Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit.
Section 3: INFANCY CHAPTER 4: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Introduction Latonya Newborn baby in Ghana First days of life: bottle fed Mother was persuaded to bottle fed rather than breast fed Mother: overdilutes the milk formula with unclean water Her feeding bottles have not been sterilized Died before her first birthday Ramona Born in Nigeria (has a “baby-friendly” program) Nigeria: babies are not separated from their mother mothers are encouraged to breast feed mother are told of the perils that bottle fedding can bring because of unsafe water and unsterilized bottles mothers are informed about the advantges of breast milk At 1 year of age, she becomes healthy. Note: Maternity units in hospitals favored bottle feeding and did not give mothers adequate information about the benefits of breast feeding. In recent years, WHO and UNICEF have tried to reverse the trend toward bottle feeding of infants in many impoverished countries. Result of WHO and UNICEF effort = “baby-friendly” program
In 12 months, infants are capable of: Sitting Standing Stooping Climbing Walking During the second year: growth decelerates running and climbing
PATTERNS OF GROWTH head – unproportional to the body cephalocaudal pattern - sequence of growth is from top to bottom - shoulders, middle trunk - head – top part of the head-eyes and brain- grow faster than the lower parts, such as the jaw. motor development – follows the cephalocaudal pattern DEVELOPMENT DOES NOT FOLLOW A RIGID BLUEPRINT. proximodistal pattern- sequence of growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities.
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT 20 inches and 7 pounds - newborn North-American 18 to 22 inches long and weigh between 5 and 10 pounds - 95% percent of full term newborns
Jose Fabella Memorial Hospital In Philippines Saved 8 percent of their annual budget Disadvantage of breast milk: Passing HIV Africa 30% of mothers have human immunodefiency virus (HIV)
1 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
Figure 1 CHANGES IN PROPORTION OF HUMAN BODY DURING GROWTH. Head becomes smaller in relation to the rest of the body.
First two years of life – most crucial period for an infant
First several days of life: Most lose 5 to 7 percent of their baby weight Before they adjust by sucking, swallowing, and digesting.
Newborn infants: Heads are quite large Little strength in their necks Cannot hold their heads up Have basic reflexes
First month: Grow 5 to 6 ounces per week
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. Fourth month: Doubled their birth weight First year: Grow 1 inch per month Second year: Weighs approximately 26 to 32 pounds Gained quarter to half a pound per month Reached 1/5 of their adult weight Average height: 32 to 35 inches Reaches half of their adult height First several days of life First month Fourth month First year Second year
Lose 5 to 7 percent of body weight Grow 5 to 6 ounces per week Doubled their birth weight Grow 1 inch per month Weigh: 26 to 32 pounds 1/5 of their adult weight Height: 32 to 35 inches Half of adult weight
THE BRAIN Infant – single cell to 100 billion neurons Extensive brain development continues after birth, through infancy and later. infant's head- should be protected
MAPPING THE BRAIN forebrain- portion farthest from the spinal cord a. cerebral cortex- covers the forehead like a wrinkled cap. left hemisphere - location of logical and language thinking - speech and grammar right hemisphere - location of emotion and creative thinking - humor and use of metaphors Four main lobes: FOTP 1. frontal lobe voluntary movement thinking personality intentionality or purpose 2. occipital lobe vision 3. temporal lobe active role in hearing language processing memory 4. parietal lobe registering spatial location attention motor control cerebral cortex- covers the forehead like a wrinkled cap.
Shaken Baby Syndrome - brain swelling and hemorrhaging - affects hundreds of babies in US
Division of cerebral cortex: 1. left hemisphere - location of logical and language thinking - speech and grammar
Perpetrators: 1. fathers 2. child care provider 3. boyfriend of victim’s mother
2. right hemisphere - location of emotion and creative thinking - humor and use of metaphors
Positon-emission tomography (PET) - scans pose a radiation risk to babies - uses radioactive tracer to image and analyze blood flow and metabolic activity in the body’s organs.
Note: Reading and performing music requires the work of both hemispheres. Complex thinking is the outcome of the communication of both hemispheres.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - infants wriggle too much to capture accurate images Electroencephalogram (EEG) - measures the brain’s electrical activity Charles Nelson - making strides in brain development
THE BRAIN’S DEVELOPMENT At birth: 25 PERCENT of its adult weight Second birthday: 75 percent of its adult weight. BRAIN’S AREAS DO NOT MATURE UNIFORMLY.
Lateralization – specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex left hemisphere- has greater electrical activity in the left hemisphere when they are listening to speech sounds.
CHANGES IN NEURONS neurons- nerve cells that send electrical and chemical signals - nerve cell that handles information processing
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. CHANGES IN THE REGIONS OF THE BRAIN synaptic density – important indication of the extent of connectivity between neurons.
a.
b. c. d.
The dendrites of the cell body receive rhe information from other neurons, muscles, or glands through the axon. Axons transmit information away from the cell body. A myelin sheath covers most axons and dendrites and speeds information transmission As the axons ends, it branches out into terminal
2 types of fibers: 1. axons- carries the signals away from the cell body synapses- terminal buttons that are found at the end of the axon - tiny gaps between neuron fibers - allows information to pass from neuron to neuron through chemical interactions terminal buttons – found at the end of an axon - releases chemicals called neurotransmitters metaphor: Think of the synapse as a river that blocks a road. A grocery truck arrives at one bank of the rover, crosses ferry and continues its journey to market. Similarly, a message in the brain is “ferried” across the synapse by a neurotransmitter, which pours out information contained in chemicals when it reaches the other side of the river. 2. dendrites- carries signals toward myelin sheath – layer of fat cells, encases many axons. – insulates axons – helps critical signals travel faster down the axon. myelination – involved in providing energy to neurons and in communication 2 significant ways on how neurons change: 1. myelination – the process of encasing axons with fat cells - begins prenatally and continues after birth, even into adolescence 2. expansion of dendritic connections - facilitates the spreading of neural pathways
Synaptic overproduction: 1. visual cortex – fourth postnatal month, followed by a gradual retraction until the middle to end of the preschool years. 2. hearing and language – later 3. prefrontal cortex – higher level of thinking and selfregulation occur - 1 year of age - it is not until the middle to late adolescence that the adult density of the synapses is achieved. Pace of myelination (speeds up neural transmission): 1. visual pathways – occurs after birth - com: in the first six month 2. auditory – completed until the 4 or 5 years of age frontal lobes – immature in the newborns NOTE: As neurons in the frontal lobes become myelinated and interconnected during the first year of life, infants develop an ability to regulate their physiological states. Prefrontal region of the frontal lobe has the most prolonged development of any brain region, with changes detectable at least into the emerging adulthood. cognitive skills - do not emerge until the first year of life
EARLY EXPERIENCES AND THE BRAIN NOTE: Children who grew up in a deprived environment MAY have depressed brain activity. Deprived environments are reversible The brain demonstrates both reversibility and resilience. Repeated experiences wires the brain. Experiences determine how connections are made. Before birth, it appears that genes mainly direct basic writing patterns. After birth, the inflowing stream help shape the brain’s neural connections.
