Reflections of Post-Modern Culture

Reflections of Post-Modern Culture in a Post-colonial Context: Selected Experiences from Contemporary Architecture in India [Published in: Bhumi, Special Issue March 2013, pp.1-14. ISSN: 2012-5720]

Author:

Ar. Arjun Mukerji Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India e-mail: [email protected]

Co-Author:

Dr. Sanghamitra Basu Associate Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:

Post-Modernism evolved as a voice of dissent in reaction to the inadequacies of Modernism, as well as in response to post-Modernity –  the emergent socio-cultural scenario of the post-industrial age. However, due to contradictions within the discourse, and subversion of the critical stance, most present practitioners disassociate from the Post-Modern, considering it as either abstruse or out of fashion. This research re-examines the domain of the Post-Modern, and inspects contemporary Indian architecture in the light of a selective re-reading of theories, thereby identifying evidences of the Post-Modern. It employs interpretations and arguments established with illustrative examples. The research findings recognize the relevance of PostModern theories in offering useful perspectives of the socio-cultural  phenomena of the post-industrial era, e ra, and ways in which contemporary culture affects the built environment. It also notes several ways in which Post-Modern in the Indian context is different from the EuroAmerican Post-Modern.

Keywords:

Post-Modern, Post-colonial, Contemporary architecture, Culture, Indian Identity.

1

1. Introduction

The ‘Post-Modern’ is essentially understood in relation to the ‘Modern’, which refers to the era in the aftermath of the industrial revolution and the enlightenment movement (as against ‘modern’, which is the present or contemporary) 1. By the late twentieth century, there was rising discontent with the inadequacies of the Modern approach and failures ascribed to Modernist practices. The pro-Modern school of thought continued to identify Modernity as an ‘incomplete project’ (Habermas, 1981/1998), and advocated a reformed Modernist approach as the relevant and valid mode of cultural production. However, theoreticians and practitioners of several disciplines professed a paradigm shift towards ‘Post-Modernism’, which was to be a critical voice of dissent in response to the perceived inadequacies of Modernism. Also, since the late twentieth century, the world has arguably stepped into a new era, existing and operating in an environment significantly different from the Modern era. ‘Post-Modernity’ signals “the emergence of a period of multiple changes in society, involving information advances, consumerism, the omnipresence of simulations, and the rise of a post-industrial order” (Brooker, 1999, Featherstone, 1991, as cited in Bloland, 2005:123). Especially in architecture, the Post-Modern movement occupies a significant position  – at least in the Euro-American perspective – as a critical stance in reaction to the  perceived inadequacies of the dominant Modernist paradigm, and in response to the emergent issues of post-Modernity. However, the Post-Modern approach itself places significant importance on context, and India – a south-east Asian, post-colonial, developing nation – is expected to have a context quite different from the developed western world. This means, the Post-Modern in India cannot necessarily be understood as similar to the Post-Modern in the west; it needs a parallel discourse. As Mehrotra (2011:303) noted, “India (and perhaps all of South Asia) requires a continual negotiation and mapping of differences in order to present a clear picture of the emerging landscape”. This research attempts to employ the Post-Modern critical approach to identify the underlying intentions of a few selected works of contemporary Indian architecture, in order to understand what is being done, and why it is being done so. To begin with, the methodology adopted for the research is outlined, and the objectives and scope are explained (Section2). The understanding and definition of ‘Post-Modern’ as adopted by this research is then presented, based on a selective review of Post-Modern theories which articulate the attitudes and the context (Section 3). The evidences and effects of the Post-Modern in Indian contemporary architecture are then discussed and interpreted through selected illustrative examples (Section 4), and finally, the conclusions drawn from the research are outlined (Section 6). 2. Methodology and scope of the research paper

This is an interpretive research involving theorization of observations. A selective reading of Post-Modern theory is undertaken to outline the domain of discussion, and illustrative examples are analysed in the light of theory to present evidences of PostModern practices in contemporary Indian architecture. The objective is to investigate the relevance of the Post-Modern and to identify some of its unique features resulting out of the post-colonial context.

2

The review of Post-Modern theories is selective and not exhaustive: important aspects like humour, irony, reflexivity, deconstruction etc. have not been discussed in detail. The objective of the paper is not to give a comprehensive account of Post-Modern theories, but to present the most relevant ones, in the light of which the Indian contemporary architectural practices being discussed may be best understood. Also, The works cited in this paper significantly employ a selection of Post-Modern architectural tropes like ornamentation, juxtaposition, layering, metaphor, symbolism, deconstruction, irony etc.2 However, these have not been highlighted as the objective of this research paper is not to dwell on architectural or stylistic tropes  per se, but instead discuss the effects of post-Modernity and intentions and resolutions fostered  by a Post-Modern stance. 3. Defining the Post-Modern

