Research: Its Nature, Types & Role in Development What is research? A careful, systematic study in the field of knowledge that is undertaken to discover or establish facts or principles (Webster, 1984). A systematic process of collecting and analyzing data to find an answer to a question or a solution to a problem, to validate or test an existing theory (David, 2000). a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems. Ultimate goal is to develop, refine, and expand a body of knowledge. Nursing Research? A systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession, including nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics Clinical Nursing Research Research Research desig designed ned to genera generate te knowle knowledge dge to guide guide nursing nursing practic practice e and to improve improve the the health health and quality quality of life of nurses’ clients. •
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Functions of Research: • •
It helps us answer questions, solve problems and make decisions. It enables us to see and understand how and why a situation or a problem
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It helps us discover new things and ideas. Functions of Research: It allows us to validate existing theories or generate new ones. It helps us identify and understand the causes and effects of a situation or a
phenomenon. Role of Research in Improving our Quality of Life New Skills/ New Practic Knowle es/ Improve dge Behavi d ors Conditio Resea n/ rch Welfare New Technol ogy
New Tools/ Devices/ Approac hes
Uses of Research as a Scientific Process Determine/ describe an existing situation (situation analysis), Describe a population (people, objects, institutions, etc.) Compare two conditions or groups of population, Uses of Research as a Scientific Process Determine existence, degree, or nature of relationship between two or more factors, Evaluate add/or compare effectiveness of an intervention, treatment or exposure, and Predict the value of a certain characteristic • • • • • • •
Role of Research in Development Analyzing existing social and economic problems or conditions For planning and designing a program/ proj./ activity intended to address the problem Data on the background and needs of target clients of a proposed program/ proj. are needed in the prep. Of the intervention Program managers or project implementers should continue collecting, analyzing and using relevant data to determine if, or to make sure that a project/ program is being implemented. Project implementation should be closely monitored to check progress and quality of implementation. • • •
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Paradigms & Methods: Quantitative & Qualitative Research Scientific Method Syste Systema mati tic: c: inve invest stiga igato torr pres present ents s logi logical cally ly trou trough gh a ser series ies of steps steps accdg accdg.. to to a specif specifie ied d plan plan of action Quantitative Gather Gathers s thr throug ough h empi empiric rical al evide evidence nce;; roo roote ted d in in obje object ctive ive real reality ity and are gath gathere ered d dire direct ctly ly or indirectly •
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Numeric information: formal measurement analyzed with statistical procedures Qualitative Narrative and subjective
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Seeks to quantify or reflect in numbers the observations on the characteristics of the population being studied. It measures the number of respondents or objects possessing a particular characteristic. It emphasizes precise measurement and oftentimes requires statistical analysis of data or the testing of hypotheses based on a sample of observations.
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Qualitative Research It emphasizes verbal explanations of human behavior and practices in an attempt to understand how the units or members of the study population experience or explain their own world To gather information , the researcher makes use of one or a combination of the following techniques: participant observation, key informant interview, focus group discussion, direct observation, and in-depth analysis of a single case
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Paradigms & Nursing Research: It sharpens the focus on a phenomenon of interest for ; Ultimate goals External evidence Reliance on on human cooperation
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Purposes of NR: Basic & Applied Can be done through; Identification Description Exploration
Ethical constraints Fallibility of discipline research
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Explanation Prediction Control
Steps in a Quantitative Research Phase 1: The Conceptual Phase 11. Developing Methods for Safeguarding HR 1. Formulating and Delimiting a Problem 12. Finalizing & Reviewing the Research Plan 2. Review of Related Literature (pretesting & pilot testing) 3. Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork 4. Defining the Framework and Developing Phase 3: The Empirical Phase Conceptual Definitions 13. Collecting the Data 5. Formulating Hypothesis 14. Preparing the Data for Analysis Phase 2: The Design & Planning Phase Phase 4: The Analytic Phase 6. Selecting a Research Design (overall plan) 15. Analyzing the Data 7. Developing Protocols for the Intervention 8. Identifying the Population to be Studied Phase 5: The Dissemination Phase 9. Designing the Sample Plan (Subjects-sampling) 16. Communicating the Findings 10. Specifying Methods to Measure the Identification Research and Definition of a Research Variable Problem Statement of Research Problem
Theoretical/Concept
The Research Process ual Framework Formulation Hypothesis Formulation Choosing Appropriate Research Design Identification of Target Population and Sampling Data Collection Reliabilit Qualit Q Admin., Preparation y y Interview, of Testing Contro Testing Research & l & Instrument Validatio Observation n Data Processing (Editing, Coding, Encoding, Creation of Data Files Tabulation Data Analysis & Interpretation Statistical Analysis, Interpretation, Generalization) Generalization) Report Preparation and Information
Operational Definition of Variables
