. Mixed with biomass it brings the creation of terra of terra preta, preta, one the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself. Sustainable practices
Reforestation Main article: Reforestation
In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and afforestation increasing the area of forested lands. lands.[153] The amount of woodland has increased in 22 of the
world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as a whole gained 1 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study projects that global forest will increase by 10%—an the size of India—by 2050. 2050.[154] In the People's Republic of China, China, where large scale destruction of forests has occurred, the
government has in the past required that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 a
60 plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in other forest servic
The government claims that at least 1 billion trees have been planted in China every year sin 1982. This is no longer required today, but March 12 of every year in China is the Planting
Holiday. Also, it has introduced the Green Wall of Chinaproject, China project, which aims to halt the expan
of the Gobi desert through the planting of trees. However, due to the large percentage of tree
dying off after planting (up to 75%), the project is not very successful.[citation needed ] There has bee
47-million-hectare 47-millionhectare increase in forest area in China since the 1970s. 1970s.[154] The total number of tre
amounted to be about 35 with billion and 4.55% of China's land mass increased in forest coverag Master your semester Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title The forest coverage was 12% two decades ago and now is 16.55%. 16.55%. & The New York Times Useful Not useful [155]
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ambitious proposal for China is the Aerially proposal Aerially Delivered Delivered Re-forestation Re-forestation and Erosion Erosion Control Special offer for An students: Only $4.99/month. System and the proposed Sahara Forest Project coupled with the Seawater Greenhouse
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Foundation and Greenpeace also focus on preserving forest habitats. Greenpeace in particu has also mapped out the forests that are still intact intact[156] and published this information on the
internet.[157] World Resources Institute in turn has made a simpler thematic map internet. map[158] showing th
amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (redu
levels of forest. forest.[159] These maps mark the amount of afforestation required to repair the damag caused by people.
Forest plantations To meet the world's demand for wood, it has been suggested by forestry writers Botkins and Sedjo that high-yielding forest plantations are suitable. It has been calculated that
plantations yielding 10 cubic meters per hectare annually could supply all the timber required
internationall trade on 5% of the world's existing forestland. By contrast, natural forests produ internationa
about 1 –2 cubic meters per hectare; therefore, 5 –10 times more forestland would be required
meet demand. Forester Chad Oliver has suggested a forest mosaic with high-yield forest lan interspersed with conservation land. land.[160]
In the country of Senegal, on the western coast of Africa, a movement headed by youths has
helped to plant over 6 million mangrove trees. The trees will protect local villages from storm damages and will provide a habitat for local wildlife. The project started in 2008, and already
Senegalese Senegales e government has been asked to establish rules and regulations that would protec new mangrove forests
EFFECTS
Atmospheric
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carbon dioxide emissions from deforestatio deforestation n and forest degradation (excluding peatland peatlandemissions) emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropog anthropogenic enic carbon dioxide
emissions with a range from 6 to 17%. 17%.[36] Deforestation causes carbon dioxide dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces a layer in the atmosphere that traps
radiation from the sun. The radiation converts to heat which causes global warming, which is better known as the greenhouse effect. effect.[37] Plants removecarbon removecarbon in the form of carbon of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis of photosynthesis,, but release some carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can
tree or forest remove carbon, by storing it in plant tissues. Both the decay and burning of woo releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. In order for forests to take up carbon, there must be a net accumulation of wood. One way is for the wood to be harvested
turned into long-lived products, with new young trees replacing them. them.[38]Deforestation may als cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forests can be either sinks or sources
depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net si and net sources of carbon dioxide (see carbon dioxide sink and carbon cycle) cycle). In deforested areas, the land heats up faster and reaches a higher temperature, leading to localized upward motions that enhance the formation of clouds and ultimately produce more
rainfall.[39] However, according to the Geophysica rainfall. Geophysicall Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Laboratory,, the models us investigate remote responses to tropical deforestation showed a broad but mild temperature
increase all through the tropical atmosphere. The model predicted <0.2 °C warming for uppe
at 700 mb and 500 mb. However, the model shows no significant changes in other areas bes
the Tropics. Though the model showed no significant changes to the climate in areas other th
the Tropics, this may not be the case since the model has possible errors and the results are never absolutely definite. definite.[40]
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levels.[43][44] However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large levels. amounts of CO2, which contributes to global warming warming..[33] Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere. atmosphere.[45]
Hydrological
The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through through their roo and release it into the atmospher atmosphere. e. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of
in the soil and groundwater groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to lower l ower wate