The present research considers the Post-Modern in a broad sense – beyond, but including, its stylistic applications in architecture; this section articulates this approach. The different issues associated with with the definition of the Post-Modern are first analysed (2.1), followed by a selected reading of Post-Modern theories (2.2) which establish the context. Finally, the approach of this research towards defining the Post-Modern is articulated (2.3). 3.1. Issues 3.1.  Issues with the Post-Modern Post-Modern

The problems in engaging in a dialogue dealing with the Post-Modern stem from two  primary issues: (a) confusion and conflict over what constitutes or does not constitute a Post-Modern approach, and (b) the subversion of the Post-Modern from a critical voice to a fashion, subsequently resulting in a narrow representation. These may be elaborated as follows: 3.1.1. Confusion and conflict Margaret Rose (1991/1996: xi) noted that the definition of Post-Modern varies on the “basis of a variety of understandings of the terms modern […] and post” 3. In architecture, for example, Post-Modernism may indicate approaches as varied as Portoghesi’s historicism, Venturi’s complexity and contradiction, Jencks’s return to communication, or Eisenman’s deconstruction, to name a few (a detail discussion of the various approaches and definitions is beyond the scope of this paper). There have  been debates over relative importance of particular approaches, à la ‘communication 4 versus historicism’ , as evidenced in the 1980 Venice Biennale. Again, Charles Jencks identified ‘Deconstruction’ as Neo-Modern, while Mary McLeod established it 5 as essentially Post-Modern . Also, as Jencks (2011a:9) noted, the term Post-Modern has proved to be ‘cannibalistic’, consuming various new appellations like 6 ‘altermodern’  and ‘critical modern’, and assimilating them within its domain. Thus, with the inherent pluralism and extending boundaries, the domain of discourse often  becomes contradictory, and might seem abstruse. 3.1.2. Subversion: from critical voice to fashion ‘Postmodernism’ – as an architectural style – was soon appropriated by consumercapitalism to use as a centre-endorsing device of commoditization, thus subverting its original intended role of dissent and critique. In this manifestation, with primary focus on the flamboyant and trendy architectural vocabulary and diminishing focus on 3

critical intent, it became a fashion, as was identified by Christopher Benninger (2011:141) in his appraisal of the Post-Modern as ‘effetism’. As is the fate of all fashion, it soon became cliché, and was subsequently dismissed as outmoded. There is a growing tendency amongst contemporary practitioners of architecture to disassociate themselves from anything tagged as Post-Modern. However, there is more to the Post-Modern than this particular stylistic application. Charles Jencks (2011a:11) tried to resolve the ambiguity with a new set of nomenclature: ‘Post-modern’ (with an initial capitalisation) for the conscious cultural movement, ‘post-modern’ for the general social condition, and PoMo for the pastiche and commercial version of the cultural products (Fig.2.1.2). The general distaste is in fact in relation to PoMo, and many practitioners comfortably continue with the agenda of Post-modernism, and even employ characteristic Post-Modern architectural tropes, minus the stigmatised appellation (Jencks, 2011b:15).

Fig.2.1.2: Swan Hotel, Walt Disney World, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, USA.

 Note: A strikingly kitsch project by Michael Graves for the Disney Corporation, Corporation, who especially fostered PoMo, designated as ‘Entertainment Architecture’. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Swan-hotel.jpg. Permission for copying and distribution granted to under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.

3.2. Selective review of Post-Modern theories

A profusion of architectural discourse on Post-Modernism involves the various stylistic tropes, which are obviously important to analyse the manifestations of the intentions. However, what is of more significance is to analyse the intentions themselves, and the conditions which prompt them. The two characteristic aspects of the Post-Modern include (i) counter-modernism, negating the tenets of modernism in reaction to their perceived inadequacies, and (ii) responses to new systems and orders 4

of the post-industrial society. An understanding of the significant issues relating to  both aspects aspec ts is obtained through a selective re-reading of Post-Modern theories from various disciplines, as elaborated in the following sections. 3.2.1. Counter-modernism

As Jean-Francois Lyotard (1979/1993:72) noted, the modern ‘Enlightenment’ movement aspired to arrive at essential universal truths through objective rationality, thus generating ‘grands récits’. The Post-Modern attitude involves incredulity towards such ‘meta-narratives’, instead favouring ‘ petite  petite histoires’ and legitimacy of alternative perspectives and traditions. In the process, firstly, with the dismissal of the utopian universal standard, there is a 7 return to subjectivity, and the importance of context becomes emphasized  . Allan & Turner (2000:364) noted that Post-Modernism may be understood as a challenge to “the rationalization of space and the imposition of a strict and systematic order on daily life; and, in its place, some Post-Modern architecture makes space more  personalized through the t he use of pastiche, the blending of styles, and the inclusion of historical references”. Secondly, the inclusion of ‘other’ perspectives advocates cultural pluralism and 8 difference. The Post-Modern response to pluralism is not ‘either/or’ but ‘both’ , and 9 the Post-Modern cultural products have complexity and multi-valence . A closely aligned paradigm of legitimising alternative perspectives is that of postcolonialism, which seeks to topple the fabricated hierarchy of superior colonial cultures and inferior native cultures. Anjali Roy (1996:383) noted that the postcolonial ‘decentering’ approach is itself a Post-Modern phenomenon. Another step towards Post-Modern inclusiveness involves the breaking down of the  barriers between ‘high’ ‘ high’ and ‘low’ cultures (Huyssen, ( Huyssen, 1987/1995), and ceremoniously employing that which is popular or even kitsch. Further, negating the modernist tenets of purity and the artist’s individual ‘heroic originality’ (FAT, 2011:21), collage, inter10 textuality, shared authorship and imitation become important Post-Modern devices . However, Appignanesi et al.  appraised the resultant eclecticism as a superficial 11 attitude of ‘anything goes’, and identified it as a ‘false’   postmodernism (Appignanesi, Garrat, Sardar & Curry, 1995/2007:46). 3.2.2. Post-industrial socio-cultural phenomena

