eA^r)*L3 Patrick Polk
SAeRfD BANNERS and the DIVINE CAVALRY CHARGE Le
gba, who is in my ounfi.
You wl.ro carry the flag.
It
is you who
will protect
me from the sun.
Papa Legba, who is in my ounfb. You who carry the flag,
It
is you who
Rlrurt fl"g,
will protect the /pa from the sun.'
(drapo), themost celebrated genre
of
vodou
of Vodou and the intense cultural synthesis From which Vodou emerges
sacred art, reflect the creative impulse
process
of
(rrcunr r3.z). In these drapo, Kongo and Dahonean symbols confront, .juxtapose, and eventually merge with others lrom Europe to form a mosaic, reflecting sources as diverse as African ceremonial textiles, Catholic processional banners, Masot.lic
flags, aprons, and tapestries. Ideas and images that seem incom-
patible at first glance are woven together witl.r breathtaking elegance and clarity of thought. Drapo artistry has generated considerable interest but their historical develoPment remains relatively unexplored. Concerning the history
of Vodou
flags there is little substittttive commentrry. Schol
of
drapo because fcw early flags havc bcen "anti preserved in museums and private collectiot.ts. This is a result of both peliodic ars tend to rely on post 1930 descriptiorrs superstitior.r" campaigns and the lack
of
recogt.lition within art circles.: Scarcity
of
useful
L3.2. 0 lltt;t li O.qott o,, S! larttt" ,llaiu' (SLn .lak 'lh ri ), ba,'a),,n hr.' t,','ntoqra/:ir
irl, a."n llank
1tr,,'ta a t. liI'ri, bnl,', Irin.,lt. lb
t
8l dn.
1 1/(
hV
.',',/uirt,t,
l/ ,\t/.t)!.
historical documents Presents a further dilliculty. References to the existence of drapo prior to the 1900s do exist, howevet Sevcrrl sources chronicle their use in the mid- 1800s. For instance, Monsignor ian, a church histo rian, records that during the benediction
of
tl.re
Cap Haitian parish church in 1840, mcnl
Vodou socicties arrived with their drums and banners and enthusiastically joincd the celebration.r Har.rr.ribal Price, writing in 1900, described thc sanctuary of a Vodott ternple which he had visited in 1860. He recalls: bers
of
In the cornet lacing the small dooq the voodoo drums, thc flags of the society, resting in a pile against the wall, in the other extren.rity, thc large assotol drum and one or two other flags.a
l3.l a Il,t17
opposlre. ,l ktv nuutrnt )uin.,l n trtnt,,nv l,'r St ,/,'/trt
rttualal
t/tt Bapti,l tn 11, ,ttt-Prtlrttt, /rrttt l9 /9()i. Otrtt4an II,illra) lanut It),,t,, t/:L
t,il, " r/..., ..r',t,t ',1.. ,!t,....,,t, i/..t.,. 1t,t.yin.q o1,Ll.',trtct l,t 1lt,' hi,l/t,r p,,ur,,l t/tt 1,n. I'/:,,t,'.qrdplt, Joan IIat/;Ltl.
Patrick P0Ll(
13.3 asove LEFI. ltld,/ l;,t J,()( () fl,at,,J 1,y 5i1u ./,,,',7,/t, /tqi. I'n',rt,,tt t/\' \,,:t,) l;t nlF tik,,. l.,t/'n,, .,1,/rtut,', 1,,',rrl,.,li.i,r' / b t,t. t.t/| / /.\ti,. | ;. 13.4 neovE atei:, 0/l Ila4 |n,'tt) th' di t,r SintIt. Ltl,ttli, ,'L,1rritt.', fut),,,
on
lil,tr ;;.\' 6 / t.t.tt(tt.\'1)tIi.;.
L:rtcl between fl.le yerfs <:t1' 1865 :rnd 1867, Pricc u,itncsscd the pillaging of fbLrr tcruplts which had been singled out by Presidcnt Boycr's cemprign conifa VodoLl. He notcs th:rt fhgs bclonging to the societies wcrc pfofrlincnt lnrong rhc rituitl objccts destroycd.i Despite the scarcity of docLrmcntiltion and thc rrrity of oldcr Vodou llags, ir is possiblc to sifrlrte drapo rvithin a historic:rl contcxt fhitt lllou's a clclrer Lludefsranding of thcir significance. ln riturl usc, thcy signify not only rlrc triurscendcnt beauty of thc lu,;r, but llso the active powcr of thc spir its' pfescnce $/ithin thc ountb. lrr thc light of historicll cvidcnce. the stylistic and cerenonial charactcfistics of drlpo Vodou point ro rltc conrpclling influence of nilitary regalia ol1 thcir dcvclopnrent lnd nrcaning.
I)t{.\l,t):,\l{t,\NI)
st,tRI'l
In the templc, Sobo rvishcs to h:rvc his The fhg is lost. The flag is
f1ug.
1ost.
Your flag, papa Sobo. is lost. Your lhg, papa Sobo, is lost."
Usually mldc
of
satin. vclvct, or rayon,
appliqu6, dfapo rrc vivid embodinents
I3.7 oppostrr. Itr'1v, I
utt,',,1tttnL,t
b,t,u I laq., h,,'ttt n t 1 i t,'t i t t ll'i t k I h',' t
/li(t lrblitLti,n. lhe \\'hite liing ol' La Conar e. Ii,ll,uttttrtt, ,1rt,Ln ,,l ,t |i,'nq,, ,','tt, ty ,u
l/:,1
t,'l,tn),'l La
()otnrt, i.' llantt) bv /.,t utatu)ar,)/,Larn an) Lttt.'ttltt Il'itktt', t/:t rtpn.'Lt t/ a / irL t,l /:,., 1tn, ri,t n ()n tl,a tt,,tt l,,,',,.. ll'trl:u,, /911), la,ttt'/ t. l-. 1
rld
oirclt rdorncd u,ith
scqLrins, bcads. or
of spirit. Erch is nornrlly dcdicatcd to l
specilic
lw.
incorporlting thc sacrcd colofs rnd synrLrols of tl.rrt dcity. Not all Vodou fllgs are ls lavisl.rly dccorrtcd:rs thosc likely ro bc seen in Anrericln boutiqucs. At lerst sonre drapo used in the carly t\\,cnticth centufy were constfuctcd horl onc or nvo pieces of colored fibric with littlc or no ornitnrcntittion (rrcunr r;.7). With thc grcater:rvlillbility of se quins illld bcads, cmbellishnrcnt hrs growlt ntorc exlfavtgeltt. At thc slnrc finre. tl-le corn mefcializiltion of drrpo has placcd greater etrpltasis on uniqLrcncss and conrplexity of design (srr cHAPTER r4).
Drrpo oftcn bcar the trlce rvork emblcnts (L,ilr:) of the lrv:r to lrirom fhey tre consc
cratcd, such thc sword and strndards o1'St..Jacques/Ogou, the planted stave
of Papr
Loko,
of
Simbi (rrcuaes r3.z-rj.4). Tl.re scr.olls, curls, :tnd lrcc-work pattcrns of the vdvd constitute l firndamental mcans of consecrating ritual space rnd a basic gcomctry fbr muclr of Vodou's srcred rft. Providinll one medium through which vivd arc rradc t:rngible, drapo are thus inrpregnlted witl.t divine energy. :rnd thc scalloped circle
Marry Vodou drlpo are embellished with imagcs
of
tl.re
Cl.rristian saints syncrctized
with Vodou's pantl'rcol.r oi African deities. These depictions range fi.om simplc cmbroidcrcd outlincs to magnificert por.traits completc witl.r beads, sequins, and cutouts from Catholic ch romolith ogr aphs (rrcuars r3.5, r3.6, r;.8, r3.9). St. Janes Major attd incrrna tions of thc Virgin Mrry seem to be cspecially popular but there are Itrany othcfs:ls well. Thcsc glittcring silhoucttes, perceived as both Catholic saints rnd Vodou lwa, powcrfully reflect the multivoc:rlity of symbols within Vodou.
) nart/: y,tir,,l
l1,t,1,, h1tln11 1o 1/tt
li,.t: .'/t,"t irt,t t /:,t ,,trttpll,
l();(1, ,'r an) t1L.lantL,,/ oIr)Lr ttvL',,: ,11t
I3.5 nsove LEFI. I liq l),r Oq,\t/jrn )[,4i. (,trton,t,'.VnllttlL' labri,
,lak
,,t'1ttin,', !'Lal.'. ,l6
t
lt)2 rut.
I3.6 neovr nrcar. l\,t!t l),r li.:tli l)anti, 1 ,,nna tttr) tltiL). ('oll,,n tnt) .'ytt|/:tIi lb I'r1,, .',.,/tt ttt,'. lt ,,. 7,1 r 92 ttn. l .l/ ( tL\',1; )l.ti
Every inragc has onc mcrning projected on its sur-
lnd yct arlother lhat lies beyond. Those who understand know full u,cll that St. James Major irrplics Ogor.r and that St. Pltfick is Dalbala Wido. Tlris process of simult:tncously unveiling and confncc
cealing sourccs
of
spiritual powcr is one
of
the
of Vodou's srcred art. of drapo hrve geometbordcr prttcrns consisting of
most captivating:rspccts
A significlnt nunbcr
ric backgrounds and
nulti-cololed squarcs diagonrlly bisccted to lorm triangles (rrcures r;.4-r3.6, r;.8, r3.9). ln recent years, these hrvc bccollrc morc cxprnsivc and the
of many ncwcr drlpo rrc dominared by variegatcd rnd rvildly colorful background and bordcr designs, strongly rcnrinisccnt of certain vtvi surfuces
LnrhfuneLl
ily
auFEN.r l.^ coNrvE u rh sceptre a,,d reJ.rl $rfd.fd. next to Farstir ll. neslr curned rvhifu kinA of he. bhck krngdonr.
.l unrtl,,l pait , /:,n,t tt,'1tr /t,',tt.,t
,,t l\,t.q.', /',,t/:
/',t,',1,,tt
pL,':
13.8. l l,t.q rrutt tl|,ar.\'1 ./. I( 01'l,.s l.t l,t' tt /.\ttt,/,tl,,l l,ai l,tnr) ()(;()t r.\' I)L,llll.IILLL ft).,t,'u l,rayI.
,t 1,
ittt,,rp,,raIin.q | /tL tntaqt,,I Sr..Iatttt.'