General Types of Research Descriptive Research Correlation or Association Experimental or intervention 1. Descriptive Research Type of study finds answer to the questions who, what, when, where and how. Describes a situation or a given state of affairs in terms of specified aspects or factors 2. Explanatory or Correlation Research This type of research goes beyond description of the problem or situation. It attempts to explain the possible factors related to a problem which have been observed in a descriptive study. This type of study answers the questions why and how? The research investigates relationships between factors or variables 3. Intervention or Experimental Research Evaluates the effect or outcome of a particular intervention or treatment It studies the cause and effect relationship between certain factors on a certain phenomenon under controlled conditions. Subjects of the study are randomly assigned to the experimental and to the control group and both groups are exposed to similar conditions except for the intervention/ treatment. • • •
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Other Dichotomies of Research 1. Pure basic vs. Applied Research 2. Exploratory vs. Explanatory Research 3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Research Methods 1. Experimental Method 2. Survey Method 3. Historical Method 4. Content Analysis 1. Experimental Method This is used to determine the effectiveness of a treatment or an intervention or the “cause and effect” relationship of a certain phenomena under controlled condition. Subjects of the study are randomly assigned to similar conditions except for the intervention/ treatment. 2. Survey Method It obtains data to determine specific characteristics of a group. The purpose of a survey is to get a general picture of the characteristics of a study population at a particular time. The use of the survey approach is appropriate for most descriptive and correlation studies. 3. Historical Method Used to determine the growth and development of a group, organization or institution. The description is based on information about some past aspects of the group, organization or institution. Most of the data used in this method are collected from secondary sources, such as records, documents, written materials, accounts, etc. 4. Content Analysis •
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Used when the intention of the researcher is to ascertain the quality of message or information found in a document or in mass media. It is used to test the level of readability of certain books Content analysis is also used in determining authenticity of documents and in literary research
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The Research Process What is a Research Problem?
For researchers, problems could be conditions they want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate, questions for which they want answers, or information gaps they wish to fill, or theories they wish to validate. It may be a question about the unknown characteristics of a population or about factors that explain the presence or occurrence of a phenomenon.
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Defining the Research Problem It explains the existence and seriousness of the problem. It shows evidences that prove the problem really exists, that is serious, and/ or widespread. The definition of a problem identifies elements of a broader problem that are to be the focus of the research activities. • • •
Things to remember when defining a research problem: 1. First review relevant literature and previous studies on the problem. 2. Examine current available data/ statistics. 3. Seek educated opinions from persons concerned with the problem. 4. Determine the probable reasons for the existence of the problem from social, economic, or theories that may explain the existence of a problem and the possible connection between the problem and other factors. Characteristic of a Good Research Problem: 1. A research problem must be relevant. 2. A research problem must be feasible. 3. A research problem must be clear. 4. A research problem must be ethical. Why Review Literature? •
A review of related literature is the process of collecting, selecting and reading books, journals, reports, abstracts, and other reference materials, including electronic sources (CD-ROM) and world wide web (www/http) to get relevant information about the problem under investigation.
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It can help a researcher identify and develop a research problem, formulate a research framework, and identify and use appropriate research methodologies and tools.
Related literature helps; 1. the researcher identify and define a research problem 2. justify the need for studying a problem 3. prevent unnecessary duplication of a study 4. as a source of a theoretical basis for the study 5. enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem and properly identify and operationally define study variables 6. provide a basis for identifying and using appropriate research design. 7. provide lessons for data analysis and interpretation. What to Review and Where to Get the Materials General References Gener General al refer referen ences ces show show wher where e to to loca locate te othe otherr sou source rces s of of info informa rmati tion on relat related ed to a cer certa tain in topic topic.. Primary Sources Resu Result lts s of of man many y res resea earc rch h stu studi dies es are are pub publi lish shed ed in jour journa nals ls,, or or mon monog ogra raph phs. s. Secondary Sources Refe Refers rs to publ public icat atio ions ns wher where e aut autho hors rs cit cite the the work work of othe others rs.. •
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Formulation of Research Framework Research Frameworks Theoretical Framework A co connection be between a theory an and th the pr problem. Conceptual Framework A pres presen enta tati tion on of of the the the theor oret etic ical al fra frame mewo work rk exp expla lain ined ed and and ill illus ustr trat ated ed in in con concr cret ete e ter terms ms •
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The Role of Theory in Research A theory is a set of concepts which explains the occurrence of a certain phenomenon. •
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It is a statement of relationship between two variables, the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE, assumed to be the “cause” of the problems, while the DEPENDENT VARIABLE, is the problem itself or the phenomenon being studied.