With the information revolution and the omnipresence of media, there is an increased  presence of global influences, influences , and cross-cultural referents. As a result, an individual has access to, and employs, floating signifiers 12 detached from what they might have signified in the originating cultures. Jean Baudrillard (1983/1998:346) noted that as the representational relation between the signifier and the signified breaks down, the signifier achieves its own pure existence as a ‘simulacrum’. The resultant indeterminacy of the hyper-reality is sometimes supplemented with immanence of new meanings: a phenomenon identified by Ihab Hassan (1987/1993:281) by the neologism ‘Indetermanence’. However, the increasing cultural contact does not result in a global mono-culture, as often predicted, because each individual makes a choice in identifying with any set of 5

combinations of such cultural symbols and practices – what happens is a profusion of eclectic, hybrid cultural identities, resulting in an ‘individualised self’ (Allan & Turner, 2000:374), not particularly moored to a homogeneous cultural group, but displaying ‘multiphrenia’ (Gergen, K. J., 1991, as cited in Allan & Turner, 2000:375). Also, with the overwhelming flux of information, there is a resultant fatigue and a condition best identified as ‘schizophrenia’ (Jameson, 1984/1991:27), wherein the 13 involvement is intense but temporally disjointed  . The dominance of media also brings about the dominance of the image, and culture itself becomes a commodity: the chosen device of late capitalism. Forces of ‘legitimation’ (Appignanesi, Garrat, Sardar & Curry, 1995/2007:51) continue to be at  play, surreptitiously dictating what is to be accepted, regarded, coveted, or consumed 14. 3.3. The ‘Post-Modern’ as defined in the present research

The initial capitalisations of the terms ‘Modern’ and ‘Modernity’ has been adopted to distinguish it from the understanding of ‘modern’ as contemporary. In line with Jencks’ proposed nomenclature, the initial capitalisation of the term ‘post’ is avoided in ‘post-Modernity’ as it relates to the general socio-cultural condition, while the capitalised form is adopted for the term ‘Post-Modernism’ which indicates the cultural movement. This research adopts the term ‘Post-Modern’ to allow the simultaneous co-existence of Post-Modernism and the effects of post-Modernity, as recommended by Natoli & Hutcheon (1993:2). In response to the pluralism and contradictions, the research recognises all the different relevant approaches as valid Post-Modernisms, depending on their intentions, without debating their relative importance or resolving their internal conflicts. Further, Post-Modernism is defined as a critical practice (self-conscious or not) in response to the perceived deficiencies of Modernism, and not merely some characteristic stylistic tropes, as exemplified by PoMo architecture. Post-Modernity is defined as a ‘periodizing’ concept, in line with Fredric Jameson (1984/1991:3), involving various effects of the emergent socio-cultural scenario (as discussed in section 2.2.2), and the responses it generates. Thus, evidences of the Post-Modern would include incredulity towards metanarratives, decentering and deconstruction, advocacy of difference, inclusiveness, contextualism, popular culture, eclecticism, simulacrum, floating signifiers and indetermanence. The same are identified and analysed in the following sections. 4. Post-Modernity and Indian architectural practice

The presence of the Post-Modern is experienced at two levels: (i) as a part of a conscious critical practice or cultural movement and (ii) as an unconscious expression effected by the socio-cultural milieu. Both affect contemporary Indian architectural  practice in different ways, as analysed hereafter. In this age of information revolution and the overwhelming presence of global influences, there is a continual quest to resolve the dichotomy of being both contemporary and having an indigenous identity (Brown, 2009:162). The problem is compounded in a post-colonial context, like India, where responses to the effects of colonialism are ambivalent, because of the inheritance of modernization and economic development received in conjunction with cultural humiliation. The 6

effectiveness of Post-Modern stances in resolving these issues may be identified as follows: 4.1. A 4.1.  A Problematic unity unity of identity and Post-Modern Post-Modern approaches approaches of resolution resolution

When Nehru envisioned a new architectural image of the independent, modern, Indian state, it was imperative for him to abandon the British colonial legacy, and look towards international modernism, which posed itself as rational and ahistorical, and appeared to offer the correct ‘counter-colonial position’(Prakash, 2010:262). Le Corbusier’s Chandigarh, and the resultant ‘Chandigarh style’ has been identified as a  post-colonial act of ‘Third World Modernism’15. However, it is interesting to note that this did not emerge as the architectural vocabulary for a contemporary Indian identity, in the absence of which the colonial architectural icons like Gateway of India, Mumbai, and Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (Fig. 4.1), continue to be the most  potent identities with which the great Indian cities are associated in the citizen’s mind (Bandyopadhyay, 2010:5).