SLEEP sleep – consumed more of an infants time 18 hours a day – newborn’s sleep 10 to 21 hours – range of newborn’s sleeping time
Synaptic connections: Nearly twice as many of these connections are made as will ever be used. The connections that are used become strengthened and survive, while the unused ones are replaced by other pathways or disappear, these connections will be “pruned”
NOTE: Infants vary in their preferred times of sleeping and their patterns of sleep. Total amount of time (10 to 21 hours) is consistent. night walking – most common infant sleep-related problem
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit.
Factors of infant night walking: excessive parental involvement intrinsic factors o daytime crying o fussing extrinsic factors o distressed o separated from the mother o breastfeeding o sleeping with parents in their bed CULTURAL VARIATIONS INFLUENCE SLEEPING PATTERN Kipsigis culture, Kenya United States night: sleep with mothers nurse on demand day: strapped to mother’s back 3 hrs longest sleep 8 or more hrs of sleep
SIDS – SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME SIDS – infant stop breathing, dies at night without an apparent cause. - highest cause of infant death - 2 to 4 months of age sleep on their backs – reduce SIDS - impairs the infant’s arousal from sleep and restricts infants ability to swallow effectively. 9 RISK FACTORS OF SIDS: 1. Less likely to occur in infants who use a pacifier when asleep. 2. Less likely to occur to infants who sleep in a bedroom with a fan. 3. 4. 5.
REM SLEEP REM sleep – eyes flutter beneath the closed lids. Non-REM sleep – eye movement does not occur and sleep is more quiet.
6. 7. 8. 9.
ADULTHOOD 1/5 in REM sleep REM sleep: one hour after non-REM sleep. After REM : dreaming
INFANCY 1/2 REM sleep Begin their life cycle with REM sleep. After REM: unknown
Why do infants spends so much time in REM sleep? - REM sleep provides infants with added self-stimulation and promote brain development.
SHARED SLEEP United States and Great Britain - infants sleep in a crib, the same room or separate room. Guatemala and China - infants share a bed with mother. INFANT’S BEDDING MUST PROVIDE FIRM SUPPORT AND THAT CRIBS SHOULD HAVE SIDE RAILS. Benefits of shared sleeping: 1. promotes breastfeeding 2. quicker response to baby’s cries 3. allows mother to detect potentially dangerous breathing pauses
Low birth weight infants are 5 to 10 times more likely to die of SIDS. Infants who have siblings who died of SIDS. (2-4x). Infants with sleep apnea (temporary cessation of breathing in which the airways is completely blocked, usually for 10 seconds or longer). Prone to African American and Eskimo infants. SIDS is common in lower SE groups. SIDS is more common to infants exposed to cigarette smoke. SIDS occur more in infants with abnormal brain stem functioning involving the neurotransmitter serotonin.
NUTRITION 1 year of age – infants triple their weight and length by 50 percent
NUTRITIONAL NEEDS AND EATING BEHAVIOR 50 calories per day for each pound - required infant consume Development of motor skills: 1. suck-and-swallow movements with breast milk or formula 2. chew-and-swallow movements of semisolids 3. self-feeding : first year NOTE: Above 95th percentile of their age and gender on a weight-for-height index : overweight Between 85th and 95th percentile : at risk Factors in increase of overweight infants: 1. poor dietary patterns 2. mother’s weight gain during pregnancy 3. an infants is breast fed or bottle fed
The American Academy of Pediatrics. Task Force on Infant Positioning and SIDS - thinks otherwise
Breast feeding – reduces the risk of obesity
Cons: 1. promotes the risk that the sleeping mother will roll over the baby 2. increases SIDS
human milk or alternative formula - baby’s source of nutrients and energy for the first four to six months
BREAST FEEDING VERSUS BOTTLE FEEDING
American Dietetic Association and AAP - endorse breast feeding throughout the infant’s first year.
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit.
OUTCOMES FOR CHILD 1. gastrointestinal infections 2. lower respiratory tract infections 3. allergies 4. asthma 5. otitis media – middle ear infection 6. atopic dermatitis 7. overweight and obesity 8. diabetes 9. SIDS
OUTCOMES FOR MOTHER 1. breast cancer 2. ovarian cancer 3. type 2 diabetes 4. lower incidence of metabolic syndrome Women who are likely to breast feed: 1. mothers who work full-time outside of the home 2. mothers under age 25 3. mothers without a high school education 4. African American mothers 5. mothers in low-income circumstances NOTE: Intervention increased the incidence of breast feeding. No psychological differences between breast feeding and bottle feeding. breast pump – what mothers used to extract milk that can be stored for later feeding of the infant when they are not present. Mothers should not breast feed: 1. when she is infected with HIV or any infectious diseases that can be transmitted through her milk. 2. has active tuberculosis. 3. taking any drugs that can affect the baby.
MALNUTRITION IN INFANCY NOTE: Early weaning of infants from breast milk to inadequate sources of nutrients cause protein deficiency. Breast feeding is more optimal for mothers and infants in developing countries, except for mother with HIV/AIDS or those suspected of having HIV/AIDS. tapioca or rice – substitute for breast milk. 2 life-threatening conditions: 1. marasmus – severe protein-calorie deficiency and results in a wasting away of body tissues in infant’s first year. infant becomes underweight and muscles atrophy. 2. kwashiorkor severe protein deficiency occur in 1 and 3 years of age child’s abdomen and feet are swollen with water
vital organ to collect the nutrients that are present and deprive other parts of the body of them. hair: thin, brittle, and colorless behavior: listless
2 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT THE DYNAMIC SYSTEMS VIEW maturation – development comes about through the unfolding of genetic plan. DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY Esther Thelen Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting. Motor skills represents solutions to infant’s goals. Universal milestones are learned through this process of adaptation: modulate their movement pattern to fit a new task by exploring and selecting possible configurations. Motor development is not a passive process. Nature and nurture are all working together. Many converging factors: 1. development nervous systems 2. body's physical properties 3. possibilities for movement, the goal the child is motivated to reach, and the environmental support for the skill. NOTE: Infants explore and select possible solutions to the demands of a new task. They assemble adaptive patterns by modifying their current movement patterns. Steps to mastering a motor skill: 1. infant is motivated by a new challenge. 2. Infants “tunes” the movement to make them more smoother and more effective. tuning – repeated cycles of action and perception of the consequences of that action
REFLEXES Reflexes Built-in reactions to stimuli Govern newborn’s movements Automatic and beyond the newborn’s control Genetically carried survival mechanisms Allow infants to respond adaptively to their environment. MOST IMPORTANT REFLEXES: (SURVIVAL) 1. Rooting reflex When the infant’s cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched Infants turns it head towards the side that was touched to suck 2. Sucking reflex When newborn automatically suck an object placed in their mouth To get nourishment Self-soothing mechanism Self-regulating mechanism OTHER REFLEXES:
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. 1. Moro reflex Response to a sudden noise or movement Newborn: Arches its back Throw back its head Fling out its arms and legs Grabbing for support while falling Survival value for primate ancestors Rooting and Moro reflex – disappears: 3 to 4 months REFLEX TO COMPLEX, VOLUNTARY ACTIONS: 1. Grasping reflex When something touches the infant’s palms
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS gross motor skills – skills that involve large-muscle activites.