.lL4,tr (,,tt,ttt ant).'yn|/:,, ti It1'rtt, .,, qr tit t.', lu ).,, 1',tyt; 1,/,t,' tl,. r9rI'ttttt. /.I/( l/
.\'.\';.1,..L
13.9. l lua ur,, ibt,) I).1,IIh.ll,/,.U/ It'0t:/)0 lllut/'ala ll',\l l, .'/.,,t rttt.a ,ll,',',,' "'t1/)
/)t,'
.'l,tll
,t
tu) t/:,1 tal'L t,'
/:'t Ii.tt (,ttttrttattJtttn!,'. ( nl ut n n t),tvnl /)rl it I a1' rt,,,'r'ltrt' t,', bLal,,, /,altt /,1a,,ti,.. -1.r. J'//,vr. 1,Larin,1 1
|
SACRED BANNERS and the DIVINE CAVALRY CHARGE
pattcrns such rs the cl.leckcrboard heart of Ezili and grillwork for Ogou Badagri :tnd rnry bc:rnotl.rer way of grafting thc geometry of vivd onto the flags. The Patterns likewise evokc conrparisor.rs with the parquct floors commonly found in churchcs rnd the hones of the wcrlthyt (FICURE Il.rI). Still anothcr influence n]:ry be flags thcrnsclves: drapo are a reflexivc rrt fbrn aud their designs frequcntly inclrrde flrgs, stylized :rs
tlkc r great stretch of rhe inagination to envision St. J:rnes Major/Ogou chargirrg into battlc surrounded by a se:r of blnners (rtcuar t3.ro). But the imrges on Vodou flags are not there nlerely to stinrLrl:ltc the inraginntiot.t. It is inplicitly understood that sacred brnners will be lollowcd by lwr. Flashing colots and glittcring ornamcnts catcl.l the cyc and direct attclltiol.l to the advcnt of a supcrnltufrl encountct ln revealing the presence of spirit, Vodou imagery dcpends on multiple levels of PcrcePtiorr -fhe ceremoni:rl en and thc flcxible synrmctry of sacred space. in wl.ticl.t the mirror images vironnent of Vodou is:r world of various horizontal rnd vertical pl;rncs of the templc (ground, centcr-post, wall, roof-, rnd opctr space) all fbrm roughly equlvllcnt ritual zoncs, elch exploitcd tl.rrouglr art and action. Vivts, for ittstltrrcc, are painted on walls, embroidered on flags or trrced in thc air. Two dinrctrsiottal drapo lrppcar ro distill thc visual dimcnsions of the ounfo such as pattcrns on floors, pennatrts suspcnded ltom crossbe:rtls, mllrals on w:rlls and patterned flags (static and irr rnotion). All rrc reinterpretcd rs key dcsign ele squares and trianglcs. lt doesn't
nents. In their art, fl:lgnrakefs produce a kaleidoscopic PelsPective of sacred spacc and ritual rrovement tlrrough rvlrich thc cntire ounld is trlnslated onto fabric
Lla,t l)'t ()q,u/*n.lak ) l tii. abri, atrylr,, lat,r).qirtq, 'r,luit'', .,11a,',' bur),,. 9i t ,li ot. t .t/( tt .\:'tt.2;n.
13.10,
I
L3.ll.
t',,,',",'tv
tln
a
li
un'l)n4'1.
Otrai l',tltin, /9bt. l/.t,,'attt' pallu l)n on lla.qr i t u.' lrtt lo ),plt1 !/.,c 11,,,u ,'l a li*)tt ltntyL. Otll ,,n ,t.,t,,,t,t..',1,t.\'l.t . t..llit r,'1,. lt. by
,11u,,,'trnt,
( )tlt
,,l lll, /:aR) an,) I')tn l l,t.qlt
Patrick P0Ll(
I)ISPI-,,\YING'I
H I-
COI-ORS
It is time to bring thc f1ags. The master of thc ccremony points his fingcr to
us,
Signifying that wc should get the flags.s The ceremony bcgins with the salutary p:rr:rdirrg
of worshipers intone a singlc rsking Loko Atisou, prtron
of the ounlo's riturl flrgs. A chorus vcrse: "Mdt Loko Atisou, ounfd-la nande drapo." Thcy are
of
the ounfo, lor pcrnrission to bring out thc banncrs. All Vodou societies possess rt lcast two cefeIrronial Ilags th:rt represent botlt thcir congrega tion and tl.le deities thcy worship. These thgs:rrc lmong the most sacred and expensive
ritull objects within the ounld and tlteif prcscncc is essential in rrost Vodou rites. When not in use the flags rrc carefully furled and storcd on or near rn altlr in the oulfo's slnctuary. When crlled lor durirrg rituals, drapo rrc rctricvcd lrom the slnctulry by the mastel
of
ceremonies (1aplas) and the f-emale initirtcs
(orrl) wlro
serve irs rlrc ounld's fl:rg bearers
lkd drapo). Tl.re laplas is norrrally the sccond-highest ranking member of thc Vodou soci ety and is resporrsible lor naintaining ordcr during cerenonies. It is hc who is entrustcd
with the carc lrrd handling of one of the most vital ritual objects vu,ithin the ounlo: rhe sabre or machetc. These weapons, which nray bc quite ancieut, rrc ussociated wirh Ogou and are emblcnatic of the arned conrbat through which rurhority (spiritu:rl and political) is fi.equently cxpressed.
In thc slrrine where thc tcmplc fllgs are housed, thc cscort carefully unfurls thc drapo and with great cerentony brings thenr into the peristylc whcre they are prescntcd to the congrcgation. Slbre in hand, thc Iaplas marches berween thc flags (r'rcuar r3.rz) rnd
of
thc kd-drapo thus clearing onc of the most dazzling spectacles in Vodou. Alfred Mttraux dcscribes it in the lollowing mlnner: directs thc lively movements
Thcy cone out brckwards:rnd tlren literally charge into the peristyle behind thcir guide who is now twirling his weapon. The choir of [ounsi] intones a hymn to [Sobo], protcctor of flags. The rLio manocuvres and frorn the lour
crrdinal points salutcs thc Ipoto-mitan], rhe drunrs, tl.re dignitrries
13.12. A [t.y nt,unrnt rInn.q a llaq ritualtt a rrtnt,tny lit 51../,t/tn r/.,1 Bapti.t! it l) au I\ttttL,,/rtnt 19, /99i. '1fu 1tpltt,' (,,rt,n) l,Larrr) ttrtL,' tltt pott tttiran,.llank,r) 1,.v thr lla.q urp,': I'rtt,tun,,i,' /t ,,t,tttttti /la,l,' "'tt ,, I rL tht) r,r r t h tt 1,a $,,. I'/:o t o.4 ra p lt, !
of
the
SACRED BANNERS and lhe
DMNE
CAVALRY CHARGE
society and finally any distinguished guests, each according to his rank. The laplas and the standard bearers prostrate themselves in turn before then. These
of the flag, and and thc standard bearers pirouette. The return of the standards
show their respect by kissing the guard make the laplas
of the
sabre, the stave
accomplished in a rcmarkable rite: the two ounsis, still preceded by the [laplas] pointing his sabre bcfore hin, run round the poto-mitan, often making quick changes of direction. This musical-ride goes on till the laplas leads them off towards the sanctuary door through which, having recoiled from it thrce tines, is
they pass at the doublc.'
The brilliant colors and intricate desigtts of Vodou flags are mirrored by the elabo rate choreography of their cercnonial use. The laplas and the standard-bearers turn and wheel with synchronized prccision, saluting and being saluted in teturn. Tn this way, the hicrarchy of the ounfd is ovcrtly confirned through thc ritual maneuvering of flag and sabre. Fir.rally, their purpose achieved, the 1ap1as and kd-drapo retutn to the inner sanctum.
Maya Deren offers her own interpretation
of this cerenony:
the loungan], holding his lasoo], and the Ilaplas] holding his sword and flanked by the flags, seem to engagc in some strange, mock banle. While they do not make actual contact, the sword causes the ason to retrcat, and then is suddenly pressed into retreat
itscli Back and lorth they go, tlrc sword threatening and
shakir.rg and the ason rattling ar.rd ringing. There is no question that
it
is
a
con]petitior], re enacted, to bc sure, berween the power of the [lwa] and the soci6t6, togedrer, against that of dre [oungan]. The resolution of this battle is most illuminating. The laplas, or the lwa which he reprcsents, along with the two flag bearers, representing the soci6t6, bows and kisses the earth at thc loungan's] feet as a nark of respect. But the oungan, simulraneously, kisscs the hilt of the sword and thc top of tl.re flags. Thus,:rlthough the control of the oungan over the lwa lnd the people is acknowledged, he is, ir.r turn, held responsible to them, to the principle thc prir.rciple
of
the soci6t6 or community as well as to
of divinity.ro
Dcren's descriptiou touches ou several key issues. First, she notes that this ritual conflict relates notjust to the hierarclry of the ounfb but also to the underlying foundation
of ritual power Second,
she enphasizes that
it is a mock-batde, a reenactment of some
hard-fought and spiritually vital skirmish. The ouogan is the master conrmand is delegated by higher
authorities
riors (rrcune 13.r). In this context, drapo setve as means
of rank
ar.rd
of
the ounfd, but his
the spirits he must recognize as his supe-
of expressing the responsibilities
superiority.
The overtly militaristic tone
of the flag
ceremonies and thc predomir.rance
of
drapo
dedicatcd to warriors such as St. )ames Major and Ogou suggest close ties to the military. Armies havc long used the symboJs and images of saints and deities as a means of asserting
divine patronage and such a connectiou certainly exists within Vodou. Careful analysis demonstrates, I believe, that Vodou drapo are deliberately pattcrned after military flags used in Alrica and Haiti during the colonial and post-colonial cras.
FAliltlC AND PL)W|'-R IN I HE BLAC-K;\'l'l-ANl'lC Those who live under tl.re European forts, commonly carry thc colours
of
the
natioI,r under whose protection they are. Jean Barbot, Description oJ'tbe Cc,asts
ofN[,th
and South Guinea, 1752
Patrick P0Ll(
13.73, I fu liin,t,,t L,tn.qo a.,,,tttt ltt /rlhtnrury | )rt lt/:, u.qra''ttt4 ra p /,, r ( ) 1I rr I )t ppt t: V /' i.' /:, r) y l7ttt, !/tt Itln.q i,, Lttt/:ron,l btnul/ /tt,' r,tyal,,ta ti. ll'/ttL,thu ttuy tt,'t 1,1 tuktn rt' a liltmlprtrayal, tt rtl'lat,, tltt rtlt,,7rt yrr,,Ltt...I I)r/ ollt tttt a
t
1
1'
L
11,.,,.q
,'tyL l,ht., a1,,nq t/d L,ttt.'t,tl LLntral
.l.t, t /., t1, /, \,,',,,,'... /','., /t,t,,.. Ib,t6. p. it/.
13,L4, |
't),.,,t,1.,.,1) rt,\. t1t
J:)|nr,:d||-
,'tvlt |'antn r,' in ('atIroI;ll)untt ru tla
rt u,'
t
r.q.Ltt,'
rall,ut,.lr,nt
t
i
I'v
r
J')tropLan
t /:
i,, l,t t, t
t
i
t
l
lb,\I) I1u.'rrarn) /:i.'t,,ty ,,I t/tt ,tt;t,,Ia IIhr.'. l:rrnt (-alonn.,p 1t-i() 1/6,10/, 1.2, t11u,'t
Hc ldre King of Dahoney] ordercd a gfcat nLrmber of Women to be lrmed likc Soldiers, and appointed Officers to each Company, with Colours, Drurns and
Unbrellas, according to the Negroc Faslrion.