Fig.4.1: Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata, India.

 Note: The British colonial monument is an unambiguous unambiguous display of Imperialist power and dominion, but no post-colonial architecture in Kolkata, India, can match its iconic value. Source: ©Rishabh Sharma. Reproduced with permission. 7

The issue of evolving an architectural identity for India brings us to a quandary – can the question ‘who is an Indian?’ ever be satisfactorily answered? As Sunil Khilnani (1997/2004:151) noted: “The truncated colonial territories inherited by the Indian state after 1947 still left it in control of a population of incomparable differences. […] it suggested no common identity or basis of unity that could be reconciled within a modern state”. There were various nationalistic attempts to define a common historic identity on the basis of religion, mythology and cultural interconnections, but most 16 were exaggerated and romanticised, and none proved to resolve the issue . The continual demands for distinct cultural and political recognition from all corners of the nation bear witness to the failure of reconciliation to a unified identity of Indianness: an identity which is only somewhat realized in relation to foreign cultures that may appear relatively more alien than that of a different Indian community. However, an ‘idea of India’ does exist, and it is best explained as a collage of multiple cultures sharing Wittgenstein-ian family resemblances17. There is no transcendental singular trait which may bind the diversity of India together; its unity is to be sought through a Post-Modern inclusive stance of ‘both’. Some of the more successful  practices in providing a fragmented but rooted identity to contemporary Indian architecture may be outlined as follows: 4.1.1. Context and regionalism The modernist approach towards building a pan-Indian contemporary identity, which  proved to be neither easily accessible to the diverse cultures, nor representative of their contexts, was countered by a Post-Modern regionalism, with an architectural language employing vernacular vocabulary, iconography and symbolism. It at once celebrated a Post-Modern plurality and a post-colonial cultural regression. Arna-Jharna, Jodhpur (Fig.4.1.1a), the desert museum of Rajasthan conceived by folklorist Komal Kothari, and designed by Anu Mridul, is entirely vernacular in morphology and building technology, while Appakuttam Nair and Narayan Rao’s Kalakshetra Theatre, Chennai, employs the vocabulary of vernacular architecture of Kerala in a modern building typology. Charles Correa’s Craft Museum, New Delhi (Fig.4.1.1b) may be cited as particular example of a neo-vernacular Indian architecture showcasing various regional architectural and crafts traditions. Jiran Resort, Shantiniketan (Fig.4.1.1c), uses vernacular mud, bamboo and thatch architecture of Bengal, not merely as a tourist attraction, but to foster an indigenous, rural, environment-sensitive way of living. Each of these proves to be more accessible and meaningful in their Indian-ness, while preserving their distinct regional traits.

Fig.4.1.1a: Arna-Jharna: The Desert Museum of Rajasthan, Jodhpur, Indi a.

Source: http://www.arnajharna.org/images/Arna-Jharna-Museum.jpg.

©

Rupayan Sansthan. 8

Fig.4.1.1b: Village Complex in Crafts Museum, New Delhi, India.

Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crafts_Museum_New_Delhi_3_Sep_2010-

1.JPG. Released for use in public domain.

Fig.4.1.1c: Jiran Resort, Shantiniketan, India.

Source: © Somnath Sinharoy . Reproduced with permission.

9

4.1.2. The effectiveness of kitsch There is, however, one aspect which effectively communicates with the common Indian citizen throughout the nation: Indian pop-art and kitsch. Unlike in the west, where kitsch primarily served the purpose of irony and toppling the hierarchy of high and low art, Indian kitsch additionally becomes the vehicle of an accessible panIndian-ness because the widest section of the Indian populace is regularly and closely exposed to its elements in daily life, and these elements are also not regionally concentrated. Indian calendar art and Bollywood imagery have enjoyed wide  popularity in the design of graphics, apparel, products, and interior spaces as Indian kitsch. Similarly, when Khosla Associates and tsk-design use street art, Warholesque  portraits of cine-stars and an auto-rickshaw for the MTV India office, Bangalore (Fig.4.1.2), or Hirsch Bedner & Associates use vintage movie posters for The Park hotel, Chennai, they are employing icons which are readily identifiable by any Indian as part of his cultural identity.

Fig.4.1.2a: Interiors of MTV Office, Bangalore.