DEVELOPMENT OF POSTURE posture – dynamic process that is linked with sensory information in the skin, joints, and muscles TIME TABLE: Weeks hold their heads erect lift their heads 2 months Sit while supported 6 to 7 months Sit independently 8 to 9 months Can pull themselves up and hold to a chair 10 to 12 months Stand alone
LEARNING TO WALK NOTE: Locomotion and postural control are linked in walking upright. Very young infants took more steps when they saw a visual treadmill moving beneath their feet. o Perception + action in dynamic systems theory (assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting). The key skill in learning to walk appear to be stabilizing balance on one leg enough to swing the other forward and shifting the weight without falling. When infants learn to walk, they typically take small steps because of the limited balance control and strength. o Importance or perceptual-motor coupling in the development of motor skills.
Practice is important in the development of new motor skills Combination of strength and balancing required to improve their walking skills.
THE FIRST YEAR: MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES AND VARIATIONS NOTE: The timing of these milestones may vary, and experiences can modify the onset of these accomplishments. American infants never crawl on their belly or on their hands and knees.
African Mali tribes: most infants do not crawl.
DEVELOPMENT IN THE SECOND YEAR NOTE: Toddlers become more motorically skilled and mobile. motor activity – vital to a child’s development 13 to 18 months Can pull a toy attached to a string Use their hands and legs to climb up a number of steps 18 to 24 months Walk quickly Run swiftly Balance on their feet in squat position Walk backward without losing balance Stand and throw a ball Jump in place African, Indian, and Caribbean cultures - massage and stretch infants during daily baths Jamaican and Mali mothers - regularly massage infants and stretch their arms and legs Gusii culture of Kenya - encourage vigorous movements
FINE MOTOR SKILLS fine motor skills – Involve more finely tuned movements, such as finger dexterity. Grabbing a toy Using a spoon Buttoning a shirt 2 types of grasps: 1. palmer grasp Grip with the whole hand 2. pincher grasp Grasp small objects with thumb and forefinger Grip large objects with all of the finger of one hands or both hands. Four-month old – rely on touch to determine how they will grip an object. Eight-month old – rely on vision to determine how they will grip an object. Sticky mittens – mittens with palms that stuck to the edges of toys and allowed to infants to pick up toys.
3 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT SENSATION AND PERCEPTION? Sensation – information interacts with sensory receptors Sensory receptors – eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin Perception – interpretation of what is sensed. - designed for action
ECOLOGICAL VIEW Eleanor and James J. Gibson Perceptual system can select from the rich information that the environment provides. ecological view – perceive information that exists in the world around us. ecological – connects the perceptual capabilities to information available in the world of perceiver.
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. affordances – opportunities for interaction offered by objects that fit within our capabilities to perform functional activities. visual preference method – method used to determine whether infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring the length of time they attend to different stimuli. habituation – decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus. dishabituation – recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation.
VISUAL PERCEPTION VISUAL ACUITY AND HUMAN FACES blooming, buzzing confusion - Willliam James’ pov of the world 20/240 – newborn’s vision accdg. to Snellen chart - an object 20 feet away is only as clear ot the newborn a it would be if it were 240 feet away from and adult with normal vision 20/20 – normal vision for adults 20/40 – average vision of infants of 6 months of age Snellen chart – use for eyes examinations MILESTONES: Infants show interest to human faces soon after birth. Infants spend more time looking at their mother’s face 12 hours after born. 3 months: Infants match voices to faces Distinguish between male and female voices Discriminate between faces of their ethnic grp. 3 to 9 months of age: Infants focus more on faces in animated film and less on salient background stimuli. 2 to 3 week old: Infants prefer to look at patterned displays rather than nonpatterned. Bull’s eye or black-and-white stripes > circle Normal face > scrambled features
COLOR VISION 8 weeks: Infants can discriminate colors. 4 months: Have color preferences Prefer saturated colors.
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY perceptual constancy – sensory stimulation is changing but perception of the physical world remains constant. perceptual constancy – allows infants to perceive the world as stable 2 TYPES: 1. Size constancy Object remains the same even though the retinal image of the object changes as you move toward or away from the object. Size as constant. 2. Shape constancy Object remains the same shape even though its orientation to us changes. 3 months: Have shape constancy Do not have shape constancy for irregularly shaped objects, such as tilted planes.
PERCEPTION OF OCCLUDED OBJECTS
NOTE: INFANTS PERCEIVE WHAT IS VISIBLE. 2 months of age: Infants develop the ability to perceive the occluded objects as a whole. Learning, experience, and self-directed exploitation via aye movement play key roles in the development of perceptual completion in young infants.
DEPTH PERCEPTION depth perception – respond to differences in some visual characteristics of the deep and shallow cliff, with no actual knowledge of depth. binocular cues – develop by abou 3 to 4 months of age/ stereoacuity- fine-detail depth perception
OTHER SENSES HEARING NOTE: Last two months of pregnancy – fetus can hear Fetus can recognize mother’s voice Changes in Hearing: 1. Loudness – cannot hear soft sounds - stimulus must be louder to be heard 2. Pitch – perception of the frequency of a sound - less sensitive to the pitch - hear high-pitched sounds 3. Localization – determine the general location from where the sound is coming from.
TOUCH AND PAIN NOTE: Infants can feel touch and pain. Circumcision – third day after birth with no anesthesia
SMELL NOTE: Newborns can differentiate odors The expressions of their faces indicate what they like and what they do not like.
TASTE NOTE: Sensitivity to taste might be present even before birth. 4 months of age: Infants prefer salty taste.
INTERMODAL PERCEPTIONS intermodal perception – ability to relate and integrate information from two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing.
NATURE, NURTURE AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT Nativists Nature proponents Perceive the world in a competent, organized way is inborn and innate Ecological view _ Eleanor and James J. Gibson Empiricist Emphasize learning and experience
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit.
Piaget’s constructive view Infancy must await the development of a sequence of cognitive stage for infants to construct more complex perceptual tasks.
PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR COUPLING perceptual-motor coupling - distinction between perceiving and doing Esther Thelen’s dynamic systems theory - explore how people assemble motor behaviors Ecological approach - discover how perception guides action. NOTE: Action can guide perception, and perception can guide action. Action educates perception
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. CHAPTER 5: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Introduction Jean Piaget Swiss psychologist Children: Lucienne, Laurent, Jacqueline
1 PIAGET’S THEORY OF INFANT DEVELOPMENT ADAPTATION adjusting to new environmental demands PIAGET Biology + experience Child construct Environment feeds information
COGNITIVE PROCESSES SCHEMES Schemes - actions or mental presentations that organize knowledge. - structured simple actions.
Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors. After, infants produces behaviors that resemble reflex in the absence of usual stimulus for reflex Rooting Sucking Grasping Newborn suck reflexively when their lips are touched.
2) FIRST HABITS AND PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS 1 to 4 months Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits and primary circular reactions Habit – reflexes that have become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus. Circular reaction – repetitive actions Primary circular reactions - reproduction of an event that initially occurred by chance Infant’s body is the main focus Sucking thumb
ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMODATION assimilation- use their existing schemes to deal with new information - adapt to their surroundings. accommodation - adjust their schemes to take new information and experiences into account. - look for a common ground
ORGANIZATION organization – grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system
EQUILIBRATION AND STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT disequilibrium – cognitive conflict - counterexamples to one’s existing schemes and with inconsistencies PIAGET: an internal search for equilibrium creates motivation for change. Equilibration – mechanism by which children shift from one stage to another NOTE: Cognitive is qualitatively different in one stage compared with another.
THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE Sensorimotor stage – Birth to 2 years of age Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical, motoric actions. Beginning: Newborn have more than reflexes with which to work End: 2 years-old can produce complex sensorimotor patterns and use primitive symbols.
SUBSTAGES SFSCTI : 1 – 4 – 8 – 12 – 18 – 24 MONTHS 1) SIMPLE REFLEXES First month after birth
3) SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS 4 to 8 months Infants become object-oriented, moving beyond preoccupation with the self. Infant’s schemes are repeated because of their consequences. Infants repeat reactions for the sake of fascination. Secondary circular reaction - action repeated because of consequences Infants imitate simple actions that he or she can produce. Infants coos to make a person stay.
4) COORDINATION OF CIRCULAR REACTIONS 8 to 12 months Infants must coordinate vision and touch, hand and eye (intermodal perception) Actions are outwardly directed. Coordination of schemes and intentionality. Second achievement – presence of intentionality. Infants manipulate a stick in order to bring an attractive toy within reach.
5) TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS, NOVELTY, AND CURIOUSITY. 12 to 18 months Infants become intrigued by the main properties of objects and by many things they can make happen to object They experiment with new behavior. Tertiary circular reactions
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. - schemes in which the infant purposely explores new possibilities with objects. Marks the starting point for human curiosity and interest in novelty.
Space Number sense Object permanence and knowledge.
A block can be made to fall, spin, hit another object, and slide across the ground.
6) INTERNALIZATION OF SCHEMES 18 to 24 months Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols Infants develop ability to form enduring mental representations. Symbols – internalized sensory image or word that represent an event. - allows the infant to manipulate and transform the represent events in simple ways. An infant who has never thrown a tantrum before sees playmate throw a tantrum; the infants retains in memory of the event, then throws one himself the next day. (deferred imitation)
OBJECT PERMANENCE Object permanence – objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, touched or heard.
EVALUATING PIAGET’S SENSORIMOTOR STAGE A-NOT-B ERROR A-not-B error – aka AB error - infants continue to search for the initial location of an object. CAUSEs OF AB ERROR: 1. Due to failure in memory 2. Infants tend to repeat a previous motor behavior.
PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EXPECTATIONS intermodal perception – ability to coordinate information from two or more sensory receptors. RESEARCH SUGGEST: 1. Infants develop the ability to understand how to world works at a very early age. 2. Infants develop expectations about future events. alternating sequence – L – R – L – R unpredictable sequence – L – L – R – L 3. Infants did not develop expectations about where a picture would be presented. 4. 4 months: infants expect object to be solid and continuous. substantial – objects cannot move through them permanent – exist even when it is absent. 5. 6 to 8 months: infants learned to perceive gravity and support.
NATURE AND NURTURE ISSUE NATURE Core Knowledge Approach Infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems. Influenced by evolution (core knowledge)
Innate core knowledge domains form a foundation around which more mature cognitive functioning and learning develop.
APPROACH SUGGEST: 1. Infants have sense of number. 2. Infants can distinguish between different numbers of actions, objects and sounds. temporal lobe – changes in types parietal lobe – changes in number CRITICISM: Infants are merely reacting to the changes in display that violated their expectations.
CONCLUSION Understand changes in cognition take place and the big issue of nature and nurture. Determining whether the course of acquiring information, which is very rapid in some domains, is best accounted for by an innate set of biases or by extensive input of environmental experiences to which infant is exposed.
2 LEARNING, REMEMEMBERING AN CONCEPTUALIZING Lucienne’s feet – Piaget hung a doll Behavioral and social cognitive & information processing approaches - development is gradual
CONDITIONING INFANTS CAN RETAIN INFORMATION FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF BEING CONDITIONED. Operant conditioning – important to understand baby’s perception reinforcing stimulus – increases behavior
ATTENTION ATTENTION Attention – focusing of mental resources on select information, improves cognitive processing on many tasks 4 months – infants attend to an object parietal lobe – attention to an object or event. orienting/investigative process - process involves directing attention to where and recognizing what where – locations in the environment what – objects and their features sustained attention – aka focused attention - allows infant to learn about and remember characteristics of a stimulus as it becomes familiar. 3 years : 5 to 10 seconds of sustained attention
HABITUATION AND DISHABITUATION Habituation Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentation Determines the extent to which an infant can see, hear, smell, taste and experience touch. Provides a measure of an infant’s maturity and well-being
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. Say the same word several times in a row Dishabituation Increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulation Sucking behavior Heart rates Length of time infant look at an object NOTE:
When an object becomes familiar, attention becomes shorter, and infants become more vulnerable to distraction.