William Snelgrave, Neu Accaloi t oJ'
Sa17t e
Pdrts
of
C uinea and tbe Slate Trade,
l7 341|
While irrdigenous flag traditions may well have existed withirr kingdoms and natiou states of sub-Saharan Africa prior to the ilge oF Europcan expansior'r, by the 1600s a wide range of flags, most clearly derivcd lrorn European sources, were in use throughout thc coastal regiol.ts.'l'ltis is un doubtcdly the result of contrct with thc myriad European conln'lercial, mili tary, and religious organiz:ltions that established a long term pfcsence irl Central and West Alrica. Flags and banners ligured prominently in the mrintenance
of lorts
and trading centers and, although ir.ritially indicative only
of
European presence, wcrc soorr incorporated into the military and courtly
ritual of najor Alrican statcs.
In
1491, one year belorc Colunrbus's first voyage to the Americas, Por
tuguese missionaries prescntcd Nzinga Nkuvu, the King
of Kongo, with
a
of St..James Major They insrructed thc king that "by virtue of this salutary sign, arnries had defeated enenrics wlro banner embroidered with the cross
wele superior in nunbcr"rr St. Janres Major subseqrLently became tlte patron saint of the kingdon and annual nrilitary exercises were held on his fcast day, July 2 5 (srr cleeren 9). Later, flags were awarded to nobles as signs of oliice and a Portuguese-nadc f1:rg bearing the royal arnts of Kongo becamc
emblematic
of
of kingship itsclf.
A similar tradition developed ir.r the kingdonr
Loango, to rhe north oF Kongo, as illustrated by the DLrtch gcographcr
Olfert Dapper (ncure r 3. r3). According to Dapper, the king of Loar.rgo's squafe, nrulti cololed co:rt of-arnrs wits composed of many small pieces of European cloth and was undoubtcdly patterned after the royal emblems
of
SACRED BANNERS and the
DMNE
CAVALRY CHARGE
of European derivation were used in Central African arnics lor at least two centuries (rrcunr r3.14). The banner of St. James was especially popular. At tl.re battle of Ambwiia (1665) in which Kor.rgo troops engaged a Portuguese-led lorce lrom Luandr, both armies carried the standard of St. james. Wl.retr the Kongo side suffered a stunning delcat, one chronicler conmented that it appeared the white St. James was stronger than Europe.Lr Flags
the black St. Jrrres.L I ln West Africa, a wide variety
comnerci:rl centers such as Anomabu
of
flags were raised over Cold Corst military and
ar.rd
Elmina. Many
of
these were adopted by local
leaders rnd used in their courts and carried by their armies. A nemorable passagc written
by Thomas Bowdich, wl.ro visited the Asrnte capital
tlris point. He dcscribcs a
confusion
of
r riotous
of Kumasi in lEI7, clearly illustratcs
event:
flags, English, Dutch, and Danish were waved and flourished in
all directions; the bearers plungir.rg and springing fi-om side to side, with the passion of enthusi:rsm only equalled by the captains, who followed them, dischlrging their shining blunderbusses so close, that tl.re flags now and then were in a blaze; rnd energing from the smoke with all the gesture and distortion of maniacs.Lt
At that point in time, European flags were obviously pivotal leatures within thc display of nilitary force; they also influenced the development of indigenous flagmaking traditions in thc rcgion. ln his analysis ol'contenporrry Fante Asalo military f1ags, Doran Ross traces thc roots of the art to the errly Europeln presence. He concludes: Thc mass
of
national flags (or royal arms), naval banner.s, ensiglrs
of trading
conpanies, and rcgimental colors that accompanied the Europeans to thc Cold Coast must l.rave provided an inpressive stinulus lor local flag production.r"
J.5.lJ. (,fittt,'nutt r',titnifl a1,'o tlutlortrttt in lli'.'t,!li'tca
tntury
I )a ho n
t
t.r1,
I)tlrli
r'Lt
u
L
/Eth-
d,t,tt1q.,tl.l tn
i1|u,'rr,ttt,,tt,'I ntn1,, l,,r tht kitt4,, antt,'tur,'. lit'ont Dd1..rl 19b7 I /79 tJ, platt 2.
1,.,t,,,,v,7tl .'/,,,",,/
/,'.,t,,,'.'7.'
I"/,i';,/'/.//.,,,,,/,,1,.),,;'/'.
Patrick P0Ll(
It is apparent that European flags were used by the Asantc/Fante peoples not only as objects of power in and of themselves, but as models lor local flag styles. Flag traditior.rs comparable to tl.)ose of the Cold Coast also dcveloped ir.r the King dom of Dahomey. William Snelgrave, ar.r eighteenth-century traveler, describes a Dahomean military rcvicw
as follows,
thcy :rppcared, narching in a much more regular Order than I had cver sccn before, even amongst the Cold Coast Negroes; who werc always esteemed amongst the Europeans that used the Coast
of Cuinea, the
the Blacks. I observed, this Army cor.rsisted Troops. .. . Thc sevcral Companies
of
of
best Soldiers
about three thousand rcgulrr
Soldiers l.rad their propcr Colours, and
Oliccrs, bcing armcd with Musquets and cuttir.rg swords; and with
of
of all
Shields.LT
it
is documented that Dahonean kings utilized European flags ceremonially (rrcunr r3.r5) and that their soldiers used them in battlc. Sir Richard Bufton, for instance, noted the presence of Englisl.r and Frcnch flags in Drhomean
Throughout thc cra
tlre slave trade,
military parades during thc 1850s.r3 Furthermore, there exists within Dahomey, the Cold Coast, an indigcnous trrdition
of appliqudd
as
along
flags tlrat mry well have been influ-
enced by external sourccs (sre cueerra z). A decade prior to Burton's visit, a fellow Englishman, E E. Forbes, dcscribed the "fancy flags" used in the Dahomean court (FIcuRE
rl.r6). He notes: About the yard were nany flags,
of all
colours, some bearing as their devices,
men cutting oflothcrs' hcads, and otlrers rying prisoners, and many national flags, amongst wlrich last wcrc scvcral union jacks.re
Whether or not it was Europcan banners that spur.red the production of local f1ags, both the indigenous and the Europcan-stylc f'lags symbolized power and Dahomean miJitary unirs used both.'z0
Throughout Africa and the Diaspora, flags and banners have been used to express r.rotions of cultural identity, military prowess, and religious affiliatior.r. Most if not allAfroAmerican religior.rs utilize ceremonial flags and in sone cases many
,e#,
of theit characteristics
':'ff. -:pa$
13.16. L l9rh-nnturv I)a/tontv, ,'ku[1
|'dntu., ut'n'anon4 tfu l,,,nl1y
pr u
.'liny'.11a.q.' u,,tt) a.' roval
),:&c,' tn rfu
li.'/,tv
ol aur/toritv.
Conpan'rith lla1J., )rlttat lo llan,n San ianl Gdt. Itorbar 1851, n|.2,
liltn t p.208.
,@lW S(IJLL OBNAIlIENTS & BAI\NEBS OF
& DAHO[1EY
SACRED BANNERS and the DIVINE CAVALRY CHARGE
to bc coincidental. In Brazil, lor example, thc kingly batlners of thc congadas trnd tl.rc brillianl porf,t bandeiras of Brlzililn Carnaval suggest strong corlritruitics within the Biack Atlantic, and also with the courts of the kingdom of Kongo. seem too similar
Haitian Vodou, however, has its own unique history and any scarch for the or igins of drapo must be fitmly rootcd within that colttext. Thc cvolution of Vodou has largely been a dialectic bctween thosc who use the rcligior.r to subvcrt the structure of authority and
it in order to maittt:tit.t positions of political, nlilitary, alld religious dominance (srr cueerrn 4). Within this or.rgoirrg struggle for socio-poliric;rl and religious supremacy, drapo servc as visible cxprcssions o1' shifting identity ar.rd alfiliation The art resonatcs with seeningly Paladoxical rallyir.rg cries: Sdnliqgo! Ogou! Vtt [d Frdtlct! Vl1)e ld Rexthtion! Vive Dutalicr! Vit TiLid! those rvho manipulate
Sl-,\\'l:S
lN'lt)
,\1,\51 I l{S:
lt,\ISIN(l llll: I'I-,\C(S) OI INI)l.Pl:Nt)lrNCI-
of thc Eneny drau'n uP with two to make us bclieve exccPt we saw no & every-dring starrd of Colouts [flags] Cannorr tl.rat they inter.rded to nrakc good their Position.rr We could thele pclceive a very largc body
Licutcn:rnt Howard, York Hussal, 1796-98
I am thc Haitian flag. Ftangois Duvalier
The revolutionaty movencnt in Haiti, from its incePtiol.l, was closely intertwined witlr the practicc of Vodou. For the etrslavcd populace it was a libcration theology (sEE cHAprERs,l aNo 5). On this Poit.tt, Dantcs Bellegardc notes tl.rat "the slaves found in Voodoo the
idcll stinulus lor their energy
since Voodoo had becomc less a religiot.t
(rnorr nHD BAcr( vIEws). tt,,,'1'1,-,, ,1lkq li'r I')?) (;('Ll)L:
l3.I7l,
[Ca),
tr
,
t
1, t
t,
a
/,y
,
'
banttLr,',,1 1)th,ntLv. ,,trt
tt,ttnt)
.,1rt
rya
tl
1,! t /.t
tttott
1
rL
IIcL
1,,,t1a,,, t t
ttrt
1,,
tn)
()it i,
pi.k,', ,tru) tha ra Ll Lrl.'l
lt
n.,lttttra Il,tn. tt,Jutnt, paittl, yartt, 'tyttIlttltt ,tj.'- li'i.) utt. 1.1/( tt.\''\';.tI).