 Note: a remodeled auto-rickshaw becomes the reception desk, while while the wall features graphics reminiscent of Indian street art and a Warhol-inspired montage of popular South Indian actors’ portraits. Source: http://www.tsk-design.com/space/interior/images/MTV-5.jpg

When Architectural Digest launched its first Indian Issue (March-April 2012) featuring ‘New Indian Living’, the cover prominently framed an image of a leading  Bollywood   actor (Fig.4.1.2b). Ms. Padukone was arguably more suited in communicating the Indian-ness of the issue than any contemporary architectural work, but ironically, her pose draws draws attention away from any visible ‘architecture’. In short, it seemed more like an attention grabbing strategy (though it did feature a piece about the celebrity creating her new home). The problem with the ‘popular’ is in its vulnerability of being easily commercialised and subverted. 10

Fig.4.1.2b: Cover: Arc itectural Digest, India  launch issue, March- pril 2012.

Source: http://mumbaib ss.com/wp- ontent/uploads/Deepika6EDIT.jpg

4.1.3. Salvati n of traditions Other than direct co municatio of contex   and ident ty ( be it t hrough ma eriality, neo-vernacular vocabulary, or itsch-pop), there is a  renewed interest in seeking traditional knowledge and wisdom as alternative  post-col nial pers ectives, advocated  by the Pos -Modern s pirit of ‘ pe  petite histoir  s’ (sectio   3.2.1). In  piration was sough  from space syntax o  the traditi nal Indian settlements and the c nonical shilpaic traditions. B. V. Dos i’s IIM Bangalore, a d ARCOP Design Gr  up’s Hote  Mughal Sheraton, Agra (Fig. .1.3a), dr  w inspirat on from ughal pat erns and layouts like that of Fatehpur ikri. Raj Rewal’s sian Games village,  New Delhi (Fig.4.1.3b), is reminiscen of traditi nal Indian towns wit community squares and shade alleys. Charles’ Correa’s Ci y Centre, Kolkata (Fig.4.1.3c), is a hybri   between the airconditione   shopping mall and he traditio al Indian arket of lleys and squares:  providing contemp rary shop ing experience whic is subtly informed ith the ways of ex loration, communication, and co munity-i teraction o the Indian bazaar.

11

Fig.4.1.3a: Hotel Mughal Sheraton, Agra, India.

Source: http://www.delhitourism.com/images/agra-itc-mug-b1.jpg

Fig.4.1.3b: Asian Games Village, New Delhi, India.

Source: http://www.greatbuildings.com/gbc/images/PCD.2286.1012.0904.027.jpg © Raj Rewal.

12

Fig.4.1.3b: City Centre, Salt Lake, Kolkata, India.

 Note: Sit-outs for customers extend into the pedestrian passages like traditional community community spaces in an Indian bazaar. The overall layout creates the effect of an urban fabric, rather than a single commercial block, complete with groves, balconies, steps, terraces, etc. Source: photography by author.

On the other hand, Correa’s Bharat Bhavan, Bhopal, and Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur, visibly employ interpretations of the Nava-graha  Nava-graha Mandala from ancient Indian cosmology, and Darshan Kumar’s Bubbar Methodist Centre, Mumbai, uses the Chandita Mandala and an indigenous system of proportions. The demand from clients for following recommendations of the Vastu-shastra – the ancient Indian texts on  building principles – is omnipresent, as would be ratified ratifi ed by any Indian I ndian architect, and sensitive practitioners have gone beyond the words of the scriptures, seeking the rationale behind the principles, providing useful insights into energy-conserving, climatologically sound, and healthy ways of living in the Indian cultural context 18. However, sensitivity to context and indigenous identity are not the sole objectives of all contemporary Indian architecture. As already noted, globalisation and information revolution has resulted in socio-cultural tendencies which seek to diverge from

13

cultural rooted-ness towards a cosmopolitan individualised self. The reflection of this and the ensuing conflicts may be outlined as follows: 4.2. The reflection of global influences and effects of post-Modernity

As already noted, in the present socio-technological scenario, the multiphrenic, schizophrenic, individualised self is able to freely adopt floating signifiers, and this is well witnessed in many Indian contemporary architectural projects – resulting in exotic pastiche. However, instead of being summarily dismissed as inferior, as is most often the case, this variety of architecture needs to be analysed beyond its superficiality – scrutinising their nature in the light of post-Modernity. 4.2.1. Exoticism and borrowed trends There are plenty of examples of exotic architectural vocabulary in contemporary Indian architectural practice, as in houses emulating Spanish Villas in Bangalore (Fig.4.2.1a) and Scottish Villas in Gurgaon. Whereas historicism in the west communicated a ‘presence of the past’ (Jencks, 2011b:17), the referents of these exotic historic styling – essentially European pre-modernist regional antecedents – have no nostalgic value for India, thus nullifying their communicative power. Thus, these may be interpreted as ‘floating signifiers’, where the relation of the symbol and the signified has broken down and the signifier is devoid of meaning. However, the elements now represent luxury and power as the ability of acquiring that which is exotic and foreign, thus displaying ‘indetermanence’.

