Schema Theory as the Key of Cognitivism

Schema Theory as the Key of Cognitivism

Martha Gabriela Castillo Garduño

Instructor Verónica Díaz

Teacher´s Diploma

SCHEMA THEORY COGNITIVISM

November, 2008 It is known that there exist some learning theories which allowed teachers to take take advan advantag tage e of some some skills skills,, attitu attitudes des,, conte contexts xts,, sit situat uation ions s and and circumstances as well as personalities and background knowledge that the student has already acquired or developed. Nevertheless, education system could be better if teachers could understand the process through knowledge is acquired, called Cognitivism. The most important aspect about Cognitivism is Schema Theory because it justifies justifies the value value of background background knowledge, knowledge, since the theory, is the explanati explanation on of how knowledge, knowledge, in this case language, language, is stored; stored; linking linking knew knowledge with previous one. In order to understand why Schema Theory is essential in Cognitivism, a brief introduction must be given. Cognitivism The The centra centrall iss issues ues that that inter interest est cognit cognitive ive psycho psycholog logist ists s includ include e the intern internal al mecha mechanis nism m of huma human n thoug thought ht and the proces processes ses of knowin knowing. g. Cognit Cognitive ive psych psycholo ologis gists ts have have tried tried to find find out the answer answers s to mental mental structures, such as what is stored? and how it is stored? and to mental processes concerning how the integration and retrieval of information is opera operated ted? ? The theor theoreti etica call assum assumpti ption ons s in cognit cognitive ive psycho psycholog logy y lend lend inst instru ruct ctio iona nall syst system ems s a hand hand in the the desi design gn of effi effici cien entt proc proces essi sing ng strategies for the learners to acquire knowledge, e.g. devices to reduce the workload of the short-term memory, rehearsal strategies to maintain information, information, and the use of metaphors and analogies to relate meaning of the new information to prior knowledge.

The internal representation of the learners can echo the external reality, which asserts a position of objectivism that the mind can stand separate and independent from the body. As a consequence, knowledge can be transf transferr erred ed from from the outside outside of the mind into into the inside inside of the the mind. mind. Wils Wilson on and and Meye Meyers rs (200 (2000) 0) illu illust stra rate te such such a posi positi tion on pret pretty ty well well by indicating its impact on instructional design that "Instructional designers could now think of learning in terms of taking experts' cognitive structures and mapping that knowledge into the heads of learners. The degree of similarity in cognitive structure between expert and novice was a good measure of whether learning objectives were being met." However, the internal representation of learners can also be regarded as a subjective


cons constr truc ucti tion on of inte integr grat atin ing g inco incomi ming ng info inform rmat atio ion n and and the the exis existi ting ng knowl knowledg edge e struct structur ures, es, which which entail entails s a posit position ion of constr construct uctivi ivism sm that that knowledge cannot exist independently from the learner. Piaget (1985) suggested that learning process is iterative, in which new information is shaped to fit with the learner's existing knowledge, and exis existi ting ng know knowle led dge is itse itself lf modi modifi fied ed to acco accomm mmod odat ate e the the new new information. information. The major concepts in this cognitive process include: •

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Assimilation: Assimilation: it occurs when a child perceives new objects or events in terms terms of existing existing schemes schemes or operation operations. s. Children Children and adults adults tend to apply any mental structure that is available to assimilate a new event, and they will actively seek to use a newly acquired structure. This is a process of fitting new information into existing cognitive structures Accomm Acco mmod odat atio ion: n: it has has occu occurr rred ed when when exis existi ting ng sche scheme mes s or operations must be modified to account for a new experience. This is a process of modifying existing cognitive structures based upon new information. information. Equilibration: it is the master development ental process, encompassing both assimilation and accommodation. Anomalies of exper experien ience ce creat create e a state state of dis disequ equili ilibri brium um which which can be only only reso resolv lved ed when when a more more adap adapti tive ve,, more more soph sophis isti tica cate ted d mode mode of thought is adopted.