,,l t/:1,'ytlttlt ,'l t)tot/:,
liltL lil'ri.
t Itrll
'rh,'lanL,,' l,ttrnrily ,, , rLtaIIi ;t t/)1,'kuII
, 1, , , r t ' '
Patrick P0Ll(
than a political association
-
a sol-t
of black carbonaro."rz
VodoLr
priests and priestesses werc prominent among the insurgents lrom
of the Rcvolution ar Bois Caiman (179 1) and con tinued to play a vital rolc in the war elTort (FrcuRE 4 9). African the beginning
dances were commonplace within milirafy encampmcnts and tlte
war songs oltel chantcd by advar.rcing rcvolutionary troops ul.l doubtedly had Vodou connotatiol.ts.zr Vodori drapo, rs thcy are used today, serve as a powerful remindcr
of the cor.rjunction of
armed resistance and religious fervor lrom which the Haitian state
emergcd and
it
is likely that rlreir
origin is closely linkcd to the
of independent Haitian arnlics and the of Hxitian life. Thc preservation of French colonial authority in St.
creation and maintenance
subsequent milirary regimentation
Domingue required wclJ-regulated, disciplined, and highJy vis ible troops. Flags, an intcgral parr of this endeavor, wcrc imbued
of divine power which serued as a means oF sacralizing armcd lorces. The blessing of military flags was standard practice and it is unlikely that any regimenr would have carried flags tl.rat had not been properly consecrated. By military custonl, national witl.r an aura
13.18. t.tnif"r",'
a"t) th,: u,11t-
rl
rttrnrnnlt)
,,!a
BalatlLut
Pitnnitn
t)c
nla
ol tfu Napolatni Noir.,. Ont ol tltc
htt[htlitrtlt nut,'t l',unotu lat)rr,t, a Haitian ly lurrh, u,a.' hi.qhly ),roraxt) ltu'itt1 tfu li.typlhn Lnn1,ai,7n ant)
/!tufu.' h hrnor,'l hl.' /ttroi t)alr. I ntnt lQk/ 1976, /tont .nkt rrnanur)
and rcgimental colors wcre stored in churches when not in use or when redred from service. The deep honor accorded military flags in colonial St. Domingue is illustrated by the late of a Port-au Princc National Guard commandant, who was re
portedly executcd by his own troops
in
1791 lor having desccrated rhe flag
of
another
rcgiment.2a
With the outbreak of thc slave insurrecrion in 1791, military flags becomc doubly mcaningful. The colonial amrics, chronically short of nranpower, began ro induct blacks and mulattoes in ever-increasing numbers. Somc nrulatto generals such as Alexandcr p6tion and Andr6 Rigaud were educated in the bcst French military academies and the lorni dable reginlents that coalesccd under the command of black generals such as Toussaint
f3.19, 13.20. Typhrl lttntlt Napolutttt un/ry ,,tdnla t, a. lluatu b I tlrntt, I1tru.
/ 79J.
Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dcssalines, and Henri Christophc owc much oi thc credit for thcir training to time spenr in the service of the French (rrcunr r3.r8). In facr, it has beer.r cstimated that in the closing years of the Revolution nearly halF of the rroops undcr the
SACRED BANNERS and the DIVINE CAVALRY CHARGE
13.2I. 1ypial Iirttt/., rovtL.'r Llan)t ,,1 tltt1, ttttl,ntl)Lr,'r) a li ln,li, ta. / r i0.'. l)tn,tt,'t,,tt,', tan1tv
tttt1trial',,ui l,trtnaI li,rL,'/.t,"r )mp,' li,t)ut. 1/:,i,, L.t,ttnpL l,ttr',' | /:tL tutt .'vnbol ,,l l",ui'.Yl'/, a ,rt rltt hatt, !/:t roo,'lrr rtttttlttt,'tttt! t,l lhL /,aula,' 'l;,;I [,tlitt' ( 1 iq,", 1t2j). ('o/.
lla)t't/tt,' In,,'rttrr,"
of thc French expeditiottnry force, werc black. Thcir large scale defection to the side of the insurgcnts sealed the fatc of the colony. Thcsc troops employed a variety of flags most of which werc o1d Royalist banners, derivations of comn.rilnd
of Cencrill
Lcclerc, the leader
Napoleonic standards:rnd individual regimental colots. No longer the exclusive symbols of the domirrant colonirl lorces, they now also rcprcsented the combincd might and stilunch rcsolve
of
well-traincd black and mulatto soldicrs who sought freedorn and equality througl.t
armed resist:rnce. One of the most potent and overtly synbolic images in Haitiart history is that of the crcation of the Hlitian flag a[ter tl.re final expulsion
of
the Frcnch. Whilc U.S. citizens envision Bctsy Ross serenely
scwitrg stars and stripcs, Haitians see Jean-.Jrcqucs Dessalines decisively rip ping the band of white lrom the French tricolor an action whiclt is often
givcn Vodou connotatious (rrcunr 4.r). Bluc and red are, after all, tlte colors Ogou and many pr:tctitionels readily mlkc connectiorrs betwcen the
of
of alms is prorrinenrly drlpo Vodou (rrcunr r3.3;) after lnde pendence. The national flag itself is oftcn lound hanging on walls and from rafters, and depictions of it are lrequently worked inro the designs of drapo. Thus it is apparent that thc national flag is an importanr stylistic leature withirr the sacred rrts of Vodou. Although influcnced by the Haitian flag, drapo Vodou bear a closer stylistic aflinity to regimcntrl colors, particularJy tlrose employed by Royalist rnd Napoieoric-era troops (rtcunts q.z7-13.29). These served as rnodels for thc flags ernployed by black and mulatto rcginlcllts during the Revolution rs wcll rs those adopted by tl.re Haitiar.r ar.my. Within colonial reginrents, inlantry
warrior spirit arrd the nrtional flag. The Haitian co:rt fcatured on ounfd murals and even on
ttttt )L liar'1,'n/tL
13.22. Il l',i, tt ,'/tal1 'r'i|/: potlnrL,) .lilnntl dt ,'la ttti .\'.'/:a/,i tr',t,',' .,ttutn) lurly 2a!ltrni a lltr l/:v nttlal ytkt,' ant),'/.,alt,' tt,, t",'ttttnotrtt! tnilitary t
l. t;1
. ,. . '. | ,,,
HLi4ltt 1 1/(
"1
. ,.,1
't. ...,t,r't..1..,)..
,'t,trt. | | , dn. I |n,t, hj
/l \rl rt.
^
7()
tnt.
Patrick P0Ll(
wg
6ii
q&
t$
co|npanies generally carried large rectangular flags (drapeaux) while cavalry units uscd smaller swallow-tailed banners Suidons) and square standards (hendards) Each style has influenced the imagcry of Vodou. Guidons, for example, olten appear as decorative motifs on ounid walls and on Vodou flags. The dimensions
from 50-65 cm in height and 50-67 cm
ir.r
of
French colonial standards, ranging
width, most likely provided the model for the
of drapo Vodou. In 1804, when Napoleon issued new flags, the dimensions lor standards were set at 60 x 60 cm. After 1814, standards were reduced to 55 x 55 cm, but by the late 1800s their size was enlarged to measure 64 x 64 cm.r5 From a pragmatic measurements
standpoint, the smaller flags are much easier ro handle whether on horseback or parading through an ounfd. Thc similarity in size between cavalfy standalds and drapo llints at a
connection, although it may also simply reflect the Iimited tesources of early Vodou flrgmahcrs rrrd the scarciry of l.rbric. Eacl.r of the French regiments stationed in St. Domingue prior to the Revolution employed the king's banner as well as its own color-coded regimental flag. Among thc regimcnts mentioned by Moreau de SainrM6ry were thc Angoumois (aurora and violet), Catinais (black and violet), Enghien (red and black), and Vermandois (yellow, violet, red,
of
the colonial Cap Franqais (Cap Haltien) regiment were blue and red.r7 After the formatiolt of the French Republic, the military was reorganized and the nationalist tricolor was substituted lor the king's banner New regimental flag Patterns, and green).2n The colors
as
well, were based upon the red, white, and blue color scheme of the republican banner Correlations betwecn the designs of colonial French military flags and Vodou drapo
can be astounding. The background motils used in the regimenral colors
of
Napoleonic
demi-brigades (rlcuars r3.:3) bear a remarkable resemblance to those of many drapo Vodou (rrcune r3.2,1) even if it is simply a case of stylistic convergence rather than historical continuity. Likewise, if the stru tting coq Gaulois found oo both Royalist and Republican standards is not related to the combative kitk kalite of drapo dedicated to .Jean Bertrand
13.23 aeovr. Batk.quui norilt u,,tl ln tltt r','1titn,'ntal
\',tp,'lto
i Ini I'ri,/db art,,inttllat lrap 11 ,u. l9lt.
!/:ott,tl nanv Allt Hollanla; h,
t,,1,,r,, ,,1
Aristide, one can marvel at the irony of the symbolic conjunction (cF. rtcures r3.:r, r3..25) In military processions and on the field of battle, regimental colors are usually paired
with national or royalist flags, a practice that milrors thc use of drapo witl.rir.r Vodou ceremonies. Like national or royalist flags, regimental colors are made fron the flnest fabrics available (si1k, tafl'eta, or velvet) and ate often richly embroidered with the embiems and nottoes, if any, belonging to the regiment. Furthermore, most are edged with a decorative fringc. Although it is becoming less common, fringes
of similar type
ar.rd
style have
long becn employed on drapo Vodou. Thc flag staves used wirh drapo Vodou also suggest a connection to military flags. Wooden shafts
with pointed fir.rials are clearly patterned
aftcr thc netal pikes used to surmount military flag-staves. Likewise the slanting S shaped cross-guards recall similar devices used for centuries on rnilitary flag-staves, Pikes, swords, and bayonets (cf. ncuaes 9.19, r3.zo, t3.z.z). Whilc stylistic features alone argue for a strong connection between Vodou drapo and those used by colonial and post-colonial authorities, a closer look at thc ritual use national and regimental flags reveals even greater continuity.
I'ASS
AND SAI-UI
Papa Sobo
F-:
A fllSIORY lN RI-VIEW
who is in the ounfb,
he asks for the flags.
That flag, eloue. Papa Sobo who is in the ounfb,
hc asks for the flags
Oh that flag,
of that lwa.
eloue.28
of
Patrick P0Ll(
The terrible irony
of
the Haitian Revolutiotr lies in thc fact
thlt
the
world's only successfulslave uprising gavc birth to a striug of mostly despotit nilitary regimes. While the leaders of the Haitian Revolutiotr sought to Put an end to French doninion in St. Domingue, they clearly did not intend to oblitelate the basic structure of por','er and social control that thc Ftench had
ir
placc. The principles that guided cxPerieoced generals and statesnlcrl such as Dessalines and ChristoPhe wcrc simPle: Indepetrdcnce and sovcr eignty are a matter of beating Europeans at tlleir own game and then continu
put
ing to exccl at it. The systems of civil and military autirority adopted by the cmelgent natiol.l wcrc closely patterned aftcr tl.rosc of France and otl.ler Europern nations. Similarly, Haitian lcaders copied tlre rigid ponp and circunlstance of their European coulltcrParts \\'itll great clltl-lusiasnl. Tlle courts of
Christophc (1807-1820) and Faustin Soulouquc (1847 1859) were PartLcu hrly notable lor their lavish emularion of British arrd Frenclr fcgrlia arrd both
of Napoleon Bonaparte. Solouque cven clowncd l.rimself Emperor of Haiti, mirroring tllc actions of NaPoleon [ulers modeled their coronations after that
, .i,L-,'.
.:.L,r,..,:.r!{rFt?$fiiitmr-;s.lp4 Frlil.g*W
13.26. lt,'p,,t,r
I',ttr,'titt tltt l
who himscl{'h:rd vainly placed the French imperial crown on his own head (rrcunrs r;.26, r3.27). Solouquc likewisc rdopted the NaPoleonic eagle as I royal and nilitary insigrria and hrd inperial "eagles" (11ag$ blesscd and distributed to his troops, like Napoleon (rrcunr r3.28). This inperial inragery seems to have found its wry into Vodon
int
l,ntpLr,tr ol ltattt, u'/ta,,L 1,,r,'rtal r,,rt rutalid utulala) thar tl '\'rtpoL,,tt
ltvnt 1l.l)
hi'.