JOINT ATTENTION joint attention – individuals focus on the same object or event - occurs at 7 to 8 months ATTENTION REQUIRES: 1. Ability to track another’s behavior 2. Directing another’s attention 3. Reciprocal interaction JOINT ATTENTION INVOLVES: 1. Caregiver pointing 2. Turning the infant’s head 3. Snapping one’s fingers 4. Using words to direct attention Gaze following – follow eye movements of someone else. - at 10 to 11 months 1 year old – capture adult’s attention 7 to 8 months Joint attention 10 to 11 months Gaze following 1 year old Capture adult’s attention FREQUENTLY ENGAGE IN ATTENTION: 1. Infants say their words earlier 2. Develop a larger vocab
MEMORY memory - retention of information over time encoding – information gets into memory implicit memory – memory without conscious recollection - skills, routines explicit memory – conscious memory of facts and experiences. NOTE: Older infants showed more accurate and memory and required fewer prompts to demonstrate their memory than younger infants. LINKED TO BABY’S MEMORY DEVELOPMENT: 1. Maturation of hippocampus 2. Maturation of frontal lobes infantile or childhood amnesia – remember little from their first three years of life. NOTE: Difficulty recalling event form their infant and early child years becomes prefrontal lobes of the brain are immature.
IMITATION NOTE: Infants can imitate a facial expression within the first few days after birth. Infant’s imitative abilities involve flexibility and adaptability. Interplay between learning by observing and learning by doing. deferred imitation – imitation occurs after a delay.
CONCEPT FORMATION AND CATEGORIZATION
categories – group on the basis of common properties. concepts – ideas about what categories represent categories & concepts – help summarization 3 months of age - can group by appearance NOTE: Infants are more likely to look at a novel object than a familiar object. perceptual categorization – based on similar perceptual features. conceptual categorization – categorize by _______ BOY’S INTENSE INTEREST: 1. Vehicles 2. Trains 3. Machines 4. Dinosaurs 5. Balls GIRL’S INTENSE INTEREST: 1. Reading books 2. Dress-ups
3 INDIVIDUALS DIFFERENCES AND ASSESSMENTS MEASURES OF INFANT DEVELOPMENT Developmental quotient Arnold Gesell Help sort out babies with normal functioning from ones with abnormal functioning Useful to adaption agencies. Four categories: 1. motor 2. language 3. adaptive 4. personal-social Bayley Scales of Infant Development Assess infant behavior and predict later development Current version: Bayley III Five categories: 1. motor 2. adaptive 3. language 4. cognitive 5. socioemotional 6 months: 1. able to vocalize pleasure 2. search for out of reach 3. approach a mirror 12 months: 1. inihibit behavior 2. imitate words Fagan test of Infant Intelligence Infant’s ability to process information in such ways as Encoding the attributes of objects, Detecting similarities and differences between objects Forming mental presentations Retrieving presentations
PREDICTING INTELLIGENCE NOTE: IQ pay attention to verbal ability. Measures habituation and dishabituation
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. Habituation assessed at 3 or 6 months of age was linked to verbal skills and intelligence assessed at 32 months of age.
4 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
1. CRYING signal distress 2. COOING 2 to 4 months gurgling sounds made in the back of the throat express pleasure 3. BABBLING first year consonant-vowel combinations
GESTURES EXAMPLES: 1. wild boy of Aveyron 2. Genie
DEFINING LANGUAGE Language – form of communication that is based on symbols - spoken, written or signed - highly organize and ordered COMMON CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Infinite generativity – ability to produce an endless number of meaning sentences using a finite set of words and rules 2. Organizational rules – way language works
LANGUAGE SYSTEMS PMMSP FIVE SYSTEMS: 1. PHONOLOGY Sound system of language Provides a basis for constructing a lare and expandable set of words. phenome – basic unit of sound - smallest unit of sound that affects meaning 2. MORPHOLOGY Units of meaning involved in word formation morpheme – minimal unit of meaning - part of a word that cannot be broken into smaller meaningful parts. 3. SYNTAX Way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences THE MOUSE THE CAT THE KILLER CHASED KILLED ATE THE CAT 4. SEMANTICS Meaning of words and sentences THE BICYCLE TALKED THE BOY INTO BUYING A CANDY BAR. 5. PRAGMATICS Appropriate of language in different contexts
Showing and pointing – to draw attention Pointing – important index
FIRST WORDS 5 months of age – recognize own name 13 months – 50 words 5 months Recognize own name 13 months 50 words Receptive vocabulary – words the child understands. Spoken vocabulary – words the child uses. First words: 1. Impo people Dada 2. Familiar animals Kitty 3. Vehicles Car 4. Toys Ball 5. Food Milk 6. Body parts Eye 7. Clothing Hat 8. Household items Clock 9. Greeting Bye Vocabulary spurt - rapid increase in vocabulary TIMING OF VOCABULARY SPURT VARIES Overextension – tendency to apply a words to object that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning Underextension - tendency to apply a word too narrowly
TWO WORD UTTERANCES Two-Word Utterences: 1. Identification 2. Location 3. Repetition 4. Negation 5. Possession 6. Attribution 7. Agent-action 8. Action-direct object 9. Action-indirect object 10. Action-instrument 11. Question Telegraphic speech – use of short and precise words without grammatical markers.
BIOLOGICAL AND ENVI INFLUENCES BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES
HOW LANGUAGE DEVELOPS Frederick II – selected newborns and threatened caregivers to never talk to them.
RECOGNIZING LANGUAGE SOUNDS THEY RECOGNIZE WHEN SOUNDS CHANGE, NO MATTER WHAT LANGUAGE
BABBLING AND OTHER VOCALIZATIONS
100 YEARS AGO – humans acquired language Broca’s area – speech production Wernicke’s area – language comprehension Aphasia – loss of impairment of language processing Language acquisitive device - biological endowment - detect certain features and rules of language - theoretical
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. ENVIRONMENTLA INFLUENCES BEHAVIORIST: Language is a complex skill Criticism: Does not explain how people create novel sentences Children learn the syntax of their own language even if they are not reinforced Impo: Particular language to be learned and the context in which learning takes places can strongly influence language acquisition. Language is not learned in a social vacuum. Child’s vocabulary development is linked to family’s SES and type of talk that the parents direct to the children Mothers who spoke more often = high vocab Parents should read book to and with their kids. Interaction view of language - emphasizes that children learn language in specific context Child directed speech - language spoken in a higher piych than normal with simple words and sentences. STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE LANG. ACQUISITION: 1. RECASTING Rephrasing what the child has said Statements to questions 2. EXPANDING Restating what the baby just said 3. LABELLING Identifying names of objects
INTERACTIONIST VIEW INTERACTIONIST VIEW - both biological and experience contribute to language development
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. CHAPTER 6: SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Introduction
Non-Latino white mothers - respond after their children become distressed.
Darius
EARLY EMOTIONS 17th month old Mother is a landscape architect Father is a writer Fafa cares for him during the day Spends one day a week at a child-care center because they wanted him to get some experience with peers and to give his father some time out from caregiving
NOTE: MANY AFTHERS ARE SPENDING MORE TIME WITH THEIR INFANTS TODAY THAN IN THE PAST.