intake for the trees to extract. extract.[46] Deforestation reduces reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion erosion,, flooding and landslides ensue. ensue.[47][48] Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape landscape's 's capacity to intercept, retain and transpire precipitation precipitation.. Instead of trapping precipitation, precipitation, which then percolates to
groundwaterr systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which mov groundwate
much faster than subsurface flows. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into
flooding and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also
contributes to decreased evapotranspiration evapotranspiration,, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in s
cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycle
downwind forests, but is lost in i n runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one stu
in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s. 1980s .[citation needed ] Trees, and plants in general, affect the water cycle significantly:
their canopies intercept a proportion of precipitation of precipitation,, which is then evaporated back to th atmosphere (canopy interception) interception);
their litter, stems and trunks slow down surface runoff ;
theirsemester roots create macropores large conduits – in the soil that increase infiltration of wa Master your with –Scribd Read Free For 30this Days Signmoisture up to vote on title they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce soil via transpiration; transpiration ; & The Newtheir York Times Useful Not useful their litter litter and and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil
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Deforestation for the use of clay of clay in the Brazilian city of Rio of Rio de Janeiro. Janeiro. The hill depicted is Morro da Covanca in Jacarepaguá
Undisturbed forests have a very low rate of soil of soil loss, approximately 2 metric tons per square kilometer (6 short tons per square mile). mile) .[citation needed ] Deforestation generally increases rates of
soil erosion erosion,, by increasing the amount of o f runoff and runoff and reducing the protection of the soil from f rom tre litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry
operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads and the use o mechanized equipment. China's Loess Plateau was cleared of forest millennia ago. Since then it has been eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the Yellow River its yellow color and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower reaches (hence the river's nickname 'China's sorrow').
Removal of trees does not always increase erosion rates. In certain regions of southwest US shrubs and trees have been encroaching on grassland. The trees themselve themselves s enhance the
of grass semester between tree canopies. bare intercanopy areas become highly erodible. The US Master your withThe Scribd Read Free Foron 30how Days Sign is up to vote this title Forest Service, in Bandelier National Monument Monument for example, studying to restore the & The New Times Useful Not useful formerYork ecosystem, and reduce erosion, by removing the trees. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.
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Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in p
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Illegal logging in Madagascar . In 2009, the vast majority of the illegally obtained rosewood was exported t
Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on Earth[55][56] and about 80% o
the world's known biodiversity could be found in tropical rainforests, rainforests ,[57][58] removal or destructio significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded [59] environment with reduced biodiversity.[4][60] A study in Rondônia biodiversity. Rondônia,, Brazil, has shown that deforestation also removes the
microbial community community which is involved in the recycling of nutrients, the production of clean wa and the removal of pollutants. pollutants.[61]
It has been estimated that we are losing 137 plant, animal and insect species every single da due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year .[62] Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction. extinction.[63][64]
known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately 1 species per ye
from mammals and birds which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant
species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century. century.[65] Such predictions were ca
into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the origin
forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered speci are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable. stable .[66]
Scientificsemester understanding ofwith understanding the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predict Master your Scribd Read Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote title about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity. biodiversity. Most predictions of on f orestry forestry related & The New YorklossTimes useful Not biodiversity are based on species-area models, models, with an Useful underlying assumption that as [67]
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[68]
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OVERFISHING
of overexploitation in which fish stocks are depleted to unacceptable Overfishing is a form of overexploitation levels, regardless of water body size. Resource depletion, depletion, low biological growth rates, and critically low biomass levels (e.g. by critical depensatio depensation n growth properties) result from overfishing. For example, overfishing overfishing of sharks has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems.[1] ecosystems. The ability of a fishery to recover from overfishin overfishing g depends on whether the ecosystem ecosystem''s
conditions are suitable for the recovery. Dramatic changes in species composition can result
an ecosystem shift, where other equilibrium energy flows involve species compositions differ
from those that had been present before the depletion of the original fish stock. For example,
once trout have been overfished, carp might take over in a way that makes it impossible for t trout to re-establish a breeding population.