Schema Theory Simply Simply put, Schema Schema Theory Theory states that all knowledge is organized into units. Within these units of knowledge, or schemata, is stored information. information. A Schema, then, is a generalized description or a conceptual system for understa understanding nding knowledge-ho knowledge-how w knowledge knowledge is represent represented ed and how it is used. All human beings possess categorical rules that they use to interpret the world. New information is processed according to how it fits into these rule rules, s, call called ed sche schema ma.. A sche schema ma is an orga organi niza zati tion on of info inform rmat atio ion, n, a netwo etworrk of inf inform ormatio tion. Ling inguis uists, cognit gnitiv ive e psycho ycholo log gists ists,, and psycholi psycholingui nguists sts have used the concept concept of schema schema (plural: schemata) to understa understand nd the interact interaction ion of key factors factors affecting affecting the comprehen comprehension sion process. This schema can be used not only to interpret but also to predict


situation occurring in our environment. Each individual’s schema is unique and depended on that individual’s experiences and cognitive processes. Schemata are also like scripts of plays (Schank & Abelson, 1977). In other words, schemata are chunks of knowledge stored in the human mind by patt patter erns ns,, stru struct ctur ures es,, and and scaf scaffo fold lds s (Wes (Westt et al., al., 19 1991 91). ). Base Based d on Rumelha elharrt's t's defi defin nitio ition n (19 1981 81), ), schem chema ata serve erve the the funct unctio ion n of "scaffold "scaffolding. ing."" Knowledg Knowledge e is perceived perceived,, encoded, encoded, stored, stored, and retrieved retrieved according to the chunk of information stored in the memory. Schemata facilitate information processing. processing. Schema can be "instantiated" by specific exam exampl ples es of conc concep epts ts or even events ts.. For For exam exampl ple, e, one' one's s sche schema ma for for "teaching" can be instantiated by viewing a scenario on the interaction between a teacher and students. As soon as schemata are instantiated, one can associate or recall more similar scenarios (Bruning et al, 1995). Schema theory is appropriate for language instruction due to its powerful explanation of memory and recall. Schema Schema is impor importan tantt not jus justt in interp interpret reting ing infor informa matio tion, n, but also also in decoding how that information is presented. Schemata can be reflected i n text structures. (Driscoll, 1997; Halliday & Hassan, 1989). Readers use their their schemati schematic c represen representatio tations ns of text (narrati (narrative, ve, compare compare/con /contras trast, t, cause cause/ef /effec fect, t, etc) etc) to help help them them interp interpret ret the inform informati ation on in the text. text. Schema Schema reflectin reflecting g how informa information tion is presented presented can also be cultural culturally ly determ determine ined. d. Robert Robert Kaplan Kaplan (1966) (1966) stated stated that that the the struct structure ure of formal formal argumentative essays is culturally determined and that therefore second langua language ge writer writers s and reader readers s must must be aware aware not only only have have suffi sufficie cient nt command of their second language but also of the textual structures in their second language. According to this theory, schemata represent knowledge about concepts: objects objects and the relation relationship ships s they have with other objects, objects, situatio situations, ns, events, sequences of events, actions, and sequences of actions. A simple example is to think of your schema for dog. Within that schema you most likely have knowledge about dogs in general (bark, four legs, teeth, hair, tails) and probably information about specific dogs, (long hair, large, Lassie). You may also think of dogs within the greater context of animals and other living things; that is, dogs breathe, need food, and reproduce. Your knowledge of dogs might also include the fact that they are mammals and consequently are warm-blooded and bear their young as opposed to laying eggs. Depending upon your personal experience, the knowledge of a dog as a pet (domesticated and loyal) or as an animal animal to fear fear (lik (likel ely y to bite bite or attack attack)) may may be a part part of your schema. And so it goes with the development of a schema. Each new experience incorporates more information into one's schema. The way that learners acquire knowledge under schema theory is quite similar to Piaget’s model of the process of development. In essence, there