1 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
2 classifications of emotions, accdg to Michael Lewis: 1) Primary emotions – emotions that are present I humans and other animals - birth to six months. Primary emotions: Surprise Interest Joy Anger Sadness Fear Disgust 2) Self-conscious emotions – require self-awareness that involves consciousness and sense of “me” - 6 months to 24 months Self-conscious emotions: Jealous – 18 months of age - illustrates the complexity and difficulty in indexing early emotions Empathy Embarrassment Shame Guilt Pride
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT WHAT ARE EMOTIONS? Emotions – as feeling, or affect that occurs when a person is in state or and interaction hat is important to him or her. - involve an individual’s communication with the world. Classifications of Emotions: 1) Positive Enthusiasm Joy Love 2)
Negative Anxiety Anger Guilt Sadness
Other conscious emotions (involve the emotional reactions of others when they are generated): Embarrassment Shame Guilt Pride NOTE:
The structural immaturity of the infant brain make it unlikely that emotions which require thought can be experience in the first year.
BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES Brain stem, amygdala and hippocampus - play a role in distress, excitement, and rage. Gradual maturation of the frontal region of the cerebral cortex - tied to the ability to regulate emotions
EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS NOTE:
Infants modify their emotional expression I response to their parent;s emotional expressions
Emotions – first language of communication
Reciprocal – or synchronous - interactions are mutually regulated
Social relationships – provide the setting for the development of a rich variety of emotions.
Cries and smiles – first forms of emotional communication.
East Asian infants - display less frequent and less positive negative emotions. Japanese parents - prevent their children form experiencing negative emotions
CRYING - most important mechanism - verifies that the baby’s lungs have filled with air - provide information about the health of the newborn’s CNR. 3 types of cries:
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. 1.
2.
Basic cry - rhythmic pattern that usually consists: 1- of a cry, 2- followed by a briefer silence, 3- then a shorter whistle that is somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry, 4- then another brief rest before 5- the next cry - hunger incites the cry Anger cry - variation of basic cry in which more excess air is forced through the vocal chords.
Stranger anxiety – infant shows a fear and wariness of strangers - emerges gradually - shows up at 6 months of age in the form of wary reactions NOTE:
3.
Pain cry - sudden long, initial loud cry followed by a breath holding - no preliminary moaning is present - high-intensity stimulus stimulates the pain cry
SMILING - critical as means of developinh a new social skill - a key social signal - John Bowlby captured th power of infant’s smiles. 2 types of smiling: 1. Reflexive smile - a smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli - appears during the first month after birth - appears during sleep 2. Social smile - a smile that occurs in response to external stimuli, which in early development is typically a face. - occurs at 2 months of age Duchenne marker and mouth opening - occur in the midst of highly enjoyable interactions and play with parents - 6 to 12 months
Separation anxiety – fear and wariness of strangers - appears at second half of the first year’s life
Separation protest – distressed crying when the caregiver leaves - appear at 7 to 8 months, and peaks at 13 to 15 months
EMOTIONAL REGULATION AND COPING NOTE:
Second year – infants becomes aware of the social meanings of smiles. 6 to 12 months 24 months
Duchenne marker and mouth opening Aware of social meanings of smiles
Anticipatory smiling – communicate pre-existing positive emotion by smiling at an object and then turning their smile toward an adult. FEAR - one of baby’s earlies emotions - appears at about 6 months of age and peaks at about 18 months Abused and neglected infants - show signs of fear as early as 3 months NOTE:
Infants put their thumbs in their mouths to soothe themselves. Infants mainly depend on caregivers to help them soother their emotions. Caregivers help modulate their emotion and reduce the level of stress hormone Caregivers should soothe an infant before the infants gets into an intense, agitated, uncontrolled state. Infants redirect their attention or distract themselves, in order to reduce their arousal. 2 years of age : toddlers use language to define their feeling states and the context that is upsetting them. Contexts can influence emotional regulation. Infants are often affected by fatigue, hunger, time of day, which people are around them, and where they are. New demands appear as the infant becomes older and parents modify their expectations.
TO SOOTHE OR NOT OT SOOTHE: Caregiver’s quick, soothing Caregiver’s quick, response to crying increased comforting response is an crying. important ingredient in the development of a strong bond between the infant and caregiver.
Infant fear is linked to guilt, empathy and low aggression at 6 to 7 years of age.
Infants how less stranger anxiety when they are in familiar settings. When infants feel secure, they are less likely to show stranger anxiety. Infants are less fearful of child strangers than adult strangers They are also less fearful of friendly, outgoing, smiling strangers than of passive, unsmiling strangers.
Mothers who responded quickly when they cried at 3 months of age cried less later in the first year of life. Parents should soothe a crying infant to develop a sense of trust and secure attachment to the caregiver.
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. 3. Effortful control aka self-regulation Includes attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity and low intensity pleasure
TEMPERAMENT Temperament – involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding. NOTE:
DESCRIBING AND CLASSIFIYING TEMPERAMENT
CHESS AND TOMAS’ CLASSIFICATION Alexander Ches Stella Thomas
3 basic types: 1. Easy child - in positive mood - quickly establishes a regular routines in infancy - adapts easily to new experiences.
BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS AND EXPERIENCES NOTE:
2. Difficult child - reacts negatively - cries frequently - engages in irregular routines - slow to accept change
Children inherit a physiology that biases them to have a particular type of temperament. Through experience they may learn to modify their temperament to some degree.
BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES Inherited temperament is associated with a PHYSIOLOGICAL PATTERNS that includes: 1. High stable heart rate 2. High level of cortisol 3. High activity in the frontal lobe of the brain 4. Excitability of the amygdala
3. Slow-to-warm-up child - has low activity level - somewhat negative - displays a low intensity of mood. KAGAN’S BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION Jerome Kagan Focuses on the differences between a shy, subdued, timid child and a sociable, extraverted bold child Inhibition to the unfamiliar – broad temperament category for shyness - 7 to 9 months of age Inhibition sis stable from infancy through early childhood. Continuity was demonstrated for both inhibition and lack of inhibition ROTHBART AND BATES’ CLASSIFICATION Mary Rothbart John Bates
3 dimensions: 1. Extraversion Aka surgency Includes positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, and sensation seeking
sadness,
and
UNIQUE
Amygdala – plays a role in fear and inhibition Temperament – biologically based but evolving aspect of behavior GENDER, CULTURE AND TEMPERAMENT Gender- influences the fate of temperament NOTE:
Argues that three broad dimensions best represent what researches have to characterize the structure of temperament: extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity, and effortful control (self-regulation).
2. Negative affectivity Includes fear, frustration, discomfort Children are easily distressed May fret and cry often Kagan’s inhibited children
Children should not be pigeon-holed as having only one temperament dimension. A good strategy is thinking that TEMPERAMENT AS CONSISITING OF MULTIPLE DIMENSIONS. The development of temperament capabilities allow individual differences to emerge.