Consequences
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eliminates a major jellyfish competitor and predator exacerbating exacerbating the jellyfish population explosion
CONTROL Mitigation With present and forecast world population levels it is not possible to solve the overfishing issue;[citation needed ] however, there are mitigation measures that can save selected fisheries and issue; forestall the collapse of others.
In order to meet the problems of overfishing, a precautionary approach and Harvest Control R
(HCR) management principles have been introduced in the main fisheries around the world. T
Traffic Light colour convention introduces sets of rules based on predefined critical values, w could be adjusted as more information is gained.
Government regulation See also: Fisheries management See also: Fisheries law
Many regulatory measures are available for controlling overfishing. These measures include fishing quotas, bag limits, licencing, closed seasons, size limits and the creation of of marine marine reserves and other marine other marine protected areas. areas. A model of the interaction interaction between between fish and fishers showed that that when an area area is closed to to
fishers, but there are no catch regulations such as individual transferable quotas, quotas , fish catche
temporarily increased but overall fish biomass is reduced, resulting in the opposite outcome f
Master your semester with Scribd the one desired for fisheries. fisheries . Thus, a displacement of the fleetFree from one locality to another Read For 30this Days Sign up to vote on title generally haveTimes little effect if the same quota is taken. As a & The New York Usefulmanagement result, Not usefulmeasures [25]
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when not combined with individual fishing quotas. An inherent problem with quotas is that fish
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fished, bought, sold, or leased allowing for the least cost vessels to be used. ITQs are used
in New Zealand, Zealand, Australia Australia,, Iceland Iceland,, Canada Canada,, and theUnited theUnited States. States. Only three ITQ programs
have been implemented in the United States due to a moratorium supported by Ted Stevens
In 2008, a large-scale study of fisheries that used ITQs compared to ones that didn't provide strong evidence that ITQs can help to prevent collapses and restore fisheries that appear to decline.[27][28 ][29][30] decline. China bans fishing in the South China Sea for a period each year .[31]
Removal of subsidies
Several scientists have called for an end to subsidies paid to deep sea fisheries. In internatio waters beyond the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zones of coastal countries, many
fisheries are unregulated, and fishing fleets plunder the depths with state-of-the-art technolog
In a few hours, massive nets weighing up to 15 tons, dragged along the bottom by deep-wate
trawlers,, can destroy deep-sea corals and sponge beds that have taken centuries or millenni trawlers
grow. The trawlers can target orange roughy, roughy,grenadiers grenadiers,, or sharks. These fish are usually lo lived and late maturing, and their populations take decades, even centuries to recover .[32]
Fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly and economist Ussif Rashid Sumaila have examined subsidi
paid to bottom trawl fleets around the world. They found that US$152 million per year are pai
deep-sea fisheries. Without these subsidies, global deep-sea fisheries would operate at a los
$50 million a year. A great deal of the subsidies paid to deep-sea trawlers is to subsidize the large amount of fuel required to travel beyond the 200-mile limit and drag weighted nets. nets.[32] "There is surely a better way for f or governments to spend money than by paying subsidies to
that burns 1.1 billion litres of fuel annually to maintain paltry catches of old growth fish from h vulnerable stocks, while destroying their habitat in the process" – Pauly .[32]
"Eliminating global subsidies would render these fleets economically unviable and would relie
tremendous pressure on over-fishing and vulnerable deep-sea ecosystems" – Sumaila. Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Minimising fishing impact & The New York Times Useful Not useful
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Special offer forFishing students:techniques Only $4.99/month. may altered to minimise by-catch or harm to the environ environment, ment, for exampl
avoid capture of small fish, or by
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The modern fishing industry is dominated by fishing vessels that out-match nature's ability to replenish fish. Giant ships using state-of-the-art fish-finding sonar can pinpoint schools of fish quickly and accurately. These ships are like giant floating factories with fish processing and packing plants, huge freezing systems and powerful engines to drag enormous fishing gear through the ocean. Simply put: the fish don't stand a chance.
Populations of top predators are disappearing at a frightening rate. Ninety percent of the large
such as tuna, swordfish, marlin, cod, halibut, skate, and flounder have been fished out since la scale industrial fishing began in the 1950s. Their depletion can cause a shift in entire e ntire oceans
ecosystem where commercially valuable fish are replaced by smaller, plankton-feeding fish. Th
changes endanger the structure and functioning of marine ecosystems and hence the livelihoo those dependent on them.