are three different reactions that allow learners to have new information: acceptat acceptation, ion, tuning, tuning, and restruct restructurin uring. g. In acceptat acceptation, ion, learners learners take the new input and assimilate it into their existing schema without making any changes to the overall schema. Tuning is when learners realize that their existing schema is inadequate for the new knowledge and modify their existing schema accordingly. Restructuring is the process of creating a new schema addressing the inconsistencies between the old schema and the newly acquired information. Unlike Piaget, however, schema theorists do not not see see each each sche schema ma as repr repres esen enta tati tive ve of a disc discre rete te stag stage e of development, and the processes of acceptation, tuning, and restructuring occur over multiple domains in a continuous time frame. In addition to schem schema, a, learn learners ers are also also though thoughtt to have have mental mental models models,, which which are are dynamic models for problem solving based on a learner’s existing schema and perceptions of task demand and task performance. Within the context of schema theory, concepts represent a compromise between efficiency and informativeness and operate within three categories: lower-level categories, which are rich in detail (more informative) but demonstrate lower efficiency (more time to process); higher-level categories, which are less informative but demonstrate demonstrate higher efficiency; and basic-level categories which strike an optimum balance between the two variables. Schemata are generally classified as higherlevel categories. These quick and automatically activating mechanisms provide “abstract representations of complex events” (Williams, 1994). Since one of the elements of schema theory is making predictions based on what what lear learne ners rs alre alread ady y know know,, maki making ng the the link link betw betwee een n the the old old inform informati ation on and the new infor informa matio tion n has generate generated d a great great deal deal of research research interest. interest. Two areas of research research in this direction direction are advance advance organizer and schema activation. In other words, while we may be able to recognize the horse as a horse simply by seeing its head, we don’t need to consciously remember the physical details of every horse we’ve ever seen -- we only need to have a stored concept of what a horse looks like. And this is not to say that concepts are limited to concrete objects. They can also include activities, scenes, and experiences. This cognitive ordering of memories and their effect on decoding information provide the basic foundation for schema theory. The theory’s title -- a term used tentatively in psychology as far back as 1787 -- is meant to symbolize a dynamic framework framework of processing channels, “and being a framework it can be clothed and shaped according to the requirements of the subject’s cognitions and needs” (Paul, 1967). Over the years, numerous studies on schemata continued to strengthen Bart Bartle lett tt’s ’s (193 (1932) 2) find findin ings gs rega regard rdin ing g the the pres presen ence ce of abst abstra ract ctio ion, n,


rationalization, rationalization, and influential salience in interpretation. Other effects and functi function ons s were were also also dis disco cover vered ed and label labeled ed (Will (William iams, s, 1994). 1994). These These included “prediction” which refers to the process by which schemata help people foresee the outcome and details of future events; a “hierarchy” of types of events or objects, sorted by level of complexity (such as a party schem schema a vs. a Chris Christma tmas s party party schem schema a vs. a compa company ny Chris Christma tmas s party party sche schema ma); ); and and the the “tun “tunin ing” g” (rei (reinf nfor orce ceme ment nt), ), “res “restr truc uctu turi ring ng,” ,” and and “replacement” of existing schemata. Schema theory was being used for various topics such as visualization, rhetorical content, and socialization; and the origins of people’s schemata were were being being attrib attribute uted d to many many differ different ent source sources s includ including ing mediat mediated ed inform informati ation, on, as well well as infor informa matio tion n acqui acquired red throu through gh interp interpers ersona onall contact. Several instructional strategies logically follow from schema theory. The most most impo import rtan antt impl implic icat atio ion n of schem chema a theo theory ry is the the role role of prio priorr knowledge in processing. In order for learners to be able to effectively process information, their existing schemas related to the new content need to be activated. Multiple schema-building experiences from multiple perspectives are also needed to help learners develop functional problem-solving schemas that they they can can su succ cces essf sful ully ly us use e to solv solve e unfa unfami mili liar ar prob proble lems ms (or (or more more accur accurate ately ly famili familiar ar proble problems ms in unfam unfamili iliar ar contex context). t). For that that reaso reason, n, "instruc "instructors tors and instruct instructiona ionall designers designers should should assume assume that problemproblemsolv solvin ing g abil abilit ity y is cumu cumula lati tive ve not not only only over over time time but but over over nume numero rous us experiences." (Price and Driscoll, 1997) Sandra Marshall (1993:156) notes that the value of schema “lies primarily in problem solving. When the individual accesses the schema, it provides a template against which to evaluate a current problem and points to an appropriate appropriate response.” Another important implication of schema theory is the recognition of role that culture and experience play in creating an individual’s knowledge, in other words words “backgro “background und knowledg knowledge”. e”. Facilitat Facilitators ors of learning learning language language must pay attention to the cultural references in the material we present to our our stud studen ents ts and and avoi avoid d conf confus usin ing g acti activi viti ties es or task tasks. s. For For exam exampl ple, e, students who have not grown up in a city, may be at a disadvantage disadvantage when they are asked to read and answer questions about buildings, planes, jobs and places in a city (such as: secretary, mall, department store etc.) on a standa standardi rdized zed asses assessm sment ent or activi activity ty to under understa stand nd new vocabu vocabular lary, y, because they do not have previous knowledge.