Fig.4.2.1a: Vakil En Casa Spanish Villas, Bangalore, India.

 Note: Though the value of the image relies relies on exotic historic styles, the buildings do not seem to be honest in their employment of such style Source: http://content.sahipasand.com/images/89/8984001913.jp http://content.sahipasand.com/images/89/8984001913.jpg g

14

It is noteworthy that architecture has historically been used as a vehicle for asserting  power and a nd supremacy, as is evident from imperial palaces and triumphal t riumphal arches, ar ches, and these projects follow the same trend, only employing a new mode of expression of  power. Again, Hafeez Contrator’s Hirandandani Gardens, Mumbai (Fig.4.2.1b), like many of his other housing projects, and Vijay Mallya’s Classical penthouse in the sky, designed by Antonio Sofan, employ Greek and Roman Classical orders. These may appear less exotic due to the legacy of British Colonial architecture, but in a postcolonial context, the intention of referring to any past glory through a colonial vocabulary seems dubious. Rather than evoking nostalgia through pastiche, once again, the primary purpose of these are as symbols of power.

Fig.4.2.1b: Hiranandani Gardens, Mumbai, India.

Source: http://www.indiabuildnet.com/arch/ahc-87.jpg In the Infosys Mysore campus, Hafeez Contractor employs the formal hermeticism of deconstruction for the Software Development Block-4 (Fig. 4.2.1c). However, in the same campus, he uses a classical façade juxtaposed with modern minimalist blocks (evoking images of the great American universities) for the Global Education Centre 15

(Fig. 4.2.1d). One wonders which of the two very different theoretical paradigms the architect subscribes to: reinforcement of meaning through symbolism and historicism, or the deconstructivist approach of dissolution of all meaning?

Fig.4.2.1c: Software Development Block-4, Infosys Mysore, India.

Source: photography by author.

Fig.4.2.1c: Global Education Centre, Infosys Mysore, India.

Source: photography by author. 16

It may be argued that the fragmentation of society, impossibility of cultural consensus, obliteration of meaning, and disillusionment with structuralism – which were the major aspects being expressed through Deconstructivism in the EuroAmerican context (McLeod, 1989/1998:690) – are not truly experienced in India. Thus, architectural deconstruction in India is a trend which appears to be only superficially borrowed: inspired by the novelty of form in its western counterpart, but not its theoretical paradigm. However, even if the architecture is not an honest attempt at deconstruction, the very phenomenon of borrowing the formal trend is evidence of the Post-Modern ‘simulacrum’. Moreover, in some cases, the cultural imports are successfully hybridised with Indian symbols, making them appear less exotic, and the resultant complexity successfully communicates different values, to a wider audience. The first project discussed in the next section exemplifies this phenomenon. 4.2.2. Complexity and multi-valence The new Terminal-3 of the Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi (Fig.4.2.2a), is a case in point, where Indian iconography of mudras (hand gestures), in a gigantic scale, noticeably infuses a traditional Indian identity to the otherwise modernist machine-aesthetic of the space. Thus, the architects HOK juxtapose technological advancement and allegiance to tradition, which were often considered as ‘either/or’ stand-points. Their approach of freely employing diverse aesthetics is typical of PostModern eclecticism. Of course, in the process, it also negates modernism’s Loos-ian 19 taboo , by employing ornamentation.

Fig.4.2.2a: Ayush Kasliwal’s installations at the T-3, IG International Airport, Delhi

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mudra-artwork-at-IGIA-T3.jpg. Permission for copying and distribution granted under Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.

17

The Belgian Embassy Complex, New Delhi (Fig.4.2.2b), by Satish Gujral, also res orts to multi-valence by simultaneously depicting India as a colonial ruin, cited in manicured gardens in the manner of ASI (Archaeological Survey of India) monuments, while relating to ‘disparate temporalities’ through its materiality and form – Harappan, Mauryan, Gupta, and even Louis Kahn influenced Modern (Brown, 2009, p.90). Thus it successfully ties up references to ancient Indian heritage, critique of residual colonialism, and the modern Indian vernacular of IIM Ahmedabad, without being explicit.

Fig.4.2.2a: Belgian Embassy, New Delhi.