India’s seas are the spawning and breeding grounds of large varieties of fish species. At least 3
million people in approximately 4000 fishing villages situated along the Indian coastline earn a
living from marine fisheries. However, fisheries resources in several parts of the country are u severe stress.
By offering a variety of subsidies and incentives, governments governments at the centre and state level ha
allowed too many mechanised boats to operate, resulting in too many boats chasing too few fi With overall fish catches showing a tendency to plateau and the share of the artisanal fishing sector falling, measures to restrict fleet capacity and sustain fish stocks are essential. This can be done by empowering the fisher community to co-manage marine resources. The current regulations and enforcements need to be strengthened by getting more fishermen involved. The enforcement agencies also need the space and flexibility to accommodate and incorporate the use of science for fisheries management. Any strategy dealing with the management of marine resources, including fisheries, needs to use an ‘ecosystem approach’, which considers the entire ecosystem and all the species inhabiting them.
On the positive side, exploitation of distant waters in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ
believed to be much lower, though there are efforts from government and industry to increase
exploitation. Protection and conservation conservation measures in the EEZ need t o be implemented before
exploitation levels increase. Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times
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GLOBAL WARMING
century-scale rise in the average temperature temperature of Earth of Earth''s Global warming is the observed century-scale
system.[2] Since 1971, 90% of the increased energy has been stored in the oceans, mostly in system. 0 to 700m region. region.[3] Despite the oceans' dominant role in energy storage, the term "global
warming" is also used to refer to increases in average temperature of the air and sea at Eart
surface.[4] Since the early 20th century, the global air and sea surface temperature has increa
about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. 1980.[5] Each of th last three decades has been successively warmer at the Earth's surface than any preceding decade since 1850 1850..[6] Scientific understanding of the cause of global warming has been increasing. In its fourth assessment (AR4 2007) of the relevant scientific literature, literature, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) reported that scientists were more than 90% certain that most of glo warming was being caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse of greenhouse gasesproduced gasesproduced [7][8][9] ][9] by human activities (anthropogenic) (anthropogenic)..[7][8 In 2010 that finding was recognized by the national
science academies of all major industrialized nations
EFFECTS
The effects of global warming on the Indian subcontine subcontinent nt vary from the submergence of l
lying islands and coastal lands to the melting of glaciers of glaciers in the Indian Himalayas, threatening
the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of India of India and South Asia. Asia. In India such effects are projected to impact millions of lives. As a result of ongoing climate change
the climate of India has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades; this tren Master your semester with Scribd expected to continue. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New York Times Useful Not useful Elevated carbon dioxide emissions from industries, factories, vehicles etc. have contributed t Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.
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the greenhouse effect, effect, causing warmer weather that weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud
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Indian media can contribute to increased awareness of climate change and related issues. A
qualitative analysis of some mainstream Indian newspapers (particularly opinion and editoria
pieces) during the release of the IPCC 4th Assessment Report and during the Nobel Peace P win by Al Gore and the IPCC found that Indian media strongly pursue the frame of scientific
certainty in their coverage of climate change. This is in contrast to the scepticism displayed b
American newspapers newspapers at the time. Alongside, Alongside, Indian media media highlight highlight frames of energy energy challe
social progress, public accountability and looming disaster. This sort of coverage finds parall
in European media narratives as well and helps build a transnational, globalised discourse on
climate change. [21] Another study study has found that that the media in India India are divided divided along the line a north-south, risk-responsibility risk-responsibility discourse. [22] However, much more research is required to analyse Indian media's role in shaping public perceptions on climate change. Tribal people in India's remote northeast plan to
[23]
honour former U.S. Vice President Al President Al
Gore with an award for promoting awareness on climate change that they say will have a devastating impact on their homeland. Meghalaya-- meaning 'Abode of the Clouds' in Hindi—is home to the towns Meghalaya
of Cherrapunji of Cherrapunji and Mawsynram Mawsynram,, which are credited with being the wettest places in the world to their high rainfall. But scientists state that global climate change is causing these areas to experience an increasingly sparse and erratic rainfall pattern and a lengthened dry season,[24] affecting the livelihoods of thousands of villagers who cultivate paddy and maize. season, Some areas are also facing water shortages.