Schema can be understood as maps or templates for activity, that is why, advanc advance e organ organize izers rs employ employ the struct structur ure e of some some mater material ials s that that the learners are already familiar with as the framework of the new materials. In other other words words,, advanc advance e organ organize izers rs are design designed ed to offer offer "ideat "ideation ional al scaffolding for the stable incorporation and retention of the more detailed and differentiated material that follows" (Ausubel, 1968, p. 148). Advance organ organize izers rs are are relev relevant ant introd introduct uctor ory y mater material ials s that that are introd introduce uced d in advance of the core texts. Recent studies have also shown that providing short short and concr concrete ete examp examples les for upcom upcoming ing events events are are more more useful useful to readers than abstract, general, and vague learner organizers (Corkill et al., 1988). Schema activation activation refers refers to the design of activitie activities s for the purpos purposes es of activa activatin ting g learne learner's r's knowle knowledge dge in simila similarr fields fields prior prior to learning new subject matters (Bruning et al., 1995). They are often in the forms forms of short short quest question ions. s. In a way, way, schem schema a activ activati ation on serves serves simila similarr purposes purposes of advanced advanced organize organizers rs by linking linking new informat information ion with old information that the learners already know. However, schema activation relies relies more more on the learners to generate generate information information from their previous previous knowledge base. Schema activation works better if the schema activating activities are relevant to the to-be-learned information. A study on the reading comprehension of a group of fifth graders showed that the group with relevant schema activatio activation n remember remembered ed the reading reading texts better better than the groups with non-relevant schema activation (Peeck et al., 1982). As a conc conclu lusi sion on,, sche schema ma theo theory ry is the the most most impo import rtan antt elem elemen entt in Cognitivism learning theory, since it is the series of connections between real world and previous knowledge. As facilitators of learning a language, we have to be aware of theories and strategies as well as techniques, but what matters more is putting them in practice.

Bibliography

Ruiz, Carlos. “Running head: SCHEMA THEORY”. The Origins, Evolution, and Contemporary Applications of Schema Theory. Middle Tennessee State University


Alayne, Sharon Widmayer. “Schema Theory: An Introduction”. Introduction”. George Mason University Lehman, Peter. 1996. “Will “Will that be on the exam?” Schema theory and Testing in Sociology*. Department of Sociology. University of Southern Maine

Marshall, James. “Evolutionary Computing” .schemata theory. Deb, Roy. “Grounding Language in the World: Schema Theory Meets Semiotics”. Cognitive Machines Group the Media Laboratory. Laboratory. Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Technology

C. Candace Chou, “Schema Theory-based Instructional Instructional Design of Asynchronous Asynchronous Web-based Language Courses”. Interdisciplinary Interdisciplinary PhD Program in Communication and Information Sciences- University of Hawaii

Schema Theory as the Key of Cognitivism

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