Source: http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/5818 http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/58186/149808_sv.jpg?sequence=2 6/149808_sv.jpg?sequence=2

5. Inferences and conclusion

In the preceding sections, we have witnessed how the questions of identity have found responses in Indian architecture through pluralism, contextualism, regionalism, neovernacularism, mass culture, and post-colonialism. These in turn were reflections of the Post-Modern incredulity towards meta-narratives, advocacy of difference, inclusiveness, and deconstruction of power structures. It is inferred that the evidences establish the presence of Post-Modernism in contemporary Indian architectural  practice. Also, several effects of post-Modernity have been identified and discussed, viz. eclectic exoticism, simulacrum, floating signifiers and indetermanence. Thus, it is inferred that Post-Modern theories continue to offer useful perspectives of the sociocultural phenomena of the post-industrial era, and explain ways in which contemporary culture affects the built environment. However, owing to the difference in context, there are some unique characteristics of the Indian Post-Modern. Some notable points of difference are as follows: 18

1. Regression, historicism and neo-vernacular approaches have been identified as ‘false’ Post-Modernism (Appignanesi, Garrat, Sardar & Curry, 1995/2007:46) in the western context  but these become relevant approaches to critique in a  post-colonial milieu because they are employed as decentering devices. 2. Historicism and pastiche employing colonial referents in a post-colonial context is better understood when interpreted as displays of power than as devices for the purpose of evoking nostalgia. 3. The purpose of Indian kitsch goes beyond breaking the barrier of high and low art, though it effectively does that too. In addition, it serves the purpose of invoking a pan-Indian identity easily accessible to the greatest number of Indian nationals. 4. There is a superficial borrowing of formal characterictics of Deconstructivism, and it is best understood as a borrowed trend – a Post-Modern simulacrum, rather than a critical practice in line with theory. Thus, it is concluded that Post-Modern theory continues to be of relevance in explaining some of that which is happening in contemporary Indian architectural  practice and why it is happening so. 6. References Allan, K. & Turner, J . H. (2000, autumn). A formalization of postmodern theory. Sociological Perspectives, 43 (3), 363-385. Appignanesi, R., Garrat, C., Sardar, Z. & Curry, P. (2007).  Introducing Postmodernism (2nd  Ed.). Thriplow, Cambridge: Icon Books Limited. (Originally published as ‘Postmodernism for Beginners’, 1995). Bandyopadhyay, A. (2011, spring). Modern architecture in India – in search of identity.  Abacus, 6(1), 1-6. Architect. Pune: CCBA Pvt. Ltd. Benninger, C. (2011).  Letters to a Young Architect.

Bloland, H. G. (2005, March-April). Whatever happened to postmodernism in higher education? No requiem in the new millennium.  The Journal of Higher Education, 76 (2), 121-150. Baudrillard, J. (1998). The precession of Simulacra. In J. Natoli & L. Hutcheon (eds.)  A  postmodern reader   (pp.342-375). Albany, NY: Sate University of New York Press. (Original work published in 1983). Brown, R. M. (2009).  Art for a modern India, 1947-1980.  Durham, NC: Duke University Press. FAT. (2011, September-October).Post-modernism: An incomplete project.   Architectural  Design, 81 (5), 18-23. Habermas, J. (1998). Modernity – an incomplete project. In H. Foster (ed.) The anti-aesthtic:  Essays on postmodern culture  (pp.1-15). New York, NY: The New Press. (Originally  published as ‘Modernity vs. Postmodernity’, 1981). Hassan, I. (1998). Toward a concept of Postmodernism. In J. Natoli & L. Hutcheon (eds.)  A  postmodern reader   (pp.273-286). Albany, NY: Sate University of New York Press. (Original work published in 1987). Huyssen, A.(1993). Mapping the postmodern. In Natoli, Joseph & Hutcheon, Linda (eds.)  A  postmodern reader (pp.105-156). Albany, NY: Sate University of New York Press. (Original work published in 1979)

19

Jameson, F. (1991). Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism Durham, NC: Duke University Press. (Original work published in 1984). Jencks, C. (2011a). Preface: Post-modernism – the ism that returns. In C. Jenks (ed.), The nd  Post-Modern Reader (2   Ed.) (pp.131-132). Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Jencks, C. (2011b, September-October). Introduction: What is radical post-modernism?  Architectural Design, 81 (5), 14-17. Khilnani, S. (2004). The idea of India. New Delhi: Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd. (original edition published in 1997). Lyotard, J. (1993). Excerpts from the postmodern condition: A report on Knowledge. In J.  Natoli & L. Hutcheon (eds.)  A postmodern reader   (pp.71-90). Albany, NY: Sate University of New York Press. (Original work published in 1979). McLeod, M. (1998). Architecture and politics in the Reagan era: From postmodernism to deconstructivism. In K. Michel Hays (ed.),  Architecture Theory since 1968  (pp.680-702).  (pp.680-702). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Original work published in 1989). Mehrotra, R. (2011).  Architecture in India since 1990. Mumbai: Pictor Publishing Pvt Ltd. Prakash, V. (2010). Epilogue: Third World modernism, or just modernism: towards a cosmopolitan reading of modernism. In Lu, Duangfang (ed.), Third world modernism:  Architecture, development and identity (pp.255-270). London: Routledge. Rose, M. A. (1996). The post-modern and the post-industrial: A critical analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Reprint of the original work published in 1991). Roy, A. (1996). Postmodern goes native: Decentering narrative in recent Indian fiction. In Kirpal, Viney. (ed.), The postmodern Indian English novel (pp. 383-399). Mumbai: Allied Publishers. 1

 The implications of ‘Modern’ are thus global: as experienced by all societies and cultures that subscribed to the enlightenment philosophy and the industrialized way of life. Of course, every culture or society has its own particular modernity, but these are essentially ‘Modern’ when they are aligned with the global Modern.

