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SAT Chemistry Study Guide Structure of matter Atomic Structure
About Atoms Early Greek notion of earth, wind, fire, water as ba sic components of matter Indivisible particle ―atom‖ from Greek ―atomos‖ meaning indivisible Two main forces hold atoms together. The electric force holds the electrons in orbit around the nucleus. Opposite o charges attract, so the electrons are drawn to the protons in the nucleus. o The nuclear force holds the protons and neutrons together.
Experimental Evidence of Atomic Structure John Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1800s) o All matter composed of atoms All atoms of an element alike (not necessarily true — isotopes) isotopes) o Compounds = atoms combination in fixed proportions (AxByCz) o Chemical reaction = rearrangement of atoms; not created/destroyed o JJ Thomson’s Cathode Ray (1897) Cathode ray bent by electric/magnet field; must ha ve negative charged partic o Evidence for electron o Ernest Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment (1911) o Alpha particles come out of different directions when p ass through foil Evidence for nucleus o James Chadwick (1932) Alpha particles shot at beryllium emitted weird neutral radiation that could kn o protons out of other atoms Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Evidence of neutron, a heavy particle o
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ℓ = 2 = d orbital. similar to the p orbital shape, but with more 'petals' like clover leaf. can also have ring shapes around the base of the petals. ℓ=3 = f orbital. similar to d orbitals, but with even more 'petals'. o 3. Magnetic quantum number = ml = specific orbit of each sublevel; integer intege r from -l t 4. Spin quantum number = ms = spin of electron (clock/counter); -1/2 or ½ o
Hybridization
Electron Configuration Fill in this order: 2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6 2 10 6 2 14 10 6 2 14 10 6 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f Read 5dupFree 6p 7s on 5f 6d For 30 Days Sign to vote this title 7p
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All e- are attracted to positive nucleus and repulsed by other electrons
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opposite of electronegativity factor that affects ionization energy is electron shielding o noble gases possess very high ionization energies b ecause of their full valenc o shell Electronegativity Same direction as ionization energy o atom's strength to attract and form bonds with electrons for full octet o Transition metals — little little variance in value as move across and down noble o gases — full full octet; lanthanides and actinides — no no trend Electron affinity o Same direction as ionization and electronegativity ability of an atom to accept an electron o Atomic Radius Opposite direction as everything else o O smaller than Cl o o
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Nuclear Reactions Radioactivity is spontaneous break-up of unstable nucleus, and the resulting emissio achieve stability o Stable nucleus has 1 to 1 ratio of proton to neutron 4 Alpha Decay: emit positive particle 2He Decreases proton count/atomic number by 2 o Decreases atomic mass by 4 o 0 0 Beta Decay: emit negative particle -1 e (or -1 β) o Increase atomic number by 1 o Nothing to atomic mass 0 Positron Emission: emit positive particle that is size of electron 1 e o Decrease atomic number by 1 o Nothing to atomic mass Fusion vs Fission Both releases tons of energy Fusion reactions two light nuclei are combined to form a heavier, more stable nucleus o Fission Reaction o heavy nucleus is split into two nuclei n uclei with smaller mass numbers
Valence Bond Theory two atoms will form a bond when there is orbital o rbital overlap o a maximum of two electrons can be present in the overlapping orbitals as pair of electrons is attracted to both atomic nucl ei, a bond is formed, and o extent of overlap increases, the strength of the bond increases there is an equilibrium point where electronic energ y is at min, bond is strong o too much overlap/too little = energy increase hybridization- blending atomic orbitals to create energy level in between those of the Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title orbitals Useful Not useful sigma bonds are single bonds from overlap of Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. two s orbitals, o an s and a p orbital, or o
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States of matter
Gases, Gases, including the kinetic molecular theory, gas law relationships, molar volumes, de and stoichiometry
Kinetic Molecular Theory Experimentally explains the gas laws 1. A gas consists of a collection of small particles traveling in straight-line motion and obeying Newton's Laws. 2. The molecules in a gas occup y no volume (that is, they are points). 3. Collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic (that is, no energy is gained or los during the collision). 4. There are no attractive or repulsive forces between the molecules. 5. The average kinetic energy of a molecule is 3kT/2. (T is the absolute temperature an the Boltzmann constant.) Gas Laws STP corresponds to 273 K (0° Celsius) and 1 atm pressure.