People are becoming aware of ills of global warming. Taking initiative on their own people fro Sangamner, Maharashtra (near Shirdi) have started a campaign of planting trees known as
DandakaranyaDandakarany a- The Green Movement. It was started by visionary & ace freedom fighter the l
Shri Bhausaheb Thorat in the year 2005. To date, they have sowed more than 12 million see planted half a million plants. to data data from 2009 200 9 India Scribd is the world's world's third biggest biggest emitter of CO2 CO2 after China after China and Master According your semester with Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title United States - pushing Russia into fourth place & The New York Times Useful Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.
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AIR POLLUTION
of particulates,, biological molecules, molecules , or other harmful materia Air pollution is the introduction of particulates into the Earth's atmosphere, atmosphere, possibly causing disease, death to humans, damage to other l organisms such as food crops, or the natural or or built built environment. environment. The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on
planet Earth Earth.. Stratospheric ozone depletiondue depletiondue to air pollution has been recognized as a thre to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems ecosystems.. Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world’s worst toxic pollution
problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report. report .[1] According the 2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide
INDIA
Air pollution in India is quite a serious issue with the major sources being fuelwood and biom burning, fuel adulteration, vehicle emission and traffic congestion. congestion .[1][2] In autumn and winter months, large scale crop residue burning in agriculture fields - a low cost alternative to [3][4][5] 4][5] mechanical tilling - is a major source of smoke, smog and particulate pollution. pollution.[3][ India has
low per capita emissions of greenhouse of greenhouse gases but the country as a whole is the third largest
China and the United States. States.[6] A 2013 study on non-smokers non-smokers has found that that Indians have have 30 lower lung function compared to Europeans Europeans..[7]
The Air The Air (Prevention (Prevention and Control Control of Pollution) Pollution) Act was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution there have been some measurable improvements. improvements. However, the 2013 Environmental
Performance Index ranked India 155 out of 178 countries Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New York Times Useful Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.
Emissions standards [edit edit]]
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Greenhouse gas emissions [edit edit]]
India was the third largest emitter of carbon of carbon dioxide in 2009 at 1.65 Gt per year, after China (
Gt per year) and the United States (5.2 Gt per year). With 17 percent of world population, Ind
contributed some 5 percent of human-so human-sourced urced carbon dioxide emission; compared to China's
percent share. On per capita basis, India emitted about 1.4 tons of carbon dioxide per person comparison to the United States' 17 tons per person, and a world average of 5.3 tons per person.[6][25] person. About 65 percent percent of India's carbon carbon dioxide emissions emissions in 2009 2009 was from heating, heating, domestic u
and power sector. About 9 percent of India's emissions were from transportation (cars, trains
two wheelers, airplanes, others). India's coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal pow plants are inefficient and offer significant potential for CO 2 emission reduction through better
technology. Compared Compared to the average emissions from coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fire
thermal power plants in European Union (EU-27) countries, India's thermal power plants emi to 120 percent more CO2 per kWh produced. produced .[6] This is in significant part to inefficient thermal power plants installed in India prior to its economic liberalization liberalization in the 1990s. Between 1990 and 2009, India's carbon dioxide emissions per GDP purchasing power parity
basis have decreased by over 10 percent, a trend similar to China. Meanwhile, between 199 and 2009, Russia's carbon dioxide emissions per GDP purchasing power parity basis have
increased by 40 percent. India has one of the better records in the world, of an economy that growing efficiently on CO2 emissions basis. In other words, over the last 20 years, India has
reduced CO2 emissions with each unit of GDP increase. increase.[6] Per Per Copenhagen Copenhagen Accord, Accord, India aim further reduce emissions intensity of its growing GDP by 20 to 25 percent before 2020, with
technology transfer and international cooperation. cooperation. Nevertheless, it is expected, that like Chin
India's absolute carbon dioxide emissions will rise in years ahead, even as International Ene Agency's Annex Annex I countries expect expect their absolute absolute CO2 emissions to drop.
significant source of greenhouse source of greenhouse gas emissions from India is from black Master Ayour semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title carbon,, NOx carbon NOx,, methane and other air pollutants. These pollutants are emitted in large quantiti & The New York Times Useful Not useful India every day from incomplete and inefficient combustion of biomass (fuel wood, crop wast Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.