Theoretical Framework Presents a theory that explains why a problem under study exists, and explains the connection between certain factors and problems. The choice of a theory depends on the number and nature of variables and the relationships being examined. •
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Functions of a Theoretical Framework: It provides the general framework which can guide analysis. It identifies the variables to be measured. It explains why one variable can possibly affect another or why independent variable can possibly influence the dependent variable. It limits the scope of data relevant to the framework by focusing on specific variables. It stipulates the specific frame of mind or viewpoint that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data.
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Conceptual Framework It is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in concrete items It is anchored on the theoretical framework It specifies the variables of the study and the expected flow of relationship among them.
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Conceptual Framework explains in more detail the; Variables to be observed in the study and Assumed connection between the independent and the dependent variable
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Choosing An Appropriate Study Design What is a Research Design? A research design is a “blue print” of the study. It guides the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is a plan or course of action which the research follows in order to answer the research question/s solve the research problem. It is the basis for determining what data will be collected, and how they will be analyzed and interpreted. Before the research is implemented, the researcher must already be able to determine the research design he/she intends to use. A wrong choice of design puts at risk the validity and the reliability of the study.
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Reliability • •
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Refers to the consistency, stability and dependability of the data. A reliable measuring device is one which, if used for the second time, will yield the same results as it did the first time. If the result are substantially different, the measurement is unreliable.
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It refers to the extent to which measurement does what it is supposed to do, which is to measure what it intends to measure. Valid data are not only reliable, but also true and sound. A researcher must select a research design that will yield a true and accurate information and avoid factors that can invalidate study results.
Validity Threats History Selection Testing Instrumentation Maturation Mortality • • • • • •
Commonly Used Research Designs Non/ Pre-Experimental Designs Are appro appropri priat ate e for for colle collect cting ing descri descripti ptive ve info informa rmati tion on abou aboutt a popula populati tion on or subje subject cts s of a stu study. dy. Usual Usually ly used used for for descr descript iptive ive studi studies, es, like like profi profile le studi studies, es, explo explorat rator ory y studi studies, es, and and for for doing doing small small case studies. Ide Ideal fo for di diagnostic stic stu studies ies or or si situat uation ana anallysi ysis. Posttest Only Design or After-only Design Time
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X O (Observation/ Testing Survey) This design is also called as one shot survey because the data are collected only once. Pretest-Posttest Design or Before-After Survey X (Intervention) O1 O2 •
Observation/ Su Survey 1 Observation/ Su Survey 2 (Before X) (After X) This design is used when the study wants to know the change in characteristics of the study population in a given area. Static Group Comparison Experimental Gr Group Time X O1 O2 Control Gr Group Experimental group is exposed to intervention/ treatment (x) True Experimental Design Pretest-posttest Control Group Design Experimental Group O1 X O3 RA Control Group O2 O4 Pretest Posttest Posttest Only Control Group Design Experimental Group x O1 RA Control Group O2 Posttest Quasi-experimental Designs Non-equivalent Control Group Design Time Experimental group O1 O3 X Control Group O2 O4 Pretest Posttest Time Se Series De Design Time O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6 •
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Sampling The process of choosing a representative portion of a population or some elements in a population that will represent the entire population. Sample Ref Reflec lect th the cha chara rac cterist ristiics of of the the enti ntire pop popul ula ation •
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Basic Types of Sampling Non-probability Sampling arbitrary (non-random) and is subjective Probability Sampling based on the concept of random selection
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Non-Probability Sampling •
Accidental Sampling – the investigator selects the sample units as they become available
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Purposive Sampling – the investigator uses a specific purpose in selecting sample
Probability Sampling Techniques Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling with Random Start Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling Multistage Sampling
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Data Collection Types: Quantitative data Are Are info inform rmat atio ion n whi which ch can can be be cou count nted ed or or exp expre ress ssed ed in num numer eric ical al val value ues s Qualitative data •
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Are descriptive information which has no numerical value
Techniques of Collecting Quantitative Data: Questionnaire Self Administered •
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Mailed Qu Questionnaires Structured
Techniques in Collecting Qualitative Data In - depth Interview Focus Group discussion Observation Participant Observation Non-participant Ob Observation Content Analysis • • •
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Research Proposal Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION Review of Related Literature Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework Statement of the Problem Hypothesis of the Study Significance of the Study
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Chapter 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research Design Setting Respondents Sampling Technique Data Collection Research Instruments Reliability an and Va Validation Pr Procedure Research Procedure Statistical Treatment
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Chapter 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS Discussion follows the presentation of the problems
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Chapter 5: SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS All results presented
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Bibliography • • •
Cite authors of books, references, etc. Proper documentation should be followed APA format (depending on the school’s format)
Appendix
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All appendices should be properly labeled. Include computations; result of SPSS computations, documentations, etc.