Memorize conversion units.
1 atm = 760 /mmHg = 101,325 pascals Combined Gas Law o
o
Boyle’s Law (Boil on top) o P1V1 = P2V2 Gay-Lussac’s Gay-Lussac’s Law (Gay = Left earring= left politics = liberal) o
=
=
Charles’ Law (the remaining law)
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Molarity vs Molality vs Density Molarity = moles of solute / liter of solution ( M = n / V) o Molality = moles of solute / kg of solvent ( m = n / kg) o o Density = mass of solution / volume of solution ( d = mass/V)
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Liquids and Solids, Solids , including intermolecular forces in liquids and solids, types of solid phase changes, and phase diagrams Solutions, Solutions , including molarity and percent by mass concentrations, solution preparatio stoichiometry, factors affecting solubility of solids, liquids, and gases, qualitative aspects colligative properties
Forces, Solids, and Liquids Strongest intramolecular forces (hold one molecule together) in order o Covalent network Ionic bonding o Metallic bonding o
Solid classes Molecular o Relatively low melting and boiling points; brittle pure o Network Hard, rigid, brittle; very high melting points; insoluble in water Metallic o Malleable, ductile, lustrous, electrically and thermally conducting o Ionic Hard, rigid, brittle; high melting and boiling points; those soluble in w give conducting solutions Atomic o Made of only 1 type t ype of element; physical characteristics vary dramati can be used in conjunction con junction with other class ex: H2 atomic molecular s Liquid o kinetic energy of the molecules can partly p artly overcome the intermolecular force allowing the molecules to move past one another
Intermolecular forces in liquids and solids Intermolecular forces are the responsible for different phases ( connect individual molec Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title In Liquids, Listed strongest to weakest
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Surface Tension Tendency of the surface of a liquid to be pulled inward, resulting in a smooth surface. Vapor Pressure o pressure exerted by the vapor of a liquid or solid when the vapor and liquid or solid are in dynamic equilibrium o Stronger intermolecular bonding = higher boiling point higher freezing point higher viscosity higher surface tension lower vapor pressure In Solids o Amorphous Solid A solid in which the atoms, ions, or molecules lie in a random jumble no long-range order. glass and butter o Crystalline Solid A solid in which the atoms, ions, or molecules lie in an orderly array. NaCl, diamond, and graphite o Molecular Solids molecules held in place by intermolecular forces Amorphous Molecular Solid (Weak Intermolecular Forces) o Very soft Examples: Paraffin wax, which is a mixture of long-chain hydrocarbo that lie together in a disorderly way because the forces between them so weak o Crystalline Molecular Solids (Strong Intermolecular Forces) Hard Brittle Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title togetherNot byuseful hydrogen bondin Sucrose molecules C12H22O11 are held Useful Cancel anytime. between their numerous – numerous – OH OH groups o
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Phase Change/ Phase Diagram
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Factors Affecting Solubility Of Solids, Liquids, And Gases,
Common-Ion Effect o Decreased solubility if ion of a salt is already present in the equalized solutio Use le chatlier More ion is added to a solution at equilibrium… o Temp o Solid Heat + solid on reactants Add heat shifts to products --- more solubility Heat + dissociated ions on product Add heat shifts to reactants --- less solubility o Liq No liq liq solubility cases Gas o Dissolving gas in liquid is exothermic (gas loses heat in the liq to the product) Inc temp= less solubility Pressure o Negligible for solid+liq o Gas Henry’s Law When temp is constant, solubility corresponds to partial pressu P= k h * C o K h is Henry constant Partial Pressure decreases, Concentration of gas in liquid decreases, Solubility decreases
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