/929.
and Masonic templesr" (rrcules t).29, ry3a). ln their zeal to achicve and nainrain Independetlcc, tevolutionary gerrcrrls and subsequent heads of statc litcrally turned Haiti into a nation of soldiers. Following a sojourn
13.27 . ,\'ayoL,',t, LtnpLr"r,,l l ranLt, tt /.,1,, (',,ttuntl,,n,'hv Iturt.', /3t)6.
/ ',. tv. '1... . . *.". ' "-t / r,'ltalit, )o"'n l.iu,'tini nrnuitit\t It ro t/tt intytt lal LaltlL (1,11) anl /tar ,,n .\.t1,1..
, ,,tr'..t/rt
ttil
tt,.11, t.-\4t.
ut.,|Iu,',i rl1 ,lnui, I',tri.'
/t'
in Haiti during the 18lOs, one British visitor mrde thc lollou'ing observatror.r: Every ir.rdividu:rl, with sorne excePtiol.ls in regard to cultivators, during the
of his life bctween the ages of sixteen and sixty, is required by lau'to be enrollcd as a soldicr of the rcpublic, eithet in the corps soldcc' or regular troops of thc lir.re or thc corps non soldcc, or national guard. The actual force of period
the lormer, lvhich is the most considcrable, is about fbrty thousand, distributed in stfong detachments ir.r the different towl]s and communcs
of African janizarics, hrlf citizen and l.ralf soldier. They follow thc standards of thetr
througl.lout the country. These troops are
a
sort
respcctive regitnents, and constitLrtc the garrisons
of thc
difl'erent
towns in peace, and are concentrated to folm the national army in w:lr.r(' Thc wide scale regimetrt:ttion
of the masses and tl.le Prinlrcy of military
aurhority which wrs forged by Toussaint Louverturc during the Revolutiot.l has colrtinucd to be the lrallrn:rrk of nost Haitian administrations. Fuclcd both by fears of loreign intervcntiott lnd by thc stark realitics of intcrnrl politics, early Haitian lcaders maintained large armics and relied on thenl to support thcir cconon1ic and poJitical agendrs. Under Toussaint land owncr ship was ccntralized rnd cultivation was controllcd by military comm:lndcts nany of lvhom reportcdly amassed lortunes through the abuse of power' Post revolutionary military regincs hom the age of Dessalines to the Prescnt have likewisc beer marked by cort.uptiorr, and the potential human misery
inherent in this unlortunate legacy remains all too familiar From carly on military excrcises, revicws, and parades served as a basic means of maint:rining efl'ectivc armed lorces aod at tllc same timc demonstrating the conccntration of power within the n:ltion. During the French colonial
13.24 aeovt arcyn.
l.'\a.q lbr S
ll
,/A('Qt'l')S 'ith hort)tr nnttlttr,'ttttI ol I tttttlt rt4irttntaI l|,tq.'. TbL,utlnt!, ,.,, .,.'t t/.,t.t,,,tt. /".r,,.'1ttl,;t,.t1 /:.,.,
corcr
anl,ur,,u tl
ril/:, plrt,'li'
I'tt
t,. 7'ht L, r t r,' PT,l t a pp, a r /', "r. I.ibri., aLtyIi., p\a.,ri.. ,,,,yt in.'. Jj ,r' z j. i rvr. / .lk'lLY9l.ill.
,'tq
u tl t
r
1,
13.25. I r,, ' r'" r t'.t. '. /tt't,.t.tt.'.i,.,1
,ln,'t t, itt,'cribu)
"
poVrlat nt,trLtttrtl,
ith t/tt narnt
l)lll,tlS
thn,'nq 11,n 1, a ',,. t,'. ltrtlt lt ll Ill 1,
a t l,',
/1 1'
,,1 /t1,,
tltr tr.'.'yutl',,1, rltt
t : 9,1,,- 9,1 t n.
(
Ltlti, .../,n.,. t, t l C l r
.\1) i. t i.
;.
SACRED BANNERS and the DIVINE CAVALRY CHARGE
13,28.' h:., ril u itn,t 1h171e,, o n tl, r /:,t",1t' \'.lht. r't l^l;. /'u lta t). r
t
Fan'tin I alopkl tfu Napolcani dttJlt a,, a ro.wtl
a
ntiltltattt in,'iqnfu at to hit troop,t,
)ittnIuttt) call/t,r (l'laq,') a
rr
lli,trt 1/tat ha,' likt[y
illurnttl
lrapo V'),,u. 011 on tznn.'. 6/0.t 9i(l on. (-battau lc Wr.'at11t,,, ltranu.
period, for example, government oldinanccs stiPulilted that military regiments were to be fegularly reviewed.rr Wittr tl.re increased militatization of the colony during the Revolu-
tion, military display bccane even more comnonplace and was vital in tl.le maintenance discipline and the crcation of allianccs. When Toussaint met witlt Cencral Thomas Maitl:rnd, commander of an ill lated British invasiot.r (179)-1798), in order to finalize arrangenents for the withdrawal of Britislr troops lrom St. Domingue, he was trcated to a
of
full nilitary
par.ade. Stcpl.ran Alexis describcs the scene:
Surrounded by an inposing and resplendent escort of white, mulatto, and Ne gro officers, Toussaint entered to the pealing of bells and the firing of heavy cannon. The whole
of the fleet
at anchor in the bay greeted l.ris arrival witlr
salvoes and salutes, and a special Te Deunl was slll.tg in the church, on which occasiorr Toussaint walked thither undet a canoPy, although l.re had refused to
do so lor the landowoers at Port au Prirrce. After the religious service, Maitland
rnd Toussaint walked to the Place d'Armcs, at a distancc lrorr which a spacious tcnt I'rLl.rg with scarlet velver l.rad becn sct up. A military display, in which r thousar.rd Er.rglish soldiers took part, now bcgan. It was a splendid spcctaclc and appealed particularly to Totissaint, who derived special pleasure from thc music of the n-umpets, and tl.re clockwork precision with wl]ich the tloops manouevered belore him. The illustrious visitor was visibly delighted by the discipline and bearing of the British arnry.rz Afterwards, Toussaint exclaimcd thar the French Rcpublic had never treated him with such respect rnd hc promptly cemented favorable tradc rclations with England.
With the conir.rg of Indcpendence, nilitary reviews were quickly and firmly cstab
olicial ritual of the national arned forces. Well aware of the lact that the military was the primary source of their sovcrcignty, Haitian leaders devotcd much energy to the continued readiness of their troops. One visitor to tlle court of Henri Christophc dcscribes Henri's dcdication to ruilitary discipline in this way: lished as part
of
the
By constant practice, Christophe proposed to rcnder his soldiers nore expcrt in cvcry nilitary exercisc; rnd hoped, by rigid discipline, to establish pcrlect ordcr and subordiration among them. In conformity with this plan, the diffcr ent reginents o[ the army were ltequently ]cd forth to the ficld; and besidcs
Patrick P0Ll<
beir.rg carefully inspcctcd
by oliicers especially
ap-
pointed by thc king, thcy occasionrlly underwent r general revien'.
jj
'[he historian HLrbcrt Cole recounts one such
rcvicr,',
wl.riclr took placc in Cap Haitian (tl.ren known as Cap Hcnri)
of thc rnnual cclebrrtion of the fcrst o1' thc Assunrption, Henri Christophe orglnized a parldc of thc city's garrison;rnd stlrting fiom the Place d'Ar.ncs, Christopl.re led his crvalry ilr cxtclldcd mancuvers. According tct ir.r I E 16. As part
Cole, Each conrpany c;trr icd its colour, embroidcrcd by
of the court rvith one of the royll cmlnd an approprirtc motto I n'iurryb otcr n9, entntes rnd / r/trpcr:.e l,l,tnenties for the first ;rnd sccond companies of the Royal Anillery: Cod, n9'cduse and n.,- suord anC' I rhe Iadies
blems, the regincntal device,
ant rchorn .f'tr.at nt aslxs, for thc Carde du Colps; fbr thc King's Light Horsc; an He shinr.fttr 'rll olivc brrnch entu,incd with thc delicare and unLoreseen legend, Ma1
lr
,trts and agt tutlLurt
llour
1or the Qreen's Light Hofsc: for the Prince r2olt: ol'childhoc,d Ji.,retcll grur nrn on one side, rtrd rsl.,
L3.29. I laq, pn'|,n1,1.v trd l,'r llam, ttt."rtll,t,) , tt/: t/:t rt,tur L;II\"Ill()(' lliapla'L,,tt I,
t
naru,n ,'l 1ta. l
tlttltal,'.llll) ,/.5. appur
/t
t,),nttly t/tt arti,'t. l l:r f in) r., rtar)tll.v L),'nltlti at a,t L,t;lL', /,ul it ut,tv t1,"' ttullt tuth.v, r/tt.'ao tli,al l),,,1 ,,1 1/tt /'n li,tThnut. lli,/ a1,7t,tr,' ttt.llay,t '1
'(y,'tnttl,tr
I),t,ni ('anti'a//lltti
t,,
lnrtnqt: nt th':
n,),'t t/tt l)lut l)ir ine Horscmcn. I
dh
n,,
.,.,t
t I
u
t.',
l,tn
I'.,1 t.
j .t
t (t.,\' tt t t.
Royal, lris arms and /lr oll the othcr thc gcllius oI the country setting a trulrpct to hcr lips .tnd I vtll inspn hint antl fu sball prosptr; the ten standrrds of thc Gerde Hritienne all borc
the samc motto, Valour
crou,ned
bt uctotll whilc thc Chlsseurs de la Cardc
shared threc lcgcnds on six brnnets, each as Lrr.isk:rs thcif o\\,n marching step:
I
disperse the darkne:s,
Qlyck as lip;btntn,gutd I :ound rerrar.il
Fron thc abovc p:rss:rgc it is evident that the Hlitiirn military not ouly continucd thc practice of using rcgimcntll flags, in rhis crse cav;rlry st:lndilrds. but that Haitians modilicd the tradition to suit tllcir o\\,u purposes and dispositions. Thc fact thrt rvorrcn of thc court hrr.rd taslrioned thc stlnd:lrds is uo less meaningful.
If
thc women of' the court werc mak-
of Vodou ing inspir.ational fl;Lgs lor thcir soldiers, it societies throughoLrt H:liti wcfc doing tl.re sanrc lor their owrr. Salutes with flag and su,ord wcre common practicc in colonirl atnties attd the PfoPcr procedure fbr doing so w:rs usullly ourlined in the militlry manuals of the tillre. hr a nork e nrirled ,4/l Lltur,€i'idl Milir.u-y DtLttondt\, Captlt]ll Ceorge Snith of the British Royal Mili tary Acadeny dcfincs thc tcrm "sllute" as follows: is easy to inragine that members
nilitary mlttcrs, a discharge of artillery, or srrall lrms, or both, itr honour of somc pcrson of cxtraordinary quality. The colouts likcwise salute royal persolrs, and gcncrals commanding in chiel;which is done by lowerir.rg
Salute, in
the point to tlrc ground. In thc field, when a regirrcnt is to be reviewed by tlre king, or his general, thc drums bc:it a march as hc passes along the line, and the officers salute onc after rtnothcr, bowing tlreir half:pikes or swords to tl'le ground;
theo recover, and takc
o11
thcir hrts. 1'he ensigns salute:rll togcthct., by lower
ing their colours.ri 'l'he French manncr
of saluting u,ith flags gcrerally conlorms to this description and it is apparent that the Haitiiltl nilitrry incorporatcd Europe:tn trlditions lor saluting.