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and cattle dung). A majority of Indian population lacks access to clean burning fuels, and use
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His modeling shows that aerosols —particularly black carbon and dust —likely cause as much the glacial retreat in the region as greenhouse gases gases via this "heat pump" effect
Health costs of air pollution [edit edit]] Exposure to particulate matter for matter for a long time can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer and heart attacks. The Global burden of disease study for 2010, published in 2013, had found that outdoor air pollution was the fifthlargest killer in India and around 620,000 early deaths occurred from f rom air pollution-related
diseases in 2010. 2010.[28] According to a WHO study, 13 of of the 20 most-polluted most-polluted cities in the the world in India; however, the accuracy and methodology of the WHO study was questioned by the Government of India led by Manmohan Singh.
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LIMITED SAFE WATER SUPPLY
Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet the demands of
usage within a region. It already affects every continent and around 2.8 billion people around
world at least one month out of every year. More than 1.2 billion people lack access to clean drinking water .[1] Water scarcity involves water stress, water shortage or deficits, and water crisis. While the
concept of water stress is relatively new, it is the difficulty of obtaining sources sources of fresh water use during a period of time and may result in further depletion and deterioration of available
water resources. resources.[2] Water shortages may be caused by climate change, change, such as altered weath
patterns including droughts or or floods floods,, increased pollution pollution,, and increased human demand and overuse of water of water .[3] A water crisis is a situation where the available potable potable,, unpolluted water within a region is less than that region's demand. demand.[4] Water scarcity is being driven by two
converging phenomena: phenomena: growing freshwater use and depletion of usable freshwater resource Water scarcity can be a result of two mechanisms: physical (absolute) water scarcity and economic water scarcity, scarcity, where physical water scarcity is a result of inadequa
natural water resources to supply a region's demand, and economic water scarcity is a resul
poor management of the sufficient available water resources. According to the United Nation
Development Programme, Programme, the latter is found more often to be the cause of countries or regio
experiencing experiencin g water scarcity, as most countries or regions have enough water to meet househ industrial, agricultural, agricultural, and environmental needs, but lack the means to provide it in an accessible manner .[6]
The reduction of water scarcity is a goal of many countries and governme governments. nts. The UN recogn
the importance of reducing the number of people without sustainable access to clean water a sanitation. The TheMillennium Development Goals within the United Nations Millennium
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Effect on Animals[edit edit]] The acute water shortage prevailing in the forest areas of Tamil of Tamil Nadu' Nadu's districts
of Madurai of Madurai and Dindigul has led the Indian gaurs found in the forest of the region, to death as they come in search of water and end up dead by falling into the wells. wells.[2]
Counter measures [edit edit]]
Community led initiatives [edit edit]]
With support from government and UNICEF, villagers in Palve Budruk, located in the drough
prone Parner Block in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra, developed a catchment plan cove
1,400 hectors – that’s over 80% of the land available. The system has three check dams, 20
canal bunds, two small percolation tanks linked to the main tank and 19 village ponds. Water
stored in the percolation tank, is strictly meant for domestic use only. Piped water is supplied an hour a day in the morning, during which time families fill up water for drinking and cookin
edit]] Government led initiatives [edit
SIS Seoul International School is Fundraising Fundraising to bring water to India, and can be found in So Korea, or siskorea.org
Raising awareness[edit edit]]
The Canadian start-up Decode Global has developed the mobile game Get Water!, Water! , a game f
social change focusing on the water scarcity in India and the effect it has on girls' education. game's primary goal is to raise awareness of the water crisis, by educating children as well adult gamers. To put more focus on children'd learning, the company has published a 6-part
lesson plan for 4-6 grade teachers, available for download as a pdf from the game's website.
edit]] Exploitation of Ground water [edit
The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)ha (CGWA)has s notified 82 areas (Districts,Blo (Districts,Blocks, cks, Mandals
Master your with Scribd Talukas,semester Municipalities) for regulation of ground water development of ground water development.. In these areas, installa Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title al of of new ground water abstraction structures is not permitted without prior specific approval approv & The New York Times Useful Not useful [4]
Cancel anytime.
/ Authorized Au$4.99/month. thorized officer. officer. Moreover, proposals proposals for setting up/expansion up/expansion of ground ground water Special offer for Authority students: Only
based industries including bottled water manufacturing units are forwarded by State Pollution
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Rainwater harvesting - Rain water is accumulated and used for ground water recharge. T increases the ground water availability. availability.[5]
Farm pond - Farm ponds are constructed near the farming field. The rain water which run off the ground are collected by these ponds. These ponds helps agriculture in dry lands
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