Mothers were more responsive to the crying of irritable girls than to the crying of irritable boys. The cultural differences in temperament were linked to parent attitude and behaviors.
China – behavioral inhibition
GOODNESS OF FIT AND PARENTING Goodness of fit – refers to the match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with. Adjustment problems – can be produced when there is lack of fit Parenting strategies to use on relation to children’s temperament: 1. Attention and respect for individuality. 2. Structuring the child’s environment. 3. The “difficult child” and packaged parenting programs.
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. Caregivers should be: 1. Sensitive to the individual characteristics of the child. 2. Flexible in responding to these characteristics. 3. Avoid applying negative labels to the child.
Autonomy – builds as the infant’s mental and motor abilities develop
PERSONALITY DEVELPOMENT Personality – enduring personal characteristics of an individual.
TRUST Trust vs Mistrust First stage of Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory Infants learn trust when they are cared for in a consistent and warm manner Is not resolved once and for all in the first year of life. Example Children who leave infancy with a sense of trust can still have their sense of mistrust activated at a later stage, perhaps if their parents are separated or divorced under conflicting circumstances.
THE DEVELOPING SENSE OF SELF mirror technique – ingenious strategy to test infants’ visual self-regulation MIRROR TECHNIQUE EXPERIMENT: 1. An infant’s mother first puts a dot of rouge on the infants nose. 2. Then an observer watches to see how often the infant touches its nose 3. The infant is placed in front of a mirror, and observes and detect whether nose touching increases
2 SOCIAL ORIENTATION/ UNDERSTANDING & ATTACHMENT SOCIAL ORIENTATIONS & UNDERSTANDING 8 Relevant biological and cognitive factors: SLIGCS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Social orientation Locomotion Intention Goal-directed behavior Cooperation Social referencing
SOCIAL ORIENTATION Face-to-face play – caregiver-infant interactions when the infant sis about 2 to 3 months of age. - focus includes vocalizations, touch, and gestures - part of mothers’ motivation to create a positive emotional state in their infants
WHY IMPORTANT? Increased nose touching indicated that the infant recognizes the self in the mirror and is trying to touch or rub of the rogue because the rogue violates the infant view of self.
NOTE:
2 years old – children recognized themselves in the mirror
Still-face paradigm – caregiver alternates between engaging in face-to-face interaction with the infant and remaining still and unresponsive.
Self-recognition – infants develop such by 18 months of age - self-understanding
NOTE:
INDEPENDENCE Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt Important issue in the second year of life Key developmental theme of the toddler years Infants wants to do thing and learn things on their own. It is important for parents to recognize the motivation of toddlers to do what they are capable of doing at their own pace. Has important implications for the individual’s future development.
Frequency of face-to-face play interaction decreases after 7 months of age as infants become more mobile.
Between 18 to 24 months of age, children markedly increased their imitative and reciprocal play. Coordinated actions of 1-year-old appear to be coincidental Coordinated actions of 2-year-old appear to be more active cooperation to reach a goal.
LOCOMOTION Gross motor skills- is the result of a number of factors including the development of the nervous system, the goal the infant is motivated to reach, and the environmental support for the skill.
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit.
Locomotor skills- allow the infant to independently initiate social interchanges on a more frequent basis.
INTENTION AND GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOR NOTE:
Joint attention and gaze following help the infant to understand people have intention.
Joint attention – caregiver and infant focus on the same object 7 to 8 months 10 to 11 months 12 months
ERIKSON Physical comfort plays a role. Physical comfort and sensitive care are key to basic trust infants. Infants’ sense of trust is the foundation for attachment and sets the stage for a lifelong experience that the world will be a good place to live. BOWLBY Newborn is biologically equipped to elicit attachment behavior. FOUR PHASES: 2 – 7 – 24 - on 1. Phase 1 Birth to 2 months
Joint attention Follow caregiver’s gaze Direct the caregiver’s attention to objects that capture their interest.
Infants direct their attachment to human figures. 2. Phase 2 2 to 7 months
SOCIAL REFERENCING
Attachment becomes focused on one person, usually the primary caregiver. Baby learns to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar people
Social referencing – “reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular way. - better at social referencing in the second year of life. First year
Second year
3. Phase 3 7 to 24 months
A mother’s facial expression influences whether an infant will explore an unfamiliar environment. Infants become better at social referencing.
Specifc attachment develops. Baby actively seek contact with regular caregivers. 4. Phase 4 24 months and on
INFANTS’ SOCIAL SOPHISTICATION AND INSIGHT NOTE:
The sophistication and insight is reflected in infants’ perceptions of others’ actions as intentionally motivated and goal-directed and their motivation to share and participate in that intentionality by their first birthday.
ATTACHMENT AND ITS DEVELOPMENT attachment – close emotional between two people FREUD Infants become attached to the person or object that provides oral satisfaction HARLOW Infant monkeys from their mothers at birth; for six months they were reared by surrogate (substitute) “mothers”. One surrogate mother was made of wire, other of cloth. Harlow frightened the monkeys, those “raised” by the cloth mother ran to the mother and clung to it; those raised by the wire mother did not. BOTTOMLINE: Feeding is not the crucial element in the attachment process and that contact comfort is important.
Children become aware of others’ feelings, goals and plans and begin to take these into account in forming their own actions. 1 2 3 4
Birth to 2 months 2 to 7 months 7 to 24 months 24 months and so on
Human figures One figure Specific Aware of others
Internal working model – a simple mental model of the caregiver, their relationship, and the self as deserving of nurturant care. - plays a pivotal role in the discovery f the links between the attachment and subsequent emotional understanding, conscience development, and self-concept.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN ATTACHMENT Strange Situation – observational measure of infant attachment in which the infant experiences a series of introductions, separations, ad reunions. - provide information about the infants’ motivation and the degree to which the caregiver’s presence provides the infant with security and confidence. According to SS, babies are: 1. Securely attached babies Use caregiver as a secure base
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit.
caregiver in the room Babies explore the room and examie the toys in it
Early secure attachment – linked with positive emotional health, high self-counselors and romantic partners in adolescence.
caregiver out the room Mildly protest
THREE TYPES OF INSECURE ATTACHMENT: 1. Avoidant 2. Insecure resistant – negative predictor of cognitive development in elementary school 3. Disorganized attachment – linked with externalizing problems(aggression, hostility, opposition problems)
caregiver returns Reestablish positive interaction Resume playing with the toys inside the room
2.