SAcRED BANNERS and the DIvINE CAVALRY CHARGE
13.30.,1k.',utit IiutLraI SLrri,',' S,in:,Jttt 01,ttt, / 96t). I ht u.qL' i,' intp,'rlatt! tn,llat,rtt,' ttntpL',,. Otl,vt ttt,t,',mtltL. l).b,r 61 tut. (','/L',1t,'n ,'l 1,y
Ltl
During form
of
tl.re
reign
of Christophe, the dipping of flrgs
w:ts considered thc most prcsrigioLrs
salute rnd was expressly reserved for thc royrl couple.The Alnanach Rr,1al d'ttayi,
published
in
1820, gocs inlo sonre detail rcgarding the rendering
of
srlutes and specifi-
cally states that:
The olicers
of the King's
House Cuard shlll salute no one with thei[ swolds
but Their Majestics. The other cot.ps, whethcr infantry, cavalry or artillery, shall col.ltiuue to offcr gcncrll olficers the usual honors and military salutes except
fbr the flag salutc which is fbr the King and Qteen alotre.rr' Furrhermore, European military I.itual stipulatcd that when flags wet.e presented during rcviews and exerciscs they were to bc accompanied by drawn swords. Wr.iting in 1740, Humphrey Bland asscrts:
lrc come near thc Rcgintcnt, the Ma.jor is to order the Mcn to draw their Swords; wl.rich is a Ccrcmony always to be p:rid fie Stan dards, both in bringing them to, and carrying them from the Regintent.rt As soon as the Standards
Not only were flag;rnd sword both used
as
prirrcipal lorms
of rendcring salutes, they
rvere also conccptualized as complemcntary to one another Thc similar ities to the display
of Vodou drapo :rrc inescapable. Reginrcntrl strndards were also handled with great ccrcmony and were brougl.tt to ar.rd from thcir lodgings by an escort lorncd specifically lor that purpose. A French doctt ment lists thc tbllowing as composing a proper flag escort during presentation: Four quar tel masters, fbur dragoot.ts with weapons shouldered, a drum-major, the drums, four dra
with drawn srbrcs, the flag bearers (les plrte uidc,ns]1, and thc conrmander with drrwn sabre.'" In rctricving and housing standards, tl.re escorts procccded according to regulated movcnrcnts rnd perfbrmed wlrecls and turns with military precision. Hunphrey Blar.rd attcmpts to cxphin the conceptual basis of the maneuvcrs in this w.ty goons
a Ii,t't',','l
('
utnttn dir)
Ihr,','n
Pairick P0Ll(
For the bener understanding the several Wheelings [sic], it will be proper to give an Explanatior.r. Tl.re circle is divided into four parts. Whceling to the Right or Left is a Qgarter of the Circle; to the Right or Leti-about is one Hall; rhe Circle entire is quite
round'till yoLl come on the fbrmel ground.r'l
Again, the correspondence to flag r.ituals in Vodou is imposing. The circular pattern
which governs ordered troop movements during military exercises fits quite naturally within the ritual space
oI
the ounfo. Par:rding soldiers pivot within inraginary circles in much thc
same w:ry as the laplils and
kd drapo maneuvel arourd the poto-mitan rnd throLrgh the
ounfd. Under President Boyer (1818 1843), the first president soutl]ern sections
of Hriti, Inilirary
of
the uni6ed uorthern rnd
regiments assembled every SrtLrrday and Sundry and
were "required to prrrde thenselves at their cantonments, to undergo the operations
review and military dri11.''r0 Despite the declir.re
in
tl.re decades
of
a
of Haiti's wealth arrd military capabilitics
followir.rg Boyer's presidency, military revie$'s coutinued to be a prominent
of Governnental public disphy. ln tl.re late 1890s, Hesketlr Pritclrard observed the col.ltinuation of the naditiorr under President Tiresias Simon San. Prichard records that on tl're first Sund:ly of the rronth many of the nation's thirty eight reginents assembled on form
tl.re
Champ de Mars, and: Then the march past began, led otrby the Nrtional Musical Conrpany. First the
infantry, ncn in red trouscrs with black kits and red blankets, their band fbl-
lowing; squads with bluc jackcts and red tasseled caps, colrtiugents more or lcss numerous in various blcnds of pink and green, blue ar.rd red, with touclres of yellow in stripe or cord or tassel.... Three or lour times a standrrd-bearcr was manouevered into place by r vocilerous Ceneral.... So it u,ent on, colour after colour, Gcneral after Generrl.r
Over the course the following century, H:ritians have seen almost colrtinual rulc by regines supported by tl.rc nilitary, as well as a lengthy United States military occupation (1915-193,1). Rcviews and other ceremonial lctivities l'rave figured pronrinently through-
of President Aristide il 1991, r'Lrmors of insurrcction and threrts of intervention were invlrilbly countered with military prradcs. While U.S. Marines practiced anpl.ribious assaults on neighboring islands, the Haitiarr militrry rcout; and Followil.lg the overthrow
spor.rded by proudly marcl.ring tfoops throufll.r Port au Prince. Whether or not Vodou was
nilitary display lrom its origirr, its nrilitaristic aspects continue to bc rcinlorccd br thc ortgoirtg .t:rtc of .rfirir' inf'luenced by
Associations between the armed forces and Vodou explain one
of thc
nrorc curious
Vodou tides. Most ecclcsiastic titles (ounun, nunbo, oloqenikon, owtsi, etc.l uscd in Vodou
conc fron African langulges (ser ceeerrr
Palrick P0Ll(
For the bener undcrstanding the sevcral Whcelings [sic], it will Lrc propet to give an Explanation. The circle is dividcd iuto fbur parts. Whccling to the Right or Left is a Qrartcr o1'the Circle; to the Right or I-eft-rtbout is orre Half: thc Circle entire is quitc round'ti1l yolr conlc on tl'le fblItrer grorrnd r" Again, tl.re correspondcncc to flag rituals in Vodou is itrposing. Thc circulrr pattern i',,hich govcrns ordered troop tuovcnents duting military cxercises fits quitc tlaturrlly rvithirr the ritual space
of
the oLrnfd. P:rrrding soldiers pivot witl'til't intaginary circlcs in much thc
same way ils the laplas
lnd kd-drapo man€uver:trottnd the Poto-nlitllr and through thc
oLrnld.
Undcr President Boyer (1818-1843), the first Prcsident southern scctiol.rs
of Haiti, military
of
the unificd nortl]ern arrd
regiments assemblcd every Satur.d:ry lnd Sunday and
wcrc "rcquircd to parade thcmsclvcs at their cantonlrcnts,
1o
undergo the opcrations
of
a
militlry drill."r0 Dcspitc the declinc of Haiti's wealtlr arrd nrilitary capabilities in thc dccades {'ollowing Boycr's presidency, nilitary rcvicws colltinued to bc a Prorlrinerrt tbrm of Covcrnner.rtal public display. In the late 1690s. Hesketh Pritchrrd observed the continLration of tl.re tradition undcr President Tircsias Simon Satr. Prichrrd rccords that on the first Sunday of the month many of the nation's thirty cight regiments lssenrblcd otr rcvicr.v rnd
the Chanp-dc Mats, and: Thcn thc nrrch past bcgan, lcd olFby the Nrtionrl Musical Conrpany. First the inirntry, men iu red trouscrs with black kits ;rnd lcd blankets, thcir band fbl
lolr,ing; squads with blue jackcts and ted tassclcd caps, colrtirrgcrrts frlofc of
of pink and grecu. blue arrd r.cd, with toucllcs Threc or lour tintes a st:rndrrd bcrrer or tassel.... of ycllow in stripe or cord wrs manouevered into pllcc by a vocilerous Gcncrll. . .. So il wctrt oll, colotlr less numcrous iu various blcnds
after coloul Ceneral rftcr Ccneral.rL
Ovcr thc course the fbllowing ccntury, Haitialrs hrvc seen alnrost contitlual rule by regimcs supportcd by tlre nrilitlry, as well rs r Icrrgthy Unitcd States nrilitrry occupatiorr (1915-1914). Rcviervs and other ccrcntolti:rl rctivities ltlve figttred pronrinctltly through orLtr and follorvit.rg the overthrou'o[ Pr.esident Aristidc in 199], rltnrors of insulrcction and thrcats of intervertion werc invariably countcrcd rvitlr nrilitlry prrrdes. Wltile U.S. Marincs pr:rcticcd rmphibious rssaults on neighboring isl:rr.rds, thc Haitian military r.cspondcd by proudly mrrching trooPs through Port-lu-Ptince. Whctht'r ot trot Vodotr u':ts influcnccd by military display fronr its origin. its militaristic tsPecls corrtillLle to be fcirrfbrced by thc ongoing strte
of
itffairs.
Associations between the armed forces rnd Vodou cxpllin otrc
of thc
nlore curiorts
Vodorr titlcs. Most ecclesiastic titles (ctungan, nnubo, oatienikttn, ouusi. t:tc.l used iu Vodort cone fi.om African languages (ser cueerras : nno 3). Thc terrt ldplas, horvever, derivcs fi.om the Frcnch la place. Mllo Rigaud states that thc laplas is occasionally referred to as placr ar.rd Alfrcd M6trrux adds that thc tcrm is 'an abbreviation of the cctntuaudant de
fldf
Commandcr in chicf of the city (collra anL,ginirdl dclaplarr) t: I',t'-.',."t,t litary ter.nrinology thc rvord "place" implics citl.rcr l stronghold Qtlac.lt'rte) e.g.. g.tttisotr or 'r par.ade ground Qtlatt d'amrci).lt is
worth notirg that from the titrte of thc Revolurion up
until the Amcfic:ln Occupatiou, I'laiti was divided into ntilitrry zones cltch of rvhich had I garrisolr under thc command of r g6n6ral de flal placc or conrrlndant dc lr place. rr lll the Vodou templc, it is thc laplas r.vho leads tI.re flrg corps lkr) draptt) in their nrrncuvers and is charged with nraintaining order in thc ounfb, wlrich hc does in a distinctly martial tashion. If indccd thc ceremolial usc of drapo represclrts thc illcorPorittion of nlilitary ritual. it stands to rerson that
militily titlcs $'ould
be included as well.