2

  Interested readers will find discussion of post-modern stylistic tropes in Indian contemporary architecture in: Mukerji, A. & Basu, S. (Spring 2011). A search for postmodernism in Indian architecture. Abacus, 6(1), 11-20. 3

 Dr. Rose’s seminal work discusses all the major theories, categorizing the different approaches as (i) deconstructionist theories, (ii) double-coded theories, and (iii) alternative theories. It is recommended as further reading, to gain insight into the controversial issue of defining the post-modern.

4

  The Venice Biennale, 1980, the first international exhibition of architecture showcasing the postmodern, had a strong inclination towards historicism, championed as ‘presence of the past’ by Paolo Portoghesi (director of the architecture section of the exhibition). The role of architecture as a language, and its responsibility to communicate with a diverse audience was the other important issue which arose at the same pavilion, as championed by Charles Jencks. Lea-Catherine Szacka’s essay, ‘Historicism Versus Communication: The Basic Debate of the 1980 Biennale’,  Architectural Design, 81 (5), 98-105, i s recommended for further reading. 5

 In spite of the plurality, the different post-modern stances can still be identified as parts of the same movement. Mary McLeod (1989/1998) noted how the ‘dialectically opposed’ positions share a common ‘territory of debate […]: meaning and its dissolution’, as against the modernist tenets of ‘programme, ‘programme, function or structure’.

20

6

 Altermodern, a term defined by Nicolas Bourriaud, featured in the title of the Tate Modern's fourth Triennial exhibition. It described art produced in today's global context, as a reaction against standardisation and commercialism. commercialism. 7

 As Lyotard (1979/1993, p. 72) noted: “There are many different language games – a heterogeneity of elements. They only give rise to institutions in patches – local determinism.” Thus, there is a need for subjective evaluation with the local context as the operative criterion.

8

 The ‘either/or’ vs. ‘both/and’ is a typical post-modern debate on inclusiveness witnessed in various disciplines, most popularly noted in the domain of architecture by Robert Venturi in his book titled ‘Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture’, 1966, The Museum of Modern Art Press, New York .

9

 The most notable advocates of complexity include Robert Venturi and Jane Jacobs, and multi-valence was championed by Charles Jencks.

10

 It may be further argued that as a result of the information revolution, digital media and computeraided designing, copying has become relatively easier, thus fostering imitation.

11

 In contrast, the ‘real’ Post-Modernsim was said to have three issues in its agenda: (a) representation in the wake of Late Modern abstraction and non-presentation, (b) the dilemma of reproducibility in the age of mass consumerism, the cannibalized image and hyper-reality, and (c) the (most important) question of legitimation in the absence of rules or categories

12

 Though Claude Lévi-Strauss originally used the term to define words which are essentially void of meaning, the usage here refers to signifiers which have subsequently become void.

13

  Jameson clarifies that the post-modern schizophrenia is not a clinical usage of the term, but a descriptive one. 14

  The problem of ‘legitimation’ remains a central issue of the post-modern theories, because even critical de-centering approaches are usurped and converted into centre-endorsing tools by the institutional powers, as is evident in the use of PoMo architecture for forwarding the commercial  purposes of late capitalism. capitalism. 15

 Vikramaditya Prakash (2010:266) argues that the post-coloniality of the Chandigarh style lies in its ability of “undoing colonial asymmetry: as there is a Western modernism, there can also be a Third World Modernism, not as a derivative project, but as an equivalent project’.

16

 Khilnani (1997/2004) provides a detail historical account of the various post-independence attempts in seeking and establishing the Indian identity, and critically discusses the related problems and issues.

17

 Wittgenstein’s theory of ‘family resemblances’ was also employed by Prashant Parikh in resolving the essential quandary of the post-modern plurality. For further reading, refer: Wittgenstein, L. (1986). Philosophical investigations (3rd  Ed.). Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd. (Original work published in 1953); Parikh, P. (1996). In lieu of an introduction: A precise account of why “Postmodernism” is vague. In T. Patel (Ed.) Proceedings from international conference on art objects in a postmodern age (pp.1-7). Mumbai: Mohile Parikh Centre for the Visual Arts. 18

  Recommended for further reading on the underlying principles and contemporary uses of the Vastushastra: Pillai, P. S. H. (2010).  Identifying and establishing linkages in architecture: Traditional to modern. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India. 19

 The Austrian modernist architect Adolf Loos famously condemned ornamentation as a degenerate  practice in his 1910 essay ‘Ornament und Verbrechen’ (Ornament and Crime). His views later became fundamental towards the development of the Bauhau aesthetics.

21