Insecure avoidant babies Avoids the caregiver If contact is established, baby leans away caregiver in the room Engage in little interaction with the caregiver caregiver out the room Are not distressed
3.
caregiver returns Do not reestablish contact May turn their back on the caregiver Insecure resistant babies Cling to the caregiver Resist her by fighting against the closeness caregiver in the room Cling to the caregiver Will not explore the room caregiver out the room
Insecure attachment – at 18 was the occurrence of parental divorce Secure attachment and subsequent experiences - linked with children’s later behavior and adjustment CRITICISM: Too much emphasis was place on the attachment bond in infancy. Infants are highly resistant and adaptive. Genetic characteristics and temperament play more important roles in a child’s social competence. It ignores the diversity of socializing agents and contexts that exists in an infant’s world. o Infants in agricultural setting tend to form attachment to older siblings. Researchers recognize the importance of competent, nurturant caregiving in an infant’s development Short version of the 5-HTTLPR - disorganized attachment style in infants develop. 5-HHTLPR - serotonin transporter
Cry loudly caregiver returns Pushes away if she tries to comfort them
4.
Insecure disorganized babies Disorganized and disoriented Babies appear dazed, confused and fearful Babies must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance.
EVALUATING THE STRANGE SITUATION NOTE:
It may be culturally biased German infants are more likely to show an avoidant attachment pattern because the caregivers encourage them to be independent. Japanese babies are resistant because their mothers rarely let anyone unfamiliar with the babies care for them. Classification in every culture is secure attachment.
gene-environment interaction - occur when mothers showed responsiveness towards infants
a
low
of
secure attachment – it reflects positive parent-infant relationship - provides the foundation that supports healthy socio-emotional development
CAREGIVING STYLES AND ATTACHMENT Securely attached babies - have caregiver who are sensitive top their signals and are consistently available to respond to their infants’ needs Insecurely attached babies – caregivers tend to be unavailable and rejecting Resistant babes – inconsistently available and are not very affectionate Disorganized babies – caregivers often neglect or physically abuse their babies.
INTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN ATTACHMENT Secure attachment – provides foundation for the psychological development
level
Securely babies
attached
Sensitive to signals Consistently available
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. Insecurely attached babies Resistant babies Disorganized babies
Unavailable and rejecting
Inconsistently available Not very affectionate Neglect Physically abuse babies
Maternal sensitivity - linked to attachment security in United States and Colombia
3 SOCIAL CONTEXTS THE FAMILY Family – constellation of subsystem – a complex whole made up of interrelated, interacting parts – defined in terms of generation, gender and role. Subsystem – a complex whole made up of interrelated, interacting parts - have reciprocal influences
understanding and becoming acquainted with the baby, resolving conflict, and developing parenting skills.
RECIPROCAL SOCIALIZATION Reciprocal socialization - socialization is bidirectional - children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children mutual gaze – aka eye contact - engagement in variety of behavior increases BEHAVIORS OF MOTHERS AND INFANTS INVOLVE: 1. substantial interconnection 2. mutual regulation 3. synchronization parent-infant synchrony - temporal coordination of social behavior - 3 to 9 months of age: children were linked to self-regulation
HAVE DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS ON EACH OTHER: 1. Marital relations 2. Infant behavior and development 3. Parenting
scaffolding – parents time interactions so that infant experience turn-taking with the parents. - caregivers provide a positive reciprocal framework in which they and their child interact. - involves parental behavior that supports children’s efforts, allowing them to be more skillful
Example of direct effect: Influence of parent’s behavior on the child.
joint attention – peek-a boo, turn-taking games
Example of indirect effect: How the relationship between the spouses mediates the way a parent acts toward the child. Marital conflict Marital conflict – reduces the efficiency of parenting
MATERNAL AND PATERNAL CAREGIVING NOTE:
Stay-at-home fathers were as satisfied with their marriage as traditional parents, although they indicated that they missed their daily life in the work field.
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD Parents face disequilibrium when they go through: 1. Pregnancy 2. Adoption 3. Separating
Aka pygmy culture – Africa - fathers spend as much time interacting with their infants maternal interaction – center on child-care activities
Baby- places new restrictions on partners
paternal interaction – center on rough- and tumble play
NOTE:
FATHERS ARE MORE INVOLVED IN CAREGIVING WHEN: 1. They worked fewer hours 2. Mothers worked more hours 3. Mother and fathers were younger 4. Mothers reported greater marital intimacy 5. Children were boys
Late pregnancy – 3 ½ years old o Couples enjoyed more positive marital relations before the baby was born. There was an increase in marital satisfaction. Being parents enhanced their sense of themselves and gave them a new, more stable identity as a couple.
CHILD CARE Bringing Home Baby project - workshop for new parents that emphasizes strengthening the: couples’ relationship,
PARENTAL LEAVE FIVE TYPES OF PARENTAL LEAVE FROM EMPLOYMENT: 1. Maternity leave Pre-birth leave is compulsory
Success isn’t about winning. It is about staying in the game and not quitting, even if someone makes you quit. 6- to 8-week leave following birth 14-week maternity leave – EU : 1922 2.
Paternity leave Briefer than maternity leave Important when a second child is born and the first child requires care
3.
Parental leave Gender-neutral leave Follows a maternity leave Allows either women or men to share the leave policy or choose which of them will use it. 1998 – EU mandated a three-month parental leave
4.
Child-rearing leave Variation of parental leave Supplement to a maternity leave Longer than maternity leave Paid at a much lower level
5.
Family leave Covers reason other than birth Can allow o Time off from employment to care for an ill child or other family mother o Time to accompany a child to school for the first time o Time to visit a child’s school 14-week maternity leave – EU : 1922
EU US
E 16 weeks of unpaid leave U 12 weeks of unpaid leave
Denmark – unemployed mothers are eligible for extended parental leave related to childbirth Germany – child-rearing leave is available to almost all parents
Nordic countries – Denmark, Norway and Sweden - have extensive gender-equity, family leave policies for childbirth that emphasizes the contributors of both men and women
VARIATIONS IN CHILD CARE NOTE:
Increase in the number of child-care assignments were linked to an increase in behavioral problems and a decrease in prosocial behavior Child-care quality makes a difference. Infants from low-income families were more likely to receive the lowest quality of care. Higher quality of childcare was linked to fewer child problems.
HQ CHILD-CARE: EHRE 1. Encourage the children to be actively engaged. 2. Have frequent, positive interactions. 3. Respond properly to the child’s questions or request. 4. Encourage children to talk about their experiences, feelings and ideas. 5. Providing children with a safe environment 6. Access to age-appropriate toys. 7. Participation in age-appropriate activities. 8. Low caregiver-child ratio. HOW DOES QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF CHILD CARE AFFECT CHILDREN: 1. Patterns of use 2. Quality of care 3. Amount of child care 4. Family and parenting influences. STRATEGIES PARENTS CAN FOLLOW IN REGARD TO CHILD CARE: 1. Recognize that the quality of your parenting is a key factor in your child’s development. 2. Monitor your child’s development. 3. Take some time to find the best child care.