SACRED BANNERS and the DIVINE CAVALRY CHARGE
Like rrilitary patades and reviews, the flag rituals of Vodou are chorcographed displays of colorful flbric and glistening lveaponry. Thcy are llso fundlnrentll cxpressions of autholity undcrstood by thosc salutir.rg and bcing slluted, ls wcll as by thosc watclring. The conjunction
of rcligion
and :trnrcd forces that grve birth to
Hriti
is still rcflccted in
of thc oun[o. The considerable corrcspondcnces bct*'een military riturl and thc ccrcrronial usc of drapo strongly suggest that Vodouists incorpotated thc usc of'llilithc hicrarchy
tary flags through participation irr thc nilitary, both during rnd rftet the Rcvolution, and throLrgh regular observltion of nrancuvels and p:rrldes.
'l
HI
SONS
Ol''l Ilt Nl)Lll ,\Nl)
|
lll
Sl:QLrlNl l) ltLVOI.t'l
ltlN
I am r soldier in the anliy of St. Jltncs. His battalion strrts on tl.rc scashore ltld relchcs the lakcshorc. I an
l
me
nbe r
of this big army.rl
You caffy thc s$,ofd. You ncar the ep;rulcttcs, we scc th:ltl
IOgou Balendjo] You firc the canon. You fire the gfaprsl.rot, we scc thatl
Ogou Brlendio You carry the biryollcts. You carry the tlags, wc see thatir;
rot simply a rrlatter of
recognizitrg :lnd coPying the symbols of conterlrporrry politicrl and nilitary ruthority. Rathcr. Vodou flags couiure fortlr thc enduring spiritu:r1 cncrgy of thc H:titian Revolution. Thcy help reopen a sacred space and timc in rvhich h,u'e bcclme gerrcrals lnd gencrals beclme llv;r Thc nlmcs rcver
Thc flag ritual in Vodou is
berate: Ogou, Shaugo, Sobo, Toltssaitrt Louvclture. Jean-J:lcques Dessalil'les, Hcnri Cl.rr.istophc. Thcy rre rll stlndlrd berrers o1'thc Revolution rnd as such thcy serve as nrodcls lor thosc r,vho rre willing to risk their livcs and future in order to achievc some measure
of freedon.
Populrtr conceptiotts oF post revoltrtiotl
ary lcadcrs such rs Chlrlcmague P6r.altc ilnd lcan Bertfalld Aristidc;rrc fil
of thc wlffior spirits;rnd deilied Ccncrals $'ho gavc al1 and ultimately prcv:riled in thc struggle fbr Haitiln Ind(JPcrl tcred through the lorcefirl imrges
dcnce. Sonrc:rrc cnvisioncd in the glor.y
of thcir ascetrdaucy
while othcrs
rcmlin fbrcvcr brokcn. fhe flag-drrped corpsc ol' Charlcmagtlc P6raltc is as ;roignart ns thc triurnphant srvord and barrlrcr of'Saint Jlrnles Maior.rnd in soIrre ways norc profbundly notivating (r'rcunl 4.rz). Noncthelcss, it is the incattlttiot.t of Ogotr :ts St..Jrnres Milior mountcd on a war horse and charging fcarlcssly irrto thc tllidst o1'lris cnemies that is most lrequently dcpictcd on drapo. Although thc image is dircctly Parterncd aftcr a popular chronolithograph, l subtle altcr:ttiot.t occurs itl the transfcr tion paper to firbric. 'll.re rrnrorcd kuight who carrics St. Jnnless banncr tn thc actual chromolithograph (see tNrlnrrar r) is cxcised fi-om the image on the drrpo (rrcunes r1.5, r3.8, r3.32). Yet tl.re fllg rcmains floatitrg behind St
Mrjor rs if hcld by sonre invisible forcc. its prescnce with tl.rat of thc sword rllowing thc s:lint to be visually merged with hva St. Iames Major into Ogou. Somc vivts terder the principles of this trattslormation more obvious. The vdvi of Ogou,/Sen.lak, for exlnrplc, cotrsists only of a sabre flankcd by two llags (rrcunt r 1..:). fhc par:r1lel rvith thc sabrc rvielding laplas and his
.lamcs
L3,31, l/.,r /.,'./t,ntt tn.ntti)lttt nl Irl i n,lt,u t .\'a ! iotta I (', t tLttrv li.t L' a t i r n1/t,,l t t i 1tlt r r.v a n l,'pr rr t uaI t nutttp/: ,...t..t . t. t1..,.n.., . , {,,,.,, ,. i. .i, ..
.
t
t
t
l'/tot,,ltntp/), 1.. J.
Ln)h:
t
utrLt i n,' rt trut': i,',,l na t i,uta I a i.y,rrtr utl
I1,t1t,' pr,,!'a/'1y
Tb.'yr t
r1
/tt,'
ri u n tp/., t,'
Ni1
t
L,'pttla11.y,t1t1,rt
tttt ! rtt I hi.'
t/,1,nt )Lt,,ti t,t tht .lanu', l/:,t ot /:Lr )tpi tttt4
,,l l\d!t,', 51.
"vrri,t ,/,,, 1tt, 't,tt..,. . i,.rt t ol l/tt lttt Ointn.
t'1
t|.. t/.,t,,
13.32. I laq t,,r St..lantt,', inIut)ttt.4 t, ' rt.,,,,', /t.,,),t,1, i lr).t,t lt.,),t.,,'t/ ati Ogrtn Iir...'/()q,'u I ua.v/. Stlk, ,, tt,,',t/ t, ..1tt,'t.. 1,.,,t.. h".t /'i,,,. ,, .
L3.33. I 1,,;, .t1 tt'.,t..ti",,t1;'t/1.' t tnrrap2 hy rht,,tnfu li''utitv 1)tnl,al,t a Lnirla) l,v t\'i,' ltttn,u itrl (ln./int,'t Irntt uppa ltll):A4rt,,otr, l):tli |trcla, s,,1", hd),.!tt 1s,,1,,,-RaliJ. anl /,,,c,' [,,,[,,J. Stllk, a,r r,'n Ial' ri, .'L'1uttt,,. hrar),'. 9i r 92 uD. l:l/( ll .Yri.r;.JJJ.
SACRED BANNERS and the DIVINE CAVALRY CHARGE
kd-drapo escort is unavoidable. The flags embody nationhood made possible by the rnight of Ogou's sword. Not surprisingly, special ceremonies are held for Ogou on Haitian lnde pendence Day and on Flag Day.a6
Depictions oF Ogou as St. James Major are emblematic of military and spiritual triumph in much the same way as photo-reproductions of embattled United States Marines valiantly raising the American flag over Mout.rt Suribacbi on Iwo Jima (TIGURE r3.3r). They represent a shining moment in victory: a defining point not just for a nation's
military power, but For its citizen's conceptions of self. Notions of who we are and who we wish to be are forever captured in lrozen images ol battle. But the charging figure of St. James Maior is doubly resonant lor Vodouists because that triumphant moment is as vibrant today as it was two hundred years ago. The author of that achievement is actively
oun6 and when possessed by hirn the Vodouist assumes the role of revolutionary soldier and is part of the moment. Flanked by brilliantly colored banners, the raised sword oF Ogou signals the beginning of another divine cavalry charge. present in the
Papa Ogou has a horsel
It is not everyone who may ride himl It is not evervooe who mav ride himl Papa Ogou has a horsel
It is not evervone who mav ride
himlaT
S^X, %-4
A Gallery of Vodou F lags Most Voclc,n templcs lroast a pair of rnltchc'c1 llags. I\'picallr', ,rnc hono.s the.t"rliol ll,a Ogou, in the firrrn ol St. .larles lllior'. Tl-re other invokcs it scconcl clivinitv (or cvcrr a cltrster of divinitics) ol'special irrpor{ance to the ,rrzrtli). I Icr-e are clis pl:,r'cd so,ne.er.l old pails, as.r'ellas so,tt" singlcs, sep;rr;rteil fiort-rtheirrnates.Orr tl-rc- flag cer-ernon.r' and thc histor-r' o{ f1:rgs, sc'c Chaptel lS On thc secltrin ;rlts lntl artists, see Ch;rptel l'1.
P.l
ABovE
LEFr. Fl.eJot DAMBALA
OFDO lr.)dnbdltl
P.2 reovE
j
x El
c)u
llr,r" A,-t)l lRu)u \r ' , /, i, ' / r/ //
ntcHt.
14.,, .,.'."1 1
lyidal 8i
.
P.3 RrGHr. I /,\fot GIIAND llolS lc)dn Rudl. 76 x 112 t t. t,r1(fl xet 6,
P.4,P.5. A pair antl
rhc
diinities.
66
0:f d]t
aldt.lag
11 i. Pd!.t J59).
x 69 tnt.
67 )a
Sctt
Jak
I hc larrcr-fiag appears ro be a
itctlt exdLl rtPIicd
nlurc
r.,f -flags, ont.l'or
oLlrrjn'Danbala and tlr llada
il)
t,11(H xr t
I
I lA
cnt [,r!cH xI)].a llB
(sce
NOTES
s.r K.rcf Mcca(|ly Bro\!n li.)8:1. pp l90 20l rr)d 19E9,|f 6t 89 ,15 lhc s),mlroli. opposirion t).Nccn itrt Cifcrr rrrd $'orkrfg \tirh Lnnh hantls ls .rLciel 5ccScrgcLurosc l977.pfr lit ll6 For rc.crrl(tfndsrnHiiri.nNcsYoik.sc! rlrTib.dr MlAlis(cr 'Su.rcd Srofi.s tlon rhc llriLiri) Dluspo.u A Collc.ri!c Biogfrr ph! of scvcr \trfou Pticstcsscs. l,r,r,,l (i,rlll,l,.\ftrf lol 9. nos I & -2 46 I Bc1lbrnJr fl)d Mifxlosc BrruLriiln. Bouknrrt tlsPcr)rns. Krlfou Drngcr.. Mrngo
l6l ll!)rl)7 -l
1992
47 T BcxrbrunJr 0d Mirrcrosc B(r(LLrun. Bouknrif tkspctlrns. Krlfou Dingcfr. Mxngo 162 t19 927 2 I99l 'r8. As oa dris wriring I lrvc ro( scrlfd rhc :,,1r rhcir nr.rl tr itlrol,r srlr My owt godiirh.r ir rhc fclicion \\rs drsfrssivc ot dr. L'oIrlf. sxyirrg (lrr our Horsc h.s Pos' cdirl Clir.n spirils and I did ,ro( feed ro s.rvc /rrr, Jusr $titc rbo(it ir. srid PrP.. '19. lr is problcnrrtic k, gloss Aiio-Hirruf r.ligior rs Vodor. bc.rusc lhc l.nn vodou irsclf r.rLLrlly rct'crs to r spc.ilic ,r,./,dr (r,rion) rhylhn rrrd drncc within r Irxdr sc.!rcc $hilc rcligiors prlcri.c ir gcfcnl is rci.flcd ri) Lr) r nurrrbct oi $r)s rhrorgh olL( Hxri Cilling Ihc stirirs. lccdirg rh. spirirs. crushitc l cdicinrll lfiv.s. rnd ',i,trlti.g rhc glound IfcnrLrlc (r/r /ur v, lar /rrnr rtl,tt: ttl. li l.tldt.\at li ti I hdtl,t4 urcrllsiysrhrrpcoplf dcs.ribclhcirrcligio!sfl .cricc uut.cccfrl!in Porr r(L Pfin.t hnd ii (h. Unrcd slrlcs) rlrt rcfn Vodo! hrs comc ro strrrd irr to. rll oa (h. Rrdr scrliccs.
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politi.irrs (o includc this.or)\(ir,rn.,! itpcrls sccfrs irs gloss by f()rcigrcrs lrs coNc to *rdrt 50 A( his f.q!.sr. I hrvc chrfgld tlrcir nrnrcs
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t,akd howclcr rh. Mr Korgo ,iq.trq,1,ltrr rroLLld nr:vcr hrrc uscd hurrrr troncs in hls \Lorl. lLr( onl,v.rdr tlon thc ccrttctcry Flcr (o wirn.$ r grrvc uncr lrcd rs t] c'inrc Lodr\ rfro.g rh. BrKorgo. Dr Fu Kiru pcrson.rl .ofrmunicrtion Novcrlbct 1991 t2. Jrcobsof Widdrng I I l.
51. lr is nor r.c.sry to srspcfl scicnrilic logr. it ordcr tu bclifvc Lhc Prtrcri.xl!Ricrs ()1 Hxrtiirr sor..ry bfcru\c i( frn lrlvolvc xn.\pdr kfowlcdce of (ori. Plufrs rtd l'186 poisofs. Ser Drvir dijscrliLiorr A p$cr likc n|boukc tirn.(iors likc r l{ r. brLr .in rlso htlp yicld nrirgr. obtcc(s likc rhis bor(lc pwc. Onc or .gxn I vo kcd wirh in li.)9 1 \lould Lrc pdscsscd b\ his Lwr p\Lcrr xfd rlDrrrs(crr.Crdor 'guld. to his.otgrtgrron. {hieh consistcd ctl thtci
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lhc upp.r lll|lr itlo qhi.h po$.d.is \Lcrc rubbcd tor gfnc|lll prorc.rion or orhcr frwcrs lilif \isibi]iry ot invisibiliry (Elch ouDsi hr.l I rrc* rrzor lorrhclsc|lrr\\I.oalhclilVrisks.) l.or r lcngrrt discussbnofLh! polr(icrl cccnrorry oi pncn stfrbolis.. scc KICr) Rl.h lf\ diss.iulion. Unilcr\i\ oi Vir giui:r 1992. t5. l-his Pctqo song is srng \Lhilc (l g kongo fi.ltlre (,ri,.,.ilal 1",,3,) thrr rtc uscdirinirltion Alsoit_ormoax|J/.lLcrfr.lrts.o.rxinscvcnhrrrdlL,lsoi ctrfihrnd Ic,r.1,r.,r \\riptcd rnd ricf nrdr) ri|res ls r wry ro.onhol rnd lir.lLs (hfil
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Ch{pter l }. SACRED BANNEI{s rnd thc DTVINE CAVALRY CllAIlGt.
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rrc in!o.r(icr)s.ltcd b! Rigxud. ci.olc sfcllirrgs hr!c
I Aslalcrslhcl9E(\.Pi.rr.Morosicl.tllch(f.utxtorotIh. llilirn
AL Nlusc!fr. nrrinlriucd thi( d(rpo woc not rrr. rc.ordiirg to Vitgi Youtg in xn Ln(crv'cs {rlh Donrld CoscfLino (p(rrorrxl conNrni.rtor). D Cose.frto)
i
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of firlcna tbund ir Alti.irf rf\rilcs 8 lbid.. p 154. 9 Nlatrrur Ir)71,p. l6l Bn.ltrs indi.r(r updr(cd spcllrng ot (lr.olctonri l{) Dcrcn l9El. p 1771. Brx.kcls indicrlc uf.drlcd spcllitg ot Crcol.Icr.rs.
ll lhcBrrborcilllriorisorp295irchur.hills(,/lt11n,.rl r.n)4.j ; Snclgrrvc s iods rttcrf or p ll(rofrhf l9Tltcpubli.xnot
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\n ( f:r bc pl1s||frcd it rccurxlc rcndernrg ol u sifrrlir rn of Drhomct|rr woNcn $rriors. rhc $ .xllfd Arrrzofs. givcs
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lhruk\roAfisl.r.rnirionrl. lhcLlhWilhccR.rdci sDigcslfund.llrl(lufRcsourt Dcvflopr)rfnr l'o!fdirion. Ntllil Nrol l'o1,tdirion. Dr Ir.qrcs Brrtolr. Aborl.lJx Dcrcro|l.:o!|1. Ccsn.r Picrc. Ccorscs Vrlrs I rh lcAlisr.r. Funirrori Sulo. lcq!rh Mifsk),. r l Mi.h.clswirrdlc Spccirl thrtls ilso (o thc Coflcrrtlofrry Ar( Ccnr.r in Nfw Orlcrns whi.h pulnishcd nry book. \(1M ) tjt\ il 1/irrl. ro rrcco.rPufy xn .\hi Lri(lof L mr opcrcd in D..cnrbc. 199.t. Pr(s oa thc chrplcr for (lris volonrr rPPtrr in c\plrdcd iofl. rn nry.rlrloguc. on l{rrr s.c Rosc|lbcrg l9TT:Yotkcr in Nunicy & Bclllchcinr 1988: rnd MfAlrncr lbfth.onring lu rddilion. 5( rh..rccllcnt litfr rrotcs or] Rrrir
I lor tlIlhcfcudirgs
Av.rll rn.l Vcrrr Cillis lb. (rc S.rIhn)nirn/Lolk{rys.onrpr.r (jrgr in rl)c Dofrifi.rn RrpuLrlic. A l5 rrrirrrtt !rdco dis. rirlcd Rrn ir H.rri produ.cd by Vcnn Crllis is rvrihblc tion Orgifsl Nlusic. l{.D i. Bo\ 190. lushci Rorf. li\oli. NY ll58l ). \brlou lhgs drirw on nrulriplc sourccs rhr( coriinly intludc W!\t Atir.rrt bxn..i rndiLiolls (sfc Chrtrci 2). lurh ccn(ufy l'j1j.h tlillrir), ihgs (scc ChrPrcr ll) rnd -lhe),lrkrlyo$.sonr.Ihingus\!cl1toCrrholic Kongos),rlrlols,/src.rs h.. (lhrprcr i) (lhiplcr (o YonLbr Lrcrd$ork. rtd possibly clcr (o rht lcsrrricrts (scc l). rrd Mrscnric k\r ins of rhc Cr.b pcopl. I lr lhiri ro dirc rhcfr hrs L'ccr only ortc crlribrtror d.!oIc.1 f\.lusiv!ly Lo lLlgs. h.ld rr drf Musac d A( Hxiri.r iD l9t I drd.!tx(fd b,v Piorc Motosifl \ho hus srncc dicd lcrvlns bc rind no docu.rcnmtiorr oi (hc crhibir .l I hc Nluscunr ol F.thnol.gy .otr,riDs do.urnf.ur(rof of Tiborr's groLrP rs rr) illus(trr rior of rhc c!l(unl fhcioncnr erllcd Rrt;t. t Aticr (hc irrc(icw rh. Lnorhcrs \\r(.hcd Miryi Dctct s Flnr 'Dili c Hotscnrfn.' nrxd. bc[\ccr) ]9'17 rrd 19tI Bo(h ll)cf rccogniT.d Ih. pcrisl]lc lbhrdscc.his first scquincd flrg in Croi\ d.s iui\sions tll rhc fo isryl. of JI)c Piflrf Cillcs, $hcrc Dcrcn lilmcd scvc.rl .fonofi.s lo his r rrcfrfn( ht r.cogniz.d his .ousilrs PLiyrfg rhc drunrs (\Lin brorhcr nrmcd Lolo rrrd Pr li to. Th.lirsr rtinrl oflcLcd oP to (hc 1ri $rs r \Lhi(t cl)i.f,( n. To shorrcd out rhc llrnrc of fhc $onun pcfr-or ir)g rhe r(trrl produrc.l bv Crsc
Nlidrnc Llic-tulssrrfr H.rLIn.d(o\Lrd liboutrtdtrnlrtdcdhinrofho\LPrcrI,vsr(' \!is rnd !\hrr r lfc drrc.r shc hid L.ccn Alict r { hrle rh. No Lrarhcrs lcllsilctl rnd wrtchcd $cir ornlrisrorysho\ingonrhcrclcvision I rsk.d drc r$o pr icsc \ ur (hcy rhoughr of proplc do.flnr.nring \bdou tl|rd shrrifg 1r *iIh Ih. !'orld. Bo(h srft thtl wcrc thrillcd ro scc t rc prsr. tbr rhc.r ir *l\ u rlinclc 6 Hc ronnll,urcd nnnJ .f rh. dcjjgns in Mllo Riglld s rr L,I r Lrook \\'hr.h rtrs trcconc thc dictionrry of spifil ieonognphy jot trorh rfrsrs xtd ouDgrns 7 I hi!. ror hrd rllc oppo(lLniry Io itrcrvicw (lris rrltisntd oungrn. brcrusc hc no\! livcs in Mirnri. Bizilcsurt is Ih. suL'jc.r ol r llrrvrfd do.rorxl disscrlrriorr by Aftr
$/r\lri Io bc.onrplc(cd rn l99t li Bcl$ccn 1990 rrrd 1992. r\nroinc rnrl I \orkfd .loscly rogcrhcr crc irrg I bod! of worlts Do\ crhlbircd rs UNDlll A SPLLL ThrcrLghorr this Pfriod I r)rc(..urrlcd rnd collcctcd Lhc work of orhcr rtisrs.Frrrhcttr\cif.hitl99lrndl99'lrcsoLi(dr. nry book. .t.{r,, /lfrv!,/ Hirr {l9r).1) 9 Ir r..ldrrirq. r ri.c is phccd ovcr r pcrscn\ hcrd rnJ str rthnr.. Nrcklr.lIg. rlso kroR.inllritirs Patu'IrbrLrn (rficr rucll kno\nrircd.llcr).hrsoccurrcdrt(inrrs of popuhr uprising ug,rifsr for..s pfrrcived rs opptfssr!c Olcyrnt uscs rlrc (rre :rs l syfrbolof Ih. opprcsscd nor is in idvocrc), of !iolcn.c Ht wrs r Pcx.eiul. spiri(rirL Ch.prcr I5. ThcSTYLEof HIS HAND: Ihe Iron ArtofCcorgcs Li{ut.rud.
I
).r. Ed\tllds 1797. p. 56 25 Chrrria 19t8. pp. 870 872
rchlcs to lhf Sr (itlgo nrov(.rtnr in ollrer LrLin Allx1icrr. bfcI rold by tl icnds worl(itg tr irh I r(in rrrisrs rlril Srnrirco (Scrr Jrk.
I lhc nilurisn) ol Ogo! colLnnics I hr!c
